This page presents an overview of the developmental
tasks involved in the social and emotional development
of children and teenagers which continues into
adulthood. The presentation is based on the Eight Stages
of Development developed by psychiatrist, Erik Erikson
in 1956.
According to Erikson, the socialization process consists
of eight phases - the "eight stages of man." His eight
stages of man were formulated, not through experimental
work, but through wide - ranging experience in
psychotherapy, including extensive experience with
children and adolescents from low - as well as upper -
and middle - social classes. Each stage is regarded by
Erikson as a "psychosocial crisis," which arises and
demands resolution before the next stage can be
satisfactorily negotiated. These stages are conceived in
an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and
resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is
to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily,
just as the foundation of a house is essential to the
first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to
support and the second story, and so on.
Erikson's Eight Stages of Development
1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
Chronologically, this is the period of infancy
through the first one or two years of life. The child,
well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and
security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes
insecure and mistrustful.
2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes,
occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18
months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well -
parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself,
elated with his new found control, and proud rather than
ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous
with assured self - possession, initiative, and
independence but, at least for children in the early
part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self -
will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For
example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding
their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their
hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of "NO"
rings through the house or the grocery store.
3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis
occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later
preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States
culture, entry into formal school). During it, the
healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to
broaden his skills through active play of all sorts,
including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to
lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is:
(1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3)
continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is
restricted both in the development of play skills and in
imagination.
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis
is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls
the "school age," presumably up to and possibly
including some of junior high school. Here the child
learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1)
relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing
from free play to play that may be elaborately
structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such
as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading,
arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for
self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because
of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier
psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full
of initiative will learn easily enough to be
industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt
the future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will
experience defeat and inferiority.
5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion
(Fidelity)
During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence,
from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an
adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and
happily the question of "Who am I?" But even the best -
adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity
diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment
with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self -
doubts flood the youngster, and so on.
Erikson believes that during successful early
adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the
young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to
self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to
experiment with different - usually constructive - roles
rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as
delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and
achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by feelings of
inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In
later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or
womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks
leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually
develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and
desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent).
Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence
affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for
middle - and upper-class American children. They do not
yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying
various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most
suitable for them.
6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
The successful young adult, for the first time, can
experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that
makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring
friendship.
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption
(Care)
In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands
generativity, both in the sense of marriage and
parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and
creatively.
8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been
successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the
peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is
independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found
a well - defined role in life, and has developed a
self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate
without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and
he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work,
or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier
psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view
himself and his life with disgust and despair.
These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial
crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how
personality develops but at present they are
descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and
tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment
will result, for example, in traits of trust versus
distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion.
Helping the child through the various stages and the
positive learning that should accompany them is a
complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or
teacher knows. Search for the best ways of accomplishing
this task accounts for much of the research in the field
of child development.
Socialization, then is a learning - teaching process
that, when successful, results in the human organism's
moving from its infant state of helpless but total
egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible
conformity coupled with independent creativity.
Click on a tag to find related articles on our site:
emotional development,
social development
