liiiiwi Ij I B Pt -A. I^ "^2" theological f cmiuavy, PRINCETON, N. J. BL 240 .D5 1844 Dick, Thomas, 1774-1857. The Christian philosopher Explanation of Figures on page 15. THE CHRISTIAN philosopher; THE CONNEXION OF SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY RELIGION ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS. BY THOMAS DICK, LL. D. AUTHOR OP THE " PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION," " PHILOSOPHY OF A FUTrRE STATE, " DIFf USION OF KNOWLEDGE," " MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND," " CELESTIAL SCENERY," " SIDEREAL HEAVENS," ETC. FROM THE EIGHTH LONDON EDITION, REVISED, CORRECTED, AND GREATLY ENLARGED. PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY EDWARD C. BIDDLE, No. 6 South Fifth Street. STEREOTYPED BY C W. MURRAY AND CO. 1844. PRINTED BV T. K. & P. G. COLLINS, PHILA. TO SIR DAVID BREWSTER, LL. D., FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ; SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ; HONORARY MEMBER OP THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY ; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ; HONORARY ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AT LYONS, ETC. : THIS V-OLUME, INTENDED TO ILLUSTRATE THE CONNEXION OF SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY WITH RELIGION, AND WITH THE MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND, IS INSCRIBED, AS A TESTIMONY OF RESPECT FOR THE ACQ.UISITIONS WHICH SCIENCE HAS DERIVED FROM HIS PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOVERIES AND LITERARY LABOURS, BY HIS MOST OBEDIENT AND HUMBLE SERVANT, THE AUTHOR, PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION. liV consequence of the progress of the arts and sciences, since the second edition of the following work "was published — it has been deemed expedient to make a thorough revision of the whole, so as to embrace the latest improvements and discoveries in the different departments to which its diversified subjects refer. The author has accordingly carefully revised every portion of the volume, and made very considerable additions to its several departments. The article Geologi has been almost entirely rewritten, and enlarged to more than double its former extent. The article Geography has been enlarged by an addition of more than twenty pages. The articles Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Physiology, History, Printing, Mariner's Compass, Telescope, Air Balloons, Steam Navigation, &c., have likewise been considerably enlarged. To the former subjects are now added comprehensive sketches of the following recently discovered departments of science and art — The Da- guerreotype, Electrotype, Electro-^Iagnetism, Elec- tric Telegraphs, Railroads, &.c., besides a variety of paragraphs inserted in numerous places throughout the body of the work. Between twenty and thirty additional engrav- ings have been inserted, and to the whole is now added a copious Index. These additions amount to nearly one hundred and thirty pages. 1* V Vi PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION. This work has had an extensive sale, not only in Great Britain, but also in the United States of America, where numerous stereotype editions have been printed— in the East and West Indies, and on the continent of Europe. It is there- fore hoped that the improvements and additions which have b?en now made will render it still more acceptable to the public. Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, 20th October, 1842 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. The following pages were written under the impression that the visible manifestation of the attributes of the Deity are too frequently overlooked by Christians in their views of the great objects of religion, and in the worship they offer to the Father of their spirits; and are intended to show, that the teachers of reli-' gion, in imparting instruction either to the old or to the young, ought to embrace a wider range of illustration, in reference to Divine subjects, than that to which they are usually confined. Throughout the whole of the discussions contained in this work the author has pursued his own train of thought; and in so doing, he trusts that he has been enabled to render some of his illustrations more interesting to the young and untutored mind, than if he had adhered rigidly to the sentiments of others, and to the technical language of science. The sketches of the different sciences are not mere extracts or compilations, but are, for the most part, original composition — in which it has been his mala object to embody as many facts as his limits would permit — in order to excite the inquiring mind to further investigations into the different departments of physical science. It is presumed, that no Christian reader will for once imagine, that the views illustrated in this Avork are intended to be substituted in place of the peculiar revelations of the Bible. The object of the volume is to illustfate the harmony which subsists between the system of nature and the system of revelation; and to show that the manifestations of God, in the material universe, ought to be blended with our views of the facts and doctrines recorded in the volume of inspiration. It is taken for granted, throughout the whole range of the fol- lowing illustrations, that the Scriptures contain a revelation from Heaven ; and under a firm belief of this important truth, the author has embellished his work with frequent quotations from the ener- getic and sublime language of this sacred book. It would, there- fore, be unfair in any crhic, who entertains doubts on this point, vii Vlll PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. to find fault with sucli quotations, or with the allusions to Bible phraseology which occur, unless they can be shown to be intro- duced without judgement or discrimination. The author has carefully revised every portion of the present edition, and introduced a variety of corrections and modifications. He has hkewise introduced additional matter, to the extent of between forty and fifty pages, and also several illustrative engrav- ings. In its present form, the author trusts that, independently of the moral reflections it contains, it will be found to comprise popular descriptions of a greater number of scientific facts, than is to be found in any other volume of the same size. Various topics, originally intended to be illustrated, have been unavoidably omitted. Some of these are stated in the last para- graph of Chapter IV — the illustration of which, in combination with other kindred topics, would fill a volume of the same size as the present. This subject (for which the author has abundance of materials) will be prosecuted in another volume, under the title of" The Philosophy of Religion," and will comprise, among many other subjects of discussion, illustrations of the moral rela- tion of intelligent beings to their Creator, and to one another — the physical and rational grounds of those moral laws which the Deity has promulgated — the views which science affords of the incessant energies of creating power, and of the grand and multi- farious objects over which Divine Providence presides — the rela- tion of science to a future state, and of the aids which the discoveries of science afford, for enabling us to form a conception of the perpetual improvement of the celestial inhabitants in knowledge and felicity. These subjects will be illustrated by a variety of interesting details of facts, in relation to the system of nature, the history of nations, and the moral state of Christian and general society. , Perth, December, 1824. CONTENTS. Inrtroduction, . . . . . . Page 17 Necessity of Revelation, 17. Folly of discarding the Science of Nature from Religion, 18. Beneficial effects which flow from the Study of the Works of God, 23. CHAPTER I. OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY. Sect. I. On the Relation of the Natural Attributes of the Deity to Religion, . . . . . . . .24 The Christian Religion founded on the Natural Attributes of God, 25. His Power as interesting a subject as his Mercy, 26 — Illustrated in two instances, 27. Evils which arise from imperfect conceptions of Divine Power, 27. Defects in Religious Instructions on this subject, 29. Sources of Illustration, 31. Sect. II. Illustrations of the Omnipotence of the Deity, . 32 The material world exhibits a more striking display of this Perfection than the supernatural facts recorded in Scripture, 32. Immense quantity of matter in the universe, 33. Mode of acquiring the most comprehensive conception of the bulk of the Earth, 34 — its variety of scenery, 35 — its mass of solid matter, 35. Magnitude of the bodies which compose the Solar System, 36. Magnitude and number of the Stars, 37. Procedure •of the mind in acquiring the most impressive conceptions of such august objects, 39. — Reflections, 40. Rapid motions of the Celestial Bodies^il. How we acquire the ideas of relative velocities, 41 — weight of the Fy:rc hopes of rheir being fully realized must rest on the iiiiiiuie wisdom and omnipotence of Jehovah ; and consf^quentlv, if our views of these perfections be limited and obscure, our 28 CHIIISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. lio])e, in rehition to our future destiny, will be proportionably feeble and languid ; and will scarcely perform its ofRce " as an anchor to the soul, both sure and steadfast," It is not merely by telling a person that God is all-wise and all-power- ful, that a full conviction of the accomplishment of such grand events will be produced. He must be made to see with his own eyes what the Almighty has already dojie, and what lie is now doing, in all the regions of universal nature which lie open to our inspection ; and this cannot be effected without directing his contemplations to those displays of intelligence and power which are exhibited in the structure, the economy, and the revolutions of the material world. If the propriety of these sentiments be admitted, it will follow, that the more we are accustomed to contemplate the wonders of divine intelligence and power, in the objects with which we are surrounded, the more deeply shall we be im- pressed with a conviction, and a confident hope, that all the purposes of divine mercy will ultimately be accomplished in our eternal felicity. It will also follow, that, in proportion as the mind acquires a clear, an extensive, and a reverential view of the essential attributes of the Deity, and of those truths in connexion with them, which are objects of contem- plation common to all holy beings, in a similar proportion will it be impressed, and its attention arrested, by every other divine subject connected with them. And it is, doubtless, owing to the want of such clear and impressive conceptions of the essential character of Jehovah, and of the first truths of religion, that the bulk of mankind are so little impressed and influenced by the leading doctrines and duties connected with the plan of the Gospel salvation, and that they entertain so many vague and untenable notions respecting the character and the objects of a superintending Providence. How often, for example, have we witnessed expressions of the foolish and limited notions which are frequently entertained respect- ing the operations of Omnipotence ! When it has been assert- ed that the earth, with its load of continents and oceans, is in rapid motion through the voids of space — that the sun is ten hundred thousand times larger than the terraqueous globe — and that millions of such globes are dispersed throughout the immensity of nature, — some who have viewed themselves as enlightened Christians, have exclaimed at the impossibility of such facts, as if they were beyond the limits of divine power, and as if such representations were intended to turn away the mind from God and religion ; while, at the same time, they have yielded a firm assent to all die vulgar notions respecting NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY. 29 omens, apparitions, and hobgoblins, and to the supposed ex- traordinary powers of tlie professors of divination and witch- craft. How can such persons assent, with intelligence and rational conviction, to the dictates of revelation respecting the energies of Omnipotence which will be exerted at '^ the con- summation of all things, and in those arrangements which are to succeed the dissolution of our sublunary system ? A firm belief in the almighty power and unsearchable wisdom of God, as displayed in the constitution and movements of the material world, is of the utmost importance, to confirm our faith, and enliven our hopes of such grand and interesting events. Notwithstanding the considerations now stated, which plainly evince the connexion of the natural perfections of God with the objects of the Christian revelation, it appears somewhat strange that, when certain religious instructers hap- pen to come in contact with this topic, they seem as if they were beginning to tread upon forbidden ground ; and as if it were unsuitable to their office as Christian teachers, to bring forward the stupendous works of the Almighty to illustrate his nature and attributes. Instead of expatiating on the nume- rous sources of illustration which the subject admits, till the minds of their hearers are thoroughly affected with a view of the essential glory of Jehovah — they despatch the subject with two or three vague propositions, which, though logically true, make no impression upon the heart; as if they believed that such contemplations were suited only to carnal men, and mere philosophers ; and as if they were afraid, lest the sanc- tity of the pulpit should be polluted by particular descriptions of those operations of the Deity which are perceived through the medium of the corporeal senses. We do not mean to in- sinuate, that the essential attributes of God, and the illustra- tions of them derived from the material world, should form the sole or the chief topics of discussion, in the business of religious instruction : but, if the Scriptures frequently direct our attention to these subjects — if they lie at the foundation of all accurate and extensive views of the Christian revela- tion — if they be the chief subjects of contemplation to angels, and all other pure intelligences, in every region of the uni- verse — and if they have a tendency to expand the minds of professed Christians, to correct their vague and erroneous conceptions, and to promote their conformity to the moral character of God — we cannot find out the shadow of a reason, why such topics should be almost, if not altogether over- looked, in the writings and the discourses of those who pro- 3* 30 • CHRISTIAN PHILOSOniER. fess to instruct mankind in the knowledge of God and the duties of his worship. We are informed by our Saviour himself, that " this is life eternal, to know thee the living and true God," as well as *' Jesus Christ whom he hath sent." The knowledge of God, in the sense here intended, must include in it the knowdedge of the natural and essential attributes of the Deity, or those properties of his nature by which he is distinguished from all " the idols of the nations." Such are his self-existence, his all-perfect knowledge, his omnipresence, his infinite wisdom, his boundless goodness, and almighty power — attributes which, as we have just now seen, lie at the foundation of all the other characters and relations of Deity revealed in the Scrip- tures. The acquisition of just and comprehensive concep- tions of those perfections, must therefore lie at the foundation of all profound veneration of the Divine Being, and of all that is valuable in religion. Destitute of such conceptions, we can neither feel that habitual humility^ and that reverence, of tlie majesty of Jehovah, which his essential glory is cal- culated to inspire, nor pay him that tribute of adoration and gratitude which is due to his name. Devoid of such views, we cannot exercise that cordial acquiescence in the plan of his redemption, in the arrangement of his providence, and in the requirements of his law, which the Scriptures enjoin. Yet, how often do we find persons who pretend to speculate about the mysteries of the Gospel, displaying — by their flippancy of speech respecting the eternal counsels of the Majesty of heaven — by their dogmatical assertions respecting the divine character, and the dispensations of Providence — and by their pertinacious opinions respecting the law^s by which God must regulate his own actions — that they have never felt impressive emotions of the grandeur of that Being, whose " operations are unsearchable, and his ways past finding out!" Though they do not call in question his immensity and power, his wisdom and goodness, as so many abstract properties of his nature, yet, the unbecoming familiarity with which they ap- ])roach this august Being, and talk about him, shows diat they have never associated in their minds, the stupendous displays wliicli iiave been given of these perfections, in the works of his hands; and that their religion (if it may be so called) consists meiely in a farrago of abstract opinions, or in an empty name. If, then, it be admitted, that it is essentially requisite, as tlie foundation of religion, to have the mind deeply impressed with a clear and comprehensive view of the natural perfections of NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY. 31 the Deity, it will follow that the ministers of religion, and all others whose province it is to communicate religious instruc- tion, ought frequently to dwell, with particularity, on those proofs and illustrations which tend to convey the most definite and impressive conceptions of the glory of that Being whom we profess to adore. But from what sources are such illus- trations to be derived .? Is it from abstract reasonings and metaphysical distinctions and definitions, or from a survey of those objects and movements which lie open to the inspection of every observer ? There can be no difhculty in coming to a decision on this point. We might affirm, with the school- men, that " God is a Being whose centre is every where, and his circumference no where ;" that " he comprehends infinite duration in every moment; and that "infinite space may be considered as the sensorium of the Godhead ;" but such fan- ciful illustrations, when strictly analyzed, will be found to consist merely of words without ideas. We might also affirm, with truth, that God is a Being of infinite perfection, glory, and blessedness — that he is without all bounds or limits, either actual or possible — that he is possessed of power sufficient to perform all things which do not imply a contradiction — that he is independent and self-sufficient — that his wisdom is un- erring, and that he infinitely exceeds all other beings. But these, and other expressions of a similar kind, are mere tech- nical terms., which convey no adequate, nor even tolerable notion of what they import. Beings, constituted like man, whose rational spirits are connected with an organical struc- ture, and who derive all their knowledge through the medium of corporeal organs, can derive their clearest and most affecting notions of the Divinity, chiefly through the same medium; namely, by contemplating the effects of his perfections, as displayed through the ample range of the visible creation. And to this source of illustration, the inspired writers uni- formly direct our views — " Lift up your eyes on high, and behold ! who hath created these orbs ? who bringeth forth their host by number, and calleth them all by their names ? The everlasting God, the Lord, by the greatness of his might, for that he is strong in power," — " He hath made the earth by his power ; he hath established the world by his wisdom ; he hath stretched out the heavens by his understanding." These writers do not perplex our minds by a multitude of technical terms and subtile reasonings; but lead us directly to the source wlienceour most ample conceptions of Deity are to be derived, that, from a steady and enlightened contemplation of the effects, we may learn the greatness of the Cause ; and 32 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. their example in this respect ought, doubtless, to be a pattern for every religious instructer- SECTION 11. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. fN order to elucidate more distinctly what has been now stated, I shall select a few illustrations of some of the natural attributes of the Deity. And, in the first place, I shall offer a few considerations which have a tendency to direct and to amplify our conceptions of divine powder. Omnipotence is that attribute of the Divine Being, by which he can accomplish every thing that does not imply a contra- diction — however far it may transcend the comprehension of finite minds. By his power the vast system of universal nature was called from nothing into existence, and is con- tinually supported in all its movements, from age to age. In elucidating this perfection of God, we might derive some striking illustrations from the records of his dispensations to- wards man, in the early ages of the world — when he over- Avhelmed the earth with a deluge, which covered the tops of the highest mountains, and swept the crowded population of the ancient world into a watery grave — when he demolished Sodom and Gomorrah, and the cities around them, with fire from heaven — when he slew all the first-born of Egypt, and turned their rivers into blood — when he divided the Red sea, and the waters of Jordan, before the tribes of Israel — when he made the earth open its jaws and swallow up Korah and all his com.pany — and when he caused mount Sinai to smoke and tremble at liis presence. But these and similar events, how- ever awful, astonishing, and worthy of remembrance, were only transitory exertions of divine power, and are not calculated and were never intended, to impress the mind in so powerful a manner as those displays of omnipotence which are exhibited in the ordinary movements -of the material universe. We have no hesitation in assertmg, that, with regard to this attri- bute of the Divinity, there is a more grand and impressive display in the works of nature, than in all the events recorded in the sacred history. Nor ought this remark to be considered as throwing the least refiection on the fulness and sufficiency of the Scripture revelation; for that revelation, as having a special reference to a moral economy, has for its object to give a more particular display of the moral than of the natural perfections of God. The miracles to which we have now re- OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 33 ferred, and every other supernatural fact recorded in the Bible, were not intended so much to display the plenitude of the power of the Deity, as to bear testimony to the divine mis- sion of particular messengers, and to confirm the truths they declared. It was not, for example, merely to display the energies of almighty power, that the waters of the Red sea were dried up before the thousands of Israel, but to give a solemn and striking attestation to all concerned, that the most high God had taken this people under his peculiar protection — that he had appointed Moses as their leader and legislator — ■ and that they were bound to receive and obey the statutes he delivered. The most appropriate and impressive illustrations of omnipotence are those which are taken from the perma- nejit operations of Deity, which are visible every moment in the universe around us ; or, in other words, those which are derived from a detail of the facts which have been observed in the material world, respecting magnitude and motion. Jn the first place, the immense quantify of matter contained in the universe presents a most striking display of Almighty power. Jn endeavouring to form a definite notion on this subject, the mind is bewildered in its conceptions, and is at a loss where to begin or to end its excursions. In order to fuiin something approximating to a well defined idea, we mur>t pursue a train of thought commencing with those magnitudes which the mind can easily grasp, proceeding through all the hiffher o-radations of magnitude, and fixino- the attention on every portion of the chain, till we arrive at the object or mag- nitude of which we wish to form a conception. We must endeavour, in the first place, to form a conception of the bulk of the world in which we dwell, which, though only a point in comparison of the whole material universe, is, in reality, a most astonishing magnitude, which the mind cannot grasp without a laborious effort. We can form some definite idea of those protuberan*t masses we denominate hills^ which rise above the surface of our plains ; but were we transported to the mountainous scenery of Switzerland, to the stupendous range of the Andes in South America, or to the Himalayan mountains in India, where masses of earth and rocks, in every variety of shape, extend several hundreds of miles in different directions, and rear their projecting summits beyond the region of the clouds — we should find some difficulty in form- ing an adequate conception of the objects of our contempla- tion. For, (to use the words of one who had been a specta- tor of such scenes,) " Amidst those trackless regions of intense 34 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. silence and solitude, we cannot contemplate, but with feelings of awe and admiration, the enormous masses of variegated matter which lie around, beneath, and above us. The mind labours, as it were, to form a definite idea of those objects of oppressive grandeur, and feels unable to grasp the august ob- jects which compose the surrounding scene." But what are all these mountainous masses, however variegated and sublime, when compared with the bulk of the whole earth! AVere they hurled from their bases, and precipitated into the vast Pacific Ocean, they would all disappear in a moment, except perhaps a few projecting tops, which, like a number of small islands, might be seen rising a few fathoms above the surface of the waters. The earth is a' globe, whose diameter is nearly eight thou- sand miles, and its circumference about twenty-five thousand, and consequently, its surface contains nearly two hundred millions of square miles — a magnitude too great for the mind to take in at one conception. In order to form a tolerable conception of the whole, M'e must endeavour to take a leisurely survey of its different parts. Were we to take our station on the top of a mountain, of a moderate size, and survey the surrounding landscape, we should perceive an extent of view gtreiching forty miles in every direction, forming a circle eiirhty miles in diameter, and two hundred and fifty in cir- cuiiiference, and comprehending an area of five thousand square miles. In such a situation, the terrestrial scene around and beneath us, consisting of hills and plains, towns and vil- lages, rivers and lakes — would form one of the largest objects M'hich the eye, or even the imagination, can steadily grasp at one time. But such an object, grand and extensive as it is, forms no more than the forty thousandth part of the terraque- ous globe; so that, before we can acquire an adequate con- ception of the magnitude of our own world, we must conceive forty thousand landscapes, of a simildr extent, to pass in re- view before us; and, were a scene, ofihe magnitude now stated, to pass before us every hour, till all the diversified scenery of the earth were brought under our view, and were twelve hours a-day allotted for the observation, it would re- quire nine years and forty-eight days before the whole sur- face of the globe could be contemplated, even in this general and rapid manner. But, such a variety of successive land- scapes passing before the eye, even although it were possible to be realized, would convey only a very vague and imper- fect conception of the scenery of our world ; for objects at the distance of forty miles cannot be distinctly perceived ; the OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 35 only view which would be satisfactory, would be that which is comprehended widiin the range of three or four miles from the spectator. Again, I have already stated, that the surface of the earth contains nearly 200,000,000 of square miles. Now, were a person to set out on a minute survey of the terraqueous globe, and to travel till he passed along every square mile on its surface, and to continue his route without intermission, at the rate of thirty miles every day, it would require 18,264 years before he coidd finish his tour, and complete the survey of " this huge rotundity on which we tread :" so that, had he commenced his excursion on the day in which Adam was created, and continued it to the present hour, he would not have accomplished one-third part of this vast tour. In estimating the size and extent of the earth, we ought also to take into consideration, the vast variety of objects with which it is diversified, and the numerous animated be- ings with which it is stored ; — the great divisions of land and water, the continents, seas, and islands, into which it is distri- buted ; the lofty ranges of mountains which rear their heads to the clouds ; the unfathomable abysses of the ocean ; its vast subterraneous caverns and burning mountains; and the lakes, rivers, and stately forests, with which it is so magnifi- cently adorned; — the many millions of animals, of every size and form, from the elephant to the mite, which traverse its surface; the numerous tribes of fishes, from the enormous whale to the diminutive shrimp, which "play" in the mighty ocean; the. aerial tribes which sport in the regions above us^ and the vast mass of the surrounding atmosphere, which en- closes the earth and all its inhabitants, as " with a swaddling band." The immense variety of beings with which our ter- restrial habitation is furnished, conspires, with every other consideration, to exalt our conceptions of that Power by wliich our globe, and all that it contains, were brought into existence. The preceding illustrations, however, exhibit the vast ex- tent of the earth, considered only as a mere superficies. But we know that the earth is a solid globe, whose specific gravity is nearly five times denser than water, or about twice as dense as the mass of eardi and rocks which compose its surface. Though we cannot dig into its bowels beyond a mile in perpendicular depth, to explore its hidden wonders, and yet we may easily conceive what a vast and indescribable mass of matter must be contained between the two opposite portions of its external circumference, reaching eight thousand 36 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. miles in every direction. The solid contents of this ponder- ous ball is no less than 263,858,149,120 cubical miles — a mass of material substance of which we can form but a very faint and imperfect conception : in proportion to which, all the lofty mountains which rise above its surface, are less than a few grains of sand, when compared with the largest arthicial globe. Were the earth a hollow sphere, surrounded merely with an external shell of earth and water ten miles thick, its inter- nal cavity would be sufficient to contain a quantity of mate- rials one hundred and thirty-three times greater than the whole mass of continents, islands, and oceans, on its surface, and the foundations on which they are supported. We have the strongest reasons, however, to conclude, that the earth, in its general structure, is one solid mass, from the surface to the centre, excepting, perhaps, a few caverns scattered here and there amidst its subterraneous recesses; and that its density gradually increases from its surface to its central regions. What an enormous mass of materials, then, is comprehended within the limits of that globe on which we tread ! The mind labours, as it were, to comprehend the mighty idea, and, after all its exertion, feels itself unable to take in such an astonishing magnitude at one comprehensive grasp. How great must be the power of that Being who commanded it to spring from nothing into existence, who " measures the ocean in the hollow of his hand, who wcigheth the moun- tains in scales, and hangeth the earth upon nothing !" It is essentially requisite, before proceeding to the survey of objects and magnitudes of a superior order, that we should endeavour, by such a train of thought as the preceding, to form some tolerable and clear conception of the bulk of the globe we inhabit ; for it is the only body we can use as a standard of comparison to guide the mind in its conceptions, when it roams abroad to other regions of material existence. And from what has been now stated, it appears, that we have no adequate conception of a magnitude of so vast an extent; or at least, that the mind cannot, in any one instant, form to itself a distinct and comprehensive idea of it, in any measure corresponding to the reality. Hitherto, then, we have fixed only on a determinate mag- nitude — on a scale of a few inches, as it were, in order to assist us in our measurement and conception of magnitudes still more august and astonishing. When we contemplate, by the light of science, those magnificent globes which float around us in the concave of the sky, the earth, \\\i\\ all its sublime scenery, stupendous as it is, dwindles into an incon- OMNIPOTEXCE OF THE DEITY. 37 siderable ball. If we pass from our globe to some of the other bodies of the planetary system, we shall find that one of these stupendous orbs is more than nine hundred times the size of our world, and encircled with a ring two hundred thousand miles in diameter, which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would enclose within its vast cir- cumference several hundreds of worlds as large as ours. An- other of these planetary bodies, which appears to the vulgar eye only as a brilliant speck on the vault of heaven, is found to be of such a size, that it would require fourteen hundred globes of the bulk of the earth to form one equal to it in dimensions. The whole of the bodies which compose the solar system (without taking the sun and the comets into account) contain a mass of matter twenty-five hundred times greater than that of the earth. The sun itself is five hundred and twenty times larger than all the planetary globes taken to- gether; and one million three hundred thousand times larger than the terraqueous globe. This is one of the most glorious and magnificent visible objects which either the eye or the imagination can contemplate ; especially when we consider, what perpetual, and incomprehensible, and powerful influence it exerts — what warmth, and beauty, and activity it diffuses, not only on the globe we inhabit, but over the more extensive regions of surrounding worlds. Its energy extends to the utmost limits of the planetary system — to the planet Herschel which revolves at the distance of eighteen hundred millions of miles from its surface, and there it dispenses light, and colour, and comfort, to all the beings connected with that far distant orb, and to all the moons which roll around it. Here the imagination begins to be overpowered and be- Avildered in its conceptions of magnitude, when it has advanced scarcely a single step in its excursions through the material world. For it is higldy probable, that all the matter contain- ed within the limits of the solar system, incomprehensible as its magnitude appears, bears a smaller proportion to the whole mass of the material universe, than a single grain of sand to all the particles of matter contained in the body of the sun and his attending planets. If we extend our views from the solar system to the starry heavens, we have to penetrate, in our imagination, a space which the swiftest ball that was ever projected, though in per- petual motion, would not traverse in ten hundred thousand years. In those trackless regions of immensity, we behold an assemblage of resplendent globes, similar to the sun in size and glory, and doubtless accompanied with a retinue of 4 38 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. worlds, revolving like our own around their attractive influ- ence. The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known to be placed proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size, not inferior to our own sun, and that they shine, not by reflected rays, but by their own native light. But bodies en- circled with such refulgent splendour would be of little use in the economy of Jehovah's empire, unless surrounding worlds were cheered by their benign influence, and enlighten- ed by their beams. Every star is therefore, with good reason, concluded to be a sun, no less spacious than ours, surrounded by a host of planetary globes, which revolve aronnd it as a centre, and derive from it light, heat, and comfort. Nearly a thousand of these luminaries may be seen in a clear winter night by the naked eye ; so that a mass of matter equal to a thousand solar systems, or to thirteen hundred and twenty millions of globes of the size of the earthy may be perceived by every common observer in the canopy of heaven. But all the celestial orbs which are perceived by the unassisted sight do not form the eighty-thousandth part of those which may be descried by the help of optical instruments. The telescope has enabled us to descry, in certain spaces in the heavens, thousands of stars where the naked eye could scarcely discern twenty. The late celebrated astronomer, Di*. Herschel, has informed us, that in the most crowded parts of the Milk-way, when exploring that region with his best glasses, he has had fields of view which contained no less than five hundred and eighty-eight stars, and these were continued for many minutes ; so that, "in one quarter of an hour's time there passed no less than one hundred and sixteen thousand stars through the field of view of his telescope." It has been computed, that nearly one hundred millions of stars might be perceived by the most perfect instruments, were all the regions of the sky thoroughly explored : and yet, all this vast assemblage of suns and worlds, when compared with what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, in the immeasurable spaces of creation, may be no more than as the smallest particle of vapour to the immense ocean. Im- measurable regions of space lie beyond the utmost limits of mortal view, into which even imagination itself can scarcely penetrate, and which are, doubtless, replenished with the operations of divine wisdom and omnipotence. For it cannot be supposed, that a being so diminutive as man, whose stature scarcely exceeds six feet — who vanishes from the sight at the distance of a league — whose whole habitation is invisible from the nearest star — whose powers of vision are so imperfect, OMNlPOTExNCE OF THE DEITY. 39 and whose mental faculties are so limited, — it cannot be sup- posed that man, who " dwells in tabernacles of clay, who is crushed before the moth," and chained down by the force of gravitation to the surface of a small planet — should be able to descry the utmost boundaries of the empire of Him who fills immensity, and dwells in " light unapproachable."" That por- tion of his dominions, however, which lies within the range of our view, presents such a scene of magnificence and grandeur, as must fill the mind of every reflecting person with astonishment and reverence, and constrain him to exclaim, '^ Great is our Lord, and of great power, his understanding is infinite." " When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained ; what is man, that thou art mindful of him .?" I have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear;" I have listened to subtile disquisitions on thy character and perfections, and have been but litde afl^ected; "but now mine eye seetli thee : wherefore I humble myself, and repent in dust and ashes." In order to feel the full force of the impression made by such contemplations, the mind must pause at every step in its excursions through the boundless regions of material exist- ence : for it is not by a mere attention to the figures and num- bers by which the magnitudes of the great bodies of the uni- verse are expressed, that we arrive at the most distinct and ample conceptions of objects so grand and overwhelming. The mind, in its intellectual range, must dwell on every in- dividual scene it contemplates, and on the various objects of which it is composed. It must add scene to scene, magnitude to magnitude, and compare smaller objects with greater — a range of mountains with the whole earth, the earth with the planet Jupiter, Jupiter with the sun, the sun with a thousand stars, a thousand stars with eighty millions, and eighty mil- lions with all the boundless extent which lies beyond th(3 limits of mortal vision: and, at every step of this mental pro- cess, sufiicient time must be allowed for the imagination to expatiate on the objects before it, till the ideas approximate, as near as possible, to the reality, [n order to form a com- prehensive conception of the extent of the terraqueous globe, the mind must dwell on an extensive landscape, and the ob- jects with which it is adorned : it must endeavour to survey the many thousands of diversified landscapes which the earth exhibits — the hills and plains, the lakes and rivers and moun- tains, which stretch in endless variety over its surface : it must dive into the vast caverns of the ocean — penetrate into the subterraneous regions of the globe, and wing its way 40 CHRISTIAN rniLOSOPHER. amidst clouds and tempests, through the surrounding atmo- sphere. It must next extend its flight through the more ex- pansive regions of the sohir system, realizing, in imagination, those magnificent scenes which can be descried neither by the naked eye, nor by the telescope ; and comparing the ex- tent of our sublunary world, with the more magnificent globes that roll around us. Leaving the sun and all his attendant planets behind, till they have diminished to the size of a small twinkling star, it must next wing its way to the starry regions, and pass from one system of worlds to another, from one nebula* to another, from one region of nebulse to another, till it arrive at the utmost boundaries of creation which human genius has explored. It must also endeavour to extend its lliglit beyond all that is visible by the best telescopes, and expatiate at large in that boundless expanse into which no human eye has yet penetrated, and which is doubtless re- plenished with other worlds, and systems, and firmaments, where the operations of infinite povver and beneficence are displayed, in endless variety, throughout the illimitable regions of space. Here then, with reverence, let us pause and wonder! Over all this vast assemblage of material existence, God presides. Amidst the diversified objects and intelligences it contains, he is eternally and essentially present. By his unerring wisdom, all its complicated movements are directed. By his almighty fiat, it emerged from nothing into existence, and is continually supported from age to age. "He spake, and it was done; HE commanded, and IT STOOD FAST." " By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the spirit of his mouth." What an astonishing display of divine power is here exhibited to our view ! How far trans- cending all finite comprehension must be the energies of Him wdio only " spake, and it was done ;" who only gave the command, and this mighty system of the universe, with all its magnificence, started into being ! The infinite ease with which this vast fabric was reared, leads us irresistibly to conclude, that there are powers and energies in the Divine Mind which have never yet been exerted, and which may unfold them- selves to intelligent beings, in the production of still more astonishing and magnificent effects, during an endless succes- sion of existence. That man who is not impressed with a venerable and overwhelming sense of the power and majesty of Jehovah by such contemplations, must have a mind inca- * For an account of the nebulaz, see eh. ii. Art. Astronomy. OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 41 pable of ardent religious emotions, and unqualified for appre- ciating the grandeur of that Being " whose kingdom ruleth over all." And shall such ennobling views be completely withheld from a Christian audience ? Shall it be considered as a matter of mere indifference, whether their views of the Creator's works be limited to the sphere of a few miles around them, or extended to ten thousand worlds ? — whether they shall be left to view the operations of the Almighty throughout eternity past and to come, as confined to a small globe, placed in the immensity of space, with a number of brilliant studs fixed in the arch of heaven, at a few miles' dis- tance ; or, as extending through the boundless dimensions of space ? — whether they shall be left to entertain no higher idea of the Divine Majesty than what may be due to one of the superior orders of the seraphim or cherubim ; or, whether they shall be directed to form the most august conceptions of the King eternal, immortal, and invisible, corresponding to the displays he has given of his glory in his visible works ? If it be not, both reason and piety require that such illustra- tions of the divine perfections should occasionally be exhi- bited to their view. In the next place, the rapid motions of the great bodies of the universe, no less than their magnitudes, display the infi- nite power of the Creator. We can acquire accurate ideas of the relative velocities of moving bodies, only by comparing the motions with which we are familiar, with one another, and with those which lie beyond the general range of our minute inspection. We can acquire a pretty accurate conception of the velocity of a ship impelled by the wind — of a steamboat — of a race-horse — of a bird darting through the air — of an arrow flying from a bow — and of the clouds when impelled by a stormy wind. The velocity of a ship is from eight to twelve miles an hour, — of a race-horse, from twenty to thirty miles, — of a bird, say from fifty to sixty miles, and of the clouds, in a violent hur- ricane, from eighty to one hundred miles an hour. The mo- tion of a ball from a loaded cannon is incomparably swifter than any of the motions now stated : but of the velocity of such a body we have a less accurate idea ; because, its rapidity being so great, we cannot trace it distinctly by the eye, through its whole range, from the mouth of the cannon to the object against which it is impelled. By experiments, it has been found, that its rate of motion is from four hundred and eighty to eight hundred miles in an hour, but it is retarded every moment by the resistance of the air and the attraction of the 4* 42 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. earth. This velocity, however, great as it is, bears no sensi- ble proportion to the rate of motion which is fonnd among the celestial orbs. That such enormous masses of matter should move at all is wonderful : but when we consider tlie amazing velocity with which they are impelled, we are lost in astonishment. The planet Jupiter, in describing its circuit round the sun, moves at the rate of twenty-nine thousand miles an hour. The planet Venus, one of the nearest and most brilliant of the celestial bodies, and about the same size as the earth, is found to move through the spaces of the firma- ment, at the rate of seventy-six thousand miles an hour ; and the planet Mercury, with a velocity of no less than one hun- dred and five thousand miles an hour, or seventeen hundred and fifty miles in a minute — a motion two hundred times swifter than that of a cannon ball. These velocities will appear still more astonishing, if we consider the magnitude of the bodies which are thus impelled, and the immense forces which are requisite to carry them along in their courses. However rapidly a ball files from the mouth of a cannon, it is the flight of a body only a few inches in diameter ; but one of the bodies, whose motion has been just now stated, is eighty-nine thousand miles in diameter, and would comprehend within its vast circumference, more than a thousand globes as large as the earth. Could we con- template such motions, from a fixed point, at the distance of only a few hundreds of miles from the bodies thus impelled, it would raise our admiration to its highest pitch, it would overwhelm all our faculties, and, in our present state, would produce an impression of awe, and even of terror, beyond the power of language to express. The earth contains a mass of matter equal in weight to at least, 2,200,000,000,000,000,- 000,000, or more than two thousand trillions of tons, sup- posing its mean density to be only about two and a half times greater than water. To move this ponderous mass a single inch beyond its position, were it fixed in a quiescent state, would require a mechanical force almost beyond the power of numbers to express. The physical force of all the myriads of intelligences within the bounds of the planetary system, though their powers were far superior to those of man, would be altogether inadequate to the production of such a motion. How much more must be the force requisite to impel it with a velocity one hundred and forty times sAvifter than a cannon ball, or sixty-eight thousand miles an hour, the actual rate of its motion, in its course round the sun ! But whatever degree of mechanical power would be requisite to produce such a OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 43 stupendous effect, it would require a force one hundred and fifiy times greater to impel the planet Jupiter, in its actual course through the heavens ! Even the planet Saturn, one of the slowest moving bodies of our system, a globe nine hun- dred times larger than the earth, is impelled through the re- gions of space, at the rate of twenty-two thousand miles an hour, carrying along with it two stupendous rings, and seven moons larger than ours, through its whole course round the central luminary. Were we placed within a thousand miles of this stupendous globe, (a station which superior beings may occasionally occupy,) where its hemisphere, encom- passed by its magnificent rings, would fill the whole extent of our vision — the view of such a ponderous and glorious ob- ject, flying with such an amazing velocity before us, would infinitely exceed every idea of grandeur we can derive from terrestrial scenes, and overwhelm our powers with astonish- ment and awe. Under such an emotion, we could only ex- claim, "Great and marvellous are thy works. Lord God Almighty I" The ideas of strength and power implied in the impulsion of such enormous masses of matter, through the illimitable tracts of space, are forced upon the mind with irresistible energy, far surpassing what any abstract proposi- tions or reasonings can convey ; and constrain us to exclaim, " Who is a strong Lord like unto thee ! Thy right hand is become glorious in power ! The Lord God omnipotent reigneth !" If we consider the immense number of bodies thus impelled through the vast spaces of the universe — the rapidity with which the comets^ when near the sun, are carried through the regions they traverse, — if we consider the high probability, if not absolute certainty, that the sun, with all its attendant planets and comets, is impelled with a still greater degree of velocity towards some distant region of space, or around some wide circumference — that all the thousands of systems of that nebula to which the sun belongs, are moving in a similar manner — that all the nebulae in the heavens are mov- ing around some magnificent central body, in short, that all the suns and worlds in the universe are in rapid and perpe- tual motion, as constituent portions of one grand and bound- less enipire, of which Jehovah is the Sovereign — and if we consider still further, that all these mighty movements have been going on, without intermission, during the course of many centuries, and some of them, perliaps, for myriads of ages before the foundation of our world was laid — it is im- possible for the human mind to form any adequate idea of the 44 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. stupendous forces which are in incessant operation through- out the unlimited empire of the Ahnighty. To estimate such mechanical force, even in a single instance, completely bailies the mathematician's skill, and sets the power of numbers at defiance. " Language," and figures, and comparisons, are " lost in wonders so sublime," and the mind, overpowered with such reflections, is irresistibly led upwards to search for the cause in that Omnipotent Being who upholds the pil- lars of the universe — the thunder of whose power none can comprehend. While contemplating such august objects, how emphatic and impressive appears the language of the sacred oracles : " Canst thou by searching find out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection ? Great things doth he which we cannot comprehend. Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the glory, and the majesty; for all that is in heaven and earth is thine. Among the gods there is none like unto thee, O Lord ; neither are there any works like imto thy works. Thou art great, and dost wondrous things: thou art God alone. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of all things, fainteth not, neither is weary? there is no searching of his understanding. Let all the earth fear the Lord, let all tlie inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him ; for he spake^ and it was done ; he commanded, and it stood fast." Again, the immense spaces which surround the heavenly bodies, and in which they perform their revolutions, tend to expand our conceptions on this subject, and to illustrate die magnificence of the divine operations. In whatever point of view we contemplate the scenery of the heavens, an idea of grandeur irresistibly bursts upon the mind ; and if empty space can, in any sense, be considered as an object of sublimity, nothing can fill the mind with a grander idea of magnitude and extension, than the amplitude of the scale on which pla- netary systems are constructed. Around the body of the sun there is allotted a cubical space, thirty-six hundred millions of miles in diameter, in which eleven planetary globes revolve — every one being separated from another, by intervals of many millions of miles. The space which surrounds the utmost limits of our system, extending, in every direction, to the nearest fixed stars, is, at least, 40,000,000,000,000, or forty billions of miles in diameter; and, it is higldy probable, that every star is surrounded by a space of equal or even of greater extent. A body impelled with the greatest velocity which art can produce — a cannon ball, for instance — would require twenty years to pass through the space that intervenes OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 45 between the earth and the sun, and four millions seven hun- dred thousand years, ere it could reach the nearest star. Though the stars seem to be crowded together in clusters, and some of them almost to touch one another, yet the dis- tance, between any two stars which seem to make the nearest approach, is such as neither words can express, nor imagina- tion fathom. These immense spaces are as unfathomable, on the one hand, as the magnitude of the bodies which move in them, and their prodigious velocities, are incomprehensible, on the other; and they form a part of those magiiiiicent pro- portions according to which the fabric of universal nature was arranged — all corresponding to the majesty of that infinite and incomprehensible Being, " who measures the ocean in the hollow of his hand, and meteth out the heavens with a span," IIow wonderful that bodies at such prodigious distances should exert a mutual influence on one another ! that the moon, at the distance of two hundred and forty thousand miles, should raise tides in the ocean, and currents in the atmosphere! that the sun, at the distance of ninety-five mil- lions of miles, should raise the vapours, move the ocean, direct the course of the winds, fructify the earth, and distri- bute light, and heat, and colour, through every region of the globe! yea, that its attractive influence and fructifying energy should extend even to the planet Herschel, at the distance of eighteen hundred millions of miles ! So that, in every point of view in which the universe is contemplated, we perceive the same grand scale of operation by which the Almighty has arranged the provinces of his universal kingdom. We should now ask, in the name of all that is sacred, whether such magnificent manifestations of Deity ought to be considered as irrelevant in the business of religion, and whether they ought to be thrown completely into the shade, in the discussions which take place on religious topics, in " the assemblies of the saints ?" Jf religion consist in the intellectual apprehension of the perfections of God, and in the moral effects produced by such an apprehension — if all the rays of glory emitted by the luminaries of heaven are only so many reflections of the grandeur of Him who dwells in light unapproachable — if they have a tendency to assist the mind in forming its conceptions of that ineflkble Being, whose uncreated glory cannot be directly contemplated — and if they are calculated to produce a sublime and awful impres- sion on all created intelligences, — shall we rest contented with a less glorious idea of God than his works are calculated to .afford.? Shall we disregard the works of the Lord, and con- 46 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOrHER. temu " the operations of his hands," and that too in the face of all the invitations on this subject addressed to us from heaven ? For thus saith Jehovah — " Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, who hath created these things — who bring- eth forth their host by number ? I tjie Lord, who maketh all things, who stretched forth the heavens alone, and spread abroad the earth by myself; all their host have I commanded.'' And if, at the command of God, we lift our eyes to tlie "firmament of his power," surely we ought to do it not with a "■ brute unconscious gaze," not with tlie vacant stare of a savage, not as if we were still enveloped with liie mists and prejudices of the dark ages — but as surrounded by that blaze of light which modern science has thrown upon the scenery of the sky, in order that we may contemplate, with fixed attention, all that enlightened reason, aided by the nicest observations, has ascertained respecting the magnificence of the celestial orbs. To overlook the sublime discoveries of modern times, to despise them, or to call in question their reality as some religionists have done, because they bring to our ears such astonishimg reports of the " eternal power" and majesty of Jehovah — is to act as if we were afraid lest the Deity should be represented as more grand and magnifi- cent than he really is, and as if we would be better pleased to pay him a less share of homage and adoration than is due to his name. Perhaps some may be disposed to insinuate, that the views now stated are above the level of ordinary comprehension, and founded too much on scientific considerations, to be stated in detail to a common audience. To any insinuations of this kind, it may be replied, that such illustrations as those to which we have referred, are more easily comprehended than many of those abstract discussions to which they are frequently accustomed ; since they are definite and tangible, being derived from those objects which strike the senses and the imagination. Any person of common understanding may be made to comprehend the leading ideas of extended space, magnitude and motion, which have been stated above, provided the descriptions be sufficiently simple, clear, and well defined ; and should they be at a loss to comprehend the principles on which the conclusions rest, or the mode by which the magnificence of tlie works of God has been ascer- tained, an occasional reference to such topics would excite them to inquiry and investigation, and to the exercise of their powers of observation and reasoning on such subjects — which are too frequently directed to far less important objects. OMx^IPOTExXCE OF THE DEITY. 47 The following illustration, however, stands clear of every objection of this kind, and is level to the comprehension of every man of common sense : — Either the earth moves round its axis once in twenty-four hours — or the sun, moon, planets, comets, stars, or the whole frame of the universe, move around the earth in the same time. There is no alternative, or third opinion, that can be formed on this point. If the eartli revolve on its axis every twenty-four hours, to produce the alternate succession of day and night, the portions of its surface about the equator must move at the rate of more than a thousand miles an hour, since the earth is more than twenty-four thou- sand miles in circumference. Tiiis view of the fact, when attentively considered, furnishes a most sublime and astonisli- ing idea. That a globe of so vast dimensions, with all its load of mountains, continents, and oceans, comprising within its circumference a mass of two hundred and sixty-four thou- sand miUions of cubical miles, should whirl round with so amazing a velocity, gives us a most august and impressive conception of the greatness of that power which first set it in motion, and continues the rapid whirl from age to age ! Though the huge masses of the Alpine mountains were in a moment detached from their foundations, carried aloft through the regions of the air, and tossed into the Mediterranean sea, it would convey no idea of a force equal to that which is every moment exerted, if the earth revolve on its axis. But should the motion of the earth be called in question, or denied, the idea of force, or power, will be indefinitely in- creased. For, in this case, it must necessarily be admitted, that the heavens, with all the innumerable hosts of stars, have a diurnal motion around our globe; which motion must be inconceivably more rapid than that of the earth, on the sup- position of its motion. For, in proportion as the celestial bodies are distant from the earth, in the same proportion would be the rapidity of their movements. The sun, on this supposition, would move at the rate of four hundred and fourteen thousand miles in a minute ; the nearest stars, at the rate of fourteen hundred millions of miles in a second; and tlie most distant luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers could express.* Such velocities, too, would be the rate of motion, not merely of a single globe like the earth, but of all the ten thousand times ten thousand spacious globes that exist within the boundaries of creation. This view con- veys an idea of power still more august and overwhelming * See Appendix, Note I. 48 CHRISTIAN PlIILOSOrHER. than any of the views ah'eady state(], and we dare not presume to assert that such a degree of physical force is beyond the limits of infinite perfection; but on the supposition it existed, it would conf(nnid all our ideas of the wisdom and intelli- gence of the Divine Mind, and would appear altogether incon- sistent with the character which the Scriptures give us of the Deity as " the only-wise God." For it would exhibit a stu- pendous system of means altogether disproportioned to the end intended — namely, to produce the alternate succession of day and night to the inliabitants of our globe, which is more beautifully and harmoniously effected by a single rotation on its axis, as is the case with the other globes which compose the planetary system. Such considerations, however, show us, that on whatever hypothesis, whether on the vulgar or the scientific, or in whatever other point of view the frame of na- ture may be contemplated, the mind is irresistibly impressed with ideas of power, grandeur, and magnificence. And there- fore, when an inquiring mind is directed to contemplate the works of God, on any hypothesis it may choose, it has a tendency to rouse reflection, and to stimulate the exercise of the moral and intellectual faculties, on objects which are worthy of the dignity of immortal minds. We may now be, in some measure, prepared to decide^ whether illustrations of the omnipotence of the Deity, derived from the system of the material world, or those vague and metaphysical disquisitions which are generally given in theo- logical systems, be most calculated to impress the mind, and to inspire it with reverence and adoration. The following is a description given of this attribute of God, by a well known systematic writer, who had generally been considered as a judicious and orthodox divine : — '•■ God is Almighty.* This will evidently appear, in that, if he be infinite in all his other perfections, he must be so in power; thus, if he be omniscient, he knows what is possible or expedient to be done; and if he be an infinite Sovereign, he wills whatever shall come to pass. Now this knowledge would be insignificant, and his power inetTicacious, were he not infinite in power, or almighty. Again, this might be argued from his justice, either in rewarding or punishing; for, if he were not infinite in power, he could do neither of these, at least so far as to render him the object of that desire or fear, which is agreeable to the nature of these perfections; neither could infinite faithfulness accomplish all the promises * Rev.i. 18; iv. 8. OMxNlPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 49 "vvhich he hath made, so as to excite that trust and depend- ence, which is a part of religious worship; nor could he say without limitation, as he does, / kav>e spoken It^ I will also bring it to j^ass: I have purposed it^ I will also do it* But since power is visible in, and demonstrated by, its effects, and infinite power by those effects which cannot be produced by a creature, we may observe the almighty power of God in all his works, both of nature and grace ; thus his eternal power is understood, as the apostle says, hy the' things that are 7nadc;\ not that there was an eternal production of things, but the exerting this power in time, proves it to be infinite and truly divine ; for no creature can produce the smallest particle of matter out of nothing, much less furnish the various species of creatures with those endowments in which they excel one another, and set forth their Creator's glory. And the glory of his power is no less visible in the works of providence, whereby he upholds all things, disposes of them according to his pleasure, and brings about events which only he who has an almighty arm can effect.";|; This is the whole that Dr. Ridgley judges it necessary to state in illustration of the attribute of omnipotence, except what he says in relation to its operation in " the work of grace," in '* the propagation and success of the Gospel," &c.; subjects, to which the idea of power, or physical energy, does not properly apply. Such, however, are the meager and ab- stract disquisitions generally given by most systematic writers. There is a continual play on the term "infinite," which, to most minds, conveys no idea at all, unless it be associated with ample conceptions of motion, magnitude, and extension ; and it is constantly applied to subjects to which it was never intended to apply, such as, "infinite faithfulness, infmile jus- tice, infinite truth," &c.; an application of the term which is never sanctioned by Scripture, and which has a tendency to introduce confusion into our conceptions of the perfections of God. Granting that the statements and reasonings in such an extract as the above were unquestionable, yet what impression can they make upon the mind ? Would an ignorant person feel his conception of the Divinity much enlarged, or his moral powers aroused, by such vague and general statements } And, if not, it appears somewhat unaccountable, that those sources of illustration, which would convey the most ample and definite views of the "eternal power" and glory of God, * Isaiah, xlvi. 11. t Romans, i. 20, I Ridgley's Body of Divinity, p. 39. 5 50 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. should be stiidiouslv concealed from the view. Vague de- scriptions and general views of any object will never be efiectual in awakening the attention and arresting the faculties of the mind. The heart will always remain unimpressed, and the understanding will never be thoroughly excited in its exercise, unless the intellect have presented before it a well defined and interesting object, and be enabled to survey it in its various aspects ; and this object must always have a relation to the material world, whether it be viewed in connexion with reli- gion or with any other subject. Thus I have endeavoured, in the preceding sketches, to present a few detached illustrations of the omnipotence and grandeur of the Deity, as displayed in the vast magnitude of the material universe — the stupendous velocities of the celes- tial bodies — and in the immeasurable regions of space which surround them, and in which their motions are performed. Such a magnificent spectacle as the fabric of the universe presents — so majestic, godlike, and overwhelming, to beings who dwell "in tabernacles of clay" — was surely never in- tended to be overlooked, or to be gazed at with indifference, by creatures endowed with reason and intelligence, and destined to an immortal existence. In forming a universe composed of so many immense systems and worlds, and reple- nished with such a variety of sensitive and intelligent exist- ences, the Creator, doubtless, intended that it shoidd make a sublime and reverential impression on the minds of all the intellectual beings to whom it might be displayed, and that it should convey some palpahle idea of the infinite glories of liis nature, in so far as material objects can be supposed to adumbrate the perfections of a spiritual and uncreated Es- sence. Dwelling in light " inaccessible" to mortals, and for ever veiled from the highest created being, by the pure spi- rituality and immensity of his nature, there is no conceivable mode by which the infinite grandeur of Deity could be ex- hibited to finite intelligences, but through the medium of those magnificent operations which are incessantly going forward throughout the boundless regions of space. Concealed from the gaze of all the " principalities and powers" in heaven, in the unfathomable depths of his essence, he displays his pre- sence in the universe he has created, and the glory of his power, by launching magnificent worlds into existence, by adorning them with diversified splendours, by peopling them with various ranks of intelligent existence, and by impelling them in their movements through the illimitable tracts of creation. OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 51 It will readily be admitted by every enlightened Christian, that it must be a highly desirable attainment, to acquire the most glorious idea of the Divine Being, which the limited capacity of our minds is capable of receiving. This is one of the grand difficulties in religion. The idea of a Being purely immaterial, yet pervading infinite space, and pos- sessed of no sensible qualities, confounds and bewilders the human intellect, so that its conceptions, on the one hand, are apt to verge towards extravagancy, while, on the other, they are apt to degenerate into something approaching to inanity. Mere abstract ideas and reasonings respecting infinity, eternity, and absolute perfection, however sublime we may conceive them to be, completely fail in arresting the understanding, and affecting the heart; our conceptions become vague, empty, and confused, for want of a material vehicle to give them order, stability, and expansion. Something of the nature of vast extension, of splendid and variegated objects, and of mighty movements, is absolutely necessary, in order to con- vey to spirits dwelling in bodies of clay, a definite conception of the invisible glories of the Eternal Mind ; and, therefore, in the immense variety of material existence with which the universe is adorned, we find every requisite assistance of this kind to direct and expand our views of the Great Object of our adoration. When the mind is perplexed and overwhelmed with its conceptions, when it labours, as it were, to form some well defined conceptions of an Infinite Being, it here finds some tangible objects on which to fix some sensible suhstratum for its thoughts to rest upon for a little, while it attempts to penetrate, in its excursions, into those distant regions which eye hath not seen, and to connect the whole of its mental survey with the energies of the " King eternal, inmiortal, and invisible." To such a train of thought we are uniformly directed in the sacred oracles, where Jehovah is represented as describ- ing himself by the effects which his power and wisdom have produced : — " Israel shall be saved in the Lord with an ever- lasting salvation. For thus saith Jehovah that created the heavens ; God himself that formed the earth and made it; he hath established it, he created it not in vain, he formed it to be inhabited; I am the Lord and there is none else." " I have made the earth and created man upon it, my hands have stretched out the heavens, and all their hosts have I com- manded." '^ Hearken unto me, O Israel : I am the first, 1 also am the last. Mine hand also hath laid the foundation of the earth, and my right hand hath spanned the heavens ; when I 52 CHRISTIAN PHlLOSOrHER- call unto theni, they stand up together.'' Who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out heaven Avith a span, and weighed the mountains in scales ? He who gitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as gras hoppers ; that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, that lainteth not, neither is weary." '^The Lord made the heavens, the heaven of heavens, with all their hosts ; honour and majesty are before him, and his kingdom ruleth over all."* — Such sublime descriptions of Jehovah, and re- ferences to his material works, are reiterated in every portion of the sacred volume : and the import and sublimity of such expressions cannot be fully appreciated, unless we take into view all the magnificent objects which science has unveiled in the distant regions of creation. This subject is calculated, not merely to overpower the intellect with ideas of sublimity and grandeur, but also to pro- duce a deep moral impression upon the heart; and a Chris- tian philosopher would be deficient in his duty, were he to overlook this tendency of the objects of his contemplation. One important moral effect which this subject has a natural tendency to produce, is, profound humility. What an insignificant' being does man appear, when he compares himself with the magnificence of creation, and with the myriads of exalted intelligences with which it is peopled ! What are all the honours and splendours of this earthly ball, of which mortals are so proud, when placed in competition with the resplendent glories of the sky ! Such a display as the Almighty has given of himself, in the magnitude and variety of his works, was evidently intended " to stain the pride" of all human grandeur, that " no flesh should glory in his presence." Yet there is no disposition that appears so prominent among puny mortals as pride, ambition, and vain- glory — the very opposite of humility, and of all those tem- pers which become those " who dwell in tabernacles of clay, and whose foundation is in the dust." Even without taking into account the state of man as a depraved intelligence, what is there in his situation that should inspire him with " lofty looks," and induce him to look down on his fellow-men with supercilious contempt ? He derived his origin from the dust, he is allied with the beasts that perish, and he is fast hasten- ing to the grave, where his carcass will become the food of noisome reptiles. He is every moment depending on a supe- rior Being for every pulse that beats, and every breath he * Isaiah, xlv. 17, 18, 12 ; xlviii. 12, 13 ; xl, 12, 22, &c. OMNIPOTEiNCE OF THE DEITY. 53 draws, and for all that he possesses ; he is dependent even on the meanest of his species for his accommodations and com- forts. He holds every enjoyment on the most precarious tenure, — his friends may be snatched in a moment from his embrace-, his riches may take to themselves wings and fly away; and his health and beauty may be blasted in an hour, by a brealh of wind. Hunger and thirst, cold and heat, poverty and disgrace, sorrow and disappointment, pain and dis- ease, mingle themselves with all his pursuits^and enjoyments. His knowledge is circumscribed within the narrowest limits, his errors and follies are glaring and innumerable; and he stands as an almost undistinguishable atom, amidst the immen- sity of God's works. Still, with all these powerful inducements to the exercise of humility, man dares to be proud and arrogant. " Man, proud man, Dress'd in a little brief authority. Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven As make the angels weep," How affecting to contemplate the warrior, flushed with dia- bolical pride, pursuing his conquests through heaps of slain, in order to obtain possession of " a poor, pitiable speck of perishing earth ;" exclaiming in his rage, " ] will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the spoil, my lust shall be satisfied upon them, I will draw the sword, my hand shall destroy them" — to behold the man of rank glorying in his wealth, and his empty titles, and looking around upon the inferior orders of his fellow-mortals as the worms of the dust — to be- hold the man of ambition pushing his way through bribery, and treachery, and slaughter, to gain possession of a throne, that he may look down with proud pre-eminence upon his fellows — to behold the haughty airs of the noble dame, inflated with the idea of her beauty, and her high birth, as she struts along, surveying the ignoble crowd, as if they were the dust beneath her feet — to behold the smatterer in learning, puffed up with a vain conceit of his superficial ac- quirements, when he has scarcely entered the porch of know- ledge, — in fine, to behold all ranks, from the highest to the lowest, big with an idea of their own importance, and fired with pride and revenge at the least provocation, whether imaginary or real ! How inconsistent the manifestations of such tempers, with the many liumiliating circumstances of our present condition, and with the low rank which we hold in the scale of universal being! It is not improbable that there are, in the universe, inteUi- 5* 54 CHRISTIAxN fHILOSOFHER. gences of a superior order, in whose breasts pride never found a place — to whom this globe of ours, and all its inhabitants, appear as inconsiderable as a drop of water, filled with micro- scopic aiiimalculse, does to the proud lords of this earthly re- gion. There is at least one Being to whom this sentiment is applicable, in its utmost extent: — "Before Him all nations are as a drop of a bucket, and the inhabitants of the earth as grashoppers; yea, they are as nothing, and are counted to him less than nothing and vanity." Could we wing our way, with the swiftness of a seraph, from sun to sun, and from world to world, till w^e had surveyed all the systems visible to the naked eye, which are only as a mere speck in the map of the universe — could we, at the same time, contemplate the glorious landscapes and scenes of grandeur they exhibit — could we also mingle with the pure and exalted intelligences which people those resplendent abodes, and behold then* hum- ble and ardent adorations of their almighty Maker, their be- nign and condescending deportment towards one another; "each esteeming another better than himself," and all united in the bonds of the purest aflection, without one haughty or discordant feeling — what indignation and astonishment would seize us, on our return to this obscure corner of creation, to behold beings enveloped in the mists of ignorance, immersed in depravity and wickedness, liable to a thousand accidents, exposed to the ravages of the earthquake, the volcano, and the storm; yet proud as Lucifer, and glorying in their shame! We should be apt to view them, as we now do those bed- lamites, who fancy themselves to be kings, surrounded by their nobles, while they are chained to the walls- of a noisome dun- geon. " Sure pride was never made for man." Plow abhor- rent, then, must it appear in the eyes of superior beings, who have taken an expansive range through the field of creation ! How abhorrent it is in the sight of the Almight}', and how amiable is the opposite virtue, we learn from his word : — " Every one that is proud in heart is an abomination to the Lord." "God resisteth the pro.ud, but he giveth grace to the humble." " Thus saith the high and lofty One, who inhabit- eth eternity, I dwell in the high and holy place; with him also that is of an humble and contrite spirit; to revive the spirit of the humble, and the heart of the contrite ones." Wliile, therefore, we contemplate the omnipotence of God in the innnensity of creation, let us learn to cultivate humility and self-abasement. This was one of the lessons which the pious Psalmist deduced from his survey of tlie nocturnal heavens. When he beheld the moon walking in brightness, OMNirOTEx\CE OF THE DEITV. 65 and the innumerable host of stars — overpowered vvilli a sense of his own insignificance, and the greatness of Divine conde- scension, he exclaimed, " O Lord ! what is man, that thou art mindful of him, or the son of man, that thou shouldst visit him !" Again, this subject is also calculated to inspire us with REVERENCE and VENERATION of God. Profouud veneration of the Divine Being lies at the foundation of all religious worship and obedience. But, in order to reverence God aright, we must know him ; and, in order to acquire the true knowledge of him, we must contemplate him through the medium of those works and dispensations, by which he dis- plays the glories of his nature to the inhabitants of our world. I have already exhibited a few specimens of the stupendous operations of his power, in that portion of the system of the universe which lies open to our inspection ; and there is, surely, no mind in which the least spark of piety exists, but must feel strong emotions of reverence and awe, at the thought of that almighty and incomprehensible Being, who impels the huge masses of the planetary globes with so amazing a rapi- dity through the sky, and who has diversified the voids of space with so vast an assemblage of magnificent worlds. Even those manifestations of Deity which are confined to the globe we inhabit, when attentively considered, are calculated to rouse, even the unthinking mind, to astonishment and awe. The lofty mountains, and expansive plains, the mass of waters in the mighty ocean, the thunders rolling along the sky, the lightnings flashing from cloud to cloud, the hurricane and the tempest, the volcano vomiting rivers of fire, and the earth- quake shaking kingdoms, and levelling cities with the ground — all proclaim the majesty of Him, by whom the elements of nature are arranged and directed, and seem to address the sons of men in language like this : " The Lord reigneth, he is clothed with majesty; at his wrath the earth trembles; a fire goeth before him, and burneth up his enemies." — " Let all the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him." There is one reason, among others, why the bulk of man- kind feel so little veneration of God, and that is, that they seldom contemplate, with fixed attention, " the operations of his hands." If we wish to cherish this sublime sentiment in our hearts, we must familiarize our minds to frequent excur- sions over all those scenes of creation and providence, which the volume of nature, and the volume of inspiration, unfold to view. We must endeavour to assist our conceptions of the 56 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. grandeur of these objects, by every discovery which has been, or may yet be made, and by every mode of illustration by which a sublime and comprehensive idea of the particular object of contemplation may be obtained. If we would wish to acquire some definite, though imperfect conception of the physical extent of the universe, our minds might be assisted by such illustrations as the following : — Light flies from the sun with a velocity of nearly two hundred thousand miles in a moment of time, or about one million, four hundred thousand times swifter than the motion of a cannon ball. Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is endowed with a power of rapid motion superior to that of light, and with a corresponding degree of intellectual energy; that he has been flying, without intermission, from one province of creation to another, for six thousand years, and will continue the same rapid course for a thousand million of years to come ; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that, at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no farther than " the suburbs of creation" — and that all the magnificent systems of material and intellectual beings he had surveyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages, bear no more pro- portion to the whole empire of Omnipotence, than the smallest grain of sand does to all the particles of matter of the same size contained in ten thousand worlds. Nor need we enter- tain the least fear, that the idea of the extent of the Creator's power, conveyed by such a representation, exceeds the bounds of reality. On the other hand, it must fall almost infinitely short of it. For, as the poet has justly observed — " Cnn man conceive beyond what God can do ?" Were a seraph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the manner now stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which no further displays of the Divinity could be perceived, the thought would overwhelm his faculties with unutterable anguish and horror; he would feel, that he had now, in some measure, comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence, and that no further manifestations of the divine glory remained to be explored. But we may rest assured, that this can never happen in the case of any created intelligence. We have every reason to believe, both from the nature of an Infinite Being, and from the vast extent of creation already explored, that the immense mass of material existence, and the endless variety of sensitive and intellectual beings with which the universe is replenished, are intended by Jehovah, to present OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 57 to his rational offspring, a shadow^ an emhlem^ or a representa- tion (in so far as finite extended existence can be a representa- tion) of the infinite perfections of his nature, which would otherwise have remained for ever impalpable to all subordi- nate intelligences. la this manner, then, might we occasionally exercise our minds on the grand and diversified objects which the universe exhibits ; and, in proportion as we enlarge the sphere of our contemplations, in a similar proportion will our views of God himself be extended, and a corresponding sentiment of venera- tion impressed upon the mind. For the soul of man cannot reverence a mere abstract being, that was never manifested through a sensible medium, however many lofty terms may be used to describe his perfections. It reverences that ineilk- ble Being, who conceals himself behind the scenes of creation, through the medium of the visible display he exhibits of his power, wisdom, and beneficence, in the economy of nature, and in the records of revelation. Before the universe was formed, Jehovah existed alone, possessed of every attribute which he now displays. But, had only one solitary intelli- gence been created, and placed in the infinite void, without a material substratum beneath and around him, he could never have been animated with a sentiment of profound veneration for his Creator ; because no objects existed to excite it, or to show that his invisible Maker was invested with those attri- butes which he is now known to possess. Accordingly we find, in the sacred writings, that, when a sentiment of reverence is demanded from the sons of men, those sensible objects which are calculated to excite the emotion are uniformly ex- hibited. " Fear ye not me, saith the Lord ? Will ye not tremble at my presence, who have placed the sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that it cannot pass it; and though the waves thereof toss themselves, yet they can- not prevail ; though they roar, yet can they not pass over it ?" " Who would not fear thee, O King of nations ! Thou art the true God, and an everlasting King. Thou hast made the earth by thy power, thou hast established the world by thy wisdom, thou hast stretched out the heavens by thy discretion. When thou utterest thy voice there is a noise of waters in the heavens, thou causest the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth, thou makest lightnings with rain, and bringest forth the winds out of thy treasuries."* But however enlarged and venerable conceptions of God * Jerem. x. 7 — 13. 5S CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. we may derive from the manifestations of his power, tliey must fall infinitely short of what is due to a Being of boundless perfection. For there may be attributes in the Divine Essence, of which we cannot possibly form the least conception — attri- butes which cannot be shadowed forth or represented by any portion of the material or intellectual world yet discovered by us, or by all the mighty achievements by which human redemption was eflected — attributes which have not yet been displayed, in their effects, to the highest orders of intelligent existence. And, therefore, as that excellent philosopher and divine, the honourable Mr. Boyle, has well observed, " Our ideas of God, however so great, will rather express the great- ness of our veneration, than the immensity of his perfections ; and the notions worthy the most intelligent men, are far short of being worthy the incomprehensible God — the brightest idea we can frame of God being infinitely inferior, and no more than a parhelion* in respect of the sun ; for though that meteor is splendid, and resembles the sun, yet it resides in a cloud, and is not only much beneath the sun in distance, but inferior in bigness and splendour." In short, were we habitually to cherish that profound vene- rntion of God which his works are calculated to inspire, with what humility would we approach the presence of this august Fring! with what emotions of awe would we present our adorations ! and with what reverence would we talk of his inscrutable purposes and incomprehensible operations ! We would not talk about him, as some writers have done, with the same ease and indifference as a mathematician would talk about the properties of a triangle, or a philosopher about the effects of a mechanical engine : nor would we treat with a spirit of levity, any of the solemn declarations of his word, or the mighty movements of his providence. We would be ever ready to join with ardour in the sublime devotions of the inspired writers, "Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty, just and true are thy M-ays, thou King of saints ! Who would not fear thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name ? Let all the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him." Lastly, The views we have taken of the omnipotence and * A par]idio7i, or mock-sun, is a meteor in the form of a very bright light appearing on one side of the sun, and somewhat resembling the appearance of that luminary. This phenomenon is supposed to be produced by the refraction and reflection of the sun's ravs from a watery cloud. Sometimes three or four of these parhelia, all of them bearing a certain resemblance to the real sun, have been seen at one time. OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY. 59 grandeur of the Deity, are calculated to inspire us with hope and CONFIDENCE in the prospect of that eternal existence which lies before us. The period of our existence in this terrestrial scene will soon terminate, and those bodies, through which w^e now hold a correspondence with the, visible crea- tion, crumble into dust. The gradual decay, and the ultimate dissolution of human bodies, present a scene at which reason stands aghast ; and, on a cursory survey of the chambers of the dead, it is apt to exclaim, in the language of despair, "Can these dry bones live?" A thousand difficulties crowd upon the mind which appear repugnant to the idea, that "beauty shall again spring out of ashes, and life out of the dust." But, when we look abroad to the displays of Divine power and intelligence, in the wide expanse of creation, we perceive, that " Almighty God Has done much more ; nor is his arm impair'd Through length of days. — And what he can, he will ; His faithfulness stands bound to see it done." — Blair. We perceive that he has created systems in such vast pro- fusion, that no man can number them. The worlds every moment under his superintendence and direction are unques- tionably far more numerous than all the human beings who have hitherto existed, or will yet exist till the close of time. And if he has not only arranged the general features of each of these worlds, and established the physical laws by which its economy is regulated,, but has also arranged the diversified circumstances, and directs the minutest movements of the myriads of sensitive and intellectual existences it contains, we ought never for a moment to doubt, that the minutest par- ticles of every human body, however widely separated from each other, and mingled with other extraneous substances, are known to Him whose presence prevades all space ; and that all the atoms requisite for the construction of the resurrec- tion-body will be reassembled for this purpose ''by the energy of that mighty power, whereby he is able to subdue all things to himself." If we suppose that a number of human beings, amout^ting to three hundred thousand millions, shall start from the grave into new life at the general resurrection, and that the atoms of each of these bodies are just now under the special superintendence of the Almighty — and that, at least, an equal number of worlds are under his particular care and direction — the exertions of power and intelligence, in the . former case, cannot be supposed to be greater than what is 60 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. requisite in tlie latter. To a Being possessed of infinite power, conjoined with boundless intelligence, the superin- tendence of countless atoms, and of countless worlds, is equally easy, where no contradiction is implied. For, as the poet has weU observed, — " He summons into being with like ease A whole creation and a single grain." And since this subject tends to strengthen our hope of a re- surrection from the dead, it is also calculated to inspire us with confidence in the prospect of those eternal scenes which will burst upon the view, at the dissolution of all terrestrial things. Beyond the period fixed for the conflagration of this world, "a wide and unbounded prospect lies before us:" and though, at present, "shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it," yet the boundless magnificence of the Divine empire which science has unfolded, throws a radiance over the scenes of futurity, which is fraught with consolation, in the view of " the wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds." It opens to us a prospect of perpetual improvement in know- ledge and felicity ; it presents a field in which the human faculties may be for ever expanding, for ever contemplating new scenes of grandeur rising to the view, in boundless per- spective, through an interminable succession of existence. It convinces us, that the happiness of the eternal state will not consist in an unvaried repetition of the same perceptions and enjoyments, but that new displays of the Creator's glory will be continually bursting on the astonished mind, world without end. And as we know, that the same beneficence and care which are displayed in the arrangements of systems of worlds, are also displayed in supporting and providing for the smallest microscopic animalculae, we have no reason to harbour the least fear, lest we should be overlooked in the immensity of creation, or lost amidst the multiplicity of those works among which the Deity is incessantly employed. For, as he is om- n'qjresent., his Essence prevades, actuates, and supports the whole frame of universal nature, and all the beings it contains, so that he is as intimately present with every created being, whether sensitive or intellectual, as that being is to itself And as he is omniscient^ he is conscious of every movement that can arise in the material system, and of every thought and purpose that can pervade the world of intellectual exist- ence, — and consequently, his superintendence and care must extend to every creature he has formed. Therefore, though " ttie elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the earth and WISDOM OF THE DEITY. 61 all the works therein be dissolved, yet we, accordmg to his promise, look for new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness." SECTION III. OF THE WISDOM AND INTELLIGENCE OF THE DEITY. fi\ surveying the system of nature with a Christian and a philosophic eye, it may be considered in different points of view. It may be viewed either as displaying the power and magnificence of the Deity in the immense quantity of mate- rials of wliic^ it is composed, and in the august machinery and movements by which its economy is directed; — or, as mani- festing his wisdom, in the nice adaptation of every minute circumstance to the end it was intended to accomplish ; — or, as illustrating his unbounded beneficence in the provision which is made for the accommo'clation and happiness of the numerous tribes of sentient and intelligent beings it contains. Having, in the preceding section, endeavoured to exhibit some of those objects which evince the omnipotence of Deity, and the pious emotions they are calculated to excite, 1 shall now offer a few popular illustrations of Divine wisdom, as displayed in the arrangements of the material world — which shall chiefly be confined to those objects which are most prominent and obvious to the vulgar eye. Wisdom is that perfection of an intelligent agent, by which he is enabled to select and employ the most proper means in order to accomplish a good and important end. It includes the idea of knowledge or intelligence, but may be distinguished from it. Knowledge is opposed to ignorance, wdsdom is op- posed to folly or error in conduct. As applied to God, it may be considered as comprehending the operations of his omni- science and benevolence ; or, in other words, his knowledge to discern, and his disposition to choose those means and ends which are calculated to promote the order and the happiness of the universe. The wisdom of God is, doubtless, displayed in every ar- rangement he has made throughout all the provinces of his immense and eternal kingdom, however far they may be re- moved from the sphere of human observation. But it is only in those parts of the system of nature which lie open to our particular investigation, that the traces of this perfection can be distincdy perceived. The heavens declare the glory of God's wisdom, as well as of his power. The planetary sys- 6 62 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. tern — that portion of the heavens with which we are best ac- quainted — displays both the magnificence and the skill of its Divine Author,— in the magnitudes, distances, revolutions, proportions, and uses of the various globes of which it is composed, and in the diversified apparatus by which light and darkness are alternately distributed. The sun, an immense luminous world, by far the largest body in the system, is placed in the centre. No other position would have suited for an equable distribution of illumination and heat through the different parts of the system. Around him, at different distances, eleven primary planets revolve, accompanied with eighteen secondaries or moons, — all in majestic order and harmony, no one interrupting the movements of another, but invariably keeping the paths prescribed them, and performing their revolutions in their appointed times. To all these re- volving globes, the sun dispenses motion, light, heat, fertility, and other unceasing energies,, for the comfort and happiness of their respective inhabitants — without which, perpetual sterility, eternal winter, and eternal night, would reign over every region of our globe, and throughout surrounding worlds. The distance at which the heavenly bodies, particularly the sun, are placed from the earth, is a manifest evidence of Di- vine wisdom. If the sun were much nearer us than he is at present, the earth, as now constituted, would be wasted and parched with excessive heat ; the waters would be turned into vapour, and the rivers, seas, and oceans, would soon disappear, leaving nothing behind them but frightful barren dells and gloomy caverns ; vegetation would completely cease, and the tribes of animated nature languish and die. On the other hand, were the sun much farther distant than he now is, or were his bulk, or the influence of his rays diminished one half of what tli^v now are, the land and the ocean would soon become one frozen mass, and universal desolation and sterility would over- spread the fair face of nature; and instead of a pleasant and comfortable abode, our globe would become a frightful desert, a state of misery and perpetual punishment.* But herein is * It forms no objection to these remarks, that caloric, or the matter of heat, does not altogether depend upon the direct influence of the solar rays. The substance of caloric may be chiefly connected with the con- stitulion of the globe we inhabit. But still it is quite certain, that the earth, as presc7itly constituted, would suffer effects most disastrous to sen- tient beings, were it removed much nearer to, or much farther from the central luminary. Those planets which are removed several hundreds of millions of miles farther from the sun than our globe, may possibly expe- rience a degree of heat much greater than ours ; but, in this case, the con- stitution of the soUd parts of these globes, and of their surrounding atmo- spheres, must be very different from what obtains in the physical arrange- ments of our globe. WISDOM OF THE DEITY. 63 the wisdom of God displayed, that he has formed the sun of such a determinate size, and placed it at such a convenient distance, as not to annoy, but to refresh and cheer us, and to enliven the soil with its genial influence ; so that we plainly perceive, to use the language of the prophet, that "He hath established the world by his wisdom, and stretched out the heavens by his understanding." The rotation of the several planetary globes around their axes, to produce the alternate succession of day and night, strikingly demonstrates the wisdom and benevolence of their great Author. Were the earth and the other planetary worlds destitute of a diurnal motion, only one half of their surfaces could be inhabited, and the other half would remain a dark and cheerless desert. The sun would be the only heavenly orb which would be recognized by the inhabitants of each re- spective world, as existing in the universe, and that scene of grandeur which night unfolds in the boundless expanse of the sky, would be forever veiled from their view. For, it appears to be one grand design of the Creator, in giving these bodies a diurnal motion, not only to cheer their inhabitants with light and warmth, and the gay colouring produced by the solar rays ; but also to open to them a prospect of other portions of his vast dominions, which are dispersed in endless variety throughout the illimitable regions of space, in order that they may acquire a more sublime impression of the glory of his kingdom, and of his eternal power and Godhead. But were perpetual day to irradiate the planets, it would throw an eternal and impenetrable veil over the glories of the sky, be- hind which the magnificent operations of Jehovah's power would be in a great measure concealed. It is this circum- stance which we should consider as the principal reason why a rotary motion has been impressed on the planetary globes ; and not merely that a curtain of darkness might be thrown around their inhabitants during the repose of sleep, as in the world in which we dwell. For, in some of the other plane- tary worlds belonging to our system, the intelligent beings with which they are peopled may stand in no need of that nocturnal repose which is necessary for man; their physical powers may be incapable of being impaired, and their mental energies may be in perpetual exercise. And in some of those bodies which are surrounded with an assemblage of rings and moons, as the planet Saturn, the diversified grandeur of their celestial phenomena, in the absence of the sun, may present a scene of contemplation and enjoyment far more interesting than all the splendours of their noon-day. Besides, had the 64 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. planets no motion round their axes, and were both tlieir hemi- splieres supposed to be peopled with inhabitants, their physi- cal slate and enjoyments would be as opposite to each other, as if they lived under the government of two disiinct inde- pendent beings. While the one class was basking under the splendours of perpetual day, the other would be involved in all the horrors of an everlasting night. While the one hemi- sphere would be parched with excessive heat, the other would be bound in the fetters of eternal ice ; and in such a globe as ours, the motion of the tides, the ascent of the vapours, the currents of the atmosphere, the course of the winds, the be- nign influences of the rains and dews, and a thousand other movements, wdiich produce so many salutary and beneficial effects, would be completely deranged. Hence we find, tliat in all the planetary bodies on which spots have been discover- ed, a rotary motion actually exists,* in the secondary as well as in the primary planets, and even in the sun itself, the centre and the mover of the whole : in which arrangement of the Almighty Creator, the evidences of wisdom and design are strikingly apparent. This amazing scene of Divine workmanship and skill, which the planetary system exhibits, we have reason to be- lieve is multiplied and diversified to an indefinite extent, throughout all the other systems of creation, displayi::g to the intelligences of every region '•' the manifold wisdom of God." For there can be no question, that every star we now behold, either by the naked eye or by the help of a telescope, is the centre of a system of planetary worlds, where the agency of God, and his unsearchable wisdom, may be endlessly varied, and perhaps more strikingly displayed than even in the sys- tem to which we belong. These vast globes of light could never have been designed merely to shed a few glimmering rays on our far distant world : for the ten thousandth part of them has never yet been seen by the inhabitants of the earth since the Mosaic creation, except by a few astronomers of the past and the present age ; and the light of many of them, in all probability, has never yet reached us, and perhaps never will, till the period of " the consummation of all terrestrial things." They were not made in vain: for such a supposition would be * On the planet Uranus, or Herschel, no spots or inequalities of sur- face have been discovered, on account of its great distance from the earth ; but spots have been discovered on the planets Saturn, Jupiler, Mars, and Venus, by which their diurnal rotations have been ascertained. There can be no doubt, however, lliat Uranus rotates on an axis as well as the other planets, although its distance prevents us Iruni detcruiiniiig tliia point by actual observation. WISDOM OF THE DEITY. 65 inconsistent with every idea we can form of the attributes of a Being of infinite perfection. They were not intended merely to diversify the voids of infinite space with a useless splendour, which has no relation to intellectual natures : for this would give us a most distorted and inconsistent idea of the character, of Him vvlio is "the only-wise God;" and we are told by an authority which cannot be questioned, that " by his wisdom he made the heavens, and stretched them out by his under- standing." The only rational conclusion, therefore, which can be deduced, is, that they are destined to distribute illumi- nation and splendour, vivifying influence and happiness, among incalculable numbers of intelligent beings, of various degrees of physical, moral, and intellectual excellence. And wherever the Creator has exerted his almighty energies in the produc- tion of sensitive and intellectual natures, we may rest assured, that there also his infinite wisdom and intelligence, in an end- less variety of arrangements, contrivances, and adaptations, are unceasingly displayed. But, after all, whatever evidences of contrivance and design the celestial globes may exhibit, it is not in the heavens that the most striking displays of Divine wisdom can be traced by the inhabitants of our world. It is only a few general rela- tions and adaptations that can be distinctly perceived among the orbs of the firmament ; though, in so far as we are able to trace the purposes which they subserve, the marks of beauty, order, and design, are uniformly apparent. But we are placed at too great a distance from the orbs of heaven, to be able to investigate the particular arrangements which enter into the physical and moral economy of the celestial worlds. Were we transported to the surface of the planet Jupiter, and had an opportunity of surveying, at leisure, the regions of that vast globe, and the tribes of sensitive and intellectual existence which compose its population — of contemplating the relations of its moons to the pleasure and comfort of its inhabitants — the constitution of its atmosphere as to its reflective and refractive powers, in producing a degree of illumination to compensate for the great distance of that planet from the sun — its adapta- tion to the functions of animal life — the construction of the visual organs of its inhabitants, and the degree of sensibility they possess, corresponding to the quantity of light received from the sun — the temperature of the surface and atmosphere of this globe, corresponding to its distance from the central source of heat, and to the physical constitution of sensitive beings — in short, could we investigate the relations which in- animate nature, in all its varieties and sublimities, bears to the 6* 66 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. necessities and the happiness of the animated existences that traverse its different regions, we should, doubtless, behold a scene of Divine wisdom and intelligence, far more admirable and astonishing than even that which is exhibited in our sub- lunary world. But since it is impossible for us to investigate the economy of other worlds, while we are chained down to this terrestrial sphere, we must direct our attention to those arrangements and contrivances in the constitution of our own globe, which lie open to our particular inspection, in order to perceive more distinctly the bene^i^olent designs of Him '^in whom we live, and move, and have our being." And here an attentive observer will find, in almost every object, when minutely examined, a display of goodness and intelligence, which will constrain him to exclaim, " O the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God !" Wisdom, considered as consisting in contrivance, or the selection of the most proper means in order to accomplish an important end, may be exemplified and illustrated in a variety of familiar objects in the scene of nature. The earth on which we tread was evidently intended by the Creator to support man and other animals, along with their habitations, and to furnish those vegetable productions which are necessary for their subsistence ; and, accordingly, he has given it that exact degree of consistency which is re- quisite for these purposes. Were it much harder than it now is — were it, for example, as dense as a rock, it would be incapable of cultivation, and vegetables could not be produced from its surface. Were it softer it would be insufficient to support us, and we should sink at every step, like a person walking in a quagmire. No buildings, such as those we now construct, could have been supported, and no conveyances, such as coaches and steam carriages, could have moved along its surface. Had this circumstance not been attended to in its formation, the earth would have been rendered useless as a habitable world for all those animated beings which traverse its different regions. The exact adjustment of the solid parts of our globe to the nature and necessities of the beings which inhabit it, is therefore an instance and an evidence of ivisdom. The diversity of surface which it every where presents, in the mountains and vales with which it is variegated, indicates the same benevolent contrivance and design. If the earth were divested of its mountains, and its surface every where uniformly smooth, there would be no rivers, springs, or foun- tains; for water can flow only from a higher to a lower place; the vegetable tribes would droop and languish ; man and other MOUNTAINS. COLOURS. 67 animals would be deprived of what is necessary for their ex-* istence and comfort ; we should be destitute of many useful stones, minerals, plants, and trees, wliich are now produced on the surface and in the interior of mountains; the sea itself would become a stagnant marsh, or overflow tlie land ; and the whole surface of nature in our terrestrial sphere would present an unvaried scene of dull uniformity. Those pictur- esque and sublime scenes which fire the imagination of the poet, and which render mountainous districts so pleasing to the philosophic traveller, would be completely withdrawn; and all around, when compared with such diversified land- scapes, would appear as fatiguing to the eye as the vast soli- tudes of the Arabian deserts, or the dull monotony of the ocean. But, in consequence of the admirable distribution of hills and mountains over the surface of our globe, a variety of useful and ornamental effects is produced. Their lofty sum- mits are destined by Providence to arrest the vapours which float in the regions of the air; their internal cavities form so many spacious basins for the reception of water distilled from the clouds ; they are the original sources of springs and rivers, which water and fertilize the earth ; they form immense maga- zines, in which are deposited stones, metals, and minerals, which are of so essential service in the arts that promote the comfort of human life ; they serve for the production of a vast variety of herbs and trees ; they arrest the progress of storms and tempests; they afford shelter and entertainment to various animals which minister to the wants of mankind : — in a word, they adorn and embellish the face of nature — they form thou- sands of sublime and beautiful landscapes, and afford from their summits the most delightful prospects of the plains below. All these circumstances demonstrate the consunniiate wisdom of the Great Architect of nature, and lead us to conclude, that moun- tains, so far from being rude excrescences of nature, as some have asserted, form an essential part in the constitution, not only of our globe, but of all habitable worlds. And this con- clusion is confirmed, so far as our observation extends, with regard to the moon, and several of the planetary bodies which belong to our system, whose surfaces are found to be diversi- fied by sublime ramifications of mountain scenery ; which cir- cumstance forms one collateral proof, among many others, that ihey are the abodes of sentient and intellectual beings. Again, the colouring which is spread over the face of nature indicates the wisdom of the Deity. It is essential to the pre- sent mode of our existence, and it was evidently intended by the Creator, that we should be enabled easily to recognize the 68 CHRISTIAN THILOSOPHER. forms and properties of the various objects with which we are surrounded. But were the objects of nature destitute of colour, or were the same unvaried hue spread over the face of creation, we should be destitute of all the entertainments of vision, and be at a loss to distinguish one object from an- other. We should be unable to distinguish rugged precipices from fruitful hills — naked rocks from human habitations — the trees from the hills that bear them — and tjie tilled from the untilled lands. " We should hesitate to pronounce whether an adjacent inclosure contains a piece of pasturage, a plot of arable land, or a field of corn ; and it would require a little journey, and a minute investigation; to determine such a point. We could not determine whether the first person we met were a soldier in his regimentals, or a swain in his Sunday suit ; a bride in her ornaments, or a widow in her w^eeds." Such would have been the aspect of nature, and such the inconveniences to which we should have been sub- jected, had God allowed us light, \vithout the distinction of colours. We could have distinguished objects only by intri- cate trains of reasoning, and by circumstances of time, place, and relative position. And to what delays and perplexities should we have been reduced, had we been obliged every mo- ment to distinguish one thing from another by reasoning .'' Our whole life must then have been employed rather in study than in action ; and after all, we must have remained in eter- nal uncertainty as to many things which are now quite ob- vious to every one as soon as he opens his eyes. We could neither have communicated our thoughts by writing, nor have derived instruction from others through the medium of books; for it is the contrast of different colours which enables us to distinguish the letters, words, and sentences, in a written or printed book — so that we should now have been almost as ignorant of the transactions of past ages, as we are of the events which are passing in the planetary worlds ; and, con- sequently, we could never have enjoyed a written revelation from Heaven, nor any other infallible guide to direct us in the path to happiness, if the Almighty had not distinguished the rays of light, and painted the objects around us with a diver- sity of colours, — so essentially connected are the minutest and the most magnificent works of Deity. But now, in the present constitution of things, colour characterizes the class to which every individual belongs, and indicates, upon the first inspection, its respective quality. Every object wears its peculiar livery, and has a distinguishing mark by which it is characterized. COLOURS.— WATERS. 69 The different hues which are spread over the scenery of the world are also higlily ornamental to the face of nature, and afford a variety of pleasures to the eye and the imagina- tion. It is this circumstance which adds a charm to the lields, the valleys, and the hills, the lofty mountain, the winding river, and the expansive lake ; and which gives a splendour and sublimity to the capacious vault of heaven. Colour is, therefore, an essential requisite to every world inhabited by sensitive beings ; and we know that provision has been made for diffusing it throughout all the globes which may exist in tl>e distant regions which our telescopes have penetrated ; for the light which radiates from the most distant stars is capable of being separated into the prismatic colours, similar to those which are produced by the solar rays ; which furnishes a pre- sumptive proof, that they are intended to accomplish designs, in their respective spheres, analogous to those which light subserves in our terrestrial habitation, — or, in other words, that they are destined to convey to the minds of sentient be- ings, impressions of light and colour, and consequently, beings susceptible of such impressions must reside within the sphere or more immediate influence of these far distant orbs. Tiie same benevolent design is apparent in the general colour which prevails throughout the scene of suilunary nature. Had the fields been clothed with hues of a deep red, or a brilliant white, the eye would have been dazzled with the splendour of their aspect. Had a dark blue or a black colour generally prevailed, it would have cast a universal gloom over the face of nature. But an agreeable green holds the medium between these two extremes, equally re- mote from a dismal gloom and excessive splendour, and bears such a relation to the structure of the eye, that it re- freshes instead of tiring it, and supports instead of diminishing its force. At the same time, though one general colour pre- vails over the landscape of the earth, it is diversified by an admirable variety of shades, so that every individual object in the vegetable world can be accurately distinguished from another ; thus producing a beautiful and variegated appear- ance over the whole scenery of nature. " Wiio sees not, in all these things, that the hand of the Lord hath wrought this ?" If from the earth we turn our attention to the 2vaters^ we shall perceive similar traces of the exquisite wisdom and skill of the Author of nature. Water is one of the most essential elementary parts in the constitution of our globe, without which the various tribes of beings which now people it could not exist. It supplies a necessary beverage to man. 70 CHRISTIAN rHILOSOrilER. and to all the animals that people the earth and the air. It forms a solvent for a great variety of solid bodies; it is the element in which an inlinitnde of organized beings pass their existence ; it acts an important part in conveying life and nourishment to all the tribes of the vegetable kingdom, and gives salubrity to the atmospherical regions. Collected m immense masses in the basins of the sea, it serves as a vehicle for ships, and as a medium of communication between people of the most distant lands. Carried along with a progressive motion over the beds of streams and of rivers, it gives a brisk impulse to the air, and prevents the unwholesome stagnation of vapours ; it receives the filth of populous cities, and rids them of a thousand nuisances. By its impulsion, it becomes the mover of a multitude of machines ; and, when rarefied into steam, it is transformed into one of the most powerhil and useful agents under the dominion of man. All which beneficial effects entirely depend on the exact degree of density, or specific gravity, which the Creator has given to its constituent parts. Had it been much more rarefied than it is, it would have been altogether unfit to answer the purposes now specified ; the whole face of the earth would have been a dry and barren waste; vegetable nature could not have been nourished ; our floating edifices could not have been supported; the lightest bodies would have sunk, and all regular intercourse with distant nations would have been pre- vented. On the other hand, had its parts been much denser than they are — for example, had they been of the consistency of a tliin jelly, similar disastrous effects would have inevitably followed ; no ships could have ploughed tiie ocean — no re- freshing beverage would have been supplied to the animal tribes — the absorbent vessels of trees, herbs, and flowers, would have been unable to imbibe the moisture requisite for their nourishment, and we should thus have been deprived of all tl^ beneficial effects we now derive from the use of that liquid element, and of all the diversified scenery of the vege- table world. But the configuration and consistency of its parts are so nicely adjusted to the constitution of the other elements, and to' the wants of the sensitive and vegetable tribes, as exactly to subserve the ends intended in the system of nature. Water has been ascertained to be a compound body, formed by the union of two different kinds of air — oxygen and hydrogen. It has the property of becoming, in certain cases, much lighter than air; though, in its natural liquid state, it is eight hundred times heavier than that fluid ; and has also the WATERS. 71 property of afterwards resuming its natural weight. Were it not for this property, evaporation could not be produced ; and, consequently, no clouds, rain, nor dew, could be formed, to water and fertilize the different regions of the earth. But in consequence of this wonderful property, the ocean becomes an inexhaustible cistern to our world. From its expansive surface are exhaled those vapours which supply the rivers, and nourish the vegetable productions of every land. ''The air and the sun," says an elegant writer, " constitute the mighty engine which works without intermission to raise the liquid treasure; while the clouds serve as so many aqueducts to convey them along the atmosphere, and distribute them at seasonable periods, and in regular proportions, through all the regions of the globe." Notwithstanding the properties now stated, motion was still requisite, to insure all the advantages we now derive from the liquid element. Had the whole mass of waters been in a stagnant state, a thousand inconveniences and disastrous consequences would have inevitably ensued. But the all- wise Creator has impressed upon its various masses a circu- lating motion, which preserves its purity, and widely extends its beneficial influence. The rills pour their liquid stores into the rivers ; the rivers roll their watery treasures into the ocean : the waters of the ocean, by a libratory motion, roll backwards, and forwards every twelve hours, and by means of currents and the force of winds, are kept in constant agitation. By the solar heat, a portion of these waters is carried up into the atmosphere, and, in the form of clouds, is conveyed by the winds over various regions ; till at last it descends in rain and dew to supply the springs " which run among the hills." So that there is a constant motion and circulation of the watery element, that it may serve as an agent for carrying forward the various processes of nature, and for ministering to the wants of man and beast. In fine, were the waters in a state of perpetual stagnation, the filth of populous cities would be accumulated to a most unwholesome degree ; the air would be filled with putrid ex- halations, and the vegetable tribes would languish and die. Were they deprived of the property of being evaporated, (in which state they occupy a space sixteen hundred times greater than in their liquid state,) rain and dew could never be produced, and the earth would be turned into "a dry and parched wilderness;" neither grass nor corn could be suffi- ciently dried to lay up for use ; our clothes, when washed, could never be dried ; and a variety of common operations, 72 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. v.'hicli now conduce to our convenience and comfort, could never be canied on. But the infinite wisdom of the Creator, foreseeing all the effects which can possibly arise from these principles of nature, has effectually provided against such (hsasters, by arranging all things, in number, weight, and measure, to subserve the beneficial ends for which ihey were ordained, ''lie causeth the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth ;" " he sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They give drink to every beast of the field : the wild asses quench their thirst. By them the fowls of heaven have their habitation, which sing among tiie branches. He watereth the hills from his chambers: the earth is satisfied with the fruit of his works." Let us now attend to the atmosphere^ in the constitution of which the wisdom of God is no less conspicuous than iu the other departments of nature. The atmosphere is one of the most essential appendages to the globe we inhabit, and exhibits a most striking scene of Divine skill and omnipotence. The term atmosphere is applied to the whole mass of fluids, consisting of air, vapours, electric fluid, and other matters, which surround the earth to a certain height. This mass of fluid matter gravitates to the earth, re- volves with it in its diurnal rotation, and is carried along wiih it in its course round the sun every year. Jt has been computed to extend about forty-five miles above the earth's surface, and it presses on the earth with a force proportioned to its height and density. From experiments made by the barometer, it has been ascertained, that it presses with a weight of about fifteen pounds on every square inch of the earth's surface; and, therefore, its pressure on the body of a middle-sized man is equal tb about thirty-two thousand pounds, or fourteen tons avoirdupois, a pressure which would be in- supportable, and even fatal, were it not equal in every part, and counterbalanced by the spring of the air within us. The pressure of the whole atmosphere upon the earth is computed to be equivalent to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in diameter, or about 5.000,000,000,000,000 tons ; that is, the whole mass of air which surrounds the globe compresses (he earth with a force or power equal to that o(five thousand mil- lions of millions of tons* This amazing pressure is, how- ever, essentially necessary for the preservation of the present constitution of our globe, and of the animated beings which dwell on its surface. It prevents the heat of the sun from * See Appendix, No. II. ATMOSTHERE. 73 converting water, and all other fluids on the face of the earth, into vapour ; and preserves the vessels of all organized beings in due tone and vigour. Were the atmospherical pressure entirely removed, the elastic fluids contained in the iiner ves- sels of men and other animals would inevitably burst them, and life would become extinct;* and most of the substances on the face of the earth, particularly liquids, would be dissi- pated into vapour. The atmosphere is now ascertained to be a compound sub- stance, formed of two very different ingredients, termed oxygen gas and nitrogen gas. Of one hundred measures of atmo- spheric air, twenty-one are oxygen, and seventy-nine nitrogen. The one, namely, oxygen, is the principle of combustion, and the vehicle of heat, and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life, and is the most powerful and energetic agent in nature; the other is altogether incapable of supporting either flame or animal life. Were we to breathe oxygen air, without any mixture or alloy, our animal spirits would be raised, and the fluids in our bodies would circulate with greater rapidity ; but we should soon infallibly perish by the rapid and un- natural accumulation of heat in the animal frame. If the nitrogen were extracted from the air, and the whole atmo- sphere contained nothing but oxygen, or vital air, combustion would not proceed in that gradual manner which it now does, but with the most dreadful and irresistible rapidity: not only wood and coals, and other substances now used for fuel, but even stones, iron, and other metallic substances, would blaze with a rapidity which would carry destruction through the whole expanse of nature. If even the proportions of the two airs were materially altered, a variety of pernicious effects would instantly be produced. If the oxygen were less in quantity than it now is, fire would lose its strength, candles would not diffuse a sufficient light, and animals would perform * The necessity of the atmospherical pressure, for the comfort and pre- servation of animal life, might be illustrated by the effects experienced by those who have ascended to the summits of very high mountains, or who have been carried to a great height above the surface of the earth in bal- loons. Acosta, in his relation of a journey among the mountains of Peru, states, that " he and his companions were surprised with such extreme pangs of straining and vomiting, not without casting up of blood too, and with so violent a distemper, that they would undoubtedly have died had they remained two or three hours longer in that elevated situation." Count Zambeccari, and his companions, who ascended in a balloon, on the 7th November, 1783, to a great height, found their hands and feet so swelled, that it was necessary for a surgeon to make incisions in the skin." In both the cases now stated, the persons ascended to so great a height, that the pressure of the atmosphere was not sufHcienl to counterbalance liie pressure of the tiuids of the body. 7 74 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. their vital functions with tlie utmost difficiiliy and pain. On the other hand, were the nitrogen diminished, and the oxygen increased, the air taken in by respiration wouUl be more stimulant, and the circulation of the animal fluids would be- come accelerated; but the tone of the vessels thus stimulated to increased action would be destroyed by too great an excite- ment, and the body would inevitably waste and decay. Again, were the oxygen completely extracted from the atmo- sphere, and nothing but nitrogen to remain, fire and flame would be extinguished, and instant destruction would be car- ried throughout all the departments of vegetable and animated nature. For a lighted taper will not burn for a single moment m nitrogen gas, and if an animal be plunged into it, it is in- stantly suffocated. Again, not only the extraction of any one of the component parts of the atmosphere, or the alteration of their respective proportions, but even the slightest increase or diminution of their specijic gravity would be attended with the most dis- astrous effects. The nitrogen is found to be a little lighter than common air, which enables it to rise towards the higher regions of the atmosphere. In breathing, the air which is evolved from the lungs, at every expiration, consists chiefly of nitrogen, which is entirely unfit to be breathed again, and therefore rises above our heads before the next inspiration. Now, had nitrogen, instead of being a little lighter, been a slight degree heavier than common air, or of the same specific gravity, it would have accumulated on the surface of the earth, and particularly in our apartments, to such a degree as to have produced diseases, pestilence, and death, in rapid suc- cession. But being a little lighter than the surrounding air, it flies upwards, and we never breathe it again, till it enters into new and salutary combinations. Such is the benevolent skill which the Author of nature has displayed, for pro- moling the comfort and preservation " of every thing that lives.* * The necessity of atmospherical air for the support of life was strikingly exemplified in the fate of the unhappy men who died in the Black-hole of Calcutta. On the 20ih of June, 1756, about eight o'clock in the evening, one hundred and forty-six men were forced, at the point of the bayonet, into a dungeon only eighteen feet square. They had been but a few minutes confined in this infernal prison, before every one fell into a perspi- ration so profuse, that no idea can be formed of it. This brought on a raging thirst, the most difficult respiration, and an outrageous delirium. Such was the horror of their situation, that every insult that could be devised against the guard without, and all the opprobrious names that the viceroy and his officers could be loaded with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon them, and terminate their sufferings. Before eleven ATMOSPHERE. 75 Further, loere tht air coloured^ or were its particles much larger than they are, we could never obtain a distinct view of any other object. The exhalations which rise from the earth, being rendered visible, would disfigure the rich landscape of the universe, and render life disagreeable. But the Almighty, by rendering the air invisible, has enabled us not only to take a delightful and distinct survey of tlie objects that surround ns, but has veiled from our view the gross humours inces- santly perspired from animal bodies, the filth exhaled from kitchens, streets, and sewers, and every other object that would excite disgust. Again, ?oere the different portions of the atmosphere completely stationary, and not susceptible of agita- tion, all nature would soon be thrown into confusion. The vapours which are exhaled from the sea by the heat of the sun would be suspended, and remain for ever fixed over those places from whence they arose. For want of this agitation of the air, which now scatters and disperses the clouds over every region, the sun would constantly scorch some districts, and be for ever hid from others ; the balance of nature would be destroyed •, navigation, as it has hitherto been carried on by the agency of winds, would be useless, and we could no longer enjoy the productions of different climates. In fine, were the atmosphere capable of being frozen, or converted into a solid mass, as all other fluids are, (and we know no reason M'hy it should not be subject to congelation, but the will of the Creator,) the lives of every animal in the air, the waters, and the earth, would, in a few moments, be completely extinguished. But the admirable adjustment of every cir- cumstance, in relation to this useful element, produces all the beneficial effects which we now experience, and strikingly demonstrates, that the intelligent Contriver of all things is " wonderful in counsel and excellent in working." From the instances now stated, we may plainly perceive, that if the Almighty had not a particular regard to the hap- piness of his intelligent offspring, and to the comfort of every animated existence, or, if he wished to inflict summary punishment on a wicked world, he could easily effect, by a very slight change in the constitution of the atmosphere, the entire destruction of the human race, and the entire conflagra- tion of the great globe they inhabit, — throughout all its ele- o' clock the same evening, one-third of the men were dead ; and before six next morning, only twenty-three came out aUve, but most of them in a high putrid fever. All tliese dreadful effects were occasioned by the want of^atmospheric air, and by their breathing a superabundant quantity of the nitrogen emitted from their lungs. 76 CHRISTIAN rillLOSOPilER. mentary regions. He has only to extract one of its consti- tuent parts,- — the nitrogen from the oxygen gas,— and the grand catastrophe is at once accomplished. With what a striking propriety and emphasis, then, do the inspired writers declare, tJiat '■' in Him we live, and move, and have our being ;" and that "in His hand is the soul of every living thing, and the breath of all mankind." A great variety of other admirable properties is possessed by the atmosphere, of which I shall briefly notice only the following: — It is the vehicle of smells^ by which we become acquainted with the qualities of the food which is set before us, and learn to avoid those places which are damp, unwhole- some, and dangerous. It is the medium of sounds^ by means of which knowledge is conveyed to our minds. Its undula- tions, like so many couriers, run for ever backwards and for- wards, to convey our thoughts to others, and theirs to us ; and to bring news of transactions which frequently occur at a considerable distance. A few strokes on a large bell, through the ministration of the air, will convey signals of distress, or of joy, in a quarter of a minute, to the population of a city containing a hundred thousand inhabitants. So that the air may be consideied as the conveyer of the thoughts of man- kind, which are the cement of society. It transmits to our ears all the harmonies of music, and expresses every passion of the soul ; it swells the notes of the nightingale, and dis- tributes alike to every ear the pleasures which arise from the harmonious sounds of a concert. It produces the blue colour of the sky, and is the cause of the morning and the evening twilight, by its property of bending the rays of light, and re- flecting them in all directions. It forms an essential requisite for carrying on all the processes of the vegetable kingdom, and serves for the production of clouds, rain, and dew, which nourish and fertilize the earth. In short, it would be impos- sible to enumerate all the advantages we derive from this noble appendage to our world. Were the earth divested of its atmosphere, or were only two or three of its properties changed or destroyed, it would be left altogether unfit for the habitation of sentient beings. Were it divested of its undu- lating quality, we should be deprived of all the advantages of speech and conversation — of all the melody of the feathered songsters, and of all the pleasures of music : and, like tiie deaf and dumb, we could iiave no power of communicating our thoughts but by visible signs. Were it deprived of its re- flective pow'Crs, the sun would appear in one part of the sky in dazzling brightness, while all around would appear as dark ATMOSPHERE. 77 as midnight, and the stars would be visible at noon-day. Were it deprived of its refractive powers, instead of the gradual approach of the day and the night which we now experience — at sunrise, we should be transported all at once from midnight darkness to the splendour of noon-day : and, at sunset, should make as sudden a transition from the splen- dours of day to all the horrors of midnight, which would be- wilder the traveller in his journey, and strike the creation with amazement. In fine, were the oxygen of the atmosphere completely extracted, destruction would seize on all tlie tribes of the living world, throughout every region of earth, air, and sea. Omitting, at present, the consideration of an indefinite va- riety of other particulars, which suggest themselves on this subject, I shall just notice one circumstance more, vvhich has a relation both to the waters and to the atmosphere. It is a well known law of nature, that all bodies are expanded by heat, and contracted by cold. There is only one exception to this law which exists in the economy of our globe, and that is, the expansion of water in the act of freezing. While the parts of every other body are reduced in bulk, and their specific gravity increased by the application of cold ; water, on the contrary, when congealed into ice, is increased in bulk, and becomes of a less specific gravity than the surrounding Avater, and, therefore, swims upon the surface. Now, had the case been otherwise ; had water, when deprived of a portion of its heat, followed the general law of nature, and, like all other bodies, become specifically heavier than it was before, the present constitution of nature would have been materially deranged, and many of our present comforts, and even our very existence, would have been endangered. At whatever time the temperature of the atmosphere became reduced to 32° of the common thermometer, or to what is called the freezing point, the water on the surface of our rivers and lakes would have been converted into a layer of ice ; this layer would have sunk to the bottom as it froze; another layer of ice would have been immediately produced, which would also have sunk to the former layer ; and so on in succession, till, in the course of time, all our rivers, from the surface to the bottom, and every other portion of water capable of being frozen, would have been converted into solid masses of ice, which all the heat of summer could never have melted. We should have been deprived of most of the advantages we now derive from the liquid element, and in a short time, the face of nature would have been transformed into a frozen chaos. 7* 78 CHRISTIAN FHILOSOPHER. But, in the existing constitution of things, all such dismal effects are prevented, in consequence of the Creator having subjected the waters to a law contrary to that of other fluids; by means of whicii the frozen water swims upon the surface, and preserves the cold from penetrating to any great depth in the subjacent fluid ; and when the heat of the atmosphere is increased, it is exposed to its genial influence, and is quickly changed into its former liquid state. How admirably, then, does this exception to the general law of nature display the inlinite intelligence of the great Contriver of all things, and his providential care for the comfort of his creatures, when he arranged and established the economy of nature. VARIETY OF NATURE. As a striking evidence of Divine intelligence, we may next consider Xhot^immense variety ichich the Creator has intro- duced into every department of the materia] world. \\\ every region on the surface of the globe, an endless mul- tiplicity of objects, all differing from one another in shape, colour, and motion, present themselves to the view of the be- liolder. Mountains covered with forests, hills clothed with verdure, spacious plains adorned with vineyards, orchards, and ■waving grain ; naked rocks, abrupt precipices, extended vales, deep dells, meandering rivers, roaring cataracts, brooks and rills, lakes and gulfs, bays and promontories, seas and oceans, caverns and grottoes — meet the eye of the student of nature, in every country, with a variety which is at once beautiful and majestic. Nothing can exceed the variety of the vegetable kingdom., which pervades all climates, and almost every por- tion of the dry land, and of the bed of the ocean. The immense collections of natural history which are to be seen in the museum at Paris, show, that botanists are already acquainted with nearly fifty-six thousand different species of plants.* And yet, it is probable that these form but a very small portion of what actually exists, and that several hun- dreds of thousands of species remain to be explored by the industry df future ages : for by far the greater part of the vegetable world still remains to be surveyed by the scientific botanist. Of the numerous tribes of vegetable nature which flourish in the interior of Africa and America, in the immense islands of New Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Ceylon, Madagascar, and Japan; in the vast regions of Tar- * Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, July, 1822, p. 48. VARIETY OF NATURE. 79 tary. Tibet, Siberia, and the Birman empire ; in the Philip- pines, the Moluccas, the Ladrones, the Carolinas, the Marque- sas, the Society, the Georgian, and in thousands of other islands which are scattered over the Indian and Pacific oceans — little or nothing is known by the naturalists of Europe ; and yet it is a fact which admits of no dispute, that every country hitherto explored produces a variety of species of plants peculiar to itself; and those districts in Europe which have been frequently surveyed present to every succeeding explorer a new held of investigation, and reward his industry with new discoveries of the beauties and varieties of the vege- table kingdom. It has been conjectured by some naturalists, on the ground of a multitude of observations, that " there is not a square league of earth, but what presents some one plant peculiar to itself, or, at least, which thrives there better, or appears more beautiful, than in any other part of the world." This would make the number of species of vege- tables to amount to as many millions as there are of square leagues on the surface of the earth — that is, to more than tvventy-one millions. Now every one of these species of plants differs from an- other, in its size, structure, form, flowers, leaves, fruits, mode of propagation, colour, medicinal virtues, nutritious qualities, internal vessels, and the odours it exhales. They are of all sizes, from the microscopic mushroom, invisible to the naked eye, to the sturdy oak and the cedar of Lebanon, and from the slender willow to the banian tree, under whose shade seven thousand persons may find ample room to repose. A thousand different shades of colour distinguish the different species. Every one wears its peculiar livery, and is distin- guished by its own native hues ; and many of their inherent beauties can be distinguished only by the help of the micro- scope. Some grow upright, others creep along in a serpen- tine form. Some flourish for ages, others wither and decay in a few months •, some spring up in moist, others in dry soils; some turn towards the sun, others shrink and contract when we approach to touch them. Not only are the differ- ent species of plants and flowers distinguished from each other by their different forms, but even the different individuals of the same species. In a bed of tulips or carnations, for ex- ample, tliere is scarcely a flower in which some difference may not be observed in its structure, size, or assemblage of colours ; nor can any two flowers he found in whicli the shape and shades are exactly similar. Of all the hundred thousand millions of plants, trees, herbs, and flowers, with which our 80 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. globe is variegated, there are not, perhaps, two individuals precisely alike, in every point of view in which they may be couteniplaled , yea, there is not, perhaps, a single leaf in the forest, when nunutely examined, that will not be found to (hffer, in certain aspects, from its fellows. Such is the won- derful and infinite diversity with which the Creator has adorned the vegetable kingdom. His wisdom is also evidently displayed in this vast profu- sion of vegetable nature — in adapting each plant to the soil and situation in which it is destined to flourish — in furnishing it with those vessels by which it absorbs the air and moisture on which it feeds — and in adapting it to the nature and neces- sities of animated beings. As the earth teems with animated existence, and as the different tribes of animals depend chiefly on the productions of the vegetable kingdom for their sub- sistence, so there is an abundance and a variety of plants adapted to the peculiar constitution of every individual spe- cies. This circumstance demonstrates, that there is a pre- contrived relation and fitness between the internal constitution of the animal, and the nature of the plants which afford it nourishment; and shows us, that the animal and the vegetable kingdoms are the workmanship of owe and the same Almighty Being, and that, in his arrangements with regard to the one, he had in view the necessities of the other. When we direct our attention to the tribes of animated na- ture^ we behold a scene no less variegated and astonishing. Above fifty thousand species of animals have been detected and described by naturalists, besides several thousands of species which the naked eye cannot discern, and which people the invisible regions of the waters and the air= And, as the greater part of the globe has never yet been thoroughly ex- plored, several hundreds, if not thousands, of species unknown to the scientific world, may exist in the depths of the ocean, and in the unexplored regions of the land. All these species difli'r from one another in color, size, and shape ; in the inter- nal structure of their bodies, in the number of their sensitive organs, limbs, feet, joints, claws, wings, and fins; in their dis- positions, faculties, movements, and modes of subsistence. They are of all sizes, from the mite and the gnat up to the elephant and the whale, and from the mite downwards to those invisible animalcule, a hundred thousand of which would not equal a grain of sand. Some fly through the atmosphere, some glide through the waters, others traverse the solid land. Some walk on two, some on four, some on twenty, and some on a hundred feet. Some have eyes furnished with two, some VARIETY OF NATURE. 81 with eight, some with a hundred, and some with eig'ht thou- sand distinct transparent globes, for the purposes of vision,* Our astonishment at the variety which appears in the ani- mal kingdom is still further increased, when we consider not only the diversities which are apparent in their external as- pect, but also in their internal structure and organization. When we reflect on the thousands of movements, adjustments, adaptations, and compensations, which are requisite in order to the construction of an animal system, for enabling it to per- form its intended functions ; — when we consider, that every species of animals has a system of organization peculiar to itself, consisting of bones, joints, blood vessels, and muscular motions, diflering in a variety of respects from those of any other species, and exactly adapted to its various necessities and modes of existence ; — and when we consider still further, the incomprehensibly delicate contrivances, and exquisite bor- ings, polishings, claspings, and adaptations, which enter into the organization of an animated being ten thousand times less than a mite ; and that the different species of these animals are likewise all difierently organized from one another, — we cannot but be struck with reverence and astonishment, at the intelligence of that incomprehensible Being who arranged the * The eyes of beetles, silk worms, flies, and several other kinds of in- sects, are among the most curious and wonderful productions of tiie God of nature. On the head of a fly are two large protuberances, one on eacii side ; these constitute its organs of vision. The whole surface of the.-e protuberances is covered with a multitude of small hemispheres, placed with the utmost regularity in rows, crossing each other in a kind of latii-e- work. These little hemispheres have each of them a minute transparent convex lens in the middle, each of which has a distinct branch of the opiic nerve ministering to it ; so that the different lenses may be considered as so many distinct eyes. Mr. Leeuwenhoek counted ij-22(j in the two eyes of a silk worm, when in its fly state ; 3180 in each eye of a beetle ; and 8000 in the two eyes of the common flu. Mr. Hook reckoned 14,000 in the eyes of a drone fly; and, in one of the eyes of a dragon fly, there have been reckoned 13,500 of these lenses, and, consequently, in both eyes, 27,000, every one of which is capable of forming a distinct image of any object, in the same manner as a common convex glass ; so that there are twenty-seven thousand images formed on the retma of this little animal. Mr. Leeuwenhoek having prepared the eye of a fly for that purpose, placed it a httle farther from his microscope than when he would examine an object, so as to leave a proper focal distance between it and the lens of his microscope ; and then looked through both, in the manner of a tele- scope, at the steeple of a church, which was 299 feet high, and 750 feet distant, and could plainly see through every little lens, the whole steeple inverted, though not larger than the point of a fine needle; and then di- recting it to a neighbouring house, saw through many of these little hemi- spheres, not only the front of the house, but also the doors and windows, and could discern distinctly, whether the windows were open or shut^ such an exquisite piece of Divine mechanism transcends all human com- prehension. S2 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. organs of all the tribes of animated nature, w^ho '^ breathed into them the breath of life," and who continually upholds them in all their movements ! Could we descend into the subterraneous apartments of the globe, and penetrate into those unknown recesses which lie towards its centre, we should doubtless behold a variegated scene of wonders, even in those dark and impenetrable re- gions. But all the labour and industry of man have not hitherto enabled him to penetrate farther into the bowels of the earth than the six-thousandth part of its diameter, or, about a mile and a quarter : so that we must remain for ever ignorant of the immense caverns and masses of matter that may exist, and of the processes that may be going on, about its central re- gions. In those regions, however, near the surface, which lie within the sphere of human inspection, w^e perceive a variety analogous to that which is displayed in the other departments of nature. Here we find substances of various kinds formed into strata, or layers, of different depths — earths, sand, gravel, marl, clay, sandstone, freestone, marble, limestone, coals, peat, and similar materials. In these strata are found metals and ma- terials of various descriptions — salt, nitrate of potash, ammonia, .--iilphur, bitumen, platina, gold, silver, mercury, iron, lead, tin, co])per, zinc, nickel, manganese, cobalt, antimony, the dia- nond, rubies, sapphires, jaspers, emeralds, and a countless •\ ;triety of other substances, of incalculable benefit to mankind. Some of these substances are so essentially requisite for the comfort of man, that without them he would soon degenerate into the savage state, and be deprived of all those arts which extend his knowledge, and which cheer and embellish the abodes of civdized life. If we turn our eyes upward to the regions of the atmo- sphere, we also may behold a spectacle of variegated magnifi- cence. Sometimes the sky is covered with sable clouds, or obscured with mists ; at other times it is tinged with a variety of hues, by the rays of the rising or the setting sun. Some- times it presents a pure azure, at other times it is diversified with a strata of dappled clouds. At one time we behohl the rainbow rearing its majestic arch, adorned with all the colours of liglit; at another, the aurora borealis illuminating the sky with its fantastic coruscations. At one time we behold die fiery meteor sweeping through the air, diffusing a sparkling and brilliant light; at another,- we perceive the forked light- ning darting from the clouds, and hear the thunders rolling through the sky. Sometimes the vault of heaven appears like a boundless desert, particularly about the time of the rising VARIETY OF NATURE. 83 and setting of the sun in a clear sky; and at other times adorned with an innumerable host of stars, the blazing comet, the planets in their courses, and with the moon " walking in brightness." In short, whether we direct our view to the vegetable or the animal tribes — to the atmosphere, the ocean, the mountains, the plains, or the subterranean recesses of the globe, we behold a scene of beauty, order, and variety^ which astonishes and enraptures the contemplative mind, and con- strains us to join in the devout exclamations of the Psalmist, " Hoiu manifold are thy loorks^ O Lord ! In wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches ; so is the great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping iimwnerahle, both small and great beasts." This countless variety of objects which appears throughout every department of our sublunary system, not only displays the depths of Divine wisdom, but also presents us with a faint idea of the infinity of the Creator, and of the immense multiplicity of ideas and conceptions which must have existed in the Eternal Mind, when the fabric of our globe, and its numerous tribes of inhabitants, were arranged and brought into existence. And if every other world which floats in the immensity of space, be diversified with a similar variety of ex- istences, altogether different from ours, (as we have reason to believe, from the variety we already perceive, and from the boundless plans and conceptions of the Creator,) the human mind is lost and confounded, when it attempts to form an idea of those endlessly diversified plans, conceptions, and views, which must have existed during an eternity past in the Divine Mind. When we would attempt to enter into the con- ception of so vast and varied operations, we feel our own lit- tleness, and the narrow limits of our feeble powers, and can only exclaim, with the apostle Paul, " O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! how un- searchable are his counsels, and his.ways (of creation and providence) past finding out!" This characteristic of variet}^, which is stamped on all the works of Omnipotence, is doubtless intended to gratify the principle of curiosity, and the love of novelty, which are im- planted in tlie human breast ; and thus to excite rational beings to the study and investigation of the works of the Creator ; that therein they may beiiold the glory of the Divine character, and be stimulated to the exercise of love, admiration, and re- verence. For, as the records of revelation, and the dispensa- tions of Providence, display to us the various aspects of the moral character of the Deity, so the diversified phenomena, 84 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. and the multiplicity of objects and operations which the scenery of nature exhibits, present to us a specimen of the ideas^ as it were, of the Eternal 3Iind, in so far as they can be adumbrated by material objects, and exhibited to mortals, through the medium of corporeal organs. To convey an adequate conception of the numhcr of these ideas, as exhibited on the globe on which we live, would baffle the arithmetician's skill, and set his numbers at defiance. We may, however, assist our conception a little by confining our attention to one department of nature ; for example, the AMMAL KINGDOM. The number of the different species of animals, taking into account those which are hitherto undis- covered, and those which are invisible to the naked eye, can- not be estimated at less than three hundred thousand. Jn a human body there are reckoned about four hundred and forty- six muscles, in each of which, according to anatomists, there are at least ten several intentions or due qualifications to be observed — its proper figure, its just magnitude, the right dis- position of its several ends, upper and lower, the position of the whole, the insertion of its proper nerves, veins, arteries, &c., so that, in tlie muscular system alone, there are four thousand four hundred and sixty several ends or aims to be attended to. The bones are reckoned to be in number about two hundred and forty-five, and the distinct scopes or inten- tions of each of these are above forty ; in all, about ninety- eight hundred : so that the system of bones and muscles alone, without taking any other parts into consideration, amounts to above fourteen thousand different intentions or adaptations. If now we suppose, that all the species of ani- mals above stated are differendy constructed, and, taken one with another, contain, at an average, a system of bones and muscles as numerous as in the human body — the number of species must be multiplied by the number of different aims or adaptations, and the pro^Juct will amount to 4,200,000,000. — If we were next to attend to the many thousands of blood vessels in an animal body, and the numerous ligaments, mem- branes, humours, and fluids of various descriptions, the skin with its millions of pores, and every other part of an organical system, with the aims and intentions of each, we should have another sum of many hundreds of millions to be multiplied by the former product, in order to express the diversiiied ideas which enter into the construction of the animal world. And if we still further consider that, of the hundreds of millions of individuals belonging, to each species, no two individuals ex- actly resemble each other — that all the myriads of vegetables VARIETY OF NATURE. 85 with which the earth is covered are distinguished from each other by some one characteristic or another, and that every grain ol" sand contained in the mountains, and in the bed of the ocean, as shown by the microscope, discovers a diiferent form and configuration from another — we are here presented with an image of the infinity of the conceptions of Him in whose incomprehensible mind they all existed, during count- less ages, before the universe was formed. To overlook this amazing scene of Divine intelligence, or to consider it as beneath our notice, as some have done — if it be not the characteristic of impiety, is, at least, the mark of a weak and undiscriminating mind. That man who disregards the visible displays of infinite wisdom, or who neglects to in- vestigate them when opportunity offers, acts as if he considered himself already possessed of a sufficient portion of intelli- gence, and stood in no need of such sensible assistance to direct his conceptions of the Creator. Pride, and false con- ceptions of the nature and design of true religion, frequently lie at the foundation of all that indifference and neglect with wdiich the visible works of God are treated by those who make pretensions to a high degree of spiritual attainments. The truly pious man will trace, with wonder and delight, the footsteps of his Father and his God, wherever they appear in the variegated scene of creation around him, and will be filled with sorrow and contrition of heart, that, amidst his excur- sions and solitary walks, he has so often disregarded " the works of the Lord, and the operation of his hands." In fine, the variety which appears on the face of nature not only enlarges our conceptions of infinite wisdom, but is also the foundation of all our discriminations and judgements as rational beings, and is of the most essential utility in the affairs of human society. Such is the variety of which the features of the human countenance are susceptible, that it is probable, that no two individuals, of all the millions of the race of Adam that have existed since the beginning of time, would be found to resemble each other. We know no two human beings presently existing, however similar to each other, but may be distinguished either by their stature, their forms, or the features of their faces ; and on the ground of this dissimilarity, the various wheels of the machine of society move onward, without clashing or confusion. Had it been otherwise — had the faces of men, and their organs of speech, been cast exactly in the same mould, as would have been the case had the world been framed according to the Epicurean system, by blind chance directing a concourse of atoms, it 8 86 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. might liave been as difficult to distinguish one human counte- nance from another, as to distinguish the eggs laid by the same hen, or tiie drops of water which trickle from the same orifice ; and consequently, society would have been thrown into a state of universal anarchy and confusion. Friends would not have been distinguished from enemies, villains from the good and honest, fathers from sons, the culprit from the innocent person, nor the branches of the same family from one another. And what a scene of perpetual confusion and, disturbance would thus have been created ! Frauds, thefts, robberies, murders, assassinations, forgeries, and injustice of all kinds, might have been daily committed without the least possibility of detection. Nay, were even the variety of tones in the human voice, peculiar to each person, to cease, and the hajid-writing of all men to become perfectly uniform, a mul- titude of distressing deceptions and perplexities would be produced in the domestic, civil, and commercial transactions of mankind. But the all-wise and beneficent Creator has prevented all such evils and inconveniences, by the character of variety which he has impressed on the human species, and on all his works. By the peculiar features of his countenance, every man may be distinguished in the light; by the tones of his voice he may be recognized in the dark, or when he is separated from his fellows by an impenetrable partition ; and his hand-writing can attest his existence and individuality, when continents and oceans interpose between him and his relations, and be a witness of his sentiments and purposes to future generations. Thus I have taken a very cursory view of some evidences of Divine wisdom, which appear in the general constitution of ihe earthy the waters^ and the atmosphere^ and in the cha- racteristic of variety^ which is impressed on all the objects of the visible creation. When these, and other admirable arrangements in our sublunary system, are seriously contem- plated, every rational and pious mind will be disposed to ex- claim with the Psalmist — "There is none like unto thee, O Lord, neither are there any works like unto thy works." — " Thou art great, and dost wondrous things : thou art God alone." — " O that men would praise the Lord for his good- ness, and for his wonderful works towards the children of men !" When we consider not only the utility^ but the beauty and grandeur of the wise arrangements of nature, what reason have we to admire and adore the goodness of the great Author SUBLIMITY OF NATURE. 87 of our existence ! Were all the diversities of shape and colour, of mountains and vales, of rivers and lakes, of light and shade, wliich now embellish the various landscapes of the world, to disappear, and were one unvaried scene perpetually to present itself to the eye, how dull, and wearisome, and uninteresting would the aspect of the universe appear to an intelligent mind ! Although the variegated beauties which adorn the surface of our globe, and the vault of heaven, are not essential to our existence as sensitive beings, yet were they completely with- drawn, and nothing presented to the eye but a boundless expanse of barren sands, the mind would recoil upon itself, its activity would be destroyed, its powers would be confined, as it were, to a prison, and it would roam in vain amidst the surrounding waste in search of enjoyment. Even the luxuries of a palace, were it possible to procure them amidst such a scene of desolation, would become stale and insipid, and would leave the rational soul almost destitute of ideas and of mental energy, to the tiresome round of a cheerless existence. But, in the actual state of the world we live in, there is no landscape in nature, from the icebergs of Greenland to the verdant scenes of the torrid zone, in which objects, either of sublimity or of beauty, in boundless variety, are not presented to the view, in order to stimulate the mind to activity, to gratify its desire of novelty, and to elevate its conceptions of the beneficent Creator. And if the present constitution of our world displays so evident marks of beauty and benevolent design, now that it is inhabited by an assemblage of depraved intelligences, and its physical aspect deformed, in consequence of " the wicked- ness of man" — what transporting beauties and sublimities must it have presented, when it appeared fresh from the hand of its Almighty Maker, and when all things were pronounced by him to be very good. After a deluge of waters has swept away many of its primeval beauties, and has broken and de- ranged even its subterraneous strata, this terrestrial world still presents to the eye a striking scene of beauty, order, and beneticencet But we have the strongest reason to believe, that, before sin had disfigured the aspect of this lower world, all was '*• beauty to the eye, and music to the ear" — that " im- mortality breathed in the winds, flowed in the rivers," and exhaled from every plant and flower. No storms disturbed the tranquillity of nature, nor created the least alarm in the breasts of its holy inhabitants. No earthquakes shook the ground, nor rent the foundations of nature. No volcanoes vomited their rivers of lava, nor overwhelmed the plains with 88 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. deluges of fire. No barren deserts of heath and sand dis- figured the rich hiiulscape of the world — no tempests nor hurricanes tossed the ocean, nor scorching heats nor piercing colds, nor pestilence nor disease, annoyed the hunnin frame. In the paradisiacal state of the world, we may reasonably suppose, that all the elements of nature contributed direcdy to the pleasure and enjoyment of man, and of the other tribes of animated nature : and that they were not subjected, as they now are, to the operation of those natural agents which so fre- quently spread destruction and ruin among the abodes of men. To suppose the contrary to have happened would be incon- sistent with the state of pure and happy intelligences, and with the benignity of the Creator ; and would imply, that God was either unwilling or unable to remove such physical evils. But we cannot suppose it beyond the limits of infinite wisdom and omnipotence, to create and arrange a world entirely free from those evils and inconveniences which now flow from the operation of certain physical agents, without, at the same time, supposing that his power and intelligence are confined within certain bounds, beyond which they cannot pass. And, therefore, if, in the existing constitution of thhigs, the har- mony of nature is occasionally disturbed, and its beauty de- faced, by earthquakes, storms, and tempests — we must re- member," that the inhabitants of the earth are now a depraved race of mortals, no longer adorned with primeval purity and innocence ; and that the physical economy of our globe has undergone a certain derangement, corresponding to the moral state of its present occupants. But since the earth, even in its present state of degradation and derangement, presents to the view of every beholder so many objects of beauty and mag- nificence, and so numerous traces of Divine beneficence — we may reasonably conclude, that scenes of Divine wisdom and goodness, far more glorious and transporting, must be dis- played in those worlds where moral evil has never shed its malign influence, and where the inhabitants — superior to dis- ease and death — bask for ever in the regions of immortality. And therefore, however admirable the displays of Divine wisdom may appear in the sublunary scene around us, they must be considered as inferior to those which are exhibited in many other provinces of Jehovah's empire, in so far as they are blended with those physical derangements which in- dicate his displeasure against the sins of men. Were we now to direct our attention to the mechanism of animated beings, and to consider their numberless con- STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 89 trivances and adaptations in their organical structure and func- tions, a thousand instances of exquisite wisdom and design, still more striking and admirable, would crowd upon our view. For, although tlie general fabric of the world, and the immense variety of objects it contains, are evident proofs of a wise and intelligent Contriver, yet it is chiefly in the minute and delicate contrivances of organical structures, their adapta- tion to the purposes of life, motion, and enjoyment, and their relation and correspondence to the surrounding elements, that the consummate skill of the great Architect of nature is most strikingly perceived. But as it forms no part of my present plan to enter on so extensive a field of illustration, on which volumes might be written, I shall content myself with merely stating an example or two. My first example shall be taken from THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE. The eye .is one of the nicest pieces of mechanism which the human understanding can contemplate ; but as it requires a knowledge of its anatomical structure, and of the principles of optics, to enable us to appreciate its admirable functions, I shall confine myself to a l^w general descriptions and re- marks. The eye is nearly of a globular form. It consists chiefly of three coats and three humours. The first or outer coat is termed sclerotica; it is every where white and opaque, and is joined, at its anterior edge, to another which has more convexity than any other part of the globe of the eye, and, being ex- ceedingly transparent, is called the cornea. These two parts are perfectly different in their structure, and are supposed, by some anatomists, to be as distinct from each other as the glass of a watch is from the case into which it is affixed. Next within this coat is that called the chorokles., on account of its being furnished with a great number of vessels. It serves, as it were, for a lining to the other, and is joined with that part of the eye termed the iris. The iris is an opaque membrane like the choroides, but of difTerent colours in difTerent eyes, as gray, black, or hazel. It is composed of two sets of muscular fibres, the one of a circular form, which contracts the hole in the middle, called the pupil.) when the light is too strong for the eye ; and the other of radial fibres, tending every where from the circumference of the iris towards the middle of the pupil ; which fibres, by their contractions, dilate and enlarge the pupil, when the light is weak, in order 8* 90 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. to let in more of its rays. The third coat is called the retina^ upon which are painted the images of all visible objects, by the rays of light which flow from them. It spreads Hke net- work all over the inside of the choroides, and is nothing more than a fine expansion of the optic nerve, by which nerve the impressions of visible objects are conveyed to the brain. The inside of the globe of the eye, within these tunics or coats, is filled with three humours, called the aqueous, the crystalline, and the vitreous. The aqueous humour lies at the fore part of the' eye, and occupies all the space between the crystalline and the prominent cornea. It lias the same specific gravity and refractive power as water, and seems chiefly of use to prevent the crystalline from being easily bruised by rubbing, or by a blow — and perhaps it serves for the crystalline humour to move forward in while we view near objects ; and backward, for remoter objects ; without which, or some other mechanism effecting the same purpose, we could not, according to the law of optics, perceive objects distinctly when placed at different distances. • Behind the aqueous lies the crystalline humour, which is shaped like a double convex glass, and is a little more convex on the back than on the fore part. This humour is transparent like crystal, is nearly of the consistence of hard jelly, and converges the rays which pass through it from visible objects, to its focus at the bottom or back part of the eye. The vitreous humour lies behind the crystalline, and fills up the greater part of the orb of the eye, giving it a globular shape. It is nearly of the consistence of the white of an egg^ and very transparent; its fore part is concave, for the crystalline humour to lodge in, and its back part being convex, the retina is spread over it. It serves as a medium to keep the crystalline humour and the retina at a due distance. From w^hat has been now stated, it is obvious, that the images of external objects are depicted on the retina, in an inverted position, in the same manner as the images formed by a common convex lens ; but how the mind, in this case, perceives objects erect, is a question, about which the learned have been divided in their opinions.* The ball of the eye, as now described, is situated in a bony cavity, called its orbit, composed by the junction of seven different bones, hollowed out at their edges. This cavity is, * An idea of the relative positions of the coats and hnmoitrs described above, may be obtained by a simple inspection of the plate, Fig. 6. — Fig. 5 represents a front view oi \\ie human eye, as it appears in its natural state, and exhibits the relative positions of the cornea, iris, dJid pupil. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 91 in all the vacant spaces, filled with a loose fat, which serves as a proper medium for the eye to rest in, and as a socket in which it may move. It is sheltered by the eyebrows, which are provided with hair, to prevent the descending sweat of the forehead from running down into it. As a still further pro- tection to this delicate organ it is furnished with the eyelid, which, like a curtain, is drawn over it with inconceivable swiftness, for its security on the approach of danger. It also serves to wipe from it superfluous moisture, and to cover it during sleep. In the upper part of its orbit it is furnished with a gland, to supply it with water sufficient to wash oflf dust, and to keep its outer surface moist, without which the cornea would be less transparent, and the rays of light would be disturbed in their passage ; and the superfluous water is conveyed to the nose through a perforation in the bone. For the purpose of enabling the eye to move in its sockets, six muscles are provided. These are admirably contrived to move it in every direction, upwards or downwards, to the right or to the left, or in whatever direction the occasion may require ; and thus we are spared the trouble of turning our heads continually towards the objects we wish to inspect. If we want to look upward, one of these muscles lifts up the orb of the eye ; if we would cast our eyes down to the ground, another muscle pulls them down. A third muscle moves the globe outwards towards the temples, and a fourth draws it to- wards the nose. A fifth, which slides within a cartilaginous ring, like a cord over a pully, and is fastened to the globe of the eye in two points, makes it roll about at pleasure. A sixth lies under the eye, and is designed to temper and restrain within proper bounds the action of the rest, to keep it steadily fixed on the object it beholds, and to prevent those frightful contortions which otherwise might take place.*" By these, and a multi- tude of other mechanical contrivances, all acting in harmo- nious combination, the eye, as a natural telescope and micro- scope, is made to advance, to recede, to move to the right, and to the left, and in every other direction ; and to view near and distant objects with equal distinctness ; so that a single eye, by the variety of positions it may assume, performs the office of a thousand.! The utility of these several movements, and the pain and * A more particular description of the muscles of the eye, illustrated by two engravings, will be found in the author's volume entitled, ' The Im- provement of Society by the Diffusion of Knowledge.' pp.247, 248. t Flies and other insects, whose eyes are immovable, have several thousands of distinct globes in each eye. See note, p. 81. 92 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. inconvenience which would be sufTered were any of them wanting, can scarcely be conceived by any one whose eyes have always remained in a sound state. We are so much ac- customed to the regular exercise of our visual organs, that we seldom reflect on the numerous delicate springs which must be set in action, before the functions of vision can with ease be performed. But were any one of the muscular organs, now described, to fail in its functions, we should soon expe- rience so many inconveniences, as would throw a gloom on all the other comforts of life; and convince us how much we are indebted, every moment, to the provident care and good- ness of our beneficent Creator, for thousands of enjoyments which we seldom think of, and for which we are never suffi- ciently grateful. " With much compassion, as well as asto- nishment, at the goodness of our loving Creator," says Dr. Nieuwentyt, " have I considered the sad state of a certain gentleman, who, as to the rest, was in pretty good health, but only wanted the use of those two little muscles that serve to lift up the eyelid, and so had almost lost the use of his sight — being forced, as long as this defect lasted, to shove up his eyelids every moment with his own hands."* How admirable, then, is the formation of the eye, and how grateful ought w^e to feel at the consideration, that we are permitted to enjoy all the transporting pleasures of vision, without the least perplexity or effort on our part! If the loss of action in a single muscle produces so many distressing sensations and efforts, what would be the consequence if all the muscles of the eye were wanting or deranged ? And is it man that governs these nice and intricate movements, — or is it the eye itself, as a self-directing machine, that thus turns round, seasonably and significantly, towards every visible object.'' Man knows neither the whole structure of the or- gans of vision, nor the functions they ought to perform. The eye is only an unconscious machine in the hands of a superior intelligence, as a w^atch or a steam engine is in the hands of a mechanic. It is God alone who constantly per- forms its movements, according to certain laws, which he has submitted to our inclinations and desires; '''•for in him we live and move.'''' We are desirous to see certain objects around us : this is all the share we have in the operations of our eyes; and without perplexing our understrnding, without the least care or management in regard to any of the fimctions, we can, in a few moments, take a survey of the beauties and * Nieuwentyt's Religious Philosopher, Vol. I. p. 232. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. 93 sublimities of an extensive landscape, and of the glories of the vault of heaven. Thus the Divine Being operates, not only in this, but in a thousand different ways, in the various senses and contrivances which belong to our animal system; and yet thoughtless and ungrateful man often inquires, in the lan- guage of doubt and hesitation, " Where is God my Maker ?'' He is in us and around us, directing every movement in our animal frame to act in harmony with the surrouncUng ele- ments, and to minister to our enjoyment ; and it is only when his exquisite operations are deranged by external violence, or by vicious or imprudent habits, that we feel inconvenience or pain. Such are only a few general outlines of the structure of the eye; for no notice has been taken of the numerous minute veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, glands, and many other particulars which are connected with this organ. But all this delicate and complicated apparatus in the structure of the eye, would have been of no use whatever for the purpose of vision, had not a distinct substance been created to act upon it, ex- actly adapted to its nature and functions. In order that the eye might serve as the medium of our perceptions of visible objects, light was formed, and made to travel from its source at the rate of one hundred and ninety-two thousand miles in a second of time. This prodigious velocity of light is, doubt- less, essential to the nature of vision ; since it actually exists, and since we find that it radiates with the same swiftness from the most distant visible star, as from the sun which enligiitens our system. To abate the force of this amazing velocity, its particles have been formed almost infinitely small — a circum- stance which alone prevents this delightful visitant from be- coming the most tremendous and destructive element in nature. Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that, in one second of time, there flows 418,660,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000* particles of light out of a burning candle, which number contains at least, 6,337,242,000,000 times the number of grains of sand in the whole earth, supposing every cubic inch of the earth to contain a million of grains. It has been justly remarked, by Mr. Ferguson, and other authors, that '' if the particles of light were so large, that a million of them were equal in bulk to an ordinary grain of sand, we durst no more open our eyes to the light, than suffer sand to be shot point blank against them from the mouth of a can- * That is, four hundred and eighteen septillions, six hundred and sixty sextillions. — See Appendix, Note III. 94 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOrHER. non.''' It may also be remarked, that the property which all bodies possess, of refleriing light, is essential to the purpose of vision, without which the splendid and variegated scene of nature would be changed into a dreadful gloom ; and -were the rays of light of one uniform colour, and not compounded of various hues, one object could not be distinguished from another, and the beautiful aspect of our globe would instantly disappear. Thus we see that the eye is adapted to light, and light to the eye ; and in this admirable adaptation the wisdom of the Creator is strikingly displayed. For light has no etlect upon the ear, or upon any other organ of sensation, so as to pro- duce a perception of visible objects : as, on the other hand, the undulations of the air have no effect upon the eye, so as to produce the sensation of sound. The eye did not produce the light, nor did the light form the eye ; they are perfectly distinct from each other, yet so nicely adapted in every par- ticular, that had any one quality or circumstance been wanting in either, the functions of vision could not have been perform- ed in tjie manner in which they now operate ; which strikingly demonstrates, that one and the same intelligent Being, pos- sessed of a wisdom beyond our comprehension, formed the curious structure of the eye, and endued the rays of light with those properties of colour, motion, and minuteness, which are calculated, through the medium of this organ, to produce, in sentient beings, the ideas of visible objects. And, surely, he never intended that such exquisite skill and con- trivance should be altogether overlooked by rational beings, for whose pleasure and enjoyment all this benevolent care is exercised. MANiXER IN WHICH VISION IS PERFORMED. Let us now attend a little to the manner in which vision is performed, by the medium of light acting on . the organs of sight, if we take a common convex glass — a reading-glass for example — and hold it at some distance from a candle or a window-sash, placing a piece of white paper behind the glass, at the distance of its focus, the image of the candle or sash will be painted on the paper, in an inverted position. This experiment may be performed, with a better effect, by darken- ing a room, and placing the convex glass in a hole cut out of the window-shutter, when the rays of light flowing from the objects without, and passing through the glass, will form a picture of the objects opposite the window, on the white paper, WONDERS OF VISION. 95 adorned with the most beautiful colours. In a manner similar to this are the images of external objects depicted on the back part of the inner coat or membrane of the eye. The rays of light, proceeding in all directions from surrounding objects, and falling on the eye, are transmitted through the pupil ; and being refracted by the different humours, (particularly by the crystalUiie humour, which acts the part of a convex lens,) thev converge to a focus on the retina., where the images of visible objects are painted in an inverted position ; and, by means of the optic nerve, these images are conveyed to the mind. The following figure will perhaps more distinctly illustrate this point. Fig. 8. Let ahc a? ?/ represent the globe of the eye, and a b c an object at a certain distance from it. Now, it is well known that every point of a visible object sends out rays of light in all directions; and therefore, a certain portion of the rays which flow from the object, ABC, will fall upon the cornea^ between x and ?/, and, passing through the aqueous humour, m ?i, and the crystalline humour, o p^ and the vitreous humour, D E, will be converged to a focus on the retina, and paint a distinct picture, a h c^ of the object a b c, in an inverted position. The rays from the point A of the object, after being refracted by the different humours, will be brought to a point at a; those fi*om b, will be converged at b ; and those from c, at c ; and, of course, the intermediate rays between a b, and b c, will be formed between a &, and b c, and the object will become visible by means of its image or representation being painted on the re- tina, in all the colours and proportions w^hich belong to it. If we take a bullock's eye, and cut off the three coats from the back part, and put a piece of thin white paper over that part, and hold the eye towards the window, or any bright object, we shall see the image of the object depicted upon the paper, and in an inverted position, as stated above. 96 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. In Older that we may more distinctly perceive the wonders of vision, and tlie numerous circumstances on which it de- pends, let us suppose ourselves placed on an eminence, which commands a view of a variegated and extensive landscape. Let us suppose ourselves stationed on Arlliur's seat, or on the top of Salisbury crags, in the vicinity of Edinburgh. Turn- ing our face to the north-west, the city, with its castle, spires, and stately edifices, presents itself to our view. Beyond it, on the north and west, a beautiful country, adorned with villas, plantations, and fertile fields, stretches as far as the eye can reach, till the view is bounded by the castle of Stirling, at the distance of more than thirty miles. On the right hand, we behold the port of Leith, the shipping in the roads, the coast of Fife, the isles of Inchkeith and of May, and the frith of Forth gradually losing itself in the German ocean. If we suppose the length of this landscape to be forty miles, and its breadth twenty-five, it will, of course, comprehend an area of a thousand square miles. The first circumstance which strikes the mind is the im- mense multitude of rays of reflected light, which flow in all directions, from the myriads of objects which compose the surrounding scene. In order to form a rude idea of this infi- nity of radiations, I fix my attention on a single object. I direct my eye to Nelson's monument, on the Gallon hill. From the parapet at the top, a thousand diffJsrent points send forth a thousand diflerent cones of rays, which, entering my eye, render the diflerent parts of it distinctly visible, besides myriads of rays from the same points, which flow in every other direction through the open spaces of the atmosphere which surround them. How many thousands of millions, then, of different radiations must be issuing forth every mo- ment from the whole mass of the monument ! And if one object pours forth such a flood of rays, how immense must be the number of radiations which are issuing from all the objects which compose this extensive landscape! Myriads of rays, from myriads of objects, must be crossing each other in an infinity of directions, so that the mind is confounded at the apparent confusion which seems to exist in this immensity of radiations; yet every ray passes forward in the crowd, in the most perfect order, and, without being blended or confused with any otlier ray, produces its specific effect on every eye that is open to receive it. But this is not all : these millions of rays, which flow from the minutest points of the surround- ing scene, before they can produce the sensation of vision, and form a picture of the landscape on the retina, must be WONDERS OF VISION. 97 compressed into a space little more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter, before they can enter the pupil of the eye ; yet they all pass through this small aperture without the least confusion, and paint the images of their respective objects in exactly the same order in which these objects are arranged. Another circumstance demands attention. The rays which proceed from the objects before me, are not all directed to the spot where I stand, but are diffused throughout every point of the surrounding space, ready to produce the same effect, wherever sentient beings are present to receive them. Were the whole inhabitants of Edinburgh placed on the sloping de- clivity of Arthur's seat, and along the top of Salisbury crags, and were millions of other spectators suspended in the sur- rounding atmosphere, similar sensations would be produced, and a scene similar to that which I now behold would be de- picted in every eye. Amidst the infinity of cones of light, crossing each other in an infinity of directions, no confusion would ensue, but every spectator, whose eyes were in a sound state, would obtain a correct view of the scene before him ; and hence it happens that whenever 1 shift my position to the right hand or to the left, other streams of light enter my eye, and produce the same effect. Let me now attend to another circumstance, no less admi- rable than the preceding, and that is, the distinct impression which I have of the shape, colour, and motion, of the multi- plicity of objects 1 am now contemplating, and the small space within which their images are depicted at the bottom of my eye. Could a painter, after a long series of ingenious efforts, delineate the extensive landscape now before me, on a piece of paper not exceeding the size of a silver sixpence, so that everv object might be as distinctly seen, in its proper shape and colour, as it now appears when I survey the scene around me, he w^ould be incomparably superior to all the masters of his art that ever went before him. This effect, which far transcends the utmost efforts of human genius, is accomplished in a moment, in millions of instances, by the hand of nature, or, in other words, by " the finger of God." All the objects I am now surveying, comprehending an extent of a thousand square miles, are accurately delineated in the bottom of my eye, on a space less than half an inch in diameter. How de- licate, then, must be the strokes of that divine pencil which has formed such a picture ! I turn my eyes to the castle of Edinburgh, which appears one of the most conspicuous ob- jects in my field of view. Supposing that portion of it which strikes mv eve to be 500 feet long, and 90 in height, I find, 9 98 CHRISTIAN THILOSOPHER. by calculation, that it occupies only the six-hundred-thoti- sandlh part of the whole landscape, and, consequently, fills in mv eye no more than the twelve hundred-thousandth part of an incli. I next direct my eye towards the frith of Forth, and perceive a steamboat sailing between Queensferry and Newhaven. I distinctly trace its motion for the space of 40 minutes, at the end of which it reaches the chainpier at New- haven, having passed over a space of five miles in length, which is but the eighth part of the lineal extent of the land- scape in that direction ; and, consequently, occupies, in the picture formed on my retina, a lineal space of only one-six- teenth of an inch in extent. And, if the boat be reckoned about 88 feet in length, its image is only the three-hundredth part of this extent; and, of course, fills a space in the eye of onlv the four-thousand-eighth-hundredth part of a Ihieal inch. Yet, my perception of the motion of the vessel could be pro- duced by only a corresponding motion of its image in my eye ; that is, by the gradual motion of a point 48-^0^ of an inch in diameter, over a space one-sixteenth of an inch in length. How inconceivably fine and accurate, then, must be the im- pression of those strokes which the rays of light, from visible objects, produce on the retina of the eye ! The mind is lost in wonder when it attempts to trace so exquisite and admira- ble an effect. I take a reflecting telescope, and through it view some of the distant parts of the landscape. My wonder is still increased when I consider the new directions into which the rays of light are bent — the crossings and recrossings, the refractions and reflections, that take place between the mirrors and the lenses of the instrument, and the successive images that are formed — so that, instead of a scene of confusion, which, previous to experience, might have been expected from the numerous additional bendings and intersections of the rays — I now perceive hundreds of objects, with the most per- fect distinctness, which were before invisible. Rays of light from distant and minute objects, which a moment before made no sensible impression on my eye, being collected and variously modified by the telescope, now paint a vivid repre- sentation of their objects, in their true figures, colours, and positions. From a consideration of the innumerable modifications of the rays of light, and of the immense variety of effects they produce in every region of the earth — I an) led to investigate what proportion of the solar light falls upon our glohe^ in order to produce so diversified a scene of sublimity and THE WONDERS OF VISION. 99 beauty. Supposing the sun's rays to be chiefly confined, in their efiects, within the limits of the planetary system, since they diverge in every direction, they must fill a cubical space 3,600,000,000 miles in diameter; which consequently will contain about 24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 of cubical miles, so that an eye, placed in any point of this vast space, would receive a distinct impression from the solar rays. The solidity of the earth is about 264,000,000,000 cubical miles, and therefore, it receives only the g^^^- -^^ -L- --- -^^-^^ part of the light which fills the sphere of the solar system. So that the light which cheers all the inhabitants of the world, and unveils such a variety of beautiful and magnificent ob- jects, is nothing more than a single stream of celestial radiance out of ninety thousand billions of similar streams, which the great source of light is every moment diffusing throughout surrounding worlds. But the solar rays are not confined within the bounds of the planetary system ; their influence extends in every direction, as far as the nearest stars, filling a cubical space at least 40,000,000,000,000 miles in diameter, and which contains 33,500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.000,000, 000,000, or thirty-three thousand five hundred sextillions of cubical miles. And were we to institute comparisons and cal- culations with respect to the possible variety of efl^ects they might produce throughout this immense region, whole pages might be filled with figures, ciphers, and computations. We might compute how many globes similar to the earth, or any of the larger planets, might be contained within this vast space, allowing several hundreds of cubical miles of empty space around each globe — how many myriads of refractions and reflections the rays of light would suffer, in regard to the peculiar objects connected with every one of these globes — how many eyes of sentient beings might be affected by the diversities of colour, shape, and motion which would thus be produced — and what a variety of shades of light and colour, and what a diversity of scenery would be produced, according to the distances of the respective globes from the central lumi- nary. After what we have just now stated, however, we may rest satisfied with joining in the pious exclamation of one who had just finished a devout survey of the structure of the human frame ; ""Marvellous are thy works, and that my soul knoweth right well. How precious are thy thoughts unto me, O God!" (or, as the words might be rendered,) "How precious are thy wonderful contrivances concerning me, O God ! how great is the sum of them I If I should count them, they are more in number than the sand." In what direc- 100 CIIIMSTIAN rHlLO,^Ol'nEK- tioii soever I turn mine eyes ; whatever portion of thy works I investigate, ••' / am still loith thee.''''* Thine infinity and unsearchable wisdom are impressed on every object, so that I feel myself every moment encompassed by thine immensity, and am irresistibly led to wonder and adore. 1 shall now conclude these reflections on vision, with two or three additional remarks, }t is worthy of notice, in the first place, that the eye has the power of adapting itself to objects placed at difierent distances. By means of some de- licate pieces of mechanism, not hitherto satisfactorily ex- plained, it can perceive, with distinctness, a large object at the distance of six Jiiiles, and the next moment it can adjust itself to the distinct perception of an object at the distance of six inches ; so that it acts the part both of a telescope and a microscope, and pan be instantaneously adjusted to perform either as the one instrument or as the other. This necessa- rily supposes a corresponding alteration in the state of the organ, every time we lift our eye from a near to look at a dis- tant object. Either the cornea is somewhat flattened, or the crystalline is pushed backwards, or both these changes, in combination with others, may concur in causing the rays from distant objects to unite exactly on the retina, withoui which, distant vision cannot be produced. This contrivance, in whatever kind of mechanism it may consist, is one which art would vainly attempt to imitate. We can see objects that are near us with a microscope ; and those that are distant v/ith a telescope ; but we should in vain attempt to see distant objects with the former, or those that are only a ^ew inches fi*om us with the latter, without a variety of changes being made in the apertures and positions of the glasses belonging to the respective instruments. In this respect therefore, as well as in every other, the eye is an optical instrument, incom- parably superior to any instrument or imitation that art can produce; and were it not for the peculiar property now described, it would be almost unfit for the purpose of vision, notwithstanding all the other delicate contrivances which en- ter into its construction. If it were adjusted only for the dis- tinct perception of distant objects, every object within the limits of an ordinary apartment would appear a mass of con- fusion ; and were it adjusted solely for viewing objects within the limits of a few feet or inches, the glories of the heavens, and the beautiful landscape of the earth, would be veiled from our sight, as if they were enveloped in a mist. * Psahn cxxxix, 14. 17, 18. THE WONDERS OF VISION. 101 Another circumstance, worthy of attention, is the power which the pupil of the eye possesses of contracting or en- larging the aperture or iiole through which the light is ad- mitted. When the light is too weak, the pupil is enlarged; when it is too strong, it is again contracted. Accordingly we find that, when we enter a darksome apartment, though, at first, nothing can be accurately distinguislied, yet, in the course of a minute or two, when the pupil has had time to dilate, we can perceive most objects wilh considerable distinctness. And, on the other hand, when we pass from a dark room to an apartment lighted up with a number of lustres, we feel uneasy at the sudden glare, till the pupil has contracted itself, and excluded a portion of the superfluous rays. Were it not for this property, we should, for the most part, either be sur- rounded with a disagreeable gloom, or oppressed with an ex- cessive splendour. It is for this reason that we are unable to look upon the sun without being dazzled, and are under the necessity of closing the eyelids, or of turning away the head, when a strong light suddenly succeeds to darkness. Again, it may not be improper to observe, how wisely the Author of nature has fixed the distance at which we ordinarily see near objects most distinctly. This distance is generally from five to eight inches from the eye. But, had the eye been formed for distinct vision, at the distance of only one inch, the object would have obstructed the light, and room would have been wanting for the performance of many necessary opera- tions, which require the hand to intervene between the eye and the object. And had the limits of distinct vision for near objects been beyond two or three feet, sufficient light would not have been afforded for the inspection of minute objects, and we could neither have written a letter nor have read a book wilh the same convenience and ease we are now enabled to do. From the preceding descriptions and remarks, it will evi- dently appear, with what admirable skill the different parts of the organs of vision are constructed, and how nicely they are adapted to the several ends they were intended to subserve. Were any one of these parts deficient, or obstructed in its functions, vision would either be impeded, or rendered painful and distressing, or completely destroyed. If any of the humours of the eye were wanting — if they were less trans- parent — if they were of a different refractive power — or if they were of a greater or less convexity than they now are, how- ever minute the alteration might be, vision would inevitably be obstructed, and every object would appear confused and 9* 102 CHIIISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. indistinct. If the retina, on which the images of objects aie painted, were flat, instead of being concave, while objects in the middle of tlie view appeared distinct, every object towards the sides woidd appear dim and confused. If the cornea were as opake as the sclerotica, to which it is joined, or if the re- tina were not connected with the optic nerve, no visible object could possibly be perceived. If one of the six muscles of the eye were wanting, or impeded in its functions, we could not turn it to the right ; if a second were deficient, we could not turn it to the left ; if a third, we could not lift it upwards ; if a fourth, we could not move it downwards ; and if it were deprived of the other two muscles, it would be apt to roll about in frightful contortions. If the eyes were placed in any other part of the body than the head — if they were much more prominent than they now are — if they were not sur- rounded by the bony socket in which they are lodged — and if they were not frequently covered by the eyelid — they would be exposed to a thousand accidents from which they are now protected. If they wanted moisture, and if they were not frequently M'iped by the eyelids, they would become less transparent, and more liable to be enflamed ; and if they were not sheltered by the eyebrows, the sweat and moisture of the forehead would frequently annoy them. Were the light which acts upon them devoid of colour — were it not reflected from objects in every direction — were its motion less swift, or its particles much larger than they now are — in short, were any one circumstance connected with the structure of this organ, and with the modification of the rays of light, materially different from its present arrangement, ^ve siiould either be subjected to the hourly recurrence of a thousand painful sensations, or be altogether deprived of the entertainments of vision. How admirable an organ, then, is the eye, and how nicely adapted to unveil to our view the glories of the universe! Without the application of any skill or laborious eflbrts on our part, it turns in every direction, transports us to every surrounding object, depicts the nicest shades and colours on its delicate membranes, and Takes in, at once, the landscape of the world At a small Inlet, lolrich a grain might close, And half creates the wondrous world we see." — Young. — How strikingly does it display, in every part of its structure and adaptations, the marks of benevolent design, and of in- finite intelligence! However common it is to open our eyes, WO-VDERS OF VISIOX. 103 and to behold, in an instant, the beauties of an extensive land- scape, and however little we may be accustomed to admire this wonderful effect — there is not a doctrine in religion, nor a fact recorded in revelation, more mysterious and incompre- hensible. An excellent French writer has well observed — " The sight of a tree and of the sun, which God shows me, is as real and as immediate a revelation as that which led Moses towards the burning bush. The only difference be- tween both these actions of God on Moses and me is, that the first is out of the common order and economy; whereas the other is occasioned by the sequel and connexion of those laws which God has established for the regulation both of man and nature." Jf, then, the eye of man (who is a depraved inhabitant of a world lying partly in ruins) is an organ so admirably fitted for extending our prospects of the visible creation — we may reasonably conclude, that organized beings of superior intelli- gence and moral purity, possess the sense of vision in a much greater degree of perfection than man in his present state of degradation — and that they may be enabled, by their natural organs, to penetrate into regions of the universe far beyond what man, by the aid of artificial helps, will ever be able to descry. It may not be altogether extravagant, nor even be- yond the reality of existing facts, to suppose, that there are intelligences in the regions of Jupiter or Saturn, whose visual organs are in so perfect a state, that they can descry the mountains of our moon, and the continents, islands, and oceans which diversify our globe, and are able to delineate a map of its surface, to mark the period of its diurnal rotation, and even to distinguish its cities, rivers, and volcanoes. It is quite evident, that it must be equally easy to Divine wisdom and omnipotence, to form organs with powers of vision far surpassing what I have now supposed, as to form an organ in which the magnificent scene of heaven and earth is depicted, in a moment, within the compass of half an inch. There are animals whose range of vision is circumscribed within tlie limits of few feet or inches ; and, had we never perceived objects through an organ in the same state of perfection as that with which we are furnished, we could have formed as little conception of the sublimity and extent of our present range of sight, as we can now do of those powers of vision which would enable us to descry the inhabitants of distant worlds. The invention of the telescope shows, that the penetrating power of the eye may be indefinitely increased; aJi:l, since the art of man can extend the limits of natural 104 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. vision, it is easy to conceive that, in the hand of Omnipo- tence, a slight modification of the human eye might enable it, with the utmost distinctness, to penetrate into regions to which the imagination can set no bounds. And therefore it is not unreasonable to believe, that, in the future world, this will be one property, among others, of the resurrection-body,, that it will be furnished with organs of vision far superior to the present, in order to qualify its intelligent inhabitant for taking an ample survey of the " riches and glory" of the em- pire of God. I have dwelt somewhat particularly on the functions of the eye, in order to show, that it is only when we take a minute inspection of the operations of the Creator, that his infinite wisdom and intelligence are most distinctly perceived. The greater part of Christians will readily admit that the wisdom of God is manifested in every object; but few of them take the trouble to inquire, m what particular contrivances and od apt af ions this wisdom is displayed ; and therefore rest satis- fied with vague and general views, which seldom produce any deep impression on the mind. " The works of the Lord," which are "great" and admirable, ''-must be sought out by all those who have pleasure therein ;" and the more minutely they are inspected, the more exquisite and admirable do all his arrangements appear. Were we to enter into an investigation of the visual organs of the lower animals^ and to consider the numerous varieties which occur in their structure, position, and movements, and how nicely the peculiar organization of the eye is adapted to the general structure of the animal, and to its various necessi- ties and modes of existence — the operation of the same inscrutable wisdom and intelligence would meet our eye at every step. Birds,, for example, which procure their food by their beak, have the power of seeing distinctly at a very small distance ; and, as their rapid motions through the air renders it necessary that they should descry objects at a considerable distance, they have two peculiar mechanical contrivances, connected with their organs of vision, for producing both these effects. One of these contrivances consists in a flexible rim, formed of bone, which surrounds the broadest part of the eye ; and, by occasionally pressing upon its orb, shortens its focal distance, and thus enables it to inspect very near objects. The other consists of a peculiar muscle, which draws back, as occasion requires, the crystalline humour, by which means it can take a distinct view of a distant landscape, and can pass from the sight of a very near to the sight of a distant object, VISUAL ORGAiVS OF A.MMALS. 105 with rapidity and ease. In fishes^ which live in a medium of a different refractive power from that of air, the crystalline humour has a greater degree of convexity, and more nearly approaches to a ghibular form than that of ani:nals — -which conformation is essentially requisite to a distinctness of vision in the watery element. A fish, of conrse, cannot see distinctly in air, nor a quadruped under water; and every person who has dived into the water with his eyes open, knows that though he may perceive the general formiS and colours of' objects, his vision is obscure and indistinct. In hares and rabbits the eyes are very convex and prominent, so that they can see nearly quite round them ; whereas in dogs, which pursue these animals, the visual organs are placed jnore in the front of the head, to look rather before than behind them. Some animals, as cats and oiols, which pursue their prey in the dark, have the pupil of their eye so formed as to be capable of great expansion, so that a few rays of light may make a lively impression on their retina ; while the eagle, which is able to look directly at the sun, has its pupil capable of being contracted almost to a point. Insects, such as the beetle, the Jiy, and the butterfly, whose eyes are incapable of motion, have several thousands of small transparent globes, set in a convex hemisphere, every one of which is capable of forming an image of an object; so that they are enabled to view t'le objects around them without moving their heads. But it would be beyond the limits of my plan to prosecute this sub- ject any further: enough has already been stated, to show that the eyes of men and of other animals are masterpieces of art, which far transcend the human understanding; and that they demonstrate the consummate wisdom of Him who planned and constructed the organical functions of the various tribes of animated existence. I shall conclude this branch of my subject, by presenting an instance or two of the inechanlsm of the bones, and the movements it is fitted to produce. The bones of the human frame are articulated, or connected together in different ways, but most frequently in the follow- ing manner : — Either, first, a bone wdth a round head is arti- culated with a cavity, and plays in it as a ball in the socket ; or, second, they are connected together by a hinge-like articu- lation, which enables a bone to move up or down, backwards or forwards, like a door upon its hinges. An idea of these two motions, and the purposes they serve, may be obtained, by considering the construction of the pedestal of a telescope, 106 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. and the joints on which it moves. One of the joints is of tlie nature of a hinge, bj- which a vertical motion, or a motion upwards and downwards is produced. A horizontal motion, or a motion towards the right hand or the left, is produced hy a pivot moving in a socket; so that, by these two motions, the telescope can be made to point in any direction. Such is the nature of the articulations of the bones, and the movements they produce ; and whenever one or other of these motions, or both of them combined, are requisite for the comfort and convenience of the individual, such a power of motion is uniformly found to exist. If the movement of a joint in every direction would, in any particular case, be found incon- venient, the hinge-like articulation is fixed upon: but if a motion in every direction is required for the convenient use of particular members, and for the variety of evolutions, which a sentient being may have occasion to make, the ball and socket articukuion is combined with the former. For example, let any person for a moment consider the joints of his fingers, and compare them with the joint at his wrist.) where the hand is connected with the fore-arm. if he hold the back of his hand upwards, he will find that he can ir.ove his fingers upwards or downwards; but he cannot turn tliem to the right hand or to the left, so as to make them de- 6-(:ibe a circular motion. He will also find that his ivrist is capable of a similar movement, so that the hand may be bent in a vertical direction. But, in addition to this motion, it is also capable of being turned in a horizontal direction, or from one side to another. In the former case, we have an example of the hinge articulation ; in the latter, it is combined with an articulation which produces nearly the same eflect as a pivot moving in a socket. Now^, had the joints of the fingers been capable of the same motions as the wrist, the hand would have lost its firmness, and been incapable of performing a variety of mechanical operations which require objects to be held with a steady grasp. On the other hand, if the wrist had been confined to a vertical motion, the hand would have been incapable of one out of a hundred varied movements M hich it can now perform with the greatest ease.* In this * The horizontal motion of the wrist, or that motion by which the palm of the hand is alicrnately turned up and down, is produced chiefly by the motions of ihe two bones of lore-arm, called the radius and the u}?w, one of which is articulated to the Jmmcrus, or bone connected wiih the shoulder. In the following representation, (fig. 9,) C is the humerus or elioulder bone ; B is the elbow where the two bones of the fore-arm are comiected with the humerus ; D is the radius, which joins the wrist, on the side v\ here the thumb is, and E the uhia, which joins the wrist on MECHANISM OP THE BOxNES. 107 case, we could not have bored a hole with a gimlet, cut down corn with a sickle, dig-ged the earth with a spade, sewed clothes with a needle, tossed up a ball, or turned up the palm the side where the litlle finger is. In fig. 10, G is the radius; fig. 11, H is the uhia. The uhia has a hooked process, marked e, which catches round the lower end ol' the humerus, forming with it a hinge joint. This bone projects beyond the head of the humerus, forming, when the arm is bent, the point of the elbow. '^I'he radius has a small round head B, oa which it turns, without any motion of tlie humerus — bound to the uhia by ligaments — and as the bones of the wrist are attached to the lower end of this bone alone, and not to the ulna, — when the radius revolves the whole hand turns with it. This alternate rolhng is what anatomists call ■pronation and supination. Flexion and extension of the arm are performed by means of the ulna, which carries the radius along with it in all its move- ments. While the larger part of the ulna is above, the larger part of the radius is below, so that while the former presents a large surface for arti- culation at the elbow, the latter does the same at the wrist, and this in- verse arrangement likewise contributes to the uniform diameter of the fore- arm. While the fore-arm is thus attached to the humerus, the radius is attached to the wrist, so that when we turn the palm of the hand the radius rolls on the ulna by the help of a groove or hollow near each end of the bone, carrying the hand with it. So admirable indeed is this contrivance, that both motions may be performed at the same time ; for while we are bending the arm, we may also be rotating or turning it upon its axis. To facilitate these motions, a tubercle of the radius plays into a socket of the ulna, near the elbow, — while near the wrist, the radius finds the socket, and the ulna the tubercle. Now, had both bones been joined to the upper arm at the elbow, or both to the hand at the wrist, the motions now stated could not have been accomplished. The first bone was to be at liberty at one end, and the second at the other, by which means the two motions may be performed together. The bone which carries the fore arm may be swinging upon its hinge at the elbow, at the very time that the other bone which carries the hand may be turning round it in its grooves. Had there been only a single bone in the fore-arm, with a ball and socket at the elbow, it might, in a certain degree, iiave accomplished the purpose intended ; but in this case, the turnmgofthe hand and arm would have been effected by a com- paratively slow and laborious motion. Such is the wonderful care and ac- curacy with which our all-wise and benevolent Creator has contrived and adjtisted every minute part and motion connected with our animal frame to subserve our convenience and pleasure. No one who is acquainted with the minute and exquisite mechanism of the human body, will dare to 108 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. of the liand, for any of the useful purposes for which the mo- tion was ordained. In short, without the rotatory motion of the wrist, the greater part of the operations connected with gardening, agricuhure, cookery, washing, spinning, weaving, painting, carving, engraving, building, and other mechanical arts, could not be performed ; and such of them as could be effected, would be accomplished only with the greatest incon- venience and labour. Any person may convince himself of this, by holding his hand in a horizontal position, and pre- venting his wrist-joint from turning round, and then by trying what operations he can easily perform without the rotatory motion ; and he will soon perceive with what exquisite skill the numerous movements our animal frames have been con- trived by the great Author of our existence. In each hand there are twenty-seven bones, all of which are essential to the different motions we wish to perform. Every finger is com- posed of three bones, connected together by articulations, muscles, and ligaments. K^ instead of three, each finger were composed of only one bone, it would be quite impossible for us to grasp a single object. The same admirable contrivance may be perceived in the movements of which the head is susceptible. It was requisite, in order to our convenience and comfort, that we should be enabled to move our head backwards or forwards — to look up towards the heavens, or downwards to the ground. It was also expedient, that it should have a power of turning to the right or to the left, so as to take in a considerable portion of mil in quosiion ilie skill, the design, and the forethought of the great Artificer of that wonderful frame ; and he must possess a cold and unfeeling heart, who can behold with apathy, and without reverence and gratitude, the multitudinous mass of splendid and exquisite contrivances of which he every moment feels the pleasure and advantage. In the human hand, in particular, we perceive an instrument far supe- rior to that of any similar part connected with the structure of the lower animals. In this hand we perceive the sensibihties to changes of tempe- rature, to touch, and to motion, combined with a facility in the joints of unfolding and moving in every possible degree and direction, and in a manner inimitable by any artificer of joints and levers. In all the move- ments of human beings, it is the hand that guides them in their industry and mental acquisitions. By its assistance they have drained unwhole- some marshes — iransformed deserts into fruitful fields — turned the course of rivers — banked out the headlong sea — cleared the thickest forests, and caused cilies, temples, and palaces to arise where the wild beasts of the forests formerly roamed at large. In short, by this instrument man has been enabled to prosecute his course along pathless oceans and through the region of the clouds — to measure time and space — to investigate the wonders of the e:irth and of the heavens, and to promote his progress to- wards intellectual perfection, — and, wiihout it, scarcely any science or department of human knowledge could be acquired or cultivated — sup- posing the whole human race to have been destitute of this instrument. MECHANISM OF THE BONES. 109 a circle, without being under the necessity of turning round the wliole body. Accordingly we find, that both these mo- tions are provided for, in the manner in which the head is connected with the verlehrce. The head rests upon the upper- most of these bones, to which it is connected by a hinge joint, similar to those on the lingers, which allows it to move back- ward and forward; and, by means of a round, longish pro- cess, or projection, which moves in a socket, it is enabled to move horizontally, as upon an axis. Had the first motion been wanting, we could not have looked up to the zenith, without lying flat on our back ; nor could we have looked to the ground, without placing our bodies in a prone positii'in ; and, in such a case, v.e could never have seen our own feet, unless when they were bent considerably forward. Had the second motion been wanting, we could have looked to nothing, except the objects directly before us, without the trouble of turning round the whole body, either to the right or to the left. But, in the construction of our corporeal system, every thing is so arranged and adapted to another, as at once to contribute to ease and facility of motion, in all the varied operations and movements we have occasion to per- form ; which circumstance forcibly demonstrates both the benevolent intentions, and the admirable wisdom of Him '" whose hands have made and fashioned us," and who " breathed into our nostrils the breath of life." Tlie above are only two or three out of a hundred of simi- lar instances, which might be produced, to show the benevo- lent care \vhich has been exercised in arranging and articulating the system of bones, of which the propwork of the human frame is composed. Were w^e to enter into an investigation of the actions and uses of the various muscles, the wonderful system of veins and arteries, the action of the heart, stoma(?h, and bowels ; the process of respiration, and insensible perspir- ation, and the system of nerves, glands, lymphatics, and lacteals — a thousand instances of Divine wisdom and bene- ficence would crowd upon our view, which could not fail to excite the pious and contemplative mind to join in the devo- tions of the " sweet singer of Israel :" — " 1 will praise thee ; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made : marvellous are thy works, and that my soul knoweth right well." But as I in- tended to present only a {ew speci?nens of the wisdom of God, as displayed in the construction of the material world, I shall conclude this department of my subject with a single re- flection.* * * Those who wish to prosecute this subject, particularly that part of it 10 110 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. How foolish and ungrateful is it for rational beings to over- look the wise and benevolent arrangements of the Creator, in the material universe ! How many thousands of human be- ings pass their existence without once reflecting on the nume- rous evidences of Divine wisdom and beneficence which appear around them, or feeling the least spark of gratitude for their preservation and comforts, to that Being " in whose hand their breath is, and whose are all their ways !" Yea, how many are there who consider themselves as standing high in the ranks of the Christian profession, who affect to look down, with a certain degree of contempt, on the study of the material works of God, as if it were too gross a subject for their spiritual at- tainments ! They profess to trace the wisdom of God in the Scriptures, and to feel gratitude for his pardoning mercy ; but they seldom feel that gratitude which they ought to do for those admirable arrangements in their own bodies, and in the elements around them, by which their lives are preserved, and their happiness promoted ; and even seem to insinuate, that they have little or nothing to do with the contrivances of the God of nature. They leave it to the genius of infidel philoso- phers to trace the articulation of the bones, the branchings of the veins and arteries, the properties of light, and the compo- sition of the atmosphere, while they profess to feast their minds on more sublime and spiritual entertainments. But, surely, such astonishing displays of the wisdom and benignity of the Most High, as creation exhibits, were never intended to be treated by his intelligent offspring with apathy or indifference; and to do so must indicate a certain degree of base ingratitude towards Him whose incessant energy sustains the whole as- semblage of sentient and intelligent beings, and who displays himself, in their construction and preservation, to be " won- d( ifiil in counsel, and excellent in working." Shall we ima- gine, that because God stands in the gracious relation of our Redeemer, he has ceased to stand in the relation of our Creator and Preserver ? Or shall we consider those subjects as un- worthy our attention, which are the theme of the praises of tlie heavenly host ?* Can we suppose that the Almighty displayed his infinite wisdom in the curious organization of the human eye, that man — the only being in this world who is which relates to the contrivances of Divine wisdom which appear in the animal system, will find ample gratification in Nieuwentyt's ' Religious Philosopher,' Vol. i., Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on ' The Hand,' and Dr. Paley's 'Natural Theology.' A variety of useful remarks on this subject will also be found in Ray's ' Wisdom of God in the Creation,' Derham's ' Physico-Theology,' and Bonnet's Contemplation of Nature.' * Revt'lation, iv. 11. MORAL REFLECTIONS. Ill endowed with faculties capable of appreciating its structure, atu! for whose use and entertainment it was intended — should overlook such a wonderful piece of Divine workmanship, and feel no gratitude for the bestowment of so admirable a gift ? Shall we extol the ingenuity displayed in a clock or watch, in a chess-player, or a steam-engine, and shall we feel no senti- ment of admiration at the view of millions of instances of Divine mechanism, which infinitely transcend the powers of the human understanding ? To act in this manner, as too many are disposed to do, is unworthy of man, both as a Chris- tian and as an intelligent agent. Such was not the conduct of the inspired writers ; their spirituality of views did not lead them to neglect the contemplation of any of the works of God ; " 1 will meditate on all thy works,"" says the Psalmist, "and talk of all thy doings ; I will utter abundantly the memory of thy great goodness, and speak of all thy wondrous works." Accordingly we find, that the wonders of the human frame, the economy of the animal and vegetable tribes, the scenery of the " dry land," and of the " mighty deep," and the glories of the heavens were the frequent subjects of their devout con- templation. They considered them in relation to the unceas- ing agency of God, by whom they were formed and arranged, and as declaring his wisdom, goodness, and omnipotence ; and with this view ought all the scenes of the visible creation to be investigated by his intelligent creatures. We have reason to believe that it is owing, in part, to want of attention to the Divine wisdom and beneficence, as exhibited in the construction of the visible world, that many professed Christians entertain so vague and confused ideas respecting the goodness of the Deity, as displayed in the economy of redemption. The terms, wisdom, goodness, and beneficence, iw their mouths, become words almost without meaning, to which no precise or definite ideas are attached ; because they have never considered the instances and the evidences of these attributes, as displayed in the material creation. 7\nd if our minds have not been impressed with a sense of the wisdom and beneficence of God, in those objects which are presented to the external senses, we cannot be supposed to have lumi- nous and distinct ideas of those spiritual objects and arrange- ments which are removed beyond the sphere of our corporeal organs. For all our ideas in relation to religion and its ob- jects are piimarily derived from the intimations we receive of external objects, through the medium of our senses ; and, con- sequently, the more clearly we perceive the agency of God in his visible operations, the more shall we be qualified to per- 112 CHRISTIAN rniLOSOPHER- ceive tlie wisdom and harmony of his dispensations, as recorded in the volume of inspiration. We live in a world, all the arrangements of wliich are the efiects of Infinite Wisdom. We are surrounded with wonders on every hand ; and therefore we cease to admire, or to fix our attention on any one of the wonders daily performed by God. We have never been accustomed to contemplate, or to inhabit a world where benevolence and wisdom are not dis- played ; and therefore we are apt to imagine, that the circum- stances of our terrestrial existence could not have been much otherwise than they actually are. We behold the sun in the morning, ascending from the east — a thousand shining globes are seen in the canopy of the sky when he has disappeared in the west. We open our eyelids, and the myriads of objects which compose an extensive landscape are, in a moment, painted on our retina, — we wish to move our bodies, and, in an instant, the joints and muscles of our hands and feet per- forin their several functions. We spread out our wet clothes to dry, and in a few hours the moisture is evaporated. We behold the fields drenched with rain, and in a few days it dis- appears, and is dispersed through the surrounding atmosphere, to be again embodied into clouds. These are all common operations, and therefore thoughtless and ungrateful man sel- dom considers the obligations he is under to the Author of his existence, for the numerous enjoyments which flow from these wise arrangements. But were the globe we inhabit, and all its appendages, to remain in their present state — and were only the principle of evaporaiion and the refractive and reflective properties of the air to be destroyed — we should soon feel, by the universal gloom which would ensue, and by a thou- sand other inconveniences we would suffer, what a miserable world was allotted for our abode. We should most sensibly perceive the wisdom and goodness we had formerly overlooked, and would most ardently implore the restoration of those ar- rangements for which we were never sufficiently grateful. 'And why should we not now — while we enjoy so many com- forts flowing from the plans of Infinite Wisdom — have our attention directed to the benevolent contrivances within us and around us, in order that grateful emotions may be houily arising in our hearts to the Father of our spirits ? For the es- sence of true religion consists chiefly in gratitude to the God of our life, and the Author of our salvation ; and every pleas- ing sensation we feel from the harmonies and the beau lies of nature ought to inspire us with this sacred emotion. "• Hearken unto this, O man ! stand still, and consider the wonderful BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 113 works of God. Contemplate the balancings of the clouds, the wondrous works of Him who is perfect in knowledge." " He hatli made the earth by his power, he hath established the world by his wisdom. When he uttereth his voice, there is a noise of waters in the heavens*, he causeth the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth, and bringeth the winds out of his treasuries," While it is shameful for man to be inat- tentive to the wonders which surround him, what can be more pleasnig and congenial to a rational and devout mind than contemplations on the works of the Most High? "What can be more gratifying," says Sturm, " than to contemplate, in the heavens, in the earth, in the water, in the night and day, and, indeed, throughout all nature, the proofs which they afford of the wisdom, and purity, and the goodness of our great Creator and Preserver ! What can be more delightful than to recog- nize, in the whole creation, in all the natural world, in every- thing we see, traces of the ever-working providence and tender mercy of the great Father of all !" SECTION IV. ON THE GOODNESS OR BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. The benevolence of God is that perfection of his nature, by which he communicates happiness to the various ranks of sensitive and intelligent existence. The system of nature, in all its parts, exhibits an unbounded display of this attribute of the Divine Mind, both in relation to man, and in relation to the subordinate tribes of animated existence. In relation to man — the magnificence and glory of the heavens — the variegated colouring which is spread over the scene of nature — the beautiful flowers, shrubs, and trees, with which the earth is adorned, which not only delight the eye, but perfume the air with their delicious odours — the va- rious kinds of agreeable sounds that charm the ear — the music of the feathered songsters, which fill the groves with their melody — the thousands of pleasant images which delight the eye, in the natural embellishments of creation — the agreeable feelings produced by the contact of almost every thhig we have occasion to touch — the pleasure attached to eating, drink- ing, muscular motion, and activity — the luxuriant profusion and rich variety of aliments which the earth affords — and the interchanges of thought and affection — all proclaim the bene- volence of our Almighty Maker, and show, that the commu- nication of happiness is one grand object of all his arrange- ments. For these circumstances are not essentially requisite 10* 114 CHRISTIAN rHILOSOPIIER. to our existence. We might have lived, and breathed, and walked, thou^'h every thing we touched had produced pain; thoiic-h every tiling we ate and drank had been bitter; though every movement of our hands and feet had been accompanied with uneasiness and fatigue; though every sound had been as harsh as the saw of the carpenter; though no birds had war- bled in the groves ; though no flowers had decked the fields, or filled the air with their perfumes ; though one unvaried scene of dull uniformity had prevailed, and beauty and sub- limity had been swept from the face of nature; though the earth had been covered with a mantle of black, and no radiant orbs had appeared in our nocturnal sky. But what a misera- ble world should we then have inhabited, compared with that Avhich we now possess! Life would have passed away without enjoyment, and pain would have overbalanced the pleasures of existence. Whereas, in the existing constitution of things, all the objects around us, and every sense of which we are pos- sessed, when preserved in its natural vigour, have a direct tendency to produce pleasing sensations, and to contribute to our enjoyment: and it is chiefly when we indulge in foolish and depraved passions, and commit immoral actions, that the benevolent intentions of the Deity are frustrated, and pain and misery produced. Had the Creator of the world been a malevolent being, and possessed of infinite power and intelligence, every arrange- ment of nature would have been almost the reverse of what we now find it. The production of evil^ and of pain in sen- sitive beings, would have been the aim of the contriver in all his operations and allotments. All design in the frame of the universe, and all tiiat wisdom and intelligence which we now admire in the adaptations of the parts and functions of ani- mals to their necessities and to the constitution of nature around them — we should have dreaded as contrivances to pro- duce painful sensations, and to render them acute and perma- nent. Instead of ease, and enjoyment, and delight in the ex- ercise of our functions and faculties — the ordinary state of the bnver animals and of human beings would have been a state of trouble, disease, dejection, and anguish. Every breath of air might have cut us like the point of a dagger, or produced a pain like that of swallowing aquafortis or sulphuric acid.* * Sulphuric acid consists of 75 pnrts oxycren, and 25 parts nitrogen, which form the constituent parts of the air we breathe, only in a different proportion. \Vere this proportion materially altered, we should feel the most excruciating pain in attempting to breathe it in some of its coinbina- lions. BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 115 Every touch might have felt like the sting of a nettle, or like the rubbing of salt upon a festering wound. Every taste Mould have been bitter as gall and wormwood, and every sound harsh and discordant, or as a hideous scream. All our senses, instead of being the sources of pleasure, as they now are, would have been the instruments of pain and torture. The lower animals, instead of ministering to our delight and necessities, would have been formed so as to torment, to ha- rass, and annoy us. Tlie cow and the goat would have af- forded us no milk, nor the bee its honey, nor would the birds of the air have charmed us with their musjc. Dismal and haggard objects would have been strewed over the whole face of creation, and all vvould have appeared a melancholy gloom, Aviihout beauty or variety. The fields would have wanted tiieir delightful verdure, their diversified aspect, and the beau- tiful powers wdlh which they are now adorned. The fire might have scorched without warming us, and water, instead of refreshing us, might have produced intolerable pain. The light might have been without colour; it might have dazzled instead of cheering us, and prevented distant objects from be- ing perceived. Our eye balls might have wanted the muscles which now enable them to move with ease in every direction, and every ray of light might have affected them wnlh pain. The ground might have been formed so soft and yielding, that at every step we should have sunk like persons walking in a quagmire, hi short, our imaginations, in such a case, would have presented to us little else than frightful spectres and ob- jects of terror and alarm, — and our minds have been filled with dismal forebodings and dreadful expectations. But, every arrangement in the system of nature, as it is now constituted, is directly the reverse of what we have now supposed. And this consideration demonstrates, that the great Creator of the universe is the God of love, whose mercy and benevolence are displayed towards every rank of sensitive and intelligent existence, and these attributes, we are assured, will never cease in their operations, so Jong as the universe endures. If we consider, further, that the inexhaustible bounty of the Creator, and the numerous pleasures we enjoy, are be- stowed upon a guilty race of men, the benevolence of the Df ity will appear in a still more striking point of view. Man has dared to rebel against his Maker; he is a depraved and ungrateful creature. The great majority of our race have banished God from their thoughts, trampled upon his law^s, neglected to contemplate his works, refused to pay him that tribute of reverence and adoration which his perfections de- 116 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. maiul, liave been iingratefiil for his favors, have blasphemed his name, and iiave transferred to " four-footed beasts and creeping tiling's," that homage which is due to him alone. It has been the chief part of their employment, in all ages, to counteract the effects of his beneficence, by inflicting injustice, oppression, and torture upon each other; by maiming the hu- man frame, burning cities and villages, turning fruitful fields into a wilderness, and, by every other act of violence, carry- ing death and destruction through the world. And if wnter^ air^ and the light of heaven, had been placed within the limits of their control, it is more than probable, that whole nations would have been occasionally deprived of these elements, so essential to human existence. Yet, notwithstanding the pre- valence of such depraved dispositions, the streams of Divine benevolence towards our apostate race have never yet been in- terrupted. The earth has never stopped in its career, and thrown nature into a scene of confusion; the light- of heaven has never ceased to illume the world ; the springs of water have never been dried up, nor has the fertile soil ceased to enrich the plains with golden harvests. God "hath not left himself without a witness" to his beneficence, in any age, in that he hath unceasingly bestowed on the inhabitants of the world " rain from heaven, and fruitful seasons, filling their hearts with food and gladness." This is one of the charac- ters of Deity which forms the most perfect contrast to the selfish and revengeful dispositions of man, which as far tran- scends human benevolence, as the heavens in extent surpass the earth — a character calculated to excite our highest love and admiration, and which we are called upon, in the sacred oracles, to imitate and revere : " Be ye merciful, as your Father who is in heaven is merciful ; for he maketh his sun to rise on ihe evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." "O that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for his wonderful works to the children of men !" From such considerations we learn, even from tjie system of nature, that mercy is an attribute of the Deity; for if mercy consists hi bestowing favours on those who are unworthy, or who merit punishment, the greatest sinners in all ages have shared in it, and every individual of the human race, now ex- isting, enjoys a certain portion of those comforts which flow from the benevolent arrangements which the Creator has established; "He maketh the sun to arise on ihe evil and on the good." Though the nations in ancient times, as well as at present, " walked in their own ways," indulging in impiety, BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 117 falsehood, lewdness, war, devastations, revenge, abominable idt)latries, and eveiy other, violation of his law, he still sup- ported the functions of their animal frames, and caused the influences of tlie sun, the rains, and the dews, to descend upon their fields, that they might be refreshed with his bounty, and filled ''• with food and gladness." If mercy were not aa essential attribute of the Deity, he would have cut them down in the midst of their first transgressions, shattered to pieces the globe on which they dwelt, and buried them in eternal oblivion. But whether Divine mercy will extend to the final forgiveness of sin, and the communication of eternal happiness to such beings, can be learned only from the dis- coveries of revelation. In relation to the inferior animals — the immense multitude of living creatures with which the earth is replenished is a striking evidence of the vast profusion of Divine beneficence. Blore than a hundred thousand species of animated beings are dispersed through the different regions of the air, the water, and the earth, besides myriads which are invisible to the un- assisted eye. To estimate the number of individuals belong- ing to any one species is beyond the power of man. VViiat countless myriads of herrings, for example, are contained in a single shoal, which is frequently more than six miles long, and three miles broad ! To estimate the number of indivi- duals in all the different species, would therefore be as impos- sible as to count the grains of sand in the Arabian deserts. There is not a single spot in any region of the globe but what teems with animated beings. Yet all this vast assemblage of sensitive existence is amply provided for by the bountiful Creator. "-These all wait upon him, and he giveth them their meat in due season." They enjoy not only life, but also a happy existence. The sportive motions and gesticulations of all the animal tribes — the birds skimming through the air, warbling in the groves, and perching on the trees — the beasts of the field bounding in the forests and through the lawns — the fishes sporting in the waters — the reptiles wriggling in the dust — and the winged insects, by a thousand wanton mazes — all declare that they are rejoicing in their existence, and in the exercise of those powers with which the Creator has furnished them. So that wherever we turn our eyes, we evidently perceive that " the earth is full of the goodness of the Lord," and that " his tender mercies are over all his works.'' This subject is boundless; but it would be inconsistent with the limited plan of this work to enter into any particular 118 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOI'IIER. details. And it is the less necessary, when we consider that every instance of Divine wisdom is, at the same time, an instance of hcncvolcnce ; for it is the ultimate object of all the wise contrivances in the system of nature, that happiness may be conmuinicated to the various ranks of sensitive and intelligent existence. Goodness chooses the end^ and wisdom selects the most proper means for its accomplishment; so that these two attributes must always he considered in simultaneous operation. And therefore, the instances I have already spe- cified of the wisdom and intelligence of the Creator, may also be considered as exemplitications of Divine benevolence. I shall therefore conclude this topic with the following extract from Dr. Pa ley : " Contrivance proves design ; and the prominent tendency of the contrivance indicates the disposition of the designer. The world abounds with contrivances; and all the contri- vances we are acquainted with are directed to beneficial pur- poses. Evil, no doubt, exists; but it is never, that we can perceive, the object of contrivance. Teeth are contrived to eat, not to ache; their aching now and then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps inseparable from it: or even, if you Avill, let it be called a defect in the contrivance, but it is not the object of it. This is a distinction that well deserves to be attended to. In describing implements of husbandry, you would hardly say of a sickle, that it is made to cut the reaper's fingers, though, from the construction of the instrument, and the manner of using it, this mischief often happens. But if you had occasion to describe instruments of torture or exe- cution, — this, you would say, is to extend the sinews; this to dislocate the joints ; this to break the bones ; this to scorch the soles of die feet. Here pain and misery are the very ob- jects o{ the contrivance. Now, nothing of this sort is to be found in the works of nature. We never discover a train of contrivance to bring about an evil purpose. No anatomist ever discovered a system of organization calculated to pro- duce pain and disease; or, in explaining the parts of the hu- man body, ever said, this is to irritate ; this to inflame ; this duct is to convey the gravel to the kidneys ; this gland to se- crete the humour whicli forms the gout. If, by chance, he come at a part of which he knows not- the use, the most he can say is, that it is useless ; no one ever suspects that it is put there to incommode, to annoy, or torment. Since, then, God hath called forth his consummate wisdom to contrive and pro- vide for our happiness, and the world appears to have been constituted with this design at first, so long as this constitu- BE.VEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY. 119 tion is upheld by him, we must, in reason, suppose the same design to continue."* Thus 1 have endeavoured, in this and the preceding section, to exhibit a few specimens of the wisdom and goochiess of God in the system of nature. These might have been multi- plied to an indefinite extent; but the instances adduced, 1 pre- sume, are suflicient to show, that the economy of the material world is not altogether a barren subject to a pious and con- templative mind. Every intelligent believer in revelation will readily admit, that it would be a highly desirable object, to induce, upon the mass of Christians, such a habit of devout attention to the visible works of creation, as would lead them, in their social and solitary walks, to recognize the agency of God in every object they behold ; to raise their thoughts to him as the Great First Cause, and to expand their hearts with emotions of gratitude. How very different must be the senti- ments and the piety of the man who looks on the scene of wisdom and raaguiticence around him with a " brute ujicon- scious gaze," as thousands of professed Christians do — and the grateful and pious emotions of him who recognizes the benevolent agency of God, in the motions of his fingers and his eyeballs; in the pulsation of his heart; in the picture of external objects every moment formed on his retina ; in the reflection of the rays of light, and the diversified colours they produce; in the drying of his clothes ; in the constitution of the atmosphere; in the beauty and magnificence of the earth and the heavens ; and in every other object that meets his eye in the expanse of nature ! The numberless astonishing in- stances of Divine agency, which every where present them- selves to our view in the scene around us, seem evidently in- tended to arrest the mind to a consideration of an " ever-pre- sent Deity;" and I envy not the sentiments or the feelings of that man, who imagines that he stands in no need of such sensible mediums, to impress his mind with a sense of the benevolent care and omnipresence of God. * Paley's Moral Philosophy, Book II., Chap. v. 120 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. CHAPTER II. COXTAINIXG A CURSORY VIEW OF SOME OF THE SCIENCES WHICH ARE RELATED TO RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN THEO- LOGY. Theology has generally been viewed as a study of a very jimited range: and hence, when it has been admitted into the circle of the sciences, a much smaller space has been allotted for its discussion than has been devoted to almost any other department of human knowledge. When considered, how- ever, in its most extensive sense — in its relations to the Divine Being — to his past and present dispensations towards the human race — to the present circumstances and the future des- tiny of man — and to the physical and moral condition of all the sentient and intelligent beings of which we have any inti- mation — it ought to be viewed as the most varied and com- prehensive of all the sciences ; as embracing, within its ex- tensive grasp, all the other departments of useful knowledge both human and divine. As it has God for its object, it must include a knowledge of the universe he has formed — of the movements which are continually going on throughout the wide extent of his empire, in so far as they lie open to our inspec'iion — of the attributes which appear to be displayed in all his operations — of the moral laws he has framed for the regulation of holy intelligences — of the merciful arrangements he has made for the restoration of fallen man — of the plans by which the knowledge of his will is to be circulated and extended in the world in which we live — of the means by which truth, and moral purity, and order, are to be promoted among our apostate race, in order to their restoration to the happiness they have lost — together with all those diversified ramiilcations of knowledge, which have either a more remote or a more immediate bearing on the grand objects now speci- fied. Like the lines which proceed from the circumference to the centre of an immense circle — all the moral* arts and sciences which have been invented by men — every department of human knowledge, however far itliiay, at first sight, appear to be removed from religion — may be considered as having a * Tlie epithet moral is here used in its application to arts, because there are certain arts which must be considered as having an immoral tendericy, such as, the art of war, the art of boxing, of gambUng, &c., and which, thereiore, cannot have a direct tendency to promote the objects of re- Usion. LNTRODUGTIO.N TO THE SCIENCES. 121 direct bearing on theology, as the grand central point, and as having a certain tendency to promote its important objects. It is much to be regretted, that theology has so seldom hQen contemplated in this point of view — ^and that the sciences have been considered rather as so many independent branches of secular knowledge, than as subservient to the elucidation of the facts and doctrines of religion, and to the accomplish- ment of its benevolent designs. Hence it has happened, that philosophy and religion, instead of marching hand in hand to the portals of immortality, have frequently set themselves in hostile array; and combats have ensued equally injurious to the interests of both parties. The philosopher has occasion- ally been disposed to investigate the economy of nature, without a reference to the attributes of that Almighty Being M'ho presides over its movements, as if the universe were a self-moving and independent machine; and has, not unfre- quently, taken occasion, from certain obscure and insulated facts, to throw out insinuations hostile to the truth and the character of the Christian revelation. The theologian, on the other hand, in the heat of his intemperate zeal against the in- fidel philosopher, has, unguardedly, been led to declaim against tlie study of science, as if it were unfriendly to reli- gion — has, in effect, set the works of God in opposition to his word — has confounded the foolish theories of speculative minds with the rational study of the works of Deity — and has thus prevented the mass of mankind from expanding their minds, by the contemplation of the beauties and sublimities of nature. it is now high time that a complete reconciliation were effected between these contending parties. Religion ought never to disdain to derive her supports and illustrations from the researches of science ; for the investigations of philosophy into the economy of nature, from whatever motives they may he undertaken, are nothing else than an inquiry into the plans and operations of the Eternal IMind. And philosophy ought always to consider it as her highest honour to walk as a handmaid in the train of that religion which points out the path to the regions of eternal bliss. By their mutual aid, and the subserviency of the one to the other, the moral and intel- lectual improvement of man will be promoted, and the benevo- lent purposes of God, in the kingdom of providence, gradually accomplished. But, when set in opposition to each other, the human mind is bewildered and retarded in its progress, and the Deity is apt to be considered as set in opposition to him- self—as proclaiming one system of doctrines from the eco- ' 11 122 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. nomy of revelation, and another, and an opposite system, from tlie economy of nature. But if the Christian revelation, and the system of the material world, derived their origin from the same Almighty Being, the most complete harmony must subsist between the revelations they respectively unfold ; and the apparent inconsistencies which occur, must be owing chiefly to the circumstances of our present station in tlie uni- verse, and to the obscure and limited views we are obliged to take of some of the grand and diversified objects they em- brace. And tlierefore we have reason to believe, that when the system of nature shall be more extensively explored, and the leading objects of revelation contemplated in a clearer light, without being tinged with the false colouring of party opinions and contracted views, and when rational inquirers shall conduct their researches with a greater degree of rever- ence, humility, and Christian temper — the beauty and harmony of all the plans and revelations of the Deity, in reference both to the physical and the moral world, will be more distinctly perceived and appreciated. In the following cursory sketches, it forms no part of my plan to trace even an outline of the different sciences which are connected with religion, much less to enter into any par- ticular details in relation to their facts and principles. It would be comparatively easy to fill up the remaining sheets of this volume with skeletons of the different sciences, but such meager details as behoved to be brought forward, could not be interesting to the general reader, and would fail in ac- complishing the objects proposed. My design simply is, to select some leading facts, or general truths, in relation to some of the physical sciences, for the purpose of showing their con- nexion with the objects of religion, and the interests of rational piety. At the same time, such definite descriptions will be given as will enable common readers to appreciate the objects and bearings of the different branches of knowledge which may be presented to their view. The first science* I shall notice, is that of NATURAL HISTORY. This science, taken in its most comprehensive sensef in- cludes a knowledge and description of all the known facts in the material universe. * The term science, in its most general and extensive sense, signifies Tinowledge, particularly that species of knowledge which is acquired by the exertion of the human faculties. In a more restricted sense, ii denotes a NATURAL HISTORY. 123 It is to be regretted, that most books published under the title of JYatural History^ to which common readers have ac- cess, contain nothing more than a general description of ani- mals, as if^ this science were confined merely to one class of beings-, whereas there is an infinite variety of other objects seldom noticed, which would appear no less interesting, and, in some instances, much more novel and gratifying to the gene- ral reader, and to the youthful mind. All the diversified forms of matter, whether existing on the surface or in the bowels of the earth, in the ocean, the atmosphere, or in the heavens, form the legitimate objects of this department of the science of nature. Were we, therefore, to sketch a comprehensive outline of the subjects of natural histor}^, we might, in the first place, take a cursory survey of the globe we inhabit, in reference to its magnitude, figure, motions, and general arrangements — the form, relations, and extent of its continents — the numerous islands which diversify the surface of the ocean — the magni- tude, the direction, and the extent of its rivers, and the quantity of water they pour into the ocean — the direction, elevation, and extent of the different ranges of mountains which rise from its surface — the plains, morasses, lakes, forests, dells, and sandy deserts, which diversify its aspect — the extent, the motions, the colour, and the dilTerent aspects of the ocean, and the facts which have been ascertained respecting its saltness, its depth, its bottom and its different currents. We might next take a more particular view of some of the most remarkable objects on its surface, and give a detail of the facts which are known respecting the history of volcanoes — their number — the countries in which they are situated — the awful phenomena Ihey exhibit — and the devastations they have produced : the history of earthquakes^ their phenomena and effects, and the countries most subject to their ravages — basaltic and rocky wonders, natural bridges, precipices, cataracts, ice islands, ice- bergs, glaciers, whirlpools, mineral wells, reciprocating foun- tains, boiling springs, sulphuric mountains, bituminous lakes, volcanic islands — the various aspects of nature in the different zones, and the contrasts presented between the verdant scenes of tropical climes, and the icy cliffs of the polar regions. We would next take a survey of the subterraneous wonders which systematic species of knowledge, which consists of rule and order, such as matheniatics, astronomy, natural philosophy, &c. In the discussions contained in this work, it is used in its most general sense, as denoting die various departments of" human knowledge ; in which sense, history, both natural, civil and sacred, may be termed science. 124 CHRISTIAN nilLOSOPHER. lie beneath the surface of the earth — the immense chasms and caverns which wind in various directions among the interior strata of our globe — such as the great Kentucky cavern, and the o-rotto of Antiparos — the mines of salt, coah copper, lead, diamond, iron, quicksilver, tin, gold, and silver — the substances w hich compose the various strata, the fossil bones, shells, and petrifactions which are imbedded in the different layers, and the bendings and disruptions which appear to have taken phice in the substances which compose the exterior crust of the earth. We might next survey the aimosphere with wliich the earth is environed, and give a detail of the facts which have been ascertained respecting its specific gravity and pie.^sure, the elementary principles of which it is compounded, its refractive and reflective powers, and the phenomena which result from its various properties and modifications — the me- tcurs which appear in its diflerent regions — thunder and light- ning, winds, hail, rain, clouds, rainbows; parhelias or mock- suns, meteoric stones, the aurora borealis, luminous arches, ignes latui, the mirage, the fata morgana, hurricanes, monsoons, whirlwinds and waterspouts, sounds and echoes. h\ prosecuting our survey of sublunary nature, we would next advert to the various orders of the vegetable tribes^ — their anatomical structure — the circulation of their juices — the food by which they are nourished — the influence of light and air on their growth and motions — their male and female Qi-gans — their periods of longevity — their modes of propaga- tion — their diseases and dissolution — their orders, genera, and species — their immense variety — their influence on the salubrity of the atmosphere — the relation which their trunks, roots, leaves, and fruits, bear to the wants of man and other animals, in supplying food, clothing and materials for con- structing habiuitions — the gums and resinous substances they exude — the odours they exhale — the variety of colours they exhibit — the vast diversity of forms in which they appear — and the beauty and variety which they spread over the whole face of nature. The minpral khigdom would next require to be surveyed. We would inquire into the facts which have been ascertained respecting the earthy, saline, wjlammable, and metallic sub- stances, which are found on the surface and in the bowels of the earth — their specific and distinguishing characters — the elementary principles, or simple substances, of which they are composed — the regions of the earth where the respective minerals most frequently abound — and the ends which they are designed to accomplish in the constitution of the globe. NATURAL HISTORY. 125 We would consider, more particularly, tlie various metals, such as iron, copper, lead, tin, gold, silver, bismuth, zinc, Scc, in reference to the substances with which they are united in their native ores — the changes produced upon them by the action of oxygen and the different acids — their combustibility — their combination with phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon — the various compounds into which they may be formed — their important uses in the arts which minister to the com- fort and embellishment of human life — their relation to the multifarious necessities of man — and the wisdom and good- ness of the Creator, as displayed in their arrangement in the bowels of the earth, and in the admirable properties of which they are possessed. In these details, the natural history of iron would hold a prominent place. In point of uiility^ it claims the highest rank in the class of metals, and is intrinsi- cally more valuable than gold and silver, and all the diamonds of the east. There is scarcely a mineral substance in the whole compass of nature which affords a more striking instance of the beneficial and harmonious adaptation of things in the universal system. We would, therefore, consider it in reference to its vast abundance in all parts of the world — the numerous substances into which it enters into combination — its magnetical property — its capability of being fused and welded — the numerous useful utensils it has been the means of producing — its agency in carrying forward improvements in arts and science, in the civilization of barbarous tribes, and in promoting the progress of the human mind; and the aids which it affords to the Christian missionary in the heathen lands. Having surveyed the inanimate parts of the terraqueous globe, and its appendages, we might next direct our attention to the animated tribes with which it is peopled. Beginning at vian^ the head of the animal creation, we would detail the principal facts which have been ascertained respecting his structure and organical functions — the muscular movements of the human body, the system of bones, nerves, veins, and arteries ; the property of respiration ; and the organs of vision, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling, by which he holds a correspondence with the material world — the modifi- cations which appear in his corporeal frame, and in his men- tal faculties, during the periods of infancy, puberty, manhood, and old age — the causes and phenomena of sleep and dream- ing — the varieties of the human race, in respect of colour, stature, and features — the deviations from the ordinary course of nature, which occasionally occur, in the case of monsters, 126 CHKIsriA-N FHILOSOrHER. dwarfs, and giants — the moral and intellectual faculties — and those distinguishing characteristics which prove the supe- riority of man over tiie other tribes of animated nature. The inferior ranks of the animal creation would next de- mand our attention. We would take a survey of the nume- rous tribes of quadrupeds^ hirds, Jishes, serpents, lizards, and insecls, in reference to the characteristic marks by which the dillerent species are distingiushed, — their food, and habita- tions — the diiferent modes in which they display their archi- tective faculty, in constructing places of abode for shelter and protection — the clothing with which they are furnished — theii* sagacity in finding out the proper means for subsistence and self-preservation — their hostilities — their artifices in catching their prey, and escaping their enemies — their modes of pro- pagation — their transformations from one state and form to an- other — their migrations to different countries and climates — their various instincts — tlicir care in rearing and protecting their young — their passions, mental characters, and social dis- positions — tiieir language or modes of communication with each other — their capacities for instruction and improvement — their different powers of locomoti©n — the adaptation of all their organs to the purposes for which they seem intended — the indications they give of being possessed of moral dispo- sitions and rational powers — their different periods of longe- vity, and the ends which they are intended to subserve in the system of nature. Along with these details, certain view^s might be exhibited of the various forms of sensitive life, and modes of existence, which obtain in those numerous species of animals which are invisible to the naked eye, and \vhich the microscope discovers in almost every department of nature. Having surveyed tlie objects which compose our sublunary system, we woukl next direct our view to the regions of the sky, and contemplate the facts which have been discovered in relation to the celestial orbs. We w^ould first attend to the apparent motion of the sun, the different points of the hori- zon at which it seems to rise and set, and the different de- grees of elevation to which it arrives, at different seasons of the year, — the different aspects it presents as viewed from dif- fei-ent parts of the earth's suiface, and the diiferent lengths of days and nights, in different parts of the world. We would next attend to the varied pliases of the moon — the direct and retrograde motions of the planets — the apparent diurnal mo- tion of the whole celestial sphere, from east to west, — and the different rlnslers of stars which are seen in our nocturnal sky, NATURAL HISTORY, 127 at dilTerent seasons of the year. We would next consider the deductions which science has made, respecting tlie order and arrangement of the planets which compose the solar system — their distances from the sun, and from the earth — their magnitudes — the periods of their diurnal and annual revolu- tions — the secondary planets, or moons, which accompany them — their eclipses — the various phenomena which their sur- faces present when viewed through telescopes — the physical influence which some of them produce on the surface of our globe — and the singular appearance of those bodies called comets^ which occasionally visit this part of our system. We would, in the next place, extend our views to the starry regions, and consider the number of stars which present them- selves to the naked eye — the immensely greater numbers which are discovered by telescopes — the systems into which they appear to be arranged — the facts which h-ave been ascer- tained respecting neio stars — double and treble stars — stars once visible, which have now disappeared from the heavens — variable stars, whose lustre is increased and diminished at dif- ferent periods of time — and the structure and position of the many hundreds of nehulce^ or starry systems, which appear to be dispersed throughout the immensity of creation. All the particulars now stated, and many others which might have been specified — considered shnpJy as facts which exist in the system of nature — form the appropriate and legi- timate objects of natural history, and demand the serious at- tention of every rational intelligence, that wishes to trace the perfections and agency of the Almighty Creator. To investi- gate the causes of the diversified phenomena which the mate- rial world exhibits, and the principles and modes by which many of the facts now alluded to are ascertained, is the pecu- liar province of natural philosophy, chemistry, and the mathe- matical sciences. Amidst so vast a variety of objects as natural history pre- sents, it is difficult to fix on any particular facts, as specimens of the interesting nature of this department of knowledge, without going beyond the limits to which I am necessarily confined in this volume. I shall content myself with a de- scription of two objects, which have a reference chiefly to the vegetable kingdom. The first of these is The banian tree. — "This tree, which is also called the Burr trce^ or the Indian fig ^ is one of the most curious and beautiful of nature's productions, in the genial climate of India, where she sports with the greatest variety and profu- sion. Each tree is in itself a grove ; and some of them are 128 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. of an amazing size and extent, and, contrary to most other animal and vegetable productions, seem to be exempted from decay. Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots ; at first, in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground ; these continually grow thicker, until, by a gradual descent, they reach the surface, and there, striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent trees, shooting out new brandies from the tops. These in time suspend their roots, and, receiving nourishment from the earth, swell into trunks, and shoot forth other branches; thus continuing in a stale of progression, so long as the earth, the first parent of them all, contributes her sustenance. A banian tree, with many trunks, forms the most beautiful walks, vistas, and cool recesses, that can be imagined. The leaves are large, soft, and of a lively green, about six inches in length ; the fruit is a small fig, when ripe, of a bright scarlet, affording sustenance to monkeys, squirrels, peacocks, and birds of various kinds, which dwell among the branches. " The Hindoos are peculiarly fond of the banian tree ; they consider its long duration, its outstretching arms, and its over- shadowing beneficence, as emblems of the Deity, and almost pay it divine honours. The bramins, who thus ' find a fane in every sacred grove,' spend much of their time in religious solitude, under the shade of the banian tree ; they plant it near their temples or pagodas ; and in those villages where there is no structure erected for public worship, they place an image under one of these trees, and there perform a morning and evening sacrifice. The natives of all castes and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy, impervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun. It is recorded that one of these trees shaded all the town of Fort St. David and Gom- broon. These are the trees under which a sect of naked philosophers, called Gymnosophists, assembled in Arrian's days, and this historian of ancient Greece presents a true pic- ture of the modern Hindoos. 'In winter,' he says, 'the Gymnosophists enjoy the benefit of the sun's rays in the open air; and, in summer, when the heat becomes excessive, they pass their time in cool and moist places, under large trees, which, according to the accounts of Nearchus, cover a cir- cumference of five acrcs^ and extend their branches so far, that te7i thousand men may easily find shelter under them.' " On the banks of the river Narbudda, in the province of Guzzerat, is a banian tree, supposed, by some persons, to be the one described by Nearchus, who commanded the fleet of NATURAL HISTORY. 129 Alexander the Great, and certainly not inferior to it. It is distinguished by the name of Cabbeer Burr, which was given it in honom- of a famous saint, Forbes, in his 'Oriental Me- moirs,' when speaking of the age of such trees, states that he smoked his hookha under the very banian beneath which part of Alexander's cavalry took shelter. High floods have, at various times, swept away a considerable part of this extra- ordinary tree; but what still remains is nearly two thousand feet in circumference, measured round the principal stems; the overhanging branches, not yet struck down, cover a much larger space ; and under it grow a number of custard-cipple and other fruit trees. The large truidvs of this single tree amount to three hundred and fifty; and the smaller ones ex- ceed three thousand ; every one of these is constantly sending forth branches and hanging roots to form other trunks, and become the parents of a future progeny. The Cubbeer Burr is famed throughout Hindostan, not only on account of its great extent, but also of its surpassing beauty. The Indian armies generally encamp around it; and at stated seasons, solemn Jatarras, or Hindoo festivals, to wdiich thousands of votaries repair from every part of the Mogul empire, are there celebrated. It is said that seven thousand persons find ample room to repose under its shade. It has long been the cust^Ma of the British residents in India, in their hunting and shooting parties, to form extensive encampments, and spend weeks to- gether, under this delightful and magnificent pavilion, which affords a shelter to all travellers, particularly to the religious tribes of the Hindoos. It is generally filled with greenwood pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered songsters — with monkeys, which both divert the spectator by their antic tricks, and interest him by the parental affection they display to their young offspring, in teaching them to select their food, and to exert themselves in jumping from bough to bough, — and is shaded by bats of a large size, many of them measuring upwards of six feet from the extremity of one wing to the other. This tree affords not only shelter, but sustenance, to all its inhabitants, being covered, amid its bright foliage, with small figs, of a rich scarlet, on which they all reo^ale with as much delight as the lords of creation on their more costly fare, in their parties of pleasure." The annexed figure will convey a general, though im- perfect idea of this singular tree, and of the manner in which the branches from the main body throw out their shoots, and form the numerous vistas which are found under its shade. 130 christian philosopher. Fig. 1-2. This tree, which is doubtless one of the most singular and magnificent objects in the vegetable kingdom, appears to be a world in miniature, in which thousands, both of human beings, and of the inferior tribes that traverse the earth and the air, mav find ample accommodation and subsistence. What a striking contrast does it present to the forests of trees, or mushrooms, which are perceived by the help of the micro- scope, in a piece of mouldiness — every plant of which is seve- ral hundreds of times smaller than the point of a fine needle , Yet both are the effects of the agency of the same all-wise and omnipotent Being. And what an immense variety of gradations is to be found in the vegetable world, between these two extremes — every part of the vast interval being filled up with flowers, herbs, shrubs, and trees, of every colour, form, and size, and in such vast multitudes and profusion that no man can number them ! An object, which approximates in a certain degree to the one now described, is mentioned in ' Staunton's Account of Macartney's Embassy to China,' p. 70. It is called, by bota- nists, Adansonia^ and is also known by the name of the monkey bread tree^ and was discovered in the island of St. .Tago. "The circumference, or girth of the base, was fifty- six feet, which soon divided into two vast branches, the one in a perpendicular direction, whose periphery, or girth, was forty-two feet, the other twenty-six. Another, of the same NATURAL HISTORY. 131 species, stood near it, whose single trunk, girthing ttiirty-eight feet, was scarcely noticed." The only other specimen I shall exhibit to the reader has a relation both the animal and to the vegetable kingdom, it is well known that the examination of flowers and vegetables, of every description, by the microscope, opens a new and in- teresting field of wonders to the inquiring naturalist. Sir John Hill has given the following curious account of what appeared on his examining a carnation : — " The principal flower in an elegant bouquet was a carna- tion ; the fragrance of this led me to enjoy it frequently and near. The sense of smelling was not the only one affected on these occasions ; while that was satiated with the powerful sweet, the ear was constantly attacked by an extremely soft, but agreeable murmuring sound. It was easy to know, that some animal within the covert must be the musician, and that the little noise must come from some little creature suited to produce it. I instantly distended the lower part of the flower, and placing it in a full light, could discover troops of little insects frisking, with wild jollity, among the narrow pedestals that supported its leaves, and the little threads that occupied its centre. What a fragrant world for their habitation ! What a perfect security from all annoyance, in the dusky husk that surrounded the scene of action ! Adapting a microscope to take in, at one view, the whole base of the flower, I gave my- self an opportunity of contemplating what they were about, and this for many days together, without giving them the least disturbance. Thus, I could discover their economy, their passions, and their enjoyments. The microscope, on this occasion, had given what nature seemed to have denied to the objects of contemplation. The base of the flower ex- tended itself, under its influence, to a vast plain ; the slender stems of the leaves became trunks of so many stately cedars ; the threads in the middle seemed columns of massy structure, supporting at the top their several ornaments ; and the narrow- spaces between were enlarged in walks, parterres, and terraces. On the polished bottoms of these, brighter than Parian mar- ble, walked in pairs, alone, or in larger companies, the winged inhabitants ; these, from little dusky flies, for such only the naked eye would have shown them, were raised to glorious glittering animals, stained with living purple, and with a glossy gold, that would have made all the labours of the loom contemptible in the comparison. I could, at leisure, as they walked together, admire their elegant limbs, their velvet shoulders^ and their silken wings; their backs vying with the 132 CHRISTIAN PIllLOSOrilER, empyrean in its blue; and their eyes, each formed of a thou- sand others, out-glittering the little planes on a brilliant; above description, and too great almost for admiration. 1 could ob- serve them here singling out their favourite females; courting thejn with the music of their buzzing wings, with little songs, formed for their little organs, leading them from walk to walk, among the perfumed shades, and pointing out to their taste, the drop of liquid nectar, just bursting from some vein within the living trunk — here were the perfumed groves, the more than mystic shades of the poet's fancy realized. Here the happy lovers spent their days in joyful dalliance, or, in the triumph of their little hearts, skipped after one another, from stem to stem, among the painted trees, or winged their short flight to the close shadow of some broader leaf, to revel un- disturbed in the heights of all felicity." This picture of the splendour and felicity of insect life, may, to certain readers, appear somewhat overcharged. But those who have been much in the habit of contemplating the beauties of the animal and vegetable world, through micro- scopes, can easily enter into all the views which are here de- scribed. 1 have selected this example, for the purpose of illus- trating the unbounded goodness of the Creator, in the vast profusion of enjoyment he has communicated even to the lowest tribes of animal existence, and as a specimen of those invisible worlds which exist beyond the range of our natural vision. For it appears, that there is a gradation of worlds downwards, as well as upwards. However small our globe may appear when compared with the sun, and with the im- mensity of starry systems wdiich lie dispersed through the in- finity of space, there are worlds filled with myriads of living beings, which, in point of size and extent, bear as small a proportion to the earth, as the earth bears to the vast assem- blage of the celestial worlds. A single flower, a leaf, or a drop of water, may appear as large, and as diversified in its structure, to some of the beings which inhabit it, as the whole earth appears to the view of man ; and a thousand scenes of magnificence and beauty may be presented to their siglit, of which no distinct conception can be formed by the human mind. The many thousands of transparent globes, of which their eyes are composed, may magnify and multiply the objects around them without end, so that an object scarcely visible to the eye of man, may appear to them as a vast extended universe. "Having examined," says St. Pierre, "one day, by a mi- croscope, the flowers of thyme, 1 distinguished in 'them, with equal surprise and delight, superb flagons with a long neck, NATURAL HISTORY. 133 of a substance resembling tlie amethyst, from tlie gullets of which seemed to flow ingots of liquid gold. I have never made observations of the corolla^ simply of the smallest flower, without finding it composed of an admirable substance, halt transparent, studded wiili brilliants, and shining in the most lively colours. The beings which live under a reflex thus en- riched, must have ideas very different from ours, of light and of the other phenomena of nature. A drop of dew, rilterhig in the capillary and transparent tubes of a plant, presents to them thousands of cascades ; the same drop fixed as a wave on the extremity of one of its prickles, an ocean without a shore; evaporated into air, a vast aerial sea. It is credible, then, from analogy, that there are animals feeding on the leaves of plants, like the cattle in our meadows and on our moun- tains, which repose under the shade of a down imperceptible to the naked eye, and which, from goblets formed like so many suns, quaff nectar of the color of gold and silver." Thus it appears, that the universe extends to infinity on either hand ; and that wherever matter exists, from the pon- derous globes of heaven down to the invisible atom, tliere the Almighty Creator has prepared habitations for countless orders of existence, from the seraph to the animalculum, in order to demonstrate his boundless beneficence, and the infinite variety of modes by which he can diflJ'use happiness through the uni- versal system. " How sweet to muse upon His skill, display'd — ' Infinite skill ! — in all that he has made, To trace in nature's most minute design The signature and stamp of Power Divine ; Contrivance exquisite, express'd with ease, Where unassisted sight no beauty sees; The shapely limb and lubricated joint, Within the small dimensions of a point ; Muscle and nerve miraculously spun, His mighty work, who speaks and it is done : Th' Invisible in things scarce seen reveal'd ; To whom an atom is an ample field !" — Cowfer. With regard to the religious tendency of the study of na- tural history, it may be remarked, that, as all the objects which it embraces are the loorkmanship of God^ the delineations and descriptions of the natural historian must be considered as "the history of the operations of the Creator;" or, in other words, so far as the science extends, " the history of the Crea- tor himself;" for the marks of his incessant agency, his power, wisdom, and beneficence, are impressed on every object, how- ever minute, throughout the three kingdoms of nature, and throughout every region of earth, air, and sky. As the Deity 12 134 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. is invisible to mortal eyes, and cannot be directly contem- plated by finite minds, without some material medium of com- munication, there are but two mediums with which we are acquainted, by which we can attain a knowledge of his nature and perfections. These are, either the fads which have oc- curred in the course of his providential dispensations towards our race, since the commencement of time, and the moral truths connected with them — or the facts which are displayed in the economy of nature. The first class of facts is recorded in the Sacred History, and in the annals of nations; the se- cond class is exhibited in the diversified objects and motions which appear throughout the system of the visible universe. The one may be termed the moral history, and the other the natural history of the operations of the Creator. It is obvi- ously incumbent on every rational being to contemplate the Creator through both these mediums, for each of them con- veys its distinct and peculiar revelations ; and consequently, our perceptions of Deity through the one medium, does not supersede the necessity of our contemplating him through the other. While therefore it is our duty to contemplate the per- fections, the providence, and the agency of God, as displayed in the Scripture revelation, it is also incumbent upon us to trace his attributes in the system of nature, in order that we may be enabled to contemplate the Eternal Jehovah, in every variety of aspect in which he has been pleased to exhibit him- self in the universe he has formed. The visible creation may be considered as a permanent and sensible manifestation of Deity; intended every moment to present to our view the unceasing energies of Him " in whom we live and move." And if the train of our thoughts were directed in its proper channel, we would perceive God in every object and in every movement; we would behold him operating in the whirlwind and in the storm; in the subter- raneous cavern and in the depths of the ocean ; in the gentle rain and the refreshing breeze ; in the rainbow, the fiery meteor, and the lightning's flash ; in the splendours of the sun and the majestic movements of the heavens ; in the frisking of the lambs, the songs of birds, and the buzz of insects ; in the circulation of our blood, the movements of our joints, the motion of our eyeballs, and in the rays of light which are continually darting from surrounding objects, for the purposes of vision. For these, and ten thousand other agencies in the system of nature, are nothing else but the voice of Deity, proclaiming to the sons of men, in silent but emphatic lan- guage, " Stand still, and consider the wonderful works of God." NATURAL HISTORY. 135 If, then, it be admitted, that the study of Nature is the study of the Creator — to overlook the grand and beautiful scenery with which we are surrounded, or to undervalue any thing which Infinite Wisdom has formed, is to overlook and contemn the Creator himself. Whatever God has thought proper to create, and to present to our view in the visible world, it be- comes man to study and to contemplate, that from thence he may derive motives to excite him to the exercise of reverence and adoration, of gratitude and praise. In so far as any indi- vidual is unacquainted with the various facts of the history of nature, in so far does he remain ignorant of the manifesta- tions of Deity ; for every object on the theatre of the universe exhibits his character and designs in a different point of view. He who sees God only as he displays himself in his operations on the earth, but has never contemplated the firmament with the eye of reason, must be unacquainted with those amazing energies of eternal power, which are displayed in the stu- pendous fabric and movements of the orbs of heaven. He who sees God only in the general appearances of nature, but neglects to penetrate into his minute operations, must remain ignorant of those astonishing manifestations of Divine wisdom and skill which appear in the contrivances, adaptations, and functions of the animal and the vegetable kingdoms. For the mure we know of the work, the more accurate and compre- hensive will be our views of the Intelligence by whom it was designed ; and the farther we carry our investigations of the works of God, the more admirable and astonishing will his plans and perfections appear. In short, a devout contemplation of the works of nature tends to ennoble the human soul, and to purify and exalt the affections. It inspires the mind with a relish for the beauty, the harmony, and order which subsists in the universe around us — it elevates the soul to the love and admiration of that Being who is the Author of all our comforts, and of all that is sublime and beneficent in creation, and excites us to join with all holy beings in a chorus of praise to the God and Father of all. For they " Whom nature's works can charm, with God himself Hold converse, grow famlHar, day by day, With his conceptions, act upon his plan, A.nd form to his the reUsh of their souls." The man who surveys the vast field of nature with the eye of reason and devotion, will not only acquire a more compre- hensive view of that illimitable power which organized the 136 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOFHER. universe, but will find his sources of enjoyment continually increased, and will feel an ardent desire after that glorious world, where tlie veil which now hides from our sight some of the grandest manifestations of Deity will be withdrawn, and the wonders of Omnipotence be displayed in all their splendour and perfection. in conformity with these sentiments, we find the inspired writers, in numerous instances, calling our attention to the Monders of creating power and Avisdom. Jn one of the first speeches in which the Almighty is introduced as addressing the sons of men, and the longest one in the Bible,* our atten- tion is exclusively directed to the subjects of natural history ; — the whole address having a reference to the economy of^ Divine wisdom in the arrangement of the world at its first creation — the wonders of the ocean, and of light and dark- ness — the phenomena of thunder and lightning, rain, hail, snow, frost, and other meteors in the atmosphere — the intel- lectual faculties of man, and the economy and instincts of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and other tribes of animated existence. Indeed, the greater part of the sublime descriptions contained in the Book of Job, has a direct reference to the agency of God in the material creation, and to the course of his provi- dence in relation to the difterent characters of men ; and the reasonings of the different speakers in that sacred drama proceed on the supposition, that their auditors were intimately acquainted with the varied appearances of nature, and their tendency to exhibit the character and perfections of the Om- nipotent Creator. We find the Psalmist, in Psalm civ., em- ployed in a devout description of similar objects, from the contemplation of which his mind is raised to adoring views of their Almighty Author — and, from the whole of his survey, he deduces the following conclusions : — " How manifold are tliy works, O Lord ! In wisdom thou hast made them all ! The earth is full of thy riches ; so is this great and wide sea, Avherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. The glory of the Lord shall endure for ever; the Lord shall rejoice in all his works.f 1 wdll sing unto the * Job, chaps, xxxviii, xxxix, xl, xli. t '^I'he glory of the Lord, in this passage, denotes the display of his per- fections in the material universe ; and the declaration of the inspired writer plainly intimates, that this display will continue for ever, and will remain as an object of unceasing contemplation to all intelligences, and as an eternal monument of his power and wisdom. For although the earth and the aerial heavens will be changed at the close ot that dispensation of Providence which respects our world, yet (he general frame of the uni- verse, in its other parts, will remain substantially the same ; and not only NATURAL HISTORY. " 137 Lord as long as 1 live ; I will sing praises to my God while I have my being," But in order to enter into the spirit of such sublime reflec- tions, we must not content ourselves with a superficial and cursory view of the objects and operations of nature, — we must not think it sufficient to acquiesce in such vague propo- tions as these : — '- The glory of God is seen in every bjade of grass, and every drop of water; all nature is full of wonders, from the dust of the earth to the stars of the firma- ment." We must study the works of creation with ardour, survey them with minute attention, and endeavour to acquire a specific and comprehensive knowledge of the Creator's de- signs. We must endeavour to acquire a knowledge of the particular modes, circumstances, contexture, configurations, adaptations, structure, functions, and relations of those objects in which benevolence and design conspicuously appear — in the animal and the vegetable world, in the ocean, the atmo- sphere, and the heavens ; that the mind may be enabled to draw the conclusion with full conviction and intelligence — " In wisdom thou hast made them all .'" The pointed interrogato- ries which Jehovah addressed to Job, evidently imply that Job had previously acquired an intimate acquaintance with the works of nature. It seems to be taken for granted, as a matter of course, that he had made himself acquainted with the general range of facts in the visible creation ; and the intention of the several questions presented to his consideration evidently was, to impress him with a sense of his own impotency, and to lead him to the investigation of the wonders of the creating power, which he had formerly overlooked. The conclusion which the Psalmist draws respecting the wisdom displayed throughout all the works of God, plainly intimates, that he had made the different parts of nature the subject of minute examination and of deep reflection ; otherwise he could not have rationally deduced his conclusion, or felt those emotions which filled his mind with the pious rapture so beautifully expressed in that hymn of praise to the Creator of the world. We have therefore reason to believe, from these and other instances, that pious men, " in the days of old," were much more accustomed than modern Christians to contemplate and admire the visible works of the Lord ; and it is surely much to be regretted, that we, who enjoy so many superior means so, but will, in all probability, be perpetually increasing in magnitude and grandeur. And the change which will be effected in respect to the terra- queous globe and its appendages, will be such that Jehovah will have reason to " rejoice" in this, as well as in all his other works. 12* 138 CHRISTIAX PHILOSOniER. of information, and who have access to the brilliant disco- veries of later and more enlightened times, should manifest so much disregard to " the works of Jehovah, and the operations of his hands." To enable the common mass of Christians to enter into the spirit of this delightful study and Christian dufy, should, therefore, be one object of those periodical and other religious works which are put into their hands ; so that they may be enabled, with vigour and intelligence, to form the pious resolution of Asaph, " I will meditate on all thy works, O Lord ! and talk of thy doings." " 1 will utter abundantly the memory of thy great goodness, and tell of all thy wondrous works." GEOGRAPHY. The next department of knowledge I shall notice is the science of geography. The object of this science is, to describe the world we in- habit, in reference to the continents, islands, mountains, oceans, seas, rivers, empires and kingdoms with which it is diversified, together with the manners, customs, and religions of the dif- ferent tribes which people its surface. In order to form an accurate conception of the relative posi- tions of objects on the surface of the earth, and to enter, with intelligence, on the study of this subject, it is requisite, first of all, to have an accurate idea of its figure and magnitude. For a long series of ages, it was supposed, by the bulk of mankind, that the surface of the earth was nearly a plane, in- definitely extended, and bounded on all sides by the sky. Laclantius, and several of the fathers of the Christian church, strenuously argued, that the earth was extended infinitely downwards, and established upon several foundations. The ancient philosopher Heraclitus is said to have believed, that the earth was of the shape of a skiff or canoe, very much hol- lowed ; and the philosopher Leucippus supposed it to be of the form of a cylinder or a drum, h is only within the period of the last three hundred years that the true figure of the earth has-been accurately ascertained. This figure is now found to be that of an oblate spheroid, nearly approaching to the shape of a globe or sphere. To have asserted this opinion several ages ago, M'ould have been considered as a heresy in religion, and would have subjected its abettors to the anathemas of the church, and even to the peril of their lives. Historians inform us, that the learned Spigelius, bishop of Upsal in Sweden, suf- fered martrydom at the stake, in defence of the doctrine of the GEOGRAPHY. 139 antipodes ; and we know that, for asserting the motion of the earth, the celebrated philosopher Galileo was immured in a dungeon, and condemned by an assembly of cardinals to all the horrors of perpetual imprisonment. The doctrin-e he maintained, and which is now universally received, by every one acquainted with the subject, was declared by these arro- gant ecclesiastics to be " a proposition absurd in its very nature, false in philosophy, heretical in religion, and contrary to the Holy Scriptures." Such are some of the horrible and perni- cious consequences which flow from ignorance of the pheno- mena of nature, and of those laws by which the Almighty governs the universe he has formed ; and which prove it to be a Christian duty for every rational being to study the order and economy of the visible world. That the earth is nearly of the globular figure is proved by the following considerations : — 1. When we stand on the sea- shore, while the sea is perfectly calm, we perceive that the surface of the water is not quite plane, but convex or rounded; and if we are on one side of an arm of the sea, as the Frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the water, look toward the op- posite coast, we shall plainly see the water elevated between our eyes and the opposite shore, so as to prevent our seeing the land near the edge of the water. The same experiment may be made on any portion of still water, of a mile or two in extent, when its convexity will be perceived by the eye. A little boat, for instance, may be perceived by a man who is any height above the water, but if he stoops down, and lays his eye near the surface, he will find that the fluid appears to rise, and intercept the view of the boat. 2. If we take our station on the sea-shore, and view the ships leaving the coast, in any direction — as they retire from our view, we may per- ceive the masts and rigging of the vessels when the hulls are out of sight, and, as it were, sunk in the water. On the other hand, when the ship is approaching the shore, the first part of her that is seen is the topmast ; as she approaches nearer, the sails become visible, and, last of all, the hull comes gradu- ally into view.* The reason of s-uch appearances obviously is, that the round or convex surface of the water interposes between our eye and the body of die ship, when she has reached a certain distance, while, at the same time, the sails d topmast, from their great elevation, may be still in view. an * In order to make such observations to advantage, the observer's eye should be, as near as possible, on a level with the sea, and he should use a telescope to enable him to perceive more distinctly the upper parts of the vessel. 140 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. To the same cause it is owing, that the higher the eye is placed, the more extensive is the prospect ; and hence it is common for sailors to climb to the tops of masts, in order to discover land or ships at a distance. The contrary of all this would take place, if the earth and waters were an extended plane. When a ship came within view, the hull would first make its appearance, being the largest object, next the sails, and last of all the topmast. These considerations, which hold true in all parts of the world, prove to a certainty, that the mass of the ocean is of a globular form ; and if the ocean be a portion of a sphere, it follows, that the land also is of the same general figure; for no portion of the earth's surface is elevated above four or five miles above the level of the ocean. 3. That the earth is round from north to south, appears from the following circumstances : — When we travel a considerable distance from north to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, and many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a plane, in that direction. 4. That the earth is round, from east to west, appears from actual experiment ; for many navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, have gone quite round it, from east to west; and were it not for the frozen seas, within the polar regions, which interrupt navigation in those directions, it would, long ere now, have been circum- navigated from north to south. 5. All these proofs are con- firmed and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rotundity. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the body of the earth between the sun and the moon ; in which case, the shadow of the earth falls upon the moon. This shadow is found in all cases, and in every position of the earth, to be of a circular figure; which incontrovertibly proves, that the whole mass of land and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly of a globular form. The mountains and vales which diversify its surface, detract little or nothing from its globular shape ; for they bear no more proportion to its whole bulk than a few grains of sand to a common terrestrial globe ; the highest mountains on its surface being little more than the two-thousandih part of its diameter. Some of the mountains on the surface of the moon are higher than those on the earth, and yet that body appears, both to the naked eye, and through telescopes, of a spherical figure. To some readers, the discovery of the true figure of the earth may appear as a matter of very trivial importance in GEOGRAPHY. 141 religion. 1 hesitate not, however, to affirm, that it constitutes a most important flict in the history of Divine Providence. Had not this discovery been made, it is probable that the vast continent of America might yet have remained undis- covered ; for Columbus, who first discovered the new world, had learned, contrary to the general opinion of those times, that tlie earth was of a spherical figure ; and, from the maps then existing, he began to conjecture, that the nearest way of sailing to the East Indies would be to sail westward. And, although he missed the object of his research, he was the means of laying open to view a vast and unknown region of the earth, destined, in due time, to receive from the eastern world, the blessings of knowledge, civilization, and reHgion. On the knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth, the art of navigation in a great measure depends ; and all the voyages of discovery, which have been made in later years, were undertaken in consequence of the knowledge of this fact. Had mankind remained unacquainted with this disco- very, the circumnavigation of the globe would never have been attempted — vast portions of the habitable world would have remained unknown and nnexplored — no regular inter- course would have been maintained between the various tribes of the human race, and consequently, the blessings of divine revelation could never have been communicated to the greater part of the Gentile world. Besides, the knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of our sublunary world, forms the ground work of all the sublime discoveries which have hitlier- to been made in the regions of the firmament. For its dia- meter forms the base-line of those triangles by which the distances and magnitudes of the celestial globes have been determined,* without a knowledge of the extent of which, * In order that the general reader may understand what is meant by "the diameter of the earth forming the base-line of those triangles by which the distances, &c., of the heavenly bodies are measured," it may not be unnecessary to state the following explanations. In any triangle, as A B C, if the length of the side A B be known, and likewise the quantity of the angles at A and B, or the number of degrees or minutes they subtend, be ascertained, we can find the length of the sides A C and B C. If A B represent a horizontal plane, 100 feet in extent, and C B a tower whose height we wish to determine, and if, with a quadrant, we find the angle at A, or C A B, to be 43 degrees ; then, by an easy trigonometrical process — Radius: is to the tangent of A, 43°: : as the side A B, 100 feet : is to the height of the tower C B, which, in this case, will be found to be 93$ feet. It is on tliis general principle that the distances and magnitudes of the celestial bodies are determined. But, in all cases where we wish to ascertain the dimensions of the different parts of a triangle — -one side, at least, must be given, along with two angles, otherwise the length of the 142 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. the important results which have been deduced, respecting the system of the universe, could not have been ascertained, and consequently, our views of the grandeur and omnipotence of the Deity, and of the magniticence and extent of his dominions, must have been much more circumscribed than they now are. Such is the intimate connexion that subsists between every part of the chain of Divine dispensations, that if any one link had been eidier broken or dissolved, the state of things, in the moral and intellectual world, would have been very different from what it now is ; and the plans of Providence, for ac- complishing the renovation and improvement of mankind, would have been either partially or totally frustrated. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. different sides of the triangle cannot be determined. No\y, in measuring the distance of a heavenly body, such as the moon, the diameter or semi- diameter of the earth is the kjioivn side of the triangle by which such a dis- tance is to be found. In fig. 14, let E C represent the earth, M the mooii, and A B a portion of the starry firmament. If a spectator at the earth's surface at E view the moon in the horizon, it will appear in the line E M, among the stars at H. But, if viewed from the centre of the earth at C, or from the surface at D, it will appear in the line C D M, among the stars at 8. TL'he difference of position in which the moon is seen, as viewed from the surtace of the earth E, and the centre C, is called the moon's horizontal parallax, or the arc S H, which is subtended by the angle S M H, which is equal to the angle E M C In determinmg the distance of the moon, therefore, we must first find, by observation, the horizontal parallax, or, in other words, the angle EMC; and the side E C, or the semi-diameter of the earth being known to be about four thou- sand miles in extent, forms the base-line oi the triangle E M C,and hence the other sides of the triangle E M and C M, or the distance of the moon from the earth, can be found by an easy calculation. From what has been now stated, it will appear that, were we ignorant of the figure and magnitude of the earth, we could not ascertain the dis- tance of the moon or any other celestial body. In the above explanation I have merely staled the jn-inriple, on which astrononiers proceed in mea- suring the distances ot bodies in the heavens, without descending into details. For a more particular explanation and illustration of this subject, the reader is referred to the author's work entitled " Celestial Scenery," chap, vii., where the subject is pretty fully and popularly treated. GEOGRAPHY. 143 With regard to the magnitude of the earth — I have ah-eady stated the mode by which we may acquire the most accurate and comprehensive conception of this particular, in the course of the ilhistrations which were given of the omnipotence of Deity, — (pp. 32 — 61.) It is necessary here only to remark, that, according to the latest computations, the diameter of t!ie - earth is about 7930 miles, and its circumference 24,912 miles ; and consequently, the whole surface of the land and water it contains, comprehends an area of 197,552,160 miles. The proportion of land and water on its surface cannot be very accurately ascertained; but it is quite evident, from an inspection of a map of the world, that the water occupies at least two-thirds of its surface, and of course, the land cannot occupy more than one-third. Supposing it to be only one- fourth of the earth's surface, it will contain 49,388,040 square miles, which is considerably more than what is stated in most of our late systems of geography; in some of which the ex- tent of the land is rated at thirty-nine millions, and in others, so low as thirty millions of square miles — the former of which statements being less than one-fifth, and the latter less than one-sixth of the surface of the globe. But it is quite obvious, that the extent of the land cannot be less than one-fourth the area of the globe, and must, therefore, com- prehend at least about fifty millions of square miles, and if a large arctic continent, eleven hundred leagues in length, exist around the north pole, as some French philosophers infer, from Captain Parry's late discoveries* — the quantity of land on the terraqueous globe will be much greater than wiiat has now been stated. General divisioxs of the earth. — The surface of the earth is divided, from north to south, by two bands of earth, and two of water. The first band of earth is the ancient or eastern continent, comprehending Europe, Asia, and Africa; the greatest length of which is found to be in a line beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the cape of Good Hope, which measures about ten thousand miles, in a direction nearly from north- east to south-west ; but if measured according to the meri- dians, or from north to south, it extends only seven thousand five hundred miles, from the northernmost cape in Lapland to the cape of Good Hope. This vast body of land contains about thirty-six millions of square miles, forming nearly one- fifth of the whole surface of the globe. The other band of *See Monthly Magazine, April, 1833, p. 259. 144 CHRISTIAxX PHILOSOPHER. earth is what is commonly called the new continent, which comprehends North and South America. Its greatest length lies in aline beginning at the month of the river Plata, pass- ing through the island of Jamaica, and terminating beyond Hudson's %ay; and it measures about eight thousand miles. This body of land contains about fourteen millions of square miles, or "somewhat more than a third of the old continent. It may not be improper here to remark, that the two lines now mentioned, which measure the greatest length of the two continents, divide them into two equal parts, so that an equal portion of land lies on each side of these lines, and that each of the lines has an inclination of about thirty de- grees to the equator, but in opposite directions ; that of the old continent extending from the north-east to the south- west- and that of the new continent, from the north-west to the south-east; and that they both terminate at the same degree of northern latitude. It may also be noticed, that the old and new continents are almost opposite to each other, and that the old is more extensive to the north of the equator, and the new more extensive to the south. The centre of the old continent is in the 17ih degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new, in the 17th degree of south latitude; so that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other, in order to 'preserve the equability of the diurnal rotation of the earth. There is also a singular connexion between the two continents, namely, that if they Avere divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, were it not for the two small necks of land called the isthmuses of Suez and Panama.* Between the two continents now mentioned lie two im- mense bands of water, termed the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans, whose greatest length is likewise in a direction from north to south. Besides the two bands of earth to which I have adverted, many extensive portions of land are dispersed through the ocean, which covers the remaining part of the earth's surface: particularly the extensive regions of New Holland, which oc- cupy a space nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and the Arctic continent, wiiich probably exists within the north polar regions, and which some French writers propose to designate by the name of Borcasia^ is, in all probability, of equal extent. H'here are also the extensive islands of New Guinea, Borneo. Madagascar, Sumatra, Japan, Great Britain, New Zealand, * See BufTon's Natural History, Vol. i. GEOGRAPHY. 145 Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and thousands of others, of dif- ferent dimensions, scattered through the Pacific, the Indian, and the Atlantic oceans, and which form a very considerable portion of the habitable regions of the globe. GexNERal features of the earth's surface. — In tak- ing a general survey of the external features of the earth, the most prominent objects that strike the eye are those huge elevations which rise above the level of its general surface, termed hills and mountains. These are distributed in various forms and sizes, through every portion of the continents and islands ; and, running into immense chains, form a sort of connecting band to the other portions of the earth's surface. The largest mountains are generally formed into immense chains, which extend, in nearly the same direction, for several hundreds, and even thousands of miles. It has been observed, by some philosophers, that the most lofty mountains form two immense ridges or belts, which, with some interruptions, ex- tend around the whole globe, in nearly the same direction. One of these ridges lies between the 45th and 55th degrees of north latitude. Beginning on the western shores of France and Spain, it extends eastward, including the Alps and Pyre- nees, in Europe, the Uralian and Altaic mountains, in Asia — extending from thence to the shores of KamtschatUa, and, after a short interruption from the sea, they rise again on the west- ern coast of America, and terminate at Canada, near the eastern shore. It is supposed that the chain is continued completely round the globe, through the space that is covered by the Atlantic ocean, and that the Azores, and other islands in that direction, are the only summits that are visible, till we come to the British isles. The other ridge runs along the southern hemisphere, between the 20th and 30th degrees of south lati- tude, of which detached portions are found in the mountains of Tucuman and of Paraguay, in South America ; of Mono- motapa and Caffraria, in Africa ; in New Holland, New Cale- donia, the New Hebrides, the Friendly, the Society, and other islands in the Pacific ocean. From these ridges flow a variety of ramifications, in both hemispheres, towards the equator and the poles, which altogether present a magnificent scenery, which diversifies and enlivens the surface of our globe. The highest mountains in the v.-orld, according to some late accounts published in the " Transactions of the Asiatic So- ciety," are the Himalaya chain, north of Bengal, on the bor- ders of Thibet. The highest mountain in this range is stated to be about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles in per- pendicular height, and is visible at the distance of 230 miles. 13 146 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. Nineteen different mountains in this chain are stated to be above four miles in perpendicular elevation. Next to the Hima- layas, are the Andes, in South America, which extend more than 4000 miles in length, from the province of Quito to the straits of Magellan. The highest summit of the Andes is Chimboracco, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly four miles, above the level of the sea. The highest mountains in Europe ate the Alps, which run through Switzerland and the north of Italy, — the Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, and the Dofrafield, which divide Norway from Sweden. The most elevated ridges of Asia are Mount Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, Ararat, the Uralian, the Altaian, and the mountains of Japan, — in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the Mountains of the Moon. Some of the mountains in these ranges are found to contain immense caverns or perforations, of more than two miles in circumference, reaching from their summits to an im- measurable depth in the bowels of the earth. From these dreadful openings are frequently thrown up, to an immense height, torrents of fire and smoke, rivers of melted metals, clouds of ashes and cinders, and sometimes red hot stones and enormous rocks, to the distance of several miles, accom- panied with thunders, lightnings, darkness, and horrid subter- raneous sounds — producing the most terrible devastations through all the surrounding districts. The most noted moun- tains of this kind in Europe are mount Hecla, in Iceland ; Etna, in Sicily; and Vesuvius, near the city of Naples, in Italy. Numbers of volcanoes are also to be found in South America, in Africa, in the islands of the Indian ocean, and in the empire of Japan.* We, who live in Great Britain, where the highest mountain is little more than three quarters of a mile in perpendicular elevation, can form no adequate idea of the magnificence and awful sublimity of the mountain scenery in some of the coun- tries now mentioned; especially when the volcano is belching forth its flames with a raging noise, and spreading terror and desolation around its base. From the tops of the lofty ridges of the Andes, the most grand and novel scenes sometimes burst upon the eye of the astonished traveller. He beholds the upper surface of the clouds far below him, covering the subjacent plain, and surrounding, like a vast sea, the foot of the mountain; while the place on which he stands appears like an island in the midst of the ocean. He sees the light- * A more particular description of the phenomena of these terrific ob- jects will be found in chap. iv. sect. 2 GEOGRAPHY. 147 nings issuing from the clouds, and hears the noise of the tem- pest, and the thunders rolling far beneath his feet, while all is serene around him, and the blue vault of heaven appears with- out a cloud. At other times, he contemplates the most sub- lime and extensive prospects— mountains ranged around him, covered with eternal snows, and surrounding, like a vast am- phitheatre, the plains below — rivers winding from their sources towards the ocean— cataracts dashing headlong over tremen- dous cliffs — enormous rocks detached from their bases, and rolling down the declivity of the mountains with a noise louder than thunder — frightful precipices impending over his head — unfathomable caverns yawning from below — and the distant volcano sending forth its bellowings, with its top enveloped in fire and smoke. Those who have studied nature on a grand scale, have always been struck with admiration and astonish- ment, at the sublime and awful exhibition of wonders which mountainous regions exhibit; and perhaps there is no terrestrial scene which presents, at one view, so many objects of over- powering magnitude and grandeur, and which inspires the mind with so impressive an idea of the power of that Almighty Being, who " weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing." The ocean, — The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, and penetrates into the interior parts of different countries, sometimes by large openings, and frequently by small straits. Could the eye take in this immense sheet of waters at one view, it would appear the most august object under the vvhole heavens. It occupies a space on the surface of the globe at least three times greater than that which is occupied by the land; comprehending an extent of one hundred and forty- eight millions of square miles. Though the ocean, strictly speaking, is but one immense body of waters, extending in different directions, yet different names have been appropriated to different portions of its surface. That portion of its waters which rolls between the western coast of America, and the eastern shores of Asia, is called the Pacific ocean : and that portion which separates Europe and Africa from America, the Atlantic ocean. Other portions are termed the JVorthern, Southern^ and Indian oceans. When its waters penetrate into the land, they form what are called gulfs, and me- diterranean seas. But without following it through all its windings and divisions, I shall simply state a few general facts. With regard to the depth of this body of water, no certain conclusions have yet been formed. Beyond a certain depth, l^S CllRISTIA.'^ PHILOSOPHER. it has hitherto been found unfathomable. We know, in gene- ral, that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave the shore; but we have reason to believe that this increase of depth continues only to a certain distance. The numerous islands, scattered every where through the ocean, demonstrate that the bott(MU of the waters, so far from uniformly sinking, sometimes rises into lofty mountains. It is highly probable, that the depth of the sea is somewhat in proportion to the elevation of the land ; for there is some reason to conclude, that the present bed of the ocean formed the inhabited part of the ancient world, previous to the general deluge, and that we are now occupying the bed of the former ocean ; and if so, its greatest depth will not exceed four or five miles ; for there is no mountain that rises higher above the level of the sea. But the sea has never been actually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and sixty-six feet. Aloug the coast its depth has always been found proportioned to the height of the sliore ; where the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep; but where the coast is low, the water is shallow. To calculate the quantiiy of loater it contains, we must there- fore suj)pose a medium depth. If we reckon its average depth at two miles, it will contain two hundred and ninety- six millions of cubical miles of water. We shall have a more specitic idea of this enormous mass of water, if we consider, that it is sufficient to cover the whole globe, to the height of more than eight thousand feet; and if this water were reduced to one spherical mass, it would form a globe of more than eight hundred miles in diameter. With regard to its bottom — As the sea covers so great a portion of the globe, we should, no doubt, by exploring its interior recesses, discover a vast number of interesting objects. So far as the bed of the ocean has been explored, it is found to bear a great resemblance to the surface of the dry land : being, like it, full of plains, caverns, rocks, and mountains, some of which are abrupt and almost perpendicular, while others rise with a gentle acclivity, and sometimes tower above the water, and form islands. The materials, too, which com- pose the bottom of the sea, are the same which form the bases of the dry land. It also resembles the land in another re- markable particular; — many fresh springs, and even rivers, rise out of it; an instance of which occurs near Goa, on the weastern coast of Ilindostan, and in the Mediterranean sea, not far from JVIarseilles. The sea sometimes assumes different colours. The materials which compose its bottom, cause it to reflect different hues in different places ; and its appearance GEOGRAPHY. 149 is also affected by the winds and by the sun, while the clouds that pass over it communicate all their varied and fleeting colours. When the sun shines, it is green; when he gleams through a fog, it is yellow ; near the poles, it is black ; while in the torrid zone, its colour is often brown ; and, on certain occasions, it assumes a luminous appearance, as if sparkling with fire. The ocean has three kinds of motions. The first is that undulation which is produced by the wind, and which is en- tirely confined to its surface. It has been ascertained that this motion can be destroyed, and its surface rendered smooth, by throwing oil upon its waves. The second motion is that continual tendency which the whole water in the sea has to- wards the west, which is greater near the equator than to- ward the poles. It begins on the west side of America, where it is moderate ; but as the waters advance westward, their motion is accelerated ; and, after having traversed the globe, they return, and strike with great violence on the eastern shore of South America. Being slopped by that continent, they rush, with impetuosity, into the gulf of Mexico, thence they proceed along the coast of North America, till they come to the south side of the great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off and run down through the western isles. This motion is most probably owing to the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, which is in a direction contrary to the motion of the sea. The third motion of the sea is the fi^e, which is a regular swell of the ocean every twelve and a half hours. This motion is now ascertained to be owing to the attractive influence of the moon, and also partly to that of the sun. There is always a flux and reflux at the same time, in two parts of the globe, and these are opposite to each other; so that when our antipodes have high water, we have the same. When the attractive powers of the sun and moon act in the same direction, which happens at the time of new and full moon, we have the highest, or spring tides ; but when their attraction is opposed to each other, vvhich happens at the quarters, we have the lowest or neap tides. Such is the ocean, a most stupendous scene of Omni- potence, which forms the most magnificent feature of the globe we inhabit. When we stand on the sea-shore, and cast our eyes over the expanse of its waters, till the sky and the waves seem to mingle, all that the eye can take in at one survey, is but an inconsiderable speck., less than the hundred-thousandth part of the whole of this vast abyss. If every drop of water 13* 150 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. can be divided into 26 millions of distinct parts, as some phi- losophers have demonstrated,* what an immense assemblage of watery particles must be contained in the unfathomable caverns of the ocean! Here the powers of calculation are completely set at defiance ; and an image of infinity, immen- sity, and endless duration, is presented to the mind. This mighty expanse of waters is the grand reservoir of nature, and the source of evaporation, which enriches the earth with fertility and verdure. Every cloud which floats in the atmo- sphere, and every fountain, and rivulet, and flowing stream, are indebted to this inexhaustible source for those watery trea- sures which they distribute through every region of the land. In fine, whether we consider the ocean as rearing its tremen- dous billows in the midst of the tempest, or as stretched out into a smooth expanse — whether we consider its immeasura- ble extent, its mighty movements, or the innumerable beings Avhich glide through its rolling waves — we cannot but be struck with astonishment at the grandeur of that Omnipotent Being who holds its waters in the "hollow of his hand," and who has said to its foaming surges, "Hitherto shall thou come, and no farther ; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed." Rivers — The next feature of the earth's surface which may be noticed is the rivers with which it is indented in every direction. These are exceedingly numerous, and seem to form as essential a part in the constitution of our globe, as the mountains from which they flow, and as the ocean to which they direct their course. It is reckoned, that in the old con- tinent, there are only about 430 rivers, which fall directly into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and the Black seas ; but in the new continent, there are only about 145 rivers known, which fall directly into the sea. In this enumeration, however, only the great rivers are included, such as the Thames, the Danube, the Wolga, and the Rhone. Besides these, there are many thousands of streams of smaller dimensions, wliich, rising from the mountains, wind in every direction, till they fall into the large rivers, or are carried into tlie ocean. The largest rivers in Europe are — the Wolga, which, rising in the northern parts of Russia, runs a course of 1700 miles, till it falls into the Caspian sea — the Danube, whose course is 1300 miles, from the mountains in Switzerland to the Black sea — and the Don, which runs a course of 1200 miles. The great- * The (leinonstration of tliis proposiiion may be seen in Nieuwcntyt's Religious Fhilosopher, vol. iii> p. 852. GEOGRAPHY, 151 est rivers in Asia are — the Hoanho, in China, whose course is 2400 miles — the Boorhampooter, the Euphrates, and the Ganges. The h-)ngest river in Africa is the Nile, the course of which is estimated at 2000 miles, hi the continent of America, the rivers appear to be formed on the grandest scale, both as to the length of their course and the vast body of waters which they pour into the ocean. The Amazons, the largest river in the world, runs a course of above 3000 miles across the continent of South America, till it falls into the Atlantic ocean, where it discharges a body of waters 150 miles in breadth. Next to this is the river St. Lawrence, which is more than 2400 miles from its mouth through the lake of Ontario to the lake Alempigo and the Assiniboils ; and the rivers La Plata and Mississippi, each of whose courses is not less than 2000 miles. When we consider the number and the magnitude of these majestic streams, it is evident, that an enormous mass of water is continually pouring into the ocean from every direction. From observations which have been made on the river Po, which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long and 120 broad, it is found, that it moves at the rate of four miles an hour, is 1000 feet broad and 10 feet in depth, and consequently, supplies the sea with 5068 millions of cubical feet of water in a day, or a cubical mile in 29 days. On the supposition that the quantity of water which the sea receives from the great rivers in all countries, is proportional to the extent and surface of these countries, it will follow, that the quantity of waters carried to the sea by all the other rivers on the globe, is 1083 times greater than that furnished by the Po, (supposing the land, as formerly stated, to contain about 49 millions of square miles,) and will supply the ocean with 13,630 cubical miles of water in a year. Now reckoning the ocean, as formerly, to contain 296 millions of cubical miles of water, this last number divided by the former, will give a quotient of 21,716. Hence it appears, that, were the ocean completely drained of its waters, it would require more than hcenty thousand years* before its caverns could be again completely filled by all the rivers in the world running into it, at their present rate. Here two questions will naturally occur — Whence do the * Buffon makes this result to be 812 years, in which he is followed by Goldsmith, and most subsequent writers ; but he proceeds on the false assumption, that the ocean covers only half the surface of the globe, and that it contains only 85 millions of square miles, and he estimates the average depth of the ocean to be only 440 yards, or one fourth of a mile. 152 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. rivers receive so constant a supply of water ? and, Why has not the ocean long ago overflowed the world, since so prodi- gious a mass of water is continually flowing into its abyss ? This was a difficulty which long puzzled philosophers; but it is now satisfactorily solved, from a consideration of the effects of evaporation. By the heat of the sun, the particles of water are drawn up into the atmosphere, from the surface of the ocean, and float in the air in the form of clouds or vapour. These vapours are carried, by the winds, over the surface of the land, and are again condensed into water on the tops and the sides of the mountains, which, gliding down into their crevices and caverns, at length break out into springs, a num- ber of which meeting in one common valley, become a river; and many of these united together, at length form such streams as the Tay, the Thames, the Danube, and the Rhine. That evaporation is sufficient to acconut for this effect, has been demonstrated by many experiments and calculations. It is found, that from the surface of the Mediterranean sea, which contains 762,000 square miles, there are drawn up into the air every day, by evaporation, 5280 millions of tons of water, while the rivers which flow into it yield only 1827 millions of tons, in the same time; so that there is raised in vapour from the Mediterranean nearly three times the quantity of water which is poured into it by all its rivers. One-third of this falls into the sea before it reaches the land ; another part falls on the low lands, for the nourishment of plants ; and the other third part is quite sufficient to supply the sources of all the rivers which run into the sea. This is in full conformity to what was long ago stated by an inspired naturalist: "All the rivers run into the sea, and yet the sea is not full ; unto the place from whence the rivers came, thither do they return again ;" but, before they regain their former place they make a circuit over our heads through the regions of the atmo- sphere. Such are the varied movements and transformations which are incessantly going on in the rivers, the ocean, and the atmosphere, in order to preserve the balance of nature, and to supply the necessities of the animal and vegetable tribes ; all under the agency and direction of Him who "formed the sea and the dry land," and who has arranged all things in num- ber, weight, and measure, to subserve the purposes of his will. Rivers serve many important purposes in the economy of our globe. They carry off thp redundant waters which fall in rains, or which ooze from the springs, which might other- wise settle into stagnant pools ; they supply to the seas the GEOGRAPHY. 153 loss of waters occasioned by their daily evaporation ; they cool the air, and give it a gentle circulation; they fertilize the countries through which they flow; their waters afford a wholesome drink, and the fishes they contain a delicious food for the nourishment of man ; they facilitate commerce, by conveying the productions of nature and art from the inland countries to the sea; they form mechanical powers for driv- ing machinery of different kinds ; they enliven and diversify the scenery of the countries through which they pass ; and the cataracts which they frequently form among the mountains, present us with scenes the most picturesque and sublime ; so that every part of the constitution of nature is rendered sub- servient both to utility and to pleasure. Waiving the consideration of other particulars^ I shall simply state some of the artificial divisions of the earth, and two or three facts respecting its inhabitants. The LAND has generally been divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, to which has been lately added the division called Australasia, which comprehends, New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, Van Dieman's Land, and several other islands in the Pacific ocean. Europe comprehends the following countries — Norwny, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Prussia, Germany, Austria, Tur- key, Italy, Switzerland, France, Holland, Belgium, or the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain and Ireland, together with the islands of Sicily, Malta, Candia, Corsica, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, Zealand, Funen, Gothland, , Iceland, and several others of smaller note. Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions of the globe. Its greatest extent is from north-east to south-west, namely, from the mouth of the Kara, in N. Lat. 68° 40' to the rock of Lisbon, in N. Lat. 38° 45', which is computed at three thousand four hundred British miles. Its greatest breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the North Cape of Norway, is computed at 2,350 miles. Its superficial con- tents have been computed at 3,650,000 square miles, or 2,336,000,000 English acres, reckoning 640 to the square mile. Its form is singularly broken and varied, being split into many distinct portions, peninsulas and large islands with ex- tended and winding coasts, which arises chiefly from the num- ber of its inland seas, of which the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the Black sea, are the most important. Its rivers are numerous, the largest of which are the Rhine, the Rhone, the Wolga and the Danube. Its fnoimtaiiis do not reach that stupendous height nor extend in such unbroken chains as 154 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. those of Asia and America. Its highest ranges are the Alps and Pyrenees, the Appenines in Italy, and the Dofraiield, in Norway. Its lakes^ though numerous, are comparatively small ; those of Ladoga and Onega alone being of any com- mercial importance. Its soil is distinguished for its valuable productions : Grain of different kinds is raised over its whole surface, except the extreme north — wines throughout all its southern region, and it is equally productive in hemp, flax, wool and silk. Its northern forests produce some of the finest timber in the world ; and the iron of Europe surpasses that of any other country. The cultivation of the soil is carried on with great diligence, and in point of science, skill, and the extent of capital employed upon it, and upon every branch of commerce and manufacture, it stands unrivalled among the other countries of the globe. Its commerce is on a very extensive scale, and in manufacturing skill it has sur- passed every other country, both in the variety and the cheapness of its productions. European vessels, conveying articles and manufactures of all descriptions, are to be found at the utmost bounds of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of the poles, and crowding the ports of New Holland, Van Dieman's j/i!id. New Zealand, and the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. The 'population of Europe is now reckoned to amount to about 200 millions. Its inhabitants are divided chiefly into three races, the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Romish races. The Sclavonic consists of about 25 millions of Russians, 10 mil- lions of Poles, and 10 millions in other adjacent countries. The Teutonic race, which occupy the greater part of Scandi- navia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, may be estimated at 50 millions. The Rojnish race includes the inhabitants of Southern Europe, France, Italy, Spain, &c., and may be esti- mated about 80 millions. The Celts in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Spain, are the remains of the most ancient inhabi- tants of Western Europe, and may amount to 6 millions. The Greeks in Europe amount to 2 millions, and the Jews through- out all Europe to about 2 millions. The Tartars, Turks, Hungarians, and Gypsies, which are of Asiatic origin, amount altogether to 6 or 7 mfllions. Though this division of the earth is least in point of size — being only the one-sixteenth part of the terraqueous globe — it is yet by far the greatest as to moral, political, and commercial importance. Its surface is in general more crowded with inhabitants than most other countries (Cliina alone excepted) more improved by cultiva- tion, more enriched by industry and commerce — embellished GEOGRAPHY. 155 with mighty cities, and splendid works of art, and illumined with the reflections of genius. Here we behold mind assert- ing its supremacy over matter, and man, the lord of this lower world, pursuing the high destiny originally assigned him " to replenish the earth and subdue it." In learning, arts, and sciences, Europe has far surpassed every other portion of the globe; and by the invention of printing, knowledge of every description is now rapidly diffused, and promoting the moral and intellectual improvement of its population. Asia^ the largest and most populous division of the ancient continent, contains the empires of China and Japan, Chinese Tartary, Tibet, Hindostan, or British India, the Birman Em- pire, Persia, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Siberia, Independent Tar- tary, and a variety of territories inhabited by tribes with which we* are very imperfectly acquainted ; together with the im- mense islands of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Ceylon, Segalien,the Philippines, and thousands of others of smaller dimensions. The immense expanse of Asia presents every possible variety of soil and climate, as it extends from the confines of the polar regions to the tropical climes. Its grandest feature is a chain of mountains crossing it from the Mediterranean to the Eastern seas, of which Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himalaya are the portions best known. One leading feature of middle Asia consists in large lakes or inland seas, salt like the ocean, and having no outlets ; of which the Caspian, the Sea of Aral, and Baikal, are the largest. It contains many rivers of great mag- nitude. The Euphrates, the Ganges, and Hoanho, and the Amur, in the length of their course, yield only to the rivers of the new world. This quarter of the globe is reckoned to be 7500 miles in length, from east to west, and about 5000 miles in breadth, from south to north, and contains about 16 millions of square miles, being more than four times larger than Europe. Its inhabitants have been computed by some writers to amount to 580 millions. It was in Asia where the human race was first planted ; it became the nursery of the world after the universal deluge, and it was the scene in which the most memorable transactions recorded in the sacred his- tory took place. But its inhabitants are now immersed in Mahometan and Pagan darkness ; and the Christian religion, except in a few insulated spots, is almost unknown among its vast population. It is the richest and most fruitful part of the world, and produces cotton, silks, spices, tea, cofliee, gold, silver, pearls, diamonds, and precious stones : but despotism, in its worst forms, reigns uncontrolled over every part of this immense region. 15(5 eilRtSTlAN PHILOSOPHER. Africa comprehends the following kingdoms — -Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt, Zaara, Negroland, Guinea, JNTuhia, Abyssinia, Caffraria, Dahomy, Benin, Congo, Angola, and various other territories. By far the greater part of ^Africa remains hitherto unexplored, and consequently, we are pos- sessed of a very slender portion of information respecting the numerous tribes that may inhabit it. This quarter of the world, which once contained several flourishing kingdoms and states, is now reduced to a general state of barbarism. That most abominable traffic, the slave trade, is carried on to an unlimited extent on its western coasts, by a set of European ruffians, whose villanies are a disgrace to human nature. It is to be hoped this traffic will, ere long, be extirpated by the effirrts now making by European nations, and by the plans which are now concerting for promoting the religious, moral, and com- mercial improvement of this country. The Christian religion has lately been introduced into its southern regions, in the districts adjacent to the Cape of Good Hope, and the labours of missionaries, of different denominations, appear, in nume- rous instances, to have been crowned with remarkable suc- cess.* A colony of blacks, formerly slaves in America, has lately been established on the western coast, a little to the south of Sierra Leone, wdiich goes by the name of Liberia. All the affairs of this little state are conducted by emancipated negroes, and particular attention is paid to the literary and re- ligious instruction of the colonists. Some of the newspapers we have seen, published by the settlers in this colony, indicate a considerable degree of talent and information; and there is a prospect that the improvements going forward in Liberia will, ere long, produce a beneficial influence on those tribes Avho occupy the adjacent territories, and have a tendency to lessen the traffic in slaves. The greatest breadth of Africa is about 4790 miles, and its length from north to south about 5000 miles. Its most striking features are those immense deserts, near its northern parts, which comprise nearly one third of its surflice. The deserts of Zaara are 1500 miles long, and eight hundred broad. America is divided into North and South. It remained un- known to the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere till the year 1492, when it was discovered by Columbus, who first landed on Guanahani, or Cat island^ one of the Bahama isles. North America comprehends the following countries: the United States, New and Old Mexico, Upper and Lower Canada, * See Moffat's interesting work, entitled, " Missionary Scenes and La- bours in Suuih«rn Africa.'' 1842. GEOGRAPHY, 157 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Labrador. South America comprehends the immense districts called Terra Firma, Peru, Guiana, Amazonia, Paraguay, Brazil, Chili, and Patagonia. Between N. and S. America, lie the islands of Cuba, Si. Do- mingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, known by the name of the West, hidies. America is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, on the west by the Pacific, and on the north by the Arctic ocean. South America comprises a surface of six and a half millions of square miles, its length being 4500 miles, and its greatest breadth 3200 miles. North America, exclusive of the islands that surround it, contains about nine millions of square miles. It has been divided into live physical regions : 1. The table land of Mexico, 2. The slope lying between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean, 3. The great valley of the Mississippi, 4. The eastern declivity of the Allegheny moun- tains, 5. The great northern plain beyond 50° north latitude, a bleak and barren waste, covered with lakes. Besides these, there are connected with America, the Bahama and Caribbee islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Tobago, Trinidad. Terra del Fuego, &c. America is distinguished by its numerous and extensive lakes, which resemble large inland seas. Its rivers, also, form one of its grand and distinguishing features, being the largest on the globe. It is likewise diversified with lofty and extensive ranges of mountains. When first disco- vered, it was almost wholly covered with immense forests, and thinly peopled with a number of savage tribes. Its mingled population of Aborigines and Europeans is now making rapid advances in knowledge, civilisation, and commerce. The United States^ which extend from the 20th to the 50th degree of north latitude, form the greatest and most influential power that exists in this continent, and possess a terri^'^ry of vast extent — stretching from the great lakes to the Giili of Mexico, a breadth of about 1600 miles; and from the Atluniic to the Pacific ocean, a length of 2500 miles, including a sur- face of 2,300,000 square miles. The population of those slates now amounts to about 15 millions — an astonishing number, when we consider that only a little more than 200 years ago these territories were little else than a boundless wilderness, peopled by a few tribes of savages. Were they brought to a cultivated state, they would be sufficient to sub- sist a population of three or four hundred millions. These states have been peopled from different European nations, par- ticularly from Great Britain and Ireland, and the English lan- guage prevails over most of the 26 states. The form of go- vernment is that of a republic; and in religion they have 14 158 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. adopted the system of cutting off all connexion between church and stale. Every sectary chooses its own pastor and provides entirely for his support. Literature and science have not yet reached tlie high elevation they have attained in Eu- rope; but numerous colleges, highly respectable, and literary institutions of various descriptions have been established, — some of which enjoy a high reputation. The education of the mass of the community forms a prominent object of atten- tion in each state ; and the benefits of a good common edu- cation are perhaps more generally diffused than in any other country in the world. It is much to be regretted that the system of slavery still prevails in the southern states, notwith- standing all the remonstrances which hgve been made against it by the inhabitants of the northern states and by other na- tions. But it is to be hoped that the good sense of the in- habitants of these states "will, ere long, excite them to arouse themselves to remove that blot upon their national character, by which their institutions have been so long and so deeply disgraced. Australasia is the name given to a number of large islands occupying a portion of the hidian or Southern Pacific ocean, between the 10th and 45th degrees of south latitude. The chief island in the group is New Holland or Australia^ the largest island in the world, being about 2400 miles in length, from east to west, and 1800 from north to south, comprising an area of nearly three millions of square miles. The country is generally flat, with the exception of some moun- tain ranges, and in many places the inclination is inwards, in- stead of outwards to the sea, so that the mountains and elevated land form a ridge nearly round it. The great Kan- garoo is the largest quadruped in this country, and the total absence of such animals as lions, tigers, deer, oxen, horses, and bears, is the most striking feature in this region. The native human beings are of the Malay race, and exist in tlie lowest state of degradation and barbarism. Three British settlements have been formed in New Holland : 1. JYew Smith Wa/es^ which stretches about 1400 miles along its eastern coast, and some hundreds of miles inland. This is the oldest and most populous of the Australian colonies, and was selected at first for the transportation of convicts, though voluntary emigrants, of late years, have emigrated thither in considerable numbers. It lies at the distance of about 16,000 miles from Great Britain ; but the voyage to it is generally accomplished in from 100 to 120 days. Its capital, Sydney, pleasantly situated on a fine bay, called Port Jackson, is now considered GEOGRAPHY. 159 as containing a population of 25,000. The whole population of this colony, free and convict, is calculated to be about 110,000, and it is rapidly increasing. 2. Western Australia, or the Swan-river settlement., which is not so populous, nor does it appear so prosperous as the other settlements. 3. South Australia — which lies on the soutliern shore. I« this colony slavery is not permitted to exist, nor are any convicts allowed to be sent to it from England. Here learning and religion are greatly encouraged, and every mean has been employed by the directors of the South Australian Company to render the settlers, as far as possible, a moral and religious population. The capital is Jidelaide., which already contains about 7000 inhabitants, although it is only about five years since the colony was established. Each denomination of Christians supports its own ministers and places of worship; and already about £15,000 have been expended in Adelaide and its vicinity in erecting chapels for Christian worship. Three millions of capital have been invested in this province up to the 1st De- cember, 1841, and 491,984 acres of land have been surveyed. The climate is one of the finest and most salubrious in the world, and it has sometimes been alluded to as " the fair and fertile province of South Australia." Its winter, which is milt], is in May, June, and July; and its summer in Novem- ber, December, and January. Van Dienuin''s Land is an island of about the size of Eng- land, which is separated from New Holland by a channel ninety miles wide, called Bass' strait. Its shape is nearly that of a parallelogram. It is more hilly and better watered than Australia, and possesses many excellent harbours. Its capital is Hobart town, situated on the southern side of the island, and on the northern shore is Launcetown, the second town, and a busy seat of trade. The population of the island was lately estimated at twenty-five thousand, of which about one-half were convicts. JS'ew Zealand consists chiefly of two large islands, called the Middle island, and the North island, separated by a pas- sage called Cook's straits, with numerous smaller isles scat- tered around their shores. They lie in an easterly direction from New Holland, at a distance of about twelve hundred miles from that continent, between the thirty-fourth and forty- eighth degrees of south latitude, and the one hundred and sixty-sixth and one hundred and seventy-ninth of east longi- tude. The southern island is about five hundred miles long, and nearly one hundred and twenty broad. The northern is about four hundred miles long, and from five to thirty broad.- 160 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. Both the islands are estimated to contain ninety-five lliousand square miles, of which two-thirds are fit for cultivation. Numbers of fine streams and rivers are scattered through the country, and the bays and harbours are not surpassed either in number or advantages by those of any country in the world. A cfeain of mountains runs through the whole of the soutliern and a considerable part of the northern island, some of tlie tops of which are as high as fourteen thousand feet above tlie level of the sea, and present a highly picturesque appearance. All accounts agree that the climate is highly salubrious, and very congenial to European constitutions. Tlie natives of this country were formerly savage and dan- gerous, but are now partially improved and comparatively harndess in disposition, the missionaries having now acquired a considerable influence over certain tribes. It is universally admitted that they are a robust and healthy looking people ; and Captain Cook observes that he never saw a single person among them who appeared to have any bodily complaint, and that their wounds healed with astonishing rapidity. The entire population of this country has been estimated at one hundred and fifty-eight thousand, which is at the rate of five persons to three square miles. The A^erv Zealand Company ior colonizing this country was established in May, 1839, and is now employed in carrying its plans into eflect. Land has been purchased from the natives, and a considerable num- ber of adventurers have already taken possession of certain districts. A township has been marked out on the shores of Port Nicholson — a fine harbour in the northern island about the centre of Cook's straits — to be named Wellington, which it is supposed will be the capital of the colony. But appre- hensions are entertained that misunderstandings and serious disputes may arise between the settlers and the natives, and that the runaway convicts from Botany Bay, and the southern whalers, will introduce dissension and immorality among the colonists. JYciv Guinea^ next to New Holland, is the largest island of Australasia, being fourteen hundred miles long. It is in- habited by Papuans, with the still ruder race of Ilaraforas in the interior. This island is said to be one of the finest coun- tries in existence, producing most of the rich fruits of the torrid zone, such as cocoas, nutmegs, cloves, and spices of all kinds, and is every where covered with lofty forests. The Papuans are much farther advanced in civilisation than the New Hollanders ; but no European nation has yet attempted a settlement in this island. JVew Britain, JVeiv Ireland, and GEOGRAPHY. 161 several others, compose a group inhabited by Papuans. The Archipelago, called the Solomon's islands is inhabited by Pa- puans, with a mixture of Malays. Polynesia^ or " the many isles," includes the numerous groups of islands with which a considerable portion of the Pacific ocean is diversified. They principally lie in an east- erly and north-easterly direction from Australasia, within about thirty degrees on both sides of the equator. They are many thousands in number, and are inhabited by savage races, who have generally been found more tractable than the bar- barous tribes of other parts of the world. They may be divided into the great groups of the Society^ Sandwich^ Mar- quesas^ Friendly^ JVavigator''s^ Caroline^ and Marianne islands, with several others. Most of these islands are fruitful and beautiful ; some are exceedingly high and romantic, and their climate is reckoned the most delicious on the globe. The Society islands, though not the largest, are the most beautiful, and those in which civilisation and polished manners have made the greatest progress. Tahiti, the largest in the group, is one of the brightest gems of the Pacific, as the people of this island were the first to abjure paganism and to embrace Christianity. It consists of two peninsulas, joined by a nar- row isthmus. The one is about twenty-five miles long and about the same in breadth. The other is about twenty miles in length by fifteen in breadth. The religion of the natives, like that of the Tonga, Sandwich, and other islanders, was, till within these twenty or thirty years, idolatry of the most barbarous kind, their manners were extremely licentious, and their dispositions sometimes ferocious and cruel. They were perpetually at war among themselves, and their contests were of the most relentless and cruel character. But, in conse- quence of the labours of Christian missionaries, sent out by the London Missionary Society, the majority of the inhabit- ants of this and the adjacent islands have made an open pro- fession of Christianity. Their places of idolatrous worship have been thrown down, their idol gods destroyed, and an end put to their ferocious and destructive wars. The whole of the sacred Scriptures has been translated into their native language ; they are learning to read the word of God ; and, in numerous instairces, they have made a wonderful progress in studying its facts and doctrines, and in practising those duties which it enjoins. The consequence has been that they have made a great improvement in all the arts and accommoda- tions of life. They have built ships, engaged in manufactures of different kinds, reared spacious places of worship, established 14* 162 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. schools and other seminaries of instruction, erected villages, adorned with neat and commodious habitations, and have made astonishing progress in the cultivation of the soil. The moral transforjiiation and improvements which have been ef- fected among the inhabitants of these islands, in consequence of the introduction of Christianity, afford a striking and in- contestable proof, that there are no tribes on the face of the earth, however barbarous and debased, but may be raised to the dignity of their moral and intellectual natures, were the religion of the Bible once introduced among them, and every other judicious mean employed to promote their progress in knowledge and civilisation. The Sandivich islands lie about twenty degrees north of the equator, and about two thousand live hundred miles nordi by west of Tahiti. Owhyhee, the largest of the group, is remarkable for the murder of the celebrated Captain Cook, in 1779. It measures eiglily-four miles in length, by seventy in breadth. It abounds with lofty mountains. Mount Roa rises to the height of sixteen thousand feet, and Mount Koa to the height of eighteen thousand feet, the tops of both being covered with perpetual snow. It also abounds \vith volcanoes. The volcano of Peli, on the flank of Mount Roa, is reckoned one of the most striking and awful in any part of the world. The people of the Sandwich islands have, of late years, em- braced Christianity, and several missionaries from the United States are now settled in those regions. A considerable part of the population, including the king and his court, attend the schools they have established, and the ordinances of Chris- tian worship. They have formed a small navy, and carry on a profitable trade with foreigners, and the general state of morals is undergoing a great improvement. The Friendly islands include the Fejee, and several other detached islands, of which Tongataboo is the largest. They enjoy a remarkably rich soil, which is carefully cultivated by the natives, who rank among the most respectable of the South sea islanders, and are remarkable for their neatness and skill in improving and enclosing their lands. Christianity has been lately introduced into some of these islands, chiefly by the persevering labours of the Wesleyan missionaries. Their population is reckoned at about one hundred thousand. The JS'avigator'^s islands are among the most important and fertile groups yet discovered in southern Polynesia. The natives are uncommonly tall and stout, and remarkable for a ferocity of character scarcely found in any other part of Polynesia. Here, however, the Christian religion has lately been intro- GEOGRArHY. 163 duced, and is already producing many interesting and benefi- cent efiects. Tlie Marquesas are situated north by east from tlie Society isles, within nine degrees of the equator. Their inhabitants are distinguished for their fair complexion and j)e- culiar beauty, but they are fierce and licentious in their cha-" racters. Christianity has been introduced, but has hitherto produced little effect upon them. The JYcio Hebrides are a group generally covered with mountains, some of which con- tain volcanoes. They are situated about five or six hundred miles west of the Friendly isles, and were first discovered by Quiros in 1606, when they were supposed to be part of a great southern continent which philosophers then imagined to exist. But Cook, in 1 774, explored the whole group, and gave them the name of the New Hebrides. The cluster consists of about seventeen islands, of which Terra del EspirUu Santo is the largest. At Erromango, one of these islands, the deeply lamented missionary, Williams, was treacherously and cruelly murdered by the natives, along with another missionary of the name of Harris, in 1839, when attempting to introduce Christianity among them. This island will be as much dis- tinguished in future ages for this atrocious murder as the island of Owhyhee has been for the murder of Captain Cook. Tlie geographical discoveries of this celebrated circumnavi- gator prepared the way for most of the missionary operations which have been undertaken in the islands of the Pacific ; and of all the labourers in this work of philanthropy, none stands &o conspicuous, for unwearied beneficent exertions in this holy cause, and for the important and beneficial efiects with which they have been accompanied, as the lamented Williams. His ''Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands" deserves to be read by every Christian, by every philosopher and statesman, and by every one who feels delight in contemplating beneficent actions and romantic incidents. In regard to the human inhabitants that occupy the different regions now specified — they have been divided by some geo- graphers into the six following classes :. — 1. The dwarfish inhabitants of the polar regions; as the Laplanders, the Green- landers, and the Esquimaux. 2. The flat-nosed, olive-coloured, tawny race; as the Tartars, the Chinese, and the Japanese. 3. The blacks of Asia with European features. Of tliis de- scription are the Hindoos, the Birmans, and the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian ocean. 4. The woolly-haired ne- groes of Africa, distinguished by their black colour, their flat noses, and their thick lips. 5. The copper-coloured native Americans, distinguished likewise by their black hair, small 164 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. black eyes, high cheek bones, and flat noses. 6. The sixth variety is tlie white European nations, as the British, the French, the Italians, and the Germans. The number of inhabitants which people the earth, at one time, may be estimated to amount to at least eight hundred miUions; of which five hundred millions may be assigned to Asia; fifty-eight millions to Africa; forty-two millions to America; and two hundred millions to Europe. With regard to their religion, they may be estimated as follows : — Pagans, - - - - 490,000,000 Mahometans, - - - 100,000,000 Roman Catholics, - - 100,000,000 Protestants, - - - - 55,000,000 Greeks and Armenians, 50,000,000 Jews, - 5,000,000 800,000,000 From this estimate it appears, that there are nearly 3 Pa- gans and Mahometans to 1 Christian, and only 1 Protestant to about 14 of all the other denominations. Although all the Roman Catholics, Greeks, and Protestants, were reckoned true Christians, there still remain more than 595 millions of our fellow-men ignorant of the true God, and of his will as revealed in the sacred Scriptures ; which shows what a vast field of exertion still lies open to Christian benevolence, be- fore the blessings of civilisation, mental improvement, rational liberty, and Christianity, be fully communicated to the Pagan and Mahometan world. If we suppose that the earth, at an average, has always been as populous as it is now, and that it contains eight hun- dred millions of inhabitants, as above stated, and if we reckon thirty-two years for a generation, at the end of which period, the whole human race is renewed; it will follow, that one hundred and forty-six thousand two hundred millions of human beings have existed on the earth since the present system of our globe commenced, reckoning five thousand eight hundred and forty-six years from Adam to the present time.* And consequently, if mankind had never died, there * This calculation proceeds on the supposition, that only four thousand and four years elapsed between the creation of man and the birth of Christ, accordinif to the Hebrew chronology. But Dr. Hales, in his late work on Scripture clironology, has proved, almost to a demonstration, that, from the creation to the birth of Christ, are to be reckoned five GEOGRAPHY. 165 would have been nearly one hundred and eighty-three times the present number of the earth's inhabitants now in existence. It follows from this statement, that twenty-five millions of mankind die every year, two thousand eight hundred and tifly- three every hour, and forty-seven every minute, and that at least an equal number, during these periods, are emerging from non-existence to the stage of life ; so that almost every moment, a rational and immortal being is ushered into the world, and another is transported to the invisible state. Whether, therefore, we contemplate the world of matter, or the world of miiid, iire perceive incessant changes and revolu- tions going on, which are gradually carrying forward the earth and its inhabitants to some important consummation. If we suppose, that before the close of time, as many human beings will be brought into existence, as have already existed during the by-past ages of the world, there will, of course, be found at the general resurrection, 292,400,000,000 of man- kind. Vast as such an assemblage would be, tlie whole of the human beings here supposed, allowing six square feet for every individual, could be assembled within the space of about sixty-two thousand four hundred square miles, or on a tract of land not much larger than that of England, which contains, according to the most accurate calculation, above fifty thou- sand square miles. Our world is capable of sustaining a much greater number of inhabitants than has ever yet existed upon it at any one lime. And since we are informed in the sacred oracles, that God " created it not in vain, but formed it to he inhabUed,''^ we have reason to believe, that, in future ages, when the phy- sical and moral energies of mankind shall be fully exerted, and when peace shall wave her olive branch over the nations, the earth will be much more populous than it has ever been, and tiiose immense deserts, where ravenous animals now roam undisturbed, will be transformed into scenes of fertility and beauty. If it be admitted that the produce of twelve acres of land is sufficient to maintain a family consisting of six per- sons, and if we reckon only one fourth of the surface of the globe capable of cultivation, it can be proved, that the earth thousand four hundred and eleven years ; and this computation nearly agrees with the Samaritan and Septuagint chronology, and with that of Josephus. According to this computation, seven thousand two hundred and talty-three years are to be reckoned from the creation to tlie present time ; and consequently, two hundred and twenty thousand five hundred millions of human beings will have existed since the creation, which is more than two hundred and twenty-six times the number of inhabitants presently existing. 166 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. could afTord sustenance for sixteen thousand millions of in- habitants, or tivcnfy times the number that is presently sup- posed to exist. So that we have no reason to fear that the world will be overstocked with inhabitants for many ages to come ; or that a period may soon arrive when the increase of population will surpass the means of subsistence, as some of the disciples of Malthus have lately insinuated. To suppose, as some of these gentlemen seem to do, that wars and diseases, poverty and pestilence, are necessary evils, in order to prevent the increase of the human race beyond the means of subsist- ence which nature can afford — while the^mmense regions of New Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, and the greater part of Africa and America, are almost destitute of inhabitants — is both an insult on the dignity of human nature, and a rellection on the wisdom and beneficence of Divine Providence. Tiie Creator is benevolent and bountiful, and "• his tender mercies are over all his works ;" but man, by his tyranny, ambition, and selfishness, has counteracted tlie streams of Divine bene- ficence, and introduced into the social state, poverty, disorder, and misery, with all their attendant train of evils; and it is not before such demoralizing principles be in some measure eradicated, and the principles of Christian benevolence brought into active operation, that the social state of man will be greatly meliorated, and the bounties of heaven fully enjoyed by the human race. If, in the present deranged state of the social and political world, it be found difficult in any particular country, to find sustenance for its inhabitants, emigration is the obvious and natural remedy; and the rapid emigrations which are now taking place to the Cape of Good Hope, New Holland, New Zealand, Van Dieman's Land, and America, are doubtless a part of those arrangements of Providence, by which the Creator will accomplish his designs, in peopling the desolate wastes of our globe, and promoting the progress of knowledge and of the true religion among the scattered tribes of mankind. With that branch of knowledge to which I have now ad- verted, every individual of the human race ought to be in some measure acquainted. For it is unworthy of the dignity of a rational being, to stalk abroad on the surface of the earth, and enjoy the bounty of his Creator, without considering the nature and extent of his sublunary habitation, the variety of august objects it contains, the relation in which he stands to otlier tribes of intelligent agents, and the wonderful machinery which is in constant operation for supplying his wants, and GEOGRAPHY. 167 for producing the revolutions of day and night, spring and autumn, summer and winter. In a religious point of view, geography is a science of peculiar interest. For " the salva- tion of God," which Christianity unfolds, is destined to be proclaimed in every land, in order that men of all nations, and kindreds, and tongues, may participate in its blessings. ,But, without exploring every region of the earth, and the numerous islands which are scattered over, the surface of the oceaH, and opening up a regular intercourse with the different tribes of human beings, which dwell upon its surface, we can never carry into effect the purpose of God by " making known his salvation to the ends of the earth." As God has ordained, that " all flesh shall see the salvation" he has accomplished, and that human beings shall be the agents for carrying his designs into effect — so we may rest assured, that he has or- dained every mean requisite for accomplishing this end; and consequently, that it is his will that men sliould study the figure and magnitude of the earth, and all those arts by which they may be enabled to traverse and explore the different regions of land and water, which compose the terraqueous globe — and that it is also his will, that every one who feels an interest in the present and eternal happiness of his fellow- men, should make himself acquainted with the result of all the discoveries in this science that have been or may yet be made, in order to stimulate his activity, in conveying to the wretched sons of Adam, wherever they may be found, " the unsearchable riches of Christ." To the missionary, and the directors of Bible and missionary societies, a minute and comprehensive knowledge of this science, and of all the facts connected with it, is essentially re- quisite ; without which they would often grope in the dark, and spend their money in vain, and " their labour for tliat which doth not profit." They must be intimately acquainted with the extensive field of operation which lies before them, and with the physical, the moral, and the political state of the different tribes to which they intend to send the message of salvation ; otherwise, their exertions will be made at random, and their schemes be conducted without judgement or discri- mination. To attempt to direct the movements of missionary societies, without an intimate knowledge of this subject, is as foolish and absurd as it would be for a land surveyor to lay down plans for the improvement of a gentleman's estate, before he had surveyed the premises, and made himself acquainted with the objects upon them, in their various aspects, positions, and bearing. If all those who direct and support the opera- 1G8 CIIIUSTIAN PHILOSOniER. tions of stch societies, were familiarly acquainted with the different fields for missionary exertions, and with the peculiar state and character of the diversified tribes of the heathen world, so far a^ they are known, injudicious schemes might be frustrated before they are carried into effect, and the funds of such institutions preserved from being wasted to no pur- pose. In this view, it is the duty of every Christian to mark the progress and the results of the various geographical expe- ditions vvhich are now going forward in quest of discoveries, in connexion with the moral and political movements which are presently agitating the nations: for every navigator, who ploughs the ocean in search of new islands and continents, and every traveller who explores the interior of unknown countries, should be considered as so many pioneers, sent be- forehand, by Divine Providence, to prepare the way for the labours of the missionary, and for the combined exertions of Christian benevolence.* * On this subject the author feels great pleasure in referring his readers to a small volume, lately published by James Douglass, Esq., of Cavers, entitled. •' Hints on Missions," — a work which deserves the attentive pe- rusal, both of the philosopher, the politician, and the Christian, and particu- larly of the directors of missionary societies ; and which is characterized by a spirit of enlishtened philanthropy, and a condensation of thought, which has seldom been equalled in the discussion of such topics. It con- centrates, as it were, into a focus, the light which has been reflected from hundreds of volumes ; and the original hints it suggests claim the serious consideration of the superintendents of missionary schemes; without an attention to some of which, the beneficial effects resulting from such un- dertakings will be few and unimportant. The following excellent works, rccentlvl^ublished on this subject, are warmly recommended to the seri- ous a'tention of the reader: — 1. " Th' Great Commission,'" by Dr. Harris, President of Cheshunt College. author of " Mammon," &c. — a prize essay on Christian missions, to which the highest prize of 200 guineas was award'^'d. This work has been generally characterized as "A masterly production, comprehensive in plan, elegant in diction, happy in illustration, cogent and conclu.'^ive in reasoning, powerful in appeal, and a book which every Christian in the world ought to read." 2. " Missions, their authority, scoo", and encouragpment," by the Rev. Richard W. Hamilton, Leeds, to whirh the second prize of the association alluded to above was adjudged. This work has likewise been characterized by properties somewhat sirnilar to those which have been applied to "The Great Commission," and the author has been culosfized as a writer of great power and originality. 3. " The JuhiJer -^f the World,'' by the Rev. J. Macfarlane, minister of Co- lessie, published at the recommendation of four of the adjiidicators of the Missionary Prize Essays — a volume which is justly considered as " the prohi^tiori of a wpU disciplined mind, accustomed to think deeply and af- curafelv on any subject to which its energies might be directed — that its tone and temper are decidedly evangelical, its spirit eminently catholic, and V9. appeals stir .ing and ajipropriate." 4. " Christian Missio7is to Heathen Natio?is,'" by the Honourable Baptist W. Noel, M. A. Though this vo- hime is not considered equal to Mr. Macfarlane's in point of close argu- ment and logical deductions, yet it has the advantage of it as a practical treatise on missionary work, and evinces a mmute acquaintance with the GEOGRAPHY. 169 But even to every private Christian, geography is an inter- esting branch of study, without some knowledge of which, his prayers and his Christian sympathies cannot be judiciously and extensively directed. We occasionally hear the ministers of religion, at the commencement of public worship on the first day of the week, imploring the Divine blessing on their brethren throughout the Christian church, who are com- mencing the same exercises ; and at the close of worship in the afternoon, that the same blessing may seal the instructions which have been delivered in all the churches of the saints ; as if all the public religious services of the universal church were, at that moment, drawing to a close. This is all very well, so far as it goes : the expression of such benevolent wishes is highly becoming, and congenial to the spirit of Chris- tianity. But a very slight acquaintance with geographical science will teach us, that when we in this country are com- mencing the religious services of the first day of the week, our Christian brethren in the East Indies, who live under a very different meridian, have finished theirs ; those in Russia, Poland, Greece, Palestine, and on the banks of the Caspian sea, have performed one-half of their public religious worship and instructions ; and those in New Holland and Van Die- man's Land have retired to rest at the close of their sabbath. On the other hand, our friends in the West India islands, and in America, at the close of our worship, are only about to commence the public instructions of the Christian sabbath. If, then, it be admitted, that our prayers, in certain cases, ought to be sjKciJic^ to have a reference to the particular cases and relations of certain classes of individuals, there can be no valid reason assigned, why they should not have a reference to the geographical positions of the different portions of the Chris- tian church, as well as to those who live on or near our own meridian : that, for example, in the beginning of our public devotions, we might implore that the blessing of God may ac- company the instructions which have been delivered in the east- ern parts of the world ; and, at the close of the worship, that the same agency may direct the exercises of those in the western hemisphere, who are about to enter on the sacred services of that day. On the same principle, we may perceive the ab- whole scene of missionary labours, which, in this respect, is considered by some as superior to any of the other essays. Were these works carefully perused by the great mass of the Christian world, their spirit imbibed, and their practical suggestions carried into effect, the world would, ere long, be regenerated, and the dawn of the millennial era would soon make its appearance. 15 170 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. surdity of those '^ concerts''' for praying in different places at the same hour^ which were lately proposed, and attempted by a certain portion of the religious world. Even within the limits of Europe this could not be attempted, with the prospects of Christians joining in devotion at one and the same time; for when it is six o'clock in one part of Europe, it is eight in another, and live o'clock at a third place ; much less could such a concert take place throughout Europe, Asia, and America. So that science, and a calm consideration of the nature and relations of things, may teach us to preserve our devotional fervour and zeal within the bounds of reason and propriety ; and, at the same time, to direct our reflections, and our Chris- tian sympathies, to take a wider range than that to which they are usually confined. Besides the consideration now suggested, a serious contem- plation of the physical objects and movements which this science exhibits, has a tendency to excite pious and reverential emotions. To contemplate this huge globe of land and water, flying with rapidity through the voids of space, conveying its vast population from one region to another, at the rate of fif- teen hundred thousand miles in a day, and whirling round its axis at the same time, to produce the constant succession of day and night, — to contemplate the lofty ridges of mountains that stretch around it in every direction ; the flaming volca- noes ; the roaring cataracts ; the numerous rivers, incessantly rolling their watery treasures into the seas ; the majestic ocean, and its unfathomable caverns ; the vapours rising from its sur- face, and replenishing the springs and rivers ; the avalanche hurling down the mountain's side with a noise like thunder; the luxuriant plains of the torrid zone ; the rugged cliffs and icebergs of the polar regions ; and thousands of other objects of diversified beauty and sublimity, — has an evident tendency to expand the conceptions of the human mind, to increase its sources of rational enjoyment, and to elevate the affections to that all-powerful Being who gave birth to all the sublimities of nature, and who incessantly superintends all its movements. in fine, from the numerous moral facts whicli geography unfolds, we learn the vast depth and extent of that moral de- gradation into which the human race has ftillen — the ferocious tempers, and immoral practices, which are displayed in the regions of Pagan idolatry — the horrid cruelties, and vile abomi- nations, that are daily perpetrated under the sanction of what is termed religion — the wide extent of population over which the prince of darkness sways his sceptre — the difficulties which require to be surmounted, before " the gospel of salva- GEOLOGY. 171 tion" can extend its full influence thronghout the Pagan world — and the vast energies which are requisite to accomplish this glorious event. All these portions of information are calcu- lated to confirm and illustrate the scriptural doctrine of the universal depravity of man — to exercise the faith of the Chris- tian on the promises of Jehovah, in reference to the conver- sion of the benighted nations — to rouse his sympathies towards his degraded brethren of mankind, to excite his intercession in their behalf, and to direct his benevolence and activity, in devising and executing schemes for enlightening the people ^who are sitting " in darkness, and in the shadow of death." GEOLOGY. Another subject, intimately related to the former, is the science of geology. This science has for its object, to investigate and describe the internal structure of the earth, the arrangement of the ma- terials of which it is composed, the circumstances peculiar to its original formation, the diflierent states under which it has existed, and the various changes it appears to have undergone since the Almighty created the substance of wliich it is com- posed. From a consideration of the vast quantity of materials contained in the internal structure of our globe, and of the limited extent to which men can carry their operations, when they attempt to penetrate into its bowels, it is obvious that our knowledge of this subject must be very shallow and imper- fect. The observations, however, which have been made on the structure of our globe during the last half century, and the conclusions deduced from them, are highly interesting both to the philosopher and to the Christian. Before the facts on which this branch of natural history is founded were accu- rately ascertained, various objections to the Mosaic history of the creation were started by certain sceptical philosophers, founded on partial and erroneous views of the real structure and economy of the earth. But it is now found, that the more accurately and minutely the system of nature is explored, the more distinctly do we perceive the harmony that subsists between the records of revelation and the operations of the Creator in the material world. If both be admitted as the ef- fects of the agency of the same almighty and eternal Being, they must, in the nature of things, completely harmonize, and can never be repugnant to each other — whether we be capable, in every in^tauQe, of perceiving tiieir complete coincidence or not. Jf any facts could be produced in the visible creation 172 CHRISTIAN rillLOSOPHEK. Avhich directly contradict the records of the Bible, it would form a proof, that the oracles which we hold as Divine were not dictated by the Creator and Governor of the universe. But althougli some garbled facts have been triumphantly ex- hibited in tliis view, it is now ascertained, from the discoveries which have been lately made in relation to the structure and formation of the earth, that the truth of the facts detailed in sacred history rests on a solid and immutable basis; and that the Supreme Intelligence who arranged the fabric of heaven and earth, and he alone, communicated to the inspired writers the doctrines and facts they have recorded : and we have reasoi* to believe, that as geologists proceed in their researches and investigations, still more sensible proofs of the authenticity of revelation will be brought to light. Geology has of late become an interesting object of in- quiry to the student of general science, and is now prose- cuted with ardour by many distinguished philosophers. The observations which have been made in various parts of the world by late navigators ; the facts which have been ascer- tained by Pallas, Saussure, De Luc, Humboldt, Lyal, Sedg- wick, and other intelligent travellers ; and the discoveries which have been brought to light by modern chemists and mineralogists, have all conspired to facilitate geological in- quiries, to render them more enlightened and satisfactory, and to prepare the way for future ages establishing a rational, scriptural, and substantial theory of the earth. The man who engages in such inquiries has always at hand a source of rational investigation and enjoyment. The ground on which lie treads — the aspect of the surrounding country — the mines, the caves, and tlie quarries which he explores — every new country in which he travels, every mountain he climbs, and every new surface of the earth which is laid open to his in- spection, offer to him novel and interesting stores of informa- tion. On descending into mines, we are not only gratified by displays of human ingenuity, but we also acquire views of the strata of earth, and of the revolutions it has undergone since the period of its first formation. Our researches on the surface of the earth, amidst abrupt precipices and lofty moun- tains, introduce us to the grandest and most sublime works of the Creator, and present to our view the effects of stupen- dous forces, which have overturned mountains, and rent the foundations of nature. '" In the midst of such scenes, the geologist feels his mind invigorated ; the magnitude of the ap- pearances before him cxtinguislies all the littls and contracted notions he may have formed in the closet; and he learns, GEOLOGY. 173 that it is only by visiting and studying those stupendous works, that he can form an adequate conception of the great relations of the crust of the globe, and of its mode of formation."* At first sight, the solid mass of the earth appears to be a confused assemblage of rocky masses, piled on each other without regularity or order, where none of those admirable displays of skill and contrivance are to be observed, which so powerfully excite attention in the structure of animals and vegetables. But on a nearer and more intimate view, a va- riety of beautiful arrangements has been traced by the industry of geologists, and the light of modern discoveries : by which they have been enabled to classify these apparent irregularities of nature. The rocks of which the crust of the earth is chiefly composed occur in beds or layers, each of which is dis- tinguished by its peculiar characteristic. 1. The first class is what has been denominated primary rocks. These con- stitute the great frame-work, or primitive envelope of the globe. They form the most lofty mountains, and at the same time extend downwards below all the other formations to the greatest depths yet penetrated by man, and constitute every where the foundation on which the other rocks are supported. It is, therefore, supposed that they were the earliest formed, in the progress of creation ; and are hence denominated pri- mitive or primary rocks. One of the principal rocks of this class is granite^ which is compounded of quartz^ felspar^ and mica. Gneis, or slaty granite, is considered as another species ; and 7nica slate a third species of the primitive rocks. There are some other primary rocks which occur embedded in, and interstratified with the principal primitive rocks. They are called subordinate rocks, and are named as follows : — home- blende rock, serpentine, crystalline limestone, quartz rock. The three principal rocks of this class, granite, gneis, and mica slate, might with propriety be regarded as belonging to one formation. They are composed essentially of the same minerals, varying in diflferent proportions, and are rather modes of the same rock than different species. They pass by gradations nito each other, as one or other of their con- stituent minerals becomes more or less abundant : they alter- nate with each other in various situations, and may be regarded as contemporaneous. Granite is considered as the foundation rock, on which slate and all secondary rocks are laid. When granite rises above the surface, the beds of other rocks in the same district rise towards it, and lie against it, as in fig. 15 5 ■" Edinburgh Encylopoedia, Art. 31ineralu^i/, 15* 174 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOrHER. but there are instances in which they appear to pitch under the granite, as in the next figure. The aspect of granite mountains is extremely various. When the beds are horizontal, or when the rock is soft and disintegrating, the summits are rounded and unpicturesque. (See fig. 16.) When hard and soft granite occur in the same mass, the soft decomposes, and leaves the hard in large, loose masses upon the soil, or if they lie in alternate and highly inclined beds, the hard granite forms iiigh and almost inaccessible peaks, as seen in fig. 17. Fig. 15. The structure of primary rocks is crystalline — (see fig. 17) they form the central parts of the most elevated mountain chains — they never contain the fragments of other rocks — and they are particularly distinguished from all the other for- mations in this, — tiiat they contain no remains of organized substances. There also appears conclusive evidence, that ma- terials composing granite, of which this class of rocks chielly consists, were once in a slate of fusion. GEOLOGY. 175 2. The class of rocks next in order to the primitive are what are termed transition rocks, — which are next and above the primitive on which they rest. This formation is composed of the larger fragments of all the primitive rocks consolidated into continuous masses. It is supposed that tliese rocks were formed, when the primary rocks were thrown up from the bed of the primeval ocean, when the disruptions caused by such powerful and mighty movements, reduced the higher parts of the primitive to fragments. — These shattered fragments becoming agglutinated by theii own pulverent cement, recomposed continuous strata which form the rocks to which we allude. In this class of rocks we first behold the rudiments of vitality, the dawn of organisa- tion — the first-born of earthly creatures, whose existence is recorded in imperishable characters. These consist of organ- ized beings of the lowest orders, such as sea shells of various descriptions, which are here found embedded, and which afTord a decisive evidence that such rocks were formed after the creation of organized beings. The rocks belonging to this class are transition or mountain limestone — graywacke^ and graywacke slate — slate and its varieties. Roof-slate, and the slate of which school slates are made, are well known varie- ties of this rock. It is sometimes called clay-slate, argilla- ceous slate, and argillaceous schistus. Transition rocks are the principal repositories of metallic ores, which occur both in beds and veins more abundantly in many of the rocks of this class than in primary rocks. 3. The next class is the secondary rocks, which lie upon the transition rocks, and appear like deposits composed of grains which once belonged to primitive rocks. Geologists now divide these rocks into upfer secondary and lower secondary. The principal secondary formations are : (1) — The coal formation, in the lower secondary series, and the rock-salt or saliferous formation in the upper secondary. The strata of the coal formation are numerous, extensive, and pa- rallel ; but they are often beset, undulating, curved, broken, and contorted in various ways. The strata connected with tlie coal bear evidences, in some instances, of having been rapidly deposited, as in the cases where we find the vertical stems" of plants standing in their natural position, in many coal mines, and the rocks deposited around them in horizontal or slightly-inclined strata. The stems of arborescent plants, two or three feet in diameter, are thus found piercing through the strata many feet. In such a case, the sand mud must have been deposited within a comparatively short time around them, otherwise in a climate such as that in which these plants grew. 176 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. they would have decayed and left no indications of their exist- ence. Coal occurs in regular strata which vary in thickness from a few inches to several feet or yards. In the same coal formations many strata of coal occur under each other sepa- rated by strata of shale, sandstone, &c. The series of strata which occur together is called a coal field. Coal fields are of limited extent, and the strata often dip to a common centre, behig often arranged in basin-shaped cavities, which appear to have been originally detached lakes that were gradually filled up by repeated depositions of carbonaceous and mineral mat- ter. Tlie (hfiferent strata over and under the beds of coal are frequently similar, and the same series of strata is repeated for each successive stratum of coal, as shown in fig. 18. Coals Fig. 18. Slate, . . Coal; . . . Slate, . . . Sandstone, . Slate, • . . Coal, . . . Sandstone, are generally supposed to have had a vegetahle origin ; and, when we consider the abundance of vegetable remains usually found in connexion with coal, and the vegetable structure which the coal itself sometimes exhibits, we can hardly doubt as to its origin. At most coal mines, even the thinnest layers of slate, when split off, show the impressions of the leaves and flat stems of the various grasses, reeds, and ferns, in all their most delicate parts. The impressions between the layers of slate sometimes give a perfect representation of the plant, as if the plant had been pressed and dried in a book, and the leaves then opened to display it. (2.) The upper secondary rocks comprise all the different formations above the great coal formations, to the upper limit of the clialk series. These rocks are divided into the three following formations. 1. Chalk, or cretaceous rocks, includ- ing the ferruginous and green sand. 2. Oolitic rocks, lias limestone, and lias clay. 3, Red sandstone, including magne- sian limestone. The red sandstone formation is characterized by the first appearance of the remains of the saurian, or lizard- GEOLOGY. 177 shaped animals. The remains of a number of species have been found, differing in their appearance from the crocodile and alligator, some of which must have been from 60 to 120 feet in length. These animals appear to have lived in salt water, imlike any of this class with which we are acquainted at the present day, all of which belong either to the land or to fresh water. They had neither feet nor fins, but paddles like the sea turtle, and their tails were long, of the form of an oar, and fitted to propel them through the most agitated waters. The oolitic rocks are composed of various strata of limestone, clay, sand, and sandstone. Oolite derives its name from the small globules that are embedded in this species of rock — some of the masses of which appear composed of little rounded globules like the roes of fish. These rocks are remarkable for the great variety of organic remains they contain. The animal remains are those belonging to the land, and to fresh water. The teeth and bones of fish and reptiles are abundant. The reptiles are mostly saurian animals and turtles. Among these are the Megalo saurus, the Plesio saurus, and the Iguano- d.on, some of which must have been at least 70 feet in length, and of the height of an elephant. There are also vegetuhh fossils in these rocks, — consisting of arborescent forms, truiiks of palms, gigantic reeds, and similar vegetable produciions, which are now to be found growing only in the torrid zone. 4. The next division is the tertiary, which is considered as having been deposited after the secondary. The strata comprehended under this class consists of beds of clay, marl, sand, pudding stones, and imperfectly consolidated limestone, which appear to have been deposited since the chalk forma- tion. The tertiary deposits contain no beds of minerals or metallic veins, capable of exploration, except lignite and jet, which are used for fuel and ornament, — clay for pottery, sand for the manufacture of glass, pyrites for the manufacture of copperas and alum, and a valuable iron ore called hydrate of iron. This formation, however, abounds with a vast quantity of vegetable and animal remains, sucli as crocodiles, crabs, lobsters, several species of vertebral fish, and a vast number of testaceous exuviae ; so well preserved as to have the ap- pearance of recent shells. The most remarkable discovery that has been made respecting the tertiary deposits is, that many of them contain the .bones of mammiferous animals^ (that is, those which suckle their young,) as perfect in their organisation, as any of the existing species of land animals; but most of them belong to genera or species tlmt are extinct. These strata are further remarkable for presenting the frequent 178 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. alternation of beds containing the remains of marine animals, Avith other beds that contain the bones of land animals or fresh water shells. The city of Paris, in France, and the country around, which are situated upon a tertiary deposit, which rests upon chalk — are remarkable for the extraordinary oro-anic remains which they contain. Millions of marine shells compose the principal mass. Bones of marine animals, of wliich the genera are entirely unknown, are found in certain parts. Other bones, remarkable for their vast size, and of which some of similar genera exist only in distant countries, are found scattered in the upper beds. Not only the remains of sea animals and land quadrupeds, but also tho'^e of birds, are found in this deposit, such as the duck, the pelican, the woodcock, the starling, and the skylark. The famous locality of fossil fish at Monte Bolca, in Italy, is in tertiary strata. About 105 species have been found in those quarries, and many of them are difierent from any species known to exist in the neighbouring seas, or even in any part of the earth. 5. The next distinction of formations made by geologists is DILUVIAL and alluvial deposits — the former being generally considered as having been formed by the last general deluge, ar.'i the latter by currents of rivers and other causes now in operation. The blocks of rock and the beds of gravel spread or scattered on the surface of the ground, composed of stone, or fragments foreign to the district in which they are spread, and which frequently cover the bones of unknown species of quadrupeds — are called diluvial depositions, that is, deposi- tions which have been caused by a deluge. The materials of these deposits are usually coarse, and composed of gravel, pebbles, and blocks of a great variety of rocks aggregated without any regularity. This sand, soil, or fragments brought down by rivers, and spread along their banks or at their mouths, are called alluvial depositions. The bones and skele- tons of large animals, and especially the mammolh^ are found in diluvial gravel in many countries. In Siberia the tusks of the fossil elephant are found in the diluvial banks of almost every river, and sometimes in such abundance that the ivory from these skeletons is an article of export. It is said that the skeleton of a whale lies on the top of mountains 3000 feet high, on the coast of the Northern ocean, which could scarcely have been conveyed to such an .elevation but by an immense overwhelming deluge. Alluvial deposits are the most superficial of all the form- ations \ they are forming every day ; they envelope the re- mains of animals that still exist on the surfaces they have GEOLOGY, 179 formed, and they are also mingled with the remains of animals which have existed in recent times. The alluvial beds taken as masses are all of loose earth, and are never covered by rocky masses ; and in these beds chiefly are to be found the remains of hun^an beings and the monuments of their industry and art. There is a constant tendency in torrents, currents, rivers, tides, winds, and similar causes, to wear down the ine- qualities of the land and to deposit the materials in the sea. In this way deltas have been formed, such as the deltas of the Nile, the Ganges, the Mississippi, the Danube, and the Rhone. The mouths of the Mississippi are now more than 100 miles from its original entrance into the gulf of Mexico, and for hundreds of miles above most of the land seen from its banks is alluvial ; so that all the mass of land alluded to has been formed by materials carried down by the rapid current of this mighty river. The delta of the Ganges commences 220 miles in a direct line from the ocean ; and the town of Adria, which was once a port on the Adriatic, is now 20 miles inland ; all which vast accumulations are considered as the effects of allu- vial depositions. 6. There is likewise a species of rocks distinguished by geologists by the title of volcanic and basaltic rocks; which owe their origin to volcanic fire, and are sometimes forced up to the surface of the earth by the action of subter- raneous heat. The principal volcanic rocks are basalt^ lavay and greenstone. Volcanic rocks occur in shapeless masses, and are destitute of organic remains, hi some parts of Europe, as in Iceland, Sicily, and the country around Naples, active volcanoes still exist, which frequently emit vast quantities of lava, ashes, and other species of matter. But even in places where no active volcanoes exist, as in Avergne, Velay, and Vivavais, in France, several hundreds of conical hills are found, with craters near their summits. These hills are com- posed of materials similar to those of active volcanoes, and streams of lava may sometimes be traced proceeding from the cones into the adjoining valleys, where they choke up the ancient channels of rivers, in the same manner as some of the modern lavas in Iceland have been known to do, the rivers either flowing beneath, or cutting out a passage on one side of the lava. Trap rocks are related to volcanic, and are mostly composed of horneblende and felspar. The term trap is de- rived from the Gerrnan word trappa^ a stair, as many of these rocks occur in a terrace form, or like the steps of a stair — a configuration which is supposed to be owing to the stopping of large sheets of lava when flowing, whether at the bottom 180 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. of the sea or on dry land ; for it is known that streams ol' lava generally terminate in abrupt precipices, similar to the beds constituting the trap ranges. These rocks are distinguished, even at a distance, from those of the stratified formations, as they occur in shapeless masses, and form hilly^tracts of great irregularity of surface, or in the form of walls or dikes pene- tratfng other rocks, which they alter in character to a certain degree at this point of contact. Basalt is of a black or bluish-gray colour. It is commonly fine-grained, and consists of an intimate admixture of felspar and augite, a variety of horneblende, with some oxide of iron. Many of the Western islands of Scotland are wholly or almost composed of basalt. The island of Stafa is a complete mass of basalt. It is about two miles in circum- ference, and is surrounded on every side by steep cliffs, 70 feet high, formed of clusters of angular columns, containing from 5 to 7 sides each. Fingal's Cave is in the S. E. corner of the island, and presents a magnificent chasm, 42 feet wide, and 227 in length. The roof, which is 100 feet high at the e-n trance, gradually diminishes to 50, and is composed of the projecting extremities of basaltic pillars, and the base of a causeway of the same materials. The Giant'^s Causeioay^ in the county of Antrim, in Ireland, is another striking specimen of basaltic columns. It consists of hundreds of thousands of pentagonal and hexagonal columns (that is, columns of 5 and 6 sides) varying from 1 to 5 feet in thickness, and from 20 to 200 feet in height. The district in which this remarkable formation occurs lies on both sides of the river Bann, and comprehends an area of 800 square miles. Throughout this area, the basalt is found coping all the eminences, and con- stituting an overlying bed of igneous rocks, at least 500 feet in thickness. The greatest mass of basalt yet known occurs in the province of Deccan in India, where it constitutes the surface over an area of many thousand square miles. Having given the above brief sketches of the different orders of stratification, I shall conclude this department of the subject, by a {qv^ general statements respecting the organic remains embedded in the several formations to which we have ad- verted. 1. Organic remains are not found promiscuously scattered through the rocks, but each formation has its peculiar group of animals and plants ; and on comparing together the larger groups of strata, we find scarcely any organic remains com- mon to any two of them. These fossil animals and plants are found together in groups, very much as living plants and ani- GEOLOGY. 181 nials are — different groups occupying different portions of the surface of the eartli and of tlie ocean. Hence it is concluded, that these remains were once living plants and animals, which, in different periods, occupied the ocean and the dry land, grouped together as we now find them, and that, as they died, they became enveloped in rock, near the places where they passed their existence. 2. Some of the formations and deposits to which we have alluded, particularly the mountain limestone^ consist almost entirely of the shells and coralline productions of sea animals, and this formation is often a thousand or more feet in thick- ness, and many miles in length and breadth. In what are termed the sUurian formations is found a long succession of strata many thousand feet in thickness, and embedding not fewer than 375 species belonging to the animal kingdom. 3. It is considered an established fact, that of more than 3000 species of plants and animals that are found in a fossil state in the secondary rocks, not a single species corresponds with any now living on the globe ; and even out of 3000 fossil species in the tertiary formation less than 600 are identical with living species. In short, in all the different formations, till we come to the uppermost and the newest, the thousand species they contain are all different from any in the now existing creation, though possessing family analogies. 4. It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding the great variety of fossils observed in the early formations, the remains of man are not to be found in these formations. The remains of human beings and the vestiges of the arts and operations of man are discovered only in or upon those earthly masses which are demonstrably posterior to all regular geological de- posits — or, the diluvial and alluvial formations — and \VA^^PY circumstances, indicating the human species to have been among the recent productions of the Creator's power, and that man was created at a period posterior to those great changes and convulsions which destroyed so many millions of millions of animated beings. Had this not been the case, it IS almost certain that numerous remains of the human species would have been found in the early formations. " The phenomena of geology show that the original forma- tion of the rocks has been accompanied, in nearly all its stages, by a process of waste, decay, and recomposition. The rocks, as they were successively deposited, were acted upon by air and water, heat, &c., broken into fragments or worn down into grains out of which new strata were formed. Even the newer secondary rocks, since their consolidation, have been 16 182 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. subject to great changes, of which very distinct monuments remain. Thus, we have single mountains, which from their structure can be considered only as remnants of great forma- tions, or of great continents no longer in existence. Mount Meisner, in Hesse, six miles long, and three br&ad, rises about 1800 feet above its base, and 2100 above the sea, overtopping all the neighbouring hills for 40 or 50 miles round. The lowest part of the mountain consists of the same shell, lime- stone, and sandstone, which exist in the adjacent country. Above these are, first, a bed of sand, then a bed of fossil wood 100 feet thick at some points, and the whole is covered by a m^ss of basalt, 500 feet in height. On considering these facts, it is impossible to avoid concluding, that this mountain, which now overtops the neighbouring country, occupied at one time the bottom of a cavity in the midst of higher lands. The vast mass of fossil wood could not all have grown there, but must have been transported by water from a more elevated surface, and lodged in what was then a hollow. The basalt which covers the wood must also have flowed in a current from a higher site ; but the soil over which the basalt and the wood passed, has been swept away, leaving this mountain as a solitary memorial to attest its existence. Thus also on the side of Mount Jura, next the Alps, where no other mountain interposes, there are found vast blocks of granite (some of them of 1000 cubic yards) at the height of more than 2000 feet above the Lake of Geneva. These blocks are foreign to the rocks among which they lie, and have evidently come from the opposite chain of the Alps ; but the land which constituted the inclined plane over which they were rolled or transported, has been worn away, and the valley of Lower Switzerland, with its lakes, now occupies its place. Trans- ported masses of primitive rocks of the same description are found scattered over the north of Germany, which Von Buch ascertained, by their characters, to belong to the mountains of Scandinavia; and which therefore carry us back to a period when an elevated continent occupying the basin of the Baltic, connected Saxony w^ith Norway.* The production of a bed for vegetation is effected by the decomposition of rocks. This decomposition is effected by the expansion of water in pores or the fissures of rocks, by heat or congelation — by the solvent power of moisture — and by electricity, which is known to be a powerful agent of de- composition. As soon as the rock begins to be softened, the * Supplement to Encyclopaedia Britannica, 6th edit., vol. vi. GEOLOGY. 183 seeds of lichens^ which are constantly floating in the air, make it their resting place. Their generations occupy it till a finely divided earth is formed, which becomes capable of supporting mosses and heath; acted upon by light and heat, these plants imbibe the dew, and convert constituent parts of the air into nouri.shment. Their death and decay afibrd food for a more perfect species of vegetable ; and at length a mould is formed, in which even the trees of the forest can fix their roots, and which is capable of rewarding the labours of the cultivator. The decomposition of rock tends to the renovation of soils, as well as their cultivation. Finely divided matter is carried by rivers from the higher districts to the low countries, and alluvial lands are usually extremely fertile. By these opera- tions, the quantity of habitable surface is constantly increased ; precipitous cliffs are gradually made gentle slopes, lakes are filled up, and islands are formed at the mouths of great rivers ; so that, as the world grows older, its capacity for containing an increased number of inhabitants is gradually en- larging. Of all the memorials of the past history of our globe, the most interesting are those myriads of remains of organized bodies which exist in the interior of its outer crusts. In these, we find traces of innumerable orders of beings existing under different circumstances, succeeding one another at distant epoclis, and varying through multiplied changes of form. " If we examine the secondary rocks, beginning with the most ancient, the first organic remains which present themselves, are those of aquatic plants and large reeds, but of species dif- ferent from ours. To these succeed madrepores, encrenites, and other aquatic zoophites, living beings of the simplest forms, which remain attached to one spot, and partake, in some degree, of the nature of vegetables. Posterior to these, are ammonites, and other moUusci, still very simple in their forms, and entirely different from any animals now known. After these, some fishes appear; and plants, consisting of bamboos and ferns, increase, but still different fro-m those which exist. In the next period, along with an increasing number of extinct species of shells and fishes, we meet with amphibious and viviparous quadrupeds, such as crocodiles and tortoises, and some reptiles, as serpents, which show that dry land now existed. As we approach the newest of the solid rock formation, we find lamantins, phocae, and other cetaceous and mammiferous sea animals, M-ith some birds. And in the newest of these formations, we find the remains of herbiferous land animals of extinct species, the paleotherium, 184 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOrHER. anaplolhei-ium, Stc.,aiicl of birds, with some fresh-water shells. Ill the h)west beds of loose soil, and in peat bogs, are found the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elk, &c., of different species from those which now exist, but be- lonoino- to the same genera. Lastly, the bones of the species which are apparently the same with those now existing alive, are never found except in the very latest alluvial depositions, or those wliich are either formed in the sides of rivers, the bottoms of ancient lakes and marshes now dried up, in peat beds, in the fissures and caverns of certain rocks, or at small depths below the present surface, in places where they may have been overwhelmed by debris, or even buried by man. Human bones are never found except among those of animal species now living, and in situations which show that they have been, comparatively speaking, recently deposited."* Numerous species of animals have been found embedded in the secondary strata — no living examples of which are now to be found in any quarter of the globe. Among the most remarkable of these are the following: — l.'The mam- moth^ which bears a certain resemblance to the elephant, but is much larger, and differs considerably in the size and form of the tusks, jaws, and grinders. The fossil remains of this animal are more abundant in Siberia than in other countries ; there being scarcely a spot, from the river Don to Kamtschatka, in which they have not been found. Not only single bones and perfect skeletons of this animal are frequently to be met with ; but, in a late instance, the whole animal was found preserved in ice. This animal was discovered on the banks of the Frozen ocean, near the mouth of the river Jena, in 1799 ; and in 1805, Mr. Adams got it conveyed over a space of 7000 miles to Petersburg, where it is deposited in the Museum. The flesh, skin, and hair, were completely preserved, and even the eyes were entire. It was provided with a long mane, and the body was covered with hair. The hair was of differ- ent qualities. There were stiff black bristles from twelve to fifteen inches long, and these belonged to the tail, mane, and ears. Other bristles were from nine to ten inches long, and of a brown colour ; and besides these, there was a coarse wool, from four to five inches long, of a pale yellow colour. This mammoth was a male; it measured nine feet four inches in iieight, and was sixteen feet four inches long, without in- chiding the tusks. The tusks, measuring along the curve, are nine feet six inches; and the two together weigh 360 lbs. * Supp. to Encyc. Brit., vol. vi. GEOLOGY. 185 avoirdupois. The head alone, without the tusks, weighs 414 lbs. avoirdupois. The remains of this animal have been found likewise in Iceland, Norway, Scotland, England, and in many places through the continent onward to the Arctic ocean. 2. The megatherium. A complete skeleton of this colossal species was found in diluvial soil near Buenos Ayres, and sent to Madrid. The specimen is fourteen feet long, and seven Spanish feet in height. 3. The great mastodon of the Ohio. This species appears to have been as tall as the elephant, but with longer and thicker limbs. It had tusks like the elephant, and appears to have lived on roots. Its remains abound in America, parti- cularly on the banks of the Ohio. Fig. 19. 4. The tapir^ which also abounds in America. The one named gigantic tapir, is about eighteen feet long, and twelve feet high. 5. The Irish elk, or elk of the Isle of Man. This gigan- tic species, now apparently extinct, occurs in a fossil state, in Ireland, Isle of Man, England, Germany, and France. The most perfect specimen of this species, which was found in the Isle of Man, may he seen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh. It is six feet high, nine feet long, and in height, to the tip of the right horn, nine feet seven and a half inches.* Such are a few of the acts which the researches of modern geology have disclosed. Let us now consider what are the conclusions which have been deduced from them. One of the grand conclusions which has been deduced by * An engraving of this skeleton may be seen in Vol. 6th of Supp. to Encyc. Brit., 6th edit. 16* 186 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER, modern geologists — even by those who acknowledge tlie divi- nity of the Christian revelation is, that the materials of which our globe is composed are of very high antiquity^ and were brought into existence long before the race of Adatn was placed upon the earth. The exact period of years which any of these materials may have existed, or any approximation to it, no geologist has yet undertaken to determine, nor is it likely that the problem will every be satisfactorily solved. In reference to some of the coal strata, Mr. Macculloch, in his '^System of Geology," states that it would be even too short a period " were we to allow 200,000 years for the production of the coal mines of Newcastle w^ith all its rocky strata," not including the subsequent formations up to the present condi- tion of the earth. Mr. Maclaren, in his " Geology of Fife and the Lothians," estimates a single period of volcanic quiescence, during which strata of coal, shale, sandstone, and limestone were deposited over the side of Arthur's seat, a basaltic hill in the vicinity of Edinburgh — at five hundred thousand years. Mr. Babbage, when referring to the tertiary class of forma- tions, regards it as a truth, supported by irresistible evidence, "that the formation even of those strata which are nearest the surface, must have occupied vast periods, probably millions of years."* The Rev. Professor Sedgwick, when adverting to the process of forming deposits, says, that " a section of a few perpendicular feet indicates a very long lapse of time," so that in such processes "many thousands of years sink into a trilling period." In short, the most respectable modern geo- logists when alluding to this point, use such expressions as the following — "immense periods of time" — "a duration to M'hicli we dare not assign a boundary" — "undefined ages" — "along succession of monuments, for the production of each of which there may have been required a thousand ages" — " suc- cessions of events, where the language of nature signifies mil- lions of years" — "a duration which it would be presumptuous to put into an estimate of years and centuries" — with many other expressions of a similar import. Whether such strong and unlimited expressions be warranted by the nature of the processes alluded to, I do not take upon me to determine. 2. Another conclusion, which has been deduced from the above stated facts, is, that during the changes which the globe has undergone, since its original production out of nothing, several destructions and subsequent new creations of animals and 2>lants have taken place, perhaps at very different and very * Babbage's Ninth Bridgewater Treatise. GEOLOGY. 187 distant epochs. The greater part of geologists conchide, that four or five distinct epochs of destruction and renewal m;iy be traced in the organic remains contained in the different strata; in other words, that whole groups have been swept at once from existence by some powerful catastrophe, and their places supplied by other races, called into existence by the creating energy of the Almighty. The records of geology seem to testify that such was the condition of the globe, in those early periods, as to temperature and other circumstances, that our present races of animals could not have then existed, and that such was the nature and constitution of these prime- val beings, that they could not exist in the present constitution and circumstances of our globe ; their natures being adapted to the different conditions of the earth, at different periods of its existence. 3. A third conclusion is, that the successive changes^ to which our globe has been subjected^ have been im-provemerits in its condition as a habitable worlds that there has been a cor- respondent advance towards perfection in the natures of the animals and plants which have been placed upon its surface; and that the Deity, during this long period of successive changes, was gradually fitting up this loorid for the ultimate residence of mora.1 and intellectual beings, such as the human species that now inhabit it. For it appears next to certain that the race of man could not have inhabited this globe in any of the past periods of its duration, prior to that era in whicli he was placed upon it. It would appear that the Deity did not tliink proper to prepare a suitable habitation for man by a miracle, or a direct interposition of his Almighty energy, but by the agency of those physical laws which he had impressed upon the elementary principles of the material universe. And in order that matter might not exist in vain, myriads of beings were brought into existence, under the direction of Infinite Wisdom, endowed with faculties and natures adapted to those peculiar states of the terraqueous globe in which they were to pass their existence. Such are a few of the facts connected with the constitution of our globe, and the conclusions which have been deduced from them. It now remains that we inquire into their accord- ance with the records of the sacred history. It has been too frequently taken for granted by theologians and commentators, that the whole system of the material uni- verse was brouglit into existence within the period of 6000 years from the present time ; and hence, some of them who 183 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. have been anxious to reconcile the Mosaic and the geological chronoloo'ies, have attempted to show that all the formations and chano-es in the strata of the earth, to which we have al- luded, might have been effected within the period of 6000 years, and particularly during the continuance of the deluge in the days of Noah. Some of them have insinuated that the coral- line recfs^ which exhibit vast accumulations of calcareous matter, and which abound on the coast of New Holland, and among the islands of the Pacific ocean, have been all formed since the present order of things commenced ; and therefore that all the other formations to which we have alluded, even the oldest, may have been formed within the same period. It has also been insinuated, that it appears derogatory to the wisdom and power of the Creator to suppose, that for thou- sands of years the earth should have been occupied merely with vegetables and animals of the lowest orders, and that many species of each class were alternately created, and per- mitted to retire out of existence. But such positions are now considered as absolutely un- tenable by all the most scientific and respectable geologists of modern times, as being inconsistent with facts which are every where perceptible in the strata of our globe. As to the de- signs which the Almighty had in view, in replenishing the earth for so long a period of time, chiefly with the inferior ranks of existence, and again permitting them to perish, it be- comes us to speak with reverence and humility, as beings whose faculties are limited, and altogether inadequate to trace the inscrutable paths of the Divinity, or to investigate the reasons of every part of his procedure. We cannot, in many cases, decide as to what is consistent or inconsistent with the attributes of the Almighty ; and in the present case, as w^ell as in many others, 'we must admit that the operations of the Deity are unsearchable, and " his ways past finding out." "Canst thou by searching find out the secrets of God } Canst thou find out the designs of the Almighty } they are as high as the heavens, deeper than hades ; the measure thereof is longer than the earth and broader than the sea.*" But this we know, that, in consequence of the previous revolutions which our globe had undergone, it was prepared for being a suitable habitation for the human species, and for the other ranks of animated nature that now possess it; and although some portions of it present the appearance of desolation and dij^arrangement, yet were man, its chief inhabitant, renovated in the spirit of his mind, and found acting on the moral princi- ples of Christianity, in the capacity of communities and nations, ^ GEOLOGY. 189 it might soon be cultivated and renovated throughout all its extent, so as to present the aspect of a terrestrial paradise, and to shine forth with all the beauties of Eden. But, to come more particularly to the subject in hand. ETad Moses, in his history of the creation, positively declared that every portion of the material world was created out of nothing, within sixteen hundred and fifty years of the period of the deluge, or about six thousand years ago, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile the facts of geology with the Mosaic history. But no such position is to be found either in the writings of Moses or throughout any other portion of sacred Scripture. For the illustration of this point, it may be proper for a little to consider the meaning and import of the first verse of the the first chapter of Genesis : " In the heghi' ning God created the heavens and the earth?'^ This proposition is to be considered as a preface to the fol- lowing narrative of the arrangements connected with our ter- restrial system, and, indeed, to the whole of Divine revelation ; and a more comprehensive, emphatic, and appropriate intro- duction can scarcely be conceived. By the heavens and the earthy we are here undoubtedly to understand the whole frame of the material universe, with all the bodies it contains, wherever existing throughout immensity — whetiier suns, planets, comets, nebulae, or whatever else exists throughout the regions of boundless space. All the bodies comprehended under this general expression are here said to have been created^ tliat is, brought from nothing into existence by the energy of an eternal and omnipotent Agent. The original Hebrew word, {^"1^. Bara^ does not indeed necessarily convey this idea, as it most frequently signifies " to produce something new or wonderful," or " to arrange, to renovate, or new- model" something which was previously in existence. It is a matter of rational inference, however, and strictly accordant with just philosophical principles, that the material universe was created out of nothing. It is such an inference as cannot be resisted without doing violence to the fundamental laws of human belief. This magnificent frame of the universe is here said to have been brought into existence by God — the God of Israel, the self-existent and eternal Jehovah. This declaration was intended to teach the Israelites, and all others, that the material world, as to its original atoms, did not arise without a cause, or out of pre-existent materials ; that the beautiful order it now exhibits did not originate from the fortuitous concourse of atoms, as some heathen philosophers imagined, and that it did not derive its existence from any of the gods 190 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. of the nations, as some of their blinded worsliippers foolishly iinafrlned. In opposition to all such chimerical, absurd, and atheistical notions, Moses declares, " In the beginning God"' — the God of Israel — " created the heavens and the earth." As if he had said, ^^That God who delivered you from the land of Egvpt, after having displayed so many signs and wonders ; who divided the waters of the Red sea before you, and who appeared in awful majesty at Mount Sinai ; that God whom you are commanded to worship, and whose laws you are bound to obey — is the Great Being who reared that wonder- ful fabric of heaven and earth which your eyes behold." The yeriod when this astonishing effect was produced is also here declared, " In the. heginmngP Upon a proper con- ception of the meaning of this expression depends, in a great measure, the reconciliation of the geological and the Mosaic chronology. The phrase here stated, '^ in the beginning," is nsed to denote the commencement of an era, or of a series of successive events. It evidently implies that, at what period soever in the long lapse of past duration, any part of the ma- terial creation was brought into existence, it derived that ex- istence from the self-existent and eternal Divinity. But no specific period is here stated. Had Moses expressly told his readers that this period, when the first materials of creation were brought into existence, M'as about twenty-five hundred years from the time in which he wrote, then there would have been an almost insuperable difficulty in reconciling the discoveries of geology with such a statement. But no such assertion, either directly or by implication, is to be found throughout the whole ran^e of Divine revelation. Ten thou- sands of years, or even millions of ages, may have elapsed since the first portions of matter were created, or previous to what is termed the first day's work, in the arrangements of our globe, — for any thing that Scripture asserts to the con- trary. No limit is fixed to the time which may have elapsed between the period, when the component materials of our globe were created, and the period when it began to be re- duced into the order in which we now behold it; and no in- formation is given as to the events which may have occurred during this interval. For it appears to have been the chief design of the sacred historian to give a narration of those events which were introductory to the placing of man upon the earth. And, in this point of view, it is important to re- mark, that the passage before us is entirely independent of the narrative of the six days^ work which follows, and is to be considered simply as a general and most important truth, form- GEOLOGY. 191 ing an appropriate introduction both to the following narra- tive, and to the whole system of revelation. It is therefore to be regretted that certain theologians should still j)ersist in maintaining that the whole material creation must be limited to a period within 6000 years from this date, when Scripture is silent on this point; for in so doing they put an argument into the hands of the philosophical infidel, which it is in his power to wield against the truth and autho- rity of revelation. Jf the propriety of the explanation now given be admitted, then it completely removes every objection against the Mosaic record, derived from the supposed antiquity of the earth. Al- though it could be proved that some of tlie strata of our globe were formed millions of ages ago; although we should con- ceive what is neither impossible, nor altogether improbable — that our globe, in another form, has been the abode, for thou- sands of ages, of intellectual beings analogous to man, wlio are now transported to another region of creation — or that it has been the habitation of numerous and diversified races both of sentient and intellectual natures, and that millions of millions of ages have rolled on since the Creator put forth his omni- potent energy, and since such stupendous revolutions com- menced — neither of such views is in the least discordant with any doctrine or fact recorded in the sacred oracles. The Psalmist declares in reference to creation, when addressing the Almighty, " Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the works of thy hands ;" and the apostle Paul declares, " Thou Lord, l^ the begiNxXing, hast laid tlie foundations of the earth." But no specific period is stated here, or in any other portion of Scripture ; and the expression of old is not only correspondent with what we have now stated, but seems to imply the idea of the high antiquity of the earth. The circumstance now adverted to — that Moses specifies no definite period as the commencement of the material creation — 1 consider as a corroborative argument for the truth of Di- vine revelation. Had he written at random, or from vague tradition, or had he intended merely to give play to an exube- rant fancy, in describing what no uninspired mortal could ever have known — it is not likely he would have used language so cautious and appropriate, as not to have interfered with any subsequent discoveries that might be made in the constitution of the material universe. Among all the cosmogonies which have been composed by heathen writers, either from tradition or from their own fancies, there is not one which accords with the discoveries of modern times ; but, on the contrary, they 192 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. all contain statements in direct opposition to facts which are known to exist in the material system. But the inspired writers ^vere — perhaps unconscious to themselves — directed to use such languaore as, when rightly interpreted, would be quite consistent with all the views and discoveries that might be opened of the works of God to the latest generations. It has been supposed by some who cannot be persuaded to a:lmit the notion of the high antiquity of the earth, that the rocks, W'ith all the fossil petrifactions they contain, were cre- ated just as we find them, in a moment of time. " The Divine Being," they affirm, "might as easily have made matter to as- sume the form of a shell, a fish, a lizard, or a w^terworn pebble, such as we find in these rocks, as of any other shape or structure." To all who have bestowed the least attention on the strata of the earth and their fossil remains, such state- ments and reasoning must appear foolish and absurd in the highest degree. To use the words of Professor Silliman : •' We will not inquire wiiether Almighty Power inserted plants and animals in mineral masses, and was thus exerted in work- ing a long series of useless miracles without design or end, and therefore incredible. The man who can believe, for ex- ample, that the Iguanodon, with his gigantic form, 70 feet in length, 10 in height, and 15 in girth, was created in the midst of consolidated sandstone, and placed down 1000 or 1200 feet from the surface of the earth, in a rock composed of ruins and fragments, and containing vegetables, shells, fish, and rolled pebbles — such a man can believe any thing, with or without evidence. If there be any such persons, we must leave them to their own reflections, since they cannot be influ- eaced by reason and sound argument; with them we can sus- tain no discussion, for there is no common ground on which we can meet. " But why, I would ask, should the idea of the high antiquity of the earth frighten any persons from acquiescing in it, when it is not in the least repugnant to the declarations of Scrip- ture? So far from contracting or distorting our views of the Divine perfections, it tends to expand our conceptions of the plans and operations of the Deity. If periods of duration ahnost too great for human powers to estimate, have been em- ployed since the original creation of our globe, to bring it to its present state, — if vast successive revolutions, at different eras, have taken place upon its surface — if the waters of the mighty deep have at different periods overflowed the solid land — if the place where we now stand was once a portion of the bottom of the ocean, over which its mighty billows for GEOLOGY. 193 ages had rolled — if subterraneous fires have at different periods raised up from the bottom of the deep those huge mountains which now lift their summits to the clouds — if lofty moun- tains have been sunk down many thousands of feet below their ancient level, so as to form deep valleys or the bottom of the seas — if the Almighty, after creating the matter of our globe, impressed certain laws upon its elementary substances, and left these laws to operate as they now do, with only occasional interferences — if races of animated beings have occupied the globe for myriads of ages — if new races have been created at different periods and subsequently destroyed — or if numerous orders of intelligent existence may have occupied the surface of the globe ages before man was introduced to this terrestrial scene — if tremendous convulsions have shaken the firm founda- tions of the earth — in short, if by all the processes to which we have alluded, our globe was gradually prepared for tiie purposes it now fulfils, and that the Creator chose to employ these rather than tlie special interposition of miraculous power — such considerations tend to exhibit the power, wisdom, and benevolence of the Deity in a new point of view, and to en- large our conceptions of the magnificent plans of Him who is '^ The King eternal, immortal, and invisible," who is " won- derful in counsel and excellent in working." — We are here shown that the space which has intervened between the pre- sent time and the period when man was first placed upon the globe, is but one of the units of a vast series of chronological periods which have gone before, and which stretch backwards into the abyss of immeasurable duration. It is but a single link of the great chain which stretches from the moment when matter first arose from nothing, to diversify the wilds of im- mensity, down to the hour wiiich is now^ passing over us. And who knows but that the system of the globe with which we are presently connected may be but one link in an inter- minable series of events connected with other orders of intel- ligences, which will be unfolded during the revolutions of a coming eternity .? The science of astronomy directs our views to regions of s-pace which are immeasurable by mortals, and perhaps even by intelligences of a higher order, and discloses to our sight ten thousands of millions of magnificent orbs, whose existence was not even suspected 200 years ago. Geology directs our views to a stupendous series of events stretching back to the ages of a past eternity. The one conducts our vision to the far distant regions of immensity ; — the other to the immea- surable periods of past duration ; — the one enlarges our con- 17 194 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHEK. ceptions o{ space <, and the innumerable objects with which it is diversified ; — the other expands our ideas o^ time, and the revolutions wliich have marked its progress. But astronomy has done more than this. Like geology, it extends our views to periods of time immensely long in the flux of past duration — periods during which thousands of the luminaries of heaven have existed and displayed their radiance. Sir W. Herschel, in his remarks on the nehuJce^ has concluded, from a variety of ingenious reasonings and observations, that those nebulae Avhich assume a milky light or appearance, cannot be less than about 7000 times the distance of the star Sirius, or 168 thou- sand hiUions of miles ; and from other observations, it is in- ferred that other bodies in the heavens are removed to a much greater distance. Now light, notwithstanding its amazing velocity of 192,000 miles in a second, would be nearly thirty thousand years ere it could fly from such nebulae to the earth. Since, therefore, it is a fact that the light of such bodies has actu- ally been seen, and consequently, that it must have been travel- ling at least many thousands of years before it could have reach- ed the eyes of any of the inhabitants of our globe ; it follows, that such bodies must have been brought into existence at far distant periods of past duration, otherwise they could not thus have darted their light through such vast spaces of immensity. The discoveries of modern astronomy likewise disclose to lis certain facts which lead us to the conclusion, that certain progressive operations are going forward, analogous to those which appear to have been carried forward in remote ages, in relation to our globe. Had our limits permitted, we might have shown that some of the comets appear to be in an early stage of their progress towards becoming, habitable worlds — that many of the nebulae give evidence of a gradual progres- sion towards condensation — that the appearance of new stars, the disappearance of others which had long shone in the hea- vens, and the gradual diminution of the light of others — the changes which appear to be occasionally taking place on tlie surfaces of the sun and the planets, along with other celestial phenomena — are indications that progression towards perfec- tion, and perpetual change, are not peculiar to our world, but are principles in the Creator's government, pervading the wide- extended universe. In short, progressive improvement towards perfection forms a characteristic of the plans of the Almighty, not only in the physical, but also in the moral world. In the first instance, after the flood, the knowledge of the true God was chiefly confined to the family of Abraham ; afterwards, it wa'^ dis- GEOLOGY. 195 seminated among the tribes of Israel, but circumscribed witliin the small territory of Judea ; in process of time it was partially diffused among the surrounding nations ; after the Christian era it spread abroad through the greater part of the Roman empire ; it has now extended its influence over most of the European nations, and over a certain portion of the tribes that inhabit Asia, Africa, and America. It is still in progress ; and, on the foundation of the declarations of inspired prophets we now look forward to the period when "the glory of Jehovah shall be revealed, and when all flesh shall see it together;" when "all the ends of the world shall remember and turn to the Lord," and " when righteousness and praise shall spring forth before ail nations," And the scenes of a coming eternity will doubtless display changes and revolutions far surpassing in grandeur all the events which have happened during the myriads of ages which have already past, and which will excite the astonishment and adoration of an admiring universe. Even in an intellectual and political point of view, the nations are making progress towards perfection, "Old things are pass- ing away," and new scenes of improvement are gradually un- folding. The state of society, in the island in which we dwell, 2000 years ago, presents nearly as great a contrast to what it is now, as the chaotic state of our globe exhibited before it was reduced to the beauty and order in which we now behold it. In short, every thing we contemplate in the scene around us is progressive : the faculties of the human mind, and the corporeal powers from infancy to manhood — the growth of all the animal and vegetable races — the improvements of art, and the discoveries of science — education, civilisation, and political economy — the cultivation of the earth, the mode of travelling by sea and land, and hundreds of other objects and movements demonstrate that progression is a law which per- vades both the intellectual and the corporeal universe ; — and, in the future world, the expansion of the human faculties, and the progress of the mind from one scene of material and in- tellectual grandeur to another, will form one portion of the happiness of renovated spirits: and as such a progression will never cease, their felicity will be of perpetual duration ; for, if a finite spirit were to stop short in its excursions, or to arrive at a boundary where it could proceed no farther — from that moment its happiness would begin to diminish, and misery, to a certain extent, would infallibly ensue. I have only to add that, whatever ma}^ be affirmed respect- inff the antiquity of the materials of which the earth is com- posed, it is admitted by every geologist, that our globe as to 196 CHRISTIA-V PHILOSOPHER. 775 present slate and arrangement, has been comparatively of short duration. All the physical monuments which exist, and the progressive changes which have happened in tlie strata of the earth, as well as historical monuments, and the concurrent tradition of many nations, bear witness to this truth, that the first appearance of man upon the face of the globe cannot be referreci to a period farther back than five or six thousand years from the present time. Had the limits assigned to the present article pennitted, I might have introduced some remarks on the 2d verse of the 1st chapter of Genesis, "The earth was without form and void," &c., or as it has sometimes been translated — "After- ■vvards the earth became waste and desolate" — which expres- sions evidently imply that, at the period here alluded to, the substance or materials of the globe did exist ; for we are told that the earth " zcf/5," or " had become^'' desolate and waste, pre- vious to the arrangements which are subsequently described. How long it had continued in this state, or in any of its pre- vious states — whether a year, a century, or thousands of years, we are not informed, nor is there any expression in Scripture which determines this, so that we are left at full liberty to carry our views oh this point as far back into the ages of past duration, as the facts connected with the structure of our globe may warrant, without controverting any position contained in the sacred oracl'^s. 1 might likewise have shown that the sun and stars must have been brought into existence before the period called the "fourth day," at which time they were ap- pointed " to rule the day, and to be for signs and seasons, and for days and years".— and that the Creator, either through the medium of physical causes, or by a direct interposition of his power, produced the effects described in the sacred narra- tive — such as the separation of the ocean from the dry land — in the periods of time there specified. But the pi oof and illus- tration of such positions would occupy too mucli space in the present work.* On the whole, the subject of geology forms an interesting and instructive study both to the philosopher and the Christian. "When we take a survey of the august objects which diversify the surface of our globe ; when we enter the wild and roman- tic scene of a mountainous country, or descend into the sub- * For fi fiirtlior illusfrafion of some of these topics, ihp author respectfully refers the reader to a lecture, lately published, entitled, " Discoveries of Modern (neology not inconsistent with Revelation" — beinc the Gill of a series of lectures to young men, delivered in Broughton Place Church, Edinburgh, in March. 1813. GEOLOGY. 197 terraneous regions of the globe, we are every where struck with the vestiges of operations carried on by the powers of nature, upon a scale of prodigious magnitude, and with the exertion of forces, the stupendous nature of which astonishes luid overpowers the mind. We seem as if standing on the ruins, and contemplating the vestiges of a former world. We oehold " hills" which " have melted like wax at the presence of the Lord," and "mountains" which "have been carried into tlie midst of the sea." We behold rocks of enormous size, which have been rent from their foundations, and rolled from one continent to another — the most solid strata of the earth bent under the action of some tremendous power, and dispersed in fragments throughout the surrounding regions. We behold the summits of lofty mountains, over which the ocean had rolled its mighty billows — confounding lands and seas in one universal devastation — transporting plants and forests from one quarter of the world to another, and spread- ing universal destruction among the inhabitants of the waters and the earth. Contemplating such scenes of grandeur, we perceive the force and sublimity of those descriptions of the Deity contained in the volume of inspiration. "The Lord reigneth; he is clothed with majesty; in his hand are the deep places of the earth, the strength of the hills is his also. He removeth the mountains and they know not; he over- turneth them in his anger; he shaketh the earth out of her place, and the pillars thereof tremble. At his presence the earth shook and trembled ; the foundations also of the hills moved and were shaken. He covered the earth with the deep as with a garment, the waters stood above the mountains. At his rebuke they fled ; at the voice of his thunder they hastened away. ) ^ But, amidst all the revolutions and catastrophes that have taken place in the constitution of our globe, there is the clear- est evidence of an all-wise and superintending Providence directing every event. Amidst the convulsions which have rent its strata — that have " carried hills into the midst of the seas" — and raised mountains from the bottom of the ocean — there are striking indications of Divine benevolence in pre- paring our world for the comfort and accommodations its inhabitants now enjoy. The facts disclosed by geological in- vestigation tend to enlarge our conceptions of the attributes of the Divinity, and of the sublimity of his plans and arrange- ments in the universe ; and to demonstrate that his creating power has been repeatedly exercised during countless ages, in calling into existence numerous orders of beings, and in carrviniT forward his arrano^ements to a glorious consummation, 17* 198 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. ASTRONOMY. Anollier science ^vhich stands in an intimate relation to re- ligion is astronomy. This sublime science teaches us the magnitudes and dis- tances of the heavenly bodies, their arrangement, their various motions and phenomena, and the laws by which their move- ments are regulated. It presents to our view, objects the most M'onderful and sublime ; whether we consider the vast magni- tude oi" the bodies about which it is conversant — their immense munher — the velocity of their motions — the astonishing forces requisite to impel them in their rapid career through the regions of the sky — the vast spaces which surround them, and in which they perform their revolutions — the magnifi- cent circles they describe — the splendour of their appearance — or the important ends they are destined to serve in the grand system of the universe. Having adverted to this subject, when illustrating the omnipotence of the Deity, I shall here shuply state a few additional facts with respect to the general appearance of the heavens, the bodies which compose the planetary system, and the discoveries which have been made in the region of the stars. When we lift our eyes towards the sky, we perceive an apparent hollow hemisphere, placed at an indefinite distance, and surrounding the earth on every hand. In the day time, tlie principal object which appears in this hemisphere is the sun. In the morning, we see him rise above the distant mountains, or from the extremity of the ocean : he gradually ascends the vault of heaven, and then declines, and disappears in the opposite quarter of the sky. In the northern parts of tlie globe, where we reside, if, about the 21st of March, we place ourselves on an open plain, with our face towards the south, the sun will appear to rise on our left, or due east, about six in the morning, and about the same hour in the evening he will set due west. In the month of June, he rises to our left, but somewhat behind us, in a direction towards the north-east, ascends to a greater height at noon than in the month of March, and, after describing a large arc of the heavens, sets on our right and still behind us, in the north- M-estern quarter of the sky. In the month of December, if we stand in the same position, we may observe, without turning ourselves, both his rising and setting. He rises in the south-east, ascends to a small elevation at noon, and sets in the south-west, after having described a very small arc of the heavens. Every day he appears to move a little towards the ASTROXOMY. 199 east, or contrary to his apparent diurnal motion : for the stars which are seen to the eastward of him appear every succeed- ing day to make a nearer approach to the place in which he is seen. All the variety of these successive changes is ac- complished within the period of 365 days 6 liours, in which time he appears to have made a complete revolution round the heavens from west to east. The ?noon is the next object in the heavens which naturally attracts our attention ; and she is found to go through similar variations in the course of a month. When she first becomes visible at new moon, she appears in the western part of the heavens, in the form of a crescent, not far from the setting sun. Every night she increases in size, and removes to a greater distance from the sun, till at last she appears in the eastern part of the horizon, just as the sun disappears in the western ; at which time she presents a round full-enlightened face. After this she gradually moves farther and farther east- ward, and her enlightened part gradually decreases, till at last she seems to approach the sun as nearly in the east as she did in the west, and rises only a little before him in the morning, in the form of a crescent. All these different changes may be traced, by attending to her apparent positions, from time to time, with respect to the fixed stars. A dark shadow is occasionally seen to move across the face of the moon, which obscures her light, and gives her the appearance of tarnished copper. Sometimes this shadow covers only a small portion of her surface ; at other times it covers the whole of her disk for an hour or two, and its margin always appears of the figure of a segment of a circle. Tliis phenomenon, which happens, at an average, about twice every year, is termed an eclijjse of the moon. It is produced by the shadow. of the earth falling upon the moon, when the sun, the earth, and the moon are nearly in a straight line ; and can happen only at the time o^ full moon. Sometimes the moon appears to pass across the body of the sun ; when her dark side is turned towards the earth, covering his disk either in whole or in part, and intercepting his rays from a certain portion of the earth. This is called an ecl'ijjse of the sun., and can happen only at the time of new moon. In a total eclipse of the sun, which seldom happens, the darkness is so striking, that some of the planets and sometimes the larger stars are seen, and the inferior animals appear struck with terror. Again, if on a winter's evening, about six o'clock, we direct our view to the eastern quarter of the sky, we shall perceive 200 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. certain stars just risen above the liorizon ; if we view the same stars about midnight, we shall find them at a consider- able elevation in the south, having apparently moved over a space equal to one half of the whole hemisphere. On the next morning, about six o'clock, the same stars will be seen settiuii in the western part of the sky. If we turn our eyes towards the north, we shall perceive a similar motion in these twinkling oibs; but with this difference, that a very consi- derable number of them neither rise nor set, but seem to move round an immovable point, called the north pole. Near this point is placed the pole star, which seems to have little or no apparent motion, and which, in our latitude, appears elevated a little more than half way between the northern part of our horizon and the zenith^ or point above our heads. The above cut, which represents the principal stars in the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, will enable the reader to recognize the pole star, by attending to the follow- ing directions. The seven stars in the lower part of the figure represent Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, sometimes known by the names of the Plough and Charles'' Wain. The stars on the upper part represent Ursa Minor, or the Little ASTRONOMY, 201 Bear, the largest star of which, on the right hand side, is the Pole star. About the beginning of November, at six or seven o'clock in the evening, the Great Bear will appear near the north, at a low elevation above the horizon, and nearly in tlie position here represented. The two stars on the right hand side of the Great Bear are called the Pointers, and are distant from each other about five degrees. If a line connecting these stars be considered as prolonged upwards to a considerable distance, (about twenty-nine degrees,) till it meet the first bright star, that star is the Pole star, which is here represented at the higher part of the figure. Were the same observation made about the middle of April, at ten o'clock in the evening, the Great Bear will appear almost directly over our heads, above the Pole star, and then we must conceive the line con- necting the two Pointers as drawn downwards towards the Pole star. At difl^erent times of the night, and at different periods of the year, the Great Bear will appear to be in differ- ent positions with respect to the Pole star, sometimes below, sometimes above, and at other times to the east or west of it. But in all positions, a line drawn through the Pointers will always direct the eye to the Pole star. A person who has directed his attention to the heavens for the first time, after having made such observations, will natu- rally inquire — Whence come those stars which begin to ap- pear in the east 1 Whither have those gone which have dis- appeared in the west } and, What becomes, during the day, of the stars which are seen in the night ? — It will soon occur to a rational observer-, who is convinced of the roundness of the earth, that the stars which rise above the eastern horizon come from another hemisphere, which we are apt to imagine below us, and when they set, return to that hemisphere again ; and that the reason why the stars are not seen in the day- time, is not because they are absent from our hemisphere, or have ceased to shine, but because their light is obscured by the more vivid splendour of the sun.* From such observa- * This is put beyond all doubt by the invention of the telescope ; by which instrument, adapted to an equatorial motion, we are enabled to see many of the stars even at noon-day. The author of this work, in 1812 atid 1813, made a number of observations by means of an Equatorial Telescope, to determine the following particulars : — What stars and planets may be conveniently seen in the day-time, when the sun is above the horizon ? — what degrees of magnifying power are requisite for distinguish- ing them ? — how near their conjunction with the sun they may be seen ? — and, whether the diminution of the aperture of the telescope, or the in- crease of magnifying power, conduces most to render a star or planet visible in day-light ? I'he results of several hundreds of observations on these points, accompanied with some original deductions and remarks, 202 CHRISTIAN PHILOSUPIIER. tions we arc led to conclude, that the globe on which we tread is suspended in empty space — is surrounded on all sides bv the celestial vault — and that the whole sphere of the hea- vens has an apparent motion round the earth every twenty- four hours. Whether this motion be real, or only apparent, must be determined by other considerations. Such general views of the nocturnal heavens, which every common observer may take, have a tendency to expand the mind, and to elevate it to the contemplation of an invisible Power, by which such mighty movements are conducted. Whether we consider the vast concave, with all its radiant orbs, moving in majestic grandeur around our globe, or the earth itself whirling round its inhabitants in an opposite direc- tion — an idea of sublimity, and of Almighty energy, irresisti- bly forces itself upon the mind, whicli throws completely into the shade the mightiest efforts of human power. The most powerful mechanical engines that were ever constructed by the agency of man, can scarcely afford us the least assistance in forming a conception of that incomprehensible power, are inserted in Nicholson's Philosophical Journal, for October 1813, vol. xxxvi. pp. 109 — 128. The following are some of the results which were deduced from the observations: — That a star of the first magnitude rnay be distinguished, at any time of the day, with a magnifying power of 30 times, but that a higher magnifying power is preferable — That most of the stars of the second magnitude may be seen with a power of 100 ; and with a power of 60 times, when the sun is not much more than two hours above the horizon — That the planet Jupiter, when not within 30 or 40 degrees of the sun, may be seen with a power of 15 times ; and that Venus may, in most instances, be seen with a power of from 7 to 100 times, and upwards — That Jupiter can scarcely be distinguished in the day-time, when within 26 degrees of the sun ; but that Venus may be dis- tinctly perceived near her superior conjunction, when only one degree and 27 minutes from the sun's margin: and consequently may be visible a! the time of that conjunction, when her geocentric latitude equals or eX' ceeds one degree 43 minutes — That she may be perceived like a fine slender crescent, within 35 hours after passing her ivferior conjunction, &c. One practical purpose to which such observations on Venus, at the time of her superior conjunction, may be applied, is to determine the dif- ference (if any) between her polar and equatorial diameters. For it is only at that conjunction that she presents to the earth a full enlightened hemi- sphere ; and in no other position can the measure of both diameters be taken, except when she makes a transit across the sun's disk. As the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, are found to be spheroids, it is highly probable ihat Venus is of a similar figure ; but this point has never yet been ascertained by actual observation. See also the Edinburgh Philoso- phical Journal, No. V. for July, 1820, p. 191 ; and No. XIII. for July, 1822— The Scots Magazine, for February, 1814, p. 84— Monthly Maga- zine, February, 1814, and August, 1820, p. 62— Brew^ster's Ferguson's Astronomy, 2d edition, vol. ii. p. 111. On March 10th, 1842, the author saw Venus, about 12 o'clock noon, when only 1° 21' distant from the sun's eastern hmb, with a 3^ feet achromatic telescope, magnifying 95 times-^ the aperture of the object glass being contracted to \l inches. ASTRONOMY. 203 which, with unceasing energy, conrimunicates motion to re- volving v.'orlds. And yet, such is the apathy with which the heavens are viewed by the greater part of mankind, that there are thousands who have occasionally gazed at the stars for the space of fifty years, who are still ignorant of the fact, that they perform an apparent diurnal revolution round our globe. Again, if we contemplate the heavens with some attention, for a number of successive nights, we shall find, that by far the greater part of the stars never vary their positions with respect to each other. If we observe two stars at a certain apparent distance from each other, either north or south, or in any other direction, they will appear at the same distance, and in the same relative position to each other, the next even- ing, the next month, and the next year. The stars, for in- stance, which form the sicord and belt of Orion^ present to our eye the same figure and relative aspect, during the whole period they are visible in winter, and from one year to an- other ; and the same is the case with all the fixed stars in the firmament. On examining the sky a litde more minutely, however, we perceive certain bodies which regularly shift their positions. Sometimes they appear to move towards the east, sometimes towards the west, and at other times seem to remain in a stationary position. These bodies have obtained the name of planets^ or wandering stars ; and in our latitude, are most frequently seen, either in the eastern and western, or in the southern parts of the heavens. Ten of these plane- tary orbs have been discovered ; six of which are, for the most part, invisible to the naked eye. By a careful examina- tion of the motions of these bodies, and their different aspects, astronomers have determined that they all move round the sun as the centre of their motions, and form, along with the earth and several smaller globes, one grand and harmonious system. This assemblage of planetary bodies is generally termed the solar system, of which I shall now exhibit a brief outline. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Of this system, the sun is the centre and the animating principle, and by far the largest body that exists within its limits. The first thing that strikes the mind when contem- plating this glorious orb, is its astonishing magnitude. This vast globe is found to be about 880,000 miles in diameter, and couppquently contain?: a mass of mattv^r equal to thirteen 204 CHRISTIAN PHlLOSOPHEn. liundred thousand globes of the size of the earth. Were its central parts placed adjacent to the surface of the earth, its circumference would reach two hundred thousand miles be- yond the moon's orbit, on every side, filling a cubical space of 356,818,739,200,000,000 miles. If it would require eighteen thousand years to traverse every square mile on the eanh's surface, at the rate of thirty miles a day,* it would re- quire more than two hundred milUons of years to pass over every portion of the sun's surface, at the same rate. Even at the rate of ninety miles a day, it would require more than eighty years to go round its circumference. Of a body so vast in its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can form no adequate conception. Jt appears an extensive universe in itself; and although no other body existed within the range of infinite space, this globe alone would afford a powerful demonstration of the omnipotence of the Creator. Were the sun a hollow sphere, surrounded by an external shell and a luminous atmosphere ; were this shell perforated with several hundreds of openings into the internal parts ; were a globe as large as the earth placed at its centre, and an- other globe as large as the moon, and at the same distance from the centre as the moon is from us, to revolve round the central globe, — it would present to the view a universe as splendid and glorious as that which now appears to the vulgar eye — a universe as large and extensive as the vvhole creation was conceived to be by our ancestors, in the infancy of astro- nomy. And who can tell, but that Almighty Being, who has not left a drop of water in a stagnant pool without its inhabit- ants, has arranged a number of worlds within the capacious circuit of the sun, and peopled them with intelligent beings in the first stages of their existence, to remain there for a certain period, till they be prepared for being transported to a more expansive sphere of existence .'' It is easy to conceive that enjoyments as exquisite, and a range of thought as ample, as have ever yet been experienced by the majority of the in- habitants of our world, might be afforded to myriads of beings thus placed at the centre of this magnificent luminary. This supposition is at least as probable as that of the celebrated Sir W. llerscliel, who supposed that the exterior surface of the sun was peopled with inhabitants. For if this were the case, the range of view of these inhabitants would be confined within the limits of tvvo or three hundred miles, and no celes- tial body, but an immense blaze of light would be visible in * See p. 35. ASTRONOMY. 205 their hemisphere. Such is the variety which appears among the works of God, and such is the diversity of situations in which sensitive beings are placed, that we dare not pro- nounce it impossible that both these suppositions may be realized. Though the sun seems to perform a daily circuit around our globe, he may be said, in this respect, to be fixed and immovable. This motion is not rea/, but only apparent., and is owing to the globe on which we are placed moving round its axis from west to east; just as the objects on the bank of a river seem to move in a contrary direction, when we are sailing along its stream in a steam-boat. The only motion which is found to exist in the sun, is a motion of rotation, like that of a globe or ball twirled round a pivot or axis, which is performed in the space of twenty-five days and tea hours. This motion has been ascertained by means of a variety of dark spots which are discovered by the telescope on the sun's disk; which first appear on his eastern limb, and after a period of about thirteen days, disappear on his western, and after a similar period, reappear on his eastern edge. These spots are various, both in number, in magnitude, and in shape : sometimes forty or fifty, and sometimes only one or two, are visible, and at other timics the sun appears entirely without spots. Most of them have a very dark nucleus, or central part, surrounded by an umbra, or fainter shade. Some of the spots are as large as would cover the whole continent of Europe, Asia, and Africa, others have been observed of the size of the whole surface of the earth ; and one was seen, in the year 1779, which was computed to be more than Jifty thousand miles in diameter. With regard to the nature of this globe — it appears highly probable, from the observations of Sir W. Hersciiel, thai the sun is a solid and opake body, surrounded with luminous clouds which float in the solar atmosphere, and that the dark nucleus of the spots is the opake body of the sun appearing through occasional openings in this atmosphere. The height of the atmosphere, he computes to be not less than 1843, nor more than 2765 miles, consisting of two regions ; that nearest the sun being opake, and probably resembling the clouds of our earth: the outermost emitting vast quantities of light, and forming the apparent luminous globe we behold. The sun is the grand source of light and heat, both to the earth and to all the other planetary bodies. The heat he dif- fuses animates every part of our sublunary system, and all that variety of colouring which adorns the terrestrial land- 18 206 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. scape is produced by his rays. It has been lately discovered, that the rays of light, and the rays of heat, or caloric^ are distinct from each other 5 for it can be demonstrated, that some rays from tlie sun produce heat, which have no power of com- municating light or colour. The greatest heat is found in the red rays, the least in the violet rays ; and in a space beyond the red rays, where there is no light, the temperature is greatest. The rays of the sun have also been found to pro- duce different chemical effects. The white muriate of silver is blackened in the violet ray in the space of fifteen seconds, though the red will not produce the same effect in less than twenty minutes. Phosphorus is kindled in the vicinity of the red ray, and extinguished in the vicinity of the violet. The solar light, therefore, consists of three different orders of rays, one producing colour^ a second producing heat,, and a third chemical effects. Euler has computed that the light of the sun is equal to 6500 candles at a foot distance, while the moon would be as one candle at 7| feet; Venus at 421 feet; and Jupiter at 1320 feet. That this immense luminary appears so small to our eyes, is owing to its vast distance, which is no less than ninety-five millions of miles. Some faint idea of this distance may be obtained, by considering that a steam- boat, moving at the rate of two hundred miles a-day, would require thirteen hundred years before it could traverse the space which intervenes between us and the sun. " Hail, sacred source of inexhausted light ! Prodigious instance of creating might. His distance man's imagination foils ; Numbers will scarce avail to count the miles. As swift as thought he darts his radiance round To distant worlds, his system's utmost bound." — Brown. The planet Mercury. Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun that has yet been discovered. He is about thirty-seven millions of miles distant from the sun, and revolves around him in eighty-eight days. His diameter is about three thou- sand two hundred miles. Before the discovery of the four new planets, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, in the beginning of the present century, this globe was considered as the smallest primary planet in the system. His surface, however, contains above thirty-two millions of square miles, which is not much less than all the habitable parts of our globe. On account of his nearness to the sun, he is seldom seen by the naked eye; being always near that quarter of the heavens where the sun appears ; and therefore, few discoveries have been made on his surface by the telescope. M. Schroeter ASTRONOMV. 207 concludes, from certain observations, that this planet revolves rouiul its axis in twenty-four hours and five minutes. The sun will appear to an inhabitant of Mercury seven times larger than to an inhabitant of the earth : and if the degree of heat be in proportion to a planet's nearness to the sun, the lieat in this planet will be seven times greater than on the surface of our globe ; and consequently, were the earth plared in the same position, all the water on its surface would boil, and soon be turned into vapour. But the all-wise Creator has, doubtless, attempered the surface of that globe, and the consti- tution of the beings that may occupy it, to the situation in ■which they are placed.* Venus, the next planet in order from the sun, revolves around him in 224 days, at the distance of 68 millions of miles : its diameter is about seven thousand seven hundred miles, or nearly the size of the earth ; and it turns round its axis in the space of 23 hours and 20 minutes. This planet is the most brilliant orb which appears in our nocturnal heavens, and is usually distinguished by the name of the morning and evening star. When it approaches nearest to the earth, it is about 27 millions of miles distant; and, at its greatest distance, it is no less than 163 millions of miles from the earth. Were the M'liole of its enlightened surface turned towards the earth, when it is nearest, it would exhibit a light and brilliancy, twenty-five times greater than it generally does, and appear like a small brilliant moon ; but at that time its dark hemi- sphere is turned towards our globe. Both Venus and Mercury, when viewed by a telescope, appear to pass successively * From a variety of facts which have been observed in relation to the production of caloric, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on the surfaces of the different planets is inversely proportional to the squares of their respective distances from the sun. It is more probable that it depends chiefly on the distribution of the substance of caloric on the sur- faces, and throughout the atmospheres of these bodies — in different quan- tities, according to the ditferent situations they occupy in the solar system ; and that these different quantities of caloric are put into action by the influence of the solar rays, so as to produce that degree of sensible heat requisite tor each respective planetary globe. On this hypothesis — which is corroborated by a great variety of facts and experiments — there may be no more sensible heat felt on the surface of the planet Mercury, than on the surface of Uranus, although one of these bodies is nearly fifty times nearer the sun than the other. We have only to suppose that a small quantity of caloric exists in Mercury, and a larger quantity in Uranus, proportionate to his distance from the centre of the system. On this ground, we have no reason to beUeve, cither that the planets nearest the sun are parched with excessive heat, or that those that are most distant are exposed to all the rigours of insufferable cold, or that the different degrees of temper- ature which may he found in these bodies render them unlit for being the abodes of sensitive and intellectual beings. 208 CHRISTIAN PIIILOSOrilER. through all the shapes and appearances of the moon ; some- times aspuming a gibbous phase, and at other times the form of a half moon, or that of a crescent ; which proves, that they are dark bodies in themselves, and derive their light from the sun. Tlie most distinct and beautiful views of Venus, espe- cially when it appears as a crescent, are to be obtained in the day Yime^ by means of an equatorial telescope. From a variety of observations which the author has made w^ith this instru- ment, it has been found that Venus may be seen every clear day, without interruption, during a period of 583 days, with the occasional exception of thirteen days in one case and only three days in another — a circumstance which cannot be affirmed of any other celestial body, the sun only excepted.* M. Sciiroe- ter affirms, that he has discovered mountains on the surface of this globe, one of which is 10, another 11, and a third 22 miles high. It appears also to be encompassed with an at- mosphere, the densest part of which is about 16,000 feet high. About twice in the course of a century this planet appears to pass, like a dark spot, across the sun's disk. This is termed the transit of Venus. The last transit happened June 3, 1769; the next will happen on December 8, 1874, which will be invisible in Europe. Another will happen on the 6lh Decem- ber, 1882, which will be partly visible in Great Britain. The Earth is the next planet in the system. It moves Sec Edin. Phil. Journ., No. V., July, 1820, and No. XIII, July, 1822. — I have found, from observation, that this planet may be seen in the day time, when only 1° 21' from the sun's centre ; and, consequently, when its geocentric latitude at the time of the superior conjunction exceeds that quantity, it may be distinctly seen during the whole period of 583 days, excepting about 35 hours before and after its inferior conjunction. It "is well known to astronomers, that there has been a diflerence of opinion with respect to the period of the rotation of this planet. Cassini, from observations on a bright spot which advanced 20 degrees in 24 hours 34 minutes, determined the time of its rotation to be 23 hours and 20 mi- nutes. On the other hand, Bianchini, from similar observations, con- cluded that its diurnal period was 24 days and 8 hours. The difficulty of deciding between these two opinions arises from the short time in which observations can be made on this planet, either before sunrise, or after sunset, which prevents us from tracing, with accuracy, the proaressive motion of its spots for a sufficient length of time. And although an ob- server should mark the position of the spots, at the same hour, on two succeeding evenings, and find they had moved forward about 20 degrees in 24 hours, he w'ould still be at a loss to determine, whether they bad moved 20 degrees in all, since the preceding observation, or had finished a revolution, and 20 degrees more. In Nicholson's Philosophical Journal, vol. xxxvi. I endeavoured to show, how this point may be determined by observations made on Venus in the day time, by which, in certain cases, the progressive motion of its spots might be traced, without interruption, for 12 hours or more, which would completely settle the period of ro- tation. ASTROXOMY. 209 round the sun in 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes, at the distance of 95 millions of miles, and round its axis in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. The former is called its anriuaJ^ and the latter its diurnal motion. That the earth is, in reality, a moving body, is a fact which can no longer be called in question ; it is indeed susceptible of the clearest demonstration. But my limits will not permit to enter into a detail of the ar- guments by which it is supported. I have already adverted to one consideration, from which its diurnal rotation may be inferred.* Either the earth moves round its axis every day, or the whole wiiverse moves round it in the same time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would involve a reflec- tion on the wisdom of its almighty Author, and would form the only exception that we know, to that beautiful proportion, harmony, and simplicity, which appear in all the works of nature. Were it possible to construct a machine as large as the city of London, and to apply to it mechanical powers sufficient to make it revolve on an axis, so as to carry round a furnace for the purpose of roasting a joint of mutton, sus- pended in the centre of its motion — while we might admire the ingenuity and the energies displayed in its construction — all mankind would unite in condemning it as a display of con- summate folly. But such an extravagant piece of machinery would not be half so preposterous as to suppose, that the vast universe is daily revolving around our little globe, and that all the planetary motions have an immediate respect to it. And shall we dare ascribe to him who is " the only wise God," contrivances which we would pronounce to be the perfection of folly in mankind ? It is recorded of the astronomer Al- phonsus, king of Castile, who lived in the 13th century, that after having studied the Ptolemaic system, which supposes the earth at rest in the centre of the universe, he uttered the fol- lowing impious sentence : " If I had been of God's privy council, vvhen he made the world, I would have advised him better."" So that false conceptions of the system of nature lead to erroneous notions of that adorable Being who is pos- sessed of infinite perfection. We find that bodies much larger than the earth have a similar rotation. The planet Jupiter, a globe 295,000 miles in circumference, moves round its axis in less than ten hours ; and all the other planetary bodies, on which spots have been discovered, are found to have a diurnal motion. Besides, it is found to be a universal law of nature, that smaller globes revolve around larger ; but there is no ex- ample in the universe, of a larger body revolving around a * See pp. 47, 48. 18* 210 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. smaller. The moon revolves around the earth, but she is much smaller than the earth ; the moons which move around Jupi- ter, Saturn, and Herschel, are all less than their primaries, and the pUuiets which perform their revolutions "around the sun are much less than that central luminary. With regard to the annual revolution of the earth, — if such a motion did not exist, the planetary system would present a scene of inextricable confusion. The planets would some- times move backwards, sometimes forwards, and at other times remain stationary ; and would describe looped curves, so anomalous and confused, that no man in his senses could view the all-wise Creator as the author of so much confusion. But, by considering the earth as revolving in an orbit between Venus and Mars, (which all celestial observations completely demonstrate,) all the apparent irregularities of the planetary motions are completely solved and accounted for; and the solar system presents a scene of beauty, harmony, and grandeur, combined with a simplicity of design, which characterizes all the works of Omnipotence. The Moon. — Next to the sun, the moon is to us the most interesting of all the celestial orbs. She is the constant at- tendant of the earth, and revolves around it in 27 days 8 hours", but the period from one new or full moon to another is about 29 days 12 hours. She is the nearest of all the hea- venly bodies; being only about two hundred and forty thou- sand miles distant from the earth. She is much smaller than the earth ; being only 2180 miles in diameter. Her surface, when viewed with a telescope, presents an interesting and a variegated aspect ; being diversified with mountains, valleys, rocks, and plains, in every variety of form and position. Some of these mountains form long and elevated ridges, re- sembling the chains of the Alps and the Andes ; while others, of a conical form, rise to a great height, from the middle of level plains, somewhat resembling the Peak of TenerifF. But the most singular feature of the moon is, those circular ridges and cavities which diversify every portion of her surface. A range of mountains of a circular form, rising three or four miles above the level of the adjacent districts, surrounds, like a mighty rampart, an extensive plain ; and, in the middle of this plain or cavity, an insulated conical hill rises to a considerable elevation. Several hundreds of these circular plains, most of which are considerably below the level of the surrounding country, may be perceived with a good telescope, on every region of the lunar surface. They are of all dimensions, from two or three miles to forty miles in diameter; and, if ASTROxXOMY. 2J1 they be adorued with verdure, they must present to the view of a spectator, placed among them, a more variegated, roman- tic, and sublime scenery than is to be found on the surface of our globe. An idea of some of these scenes may be acquired, by conceiving a plain of about a hundred miles in circumfe- rence, encircled with a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level of the plain. From the top of this central moun- tain, the whole plain, with all its variety of objects, would be distinctly visible ; and the view would appear to be bounded on all sides by a lofty amphitheatre of mountains, in every diversity of shape, rearing their summits to the sky. From the summit of the circular ridge, the conical hill in the centre, the opposite circular range, the plain below, and some of the adjacent plains, which encompass the exterior ridge of the mountains, would form another variety of view ; — and a third variety would be obtained from the various aspects of the central mountain, and the surrounding scenery as viewed from the plains below. The lunar mountains are of all sizes, from a furlong to five miles in perpendicular elevation. Certain luminous spots, which have been occasionally seen on the dark side of the moon, seem to demonstrate that fire exists in this planet. Sir W. Herschel, and several other astronomers, suppose that they are volcanoes in a state of eruption. It would be a more pleasing idea, and perhaps as nearly corresponding to fact, to suppose that these phenomena are owing to some occasional splendid illuminations produced by the lunar inhabitants, dur- ing their long nigh'ts. Such a scene as the burning of Moscow, the conflagration of an extensive forest, or the splendid illumi- nation of a large city with gas-light, might present similar appearances to a spectator in the moon. The bright spots on the moon are the mountainous regions : the dark spots are the plains, or more level parts of the surface. There may proba- bly be rivers or small lakes on this planet ; but there are no seas or large collections of water. It appears highly probable, from the observations of Schroeter, that the moon is encom- passed with an atmosphere : but no clouds, rain, or snow, seem to exist in it. The illuminating power of the light de- rived from the moon, according to the experiments made by Professor Leslie, is about the one hundred andjifty thousandlh part of the illuminating power of the sun. According to the experiments of M. Bouguer, it is only as 1 to 300,000. The moon always presents the same face to us ; which 212 CHRISTIAN rillLObOPHER. proves, that she revolves round her axis in the same time that she revolves round tlie earth. As this orb derives its light from the sun, and reflects a portion of it upon the earth, so the earth performs the same office to the moon. A spectator on the lunar surface would behold the earth, like a luminous orb, suspended in the vault of heaven, presenting a surface about 13 times larger than the moon does to us, and appearing sometimes gibbous, sometimes horned, and at other times with a round full face. The light which the earth reflects upon the dark, side of the moon may be distinctly perceived by a com- mon telescope, from two to six or eight days after the change. Tiie lunar surface contains about 15 millions of square miles, and is therefore capable of containing a population equal to that of our globe, allowing only about 53 inhabitants to every square mile. That this planet is inhabited by sensitive and intelligent beings, there is every reason to conclude, from a consideration of the sublime scenery with which its surface is adorned, and of the general beneficence of the Creator, who appears to have left no large portion of his material creation without animated existences ; and it is highly probable, that direct, proofs of the moon's being inhabited may hereafter be obtained, when all the varieties on her surface shall have been more minutely explored.* The planet Mars. — Next to the earth and moon, the planet Mars performs his revolution round the sun, in one year and ten months, at the distance of 145 millions of miles. His diameter is about 4200 miles, and he is distinguished from all the other planets by his ruddy appearance, which is owing to a dense atmosphere with which he is environed. With a good telescope, his surface appears diversified by a variety of spots ; by the motion of which it is found, that he turns round his axis in 24 hours and 40 minutes. The inclination of his axis to the plane of his orbit being about 28° 42', the days and nights, and the diflerent seasons in this planet, will bear a con- siderable resemblance to those we experience in our terrestrial sphere.! At his nearest approach to the earth, his distance from us is about 50 millions of miles ; and, at his greatest distance, he is about 240 millions of miles; so that in the former case he appears nearly 25 times larger than in the latter. * See Appendix, Note IV. t The inflinalioii of the earth's nxis to the ecliptic, or, in other words, to the plane of its annual orliit, is 23° 28', which is the cause of tlie diversity of seasons, and of the different length of days and nights. Were the axis of the earth pcppendicular to its orbit, as is the case with the planet .Tupi- ter, there would be no diversity of seasons. ASTRONOMY. 213 To a spectator in this planet our earth will appear, alternately, as a morniiig and evening star, and will exhibit all the phases of the moon, just as Venus does to us, but with a less degree of apparent magnitude and splendour. A luminous zone has been observed about the poles of Mars, which is subject to successive changes. Sir W. Herschel supposes that it is pro- duced by the reflection of the sun's light from his frozen re- gions, and that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the cause of the variation in its magnitude and appearance. This planet moves, in its orbit, at the rate of tifty-five thousand miles an hour. The New Planets. — Between the orbits of Mars and .Ju- ])iter, four planetary bodies have been lately discovered, ac- companied with circumstances somewhat different from those of the other bodies which compose our system. They are named Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. The planet Ceres was discovered at Palermo in Sicily, by M. Piazzi, on the first day of the present century. Jt is of a ruddy colour, and ap- pears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude, and is consequently invisible to the naked eye. It performs its revo- lution in four years and seven months, at the distance of two hundred and sixty millions of miles from the sun, and is reckoned, by some astronomers, to be about sixteen hundred and twenty-four miles in diameter, or about half the diameter of Mercury. Ft appears to be surrounded with a large dense atmasphere. Pallas was discovered the following year, namely, on the 28th March, 1802, by Dr. Olbers of Bremen. It is sup- posed to be about two thousand miles in diameter, or nearly the size of the moon. It revolves about the sun in four years and seven months, or nearly in the same time as Ceres, at the distance of two hundred and sixty-six millions of miles ; and is surrounded with a nebulosity or atmosphere, above four hundred miles in height, similar to that of Ceres. The planet Juno was discovered on the 1st September, 1804, by Mr. Hard- ing of Bremen. Its mean distance from the sun is about two hundred and fifty-three millions of miles; its revolution is completed in four years and one hundred and thirty days, and its diameter is computed to be about fourteen hundred and tv/enty-five miles. It is free from the nebulosity which sur- rounds Pallas, and is distinguished from all the other planets by the great eccentricity of its orbit ; being, at its least dis- tance from the sun, only one hundred and eighty-nine mil- lions of miles, and at its greatest distance, three hundred and sixteen millions. Vesta was discovered by Dr. Olbers on the 29lh March, 1807. It appears like a star of the fifth or sixth 214 CHRISTlAxN PHILOSOPHER. magnitude, and may sometimes be distinguished by the naked eve. Its lio-ht is more intense and white than any of the other three, and it is not surrounded with any nebulosity. It is di^tant from the sun about two hundred and twenty-live mil- lions of miles, and completes its revolutions in three years and two hundred and forty days. Its diameter has not yet been accurately ascertained ; but, from the intensity of its light and other circumstances it is concluded, that it is not inferior in magnitude to either Pallas or Juno. These planetary globes present to our view a variety of anomalies and singularities, which appear incompatible with the regularity, proportion, and harmony which were formerly supposed to characterize the arrangements of the solar system. They are bodies much smaller in size than the other planets — they revolve nearly at ike same distances from the sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the same periods — their orbits are much more eccentric^ and have a much greater de- gree of inclination to the ecliptic, than those of the old planets — and, what is altogether singular, (except in the case of comets,) their orbits cross each other ; so that there is a possibility that two of these bodies might happen to interfere, and to strike each other, in the course of their revolutions. The orbit of Ceres crosses the orbit of Pallas. Vesta may sometimes be at a greater distance from the sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, although its mean distance is less than that of either of them, by several millions of miles; so that the orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the other three. From these and other circumstances, it has, with a high de- gree of probability, been concluded — that these four planets are the fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved between Mars and Jupiter, and which had been burst asunder by some immense irruptive force. This idea seems to have occurred to Dr. Olbers, after he had discovered the planet Pallas, and he imagined that other fragments might possibly exist. He concluded, that, if they all diverged from the same point, " they ought to have two common points of reunion, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens, through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.'' One of these nodes he found to be in the constellation Virgo, and the other in the Whale ; and it is a remarkable coincidence, that it was in the latter of these regions that the planet Juno was discovered by Mr. ITavding. In order to detect the remaining fragments, (if any existed,) Dr. Olbers examined, three times every year, all the small stars in Virgo and the Whale ; and it was actually in the constellation Virgo that he discovered the ASTRONOMY. 215 planet Vesta. It is not unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may yet be discovered. Sir D. Brewster attributes the fall of meteoric stones* to the smaller fragments of these bodies happening to come within the sphere of the earth's attraction. His ingenious reasonings on this subject, and in support of Dr. Olbers' hypothesis above stated, may be seen in Edin. Encyc. vol. ii, p. 641, and in his " supple- mentary chapters to Ferguson's Astronomy." The facts to which 1 have now adverted seem to unfold a new scene in the history of the dispensations of the Almighty, and to warrant the conchision, that the earth is not the only globe in the universe which is subject to physical changes and moral revolutions. The planet Jupiter. — This planet is four hundred and ninety millions of miles distant from the sun, and performs its annual revolution in nearly twelve of our years, moving at the rate of twenty-nine thousand miles an hour. It is the largest planet in the solar system ; being eighty-nine thousand miles in diameter, or about fourteen hundred times larger than the earth. Its motion round its axis is performed in nine hours and fifty-six minutes ; and, therefore, the portions of its surface about the equator move at the rate of twenty-eight thousand miles an hour, which is nearly twenty-seven times swifter than the earth's diurnal rotation. The figure of Jupiter is that of an oblate spheroid, the axis, or diameter, passing through the poles, being about six thousand miles shorter than that passing through the equator. The Earth, Saturn, and Mars, are also spheroids ; and it is highly probable that Mer- cury, Venus, and Herschel, are of a similar figure, though the fact has not yet been ascertained by actual observation. When viewed with a telescope, several spots have been occasionally * Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites, are stones which sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere upon the earth. The substance of which they are composed is, for the most part, metallic ; but the ore of which they consist is not to be i'oimd in the same constituent pro-portions, in any terrestrial substances. Their fall is gene- rally preceded by a luminous appearance, a hissing noise, and a loud ex- plosion; and, when found immediately after their descent, are always hot. Their size differs from small fragments of inconsiderable weight, to the most ponderous masses. Some of the larger portions of these stones have been found to weigh from three hundred pounds to several tons ; and they have often descended to the earth with a force sufficient to bury them several feet under the soil. Some have supposed that these bodies are projected from volcanoes in the moon ; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the earth ; while others imagine that they are generated in the regions of the atmosphere ; but the true cause is probably not yet ascer- tained. In some instances, these stones have penetrated through the roofs of house?,, and proved destructive to the inhabitants, 216 ClIRlSTlAiN PlIlLObOrHEn. discovered on the surface of this planet, by the motion of which its rotation was determined. But what chiefly distinguishes the surface of Jupiter is seveial streaky appearances, or dusky stripes, which extend across his disk in lines parallel to his equator. These are generally termed his belts. Three of these belts, or zones, nearly equidistant from each other, are most frequently ob- served ; but they are not regular or constant in their appear- ance.* Sometimes only one is to be seen, sometimes five, and sometimes seven or eight have been visible ; and in the latter case, two of them have been known to disappear during the time of obseivation. On the 28Lh of May, 1780, Sir W. Her- schel perceived " the whole surface of Jupiter covered with small curved belts, or rather lines, that were not continuous across his disk." Though these belts are generally parallel to each other, yet they are not always so. Their breadth is likewise variable ; one belt having been observed to grow narrow, while another in its neighbourhood has increased in breackh, as if the one had flowed into the other. The time of their continuance is also uncertain ; sometimes they remain unchanged for several months, at other times, new belts have been formed in an hour or two. What these belts, or variable appearances are, it is difficult to determine. Some have re- garded them as strata of clouds floating in the atmos])here of Jupiter; while others imagine that they are the marks of great physical revolutions which are perpetually changing the surface of that planet. The former opinion appears the most probable. But whatever be tlie nature of these belts, the sudden clianges to which they are occasionally subject seem to indicate the rapid operation of some powerful physical agency; for some of them are more than five thousand miles in breackh ; and since they have been known to disappear in the space of an iiour or two, and even during the time of a casual observation — agents more powerful than any with wiiich we are acquainted must have produced so extensive an effect. Jupiter is attended by four satellites, or moons, which pre- sent a very beautiful appearance when viewed through a tele- scope. The first moon, or that nearest the planet, is 230,000 miles distant from its centre, and goes round it in 42| hours; and will appear from its surface four times larger than our moon * A representation of these belts, in the positions in which they most frequently appear, is exhibited in the engraving at p. 16, Fig. 2. — Fig. 1 represents the double ring of Saturn as it appears when viewed through a powerful telescope. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, represent Saturn, Jupiter, Herschel, the earth, and moon, in their relative sizes and proportions. ASTRONOMY. * 217 does to us. The second moon, being farther distant, will ap- pear about the size of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the fourth, which is a million of miles distant from Jupiter, and takes sixteen days to go round him, will appear only about one-third the diameter of our moon. These moons suffer frequent eclipses from passing through Jupiter's shadow, in the same way as our moon is eclipsed by passing through the shadow of the earth. By the eclipses of these moons, the motion of light was ascertained; and they are found to be of essential use, in. determining the longitude ot^ places on the surface of our globe. This planet, if seen from its nearest moon, will present a surface a thousand times as large as our moon does to us, and will appear in the form of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon, in regular suc- cession, every 42 hours. The following figure exhibits a view of Jupiter's belts and satellites as seen through a good telescope : but they do not always appear, two on each side, as here represented, but in every variety of position ; and sometimes all on the same side, in the order of their distances ; and they seem to move from one side to another, in nearly straight lines, on account of our eye being nearly on a level witli the planes of their orbits. Fig. 21. Jupiter's axis being nearly perpendicular to his orbit, he has no sensible change of seasons, such as we experience on the eartli. Were we placed on the surface of this planet, with the limited powers of vision we now possess, our earth and moon would entirely disappear, as if they were blotted out from ihe man of rroaiion ; and t)ie infiahitants f>f these rpffions J9 ^ 218 CHRISTIAN PHII.OSOrilER. must have much better eyes than ours, if tliey know that there is such a globe as the eartii in the universe. The planet Saturn. — This planet is 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, being nearly double the distance of Jupiter. Its diameter is 79,000 miles, and consequently, it is more than nine hundred times the bulk of the earth. It takes 29| years to complete its revolution about the sun ; bnt its diurnal motion is completed in ten hours and sixteen minutes ; so that the year in this planet is nearly thirty times the length of ours, while the day is shorter, by more than one-half. The year, therefore, contains about twenty-five thousand, one hundred and fifty days, or periods of its diurnal rotation, which is equal to 10759 of our days. Saturn is of a spheroidal figure, or somewhat of the shape of an orange; his equatorial being more than six thousand miles longer than his polar diameter. His surface, like that of Jupiter, is diver- sified with belts and dark spots. Sir W. Herschel, at certain times, perceived five belts on his surface, three of which were dark, and two bright. The dark belts had a yellowish tinge, and generally covered a larger zone of the disk of Saturn than the belts of Jupiter occupy upon his surface. On account of the great distance of this planet from the sun, the light it receives from that luminary is only the ninetieth part of what we enjoy ; but, by calculation, it is found that this quantity is a thousand times greater than the light which the full moon affords to us. Besides, it is surrounded by no fewer than seven moons, which supply it with light in the absence of the sun. Five of these moons were discovered during the seventeenth cen- tury, by Huygens and Cassini ; and the sixth and seventh were discovered by Sir W. Herschel, in 1789, soon after his large forty feet reflecting telescope was constructed. These moons, and also those which accompany Jupiter, are estimated to be not much less than the earth in magnitude, and are found, like our moon, to revolve round their axes in the same time in which tliey revolve about their respective primaries. Rings of Saturn. — The most extraordinary circumstance connected with this planet is the plienomenon of a douhle ring, which surrounds its body, but nowhere touches it, being thirty thousand miles distant from any part of the planet, and is carried along with the planet in its circuit around the sun. This is the most singular and astonishing object in the whole range of tlie planetary system ; no other planet being found environed with so wonderful an appendage : and the planets which niay belong to other systems, being placed beyond the reach of our observations, no idea can be formed of the ASTKONOMY. 219 peculiar apparatus with which any of them may be furnished. This double ring consists of two concentric rings, detached from each other; -the innermost of which is nearly three times as broad as the outermost. The outside diameter of the exterior ring is 204,000 miles ; and consequently, in cir- cumference, will measure six hundred and forty thousand miles^ or eighty times the diameter of our globe. Its breadth is 7200 miles, or nearly the diameter of the earth. Were four hundred and iifty globes, of the size of the earth, placed close to one another, on a plane, this immense ring would enclose the whole of them, together with all the interstices or open spaces between the different globes. The outside diameter of the innermost ring is 184,000 miles, and its breadth 20,000 miles, or about 2| times broader than the diameter of the earth. The dark space, or interval between the two rings, is 2800 miles. The breadth of both the rings, including the dark space between them, is thirty thousand miles, which is equal to the distance of the innermost ring from the body of Saturn. The following figure represents a view of Saturn and his rings, as they would appear were our eye perpendicular to one of the planes of those rings ; but our eye is never so much elevated above either plane, as to have the visual ray standing at right angles to it : it is never elevated more than thirty degrees above the planes of the rings. When we view Saturn through a telescope, we always see the ring at an ob- lique angle, so that it appears of an oval form, the outward circular rim being projected into an ellipsis more or less ob- long, according to the different degrees of obliquity with which it is viewed, as will be seen in the figure of Saturn in the copperplate engraving, at p. 16. These rings cast a deep shadow upon the planet, which proves that they are not shmmg fluids^ but composed oi solid matter. They appear to be possessed of a higher reflective power than the surface of Saturn : as the light reflected by them is more brilliant than that of tlie planet. One obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect light upon the planet in the absence of the sun : in all probability, it also serves as an ample habitation for myriads of sensitive and intelligent beings ; for the surfaces of the two rings contain no less than 228 millions of square miles, or about six hundred times more than all tlie habitable parts of our globe, and it is not likely that, in the wise arrangements of the Creator, such an immense space would be left destitute of inhabitants ; what other purposes it may be intended to subserve, in the system ^20 cmiisTiA.v ruiLosoruLK Fig. 22. of Saturn, is at present to us unknown. The sun illuminates one side of it during fifteen years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution ; and, during the next fifteen years, the other side is enlightened in its turn. Twice in the course of thirty years, there is a short period, during which neither side is enlightened, and when, of course, it ceases to be visible; namely, at the time when the sun ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the other. It revolves round its axis, and consequently around Saturn, in ten hours and a half, which is at the rate of a thousand miles in a minute, or fifty- eight times swifter than the earth's equator. When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous arches extending along the canopy of heaven, from the eastern to the western liorizon ; having an apparent breadth equal to a hundred times the apparent diameter of our moon, and will be seen darkened about the middle, by the shadow of Saturn.* * See ihe engraving, p. 16, Fig. 7, which represents a view of the ap- pearance %\iiich till' rinjjs and niouns of Satnrn will exhibit, iu certain cases, ASTRONOMY. 22i There is no other planet in the solar system, whose firma- ment will present such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects, as that of Saturn. The various aspects of his seven moons, one rising above the horizon, while another is setting, and a third approaching to the meridian ; one entering into an eclipse, and another emerging from it ; one appearing as a crescent, and another with a gibbous phase; and sometimes the whole of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright assemblage : — the majestic motions of the rings, — at one time illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the stars ; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions of the planet, and unveiling to view the won- ders of the starry firmament — are scenes worthy of the ma- jesty of the Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to contemplate. Such magnificent displays of wisdom and omnipotence lead us to conclude, that the numerous splendid objects connected with this planet were not created merely to shed their lustie on naked rocks and barren sands ; but that an immense population of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to enjoy the bounty, and to adore the perfections of their great Creator. The double ring of Saturn, when viewed through a good telescope, generally appears like a luminous handle on each side of the planet, with a dark interval between the interior edge of the ring, and the convex body of Saturn ; which is owing to its oblique position with respect to our line of vision. When its outer edge is turned directly towards the earth, it becomes invisible, or appears like a dark stripe across the disk of the planet as it did in 1832. This phenomenon hap- pens once every fifteen years. The Planet Herschel. — This planet, which is also known by the names of the Georgium Sidus^ and Uranus^ was dis- covered by Sir W. Herschel, on the 13th of March, 1781. It is the most distant planet from the sun that has yet been dis- covered ; being removed at no less than eighteen hundred millions of miles from that luminary, which is nineteen times about, midnight, when beheld from a point 20 or 30 degrees north from his equator. The shade on the upper part of the rings represents the shadow of the body of Saturn. This shadow will appear to move gradually to the west as the morning approaches. From observations which were made some time ago by Captain Kater, Professor Quetelet, and others, it has been surmised that the outer ring of Saturn is divided into several smaller rings. Kater states, that he "saw the outer ring separated by numerous dark divisions extremely close, one stronger than the rest dividing the ring about equally." Such surmises, however, require to be confirmed by subsequent observations. 19* 222 ciniiMiA.N riiiLosoriiER. farther than the earth is from the sun — a distance so great, thai a cannon ball, flying at the rate of four hundred and eighty nnles an hour, would not reach it in four hundred years'. Its diameter is about thirt3^-tive thousand miles ; and of conrse, it is about eighty times larger than the earth. It appears like a star of the sixth magnitude ; but can seldom be disiinguished by the naked eye. It takes about eighty-three years and a half to complete its revolution round the sun ; and, though it is the slowest moving body in the system, it moves at the rate of fifteen thousand miles an hour. As the degree of sensible heat in any planet does not appear to depend al- together on its nearness to the sun, the temperature of this planet may be as mild as that which obtains in the most genial climate of our globe.* The diameter of the sun, as seen from Herschel, is little more than the apparent diameter of Venus as seen by the naked eye ; and the light which it receives from that luminary is three hundred and sixty times less than ■what we experience ; yet this proportion is found by calcula- tion to be equal to the effect which would be produced by two hundred and forty-eight of our full moons ; and, in the absence of the sun, there are six moons which reflect light upon this distant planet, all of which were discovered likewise by Sir W. Herschel. Small as the proportion of light is, which this planet receives from the sun, it is easy to conceive, that beings similar to man, placed on the surface of this globe, with a slight modiflcation of their organs of vision, might be made to perceive objects with a clearness and distinctness even superior to what we can do. We have only to suppose, that the Creator has formed their eyes with pupils capable of a much larger expansion than ours; and has endued their re- iina with a much greater degree of nervous sensibility. At all events, we may rest assured, that He who has placed sen- tient beings in any region, has, by laws with which we are partly unacquainted, adapted the constitution of the inhabitant to the nature of tlie habitation. '• Strange and amazing must the diflerence be, Twixt this dull planet and bright Mercury ! Yet reason says, nor can we doubt at all, Millions of beings dwell on either ball, With consiitutions fitted for that spot Where Providence, all-wise, has fixed their lot," — Baker. The celestial globes which I have now described, are all * See Note p. 207. ASTRONOMY. 223 the planets which are at present known to belong to the solar system. It is probable that other planetary bodies may yet be discovered between the orbits of Saturn and Herschel, and even far beyond the orbit of the latter ; and it is also not improbable, that planets may exist in the immense interval of thirty -seven millions of miles between Mercury and the sun.* These (if any exist) can be detected only by a series of day observations, made with equatorial telescopes ; as they could not be supposed to be seen, after sunset, on account of their proximity to the sun. Five prhnaryf planets, and eight secondaries, have been discovered within the last sixty years ; and, therefore, we have no reason to conclude, that all the bodies belonging to our system have yet been detected, till every region of the heavens be more fully explored. Comets. — Besides the planetary globes to which I have now adverted, there is a class of celestial bodies which occa- sionally appear in the heavens, to which the name of cornels has been given. They are distinguished from the other celestial bodies, by their ruddy appearance, and by a long train of light, called the tail, which sometimes extends over a considerable portion of the heavens, and which is so trans- parent, that the stars may be seen through it. The tail is al- ways directed to that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun, and increases in size as it approaches him, and is again gradually diminished, as the comet flies off to the more distant regions of space. Their apparent magnitude is very difl!erent; sometimes they appear only of the bigness of the fixed stars ; at other times they equal the diameter of Venus ; and sometimes they have appeared nearly as large as the moon. They traverse the heavens in all directions, and cross the orbits of the planets. When examined through a tele- scope, they appear to consist of a dark central nucleus, sur- rounded by a dense atmosphere, or mass of vapours. They * The author, some years ago, described a method by which the planets (if any) within the orbit of Mercury, may be discovered in the day time, by means of a simple contrivance for intercepting the solar rays, and the frequent application, by a number of observers, of powerful telescopes, to a certain portion of the sky, in the vicinity of the sun. The details of this plan have not yet been published ; but the reader will see them alluded to, in No. V. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal, for July, 1820, p. 191. t A primary planet is that which revolves round the sun as a centre: as Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. A secondary planet is one which re- volves round a primary planet as its centre ; as the moon, and the sateUites of Jupiter and Saturn. The primary planets are distinguished from the fixed stars, by the steadiness of their light ; not having a tirinkling appearance, as the stars exhibit. 224 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. have been ascertained to move in long narrow ellipses or ovals^ around t\\e sun ; some of them, on their nearest approach to him, having been within a million of miles of his centre: and they llv off to a region several thousands of millions of miles distant! When near the sun, they move with amazing velo- city. The velocity of the comet which appeared in 1680, according to Sir Isaac Newton's calculation, was eight hun- (h-ed and eighty thousand miles an hour. They appear to be bodies of no great density, and their size seldom exceeds that of the moon. The length of the tails of some comets has been estimated at fifty millions of miles. Accordmg to Sir W. HerschePs computations, the solid nucleus, or central part of the comet which appeared in 1811, was only four hundred and twenty-eight miles in diameter; but the real diameter of the head or nebulous portion of the comet, he computed to be about one hundred and twenty-seven thousand miles. The length of its tail he computed to be above one hundred millions of miles, and its breadth nearly fifteen mil- lions. It was nearest to the earth on the 11th October, when its distance was one hundred and thirteen millions of miles. The number of comets which have occasionally been seen within the limits of our system, since the commencement of the Christian era, is about five hundred, of which tiie paths or orbits of more than a hundred have been calculated. As these bodies cross the paths of the planets in every di- rection, there is a possibility that some of them might strike against the earth in their approach to the sun ; and, were this to happen, the consequences would be awful beyond descrip- tion. But we may rest assured, that that Almighty Bemg who at first launched them into existence, directs all their motions, however complicated ; and that the earth shall remain secure against all such concussions from celestial agents, till the pur- poses of his moral government in this world shall be fully accomplished. What regions these bodies visit, when they pass beyond the limits of our view ; upon what errands they are sent, when they again revisit the central parts of our sys- tem ; what is the difference in their physical constitution, from that of the sun and planets ; and what important ends they are destined to accomplish in the economy of the universe, are inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which surpass the limited powers of the human understanding at present to determine. Of this, however, we may rest assured, tiiat they were not created in vain ; that they subserve pur- poses worthy of the infinite Creator ; and that, wherever he ASTRONOMY. 225 has exerted his power, there also he manifests his wisdom and beneficence.* Such is a general outline of the leading facts connected with that system to which our earth belongs. Though the energies of Divine power had never been exerted beyond the limits of this system, it would remain an eternal monument of the wis- dom and omnipotence of its Author. Independently of the sun, which is a vast universe in itself, and of the numerous comets which are continually traversing its distant regions, it con- tains a mass of material existence, arranged in the most beau- tiful order, two thousand five hundred times hirger than our globe. From late observations, there is the strongest reason * The periodical revolutions of the greater number of comets are ac- complished only in long periods of time ; some of them requiring hundreds, and even thousands of years to finish their circuits. But, of late years, two comets have been discovered, whose periodic revolutions are extremely short. These are, 1st., The comet of Encke, whose periodic revolution is only 1200 days, or 3 years and three-tenths, and becomes visible ten times in 33 years. It was discovered at Marseilles, by M. Pons, on the 28th November, 1818, and soon after M. Encke of Berlin determined its period by incontestable calculations. This comet has since regularly made its appearance. It was seen in Australia, in June, 1822, and since that time in Europe, in 1825, 1828, 1832, 1835, and 1838. This comet is very smnl; ; its light is feeble ; it has no tail, and it is invisible to the naked eye, except in very favourable circumstances. The other comet to which we allude is distinguished by the name of Biela's, and sometimes Gambarfs comet. This comet was first perceived at Johanisberg, on the 27th of February, 1826, by M. Biela, and 10 days afterwards by M. Gambart at Marseilles, who calculated its orbit, and determined the period of its revolution to be 2460 days, or nearly 6| years. The predicted appearance of this comet in 1832 produced considerable alarm on the continent, particularly in France ; as some German journalists had predicted that it would cross the earth's orbit, near the point at which the earth would be at that time, and cause the destruction of our globe. This comet is a small body wiihout a tail, or any appearance whatever of a solid nucleus, and it is not distin guishable by the naked eye. It is not improbable that the observations which may hereafter be made on these comets, whose return is so frequent, •will lead to more definite and accurate views of the nature and destination of these singular bodies. The only other comet whose period is deter- mined is that which is known by the name of Halle i/'s comet. This comet was observed by Dr. Halley in 1682, and, on calculating its elements, he was led to conclude that it was identical with the great comets of 1456, 1531, and 1607 ; and that its period is 75 or 76 years. He accordingly ventured to predict that it would again return about the latter part of 1753 or the beginning of 1759. It actually reappeared near the end of Decem- ber, 1758, and arrived at its perihelion on the 13th March, 1759; and it again made its appearance, according to prediction, in September and Oc- tober, 1835, having been seen in the panicular positions previously pre- dicted, a considerable time before it was visible to the naked eye. The appearance of this comet, so near the time predicted by astronomers, is a clear proof of the accuracy which has been introduced into astronomical calculations, and the soundness of the principles on which astronoiners proceed. The circumstance likewise shows us, that^ comets in general are perma?i(7tt bodies, belonging to that system of which we fjrm a part. 226 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. to conclude, lliat the sun, along with all this vast assemblage of bodies, is carried through the regions of the universe, to- wards some distant point of space, or around some wide cir- cumference, at the rate of more than sixty thousand miles an liour ; and if so, it is highly probable, if not absolutely cer- tain, that we shall never again occupy that portion of absolute space, through which we are this moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity. Such a glorious system must have been brought into exist- ence to subserve purposes worthy of the infinite wisdom and benevolence of the Creator. To suppose that the distant globes of which it is composed, with their magnificent appa- ratus of rings and moons, were created merely for the ^pur- pose of aflbrding a few astronomers, in these latter times, a peep of them through their glasses, would be inconsistent with every principle of reason ; and would be charging him who is the Source of wisdom, with conduct which we would pro- nounce to be folly in the sons of men. Since it appears, so far as our observation extends, that matter exists solely for the sake of sensitive and intelligent beings, and that the Creator made nothing in vain — it is a conclusion to which we are necessarily led, that the planetary globes are inhabited by various orders of intellectual beings, who participate in the bounty, and celebrate the glory of their Creator. When this idea is taken into consideration, it gives a strik- ing emphasis to such sublime declarations of the sacred volume as these : — " All nations before him are as nothing — He sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grashoppers — the nations are as tlie drop of a bucket — all the inhabitants of the world are reputed as nothing in his sight; and he doth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth — Thou hast made heaven, and the heaven of heavens, with all their hosts ; and thou preservest them all ; and the host of heaven icorshippeth thee — When I consider thy heavens, what is man^ that thou art mindful of him !" If the race of Adam were the principal in- telligences in the universe of God, such passages would be stripped of all their sublimity, would degenerate into mere hyperboles, and be almost without meaning. If man were the only rational being who inhabited the material world, as some arrogantly imagine, it would be no wonder at all that God should be " mindful of him ;" nor could " all the in- habitants o{ this world,'' with any propriety, be compared to "a drop of a bucket," and be "reputed as nothing in his sight." Such declarations would be contrary to fact, if this ASTRONOMY. 227 supposition were admitted ; for it assumes, that man holds the prhicij)al station in the visible universe. The expressions — " The heavens, the heaven of heavens," and " the host of heaven worshipping God," would also, on this supposition, degenerate into something approaching to mere inanity. These expressions, if they signify any thing that is worthy of an inspired teacher to communicate, evidently imply, that the universe is vast and extensive, beyond the range of human comprehension — that it is peopled with myriads of inhabitants — that these inhabitants are possessed of intellectual natures, capable of appreciating the perfections of their Creator, — and that they pay him a tribute of rational adoration : "The host of heaven worshippeth thee." So that the language of Scrip- ture is not only consistent with the doctrine of a plurality of worlds, but evidently supposes their existence to all the extent to which the discoveries of modern science can carry us. However vast the universe now appears — however numerous the worlds, and systems of worlds, which may exist within its boundless range — the language of Scripture is sufficiently comprehensive and sublime, to express all the emotions which naturally arise in the mind, when contemplating its structure — a characteristic which will apply to no other book, or pre- tended revelation. And this consideration shows, not anjy the harmony which subsists between the discoveries of reve- lation and the discoveries of science, but also forms, by itself, a strong presumptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and divine.* Vast as the solar system we have now been contemplating may appear, it is but a mere point in the map of creation. To a spectator placed in one of the stars of the seventh magni- tude, not only the glories of this world, and the more resplen- dent scenes of the planet Saturn, but even the Sun himself would entirely disappear, as if he were blotted out of exist- ence. " Were the sun," says Mr. Addison, '' which enlightens this part of the creation, with all the host of planetary worlds that move about him, utterly extinguished and annihilated, they would not be missed by an eye that could take in the whole compass of nature, more than a grain of sand upon the seashore. The space they possess is so exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, that it would scarce make a blank in creation." The FIXED STARS. — When we pass from the planetary sys- tem to other regions of creation, we have to traverse, in imagi- * See Appendix, Note VI, 22S ciniisTiAN I'HiLosoi'iniR. nation, a space so iinniense, tliat it has hitherto baffled all the efforts of science to determine its extent. In these remote and immeasurable spaces are placed those immense luminous bodies usually denominated the fixed stars. The nearest stars are, on good grounds, concluded to be at least hcenty billions of miles distant from our globe — a distance through which light (the swiftest body in nature) could not travel in the space of three years ; and which a ball, moving at the rate of 500 miles an hour, would not traverse in four millions, five hundred tjiousand years, or 750 times the period which has elapsed since the Mosaic creation. But how far they may be placed beyond this distance, no astronomer will pretend to determine. The following consideration will prove, to those unacquainted with the mathematical principles of astronomy, that the stars are placed at an immeasurable distance. When they are viewed through a telescope which magnifies objects a thousand times, they appear no larger than to the naked eye; which circum- stance shows, that though we were placed at the thousandth part of the distance from them at which we now are, they would still appear only as so many shining points ; for we should still be distant from the nearest of them, twenty thou- sand millions of miles : or, in other words, were we trans- ported several thousands of millions of miles from the spot we now occupy, though their numbers would appear exceed- ingly increased, they would appear no larger than they do from our present station ; and we behooved to be carried for- ward thousands of millions of miles farther in a long succes- sion, before their disks appeared to expand into large circles like the moon. Sir W. Herscliel viewed the stars with tele- scopes magnifying from one to two or three thousand times^ yet they still appeared only as brilliant points, without any sensi- ble disks or increase of diameter. This circumstance incon- testably proves the two following things: 1. That the stars are luminous bodies^ which shine by their ovv'n native light; otherwise they could not be perceived at such vast distances. 2. That they are bodies of an immense size, not inferior to the sun ; and many of them, it is probable, far exceed that luminary in bulk and splendour.* * Professor Bossel, of Konigsberg. appears to have lately ascertained the annual parallax of the star 61 Cysrni, which he has determined to be somewhat less than one-third of a second, and consequently its distance must be G2, 481, 500, 000, 000, or sixty-two hillions, four hundred and eighty- one thousand, live hundred milhons of miles — a distance which light, swift as its motion is, would require 10 years and 114 days to fly across this mighty interval ; and a cannon ball, moving 500 miles every hour, would reoiiire tburteen millions, two liuiidrcd and fif'v thousand vears be- 229 SOUTH. For the coiiveniency of reference to particular objects and regions in the heavens, the stars have been arranged into dif- ferent groups and constellations. The number of constella- tions recognized by modern astronomers is about 94 ; of which 12 are contained in the zodiac^ or that zone in the heavens in vviiich the sun, moon, and planets are seen to perform their real or apparent revolutions; 35 are reckoned 7iorih of the zodiac, and 47 to the south^ called the northern and southern fore it could move across the same interval. — For a more detailed account of this discovery of Bessel, the reader is referred to the author's voluiite, eniuled " The 'Sidereal Heavons," pp. (!1. (it, Philadelphia edition. 20 230 CHRISTIAN FHlLOsOPHEfC- constellations. These constellations are generally depicted on celestial globes and planispheres, as if they were represented by various animals and hieroglyphic objects, which give such exhibitions of the heavens a very grotesque and unnatural appearance. We have therefore given, in the preceding cut, (fig. 23,) a representation of the constellation Orion^ with the adjacent stars, on a more simple and natural plan, to show the manner in which the celestial constellations might be depicted on globes and planispheres, so as to make them resemble as much as possible their appearance in the heavens. This con- stellation makes a splendid appearance in the southern parts of the heavens during our winter montlis. The two large stars near the top towards the left, are Betelguese and Bellatrix; the three equidistant stars, near the middle, are Orion's heh., called in the book of Job, the '- hands of Orion." The large star, near the bottom, on the right, is Rigel, a star of the Hrst magnitude. A while line is drawn around this constellation to define its boundaries, and, in this way the form and limits of all the other constellations might be distinguished. The stars, on account of the difference in their apparent magnitudes, have been distributed into several classes or orders. Those which appear largest are called stars of the Jirst mag- nitude ; next to those in lustre, stars of the second magnitude, and so on to stars of the sixth magnitude, which are the smallest that can be distinguished by the naked eye. Stars of the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, &c., magnitudes, which can- not be seen by the naked eye, are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars. Not more than a thousand stars can be distinguished by the naked eye in the clearest winter night ; but by means of the telescope, millions have been dis- covered.* And as it is probable, that by far the greater part lie beyond the reach of the best glasses which have been, or ever will be, constructed by man — the real number of the stars may be presumed to be beyond all human calculation or conception, and perhaps beyond the grasp of angelic com- prehension. In consequence of recent discoveries, we have now the strongest reason to believe, that all the stars in the universe are arranged into clusters, or groups, which astronomers dis- tinguish by the name of Nebulae, or Starry Systems, each nebula consisting of many thousands of stars. The nearest nebula is that whitish space or zone which is known by the name of the Milky Way, to which our sun is supposed to * See page 38. ASTRONOMY. 231 belong. It consists of many hundreds of thousands of stars. When Sir W. Herschel examined this region with his power- ful telescopes, he found a portion of it, only fifteen degrees long, and two broad, which contained ffly thousand stars large enouifh to be distinctly counted ; and he suspected twice as many more, which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he saw only now and then. More than three thousand ne- bulae have already been observed ; and, if each of them con- tain as many stars as the Milky Way, several hundreds of millions of stars must exist, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open to our observation. Besides those nebulae which are resolvable into stars by telescopes, there are nebulous bodies in the heavens, of vast extent, such as the nebula in the sword of Orion, which the most powerful tele- scopes have hitherto been unable to resolve into stars. These are found in different degrees of condensation — from the resemblance of an irregular dusky cloud to the appearance of a well-defined body of faintish light, condensed to a bright spot in the centre. They appear to be a species of fine luminous matter, distinct from stars and planets, diffused in immense masses throughout the spaces of the universe. It is an opinion now generally entertained that these self-luminous portions of matter are the chaotic materials out of which new suns and worlds may be formed under the superintendence of Omnipotence — and that each mass of this substance is gradually concentrating itself by the effect of its own gravity, and of the circular motions of which it is susceptible — into denser masses, so as ultimately to effect the arrangement and establishment of sidereal systems. It appears, from numerous observations, that various changes are occasionally taking place in the regions of the stars. Several stars have appeared for a while in the heavens, and then vanished from the sight. Some stars which were known to the ancients cannot now be discovered; and stars are now distinctly visible, which were to them unknown. A few stars have gradually increased in brilliancy, while others have been constantly diminishing in lustre. Certain stars, to the number of fifteen or upwards, are ascertained to have a pe- riodical increase and decrease of their lustre, sometimes ap- pearing like stars of the first or second magnitude, sometimes diminishing to the size of the fourth or fifth magnitude, and sometimes altogether disappearing to the naked eye. The late discoveries respecting double and triple stars are particu- larly worthy of attention. Some stars which, to the naked eye, appear single, when examined by good telescopes, are 232 CHRISTIAN rniLOSOPHER. found to consist of two, three, or more stars. In reference to double stars, one of the two is generally considerably smaller than the other, and it is now ascertained that, in many instances, the smaller star has a circular or elliptical motion around tlie larger. About six thousand double stars have already been detected ; and . between forty and fifty of these bodies have been ascertained beyond doubt to form revolving systems. Some of these require 1600, others 1200, and others about 452 years to complete their revolutions •, while some others finish their circuits in the short periods of 55, 43, and even 30 3-ears. So that here we have, suns revolving around suns, and systems of worlds revolving around systems of worlds, in various combinations, throughout the tracts of immensity. It also appears that changes are taking place among the ne- bulae — that several nebulae are formed by the decomposition of larger nebulse, and that many nebulae of this kind are at present detaching themselves from the nebulae of the Milky Way. These changes seem to indicate, that mighty move- ments and vast operations are continually going on in the dis- tant regions of creation, under the superintendence of the Sovereign of the universe, upon a scale of magnitude and grandeur which overwhelms the human understanding. To explore more extensively the region of the starry fir- mament ; to mark the changes that are taking place ; to ascer- tain all the changeable stars ; to determine the periodical varia- tions of their light- the revolutions of double and triple stars; and the motions and other phenomena peculiar to these great bodies — will furnish employment for future enlightened gene- rations ; and will, perhaps, form a part of the studies and inves- tigations of superior intelligences, in a higher sphere of existence, during an indefinite lapse of. ages. If every one of these immense bodies be a suiv, equal or superior to ours, and encircled with a host of planetary worlds, as we have every reason to conclude to be the case,* how vast must be the extent of creatiou ! how numerous the worlds and beings which exist within its boundless range ! and hovv great, beyond all human or angelic conception, must be the power and intelligence of that glorious Being, who called this syste.m from nothing into existence, and continually superin- tends all its movements! The mind is bewildered and con- founded when it attempts to dwell on this subject; it feels the narrow limits of its present faculties; it longs for the powers of a seraph, to enable it to take a more expansive flight * See pp., 37, 64, 65. ASTRONOMY. 233 into those regions which '' eye hath not seen;" and, while des- titute of these, and chained down to this obscure corner of creation, it can only exclaim, in the language of inspiration, " Who can by searching find out God ? — Great is our Lord, and of great power: his understanding is infinite! — Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty! — Who can litter the mighty acts of Jehovah ! who can show forth all his praise !" After what has now been stated, in relation to the leading facts of astronomy, it would be needless to spend time in en- deavouring to show its connexion with religion. It will be at once admitted, that all the huge globes of luminous and opake matter to which we have adverted, are the workman- ship of him " who is wonderful in counsel, and excellent in working ;" and form a part of tlie dominions of that august Sovereign, " whose kingdom ruleth over all." And shall it ever be insinuated, that this subject has no relation to the great object of our adoration ? and that it is of no importance in our views of the Divinity, whether we conceive his do- minions as circumscribed within the limits of little more than twenty-five thousand miles, or as embracing an extent which comprehends innumerable worlds .'' The objects around us, in this sublunary sphere, strikingly evince the superintendency, the wisdom, and benevolence of the Creator : but this science demonstrates beyond all other departments of human know- ledge, the GRANDEUR and magnificence of his operations; and raises the mind to sublimer views of his attributes than can be acquired by the contemplation of any other objects. A serious contemplation of the sublime objects which astro- nomy has explored, must therefore have a tendency to inspire us with profound veneration of the eternal Jehovah — to humble us in the dust before his august presence — to excite admiration of his condescension and grace in the work of redemption — to show us the littleness of this world, and the insignificancy of those riches and honours to which ambitious men aspire with so much labour and anxiety of mind — to de- monstrate the glory and magnificence of God's universal kingdom — to convince us of the infinite sources of varied felicity which he has in his power to communicate to holy intelligences — to enliven our hopes of the splendours of that "exceeding great and eternal weight of glory," which will burst upon the spirits of good men, when they pass from this region of mortality — and to induce us to aspire with more lively ardour after that heavenly world, where the glories of the 20* 234 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOrHEK. Deity, and the magnificence of his works, will be more clearly unfolded. If, then, such be the effects which the objects of astronomy have a tendency to produce on a devout and enlightened mind — to call in question the propriety of exhibiting such views in religious publications, or in the course of religious instruc- tions, would be an approach to impiety, and an attempt to cover with a veil the most illustrious visible displays of Di- vine glory. It forms a striking evidence of the depravity of man, as well as of his want of true taste, and of a discern- ment of what is excellent, that the grandeur of the nocturnal heavens, and the perfections of Deity they proclaim, are be- held with so much apathy and indifference by the bulk of mankind. Though " the heavens declare the glory of God," in the most solemn and impressive language, adapted to the comprehension of every kindred and every tribe, yet " a brutish man knoweth not, neither doth a fool understand this." They can gaze upon these resplendent orbs with as little emo- tion as the ox that feeds on the grass, or as the horse that drags their carcasses along in their chariots. They have even attempted to ridicule the science of the heavens, to caricature those who have devoted themselves to such studies, and to treat with an indifference, mingled with contempt, the most august productions of Omnipotence. Such persons must be considered as exposing themselves to that Divine denuncia- tion — " Because they regard not the works of Jehovah, neither consider the operations of his hands, he will destroy them, and not build them up." If the structure of the heavens, and the immensity of worlds and beings which they contain, were intended by the Creator to adumbrate, in some measure, his invisible perfections, and to produce a sublime and awful im- pression on the minds of all created intelligences,* it must imply a high degree of disrespect to the Divinity, wilfully to overlook these astonishing scenes of power and intelligence. It is not a matter of mere taste or caprice, whether or not we direct our thoughts to such subjects, but an imperative duty, to which we are frequently directed in the w^ord of God ; the wUful neglect of which, where there is an opportunity of attending to it, must subject us to all that is included in the threatening now specified, if there be any meaning in language. That the great body of professed Christians are absolute strangers to the sublime sentiments which a serious contem- See pp., 45, 46, 50, 57. ASTRONOMY. 235 plation of the heavens inspires, must be owing, in part, to the minds of Christian parents and teachers not having been di- rected to such subjects, or to the views they entertain respect- ing the relation of such contemplations to the objects of religion. In communicating religious instructions, in reference to the attributes of God, the heavens are seldom referred to, except in such a vague and indefinite manner as can produce no deep nor vivid impression on the mind ; and many pious persons, whose views have been confined to a narrow range of objects, have been disposed to declaim against such studies, as if they had a tendency to engender pride and self-conceit, and as if they were even dangerous to the interests of religion and piety. How very diflierent were the feelings and the con- duct of the sacred writers ! They call upon every one of God's intelligent offspring to "stand still, and consider the wondrous works of the Most High ;" and describe the profound emo- tions of piety which the contemplation of them produced on their own minds; "Lift up your eyes on high, and behold! Who hath created these things ? The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained ; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him } Thou, even thou, art Lord alone : thou hast made heaven, and the heaven of heavens, with all their host, and thou preservest them all ; and the hosts of heaven worship thee. All the gods of the nations are idols ; but the Lord MADE THE HEAVENS ; houour and majesty are before him. Jehovah hath prepared his throne in the heavens ; and his kingdom ruleth over all. Sing praises unto God, ye king- doms of the earth, to him that rideth on the heaven of heavens. Ascribe ye power to our God; for his strength is in the heavens.. Praise him for his mighty acts, praise him accord- ing to his excellent greatnessP if we would enter with spirit into such elevated strains of piety, we must not content our- selves with a passing and vacant stare at the orbs of heaven, as if they were only so many brilliant studs fixed in the canopy of the sky ; but must " consider''^ them with fixed attention, in all the'lights in which revelation and science have exhibited them to our view, if we wish to praise God for his mighty works, and " according to his excellent greatnessP And, for this purpose, the conclusions deduced by those who have de- voted themselves to celestial investigations, ought to be pre- sented to the view of the intelligent Christian, that he may be 236 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. enabled to " speak of the glory of Jehovah's kingdom, and to talk of his power." NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Having in the preceding sketches considerably exceeded the limits originally prescribed for this department of my sub- ject, I am reluctantly compelled to despatch the remaining sciences with a few brief notices. The object of JVatural Philosophy is, to observe, and de- scribe the phenomena of the material universe, with a view to discover their causes, and the laws by which the Almighty directs the movements of all bodies in heaven and on earth. It embraces an investigation of the laws of gravitation, by which the planets are directed in their motions — the laws by which water, air, light, and heat, are regulated, and the effects they produce in the various states in which they operate — the nature of colours, sounds, electricity, galvanism, and magnet- ism, and the laws of their operation — the causes which operate in the production of thunder, lightning, luminous and fiery meteors, hail, rain, snow, dew, and other atmospherical phe- nomena. In short, it embraces all the objects of natural his- tory formerly alluded to, with a view to ascertain the causes of their varied appearances, and the principles that operate in the changes to which they are subject; or, in other words, the laws by which the diversified phenomena of universal na- ture are produced and regulated. One subordinate use of the knowledge derived from this science is, to enable ns to con- struct all those mechanical engines which facilitate human la- bour, and increase the comforts of mankind, and all those instruments which tend to enlarge our views of the operations of nature. A still higher and nobler use to which philosophy is subservient, is to demonstrate the wisdom and intelligence of the Great First Cause of all things, and to enlarge our con- ceptions of the admirable contrivance and design which appear in the difTerent departments of universal nature. In this view, it may be considered as forming a branch of natural theology^ or, in otiier words, a branch of the religion of angels, and of all other holy intelligences. This department of natural science has generally been di- vided into the following branches : — I. Mechanics. — This branch, considered in its most exten- sive range, includes an investigation of the general properties of matter; such as solidity, extension, divisibility, motion, attraction, and repulsion — the laws of gravitation, and of cen- NATURAL PHILOSOPHV. 237 tral forces, as they appear to operate in the motions of the ce- lestial bodies ; and on the surface of our globe, in the pheno- mena of falling bodies, the motions of projectiles, the vibration of pendulums, &c. — the theory of machines, the principles on which their energy depends ; the properties of the mechani- cal powers — the lever, the wheel, and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw — and the effects re- sulting from their various combinations. From the investiga- tions of philosophers on these subjects, we learn the laws by which the great bodies of the universe are directed in their motions ; the laws which bind together the different portions of matter on the surface of the earth, and which regulate the motions of animal, vegetable, and inanimate nature; and the principles on which cranes, mills, wheel-carriages, pile-en- gines, thrashing machines, locomotive carriages, and other en- gines, are constructed ; by means of which, man has been enabled to accomplish operations far beyond the limits of his own physical powers. Without a knowledge of the laws of motion, and assistance from the combined effects of the mechanical powers, man would be a very limited being, his enjoyments w^ouid be few, and his active energies confined within a very narrow range. Jn a savage state, ignorant of manufactures, agriculture, archi- tecture, navigation, and the other arts which depend upon me- chanical combinations, he is exposed, without shelter, to the inclemencies of the seasons ; he is unable to transport him- self beyond seas and oceans, to visit other climes, an.d other tribes of his fellow-men ; he exists in the desert, comfortless and unimproved ; the fertile soil, over which he roams, is covered with thorns and briers and thickets, for the haunt of beasts of prey; his enjoyments are little superior to those of the lion, the hyena, and the elephant, while he is much their inferior in point of agility and physical strength. But, when philosophy has once demonstrated the principles of mechanics, and introduced the practice of the useful arts, " the wilderness and the solitary place are made glad, and the desert rejoices and blossoms as the rose." Cities are founded, and graduallv rise to opulence and splendour ; palaces and temples are reared ; the damp cavern and the rush-built hut are exchanged for the warm and comfortable apartments of a substantial man- sion ; ships are built, and navigated across the ocean ; the treasures of one country are conveyed to another; an inter- course is carried on between the most distant tribes of man- kind ; commerce flourishes, and machinery of all kinds is erected for facilitating human labour, and promoting the en- 238 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. joyments of man. Am\^ when the principles anil the practice of '•'' pure and undefiled religion" accompany these physical and mechanical operations, love and affection diffuse their he- nign influence ; the prospect brightens as years roll on, and man advances, with pleasure and improvement, to the scene of his high destination. II. Hydrostatics treats of the pressure and equilibrium of fluids. From the experiments which have been made in this branch of philosophy, the following important principles, among many others, have been deduced : — Fig. 24. Fig. 25. B i i (1.) That the surface of all waters lohich have a communi- cation whilst they are at rest., will he perfectly level. — This principle will be more clearly understood by an inspection of the preceding figures. If water be poured into the tube A, (Fig. 24,) it will run through the horizontal tube E, and rise in the opposite tube B, to the same height at which it stands at A. It is on this principle that water is now conveyed under ground, through conduit pipes, and made to rise to the level of the fountain whence it is drawn. The city of Edinburgh, a considerable part of which is elevated above the level of the surrounding coiuUry, is supplied with water from a reservoir on the Pentland hills, several miles distant. The water is conveyed in leaden pipes down the declivity of the hill, along the interjacent plain, and up to the entrance of the castle, whence it is distributed to all parts of the city. If the point A represent the level of the reservoir, C D will represent the NATURAL I'HLOSOPHY. 239 plain along which the water is conveyed, and B the elevation to which it rises on the castle-hill. On the same principle, and in a similar manner, the city of London is supplied with water from tlie water-works at the London bridge. Had the ancients been acquainted with this simple, but important prin- ciple, it would have saved them the labour and expense of rearing those stupendous works of art, the aqueducts^ which consisted of numerous arches of a vast size, and sometimes piled one above another. Fig 25 represents the siphon^ the action of which depends upon the pressure of the atmosphere. If this instrument be filled with water, or any other liquid, and the shorter leg G plunged to the bottom of a cask, or other vessel containing the same liquid, the water will run out at the longer leg F, till the vessel be emptied, in consequence of the atmospheric pressure upon the surface of the liquid. On this principle water may be conveved over a rising ground to any distance, provided the perpendicular height of the siphon, above the surface of the water in the fountain, does not exceed thirty- two or thirty-three feet. On the same principle are constructed the fountain at command^ the cup of Tantalus^ and other entertaining devices. The same principle, too, enables us to account for springs which are sometimes found on the tops of mountains, and for the phenomena of intermitting springs, or those which flow and stop by regular alternations. Fig. 26. » The above figure will explain th%' nature of intermitting springs. Suppose A B a cavity or receptacle of water formed in the bowels of a hill where the spring is situated, which gra- dually fills with water like other reservoirs, and that by the interposition of some stratum, of rock or other substance, the 240 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. tube C D which conveys the water to the spring or mouth where it issues — is bent in the form of a siphon : Whenever the reservoir A B is filled as high as the bend of the tube, or to the level of It /, the water will rise in the tube, and begin to flow into the spring, which will continue till the reservoir be exhausted. While this process is going on the water in the spring will rise, and as soon as the reservoir is exhausted, the water will appear to fall in the well of the spring, and will continue to fall till the reservoir is again supplied to the height of the siphon, when the process of tilling will be again renewed. It is obvious that unless the water in the reservoir rises above the height of the bend of the siphon E, the well cannot be filled. (2.) Any quantity of Jluid^ however small., may he made to counterpoise any quantity.^ however large. This is what has generally been termed the hydrostatical paradox ; and from this principle it follows, that a given quantity.of water may exert a force several hundred times greater or less, according to the manner in which it is employed. This force depends on the height of the column of water, independent of its quantity; for lis pressure depends on its perpendicular height. By means of water conveyed througli a very small perpendicu- lar tube, of great length, a very strong hogshead has been burst to pieces, and the water scattered about with incredible force. On this principle, the hydrostatic press., and other engines of immense power, have been constructed. (3.) Every body ichicKis heavier than water., or which sinls in it., displaces so much of the water as is equal to the bulk of the body immersed in the water. On this principle, the spe- cific gravities, or comparative weight, of all bodies are deter- mineii. It appears to have been fii-st ascertained by Archimedes, and, by means of it, he determined that the golden crown of the king of Syracuse had been adulterated by the workmen. From this principle we learn, among many other tilings, the specific gravity of the human body; and that four pounds of cork wiil preserve a person weighing one hundred aiul thirty- live pounds from sinking, so that he may remain with his head completely above water. Hydraulics^ which has sometimes been treated as a distinct department of mechanical philosophy, may be considered as a branch of Hydrostatic^ It teaches us what relates to the motion of fuids and how to estimate their velocity and force. On the principles of this science, all machines worked by Avater are constructed — as stearn-engines, watei'-mills, conunon and forcing pumps, siphons, fountains, and fire-engines. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 241 III. Pneumatics. — This branch of philosophy treats of the nature and properties of the atmosphere, and of their effects on solid and fluid bodies. From this science we learu that air has weighty and presses on all sides like other fluids ; that the pressure of the atmosphere upon the top of a mountain is less than on the plain beneath ; that it presses upon our bodies with the weight of several thousand pounds more at one time than at another; that air can be compressed into forty thousand times less space than it naturally occupies ; that it is of an elastic or expansive nature, and that the force of its spring is equal to its weight ; that its elasticity is in- creased by heat ; that it is necessary to the production of sound, the support of flame and animal life, and the germina- tion and growth of all kinds of vegetables. These positions are proved and illustrated by such experi- ments as the following : — The general pressure of the atmo- sphere is proved by such experiments as those detailed in Note II. of the Appendix. The following experiment proves that air is compressible. If a glass tube, open at one end, and close at the other, be plunged, with the open end downwards, into a tumbler of water, the water will rise a little way in the tube; which shows, that the air which filled the tube is com- pressed by the water into a smaller space. The elasticity of air is proved by tying up a bladder, with a very small quan- tity of air within it, and putting it under the receiver of an air pump, when it will be seen gradually to inflate, till it becomes of its full size. A similar effect would take place, by carrying the bladder to the higher regions of the atmosphere. On the compression and elasticity of the air depends the construction of that dangerous and destructive instrument, the air-gun. That it is capable of being rarefied by heat, is proved by hold- ing to the fire a half-blown bladder, slightly tied at the neck, when it will dilate to nearly its full size; and if either di full- blown bladder, or a thin glass bubble filled with air, is held to a strong fire, it will burst. The elasticity of the air is such, that Mr. Boyle, by means of an air-pump, caused it to dilate till it occupied fourteen thousand times the space that it usually does. That air is necessary to sound, flame, animal and vege- table life, is proved by the following experiments : — When the receiver of an air-pump is exhausted of its air, a cat, a mouse, or a bird, placed in it, expires in a few moments, in the greatest agonies. A bell rung in the same situation pro- duces no sound ; and a lighted candle is instantly extinguished. Similar experiments prove that air is necessary for the flight of birds, the ascent of smoke and vapours, the explosion of 21 242 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. gnnpowder, and the growth of plants ; and that all bodies descend equally ew'ih in a place void of air ; a guinea and a feather being found to fall to the bottom of an exhausted re- ceiver at the same instant. On the principles which this science has established have been constructed the air-pump, the barometer, the thermome- ter, the diving-bell, the hygrometer, the condenser, and vari- ous other instruments, which have contributed to the comfort of human life, and to the enlargement of our knowledge of the constitution of nature. IV. Acoustics. — This science treats of the nature, the phenomena, and the laws of sound^ and the theory of musical concord and harmony. From the experiments which have been made on this subject, we learn, that air is essential to the production of sound ; that it arises from vibrations in the air, communicated to it by vibrations of the sounding body ; that these vibrations, or aerial pulses, are propagated all around in a spherical undulatory manner ; that their density decreases, as the squares of the distances from the sounding body in- crease ; that they are propagated together in great numbers from different bodies, without disturbance or confusion, as is evident from concerts of musical instruments ; that water, timber, and flannel, are also good conductors of sound ; that sound travels at the rate of 1142 feet in a second, or about thirteen miles in a minute ;* that the softest whisper flies as fast as the loudest thunder ; and that the utmost limits, within which the loudest sounds, produced by artificial means, can be heard, is one hundred and eighty or two hundred miles ;| that sound, striking against an obstacle, as the wall of a house, may, like light, be reflected, and produce another sound, which is called an echo; and that, after it has been reflected from several places, it may be collected into one point or focus, where it will be more audible than in any other place. * The velocity of sound has been somewhat differently estimated by different experimenters. Mr. Boyle estmiated its velocity atl200 feet ; the t'lorentine Academicians at 1148 feet; the French Academicians at 1112 ket per second. It is reckoned by some modern philosophers that 1120 feet per second may be reckoned as a medium estimate. The ex- periments of Flamstead, Halley, and Derham, which were considered as having been accurately performed, give 1142 feet per second, as the ave- rage velocity of sound — which is sometimes modified by the direction ol the wind and local circumstances. t In the war between England and Holland, in 1672, the noise of the guns was heard in those parts of Wales which were estimated to be two hundred miles distant from the scene of action. But the sounds produced by -volcanoes have been heard at a much greater distance ; some instances of which are stated in Chap. IV. sect. 2. Several other facts, in relation to sound, are detailed in Chap. Til. Art. Acm/sfir Tunnels. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 243 The intensity of sound increases or diminishes when the elasticity of the air increases or diminishes, either by heat or by compression. Hence, in proportion as the air is rarefied under the receiver of an air-pump, or in the ascent of lofty mountains, sound loses its force. Air communicates its vibra- tions to the sonorous bodies with which it is in contact. Hence a string of an instrument causes another stretched be- side it to vibrate. A noise without makes the windows of an apartment to resound, and the discharge of cannons, and peals of thunder, cause buildings and even whole villages to shake. Euler tells us of a man who, by different inflections of his voice, made a glass vibrate so as almost to break it. When the velocity of sound is known, the distance of certain objects may be determined. If the flash of a gun be observed, and the number of seconds or pulsations which elapse between seeing the flash and hearing the report, be counted, this num- ber multiplied by 1142, the assumed velocity of sound per second, will give the distance of the observer from the centre of vibration. If, in a thunder storm, I can count five pulsa- tions, from the instant of seeing the lightning till the report of the thunder be heard, the distance of the thunder cloud will be 1142 X 5=5710 feet, that is, an English mile, and 430 feet. Were the thunder to be heard within a second of the time of seeing the flash, it would indicate that the thunder was within three hundred and eighty yards of the observer, and consequently, that he is within the sphere of danger. In estimating such distances, 4| seconds, at an average, may be reckoned for every mile. On the principles above stated we may account for the various phenomena of sounds, and the diversified echoes which are heard in various places, which both amuse and sometimes puzzle the observers — and on the same principles whispering galleries, such as that in St. Paul's church, London, speaking and hearing trumpets — whid and stringed instruments — the Harmonica Cclestina^ and other acoustic instruments, are constructed. V. Optics. — This branch of philosophy treats of vision, light, and colours, and of the various phenomena of visible objects produced by the rays of light, reflected from mirrors, or transmitted through lenses. From this science we learn, that light flies at the rate of nearly twelve millions of miles every minute — that it moves in straight lines — that its particles may be several thousands of miles distant from each other — that every visible body emits particles of light from its sur- face, in all directions — that the particles of light are exceed^ 244 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. ingly small; for a lighted candle will fill a cubical space of two miles every way with its rays, before it has lost the least sensible part of its substance ; and millions of rays, from a tliousand objects, will pass through a hole not larger than the point of a needle, and convey to the mind an idea of the form, position, and colour, of every individual object — that the in- tensity, or degree of light decreases, as the square of the dis- tance from the luminous body increases; that is, at two yards' distance from a candle, we shall have only the fourth part of the light we should have at the distance of one yard ; at three yards' distance, the ninth part; at four yards, the sixteenth part, and so on — that glass lenses may be ground into the following forms : plano-convex^ plano-concave^ double convex^ double concave^ and meniscus^ that is, convex on one side, and concave on the other — that specula, or mirrors, may be ground into either a spherical, parabolical, or cylindrical form — that, by means of such mirrors and lenses, the rays of light may be so modified as to proceed either in a diverging^ converg- ing^ or parallel direction, and the images of visible objects represented in a variety of new forms^ positions^ and magni- tudes^ — tliat every ray of Avhite light may be separated into seven primary colours : red^ orange^ yellow^ greeri, blue^ in- digo^ and violet — that the variegated colouring which appears on the face of nature is not in the objects themselves, but in the light which falls upon them — that the ralnboiv is produced by the refraction and reflection of the solar rays in the drops of falling rain — that the rays of light are refracted, or bent out of their course, when Ihey fall upon glass, Avater, and other mediums — that the light of the sun may be collected into a point or focus, and made to produce a heat more in- tense than that of a furnace* — that the rays from visible * This is produced by means of lenses, or mirrors, of a large diameter, called burning-glasses. By these instruments, the hardest metals, on ■which common lires, and even glass-house furnaces, could produce no effect, liave been melted in a few seconds. M. Villette, a Frenchman, nearly a century ago, constructed a mirror, three feet eleven inches in diameter, and three feet two inches in focal distance, which melted copper ore in eight seconds, iron ore in twenty-four seconds, a fish's tooth in ihirty-two seconds, cast iron'm sixteen seconds, a silver sixpence in seven seconds, and tin in three seconds. This mirror condensed the solar rays \l,2bl times, a degree of heat which is about four hundred and vinety times greaier than common fire. Mr. Parker, of London, constructed a lens thee feet in diameter, and six feet eight inches focus, which weighed two hundred and twelve pounds. It melted twenty grains of gold in four seconds, and ten grains of platina in three seconds. 'I'he power of burn- ing-glasses is, as tfie area of the lens directly, and the square of the fucal distance inversely — or, in other words, the broader the mirror or lens, and the shoiter the focal distance, the more intense is the heat produced by NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 24**) objects, wlien reflected from a concave mirror, converge to a focus, and paint an image of the objects before it, and that wlien tliey pass through a convex glass, they depict an image beliind it. On these and other principles demonstrated by this science, ria the camera obscura, the magic lantern, the phantasmago the Ivaleidoscope, the heliostata, the micrometer — spectacles, opera glasses, prisms, single, compound, lucernal, and solar microscopes, reflecting and refracting telescopes, and other optical instruments, have been constructed, by means of which the natural powers of human vision have been wonderfully increased, and our prospects into the works of God extended far beyond what former ages could have conceived. Connected with the science of optics, it may be proper to notice a late discovery for fixing the images formed by convex lenses, distinguished by the name of the Daguerreotype. Almost every one knows the effects produced by the camera obscura. A convex glass placed in an opening in a window shutter in a dark room, or in a box constructed for the pur- pose, forms, on a white screen, placed at its focal distance, a beautiful picture of all the objects which are opposite to it, in their exact proportions, symmetry, and colours. But this picture evanishes the moment the lens or the screen is re- moved. The Daguerreotype is an art by which this picture or image may be rendered permanent. It derives its name from M. Daguerre, a member of the French Academy of Fine Arts, who was in partnership with M. Nieper, who, as early as 1814, had commenced researches on this subject; but Da- guerre had given up the idea of being able to bring his me- thods to perfection, till about the year 1838, when the effects produced by his art began to excite a considerable degree of attention ; and as a reward for disclosing the process and pub- lishing it to the world, the French government bestowed on the inventor and his partner an annuity of ten thousand francs : {£4.1Q 13s. 4d.) — M. Arago, when alluding to this discovery, has the following remark: — "No person has ever witnessed the neatness of outline, precision of form, the truth of colour- ing, and the sweet gradations of tint, displayed by the camera, without regretting than an imagery so exquisite and so faith- ful to nature could not be made to fix itself permanently on the tablet of the machine — who has not put up his aspiration that some means might be discovered by which to give reality such instruments. A globular decanter of water makes a powerful burn- ing-glass ; and house furniture has been set on fire, by incautiously ex- posing it to the rays of the sun. 21* 246 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. to shadows so lovely ! Yet, in the estimation of all, such a wish seemed destined to take its place among other dreams of beautiful things — among the glorious but impracticable conceptions in which men of science and ardent temperament have sometimes indulged. This dream, notwithstanding, has just been realized^ Our limits will not permit to give a detail of the process by which the eifect now stated is produced. We shall just state the following general outline. The designs taken by the Da- guerreotype are executed upon thin plates of silver plated on copper. The silver must be of the purest kind, and the thick- ness of both metals not to exceed that of a stout card. Before placing it in the camera the following operations are requisite: 1. The plate must be cleansed and highly polished. For this purpose a little of fine pumice powder is put into a muslin bag and shaken over the plate, and it is then rubbed gently with cotton dipped in olive oil. Diluted nitric acid is then rubbed over the plate with cotton, and then rubbed again with pumice and dry cotton ; and afterwards the plate is to be sub- jected to a strong heat. 2. The plate has to receive a coating of iodine. To accomplish this the plate is fixed upon a board, then put into a box containing a little dish with iodine divided into small pieces, and allowed to remain till it is covered with a gold coloured coating, which process must be conducted in a darkened apartment. 3. The camera is next placed in the front of the landscape or object, and as soon as the focus is adjusted, the light is excluded, and the plate put in, when, in the course of a few minutes, and in some cases, in a few seconds, a perfect picture or design is obtained. I have seen a portrait of an individual taken in this way in the course of half a minute. 4. The plate is next placed over the vapour of mercury to bring out the image, which is not visible when withdrawn from the camera. The image is not visible till after the lapse of several minutes. 5. The coating on which the design was impressed is to be removed in order to pre- serve it from being decomposed by the rays of light. To do tliis, the plate is placed in a trough containing common water, plunging and withdrawing it immediately, and then plunging it into a solution of salt and water till the yellow coating has disappeared. Such is a very abridged sketch of the photogenic operations of M. Daguerre. When finished in a perfect way, the designs thus taken on the plate are exceedingly beautiful and correct, and will bear to be inspected with a considerable magnifying power, so that the most minute portions of the objects deli- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 247 neated may be perceived ; and it has been discovered that an etching of the design can be taken in the common way, and from that again any number of electrotype copies can be pro- duced. M. Claudet, the patentee of this invention at the Ade- laide gallery, London, has made several improvements, par- ticularly in taking likenesses. He is now enabled to take a likeness in one second, and even less — in the twinkling of an eye, and to give the portrait so made any back ground that may be desired. This invention may be considered as still in its infancy ; but in the course of its improvement, its results may be highly beneficial and extensive. To use tlie words of Arago : '^ To copy the millions of millions of hieroglyphics, which entirely cover to the very exterior the great monuments at Thebes, Memphis, Carnoc, &c., would require scores of years and le- gions of artists. With the Daguerrotype a single man would sutfice to bring to a conclusion this vast labour; and at the same time, such designs shall incomparably surpass in fidelity, in truth of local colour, the works of the ablest artists." It is probable, too, that this art may be applied to taking exact pictures of the heavenly bodies — not only of the sun, but even of the moon, the planets, and the stars. The plated disks prepared by Daguerre receive impressions from the action of the lunar rays to such an extent as permits the hope that pho- tographic charts of the moon may soon be obtained. Nor is it perhaps too much to expect that the rays of the stars — even of distant nebulae, may thus be fixed, and a delineation of their objects produced, which shall be capable of being magnified by powerful microscopes. This invention leads ns to con- clude that we have not yet discovered all the wonderful pro- perties of that Light w hich unveils to us the beauties and sublimities of the universe; and that thousands of admirable agencies and objects, hitherto imknown, may soon be disclosed to our view through this medium, as we advance in our re- searches and discoveries. VL Electricity. — This name has been given to a science \vhich explains and illustrates the operations of a very subtile fluid, called the electric fluids which appears to pervade every part of nature, and to be one of the chief agents employed in producing many of the phenomena of the material world. If a piece of amber, sealing-wax, or sulphur, be rubbed with a piece of flannel, it will acquire the power of attracting small bits of paper, feathers, or other light substances. If a tube of glass, two or three feet in length, and an inch or two in dia- meter, be rubbed pretty hard, in a dark room, with a piece of 248 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. dry woollen cloth, besides attracting light substances, it will emit flashes of fire, attended with a crackling noise. Tills luminous matter is called electricity, or the electric fluid. If a large globe, or cylinder of glass, be turned rapidly round, and made to rub against a cushion, streams and large sparks of bluisii fiame will be elicited, whicli will Hy round the glass, attract light bodies, and produce a pungent sensation, if the hand be held to it. This glass, with all its requisite apparatus, is called an electrical machine. It is found that this fluid will pass along some bodies, and not along others. The bodies over which it passes freely are water, and most other fluids, except oil and the aerial fluids ; iron, copper, lead, and in general all the metals, semi-metals, and metallic ores ; which are therefore called conductors of electricity. But it will not pass over glass, resin, wax, sulphur, silk, baked woods, or dry woollen substances ; nor through air, except by force, in sparks^ to short distances. These bodies are therefore called non-conductors. The following facts, among others, have been ascertained respecting this wonderful agent : — That all bodies with which we are acquainted possess a greater or less share of this fluid — that the quantity usually belonging to any body produces no sensible effects ; but when any surface becomes possessed of 7norc or less than its natural share, it exhibits certain appear- ances in the form of light, sound, attraction, or repulsion, •which are ascribed to the power called electric — that there are two different species of the electrical fluid, or at least two different modifications of the same general principle, termed positive and nrgative electricity — that positive and negative electricity always accomj^any each other; for if a substance acquire the one, the body with which it is rubbed acquires the other — that it moves with amazing rapidity, having been transmitted through wires of several miles in length, without taking up any sensible space of time; and therefore it is not improbable, that were an insulated conducting substance ex- tended from one continent to another, it might be made to fly to the remotest regions of the earth in a few seconds of time.* — that is has a power of suddenly contracting the muscles of animals, or of giving a shock to the animal frame — that this shock may be communicated, at the same instant, to a hun- dred persons, or to any indefinite number who form a circle, by joining their hands together — that it may be accumulated to sucli a degree as to kill the largest animals — that vivid sparks of this fluid, attended with a cracklmg noise, may be * See Chap. Ill, Art. Electric Telegraph. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 249 drawn from different parts of the human body, when the per- son is insulated^ or stands upon a stool supported by glass feet — that electricity sets fire to gunpowder, spirits of wine, and other inflammable substances — -that it melts iron wire and de- stroys the polarity of the magnetic needle — that it augments the natural evaporation of fluids, promotes the vegetation of plants, and increases the insensible perspiration of animals ; and can be drawn from the clouds by means of electrical kites, and other elevated conductors. By means of the electrical power, small models of machinery have been set in action ; Orreries to represent the movements of the planets have been put in motion ; and small bells have been set a-ringing for a length of time; and, in consequence of the knowledge we have acquired, of the mode of its operation in the system of nature, the lightning's of heaven have been arrested in their course, and constrained to descend to the earth, without pro- ducing any injurious effects. From these, and a variety of other facts and experiments, it is now fully ascertained that lightning and electricity are identical ; and that it is the prime agent in producing the awful phenomena of a thunder-storm ; the lightning being the rapid motion of vast masses of electric matter, and thunder tlie // >/.v', with its echoes, produced by the rapid motion of the lightning through the atmosphere. There can be little doubt that, in combination with steam, the gases, and other agents, it also produces many of the terrific phenomena of earthquakes, vol- canoes, whirlwinds, water-spouts, and hurricanes, and the sub- lime coruscations of the aurora horealis. In the operations of this powerful fluid, we behold a striking display of the sove- reignty and majestic agency of God. In directing its energies, " his way is in the whirlwind and the storm, and the clouds are the dust of his feet ; the heavens are covered with sack- cloth, the mountains quake before him, the hills melt, the earth is burned at his presence, and rocks are thrown down by him :"* It is easy to conceive, that by a few slight modi- fications produced by the hand of Omnipotence, this powerful fluid might become the agent of producing either the most awful and tremendous, or the most glorious and transporting scenes, over every region of our globe. As it now operates, it is calculated to inspire us rather with awe and terror than with admiration and joy; and to lead our thoughts to a con- sideration of the state of man as a depraved intelligence, and a rebel against the government of his Maker. * Nahum, i, 3-6. 250 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER. Electricity is rapidly extending its boundaries, and its influ- ence as an important agent in the arts ■, and, as yet, we can form no adequate conception of the results which may flow from the investigations into its nature, combinations, and ap- plications, which are now making by the scientific world, or of the powerful eflects it may produce, when thoroughly wielded by the hand of genius. It has already been applied to many useful purposes — to remove obstructions in the hu- man frame — to cure diseases — to ascertain the depths of the sea — to produce explosions for effecting mechanical operations, and for conveying intelligence at the rate of one hundred and ninety-two thousand miles in a second. Among its recent applications is the process of copying ivith perfect accuracy engraved copperplates^ medals^ seals^ &.c. — and of gilding, plating, and etching, with great beauty and precision. This art has been denominated electrotype, and was discovered by Mr. Thomas Spencer, of Liverpool, in ]839. It was also discovered on the continent by Professor Jacobi. The mate- rials recommended by him for forming the moulds on which impressions are taken are fusible metal^ wax^ and stearine. When a copy is taken from any copperplate or medal, any nnniber of copies can be produced equally as good as the flrtt. The process is simple, but our limits will not permit to enter into its details. The reader will find a short descrip- tion of the process in Chambers' " Information for the People," No. 57, Art. Electricity^ &c., and in the " Practical Mechanic and Engineer's Magazine," vol. i, p. 227. An important combination of the electrotype with the Da- guerreotype process has lately been discovered, which promises to lead to some important results. A Daguerreotype picture can be produced in the ordinary way, as formerly described, it can be etched according to the present process, and from this etching an indefinite number of electrotj'pe copies can be obtained. As an illustration of the perfection attendant on this process, the inventor states that, from a Daguerreotype plate which had on it a sign-board measuring one-tenth by six-hundredths of an inch, five lines of the inscription can be distinctly read by the aid of a microscope applied to the elec- trotype copy, so that, as the author remarks, "instead of a plate being inscribed as drawn by Landseer, and engraved by Cousins, it may be said, drawn by light, and engraved by elec- tricity.'''' VJI. Galvanism is intimately connected with electricity, though it is generally considered as a branch of chemistry. It is only another mode of exciting electrical action. In elec- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 251 tricity the eflects are produced chiefly by mechanical action ; but the effects of galvanism are produced by the chemical action of bodies upon each other. If we take a piece of zinc, and place it under the tongue, and lay a piece of silver, as big as a half-crown, above it ; by bringing the outer edges of these pieces in contact, we shall immediately experience a pe- culiar and disagreeable taste, like that of copper. The same thing may be noticed with a guinea and a piece of charcoal. If a person, in the dark, put a slip of tinfoil upon one of his eyes, and a piece of silver in his mouth, by causing these piec'^s to communicate, a faint flash will appear before his eyes. If a living frog or a fish, having a slip of tinfoil pasted upon its back, be placed upon a piece of zinc, by forming a communication between the zinc and tinfoil, the spasms of the muscles are excited. These and similar effects are produced by that modification of electricity which has been termed gal- vanism. Three different conductors, or what is called a gal- vanic circle^ are requisite to produce such effects. A piece of copper, a piece of flannel, moistened with water or acid, and a piece of zinc, laid upon one another, form a circle ; and if this circle be repeated a number of times, a galvanic pile or battery may be formed, capable of giving a powerful shock. The most common and convenient form, however, of a battery, is found to be a trough of baked wood, three or four inches deep, and as many wide. In the sides are grooves, opposite to each other, into each of which is placed a double metallic plate of zinc and copper soldered together, and the cells are then filled either with salt and water, or with a solution of nitrous acid and water. By means of the galvanic agency, a variety of surprising eflects have been produced. Gunpowder, cotton, and other inflammable substances, have been inflamed — charcoal has been made to burn, with a most brilliant and beautiful white llame — water has been decomposed into its elementary parts — metals have been melted and set on fire — fragments of diamond, charcoal, and plumbago, have been dispersed, as if they had been evaporated — platina, the hardest and heaviest of the me- ials,has been melted as readily as wax in the flame of a candle — the sapphire, quartz, magnesia, lime, and the firmest com- pounds in nature, have been made to enter into fusion. Its effects on the animal system are no less surprising. When applied to a fowl or a rabbit, immediately after life is extinct, it produces the most strange and violent convulsions on tiie nervous and muscular system, as if the vital functions were again revived : and when applied to the human body after 252 CHniSTIAN PHILOSOPHER. death, the stimulus has produced the most horrible contortions and grimaces in the muscles of the head and face ; and the most rapid movements in the hands and feet. Numerous experiments which have been made both on dead animals and on human subjects, have led to the conclu- sion that galvanism possesses some sanative as well as ener- getic influence on the actions of diseased living beings. It has been found to effect cures, and to afford relief in nervous disorders. It has not only been used to cure the afflicted liv- ing, but also to resuscitate the apparently dead ; and, in all cases of suspended animation, from accidents or otherwise, it has been found to be a test* of vitality, and the surest criterion of recent death. A celebrated medical writer on this subject, in Berlin, strongly recommends its use in rheumatism, palsies, nervous deafness, hoarseness, debility of sight, white swell- ings of the joints, tumours in the glands of the neck, and several other disorders. It is found that it possesses not only a stimulating power over the nerves and muscles, but also ever the vital forces. M. Spronger, of Jenna, gives an account of his having restored the sense of hearing to 45 persons, by means of this singular agent — to four of whom he also re- stored the sense of smelling. Galvanism has lately been em- ployed as a powerful agent for blasting rocks. At Glasgow, and several other places, its agency has been applied with great success. At one blast hundreds of tons of stones have been in a moment loosened from the rock. It is found that dry sand is quite sufficient for filling the perforation in the rock where the charge is placed, and that the whole process is unaccompanied with the smallest degree of danger, so that, by this mode of blasting, those accidents which have so fre- quently happened to workmen employed in such opera- tions may be entirely prevented. The galvanic agency enables us to account for the follow- ing among other facts : — Why porter has a different and more pleasant taste when drunk out of a pewter vessel, than out of glass or earthen ware, — why a silver spoon is discoloured when used in eating eggs, — why the limbs of people, under amputation, are sometimes convulsed by the application of the instruments, — why pure mercury is oxidized when amalga- mated with tin, — why works of metal, which are soldered to- gether, soon tarnish in the places where the metals are joined, — and why the copper sheathing of ships, when fastened with iron nails, is soon corroded about the place of contact. In all these cases a galvanic circle is formed which produces the effects. We have reason to believe, that, in combination with NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 253 the discoveries which modern chemistry is daily unfolding, the agencies of this fluid will enable us to carry the arts for- ward towards perfection, and to trace tlie secret causes of some of the sublimest phenomena of nature. VIII. Magnetism. — This department of philosophy de- scribes the phenomena and the properties of the loadstone^ or natural magnet. The natural magnet is a hard, dark-coloured mineral body, and is usually found in iron mines. The fol- lowing are some of its characteristic properties : — 1. It attracts iron and steel, and all substances which contain iron in its metallic state. 2. If a magnet be suspended by a thread, or nicely poised on a pivot, or placed on a piece of wood, and set to float in a basin of water, one end will constantly point nearly towards the north pole of the earth, and the other to- wards the south ; and hence, these parts of the magnet have been called the north and south poles. 3. When the north pole of one magnet is presented near to the south pole of another, they will attract each other; but if the north pole of one be presented to the north pole of another, or a south pole to a south, they will repel each other. 4. A magnet placed in such a manner as to be entirely at liberty, inclines one of its poles to the horizon, and, of course, elevates the other above it. This property is called the dipping of the magnet. 5. Mag- nets do not point directly north and south : but in different parts of the world with a different declination eastward or westward of the north : it is also different at the same place at different times. In London, and in most places of Great Britain, the magnetic needle in 1824 pointed about 24 degrees to the west of the north. For more than 160 years previously it had been gradually declining from the north to the west ; but seemed then to have begun its declination to the eastward. 6. Any magnet may be made to communicate the pro{>erties now mentioned to any piece of iron or steel. For example, by gently rubbing a penknife with a magnet, it will be immedi- ately invested with the property of attracting needles, or small pieces of iron and steel. 7. Heat weakens the power of a magnet, and the gradual addition of weight increases the mag- netic power. 8. The properties of the magnet are not afl^ected either by the presence or the absence of air ; and the magnetic attraction is not in the least diminished by the interposition of any bodies except iron. A magnet will equally affect the needle of a pocket compass, when a thick board is placed be- tween them, as when it is removed. It has been lately dis- covered, that the violet rays of the solar spectrum^ when con- densed with a convex glass, and made to pass along a piece 22 254 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER- of steel, have the power of communicating to it the magnetic virtue. The cause which produces these singular properties of the magnet, has hitherto remained a mystery ; but the knowledge of the polarity of the magnet has been applied to a most im- portant practical purpose. By means of it, man has now ac- quired the dominion of the ocean, and has learned to trace his course through the pathless deep to every region of the globe. There can be little doubt, that magnetism has an intimate con- nexion with electricity, galvanism, light, heat, and chemical action ; and the discoveries which have been already made, and others to be expected, from the experiments of Morichini, Oersted, Abraham, Hansteen, Barlow, Beaufoy, Ampere, and Scoresby, promise to throw some light on this mysterious agent, and on the phenomena of nature with which it is con- nected. Electro-Magxetism. — This is a new science, founded on the connexion which is now ascertained to subsist between electricity and magnetism. In the year 1819, Professor Oer- sted, of Copenhagen, discovered that, when a wire conducting electricity is placed parallel to a magnetic needle, properly suspended, the needle will deviate from its original or natural direction. 1. If the needle be above the conducting wire, and the positive electricity goes from right to left, the north end of the needle will be moved fro?n the observer, or to the west. 2. If the needle is beloiv the wire, and the electricity passes as before, the north end of the needle will be moved towards ihe observer, or to the east. 3. If the needle is in the same hori- zontal plane with the wire, and is between the observer and the wire, the 7iorth end of it will be elevated. 4. If the needle is similarly placed on the opposite side, the north end of it will be depressed. From these facts M. Oersted concludes, that the magnetical action of the electrical current has a cir- cular motion round the wire which conducts it. When these experiments were commenced, and repeated and varied by other philosophers, a multitude of new facts were soon brought to light through the labours of Davy, Faraday, Ampere, Barlow, Biot, and other experimenters. Two very important facts were ascertained by Ampere and Davy — that the conjunctive wire itself becomes a magnet — and that magnetic properties might be communicated to a steel needle not previously possessing them, by placing it in an electrical current. The former of these facts is proved by throwing iron filings on paper and bringing them under the wire, when they will immediately ad- here to it, forming a tuft round it 10 or 12 times the diameter NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 255 of the wire. Oa breaking the connexion with the battery, however, th