'(l wlicthcr tlio Vi'ilas \\{ivc extant; or, ilpurtions of tlicn> were still preserved, whether any person, however learned in other respects, might he capahle of understanding their ohsolete dialect. It was helievcd too, tliat, if a Hruhmaun really possessed the Indian scrip- tures, his religious iirejudices would nevertheless ])revent his imparting the holy knowledge to any but a regenerate Hindu. These notions, supported by popular tales, were cherished long after the /'/'VA/,s had been communicated to da'ua .sul'COH, and parts of them translated into the I'ersian language by him, or for his use.* The doubts were not linally abandoned, until Colonel puliek obtained from Jei/rin'ir a transcri{)t of what purported to be a complete coj)y of the J'l-iliis, and which he deposited in the British Museum. Aliout the same time .Sir koukut ciiAMnKits collected at Benares numerous fragments of the Indian scrij)ture: Gfeneral maktixk , at a later period , obtained copies of some parts of it; and Sir wii.ma.m jones was successful in ])rocuring valuable portions of the Vrdus^ and in translating several curious passages from one of them. ** I have been still more fortunate in collecting at lienares the te.xt and com- mentary of a large portion of these celebrated books; and, without waiting to examine them more completely than has been yet i)racti- cable , I shall here attempt to give a brief cxitlanatiou of what they chiefly contain. It is well known, that the original I'cda is believed by the Hin- dus to have been revealed by uraiima, and to have been preserved by tradition, until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who thence td)tained the surname of vva'sa, or vkoavvasa: that is, * Extracts liave also been translntod into tlu' //iiuli \a\vxnn<^v\ hut it dops not appear upon wliat occasion this version into the vulpar dialei-t wns made. ** See I'refaee lo mknc, pagfe vi. and tlie Works of Sir wiii iam .roM.i, vol, vi. 1 2 ON THE VEDAS, OH compiler of the Vedas. lie distributed the Indian scripture into four parts, which arc severally entitled E7ch, Yajiish , Soman, and ACharvaiia; and each of which bears the common denomination of Viida. Mr. wiLKiNS and Sir wileiamjones were led, by the consideration of several remarkable passages, to suspect that the fourth is more mo- dern than the other three. It is certain that menu, like others among the Indian lawgivers, always speaks of three only, and has barely alluded to the Al'harvana^'^- without however terming it a Veda. Pas- sages of the Indian scripture itself seem to support the inference: for the fourth Veda is not mentioned in the passage cited by me in a for- mer essay** from the white Fi-z/z/sA ; *** nor in the following text, quoted from the Indian scripture by the commentator of the Rich. "The Rigveda originated from fire; the Yajttrveda from air; and "the Sdmaveda from the sun."t Argun'ients in support of this opinion might bo drawn even from popular dictionaries; for amerasinha notices only three Vedas ^ and mentions the ACharvana without giving it the same denomination. It is, however, probable, that some portion at least of the Ailiarvaua is as ancient as the compilation of the three others ; and its name, like theirs, is anterior to vya'sa's arrangement of them: but the same must be admitted in regard to the Ilihdsa and Piirdnas , which constitute a fifth Veda, as the Afharvana does a fourth. It would, indeed, be vain to quote in proof of this point, the Pti- rdnas themselves, which always enumerate four Vedas, and state the Ilihdsa and Purdnas as a fifth; since the antiquity of some among the Purdnas now extant is more than .questionable, and the authen- ticity of any one in particular does not appear to be as yet suffi- ciently established. It would bo as useless to cite theManddca and Tdpanii/a Upanishads, in which the ACharva-veda is enumerated among the scriptures, and in one of which the number of four Vedas is ex- pressly affirmed: for both these Upanishads appertain to the AChar- vana itself. The mention of the sage at'harvan in various places throughout the Vedas "W proves nothing; and even a text of the Ya- * MENU, cliap. 11, V. 33. ** Essay .Second, on Religious Ceremonies. See Asiatic Kesearclies, vol. vii. p. 251. *** From the 31 st chapter; which, together with the i)rt'ce(ling cliapter (3()t.h), )-elates to the /'iniis/ifiwcd'/ia, a type of tlie allegorical immolation of NAUAYAXA, or of BEAnMA iu that character. f MKNu alludes to this fabulous origin of the lY-da.t (chap. 1. v. 23). Ilis commentator, mkdiia'tit'hi, explains it by remarking', that the /^)V/('<'^/« opens with a hymn to fire; and tlie J'//j'iar<'(/a with one in which air is mentioned. But cri.Lt'cAiinATTA has recourse to the renovations of the universe. "In one Culpa, the Vedas proceeded from fire, air, and the sun; in another, from niiAUMA, at his allegorical immolation." ff Vide i'cdus passim. SACUKM WIJITINOS OF THE IlINDirS. 3 jurvcdd ,* wluue he, is named in contrast with the, /{irh, Ynjusli, and Sduiiin, and their supplement or Ihahmann, is not decisive. But a very unexccptionalde passage may be adduced, wliicli the commentator of the lihli has iiuotcul for a tliiVerent purpose from tlu; i'liltdnilt'iyijii Upanisltdd, a portion of tlio Snniuii. In it, naki:i>a, having solicited instruction from Sanatcuma'ua, and being interro- gated by him as to the extent of liis previous knowledge, says, ''I have learnt the RJi/rrtla, tlie Ynjunriln^ the SnmanhlK, the ACIiKrvana, [which is| the fourth, the Iti/idsu i\m\ J'l/rfi/iii , [which are] a lifth, and [grannnar, or] the Friln of Vhlas , the obse([nies of the manes, the art of computation, the knowledge of omens, the revolutions of periods, tlic intention of speech [or art of reasoning;] , the maxims of ethics, the divine science [or construction of scripture], tlic sciences appendant on holy writ [or accentuation, prosody, ami religious rites], the adjuration of spirits, the art of the soldier, the science of astronomy, the charming of serpents, the science of demigods [or music and mechanical arts]; all this have I studied; yet do I only know the text, and have no knowledge of tlic soul."** From this, compared with other passages of less authority, and with the received notions of the Hindus themselves, it appears, that the Rich, Ydjuali, awiX Smnan, are the tlnee principal portions oftlie Veda-^ that i\\o. AChnniana is commonly admitted as a fourth ; and that divers mythological poems, entitled Ililu'iSd and Pura/ifis , ar<' reckoned a supplement to the scripture, and as such, constitute a lift! I Vcda.**-^- The true reason why the three first Vcdtis are often mentioned without any n<»tice of the fourth, must be sought, not in their dift'erent ■■■ III the Tuititrii/a L'panishud. ** Cli'hdndiUjija Upaidshad, ch. 7, §. 1. 1 inseit the whole passage, because it contains an amide ennnieration of the science.i. The names by wliich grammar ani prayers, called iiiuiUihs; with a collection of precepts and maxims, entitled Bni/iiiuDui, from which last portion the Upaidn/ifid in extracted.' The prayers are properly the ('rdus, and ai)parently proceded the Jirdlimana. '*'*'* When the study of the Indian scriptures was more general than at Ijresent, especially anioiifi the /irdliimtiKis oi (\i>iyiicid)ja , learned priests de- rived titles from the number of I'vdas with which they were conversant. Since every priest was bound to study one Veda, no title was derived from the fiillilment of that duty; but a iiersoii who had studied two rrdas was sur- uamed />/('/?v''/( ; one who was conversant with thne, '/'//I'lV//; and one versed in fnur, ('/iiitiirrri/i: as the mythological poems were only liguratively callcil a rcdn no distinction apjiears to have been derived from a knowledge of them in addition t(t the four scriptures. The titles abovcmentioned have become the surnames of families among the Ih-tiliiiuns n{ Ciiinij, and are cor rupteil by vulgar jironunciation into Ih'du'. 7'iivtirr, and C/imdir. 4 0.\ Till', VKliAS, OK origin and antiquity, but in tlie diti'erencp ol' their use and purport. J'rayers employed at solemn rites, called i/ajiii/as, have been i)laced in the three principal Vrdas: tliose which are in prose are named Yajiis/t; such as are in metre are denominated li/rh: and some, which are intended to be chanted , are called Sdmun : and tliese names, as distinguishing ditl'erent portions of the i'edns, are anterior to their separation in vyasa's compilation. But the ACharvuna not being used at the religious ceremonies abovementioned, and contain- ing prayers employed at lustrations , at rites conciliating the dei- ties , and as imprecations on enemies , is essentially different from the other Vedas^ as is remarked by the author of an elementary treatise on the classification of the Indian sciences.* But different schools of priests have admitted some variations in works which appear under the same title. This circumstance is accounted for by the commentators on the VikUis^ who relate the following story taken from Putu't/'ias and other authorities, vya.sa having compiled and arranged the scriptures, theogonies, and my- thological poems, taught the several Vcdas to as many disciples: viz. the Rich to paila, the Yajush to vais'ampa'yana, and the Sanum to JAiMiNi; as also the Mharva/ia to sumantu, and the Ilihasa and Puramis to suta. These disciples instructed their respective pupils, who becoming teachers in their turn, communicated the knowledge to their own disciples; lyatil at length, in the progress of succes- sive instruction, so great variations crept into the text, or into the manner of reading and reciting it, and into the no less sacred pre- cepts for its use and application, that eleven hundred different schools of scriptural knowledge arose. The several Sanhilds ^ or collections of prayers in each Veda ^ as received in these numerous schools or variations, more or less con- siderable, admitted by them either in the arrangement of the whole text (including prayers and precepts) , or in regard to particular portions of it , constituted the 'Sac'' has or branches of each Veda. Tradition, preserved in the Purdnas , reckons sixteen Saiihitds of the Rigveda: eighty-six of the Yajush, or including those which branched from a second revelation of this Veda , a hundred and one ; and not less than a thousand of the Sdmaveda. besides nine of the AChariHtna. But treatises on the study of the Veda reduce the 'Sdc'hds of the Rich to five; and those of the Yajush, including both revelations of it, to eighty six.** The progress by which (to use the language of the Purdnas) the tree of science ]»ut forth its numerous brandies is thus related. paii>a taught the R7gveda, or Ba/ivnch, to two disciples, bahcala andlNDRA- * MAD'iusirDANA sAKAswATi, ill the I'lust' luinablirdd . ** The aiithoritips on which tliis is st.ited are chiefly tlie Vis/i/'in purdna, part .'}, chap. 4, and tho f'/Jci/avi/f/'sa on tlie study of sciijituro : .'liso tlic P/ui- rahavijiiha, on the 'Siic'/iii.s of the Vt'das. .s.\(i;i:ii ^vl;lll^■^i.^ ni- iiii; iiixin's. ;> i'KA\rArr. Tlio first, also callcil it.viicAi.i , \\ us the editor ol a Sun /lilii , or collection of prayers, and a'Sdr'/if't bearing Imk name still subsists: it is said to have first branched into fonr schools; after- wards into three others, indrapkamati connimnifated his knowledge to his own son .mandi ckva, by wliom a Simltilu was compiled, and from whom one of the 'Sdv^has has derived its name, vkdamitua, suvnamed SACALYA , studied under the same teacher, and gave a complete collection of prayers: it is still extant; but is said to have given origin to five varied editions of'the same text. The two other and princijial Sfic'hns of the Bicli are those of a'swala'vana and sa'nc'iiya'v ana, or perliaj)S CAUSniTAri : but tlic I'i'lii'nt pitrihid omits them, and intimates, that SArAvruNi , a pu]pil of iNDUAPitAMAi i, gave the third varied edition from this teacher, and was also the author of the Ninicia: if so, he is the same with yasca. His school seems to have been subdivided by the formation of three others de- rived from his disciples. The I'djiish or Adltwanju^ consists (if two ditierent I'ciJas^ which have separately branched out into various 'Sdc'hds. 'Yo explain the names bv which both are distinguished, it is necessarv to notice a legend, Avhich is gravelv related in the Piin'uitis nuA the commen- taries on the J'eda. The Ydjiisft, in its original form, was at first taught by vaisamp.v- YANA to twenty-seven pupils. At this time, having instructed YA.ixYAWAi.cYA , he ajii)ointod him lo teach the J'r. A dirtorent motive of rest-iitment is assij^ned li.v otlicrs. '** I'rihad :\rti!n/ds. Thus tlie Characas, or students of a 'Sdclid^ so denominated from tlie teacher of it, characa , are stated as including ten subdivisions; among which are the CaVhas, or disciples of cat'ha, a pupil of vais'ajipa'yana; as also tlie 'S?i!e(ds/V(tlaras , Aupama?i>jav(is, and Dliii- irdyaniijas : the last-mentioned comprehend seven others. \\\ like manner, the Tailtiriyacas are , in the first instance , subdivided into two, the Aucliydyas and Chdncliceyas ; and tliese last are again sub- divided into five, the Apaslatnbiyas, &c. Among them, a'pastamha's 'Sdclid is still subsisting; and so is a'treya's among those which branched from uc'ha: but the rest, or most of them, are become rare, if not altogether obsolete. SUMANTU, son of JAIMINI , Studied the Sdmnveda , or Chltdndogya, under his father: and his own son, sucarman, studied under the same teacher, but founded a different school; which was the origin of two others, derived from his pupils, hiranyana'bha and pau- siiyiNJi, and thence branching into a thousand more ; for loca'cshi, cuT'iiUiMi, and other disciples of paushyin.ji, gave their names to separate schools, which Avere increased by their pupils. The 'Sdc^hd entitled Cau'tlmmi still subsists, hiranyana'bha, the other pupil of Sucarman, had fifteen disciples, autliors of San/iUds , collectively called the northern Sdmayas ; and fifteen others, entitled the south- ern Sdmagas : and criti., one of his pupils, had twenty-four disci- ples, by whom, and by their followers, the other schools were founded. Most of them are now lost; and, according to a legend, * CdnHdnucrama^ verse 25. Tliis iudex indicatorius is formed for the Atreyi 'Scic^hd. Its fiutlior is cundina, if the text (verse 27) be r)f>-litly interpreted. ** Tliis agrees with the etymology of the word Taii/iriya ; for according to graiuinarian.s (.see panini 4, iii. 102), the derivative here implies 'recited by Ti/tiri, tliough composed by a different person. ' A similar explanation is given by commentators on tiic Upanishads. SA(i;i:i' w i;i ri.Ncs (Ir Tin; iiinki s. 7 were ile.s(ii>yeil Ity the tliiiiidfrltoli oC im)|;.\. 'VUv iniiiciital Snc'lui now subsisliiij^ is tliat of Bd/iajjiinn/as, including seven subdivisions; one of wliicli is entitled ('nu'f'/iumi, as above-mentioned, and com- prehends six disti ct schools. That of the TttlaviKi'irds, likewise, is extant, at least, in j)art : as will be shown in spcakinj; of the U/>(i>iish(i1'AI,a'i>a, the last of his four disciples, has to the 'Sac' ltd of the I'diji/idldilis. Another branch of the ACharvaua derives its appellation from .sAii- NACA, the tliird of T'At'iiva's pupils. The rest are of less note. Such is the brief history of the Vola deduiilde from the autho- rities before cited. But those numerous 'Sdcluis did not ditl'er so widely from each other, as might be inferred from the mention of an equal number of Sdfifiiliis, or distinct collectit>ns of texts. In general, the various schools of the same Vrdu seem to have used the same assemblage of prayers; they differed more in their copies of the precepts or Brdhma/uis : and some received into their canon of scripture, portions which do not appear to have been acknowled- ged by others. Yet tlie chief diflerencc seems always to have been the use of particular rituals taught in aphorisms (sulras) adopted by each school; and these di» not constitute a portion of the f'eda, but, like grammar and astronomy, are placed among its apjiendages. It may be here prt)per to remark, that eacli rrild consists of two parts, denominated {\ic MatilrdS and the Brahmai'ias, or prayers and precepts. The complete collection of the bynnis, prayers, and invo- cations, belonging to one Vcdd, is entitled its Smihitd. Every other portion of Indian scrijjture is included under the general head ()f divinity {Brahmana). This comprises precepts which inculcate reli- gious duties, maxuns which explain these precepts, and argunients which relate to theology.* Hut, in the present arrangement of the Vedas , the portion which contains passages called IhdliimuHts, in- cludes many which arc strictly prayers or Maulrds. The theoh)gy of tlie Indian scripture comprehending the argumentative portion entitled J'rdiinld is contained in tracts denominated ('ptinis/idds. some of which arc )tortions of the Hidlimdi'id properly so called, others arc found only in a detached form, and one is a part retatiiin of what is calli'il the '^ llishi of a uuinlnt.^ 'Y\\o last term has been thought to signify an incantation rather than a prayer: and, so far as super- natural efiicacy is ascribed to the mere recital of the words of a mattlrtt, that interpretation is sufficiently accurate; and, as such, it is undoubtedly ap[)licable to the unmeaning incantations of the Munira-sdslra, or Tanlras and Agamas. \U\t the origin of the term is certainly different. Its derivation from a verb, which signifies 'to speak i)rivately,' is readily explained by the injunction for medita- ting the text of the J'(-(l(i , or reciting it inautliMy: and the import of any mantra in tlie Indian scrijitures is generally found to be a prayer, containing either a petition to a deity, or else thanksgning, praise, and adoration. Tiie R/'shi or saint of a manlra is defined, both in the index of the Khjveda and by commentators, Mie by whom it is sj»oken:' as the Bevald, or deity, is 'that which is therein mentioned.' In the index to the Vdjasanriji Vajiirrnla, the nh/ii is interjireted 'the seer or rememberer' of the text; and the Jk-vald is said to lie 'contained in the prayer; or [named] at the commencement of it; or [indicated as] the deity, who shares the oblation or the praise.' Conformaldy with these definitions, the deity that is lauded ttr supplicated in the prayer is its iJcvald : but in a few passages, which contain neither petition nor adoration, the subject is considered as the deity that is spoken of. For example, the praise of generosity is the Jh-vald of many entire hymns addressed to princes, from whom gifts were re- ceived by the authors. The Rhhi, or speaker, is of course rarely mentioned in the man- tra itself: but in some instances he does name himself. A few jias- sages, too, among the mantras of the Vrilu arc in the form of dia- logue; and, in such cases, the discoursers were alternately consi- dered as Rhhi and Devatd. In general, the person to whom the passage was revealed, or according to another gb.ss, by whom its use and aitplication was first discovered,* is called the Rishi of that * Tran-slatiii'' literully, "tlie liishi is he by wlinm tlie text was srniy 10 ON TIIF, VKDAS, OR manlra. lie is cvick-ntly then tlu' aullior of the prayer; iiohvitlistaiul- ing the assertions of the Hindus, Avith whom it is an article of their cree.l, that the Vtidiis were composed by no human author. It must be understood, therefore, that in affirming the primeval existence of tlieir scriptures, they deny these works to be the original com- position of the editor (vya'sa), but believe them to have been gra- dually revealed to inspired writers. The names of the respective authors of each passage are preser- ved in the Aniicrama/ii, or explanatory table of contents, which has been handed down with the Veda itself, and of which the authority is unquestioned.* According to this index, viswa'mitra is author of all the hymns contained in the third book of the RUjveda: as bha- RADWAJA is, Avith rare exceptions, the composer of those collected in the sixth book; vasisht'ha, in the seventh; gritsamada, in the second; vamadeva, in the fourth; and bud'ha** and other descend- ants of ATUi , in the fifth. But, in the remaining bof)ks of this Vcda^ the authors are more various; among these, besides aoastya, CASYAPA son of MARICHI, ANGIRAS , JAMADAGNI SOU of BHRIGU, para's'ara father of vya'sa, gotama and his son nod'has, vri- HASPATi, na'reda, and other celebrated Indian saints, the most conspicuous are canwa, and his numerous descendants, med'ha- tit'iii, &c. ; mad'huch'iiandas, and others among the posterity of viswa'mitra; s'unasep'ha son of ajigarta; cutsa, hiranyastuya, savya, and other descendants of angiras; besides many other saints, among the posterity of personages abovementioned. It is worthy of remark, that several persons of royal birth (for instance, five sons of the king yuihangir; and trayyaruna and trasada'syu, Avho were themselves kings,) are mentioned among the authors of the hymns which constitute this Veda: and the text itself, in some places, actually points, and in others obviously alludes, to raonarchs, whose names are familiar in the Indian heroic his- tory. As this fact may contribute to fix the age in Avhich the Veda PAKiNi (1. ii. 7) employs the same term in explaining the import of deriva- tives used as denoiuiiiations of passag-es in scripture; and his commentators concur with those of the Veda in the explanation here given. By liishi is generally meant the supposed inspired writer; sometimes, however, the imagined inspireris called the /?/.s7// or saint of tlie text; and at other times, as above noticed, the dialogisl or speaker of the sentence. * It appears from a passage in the Vijeya vildsa, as also from the Veda- dipa , or abridged conunentary on the Vdjasancyi^ as well as from the index itself, that catyayana is the acknowledged author of the index to the white Vajush. That of the Rlgvcda is ascribed by the commentator to the same CATYAYANA, pupil of sAUNAcA. The scvcral iudcxes of the Vi'da contribute to the preservation of the genuine text ; especially where the metre , or the number of syllables, is stated, as is generally the case. ** First of the name, and progenitor of the race of kings called 'cliildren of the moon. ' SACRKD WRITINGS OF TMK MINnuS. 11 way composed, I .sliall 1il'1(! notice such passages of this tenilency as have yet fallen under my observation. The sixth hymn of the eighteenth chapter of the tirst l)o(»k is sjtokcn hy an ascetic named cAcsiii vat, in praise of the nmniliceiice of fSWANAVA, who had cnnfcrred inniiensc gifts on hiin. The suliject is continued in the seventh hymn, and conchidcs with a very strange diahtgue between the king itiiAVAYAvyA and Ids wife k«»masa', dangliter of vui'iiAsi'ATi. It sliould he remarkeil, concerning fAcsiii- VAT, tliat his motlier usi(.' was bondmaid nf king a.nca's (jueen. The eighth book opens with an invocation which alludes to a singular h'gend. a'sanoa, son of playociA , and his successor on the throne, was metamor])liosed into a woman; but retrieved hi.s sex tln-ongh tlie ])rayers of mkd'iiva'tit'hi, whom he tlierefore rewarded most liberally. In this hyuni he is introduced praising his own mnniticence; and, towards the close of it, his wife saswatI, daugh- ter of AN(iii{As, exults in his restoration (o uianliooil. The next hymns applaud tlie liberality of tlie kings viniiiMur, pacast'iiaman (son of cuiiaya'xa), cL'nuN<;A, casi; (son of ciiKui) , and Tiui.N'DiKA (son of paua prayers for their own preservation, and for the revival of their conii)anion. The eiglitli chai)tcr opens with a hymn which alhidcs to a story respecting na'uiiankdisht'ha, son of menu, who was excluded from participation with his brethren in the paternal inheritance. The legend itself is told in tlie Ailanhja Brahmaint ,'^- or second portion of the Bif/irda. Among other hymns by royal authors in the subseciuent chapters of the tenth book of the Suti/iilfi , I remark one by ma'm»'uatri, son of yuvana'swa, and another by sivi, son of is'Ixaka, a thinl by VA- * In the second lecture and fourteenth Bection of the fiftli book. 1 2 'i\ t'liK vi';n.\.s, OK .suMANAS, son of iioiiiDASWA, and a fouitli liy I'UAiAr.nAXA , .son nf divoda'sa, king of Cdsi. Tlio deities invoked appear, on a cursory inspection of the Vnht, to be as various as tlie authors of the prayers addressed to them: but, according to tlie most ancient annotations on tlie Indian scripture, those numerous names of persons and things are all resolvable into different titles of three deities, and ultimately of one god. The Niifhai'i'fi , or glossary of the Vcdas , concludes with three lists of names of deities : the tirst comprising such as are deemed synonymous with fire; the second, with air; and the third, with the sun.* In the last part of the Niructa , which entirely relates to deities, it is twice asserted that there are but three gods; 'Tisra e'va devakili."'^'-'' The further inference, that these intend but one deity, is supported by many passages in the Veda : and is very clearly and concisely stated in the beginning of the index to the IUgveda, on the authority of the ISirucld and of the Veda itself. ^ Yasya vdcyam , sarlshir: yd ithi'dchyate , sd devafd : yad acsliara- parimdnam , tach clihamh). At^Chepsava 7-'ishay6 devatds cli lumdobliir ahhyadlidvan. 'ttsra kva dkvata'h ; cshily -anlaricsJia- dyu-silidnd , acpiir rdyuJt si'irya i(y : evam vydhrilayah prdctd vyastdh: samastdndm prajdpalir. 'Oncdra sarvadevatyah^ pdrameshC hiiu m, brdhmd, daivo va, dd''/ajdlmicas. Tat kit sChdnd anyds tad vibhatayah: carina priVhactwdd din prllhafj ahhidlidna sfafayo bhavanly: cr'aiva vd mahdn dlmd devald -. sa sarya ity dcharshate ; sa Id sarva-hhiiCdlmd. Tad iiclam rhhind: " fsruYA a'tma' jagatas tast'hushas ch'eti. " Tad vihhutayo' nyd devatds. Tad apy etad r7shi/i' drlam: "ixdiiam autham varuxam Auxnr a'tiuu ili. " ' The Blshi [of any particular passage] is he whose speech it is ; and that which is thereby addressed, is the deity [of the text]: and the number of syllables constitutes the metre [of the prayer]. Sages [R7sli>s) solicitous of [attaining] particular objects , have approached the Gods with [prayers composed in| metre. 'The deities are only three: whose places are, the earth, the inter- mediate region, and heaven: [namely] fire, air, and the sun. They are pronounced to be [the deities] of the mysterious names*** scver- * Nig''hanti, or first part of the .\inicta, c. 5. ** In the second and third section of the twelfth chapter, or lectnre, of the ij^lossary and ilhistrations of the Veda. The yiria lit consi^^ts of tiiree parts. The first, a glossary, as ahove mentioned, conii)rises five sliort chap- ters or lectures; the second, entitled Naigama, or the first lialf of the y/riicta, properly so called, consists of six long chapters; and tlie third, entitled Den'- vriia, or second half of the proper Nb-iicta, contains eight more. The cliapter here cited is marked as tlie twelfth, including the glossary, or seventh exclu- sive of it. '^*''' B/un- , IdnivnJi , and ftii-nr\ called tlie VyiHirili^. See mkm , c. 2, v. 7(5. In the original text, the nominative case is here used for the genitive; as is SAri;i:i) \VKll'lNivniirite legends of tlmse se«'ts which worship cither the A/«/y// or 'Sar/i, or (dse kama or < itisn.vA. I exei'pt some detached portions, the genuineness of whichappcarsdoiihttul: as will be shown towards the close of this essav. 14 ON THE VEDA.S, Oli of til e milky juice of the moon -plant or acid ascle])ia.s,* furnish abundant occasion for numerous prayers adapted to the many stages of those religious rites. I shall, therefore, select for remark such prayers as seem most singular, rather than such as might appear the fairest specimens of tliis J'eihi. In the fifteenth chapter of the first book there are two hymns ascribed to cutsa, and also to trita, son of water. Tliree ascetics, brothers it should seem , since they are named in another portion of the Veda as (Ap(i/a) sons of water {(ip), were oppressed with thirst while travelling in a sandy desert. At length they found a well, and one of them descended into it and thence lifted water for his companions ; but the ungrateful brothers stole his effects and left him in the well, covering it with a heavy cart-wheel. In his distress he pronounced the hymns in question. It appears from the text, that CUTSA also was once in similar distress, and pronounced the same or a similar invocation: and, for this reason, the hymns have been placed, by the compiler of the reda, among those of which CUTSA is the author. The twenty-third chapter of the same book commences with a dialogue between agastya, indra, and the maruts; and the remain- der of that, with the Avhole of the twenty-fourth chapter, comprises twenty-six hymns addressed by agastya to those divinities, and to the As'wixs, fire, the sun, and some other deities. The last of these hymns was uttered by agastya, under the apprehension of poison, and is directed by rituals to be used as an incantation against the effects of venom. Other incantations, applicable to the same pur- pose, occur in various parts of the Veda-^ for example, a prayer by vasisiit'ha for preservation from poison (book 7, ch. 3, § 18). The third book, distributed into five chapters, contains invocations by vis'wa'mitra , son ofGAT'niN and grandson of cus'iCA. The last hymn, or sucla, in this book, consists of six prayers, one of which includes the celebrated Gdyatri. This remarkable text is repeated more than once in other Vcdas : but since viswa'mitra is acknow- ledged to be the Rishi to whom it was first revealed, it appears that its proper and original place is in this hymn. I therefore subjoin a translation of the prayer which contains it, as also the preceding one (both of which are addressed to the sun), for the sake of ex- hibiting the Indian priest's confession of faith, with its context; after having, in former essays, given more than one version of it apart from the rest of the text. The other prayers contained in the same sucla being addressed to other deities, are here omitted. 'This new and excellent praise of thee, splendid, jilayful, sun (Pvshfm) ! is offered by us to thee. Be gratified by this my speech : aj)pro;vcli this craving mind, as a fond man seeks a woman. May * Sdina-lald, Aselcpias ucidu, or CvnaiKlimn \iininalo. SACRKD WKTTINCS OP THK HINDUS. IT) that sun {Pushan) , who contemplates and looks into all woikls, he our protector. ' JjKT is .mkditate on the auouaulk m<;ht of thk ihvink kulku {SorUn):* i[\Y it oiiui-: oru i.ntkllkcts. Desirous of food, we solicit the gift of the splendid sun {Saviln), who should 1)0 studiously worshipped. Vencrahle men, guided by the understanding, salute the divine sun (.SVavV/v) with oblations and praise.' The two last hymns in tlie third chapter of the 7th book arc. re- markable, as being addressed to the guardian sjiirit of a dwelliug- liouse, and used as prayers to be recited with obbxtions on building a house. The legend belonging to the second of these hyiiuis is singular: vasisht'iia coming at night to the house of vauina, (with the intention of sleejting there, say some; but as others afliim, with the design of stealing grain to appease his hunger after a fast of three days,) was assailed by the house-dog. lie uttered this prayer, or incantation, to lay asleep the dog, who was barking at and at- tempting to bite him. A literal version of the first of tiiose hynnis is here subjoined : 'Guardian of this abode ! be acquainted with us; be to us a whole- some dwelling; afYord us what we ask of tliee, and grant hapiiine.'-s to our bipeds and quadrupeds. Guardian of this Ikuisc ! increase both us and our wealtli. i\[ot»n ! while thou art friendly, may we, with our kino and ourlmrsos, be excm}»ted from decrepitude: guard ns as a lather protects his oflspring. Guardian of this dwelling! may we be united with a hapjty, delightful, and melodious aljode afforded by thee: guard our wealth now under thy protection, or yet in expectancy, and do thou defend us,' The fourth hynui in the fourth chajjtcr concludes with a prayer to lUDUA, whicli being used with oblations after a fast of three days, is supposed to ensure a hapjiy life of a hundred years. In the sixth book three hynnis occur, which being recited with worshijt to the sun, arc believed to occasion a fall of rain after the lapse of five days. The two first are aptly addressed to a cloud; and the third is so to frogs, because these had croaked while VAsrsuT'nA recited the preceding prayers, which circumstance he accepted as a good omen. The sixth chapter of the tenth book closes with two hynnis, the prayer of which is the destruction of enemies, and which are used at sacrifices for that purpose. The seventh cha[)ter opens with a hymn, in wiiicli si'kva, snruamed sa'vituI, the wife of the moon,** is made the speaker; as UA- * sAYAN.u iiAitVA, tl)(> comiiiciitHf or whose plo^^s is lioic follnweil, considers this ]):issap;(' to admit of t\vi> iiitii prctatimis: 'tlio lijilit, or /ira/iiiif, constitut- ing tlie sideiuldur of the snitrciiie ruler or creator of the universe,' or 'tlio lii)^ht, or orb, of the; spUuidid sum.' ** This niiirriai;:e is noticed in the Aitarryu lirdhmnhn ^ where tlic second 16 ON TinO VKPAS, OH CSHINA, tlaiigliter ofpRAJAPATi, and .n'Jiu, daugliter of braiima, are in subsequent cliapters.* A very singular passage ocCTirs in an- other place, containing a dialogue betAveen vama and his twin-sister YAMUNA, whom he endeavours to seduce; but his oflers are rejected by her with virtuous expostulation. Near the close of the tenth chapter , a hymn in a very diflferent style of composition is spoken by vach , daughter of ambiikina, in praise of herself as the supreme and universal soul.** Vdcit ^ it should be observed, signifies speech; and she is the active power of BRAHMA, proceeding from him. The following is a literal version of this hymn, which is expovinded by the commentator consistently with the theological doctrines of the Fi'dus. 'I range with the Biidras, with the J'asiis , Avith the Adilyas , and with the Viswadevas. I uphold both the sun and the ocean [mitra and varuna], the firmament [indra] and fire, and both the aswixs. I support the moon [,S(')ma] destroyer of foes; and [the sun entitled] twashtri, pushan, or bhaga. I grant wealth to the honest votary who performs sacrifices, offers oblations, and satisfies [the deities]. Me, who am the queen, the conferrer of wealth, the possessor of knowledge, and first of such as merit -worship , the gods render, universally, present everywhere, and pervadcr of all beings. He who eats food through me, as he who sees, who breathes, or wlio hears, through me, yet knoAvs me not, is lost; hear then the faith AA'hich I pronounce. Even T declare this self, aaIio is Avorshipped by gods and men : I make strong Avhora I choose ; I make him Brahina^ holy and wise. For rubra I bend the boAA^, to slay the demon, foe of brahma'; for the people I make Avar [on their foes] ; and I per- vade heaven and earth. I bore the father on the head of this [uni- versal mind], and my origin is in the midst of the ocean ;**'^' and lecture of the fourth book opens in this manner; 'prajapati gave his d^tugh- ter, SURYA sAviTJii, to SOMA, tlie king.' The well known legend in the Purd- nas^ concerning the marriage of suma with the daughter of dacsha, seems to be founded on this story in tlie Fedas. '■''■ In tlie introduction to the index , these, together with other goddesses, Avho are reckoned authors of holy texts, are enumerated and distinguished by the appelhition of Brahmevdd'mi. An inspired writer is , in the masculine, termed Brahmcvddin. ** Towards the end of tlie Vrihad drai'ujaca, vach is mentioned as receiv- ino- a revelation from ambhi.m, who obtained it from the sun : but here she herself bears the almost similar patronymic, amuukixi. *** Heaven , or the sky, is the fatlier; as expressly declared in another place: and the sky is produced from mind , according to one more passage of the Vi-das. Its birth is therefore placed on the head of the supreme mind. The commentator suggests three interpretations of the sequel of the stanza: 'my parent, tlie holy Ambhrlnu ^ is in the midst of the ocean;' or, 'my ori- gin, tlie sentient deity, is in waters, which constitute the bodies of the gods ;' or, 'the sentient god, who is in the midst of the waters, Avhich pervade intel- lect, is my origin.' SACUED WRITINGS OF THK HINDIS. 17 therefore do T pervade all l»einj;^s, and touch this heaven with my form. < )ri;;inatin<5 all boinj^s, I pass like the hroeze; I ain ahi)ve this heaven, Vieyond this earth; and what is the great one, tliat am I.' The tenth chapter closes with a hymn to night; and the eleventh begins with two Iiynins relative to the creation of the world. An- other on this subject was translated in a former essay:* it is the last hymn but one in the Rujn'da, and the autlior of it is ao'hamau- SHANA (a son of MAi)'iir('irnANDA.s) , from whom it takes the name by which it is generally cited. The other hymns, of which a ver- sion is here suljjoined, are not ascribed to any ascertained author. praja'pati, surnamed PartimcshT hi , and his son va.i.nva, are stated as the original speakers. But of these names, one is a title of the jirimeval spirit, and the other seems to allude to the allegorical im- molation of liUAllMA. I. 'Tlicn was there no entity, nor nonentity; no world, nor sky, nor aught above it: nothing, any where, in the hajipiness of any one, involving or inv(dved: nor water, deep and dangerous. Deatli was not; nor then was inunortality ; nor distinction of day or night. But THAT** breathed without afHation , single with iSiraiVlid) her who is sustained within him. Other than him, nothing existed [which] since [has been]. Darkness there was; [for] this universe was en- veloped with darkness, and was imdistinguishable [like iiuids mixed in] waters: but that mass, which was covered by the husk, was [at length] j)roduced by the power of contemplation. First desire was formed in his mind: and that became the original productive se<'d; which the wise, recognising it by the intellect in their hearts, distin- guish, in nonentity, as the bond of entity. 'Did the luminous ray of these [creative acts] expand in tlie mid- dle V or above? or below V That productive seed at once becaiue jirovidence [or sentient souls], and matter [or the elements]: she, who is sustained within himself,*** was inferior; and he, who lieeds, was sujjerior. 'Who knows exactly, and who shall in this world declare, whence and why this creation took place V The gods are subsequent to the production of this world: then who can know whence it proceedeil ? * la the fust Kssay on tlie K'elipjii.ns Ceremonies of tlieHiiHhis, Asiatic Rfseiiiflies, vvay and sought to flee. The I primeval | man endeavoured to seize it by speech , but could not attain it by his voice: had be by voice taken it, [hunger] would be satisfied by naming food. He attempted to catcli it by his breath, but could not inhale it by breathing: had he by inhaling taken it, [hunger] would be satisfied by smelling food. He sought to snatch it by a glance, but could not surprise it l)y a look: had he seized it by the sight, [hunger] would be satisfied by seeing food. He attempted to catch it by hearing, but could not hold it by listening: had he caught it by hearkening, [hunger] would be satisfied by hear- * Apdna. From the analogy between the acts of inhalinp^and of swallowing; tlie latter is considered as a sort of breatli or insj)iratiun : hence tlic air drawn in by deglutition is reckoned one of five breaths or airs inhaled into the bod v. 28 ON THi: VEDAS OK ing food. He endeavoiucd to seize it liy his skin , but could not restrain it by bis toucli : bad be seized it by contact , | liungerj would be satisfied by toucbing food, lie wisbod to reacb it by tbe mind, but could not attain it by tbinking: bad be caiigbt it by tbougbt, 1 hunger] would be satisfied by meditating on food. He wanted to seize it by the generative organ, but could not so bold it; had he thus seized it , [hunger] would be satisfied by emission. Lastly, he endeavoured to catch it by deglutition; and thus be did swallow it: that air, which is bo drawn in , seizes food; and that very air is the bond of life. 'he [the universal soul] reflected, "How can this [body] exist with- out meV" Ho considered by which extremity he should pene- trate. HE thought, "If I without me] speech discourse, breath inhale, and sight view ; if hearing hear, skin feel, and mind meditate; if deglutition swallow, and the organ of generation perform its func- tions; then, who am IV" 'Parting the suture [sitnan] , he penetrated by this route. That opening is called tbe suture (vidnti) and is tbe road to beatitude (ndndana.)*' 'Of that soul, the places of recreation are three; and tbe modes of sleep , as many. This {pointing to (he right eye) is a place of re- creation; this (pointing to the throat) is [also] a situation of enjoy- ment; this {pointing to the heart') is [likewise] a region of delight. 'Thus born |as tbe animating spirit] , be discriminated the ele- ments, [remarking] "what else [but him] can I here affirm [to exist];" and be contemplated this [thinking] person,** the vast expanse,*** [exclaiming] it have I seen. Therefore is be named it-seeinCt (idam-dra): it-seeing is indeed his name: and him, being it-seeing, they call, by a remote appellation, indra; for the gods generally delight in the concealment [of their name]. The gods delight in privacy, f § V, 'Tliis [living principle] is first, in man, a fetus, or produc- tive seed, which is the essence drawn from all tbe members [of tbe body] : thus the man nourishes himself within himself. But when be emits it into woman, be procreates that [fetus] : and such is its first birth. ' It becomes identified with the woman; and being such, as is her own body, it does not destroy her. She cherishes his owuself, tl * The Hindus believe that the soul, or conscious life, enters the body throiifjh the sagittal suture; lodges in the brain; and may contemplate, through the same opening, tlie divine perfections. Mind, or the reasoning faculty, is reckoned to be an organ of the body, situated in the heart. ** Puvusha. *** Bruhme, or tlie great one. t Here, as at the conclusion of every division of an Upniiinhad, or of any chapter in the didactic portion of the t'edos, the last phrase is repeated. f f L''or the man is identified with the child procreated by him. SACRED WRITINGS OF THE HINDUS. 29 thus received within lier; and, as nurturing hini , she ought to be cherished | by hini|. The wcmian nourishes that fetus: but he previously cherished the child, and further does so after its birth. Since he supports the child before and after birtli , he cherishes himself: and that, for tlie perpetual succession of persons; for thus art! these persons perpetuated. Such is his second birth. 'This [second I self becomes his representative for holy acts [of religion] : and that other [self] , having fulfilled its obligations and coni])leted its period of life, deceases. l)('j)arting bonce, he is born again [in some other shape] : and such is bis tliird birth. • 'Tliis was declared by the holy sage. "Within the womb, I have recognised all the successive births of these deities. A hundred bodies, like iron chains, hold me down: yet, like a falcon, I swiftly rise." Thus spoke va'madkva, reposing in the womb: and possess- ing this [intuitive] knowledge, he rose, after bursting that corporeal confinement; and, ascending to the blissful region of heaven,* he attained every wish and became immortal. He became immortal. sj VI. ' What is this soul V that we may worship him. Which is the soul? Is it that by which [a man sees] V by which he hears V by which he smells odours'? by which he utters speech? by which he discriminates a pleasant or unpleasant taste? Is it the heart [or understanding]? or the mind [or will] ? Is it sensation? or power? or discrimination ? or comprehension? or perception? or retention ? or attention? or application? or haste [or pain]? or memory? or assent? or determination? or animal action?** or wish? or desire? 'All those are only various names of apprehension. But this [soul, consisting in the faculty of apprehension] is buahma'; he is indra; he is (praja'p.\ti) the lord of creatures: these gods are he; and s1 S. 31 On the WHITE YAJURVEDA The Vajasatu'ifi, or white Yajush, is the shortest of the Fedas] so far as res])octs the first and ])rincipal part, whicli comprohonfls the vuintras. The S(in/iitd , or collection of prayers and invocations be- longing to this J'etla, is comprised in forty lectures (adliydya), une- (jually subdivided into numerous short sections {cafU/icd)- each of which, in general, constitutes a prayer or maulra. It is also divided, like the RHjvedu , into anunicas , or chapters. The number of uuu- vdcas, as tliey are stated at the close of the index to this Veda, appears to be two hundred and eighty -six: the number of sections, or verses, nearly two thousand (or exactly 1987). But this includes many repetitions of the same text in divers places. The lectures are very unequal, containing from thirteen to a hundred and seven- teen sections {candied).* Though called the I'ojunr'da , it consists of passages, some of which are denominated BJt/i, while only the rest are strictly Yujusli. The first are, like the prayers of the Bhjveda , in metre: the others are either in measured prose, containing from one to a hundred and six syllables; or such of them as exceed that length, are considered to be prose reducible to no measure. The Yajttrveda relates chiefly to oblations and sacrifices, as the name itself implies.** The first chapter, and tlie greatest part of the second, contain prayers adapted for sacrifices at the full and change of the moon ; but the six last sections regard oblations to the manes. The subject of the third chapter is the consecration of a perpetual fire and the sacrifice of victims: the five next relate chiefly to a ceremony called ^k/nish'toma, which includes that of drinking the juice of the acid asclepias. The two following relate to the Vdjapcyn and Rdjasuya ; the last of whicli ceremonies involves the consecration of a king. Eight chapters, from the eleventh to the eighteenth, regard the sanctifying of sacrificial fire; and the ceremony named Saiitrdmani , which was the subject of the last section of the tenth chapter, occupies three other chapters, from the nineteenth to the twenty - first. The prayers to be used at an Aittvamedlia , or ceremony eml)lematic of the immolation of a horse and other animals, by a king ambitious of universal empire, arc plated ill four chapters, from the twenty ■ second to the twenty -fifth. The two next are miscellaneous chapters; the Saulrdmu/ii and .is- * I liave several copies of VAD'itYAN'iu.VA's white i'nju.ih, one of wliicli is accompanied by a coininentarv, entitled l'cdndipn\ tlie autlior of wliicli, ma- jiid'iiaka, consulted tlio commentaries of uvata and m.u.'iiava, as he liim.self informs us in liis preface. •» I'tijux/i is derived from the verl) i/tij , to worsliip or adore. Anotlier etymoIoiT.v is sometimes assigned: but tliis i.s most consi.stentwitii tliesubject; viz. (ynjnya) sacrifices, and {hdma) oblations to fire. 32 ON THE VKDAS, OR tvametrha are completed in two others; and the Punishamefr/ia, or ceremony performed as the type of the allegorical immolation of NARAy-vxA , fills the thirtieth and thirty-first chapters. The three next helong to the Sarvamecl' ha , or prayers and (jhlations for uni- versal success. A chapter follows on the PilnnwiVha, or obseqiiies in commemoration of a deceased ancestor: and the last five chap- ters contain such passages of this J'eda, as are ascribed to dad'ii- YACH, sonor descendant of at'harvan: four of them consist of prayers applicable to various religious rites, as sacraments, lustrations, penance, &c. ; and the last is restricted to theology. Excepting these five chapters, most of the passages contained in the preceding part of this collection of prayers are attributed to di- vine personages: many are ascribed to the first manifested being, named pra.tapati, paramesht'iii, or narayana purusiia; some are attributed to swayambhu brahme , or the self-existent himself: the reputed authors of the rest are vrihaspati, indra, varuna, and the aswins : except a few scattered passages , which are ascribed to vasisht'ha, viswa'mitra, va'madeva , mad'huch'hakdas, med'ha'- tit'hi, and other human authors; and some texts, for which no Rhhi is specified in the index, and which are therefore assigned either to the sun {Vivaswul or Adthja), as the deity supposed to have revealed this Veda] or to ya'jnyawaix'ya , as the person who received the revelation : in the same manner as the unappro- priated passages of the Rigveda are assigned to praja'pati or brahma'. Several prayers and hymns of the Yajwn'eda have been already translated in former essays, * and may serve as a sufficient example of the style of its composition. I shall here insert only two pass- ages, both remarkable. The first is the beginning of the prayers of the Sarvamedlui. It constitutes the thirty -second lecture, com- prising two chapters {amnvica) and sixteeen verses. 'fire is that [original cause]; the sun is that; so is air; so is the moon: such too is that pure brahme, and those waters, and that lord of creatures. Moments [and other measures of time] pro- ceeded from the effulgent person, whom none can appreliend [as an object of perception] , above, around, or in the midst. Of him, whose glory is so great, there is no image: he it is who is celebra- ted in various holy strains.** Even he is the god who pervades all regions : he is the first born : it is he, who is in the womb; he, who is born; and he, who will be produced: he, severally and uni- versally, remains with [all] persons. 'he, prior to whom nothing was born, and who became all brings; himself the lord of creatures, with [a body composed (»fj sixteen * On the Heligious CeVemonios of the HiiKliis, As. Res., vol. v. and vii. ** Tlie text refers to particular passages. SAfRED WRtTINOS OP THE HINDI'S. 33 iiiemljprs. Ixiiii;^ tl('liji;lit('(l liy creation, produced tlie throe luinina- rie.s [tlio sun, tlie uuidu, and lire]. 'To what God sliould we oft'er oblations, but to him who made the Huid sky and solid earth, who tixed the solar orb (s/var,) and celestial abode (/Hicfi), and who framed drops [of rain] in the atmos- phere? I'o what god shouhl we otl'er oblations, but to him whom heaven and earth mentally contemplate, while they are strengthen- ed and end)ellished by oft'erings , and illuminated by the sun risen above tliemV 'The wise man views that mysterious [being], in whom tlie uni- verse perpetually exists, resting on that sole support. In him, this (wiirldj is absorbed; from him it issues: in creatures, he is twined and wove, with various forms of existence. Let the wise man, who is conversant with the import of revelation, * promptly celebrate that immortal being, the mysteriously existing and various abode; he who knows its three states [its creation, continuance, and destruc- tioii[, which are involved in mystery , is father of the father. That [BRAii>rj:|, in whom the gods attain immortality, while they abide in the third [or celestial] region, is our venerable parent, and the providence which governs all worlds. ' Knowing" the elements, discovering the worlds, and recognising all regions and quarters [to be him], and worshipping [speech or re- velation , who is] the first-born, the votary pervades the animating spirit of solemn sacrifice by means of [his own] soul. Recognising heaven, earth, and sky [to lie him], knowing tlie worlds, discovering space and (s/nti-) the solar orb [to be the same[, he views that being: he becomes that being; and is identified with him, on completing the broad web of the solemn sacrifice. "For opulence and wisdom, I s"; thou art (/V/f//'rt/.sv//-«) the [third] year; thou art (^iilvnl - valsara) the [fourth] year; thou art {ralsura) the * For tlif word Gand'liarha is lirre interpreted as intending one wlio investi- gates linly writ. *' (Ml, 27, § Intli !ind fast. 3 34 ON THE VEDAS, OU fifth year: may mornings appertain to thee; may days and nights, and fortniglits, and months, and seasons, l)eh)ng to tliee; may {sain- vatsurci) the year be a portion of thee: to go, or to come, contract- ing or expanding [thyself] , thou art winged thought. Together with tliat deity, remain thou firm like anoiua.s.' I have quoted this almost unmeaning passage , hecause it notices the divisions of time which belong to the calendar of the Vedas, and which are explained in treatises on that subject annexed to tlie sa- cred volume, under the title o^ Ji/6lisli. To this I shall again ad- vert in a subsequent part of this essay. I shall here only observe, with the view of accounting for the seeming absurdity of the text now cited, that fire, as in another place ,* sacrifice, is identified with the year and with the cycle, by reason of the near connexion between consecrated fire and the regulation of time relative to reli- gious rites; at which one is used, and which the other governs. The fortieth and last chapter of this J'eda is an UpemisJ/afJ, an before intimated: which is usually called Isdvasi/fan, from the two initial words; and sometimes Isfirf/n/di/a, from the first w^ord; but the proper title is ' Upcmishad of the Vdjasanerja sanhild.'' The author; as before- mentioned, is dad'iiyach, son or descendant of at'harvan.** a translation of it has been published in the post- humoiis works of Sir william jones. The second part of this Veda, appertaining to the Madlujandma 'Sdc''hd is entitled the 'SalapaCha Brdhmana-^ and is much more copi- ous than the collection of i»rayers. It consists of fourteen books {c(huki) unequally distribi;ted in two parts {hhdga) : the first of which contains ten books; and the second, only four. The number of lectures {adlnjai/a) contained in each book varies ; and so does that of the Brdltmanas, or separate precepts, in each lecture. Another mode of division , by chapters (prapd'taca) , also prevails through- out the volume: and the distinction of Brdhmai'ias ^ which are again siibdivided into short sections {canHird,) is subordinate to lioth modes of division. The fourteen books which constitute this part of the Veda com- prise a hundred lectures, corresponding to sixty -eight chapters. The whole number of distinct articles entitled Brdhmana is four * In the 'Sal(ipfit''hn Briihmaha, b. ii, cli. 1. The reason hero assigned is expressly stated by the commentator, ** Besides mahid'hara's gloss on this cliapttr, in his Vcdatlipn, I liave the separate coinmentarv of sancwh \ , and one by liAr.AcuTsnxAXAXDA, wliich con- tains a chr-ar and copious exposition of tliis L'panislind. He professes to ex- pound it as it is received by both tlie Cdimn and Mdtl'hyandinn scliools. Sir wii.F.iAM .loNKs, in liis version of it, used sAxrAnA's p^loss; as appears from a copy of tliat gloss wlilch he had carefully studied, and in which his hand- writing appears in more than one place. «AfREI) WRITINOS OF THE HINDIS. 35 liundrod and forty: the sections (rafil/ird) are also cotinted, and are statod at 7(i-J4. * Tlic same order is observed in this collection of precepts concern- ing religious rites, which liad been followed in the arrangement of the prayers belonging to them. 'IMie first and second books treat of cero)iiiinies on the full and change of the moon, the consecration of the sacrificial lire, i^c. The tliird and fourtli relate to the mode of preparing the juice of the acid asdepias , and other ceremonies connected with it, as the Jyolis/ifn/na , &c. The fifth is confined to tlie }'tij(ij)ri/fi and Itd/'iisi'ii/a. Tlie four next teacli the consecration of sacrificial lire: and the tentli, entitled Aijui raltasya ^ shows tlie benefits of these ceremonies. The three first books of the second part are stated by the commentator** as relating to the Saulrdnuini and .isirami'il'lia \ and the fourth, which is the last, l)elongs to theo- logy. In the original, the thirteenth book is specially denomi- nated Aswamt'-dliya-^ and the fourteenth is entitled Viuhad dramjaca. The Asivamiur ha an^ Punishaitu'-dlia ^ celebrated in the manner directed by this J'rda , are not really sacrifices of horses and men. In the first -mentioned ceremony, six hundred and nine animals of various prescribeil kinds, domestic and wild, including birds, fish, and reptiles, arc made fast, the tame ones, to twenty-one posts, and the Mild, in the intervals l)etween the pillars; and, after cer- tain prayers have been recited, the victims are let loose without injury. In the other, a hundred and eighty -five men of various specified tribes, characters, and professions, are bound to eleven posts; and, after the hymn concerning the allegorical immolation of NAiiAV.VNA*** has been recited, these human victims are liberated unhurt; and oblations of butter are made on the sacrificial fire. This mode of ))erforming the .tstvamcdlia and Purusfidmrdlia , as euibleniatlc ceremonies, not as real sacrifices, is taught in this Vrda : and the interpretation is fully confirmed by the rituals,! and by commentators on the Sanhild and Brd/tmana ; one of whom assigns as the reason , ' because the flesh of victims which have been actu- ally sacrificed at a Yiijni/n must be eaten by the persons who ofl'er the sacrifice: but a man cannot bo allowed, much less rec^uired, to * My copies of tlie text and of llie couimontary are both imperfect ; but the (Itficiencics of one occnr in places wlicrr' the other is complete, and I liavebeen tiins enabled to inspect cursorily the whole of this portion of tln' / 'rdn. Among fragments of this Jinilimnna enmprisina»is/,ad to which Sir wili.iam .tonks refers, in his preface to the translation of the Institutes of menu, p. viii. (in Sir G. C. haughtox s edition, p. xi.) SACRED WRITiNG.S i»F JIIH HINDUS. .) / I shall luMo luk'Hy indicate, some of the most remarkable passages, and uliielly those wliich have been paraphrased by vidyaU an'ya. A few (tthers have been already cited , and the I'ollowing appears likewise to deserve notice. Towards the beginning of the fn/uid drani/acfi , a passage , con- cerning the origin of lire hallowed for an Axii'amcdlia ^ opens thus: 'Nothing existed in tliis world before [the production of mind]: this universe was encircled by death eager to devour; for death is the devourer. lie framed mind, being desirous of himself becoming endued with a soul. ' [fere the conunentators explain death to be the intellectual being who sju-ung from the golden mundane egg: and the passage before cited from the E7grc(la,* where the primeval existence of death is denied, may be easily reconciled with tliis, u})on the Indian ideas of tlie periodical destruction autl renovation of the world, and iinally of all Iteings but the supreme one. The iirst selection by vidva'raxya from this Upanishad, is the fourth article {hrnhmai'ui) of the third lecture of the Vrihad riranyaca. It is descriptive of vika'j, and begins tlius: 'This [variety of forms] was, before [the production of body], soul, bearing a human shape. Next, looking around, that [primeval being] saw nothing but himself; and he, tirst, said "I am I." Therefore, hit; name was "I:" and thence, even now, when called, [a man| first answers "it is I," and then declares any other name which apj)ertains to him. 'Since he, being anterior to all this [which seeks supremacy], did consume by tire all sinful [obstacles to his own supremacy), there- fore does the man who knows this |trutli|, overcome him who seeks to be before him. 'lie felt dread; and therefore, man fears when alone. But he reflected, "Since nothing exists besides myself, why should 1 fear V" Tiius his terror departed from him; for what should he dread, since fear must be of another? 'lie felt not delight; and therefore, man delights not when alone. He wished [the existence of] another; and instantly be became such as is man and woman in mutual embrace. He caused this, his own self, to fall in twain; and thus became a husband and a wife. Therefore was tliis [body, so sej)arated], as it were an imperfect moiety of himself : for so ya'.inyaavalcya has pronounced it. Tiiis blank, therefore, is comj)leted by woman. He approached her; and thence were human beings produced. 'She reflected, doubtingly ;'' "bow.can he, having produced me from himself, [incestnously] approach meV I will now assume a disguise." She became a cow ; and the other became a bull , and * Page 17. 38 ON THE YEDA.S, Ull approached her; and the issue were khie. Slie was changed into a mare, and lie into a stallion; one was turned into a female ass, and the other into a male one: thus did he again approach her ; and the one-hoofed kind was the offspring. She hecame a female goat, and he a male one; she was an ewe, and he a ram: thus he approached Ihu*; and goats and sheep were the progeny. In this manner did he create every existing pair wliatsoever , even to the ants [and minutest insects].' The sequel of this passage is also curious, but is too long to be here inserted. The notion of viraj dividing his oAvn substance into male and female, occurs in more than one I'urdna. So does that of an incestuous marriage and intercourse of the first menu with his daughter s'ataku'pa; and the commentators on the JJpaiiishad understand that legend to be alluded to in this place. But the institutes ascribed to menu make viua'j tu be the issue of such a separation of persons, and menu himself to be his offspring.* There is, indeed, as the reader may observe from the passage cited in the present essay, much disagreement and consequent Confusion, in the gradation of persons interposed by Hindu theohigy between the Supreme Being and the created world. The author of the paraphrase before-mentioned has next selected tliree dialogues from the fourth lecture or chapter of the Vrihnd draiiyaca. In the lirst, which begins the cha])ter and occupies three articles (prdhnianas) , a conceited and loquacious priest, named ba- LACi (from his mother bala'ca), and aAKUYA (from his ancestor GAR(!a), visits AjATASATRU, king of Cr^s7', and offers to communicate to him the knowledge of t;oi>. The king bestows on him a liberal recompense for the offer; and the priest unfolds his doctrine, saying he worships, or recognises, as god, the being who is manifest in the sun; him, who is ap})arent in lightning, in the etherial elements, in air, in tire, in Avater, in a mirror, in the regions of space, in shade, and in the soul itself. The king, who Avas, as it appears, a Avell instructed theologian, refutes tliese several notions successively; and tinding the jiricst remain silent, asks, "is that all you have to sayV" (.jA'jiUYA replies, "that is all." Then, says the king, "that is not sufticieut for the knoAvledge of God." Hearing this, gargya proposes to become his pupil. The king repties, "ItAvould reverse established order, Avere a priest to attend a soldier in expectation of religious instruction: but I Avill suggest the knowledge to you." He takes him by the hand, and rising, conducts him to a place where a man Avas sleeping. Pie calls the tsleeper by various appel- lations suitable to the priest'ii doctrine, but Avithout succeeding in aAvakening him: he then rouses the slee])er by stirring him; and afterAvards, addressing the priest, asks, "While that nuin Avas thus * See Sir W. junks's translation of MK^•u Cli. I, v. 32 and 33. SACUKD WUITINGS OF THE HINDUS. 3*J asleep , \vlieiH', was his soul, which consists in intellect V and whence came that soul when ho was awakened V" ua'imjva could not solve the question: and the king then proceeds to explain the nature of soul and mind, according to the received notions of the rcdrititu. As it is not the purpose of this essay to consiiler those doctrines, I shall not here insert the remainder ol' the dialogue. The next, occuj)ying a single arti<-le, is a conversation hetween VA.iNVAWALCVA and his wiie, iMAiTUKYi. He announces to her his intention of retiring from the civil world, requests her consent, and proposes to divide his efi'ects between her and his second wife, cATYAYAxi. She asks, "Should I become immortal, if this whole earth, full of riches, were mineV" "No," replies va'jnyawai.cya, "riches serve for the means of living, but innnortality is not attained through wealth." .MvrrnKYi declares she has no use, then, for that by which she may not becon.e immortal; and solicits from her hus- band the conniiunication of the knowledge which he possesses, on tlie means by which beatitude may be attained. ya'jxyaw'Alcya answers, "J)ear wert thou lo me, and a pleasing [sentiment] dost thou make known: come, sit down; I will expound [that doctrine]; do thou endeavour to comprcliond it." A discourse follows, in which YA,i\YAWAL('YA elucidates the notion, tliat abstraction procures im- mortality; because affections arc relative to the soul, which should therefore be contemplated and considered in all objects, since every thing is soul; for all general and particular notions are ultimately resolvable into one, whence all proceed, and in Avhicli all merge; and that is identified with tlie supreme soul, through the knowledge of which beatitude may be attained. I shall select, as a specimen of the reasoning in this dialogue, a passage which is material on a difi'erent account; as it contains an enumeration of tiie Vcdus , and of the various sorts of passages which they comprise, and tends to confirm some observations hazard- ed at the beginning of this essay. 'As smoke, and various substances, separately issue from fire lighted with moist wood, so i'rom this great being were respired the Rigvcda, the Yajiirveda ^ the Sdmarcda , and the, Jniarvan and Anijiras; the Jtihdsa i\nd Purdiia, the sciences and Upanis/iads , the verses and aphorisms, the expositions and illustrations, all these were breathed forth by him.' The commentators remark , thai four sorts of prayers (wjrt«/rrt) and eight sorts of precepts {brdhmana) are here stated. The fourth description of prayers comprehends such as were revealed to, or discovered by, ai'mauvan and a.\(;ii:a,s: meaning tlie ACItarvami veda. The Ililu'tsa designates such passages in the second part of the Vedas entitled Jiru/imri/in, as narrate a story : for instance, that of the nymph luVAsi and tlic king Piui'u was. The Puidi'ia intends those which relate to the creation and similar topics. "Sciences" 40 ON THE VKDAS, OR are meant of religious ■\vorslu]»: "Verses" are memorial lines: "Aphorisms" are short sentences in a concise style: ,, Expositions" interpret such sentences ; and "Illustrations" elucidate the meaning of the prayers. It may not be superfluous to observe in tliis i)lace, that the llihasa and Piirai'ias, here meant, are not the mythological poems bearing the same title, but certain passages of the Indian scriptures, -which are interspersed among others, throughout that part of the Vedas called Brahmana , and instances of which occur in more than one quotation in the present essay. The dialogue between yajxyawalcva andMAiTR^yi, above-men- tioned, is repeated towards the close of the sixth lecture, with a short and immaterial addition to its introduction. In this place it is succeeded by a discourse on the unity of the soul; said, towards the conclusion, to have been addressed to the two Jsmns, by dad'h- YACH, a descendant of at'harvan. The fourth lecture ends Avitli a list of the teachers , by whom that and the three preceding lectures were handed down, in suc- cession, to PAUTiM.ASHYA. It begins with him, and. ascends, through forty steps, to aya'sya; or, with two more intervening persons, to the Ahrins; and from them, to dad'hyach, at'harvan, and mrityu, or death; and, through other gradations of spirits, to vira'j; and finally to BRAHME. The same list occurs again at the end of the sixth lecture ; and similar lists are found in the corresponding places i)f this Upamshad, as arranged for the Mddlii/andina sdchd. The succession is there traced upwards , from the reciter of it, who speaks of himself in the first person, and from his immediate teacher SAURYANAYYA, to the same original revelation, through nearly the same number of gradations. The difference is almost entirely confined to the first ten or twelve names.* The fifth and sixth lectures of this Upaiiishad have been para- phrased, like the fourth, by the author beforementioned. They consist of dialogues, in Avhich ya'jnyawalcya is the chief discourser. 'jANACA, a king paramount, or emperor of the race of J'ide/ias, was celebrating at great expense, a solemn sacrifice, at which the Brdhmanas of Cui'u and Panchdla were assembled; and the king, being desirous of ascertaining which of those priests was the most * I rto not find vvasa mentioned in either list; nor can tlie surname Pfiid- saryn, wliicli occurs more than once, he applied to liim. for it is not liis ]):-itro- nymic, but a name deduced from the feminine patronymic Piinisaii, It seems tlierefore questionahle , whether any infeience respecting the age of the Vedas can be drawn from tliesc lists, in the manuor projiosed by the late Sir w. .roNKs in liis preface to the transhitiou of >ii:.mi (p. viii). Tlie ana- chronisms which I o))serve in them , deter me from a similar attempt to de- duce the age of this I'eda from these and other lists , wliich will be noticed further on. SACKED WIUTINCJ.S Ol' TllK HINDUS. 4t learned and elnijucnt tliCDlogian , ordered a tlioiusand cows to be made fast in liis slat)lcs, and tlieir Innnti to l»c gilt with a prescribed quantity of gold. He then addressed tlie priests, "whoever, among you, U venerable Brdhma/ias, is most skilled in theology, may take the cows." The rest presumed not to touch the cattle; but va'jnya- WALCYA bade his pupil sa'masuavas drive them to his home, lie did so; and the jiriests were indignant that he should thus arrogate to liimself superiority. aswai.a, who was the king's officiating priest, asked him, "Art thou, O v v'jxyawalcya! more skilled in llieology than we arcV" He replied, "I bow to the most learned; but L was desirous of possessing the cattle." This introduction is followed by a long dialogue , or rather by a succession of dialogues, in which six other rival priests (besides a learned female, named OA'iKii, the daughter of vacuacuu) take part as antagonists of va.inyawaloya; proposing questions to him, which h<' answers; and, by refuting their objections, silences them suc- cessively. Each dialogue tills a single article [hrahmami) -. but the controversy is maintained by oauc;! in two separate discussions ; and tlie contest between ya'.inyawalcya and vidaud'ha, surnamed sa'c'Alva, in the ninth or last article of the fifth lecture, concludes in a singular manner. YAJXYAWAUVA proposes to his adversary an abstruse question, and declares, "If tliou dost not explain this unto me, thy head shall drop off." 's'a'calva (proceeds the text) could not explain it, and his head did fall off; and robbers stole his bones, mistaking them for some other thing.' ya'.invawalcya then asks the rest of his antagonists, whetlier tliey have any question to propose, or are desirous that he should l)r(q)osi! any. They remain silent, and he addresses them as follows: 'Man is indeed like a lofty tree : his Iiairs are the leaves, and his skin the. cuticle. From his skin flows blood, like juice from bark: it issues from his wounded person, as juice from a stricken tree. His flesh is the inner bark; and the membrane, near the bones, is the wliite substance of the wood.* The bones within are the wood itstdf, and marrow and \vi\\ are alike. If tlien a felled tree spring anew from the root, from what root does mortal man grow again when hewn down by death? Do not say, from prolific seed; for that is produced from the living person. Thus, a tree, indeed, also springs from seed; ami likewise sprouts afresh [from tlie root] alter |seemingly] dying; but, if the tree be torn up by the root, it doth not grow again. From, what root, then, does mortal man rise afresh, when hewn down by death V |l)o you answer] He was born [once for alljy No; he is born [again]: and |I ask you] what is it that produces him anew?" * Sniiva and Cinuta, answering to the periontewn aud alburnum. 42 ON THE VKDAS, OR The priests, thus interrogated, observes the commentator, and being unacquainted with the iirst cause, yielded the victory to ya'j- NYAWALCYA. Accordingly, the text adds a brief indication of the first cause as Intended by that question, 'jjraiime, wlio is intellect with [the unvaried perception of] felicity, is the best path [to hap- piness] for the generous votary, who knows him, and remains fixed [in attention].' The sixth lecturecomprises two dialogues between ya'.inyawalcya and the king janaca, in which the saint comnuinicates religious instruction to the monarch, after inquiring from him the doctrines which had been previously taught to the king by divers priests. These are folloAved by a repetition of the dialogue between yaj- NYAWALCYA and his wife maitiihyi, with scarcely a variation of a single word, except the introduction as above-mentioned. The sixth lecture concludes with repeating the list of teachers, by whom, successively, this part of the Veda was taught. Concerning the remainder of the Vrihml nraiiyuca I shall only observe, that it is terminated by a list of teachers, in which the tra- dition of it is traced back from the son of pautima'shi, through forty steps, to yajnyawalcya; and from him, through twelve more, to the sun. In copies belonging to the Mudhyandina 'Sac lid the list is varied, interposing more gradations, with considerable difference in the names, from the reciter who speaks in the first person, and his teacher, the son of liiiA'iiADW.A.Ti , up to ya'.tnyaavalcva , beyond whom both lists agree. The copy belonging to the Cd/i/va 'Sdchd subjoins a further list, stated by tlie commentators to be common to all the 'Sdclids of the Vdjin, or Vdjasani'yi Yajtirrcdo, and to be intended for the tracing of that Vedd up to its original revelation. It begins from the son of SANJivi, who was fifth, descending from ya'jn yawalcya, in the lists abovementioncd ; and it ascends by ten steps, without any mention of that saint, to tuiia, surnamed ('a'vashkya , who had the revelation from i'kaja'pati, and he from buau.mi:. Before I proceed to the other Tajiirveda , I think it necessary to remark, that the Indian saint last-mentioned (tura, son of cavasha) has been named in a former quotation from the Jdarcya , as the priest who consecrated janamejaya, son of pakkshit. Jt might, at the first glance , be hence concluded , that he was contemporary with the celebrated king who is stated in Hindu history to have reigned at the beginning of the Cali age. But, besides the constant uncertainty respecting Indian saints, who a])i)ear and re-appear in heroic history at periods most remote, there is in tliis, as in many other instances of the names of princes, a source of confusion and possible error, from the recurrence of the same name, with the addi- tion even of the same patronymic, for princes remote from each Other. Thus, according to Purdiuis, paricshit, third son of CURU, SACRED WUITINOS ON TJIK HINDUS. 43 had a son named janamkjaya; and lie may he tlie person here meant, rather than one of the same name, who wms the great grandson of AIM IN A. On Ihf HLACK YAJUUVEDA. THE Taitlir/'ijii, or bhick I'ltjusli^ is more copious (I mean in regard to mantras) than the white rajim/i, hut less so than the Rigirda. It^ San/iild , or collection of prayers, is arranged in seven hooks (ash'taca or cd/'n'la), containing from iive to eight lectures, or chapters (ad'/ii/'ii/fi, prasna, or prapd'faca). Kach chaptei^, or lecture, is sub- divided into sections (anunica), which are equally distributed in the third ami sixth books, but une(jually in the rest. The whole num- ber exceeds six hundred and tifty. Another mode of division, by cdiiflus^ is stated in the index. In this arrangement, each book (^cd/i'la) relates to a separate subject; and the chapters (pralna) compreliended in it are enumerated and described. Besides this , in the Sun/tild itself, the texts contained in every section are numbered, and so are the syllables in each text. Thetirst section ((r?/«iyKY/) in this cidlection of prayers, corresponds with tlu! lirst section {caiiilkd) in the white yajiis/i,''- but all the rest dillor, and so does the arrangement of the subjects. Many of the topics are indeed alike in both f'cdas, but diti'erently placed and differently treated. Thus the ceremony i;;\\\o,d Edjasi'iija occupies ouocd/ida, cor- responding with the eightiiyy/v/.s7//< of the first boidv [tishhica), and is pre- ceded by two cd/'i'lai), relative to the Vdjapri/a and to the mode of its celebration, which occupy fourteen sections in the preceding //nfiv/*/. f*on.seerat('d fire is the subject of four cdnHas ^ which fill the fourth and litth books. Sacrifice {^adltirara) is noticed in the second and third lectures 1. **'l'h(' prayers uf tlie Aaivamcd'ha occur in tiic concludiiip section.-;, I)et\vcen llie tuelftii section of the fuurlli eliapter, and tlie end of tlie tifth ehajiter of the suventli and last book. 44 ON TllK VKUAS, OR the index apDcar to he ascribed to prajapati. or the lord of crea- arc as many to «oma, or the moou; seven to auni, or fire; and liUeen to all the gods. TossiUy some passages may be allotted by the clmentatox^ to their real authors, though not pomted out by the index for the Alrcyi'Sacha. Several prayers from this Veda have been translated m former ess ns "Other very remarkable passages have occurred, on examin- ing lis llection^ofm««/r«..** The following from the seventh ami la book, -^^^^ is chosen as a specimen of the M.nyalajur- '2t like several before cited, it alludes to the Ind.an notions of he ;rea ion; and, at the risk of sameness, I select passages rela- t ve to tl at 'topic on account of its importance u. explammg the c^ed of the anci;nt Hindu religion. The present extract waxe- eommended for selection by its allusion to a mythological no .on, wS pparently gave origin to the story of the Var<^a-avalara, r.rd!vom which L l^strononTical period, entitled CalpuM. perhaps '"wa^ers■[llonel there were; this world originally was water In t the lold of L-eation moved, having beconie any he saw tlu [earfh]; and upheld it, assumingthe form of a ^oar C--^^0;-^ then moulded that iearth], becoming v.swacarman , the aitihct i ot e universe. It became celebrated {apraChata\ and conspicuous T^rm^i)- and therefore is that name {PrWiivi) assigned to the earth ^'"n \'ord o^' creation meditated profoundly on the earth; and created the gods, the Vasus, Rudras , and AdU.as. Those gods ad- dressed the lord of creation, saying, "How can we form creatures He repl ed, "As 1 created you by profound contemplation {tapas), fo do you 'seek in devotioi/ (.,.«.) the means of ^^^^ ^- tares " He gave them consecrated fire, saying. With this sacn fia"fii-e perform devotions. " With it they did V^^^r^ ^^^^^ and in one year, framed a single cow. He gave l^e^ ^o the T asus toVeRndras, 'and to the ^rf%«., [success vely] bidding then "Guard her." The Vasus , the Bmlras, and the Add,,as [several y] .Sed her; and she calved, for the Vasus three hundred and thirty- free [calves'] ; and 1 as many] for the Rudrc^'. and [the same numherl for the Adil>p(S : thus was she the thousandth. 'They addressed the lord of creation, requesting bun to d lect them iif performing a solemn act of religion with a thousand j k i e for a -ratuityl. He caused the Vasus to sacrifice with theJ^m .;;.il,l and [hey conquered this world, and gave it [to the priests] : :^'t^e ^:;i c:^i:S ^,s:' :;'uc te.t, but cv . p.. of the co.- mentary by sayan.v. Vdrd/ia. .r SAC'lilMt WRFTIMiS Or 'IIIK IIIVDIS. 45 lie caused tlio liiul/dstn sacritice with the Ucf/iya] and they obtain- ed tlic uiiddlo region, and gave it away [for a sacriticial fee]: he caused the Aililijtis to sacrifice with the Atirabd-^ and they acquired tiial [other) worhl, and gave it [to the priests for a gratuity].' This extract may suffice. Its close, and the remainder of the section, bear allusion to certain religious ceremonies, at which a thousand cows iiuist be given to the officiating j)riests. 'i'o the second part of this fi'tla'''- belongs an Anti'iya ^ divided, like the Siin/iild, into lecturer (prastia), and again subdivided into c\in\>iovs (iiniinicti), containing texts, or sections, which are number- ed, and in which the syllaldes have been counted. Here also a division by (diiilds, according to the different subjects, prevails. The six first lectures, and their corresponding cd/Ulas, relate to reli- gious observances. The two next constitute three Vpanishads-^ or, as they are usually cited, two; one of which is commonly entitled the TiiHliriij(it'(( I'jxtnislutd: the other is called the Ndrdijai'iu ^ or, to distinguish it from another belonging exclusively to the Jl' /un'varc'da, the great {Ma/i/'t, or Vnltan) Ndnii/a/ia. They are all admitted in collections of theological treatises appendant on the .?/7rofoiin(lly , he recognised food [or body[ to be hntltme : for all beings are indeed produced from food; when born, they live by food; towards food they tend ; they pass into food. This he com- prehended; (but yet unsatisfied] lie again apjiroached his father VAKi .\A, saying, "Venerable [fatlier] make known to me /?/•rti(m of the .SV///i«m/rt , arranged for chanting, bears the title of Jira/ii/(/ gana. Three copies of it,='^ which seem to agree exactly, exhibit the same distribution into three chapters, which are subdivided into half chapters and decades or sections, like the Archica above -mentioned. =■=* But I have not yet found a plain copy of it, divested of the additions made for guidance in chanting it. The additions here alluded to consist in prolonging the sounds of vowels, and resolving dijihthongs into two or more syllables, in- serting likewise, in many places, other additional syllables, besides placing numerical marks for the management of the voice. Some of the prayers l)eing subject to variation in the mode of chanting them, are repeated once or oftener, for the purpose of showing these differences, and to most are prefixed the appropriate names of the several passages. Under the title of Arshaya Brahmana^ I have found what seems to be an index of these two portions of th* Samuvedu: for the names of the passages, or sometimes the initial words, are there enumerat- ed in the same order in Mhich they occur in the Qrnma geija , or Archica, followed by the Ara/iya gcma. This index does not, like the explanatory tables of the other Vedas^ specify the metre of each prayer, the deity addressed in it, and the occasion on which it should be used, but only the B1shi, or author: and, from the variety of names stated in some instances, a conclusion may be drawn, that the same texts are ascribable to more than one author. It has been already hinted, that the modes of chanting the same prayers are various, and bear different appellations. Thus, the rituals frequently direct certain texts of this Veda to be first recited simply, in a low voice according to the usual mode of inainlible utter- ance of the Vedas , and then to be similarly chanted in a particular manner, under the designation of Archica gdna ; showing, however, divers variations and exceptions from that mode, under the distinct appellation oi' Jiiirucla gana.*'-''* So, likewise, or nearly the same passages, which are contained in the Archica and Gramagcya, are arranged in a different order, with further variations as to the mode of chanting them, in another collection named the I'ha gdna. From the comparison and examination of these parts of the Sdma- * The most ancient of tliosc; in my possession is dated nearly three cen- turies ago, in 1587 Samvat. ** This Aranija comprises nearly three hundred verses {.odman), or exactly 290, The Archica contains twice as many, or nearly Odd. *** The ritual , which is the chief authority for this remark , is one by sa- YANACHARYA, entitled Yojnijalantra Sud'luinid'ln. SACIJKI) WIMTINHJS OF Till: HINDI'S. 49 vcilti, 111 wliicli, St) i'ar ;is the collation of them lias been carried, the texts appear to be the same, only arranged in a different order, and marked for a different mode of recitation, I am led to think, that other collections, nnder similar names,'-' may not dilVer nunc widely from the Arcliira find Ara/iijd above-mentioned: and that these may possibly constitute the whole of that part of the Samavt'tla , which corresponds to the SunJiilds of other J'rdas. Under the denomination of /h-a/nnfi/'ia , which is ap])ropriated to the second part or sujiplemcnt of the I'nhi^ various works have been r<>celved by different schools of the Samavcda. Four appear to be extant; three of which have been seen by me, either complete or in part. One is denominated S/iai/ri/isd- probably from its contain- ing- twenty-six chapters. Another is called Adbhula^ or, at greater length, Ailhlti'iln Bialimana. The only portion, which I have yet seen, of either, has the appearance of a fragment, and breaks off' at the close of the fifth chapter: both names are there introduced, owing, as it should seem, to some error; and I shall not attempt to determine which of them it really belongs to. A third Bri'ilimuna of this Vtidu is termed Panchavinsa '^ so named, probably, from the number of twenty -ffve chapters comprised in it: and 1 ccnijoctiire this to be the same with one in my possession not designated by any particular title, but containing that precise number of chapters. The best known among the BT-ahmanas of the Sdmaveda, is that entitled Tdi'ilhja. It was expounded by sayaxacha'hya ; but a frag- ment of the text with his commentaiy, including the whole of the second book {pnnjicu) , from the sixth to the tenth lecture , is all that I have been yet able to procure. This fragment relates to the religious ceremony named .hpn'sh'tdma. I do not ffnd in it, nor in other portions of the Sd»uirrda hci'oro described, any passage, whicli can be conveniently translated as a specimen of the style of this Vt'da. Leaving, then, the Miinlnts and Jin'thiiuouni of the Sdmart'da , I proceed to notice its principal Upitiiisltdd^ which is one of the long- est and most abstruse compositions bearing that title. The Clili('md('i(j}j(i L'panishdd contains eight chapters [prapdhicas), apparently extracted from some portion of the Brdlimai'id, in wliich they are numbered from three to ten. '''* The first and second , not being included in the ['piiiiis/uid, probably relate to religious ceremo- * Sir RoiiKRT cii.VMBKns'.s copy of the Sdmaveda comprised four portions, entitled Giiiia, tlie distinct names of wliicli, Jiccordinj]; to the li.Nt reciivod fi-uin iiim , are fii/dna An'i/i , Fctjann, ('(jdnd , and Uhya (](ina. The first of tiii'so, I siis]u('t tci 1)0 the Aif/i'ii/a, written in that list, Ariiii: the last seems to he tlu.' same \vitli that wliich is iu my copy dciiuminated ilia giina. ** I liave several copies of the text, with tiie gloss of saxcaka , and annota- tions on it by anan-da.ixyanaoiiu ; besides the notes of vya'sai i'ki-'ma on a comnii'iitary by anamiatikt'iia. 50 ON THE vi';da.s, oh nics. The chapters are uno(jiially subdivided into paragraphs or sections; .imounling, in all, to more than a hundred and fifty. A great part of the Clih(huh'i(jy a '■'■'■ is in a didactic form: includ- ing however, like most of the other Ujxuiishaih ^ several dialogues. The beginning of one, between sanatcuma'ua and xa'uioda, which occupies tlie whole of the seventh cliapter , *"=' has already l)een quoted. The preceding chapter consists of two dialogues between s'wETACETU, graudson of ariina, and his own father, uddalaca, the osn of ARUNA. These had been prepared in the fifth chapter, where prava'hana, son of jivala, convicts swktaoetu of ignorance in theology: and where that conversation is followed by several other dialogues, intermixed with successive references for instruction. The fourth chapter opens with a story respecting ja'nas'ruti, grand- son of putra; and, in this and the fifth chapter, dialogues, between human beings, are interspersed with others, in whicli the interlocu- tors arc either divine or imaginary persons. Tiie eighth or last chapter contains a disquisition on the soul, in a conference between PRAJAPATI and INDRA. I shall here quote, from tliis UpanisluuJ^ a single dialogue belong- ing to the fifth chapter. 'PRa'chInASALA, son of UPAMANYU, SATYAYAJNVA, isSUC of PU- LUSHA, INDRADYUMNA offspring of p.iiALLAVi , JANA descendant of .sarcara'cstiya , and vudila sprung from as'watara's'wa , being all persons deeply conversant Avith lioly writ, and possessed of great dwellings, meeting together, engaged in this disquisition, "What is our soul? and who is Brahmc'V' 'These venerable persons reflected, "itdda'laca, the son of ARUNA, is well acquaiirted with the universal soul: let us immediate- ly go to him." They went: but he reflected , "These great and very learned persons will ask me; and I shall not [be able] to com- municate the whole [which they inquire]: I will at once indicate to them another [instructor]." He thus addressed them, "as'wapati, the son of cecaya, is well acquainted with the universal soul; let us now go to him." "They all went; and, on their arrival, [the king] caused due honours to be shown to them respectively: and, next morning, civilly dismissed them; [but, observing that they staid, and did not accept his presents,] he thus spoke: "In my dominions, there is no robber; nor miser ; no drunkard ; nor any one neglectful of a consecra- ted hearth; none ignorant ; and no adulterer, nor adulteress. AVhence [can you havcbcen aggrieved] V" [As they didnotstateacomplaint, he * Its autlior, indicated by vyasatikt'iia, is m.waouiva. ** Tliat is, tlie sovciitli of tlic extract wliicli constitutos fliis Upanishnil \ but tbo ninth, accordinjif to tlie mode of uMnilicriug- tiio oliaptcrs in tlio Imok, whence it is taken. SACKED WRITIXOS OI' TIIR inXDl'S. 51 thus proceeded -.j ''I inu.st Ix' asked, U veneraljle men! [fur what you desire]." (Finding, tliat tliey made no request, he went on: I "As much as T shall bestow on each ofiiciating priest, so much will I also sive to you. -Stay then, most reverend men." They answered: "It is indeed requisite to inlorm a person of the i)urpose of a visit. Thou well knowest the universal soul; communicate that knowledge unto us." lie replied; "To-jnorrow I will declare it to you." I'erceiving his drift, they, next day, attended him, bear- ing [like pupilsj logs of luewood. "Without bowing to them, he thus spoke : — •'Whom dost thou worship as the soul, son of itpamanvu?" "Heaven," answered he, "O veneral)le king ! " "Splendid is that [portion of the] universal self, which thou dost worshi]) as the soul: therefore, in thy family, is seen [the juice of the acid asclepias] drawn, expressed, and prepared, [for religious rites]; thou dost con- sume I'ood [as a blazing fire] ; and thou dost view a [son or other] beloved ol)ject. Whoever worsliips this for the universal soul, similarly enjoys food, contemplates a beloved object, and finds religious occupations in liis family. But this is [only] the head of the soul. Thy head had been lost," added the king, "hadst thou not come to me. " 'lie now turned to satyayajnya, the son of pulusha, saying, "Whom dost thou worship as the soul, O descendant of pra'china- V(h;.vV" "The sun," answered he, "() venerable king !" "Varied is that [portion of the] universal self, which thou dost worship as the soul; and, therefore, in thy family, many various forms are seen; a car yoked with mares, and treasure, together with female slaves, surround thee; thou dost consume food, and contemplate a j)leasing object. AVhoever worships this, for the universal soul, has tlie same enjoyments, and finds religious occupations in his family. But this is only the eye of soul. Thou hadst been blind," said the king, "hadst thou not come to me." 'lie next addressed induadyumna, the son of liiiALLAVi : "Whom dost thoxi worship as the soul, descendant of vya'giirapad." "Air," rejdied he, "0 venerable king!" "DifHused is that portion of the universal snt this is only the breath of soul. Thy breath had expired," said the king, "liadst thou not come to me." 'He next interrogated .iana, the son of sarcara'csiiya : "Whom dost thou worship as the soul, () son of sAurAi{.U'.<;HYAy " "The etherial element," said he, " O venerable king!" "Abundant is that universal self, whom thou dost worship as the soul; and, there- 4* r 2 ON TIIK VKOAS, OR fore, thou likewise dost abound with i)ro<^eny and wealth. Tlion dost consume food; tliou viewest a i'avmn-ite object. AVhoever worships tliis, for the universal soul, consumes food, and sees a beloved object; and has Teligious occupations in his family. But this is only the trunk of soul. Thy trunk had corrupted," said the king, "hadst thou not come to nie." 'lie afterwards inquired ofvxjDiLA, the son of aswatahaswa : "Whom dost thou worship as the soul, descendant of vyaohra- PAD?" "Water," said he, "0 venerable king!" "Kith is tbat uni- versal self, whom thou dost worship as the soul; and, therefore, art thou opulent and thriving. Tliou dost consume food; thou viewest a favourite object. Whoever worships this, for tlie universal soul, partakes of similar enjoyments, contemplates as dear an ob- ject, and has religious occu])ations in his family. But this is only the abdomen of the soul. Thy bladder had biirst," said the king, "hadst thou not come to me. " 'Lastly, he interrogated udda'laca, the son of aruna. "Whom dost thou worsliip as the soul, O descendant of gotama?" "The earth," said he, "() venerable king!" "Constant is tliat universal self, whom tliou dost worship as the soul: and, therefcu-e, thou re- mainest steady, -with oftspring and with cnttle. Thou dost consume food; thou viewest a favourite object. Wlioever worships this, for the universal soul, shares like enjoyment, and views as beloved an object, and lias religious occupations in his family. But this forms only the feet of the soul. Tliy feet had been lame," said the king, "hadst thou not come to me." 'lie thus addressed them [collectively]: "You consider this uni- versal soul, as it were an individual being; and you partake of distinct enjoyment. But he , who Avorships , as the universal soul, that which is known by its [manifested] portions, and is inferred [from consciousness], enjoys nourishment in all worlds, in all beings, in all souls: his head is splendid, like that of this universal soul; his eye is similarly varied; his breath is equally diffused; his trunk is no less abundant; his abdomen isalike full; and his feet are the earth; his breast is the altar; his hair is the sacred grass; his heart, the household fire; his mind, the consecrated flame; and his mouth, the oblation. "The food, Avhicli first reaches him, should be solemnly offered: and the first oblation, which he makes, he should present with these words: "Be this oblation to breath efficacicuis." Thus breath is satisfied; and, in that, the eye is satiate; and, in the eye, the sun is content; and, in the sun, the sky is gratified; and, in the sky, heaven and the sun, and whatever is dcpeudant, become replete: and after that, ho hiinsolf |who eats] is fully gratitipd with otfspring SACKi;i> \VI{iriNnly presented an oblation to the universal soul, even though he kni>wingly give the residue to a Vhunilnla. For, on this point, a text is |preservedj: "As, in this world, hungry in- fants press round their mother; so do all beings await the holy oblation: they await the holy oblation." Another ('jnoiis/iiid of the Sdifiart'fla belongs to the 'Sdchd of the Talftvucdnis. It is called, the ^'' Ce»eshi/(i ,'' or"6V''«rt" Upanishnd, from the word, or words, with which it opens: and, as ai)pears from .s'ancaka's commentary,** this treatise is the ninth chapter {mrhydya) of the work, from which it is extracted. It is comprised in four sections {c'hai'ifla). The form is that of a dialogue between instruc- tors and their pupils. The subject is, as in other CpHiiis/uitls , a disquisition on abstruse and mystical theology. I shall not make any extract from it, but proceed to describe the fourth and last I'eda. On Ihc AT'llAliVA-VEDA. '^riie Sitnhilii , or collection of pravers and invocations, belonging to the .'ll/i(irra/'ia, is comprised in twenty liooks {cniiHa) , subiliviib^d into sections (amivdca) hymns (surfu) , and verses {rich). Another mode of division l)y chapters (prapdhica) is also indicated. The nundier of verses is stated at fiOla; the sections exceed a hundred; and the hymns amount to more than seven hundred and sixty. The number of chapters is forty nearly. A passage from this Veda was quoted by Sir w. jones iu his essay on the literature of the /fimliis :''''■'* and a version of it was given, as a specimen of the language and style of the AClKtrrana. That passage comprises the whole of the forty -third hymn of the * Several similar paiagraplis, rcspectiiij^ four other oMations, so presented to iitlier inspirations of air, are here omitted for the sake of brevity. The takin^f of a montlifnl, by fin orthodox IJiiuhi theologian, is considered as an eflicaeions oblation : and denominated /'nir'nit/ni/nilia. ** I have saxcaiia's gloss, witli the illnstrations of his jinnotator, ami the ample commentary of a : besides a sejiarate ploss, witli annota- tions, on the similar f'panisliiid belonging to the ACliai vnvi'da *** Asiatic Kcscarches, vft// appoin- ted by liraliinc to create and protect sul)ordinatc beings. In the lifth chapter, several remarkable passages, identifying the primeval person {purusha) with the year (summlsara)^ convey marked allusions to the calendar. In one place (the fit'th section), besides stating the year to contain twelve or thirteen lunar mouths, the subdivision of that period is pursued to 360 days; and, thence, to 1(),8()0 mulii'iiias, or hours. J proceed to notice the most remarkable part of the ACharvn-vi'da, consisting of the theological treatises, entitled Upaitisltads , which arc ajjpendant on it. They__ are computed at fifty -two: but this number is completed hy reckoning, as distinct Upanishads , different parts of a single tract. Four such treatises, comprising eight Upa- uishads, together with six of those before described as appertaining to other Fedas, arc perpetually cited in dissertations on the Ve- d(Od(i.*''' Others are either more sparingly, or not at all, quoted. It may be here proper to explain what is meant liy r/Kniis/tad. In dictionaries, this term is made e([uivalent U) Iichcsi/a, which sig- nifies mystery. This last term is, in fact, frequently employed by MENU, and other ancient authors, where the commentators under- stand ('jHiiiis/itiils to be meant. l>iit neitlier the etymology, ntn* the acceptation, of the word, which is n(»w to be explained, has any direct connexion with the idea of secrecy, concealment, or mystery. Its proper meaning, according to.sANCAUA, sa'yana , and all the commentators, is divine science,. i)r the knowledg(>, of (iod: and, according to the same authorities, it is equally applicable to theology itself, and to a book in which this science is taught. Its derivation is from the verb sad (shad-ln), to destroy, to move, or to weary, pre- ceded by the prepositions iijui near, and ;// continually, or nis cer- tainly. The sense, properly deducible from this etymology, accord- ing to the dirt'erent explanations given by commentators, invariably points to the knowledge of the divine perfections, and to the con- sequent attainment of beatitude through exemption from passions.*** * It is (liitcil at Mat'/iiiru, in tlie yc&r (Snmvat) ll'.V2. ** Tlic Crttft and ('/I'/inudot/i/a from tlie Siimnvcdii; tlic rrViad (iraui/aca and I.siivdsijn from tlic wliito }'iijiish, and tlic Ttiitlirii/fica from the black }'i>iiish; ihti Ai(firri/(t ['r»m the /iiyvi'f/ti; swul tho Cut' /ui , I'msiui, Miindncti . and Miin- ditcjin from \\\vAriiaTV(ina. To tlicso .slioiild be added, tlio Siisiiiha tdpaiiii/a *** sA.NiAK.v, and a.nand.nsuama on the Vriliad urunyuca; as also the com- eJR 56 f)N TJIK VE1>A.S, OR The whole of the lufliau tlicology is professedly foiiuded on the Upaniahads.'- Those, which hnve been before descrilied, have been shown to be extracts from the Veda. The rest are also con- sidered as appertaining to the Indian scripture : it does not, how- ever, clearly appear, whether they are detached essays, or have been extracted from a Brahiiutiut of the Al/utrva-vcdi(. I have not found any of thcni in the Sanhild of the ACharmiia , nor in the Gopaf ha Brdhmana. ■ In the best copies of the fifty-two Vpanishads^-'''^'- the firht fifteen are stated to have been taken from the Saunaciyas , whose 'Sdc'hd seems to be the principal one of the JHiarva-vcda. The remaining thirty -seven appertain to volong exclusively to the I'djurveda. ***.SANCARA remarks, that at'hahva, or at'hakvax, niny have been the first creature, in one of the many mndes of creation, wliich have been practised by dkah.ma'. SACKED ■wurriNGS OF Tin: iiindit.s. 57 Sdnuiirda , i\\G ACharva vcihi-^- tlic ink's of actciiUi.-ition, the rites of rt.'lij^ioii, giaimnar, tlic glossary and explanalion of obscurt' torins, prosody, and astronomy : ii\so i\\G Ilihiisa -.xwA I'tirai'nt -^ and logic, with the rules of interpretation, and the system of moral duties. "But the suj)reme science is tliat, hy which this unperishahle |naturo| is apprehended; invisildc |or imperceptihle, as is that na- ture]: not to be seized 5 not to he deduced; devoid of colour; des- titute of eyes and ears; without hands or feet, \v\ ever variously l)ervading all: minute, unalterahle; and contemplated liy the wise for the source of beings. "As the spider spins and gathers back (its thread]; as plants sprout on the earth; as hairs grow on a living person: so is this universe, here, produced from the unperishaljle nature. My con- templation, the vast one germinates; from him food [or body] is pro- duced; and thence, successively, breath, mind, real [elements], worlds, and immortality arising from [good] deeds. The omniscient is profound contemplation, consisting in the knowlegc of iiim, who knows all: and, from tbat, the [manifested] vast one, as well as names, fornis, and food, proceed: and this is truth.'' The Prasii'i, which is tlie second Upaiusluid, and equally import- ant with the iirst, consists, like it, of six sections; and has been si- milarly interpreted bySANCAKAandBALACuiSHNA.** In this dialogue, suti5.sA, the son of miAUADWA'jA, satyaca'ma, descended from s'lvr, SAUKYAVAxr, a remote descendant of the Sun, l)ut belonging to the family of gaikja , cals'alya, surnamed a's'walavaxa, or son of ASWALA, VAiDAuiiiii of the racc of liiiiiiou, together with CAHANi^'iii surnamed ca'tyayaxa, or descendant of catva , are introduced as seeking the knowledge of theology, and Jipplying to ph-paLaia for instruction. They successively interrogate him concerning the origin of creatures, the nature of the gods , the union of life with b.tdy, and the connexion of thoughts with the soul. The nine succeeding Upd/tis/iads (from the 3d to the llth) are of inferior im])ortance, and have ])een left unexplained by the writers on the Vrdfinlfi, because tliey do not directly relate to the 'Sdn'raro, or fhecdogical chjctrine respecting the soul.*** They are enumerated in the margin, f The JA/'/////?(7yafdii>ut. \Hh l>, ,iu(i/ies , l)elonging to the several 'Sdr'hds, in which that custom has been adopted, have been, therefore, long safe from alteration. * Hero, as in otlicr instances, I speak from copies in my possession. **■ Tlieir titles arc, -list Sarv^dpanisha/sdr/i. 12d //ansa. And l-'Jd Para- ma lianna. *■»:* -ifitli Garufiii. -llth Cn/iiijiii i ui/ni. IStli and I'.ltli luhiiu tiiixiniya, iirst and second parts. 5(lth Ciiirnlyn. r)lst Jiihaln. Wlii Asramn. •j- Mr. riXKKKTo.v, in liis Modern Geography, Vol. II. 6U ON THE VEUAS, OK The explanatory table of ccmtoiits, belonging to the several f'rdus, also tcnils to (Misuve the purity of the text; since the sub- ject and lengtli of each passage are therein specified. The indc^x, again, is itself secured from alteration by more than one exposition of its meaning, in the form of a jicrpetual commentary. It is a received and well grounded opinion of the learned in l/nliti, that no book is altogether safe from changes and interpolations until it have been commented ; but when once a gloss has been published, no fabrication could afterwards succeed; because the perpetual commentary notices every passage, and, in general, ex- plains every word. Commentaries on the Viklas themselves exist, which testify the authenticity of the text. Some are stated to have been composed iu early times: I shall not, however, rely on any but those to which I can with certainty refer. I have fragments of uvata's gloss; the greatest part of sa'yana's on several J'alas ; and a complete one by mahid'hara on a single Veda. I also possess nearly the whole of sancara's commentary on the Upanisluuh : and a part of gaudapa- da's; with others, by different authors of less note. The genuineness of the commentaries, again, is secured by a crowd of annotators, whose works expound every passage in the original gloss; and who.se annotations are again interpreted by others. This observation is i>articularly applicable to the most im- portant parts of the Viklds , Avhich , as is natural, are the most stu- diously and elaborately explained. The Nirucla, with its copious commentaries on the obsolete words and passages of scripture, further authenticates the accuracy of the text, as there explained. The references and quotations, in those works, agree with the text of the J'<'(las, as we now find it. The grammar of the Sanscr7l language contains rules applicable to the anomalies of the ancient dialect. The many and voluminous commentaries on that, and on other parts of the grammar, abound in examples cited from the Vedas: and here, also, tlie present text is consonant to those ancient quotations. Philosophical works , especially the numerous commentaries on the aphorisms of the Mimc'msd and Veddnla, illustrate and support every positicm advanced in them, by ample quotations from the Ve- das. The object of the Mhndnsd is to establish the cogency of pre- cepts contained in scripture, and to furnish maxims for its interpre- tation; and, for the same purpose, rules of reasoning, from which a system of logic is deducible. The object of the Veddn'.a is to illustrate the system of mystical theology taught by the supposed revelation, and to show its application to the enthusiastic pursuit of TUiimpassioned perfection and mystical intcrcnurse with the divinity. Both are closely connected with the Vedas: and her(>, likewise, the SACRED WIUTFNOS OF TJIR HINDUS. Gl juitluMiticity of the text is .siij)p<)iteJ by ancient relerouces and ci- tations. Numerous collections of aphorisms, by ancient authors,* on reli- gious ceremonies, contain, in every line, references to passages of the Vedas. ('ommentaries on these apliorisms cite the passages at greater length. Separate treatises also interpret the prayers used at (livers ceremonies. Rituals, some ancient, others modern, contain a full detail of the ceremonial, with all th(> prayers wliich are to be recited at tlie various religious rites for which they are formed. Such rituals are extant, not only for ceremonies which arc constantly observed, but for others which are rarely practised; and even for such as have been long since disused. h\ all, the passages taken from the VcddS agree with the text of the general compilation. 'IMie Indian legislators, with their commentators, and the copious digests and compilations from their works, frequently refer to the Vrthis; especially on those points of the law which concern religion. Here also the references are consistent with the present text of tlu^ Indian scripture. Writers on ethics sometimes draw from the Vedas illustrations of moral maxims, and quote from their holy writ passages at full length, in support of ethical precepts. *'•' These quotations are I'ound to agree with the received text of the sacred books. Citations from the Indian scripture occur in every branch of liter- ature studied liy orthodox Hindus. Astronomy, so far as it relates to the calendar, has frequent occasion for reference to the Tcdas. ^Tedical writers sometimes cite them ; and even annotators on pro- fane poets occasionally refer to this authority, in explaining passa- ges which contiiin allusions to the sacred text. Even the writings of the heretical sects exhibit ([notations froni the Vedas. I have met Avith such in the books of the .ftu'iias\ unattend- ed by any indication of their doubting the genuineness of tlie ori- ginal, though they do not receive its doctrines, nor acknowledge its cogency. '•'*'■■' In all these branches of Indian literature, while perusing or con- * TIiempts hav(^ been abortive, others may doubtless have succeeded. T am myself inclined to adopt an opinion sui)pofted by many learned Hindus, who consider the celebrated ;S'// liltagarala as the work of a gram- marian, su])j)osed to have lived about six hundred years ago. In this, as in several other instances, some of whicli I shall have likewise occasion to notice, the learned among the Ilindtis have resisted the impositions that have been attempted. Many others might be stateil, where no imposition has been either practised or * In tlic TSUi cliJiiitcr of tlio 2il part. Tills is tlic Pnrdiia iTKMitioiicd liy me witli (lonlit in u f'jrmcr ossuy, (.Vsintic Ivcscarclics, vol. v. ]>. .").'{.) I liavc since proiaircd fi copy of it. ** If tlii.s wore nota fable. Mie real ao-o of vv.\sa ini}ilit be lienco a.«ccrtnine(l ; and, consequently, tlie period when the l''t'iliis were arrunjjcd in tlieir present fiirin. ooviMiANAr'nA, tlie instrni'tor of s'v.ncai! a, is stalt'(l to li.-ivo been the pupil of (iAri'iAi-AiiA ; and, iiccnrdiiip: to tli" Ir/iditions i,rcnorally rt'ceivod in the peninsula f>f India, sancaka lived little more than cig'ht hundred years n-ro. 01 ON TIIH VKKAS, OU intendod. In Europo, as well as in tlie East, works are often pnb- lisliod anonymously, with fictitious introductions: and diverse com- positions, tlie real authors ofwhicli are not known, have, on insufii- cient grounds, hcen digniiied with celebrated names. To such instances, which arc frequent everywhere, the imputation of forgery does not attach. In Europe, too, literary forgeries have been committed, both in ancient and modern times. The poems ascribed to orpheus, are generally admitted not to have been composed by thatjioet, if, in- deed, he ever existed, nani, or annius, of J'ilfrbo, is now xmivers- ally considered as an impostor, notwithstanding the defence of his publication, and of himself, by some among the learned of his age. In our own country, and in recent times, literary frauds have been not unfrequent. 13ut a native of India, -who should retort the charge, and argue from a few instances, that the whole literature of Europe, which is held ancient, consists of modern forgeries, would be justly censured for his presumption. We must not then indiscriminately condemn the whole literature of India. Even Father iiahdouin, wdicn he advanced a similar paradox respecting the works of ancient writers, excepted some com- positions of CICERO, VIRGIL, HORACE, and PLINY. It is necessary in this country as every where else, to be guarded against literary impositions. But doubt and suspicion should not be carried to an extreme length. 8ome fabricated works , some interpolated })assages, will be detected l)y the sagacity of critics in the progress of researches into the learning of the east : but the greatest part of the books, received by the learned among the Hin- dus, will assuredly be found genuine. I do not doubt that the Vedas, of which an account has been here given, will appear to be of this description. In pronouncing them to be genuine, I mean to say, that they are the same compositions, which, under the same title of Veda, have been revered by Hindus for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. I think' it probable, that they were compiled by dwaipa'yaxa, the person who is said to have collected thorn, and wdio is thence sur- named Vynsa, or the compiler. I can perceive no difficulty in ad- mitting, that those passages which are now ascribed to human authors, either as the E7s/iis^ or as the reciters of the text, were attributed to the same persons, so long ago. as when tlie compilation was made; and probabl}', in most instances, those passages were really com- posed by the alleged authors. Concerning such texts as are assign- ed to divine persons, according to Hindu mythology, it may lie fairly concluded, that the true writers of them were not known when the compilation was made; and, for this reason, they were assigned to fabulous personages. The diiVoront portions which constitute the Vrdas, must have been SAC'RKD wurri.\(;s of tiiio iiinul'S, 65 writton at various limes. The exact period when they were coni- ]»ilo(l, or that in which the greatest part was eonij)Osed , cannot he (Icterniincd with atcuraey and contidence I'roni any tacts yet ascer- tained. But the country may; since many rivers of India are men- tioned in more than one text; and, in regard to the period, I incline to tliiidi, tliat tlie ceremonies called Yiijiii/a. and the prayers to he recited at those ceremonies, are as old as the caleiular, which pur- ])orts to have heen framed for such religious rites. To each r<'V/rt a treatise, under the title of Jydlish , is annexed, which explains the adjustment of the calendar , for the purpose of fixing the })ro])('r ])erio(ls for the performance of religious duties. It is adapted to the comparison of solar and lunar time with the vulgar or civil year; and was evidently formed in the infancy of astronomical knowledge. From the rules delivered in the treatises which i have examined,* it ajipears, that the cycle (Yuga) there employed, is a period of five years only. The month is lunar; hut at the end, and in the nuddlc, of the quinquennial perirtd, an inter- calation is admitted , hy douhling one month. Accordingly, the cycle conqirises three conunon lunar years, and two, which contain thirteen lunations eacli. The year is divided into six seasons; and each month into half months. A complete lunation is measured by thirty lunar days; some one of which must of course, in alternate months, he sunk, to make the dates agree with the nycthemera. For this jiurjiose, the sixty-second day appears to he deducted:** and thus the cycle of iive years consists of I860 lunar days, or 1830 nyct- hemera; subject to a further correction, for the excess of nearly four days above the true sidereal year : but the exact quantity of this correction, and the method of making it, according to this cal- endar, have not yet been sufficiently investigated to be here stated. The zodiac is divided into twenty-seven asterisms, or signs, the first of which, both in the Ji/olis/i and in the Vrdus ^ is CiuUicu ^ or the Pleiads The place of the colures, according to these astronomical treatises, will be forthwith mentioned: but none of them hint at a motion of the equinoxes. The measure of a da}- by thirty hours, and that of an hour by sixty minutes, are explained; and the method of constructing a clepsydra is taught. 'IMiis ancient Hindu calendar, corresponding in its divisions of time, and in tlie assigned origin of the eclij)tic, with several ])as- sages of the J'rtlas, is evidently the foundation of that whitli , after successive corrections, is now received by the Hindus throughout * T liavo Sfvcral copies of one such treatise, hesides ;i commontavv on tlie ,/i/ii/is/i oftlu- Rufvrdii, ]\y Jill luikiiowii uutlifir; wliicli is accnrdln^rly .'issipiied to a fHlmloiis i)ersonnfre, sKsiiANA(iA. ** 'I'he Atlienian year was rcpnlated in a similar inaiiiier; l)ut , aceordiiipf to OKMiNi's, it was tlie sixty • tliird lis/i, these names of deities are used for the constellations over which they preside; especially one, which states the situation of the moon, when the sun reaches the tropic, in years other than the first of the cycle, pjvery where these terms are exjjlained, as indicating the constellations which tbatciiiumeration allots to thorn.* Texts, contained in the VriUis themselves, confirm the correspondence; and the connexion of yi.s'«'/«/ and the y/.vwvH^ is indeed decisive. Hence it is clear, that iJluniishf/id and AslrsJid arc the constel- lations meant; and that when this Hindu calendar was regulated, the solstitial points were reckoned to be at the beginning of the one, and in the middle of the other: and such was the situation of those cardinal points, in the fourteenth century before the (Christian era. I formerly ** had occasion to show from another passage of the Vrdas, that the correspondence of seasons with months, as there stated, and as also suggested in the passage now. quoted from tlie Ji/dlish, agrees with such a situation ftfthe cardinal points. T now proceed to fulfil the promise of indicating such parts of the fourth Vrda as appear liable to suspicion. These are the remain- ing detached Ti/xnn'shmls, which are not received into the best col- lections of fifty-two theological tracts, belonging to the ACliarva vcda\ and even some of those which are there inserted, but which, so far as my inquiries have yet reached, do not appear to have been com- mented by .incient authors, nor to have been quoted in the old com- mentaries on the VihJanla. Two of these Upanis/iads are particularly suspicious: one entitled Tidma fdpatiii/a, consisting of two parts (^Pi'trva and VlUira)\ and another called Gdpdia u'lpaniija^ also comprising twr) parts, of which one is named the Crhlimi r/uinishad. The intro- duction to the first of these works contains a sinumary, which agrees in siibstance with the mythological history of the husband of sIta, and conqueror of Lain-d. IMie other exalts the hero of Mtillnird. Although the RfhiKi idpaii/'i/d be inserted in all the collections of Updiiis/tdils , which I have seen; and the Cruix'tla tdixiniija appear in some, yet I am inclined to doubt their genuineness, and to suspect that they have been written in times, modern, when compared with the remainder of the J'rihis. Tliis susjiicion is chiefly grounded on the opinion, tjiat the sects, which now worship kama and cuisnxA * I tliink it needless to qnotc tlio oripiii.il nl' this oiniiiioratinii. ** Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. ji. 'i.S^J. 5* 68 ON TIIK VEDAS. OU as incarnations of vi.shnu, are comparatively new. I have not found, in any other part of the f'cdds , tlic least trace of such a worship. The real doctrine of the whole Indian scripture is the unity of the deity, in whom the universe is comprehended; and the seeming polytheism which it exhibits, otVers the elements, and the stars, and planets, as gods. The three principal manifestations of the divinity, with other personified attributes and energies, and most of the other gods of Hindu mythology, are indeed mentioned, or at least indi- cated , in the I'lJtlas. But the worship of deified heroes is no part of that system; nor are the incarnations of deities suggested in any other portion of the text, which I have yet seen; though such are sometimes hinted at by the commentators. According to the notions, which I entertain of the real history of the Hindu religion, the worship of ra'ma, and of crisiina, by the VaisJti'iavus , and that of mahaukva and niiAVANi by the 'Sai?'as and ■'JSdctas^ have been generally introduced, since the persecution of the BaufkVhas and Jaiuas. The institutions of the Vcdas' are anterior to budd'ha , whose theology seems to have been borrowed from the system of capila, and whose most conspicuous practical doctrine is stated to have been the unlawfulness of killing animals, which in his opinion were too frequently slain for the purpose of eating their fiesh, under the pretence of performing a sacrifice or Tajm/a. The overthrow of the sect of budd'iia, in India, has not efi'ected the full revival of the religious system inculcated in the Vcdas. Most of what is there taught, is now obsolete : and, in its stead, new orders of religious devotees have been instituted; and new forms of reli- gious ceremonies have been established. Rituals founded on the Pii/v'nias, and observances borrowed from a worse source, the Tanlras, have, in a groat measure, antiquated the institutions of the Vedas. In j)articuiar, the sacrificing of animals before the idols of ca'li, * has superseded the less sanguinary practice of the Yajni/a:, and the adoration of ka'jia and of cuishxa has succeeded to that of the ele- ments and planets. If this opinion be well founded, it follows that the Upamshads in question have probably been compo/^ed in later times, since the introduction of tliose sects, which hold kxmx and uop.iLA in peculiar veneration. On the same ground, every Upanishad, which strongly favours the doctrines of these sects, may be rejected, as liable to much suspicion. * In Bengal, and the contiguous provinces, thousands of kids and buffalo calves are sacrificed before tlic idol, at every celebrated temple,- and opu- l(Mit persons make a similar destruction of animals at their private chapels. The sect which has adopted this system is prevalent in Bengal, and in many other provinces of India: and the Sanguinary Chapter, translated from the ('(ilirii Purdti/i by Jlr. iu-aqtikkk (Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 371), is one among the authorities on which it relies. But the practice is not npprovcd l»\ otlier sects of Hindus. ' SACKEK WlJITINtiS OF Till; HINDIS. 69 Such is tlio AtmnbiUr ha Upanift/iad,-'' in wliich cuisiixv is iindcod liy the title of MAo'iiisi'uANA, son of dkvaci : and such, als(», is the Sundarildpani,*'* whicli inculcates the worship of dkvi. The remaining Upatmhads do not, so far as I have examined them, exhibit any internal evidence of a modern date. I state them as lialtlc to doubt, merely because I am not acquainted with any external evidence of their genuineness.*** But it is probable, that further researches may ascertain the accuracy of most of them, as extracts from the VccUis-^ and tlioir authenticity, as works quoted by known authors. In point of doctrine they appear to conform with the genuine Upatiishads. The preceding description may serve to convey some notion of the Vrilds. They are too voluminous for a complete translation of the wlude; and what they contain would hardly reward the labour of the reader; nmch less that of the translator.. The ancient dialect in which they are composed, and especially that of the three first Vcdas, is extremely difficult and obscure: and, though curious, as the parent of a more polished and refined language (the classical Sanscnl), its difficulties must long continue to prevent such an exami- nation of the whole Vcdas, as would be requisite for extracting all that is remarkable and important in those voluminous Avorks. But they well deserve to be occasionally consulted by the oriental scholar. * I have seen but one copy of it, in an imperfect collection of tlie fpfiiii- shads. It is not inserted in other conii)iI;itiuns , wliicli nevertheless purport to he complete. ** According to the only copy that I have seen, it comprises five Uprnn- s/iads, and belongs to the AVhaivuua; hut the style resembles that of the Tantraf! more than the VeduN. It is followed by a tract, marked as bclon<>-- ing to the same Vrda, and entitled Tiipura Upanisliad, or Tvaipuriija ; bnt this differs from another bearing the similar title of Tripuri Upani.sliad, and found in a different collection of theological treatises. I equally discredit botli of them, although they are cited by writers on the Mantra sdslra (or use of incantations); and although a commentary has been written on the Tiipura by imiatta iuiascaka. *** The same observatiou is applicable to several Upunishads , which are not inserted in the best collections, but which occur in others. For instance the Sranila, Cuula. (idpicltamlana, Darsuna. and I'ajnisuclti. I shall not stop to indicate a few questionable passages in some of these dubious tracts. II. 0)1 the DUTIES (if (t FAITHFUL HINDU WIDOW [From the Asiatic Keseaiches, vol. iv. p. -JO'.)— 21'.). (JakiiUa, IT'.)."). Itu.] While the light whicli the hvhours of the Asiatic Society have thrown on the scicuices and religion of the Hindus, lias drawn the attention of the literary world to that suhject, the hint thrown out I)y the President for rejecting the authority of every publication preceding the translation of the GZ/rt, docs not appear to have made sufficient impression. Several late compilations in Europe betray great want of judgment in the selection of authorities; and their motley dress of true and false colours tends to perpetuate error; for this reason it seems necessary on every topic to revert to original authorities, for the purpose of cancelling error or verifying facts alrea- ily published; and this object Avill no Avay be more readily attained, than by the C(mimunication of detached essays on each topic, as it may present itself to the Orientalist in the progress of his researches. From this or any other motive for indulgence, should the follow- ing authorities from Sansa-ll books be thought worthy of a place in the next volume of the Society's Transactions, I shall be rewarded for the jiains taken in collecting them. 'Having first bathed, the widow, dressed in two clean garments, and holding some cusa grass, sips Avater from the palm of ber baud. Bi'aring cusa and ///«* on her hand, she looks towards the cast or north, while the Brdhmaiia utters the mystic word '(9;m. Bowing to na'ha'yana, she next declarers :** "On this month, so named in such a pdcsha^ on such a Hr/ii, I (naming herself and her family •=■''''■■•) tbat I may meet arundhati f and reside in Swanju] that the years of my stay may be numerous as the hairs on the human body; that I may enjoy with my husband the felicity of heaven, and sanctify my * Sesanmm. ■!■■* 'x^iiis declaration is calleil the Sancalpa. ^•** (iolra, the family or race. Four o-rcat families of JhdhiiKiiKis are now extant, anrl have branched into many distinct races. .Since the memorable massacre of the C.s//(ilrii/us ,,by paiiahu-hama , the ('s/idlrii/d'^- describe them- selves from the same Gillras as the Brdhmunas. t Wife of Vusislit'ha. DUTIES or A KAITUKUL WIDOW. 71 jjatornal and iiiatevnal progenitors, and the ancestry of niy liii.sband'.s father; that laudeil by the Jps((rascs^ I may be happy with my bird, tlirougli tlie reigns of" fourteen Indras: that expiation be made fur my husband's oti'ences, whether ho has killed a Ihalimam, broken the ties of i^ratitude, or murdered his friend, thus 1 ascend my hus- band's burning pile. I call on you, ye guardians of the eight re- gions of the world; Sun and Moon! Air, Fire, ^Ethcr,* Earth, and 'VVater! My own soul ! yama ! Day, Night, and Twilight ! And thou. Conscience, bear witness: I follow my husband's corpse on the funeral pile. " '** 'Having repeated the Sancalpa, she walks tlu-ice round the pile; and the Drahmai'ia utters the following )naiilias : ■ '"'0//t! Let these women, not to be widowed, good wives, adorned with collyrium, holding clarified butter, consign themselves to the lire. Immortal, not childless, nor husbandlcss, well adorned with gems, let them pass into tire, whose original element is water." (From the RUjirdu.) '"'0/«! Let these faithful wives, pure, beautiful, commit them- selves to the tire, with their husband's corpse. " {A Paurai'dca ina/dra.) ' With this benediction, and uttering the mystic Namo Nama/i, she ascends the Haming pile.' While the prescribed ceremonies arc performed by the widow, the son, or other near kinsman, of the deceased, applies the first torch, with the forms directed for funeral rites in the (///%«,■•'••'"■•• by which his tribe is governed. The Sancalpa is evidently formed on the words of angikas: "The wife who connuits herself to the ilames with her husband's corpse, shall equal au-undiiatI, and reside in S/ranja: "Accompanying her husband, she shall reside so long in S/varga as are the thirty-five millions of hairs on the human body. "As the snake-catcher forcibly drags the serpent from his earth, ** In several publications the woman has been described as placing her- svM on tliij ]iile l)et'(iii; it be lighted; but the ritual quoted is conformable to the te.\t of the liluKjmHila. "When the corpse is about to be consumed in the S(dn'itiija, the faithful wife who stood witliout, rushes on the fire. " — naukua lo Yun'msni'iiiuA, aunoiineing the dcatli and funeral of diik'itaiiasiitka. Sec /iluijiavata., boolv i., ch. 13. The sulti'iluju is a cabin of grass nr leaves, sometimes erected on the funeral pile. "The shed on the funeral pile of a Muni is [called] parnnloja and !i(dii'i- lajn. " See the vocabulary entitled J/iinivuli. *** Extracts or compilations from the sacred books, containing the parti- cular forms for religious ceremonies, to be observed by the race or family for whom that portion of the sacred writings lias been adopted, wliich com poses iheir llriliya. 72 ON THE DUTIES SO, bearing her husband [from hell], with him she shall enjoy heaven- ly bliss. "Dying with her husband, she sanctities her maternal and pater- nal ancestors; and the ancestry of him to wliom she gave her vir- ginity. "Such a wife, adoring her husband, in celestial felicity with hiin, greatest, most admired,* with him shall enjoy the delights of heaven, while fourteen indras reign. "Though her husband had killed a Brdhmai'ia,'-^'-' broken the ties of gratitude, or murdered his friend, she expiates the crime." (anoira.s.) The manlrus are adopted on the authority of the Brahmc purdim. "While the pile is preparing, tell the faithful wife of the greatest duty of woman; she is luijal and pure who burns herself ivilh her hus- hanrrs corpse. Hearing this, fortified [in her resolution], and full of affection, she completes the PUrlmedha ydga*** and ascends to Swarga . " ( Brahme pur ana . ) It is held to be the duty of a widow to burn herself with her husband's corpse; but she has the alternative, "On the death of her husband, to live as Brahmaehdri, or commit herself to the flames." (vishnu.) The austerity intended consists in chastity, and in acts of piety and mortification. ■"Tlie use of idmbula^ dress, and feeding otT vessels of tutenague is forbidden to tlie I'ati^-f the Brahmachdri, and the widow.'''' (PRACHETAS.) "The widow shall never exceed one meal a day, nor sleep on a bed; if she do so, her husband falls from Swarga.''' "She shall eat no other than simple food, and ft shall daily offer the larpana oi' cusa, lila^ and water, ft f "In Vaisdclia, Cdrliea, and 3Idgha, she sliall exceed the usual duties of ablution, alms, and pilgrimage, and often use the name of GOD [in prayer]." ^ {The Sin rili.) After undertaking the duty of a Sati ., should the widow recede, she incurs the penalties of defilement. * The word in the text is expounded "lauded by tlie clioirs ut' heaven, Gnnd'harvas,'" &c. ** The commentators are at tlie pains of siiewing that tliis expiation must refer to a crime commilted in a former existence; for funeral rites are re- fused to the murderer of a Bruhmaha. *** Act of burning herself witb lier husband. f Sannydsi. ft If she has no male descendants. See Madana Pari j din. ttt Oblations for the manes of ancestors to the third degree, thouj^b not exclusively; for the prayer includes a general petition for remoter ancestors. Yet daily oblations {^Vai'svadevd) are separately offered fOr ancestors beyond the third degree. l)F A lAITIIIl I. HINDU WIDOW. 73 "If the. woman, loj^rotfinj^ lifo, recede IVmn tlio jiilc , slio, is rlo- fileil; but may be puriliod by observing the last called I'/dJdpdli/a.''^'''' (a'pastamha.) Tiiough an alternative be allowed, llic Hindu legislators have sh(i\\ II tlieiiis(dves disposed to encourage widows to burn tlieinselvrs with their husband's corpse. iiAUiTA thus defines a loyal wife: "She, whose sympathy feels the pains and joys of her husband; ^\ ho mourns and pines in his absence, and dies when he dies, is a good and loyal wife." (iiaui'ta.) "Always revere a loyal wife, as you venerate the Dcvulas: for, by her virtues, the prince's empire may extend over the three worlds." [Mdlsi/a piirdna.) "Though the husband died unhappy by the disobedience of liis wife; if from motives of love, disgust [of the world], fear [of living uniirotectedj , or sorrow, she commit herself to the flames, she is entitled to veneration. " {Mahd Bfuirnla.) Obsequies for suicides are forbidden; but the R/tjvrtld expressly declares, that "the loyal wife [who burns herself], shall not be defined a suicide. When a mourning of three days has been completed, the 'Srdddha is to be performed."** This appears from the prayer for the occasion, directed in the Bigveda. Regularly the chief mourner for the husband and for the wife, would in many cases be distinct persons: but the Bhavishya ptirdna provides, tliat " 'iVhen the widow consigns herself to the same pile with the corpse of tlie deceased, whoever performs the Criijd for her husljand, shall perform it for her." "As to the ceremonies from the lighting of the funeral pile to the Phiffti] whoever lights the pile shall also offer the Piiifln.'" {^Vdiju ])(()• d 11 a.) In certain circumstances the widbw is dis(£ualilied for this act of a Sail. "She who has an infant child, or is pregnant, or whose pregnancy is doubtful, or who is unclean, may not, princess, ascend the funeral j)ile. "So said NARKDA to the mother of sagaua." "The mother of an infant shall not rcdinrpiish the care of her child to ascend the pile; nor shall one who is unclean [from a pe- riodical cause], or. whose time for purification after child -birth is not j)assed , nor shall one who is pregnant, commit herself to the * It extends to twelve days; the first tlu-co , a siiarc im'al may lie taken once in racli day; tlic iiexftlircc, one in cacli iiipflit ; the siu'ceediiij,'- tliree days, uotliiiij^ may be eaten but wliat is given unsolicited; and the last tliree days are a rigid fast. ** Tlie sliortness of llie mourning is honourable : the longest mourning is for tlie lowest tribe. 74 ON THE DUTIES flames. ■'■ But tlio mother (jf an infant may , if the care of the chiKl can he otherwise )»rovi(h'(l." (vkuia.si'Ati.) In the event of a Uralimana dying in a iliytant country, his widow i.s not pcrniitted to hurn herself. "A Viprd or Brdhmani may not ascend a second pile." (oota.ma.) I>iit with oth(>r castes, this proof of fidelity is not ])recluded by the remote decease of the husband, and is called Jmujaiimna. "The widow, on the news of her husband's dying in a distant country, should expeditiously burn herself: so shall she obtain per- fection." (vva'sa.) "8hould the husband die on a journey, holdiug his sandals to her breast,, let her pass into the flames. " {Bruhme jnirdna.) The expression is not understood of sandals exclusively; for i;.sa- NA.s or suGUA declares: "Except a Viprd, the widow may take any thing that belonged to lier husband, and ascend the pile. "But a Viprd may not ascend a second pile; this practice belongs to other tribes." (sucra.) In two of the excepted cases," a latitude is allowed for a widow desirous of offering this token of loyalty, by postponing the obse- (juies of the deceased: for vyasa directs that, "If the loyal wife be distant less than the journey of a day, and desire to die with her husband, his corpse shall not be burnt until slie arrive." And the Bhavishya purdna permits that "tlie corpse be kept one niglit, if the tliird day of her uncleauness had expired when her husband died." With respect to a circumstance of time, ** which might on some occasions be objected, the commentators obviate the difficulty, by arguing from sev(;ral texts, "that to" die with or after [her husband], is for a widow 7iaimillica''^'*''" and cdmi/a,-f and consequently allow- able in the intercalary montli : " for uacsiia teaches, that " when- ever an act both /tdimillica and cdmya is in hand , it is then to be ])erformed without consulting season." They are at the trouble of removing another difliculty : " DJiKiTAKA'siimA in the state o{ Samddhi, quitted his terrestrial form to proceed to the Mucii, or beatitude, which awaited him. WIkui the leaves and wood were lighted to consume the corpse, his wife gand'hari was seen to pass into the flames. Now also, a * It has been erroneously asserted, that a wife, prej^nant at tlie time of h(!r husband's deatli , may bum lierself after delivery. Hindu authorities jjositively contradict it. In addition to tlic text it may 1)0 rc^marked, tliat it is a maxim, "What was prevented in its season, may not afterwards be rosumed. " ** Occasional observances are omitted on iutorcalary days. *** Eventual; incumbent wliun a cu-rtain event iiappens. y Optional; dune for its reward. liK A lAlTIIll I. IIIMM' WIDOW. 75 Iiuoljaiiil tlyiiij? at TV/.sV and attaining J///<7/, it becomes lii.s widow to tullow tiui corjjsi". in tiu; llanu's. " It w(!rc superHiious to pursuo coniiaontators througli all tlnur I'li- volons distinctions and laljorious illustrations on latent dirticnlties. All the ceremonies essential to this awi'iil rito are included in the instructions already (quoted. 15ut many practices liavn; bceu intro- duced, thou-h notsanctionert/r/.w," says va'jnvawalcva, "is supported by a single pedicle, so is this universe upheld by the syllable 6m, a symbol of the supreme ijrahme." "All rites ordained, in the Veda, oblations to fire, and solemn sacrifices, i)ass away; l)ut OP THE HINDUS. 81 tliat which passoth not away," says menu, "is decLired to he tho syllable <>///, tlio.nco called arshara , since it is a symbol of gou, the lord (if crcati'd beings." (mkmi, cliaji. ii. v. 74, 84.) The CDUcliidiiig jtrayor is subjoined, to teach the various mani- festations of tliat light, which is the sun himself. It is liUAiiMi:, the supreuie soul. "The sun," says ya'jnyawalcya, "is braume: this is a certain truth, revealed in the sacred U/uoiis/iads , and in various 'Si'ulras of the I'cilas.''' So tiie B/ui/ris/ii/a piini/ia ^ speaking of the .sun: "Because there is none greater than he, nor has been, nor will be, therefore he is celebrated as the supreme soul in all the That greatest of liglits which exists in the sun, exists also as the principle of life in the liearts of all beings. It shines externally in the sky, internally in the heart: it is found in lire and in tlame. This principle of life, which is acknowledged by the virtuous as existing in the heart and in tlie sky, shines externally in the ethereal region, manifested in tlic form of the sun. It is also made apparent in the lustre of gems, stones , and metals ; and in the taste of trees, plants, and herb§. That is, the irradiating being, who is a form of jJKAHMio, is manifested in all moving beings (gods, demons, men, serpents, beasts, birds, insects, and the rest) by their locomotion; and in some fixed substances, such as stones, geins, and metals, liy their lustre; in others, such as trees , plants, and herbs, by their savour. Every thing which moves or which is fixed, is pervaded by that light, w liich in all moving things exists as tlie supreme soul, and as the immortal thinking faculty of beings wliicli have the power of motion. Thus the venerable commentator says, "In the midst of the sun stands the moon, in the midst of the moon is fire, in tlie midst of light is truth, in the midst of truth is the unperisliable being." And again, "God is the unperisliable being residing in the "sacred abode: the thinking soul is light alone; it shines with un- borrowed splendour." '^I'his thinking soul, called the immortal jirin- ciple, is a manifestation of that irradiating power who is tlie su- preme soul. This universe, consisting of three worlds, was produced from water. "Tie first, with a thought, created the waters, and ])laced in them a productive seed." (mknu, chap. i. v. 8.) Watei-, which is tho element whence the three worlds proceeded, is that light which is also the efficient cause of creation, duration, and destruction, ma- nifested witli these pow'ers, in the form of iuiaiima, visiint, and iukka: to denote this, "earth, sky, and lieaven," are subjoined as epithets of light. These terms bear allusion also to the three qua- lities of truth, passion, and darkness, corresponding with the three manifestations of power, as creator, ])reservcr, and destroyer; hence it is also intimated, that the irradiating being is manifested as BKAiiMA, VISHNU, and RUDUA, who arc respectively endued with the 6 ^^ ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES qualities of trutli, passion, and darkness. The meaning is, tliat tliis irradiating being, avUo is the supreme liUAiiMi-: manifested iu three forms or powers, is the efficient cause of the creation of the universe, of its duration and destruction. So in the Bluuvishya piu-dita, crishna says, "The sun is the god of perception, the eye of the universe, the cause of day ; there is none greater than he among the immortal powers. From him this universe proceeded, and in him it Avill reach annihilation; he is time measured by instants," &c. Thus the, uni- verse, consisting of three worlds, containing all which is fixed or moveable, is the irradiating being; and he is the creator of that universe, the preserver and destroyer of it. Consequently nothing can exist, which is not that irradiating power. These extracts from two very copious commentaries will suffi- ciently explain the texts which are meditated while the breath is held as above mentioned. Immediately after these suppressions of breath, the priest should sip water, reciting the following prayer: "May the sun, sacrifice, the regent of the firmament, and other deities who preside over sacrifice, defend me from the sin arising from the im- perfect performance of a religious ceremony. Whatever sin I have committed by night, in thought, word or deed, be that cancelled by day. Whatever sin be in me, may that be far removed. I offer this water to the sun, Avhose light irradiates my heart, who sprung from the immortal essence. Be this oblation efficacious." He should next make three ablutions with the prayers: "Waters! since ye afford delight," &c., at the same time throwing water eight times on his head, or towards the sky, and once on the ground as before; and again make similar ablutions with tlie following prayer : "As a tired man leaves drops of sweat at the foot of a tree; as he who bathes is cleansed from all foulness; as an oblation is sanctified by holy grass ; so may this water purify me from sin : " and another ablution with the expiatory text which rehearses the creation. Tie should next fill the palm of his hand with water, and presenting it to his nose, inhale the fluid by one nostril, and retaining it for a while, exhale it through the other, and throw away the water towards the north-east quarter. This is considered as an internal ablution, which washes away sins. He concludes by sipping water with the following prayer: "Water! thou dost penetrate all beings; thou dost reach the deep recesses of the moiintains; thou art the mouth of the universe; thou art sacrifice; thou art the mystic word vaslta'l -^ thou art light, taste, and the immortal fluid. " After these ceremonies he proceeds to worship the sun, standing on one foot, and resting the other against his ankle or heel, look- ing towards the east, and holding his hands open before him in a hollow form. In this posture he pronounces to himself the follow- ing ])rayers. 1st. "The rays of light announce the splendid fiery sun, beautifully rising to illumine the universe." "id. "lie rises, OP TIIK HINDUS. 83 wojulrrt'ul, the oyi>. of the suu, of water, and of lire, collective power of <;;o{l.s; lie fills lioavon, earth, and .sky, ^\ii\l his luininous net; ho is the snnl of all which is fixed or locomotive." ;^d. "That eye, siijireinely iMMielicial, rises pure from the east; may we see him a hundred years; may we live a hundred years; may we hear a hund- red years." -ith. "May we, preserved by the divine power, con- templatin;jj heaVen above the region of darkness, approach the deity, most sjjlcndid of luminaries." The following prayer may be also subjoined: "Thou art self-existent, thou art the most excellent ray; thou givcst ett'ulgence: grant it unto me." This is explained as an allusion to the seven rays of the sun, four of which are supposed to l)oint towards the four ([uarters, one upwards, one downwards; and the seventh, which is centrical, is the most excellent of all, and is here addressed in a prayer, which is explained as signifying, "May the supreme ruler, who generates all things, whose luminous ray is self-existent, who is the sublime cause of light, from whom worlds receive illumination, be favourable to us. " After presenting an ob- lation to the sun, in the mode to be forthwith explained, the (rdijalri must be next invoked, in these words: "Thou art light; thou art seed; thou art immortal life; thou art called effulgent : beloved by the gods, defamed by none, thou art the holiest sacrifice." And it should be afterwards recited measure by measure; then the two first measures as one hemistich, and the third measure as the other; and, lastly, the three measures without interruption. The same text is then invoked in these words: "Divine text, who dost grant our best wishes, whose name is trisyllal)le , whose import is the power of the Supreme Being; cojne, thou mother of the Vedns, who didst spring from liUAUMi;, be constant here." The (idijalri is then pro- nounced inaudibly with the trilitcral nnmsyllable and the names of the three lower worlds, a hundred or a thousand times, or as often as may be practicable, counting the repetitions on a rosary of gems set in gold, or of wild grains. For this })urpose the seeds of the pi(- frnjira, vulgarly named pildn/iiii, are declared preferable. The follow- ing prayers from the i'isltnu pitni/ia conclude these repetitions:* * I omit tlio very tedious detail respcctinj^ sins expiated by a set number of repetitions; hut in one instance, as an atonement for unwarily eatinp: or diinlving wiiat is forhiddim, it is directed, tliat ei^lit hundred rc^petitions of tlie (liij/nlri sliouid he preceded hy tliree suppressions of breath , touchino- water durinjjr tlie recital of tlie followinj^ text: "The bull roars; he has four iioriis, three feet, two heads, seven hands, and is honml by a threef(dblations .'ind sacrifice are his two heads, roaring stupendously. His seven hamls arc the //liiri, MiiitrdvaruiKi , lirdli- 84 ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES "Halutatinu to the sun; to tliat luminary, O uraiime, who is the liyht of the pcrvador, the })ui-e generator of the universe, the cause of efficacious rites." 2d. "I bow to the great cause of day (whose emblem is a full-blown flower of the yavd tree), the mighty luminary sprung from casyapa, the foe of darkness, the destroyer of every sin." Or the priest walks a turn through the south, rehearsing a short text: "I follow the course of the sun;" which is thus explained, "As the sun in his course moves round the world by the way of the south, so do I, following that luminary , obtain the benefit arising from a journey round the earth by the way of the south." The oblation above-mentioned, and which is called argltu, con- sists of /?7«, flowers, barley, water, and red-sanders-wood, in a clean copper vessel, made in the shape of a boat; tliis the priest places on his head, and thus presents it with tlie follo\\ing text: "He who travels the appointed path (namely, the sun) is present in that pure orb of fire, and in the ethereal region ; he is the sacrificer at religious rites, and he ^its in tlie sacred close; never remaining a single day in the same spot, yet present in every house, in the lieart of every human being, in the most holy mansion, in the subtile ether; pro- duced in water , in earth , in the abode of truth , and in the stony mountains, he is that which is both minute and vast." This text is explained as signifying, that the sun is a manifestation of the Supreme l>eing, present every where, }troduced every where, per- vading every place and thing. The oblation is concluded by wor- shipping the sun with the subjoined text: "llis rays, the efficient causes of knowledge, irradiating worlds, appear like sacrificial fires." Preparatory to any act of religion, ablutions must be again per- formed in the form prescribed for the mid-day bath; the practice of bathing at noon is likcAvise enjoined as requisite to cleanliness, conducive to health, and efficacious in removing spiritual as Avell as corporeal defilements: it must, nevertheless, be omitted by one who is afflicted with disease ; and a healthy person is forbidden to bathe immediately after a meal, and Avitliout laying aside his jewels and other ornaments. If there be no impediment, sucli as those now mentioned or formerly noticed in speaking of early ablutions, lie may bathe with water drawn from a well, from a fountain, or from the bason of a cataract; but he should prefer water which lies above ground, choosing a stream rather than stagnant watei", a river in preference to a small brook, a holy stream before a vulgar river; and, above all, the water of the Ganges. In treating of the bath, authors distinguisli various ablutions, properly and improperly so called; such as rubbing the liody with ashes, which is named a 7iHniacli'linndnsi, (jravastntn , Ar/i'/idi'dc Acs/i'trl , and P/i/rr, naiDos by wliicli ofliciating' priests are desio-uated at certain solemn rites. Tiie threefold litr- atnre by which he is bound, is worshipped in the morning, at noon, and in the evening. OF TIIK HINDUS. 85 bath sacreil to firo ; jilunging into water, a bath sacreJ to the regent of this element; abhitions accompanied by the prayers, "O waters! since ye afford deli^lit," &c. which constitntc the holy batli; stand- ing in dust raised by the treading of co-\vs, a batli denominated from wind or air; standing in tlie rain (hiring day-liglit, a bath named from the sky or atmosphere. The ablutions, or bath, propcidy so tailed, arc performed with the following ceremonies. After bathing and cleansing his person, and pronouncing as a vow, "1 will now pcri'orm ablutions," he who bathes should in\oko the holy rivers: "0 Catjgd, Yamiinu, Sarasivati, 'Saladrii, Marudvidlid and Jiyiciyd'. hear my prayers; for my sake be included in this small quantity of water with tlie holy streams of PariisMi, Jsirni, and Viktsld.'' He should also utter the radical prayer ^ consisting of the words "Salutation to Ndrdyaita.'''' Upon this occasion a prayer extracted from the Padma purdna is often used with this salutation, called the radical text: and the ceremony is at once concluded by taking up earth, and promnmcing the subjoined prayer: "Earth, sup- porter of all things, trampled by horses, traversed by cars, trodden by vi.SHxu I Avhatever sin has been committed by me, do thou, who art upheld by tlie hundred-armed crLsiixa, incarnate in tlie shape of a boar, ascend my Tunhs and remove every such sin. " The text extracted from the Padfua piird/'ia follows: "Thou didst spring from the foot of visiinu , daughter of visiinu , honoured by him; therefore preserve us from sin, protecting us from the day of our birth, even unto death. The regent of air has naiiu'd thirty-live millions of holy places in the sky , on earth , and in the space be- tween; tliey are all comprised in thee, daughter of jaiinu. Thou nrt called slie wlio j)romotcs growth; among the gods thou art named the lotos; able, wife of prit'iiu, bird, body of the universe, wife of •SIVA, nectar, female cherisher of science, clieerful, favouring worlds, merciful, daughter of jaiinu , consoler, giver of consolation. Ga?iyd, wdio flows through the three worlds, will be near unto him who pro- nounces these pure titles during his ablutions." When the ceremony is preferred in its full detail, the regular prayer is a text of the Fdda. "Thrice did visiixu step, and at three strides traversed the universe: happily was his foot placed on this dusty earth. Be this oblation efficacious!" By this prayer is meant, "may the earth thus taken up, purify me." CoAV-dung is next em- ployed, witli a prayer importing, "Since I take u}) cow-dung, invok- ing thereon the goddess of abundance, may I obtain ]»rosperity !" 'J'he literal sense is this: "I here invoke that goddess of abundance, who is tlie vehicle of smell, who is irresistible, ever Avhite. present in this cow-dung, mistress of all beings, greatest of elements, ruling all the senses." AVater is afterwards held up in tin; hollow of both hands joined, while the prayer denominated fnuu the regent of water is pronounced : "Because vauuna , king of waters, spread a road 86 ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES for tlio sun, tlioi-oforo do 1 i'ollow that route. Oli! lie made tliat road ill untrodden space to receive the footsteps of the sun. It is he who restrains the heart-rending wicked." The sense is, "varuxa, king of waters, who curbs the Avicked, made an expanded road in the ethereal region to receive the rays of the sun; I therefore fol- low that route. " Next, previous to swimming, a short prayer must be meditated: "Salutation to the regent of water! past arc the fet- ters of VARUNA." This is explained as importing, that the displea- sure of VARUNA at a man's traversing the waters, which are his fetters, is averted by salutation : swimming is therefore preceded by this address. The priest should next recite the invocation of holy rivers, and thrice throw water on his head from the hollow of both hands joined, repeating three several texts. 1st. " Waters ! remove this sin, whatever it be, which is in me ; whether I have done any thing malicious towards others, or cursed them in my heart, or spoken falsehoods." 2d. " Waters ! mothers of worlds ! ])urify us ; cleanse us by the sprinkled Huid, ye who purify through libations; for ye, divine waters, do remove every sin."' 3d. "As a tired man leaves drops of sweat at the foot of a tree," &c. Again, SAvimmiug, and making a circuit through the south, this prayer should be recited: "May divine Avaters be auspicious to us for accumulation, for gain, and for refreshing draughts : may they listen to us, that Ave may be associated Avith good auspices." Next reciting the folloAving prayer, the priest should thrice plunge into water: "O consummation of solemn rites ! avIio dost purify Avhen performed by the most grievous offenders; thou dost invite the basest criminals to puritication ; thou dost expiate the most heinous crimes. I atone for sins toAvards the gods, by gratifying them Avith oblations and sacrifice; I expiate sins towards mortals, by employing mortal men to officiate at sacraments. Therefore defend me from the pernicious sin of offending the gods." Water must be next sipped Avitli the prayer, "Lord of sacrifice, thy heart is in the midst of the Avaters of the ocean," &c., and the invocation of holy rivers is again recited. The priest must thrice throAv up Avater Avith the three prayers: "0, Avaters, since ye aft'ord delight," &c. ; and again, Avith the three subjoined prayers: 1st. "May the Lord of thought purify me Avith an uncut blade of ciisa grass and Avith the rays of the sun. Lord of juirity, may I obtain that coveted innocence Avhich is the Avisli of thee , avIu) art satisfied by this oblation of Avater; and of me, Avho am purified by this holy grass. " 2d. "May the Lord of speech purify me," &c. 3d. "May the resplendent sun purify me , " &c. Thrice plunging into Avater, the })riest should as often repeat the grand expiatory text, of Avhicli ya'jnyawalcya says, "It comprises the principles of things , and the elements , the existence of the [chaotic] mass , the production and destruction of Avorlds." This serves as a key to explain the meaning of the text, Avhicli, being considered as the Of TIIK HIN'DUS. S7 essence of the Vedus , is most mystorious. The author before me seems to iinclertake the explanation of it with great awe, and inti- mates, tliat he lias no other key to its meaning, nor the aid of earlier connnentaries. 'The Supreme Being alone existed: afterwards there was universal darkness: next, the watery ocean was produced by the diffusion of virtue : then did the creator, lord of the universe, rise out of the ocean, and successively frame the sun and moon, which govern day and night, whence proceeds the revolution of years; and after them he framed heaven and earth, the space be- tween, and tlie celestial region.' The terms, with which the text begins, both signify trutli; but are here explained as denoting the supreme nitvuMi;, on the authority of a text quoted from the Vcdu: "hkaiime is truth, the one immutable being. lie is truth and ever- lasting knowledge." 'During the period of general annihilation, ' says the connnentator , 'the Supreme Being alone existed. After- wards, during that period, night was produced ; in other words, there was universal darkness.' "J'his universe existed only in darkness, imperceptible, undefinable, undiscoverable by reason, and undis- covered by revelation, as if it were Avholly innnersed in sleep." (ment, ch. i. V. 5.) Next, when the creation began, the ocean was produced by an unseen power universally diffused; that is, tlie ele- ment of water was first reproduced, as the means of the creation, "•lie lirst, witli a thought, created the waters," &c. (menu. ch. i. v. H.) Then did the creator, who is lord of the universe, rise out of the Avaters. 'The Lord of the universe, annihilated by the general des- truction , revived with his own creation of the three worlds,' Hea- ven is here explained , the expanse of the sky above the region of the stars. Tlie celestial region is the middle world and heavens al)ove. "^riie author before me has added numerous quotations on the siiblimity and efiicacy of this text, which :\ienu compares with the sacriticc of a horse, in respect of its power to obliterate sins. After bathing, while he repeats this prayer, the priest should again plunge into water, tlirice repeating the text, "As a tired man leaves drops of sweat at the foot of a tree," &c. Afterwards, to atone for greater offences, he should meditate the G(h/aln\ &c. during three sup])ressions of breath. He must also recite it measure by measure, hemistich by hemistieli; and, lastly, the entire text, with- out any pause. As an expiation of the sin of eating with men of very low tiil)es, or of coveting or accepting what should not be re- ceived, a man sliould plunge into Avater, at the same time reciting a prayer which will be (juoted on another occasion. One who has drunk spirituous li(|uors should traverse water up to his throat, and drink as much expressed juice of the moon-plant as he can take up in tlie liollow of both hands, while he meditates the triliteral mo- nosyllable, and then [dunge into water, reciting the subjoined prayer: "0, KUDR.\! hurt not our ofi'spring and descendants; abridge not 88 ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES tlie period of our lives; destroy not our cows; kill not our horses; slay not our proud and irritable folks; because, holding oblations, we always pray to tliec!" Having linislied his ablutions, and coming out of the water, ])ut- ting on his apparel after cleansing it, having washed his hands and feet, and having sipped water, the priest sits down to worshi]) in the same mode which was directed after the early bath; substituting, however , the following prayer , in lieu of that which begins with the words, "May the sun, sacrifice," &c., "May the waters purify the earth, that she, being cleansed, may purify me. May the lord of holy knowledge purify her, that she, being cleansed by holiness, may purify me. May the waters free me from every defilement, whatever be my uncleanness, Avhether I have etitcn prohibited food, done forbidden acts, or accepted the gifts of dishonest men." Another difi'creuce between worship at noon and in the morning, consists in standing before the sun with uplifted arms instead of joining the hands in a hollow form. In all other respect* the form of adoration is similar. Having concluded this ceremony, and walked in a round begin- ning through the south, and saluted the sun, the priest may proceed to study a portion of the Veda. Turning his face towards the east, with his right hand towards the south and his left hand towards the north, sitting down with cusa grass before him, holding two sacred blades of grass on the tips of his left fingers, and placing his right hand thereon with the palm turned upwards, and having thus medi- tated the Gdi/afn\ the priest should recite the proper text on com- mencing the lecture, and read as much of the Vedas as may be prac- ticable for him ; continuing the practice daily until he haVe read through the Avhole of the Vedas, and then recommencing the course. Prayer on beginning a lecture of the R'kjveda: "I praise the blaz- ing fire, which is first placed at religious rites, which effects the ceremony for the benefit of the votary, which performs the essential part of the rite, which is the most liberal giver of gems." On beginning a lecture of the Yajurveda .- " I gather thee , branch of the Veda, for the sake of rain ; I pluck thee for the sake of strength. Calves ! ye are like unto air; (that is, as wind supplies the world by means of rain, so do ye supply sacrifices by the milk- ing of cows). May the luminous generator of worlds make you attain success in the best of sacraments. " On beginning a lecture of the Samaveda: "Kegent of fire, who dost effect all religious c(!remonies, apjiroach to taste my offering, thou who art praised for the sake of oblations. Sit down on this grass. " The text which is repeated on commencing a lecture of the .'iiu, and I'AUCiia.sic'ha , be satisfied herewith." Placing the thread on his right shoulder, and turning towards the south, he must offer lila and water from the root of his thumb (whicli is a part sa- cred to the })rogenitirits called Ciisltmai'iHa ^ trees, and all animals ^vhil•h move in air f)r in water, Mhith live on earth, and feed abroad; may all those ([uickly obtain contentment, through tlie water presented by me." 2nd. "To satisfy them who are detained in all (he hells and places of torment, this water is presented l)y uk;." M\. ''I\Iay tliose who are, and those who are not, of kin to me, and those who were allied to mc in a former existence, and all who desire oblatiims of w^ater from me, obtain perfect contentment." The iirst text, wliich is taken from the Samavcda^ differs a little from the I'ajitrviida : "Gods, benevolentgenii, huge serpents, nymphs, demons, wicked -beings, snakes, birds of mighty wing, trees, giants, and all who traverse the ethereal region, genii who cherish science, animals that live in water or traverse tlie atmosphere, creatures that have no abode, and all living animals which exist in sin or in the practice of virtue; to satisfy them is tins water presented by me." After- wards the priest should wring his lower garment, pronouncing this text: "^lay those wdio have been born in my family, and have died, leaving no son nor kinsman bearing the same name, be contented with this water whicli 1 present by -wringing it from my vesture." Then placing his sacrificial cord on his left shoulder, sipping water, and raising up his arms, let him contemplate the sun, reciting a j)raycr inserted al)ove : "lie who travels the appointed path," i*cc. The priest should afterwards present an oblation of Avater to the sun, pronouncing the text of the Vislii'ni purdi'm which has been already cited, "Salutaticm to the sun," itc. He tlicn concludes the whole cerem<»ny Iiy worshipi)iug the sun Avith a prayer above quoted : "Thou art self- existent," Ac; by making a circuit through tlie south, while he pronounces, "I follow the course of the sun;" and by offer- ing water from (lie hollow of his hand, while he salutes the regents of space and other Deities; ".Salutati(m to space; to the regents of space, to liiiAHMA, to the earth, to salutary herbs, to iire, to speech, to the lord of speech, to the pervader, and to the mighty Deity." lY. On the EELIGIOUS CEKEMONlES of llie HINDUS, and of Ihc brXhmens especially. ESSAY II. [From tlic Asiatic Kesearches, vol. vii. p. 232—285. Calcutta, 1801. Ito.] A FORMER essay on this subject* described the daily ablutions performed with prayers and acts of religion by every Brahmen. His next daily duty is the performance of the five great sacraments. The first, consisting in the study of the Veda, has been already no- ticed; the sacraments of the manes, of deities, and of spirits, slightly touched upon in the first essay, will be made the subject of the pre- sent one ; and the hosi)itablc reception of guests will be followed in the next by a description of the various ceremonies which mitst be celebrated at different periods, from the birth to the marriage of a Hindu. The sacrament of deities consists in oblations to fire with prayers addressed to various divinities; and it is exclusive of the offerings of perfumes and blossoms before idols. It docs not fall within n)y present plan to describe the manner in which the several sects of Hindus** adore their gods, or the images of them ; and I shall there- fore restrict myself to explain the oblations to fire, and then proceed to describe funeral rites and commemorative obsequies , together with the daily offerings of food and Avater, to the manes of ancestors. I am guided by the author now before me*** in premising the * Ante, p. 76. ** See note A, at the end of tlie present Essay. *** In tlie former essay , my cliief guide was helayid'ha, wlio has g^iveii very perspicuous explanations of the iiumtras (or prayers used at religious ceremonies) in several treatises, particularly in one entitled BrdJimana servr/swa. In the jiresent essay, I likewise use a ritual coiii])oscd by iiuAVAni'ivA for the use oi Sdmavedi priests, and a commentary on the mantras hy <;una visunu, as also the Achdrachandricd (a treatise on religious ceremonies observed by 'Sudras, but including many of those performed by other classes), and the Jlc/idrddcrsa, a treatise on daily duties. ON TIIK UELIGIOUS CEUEMOKIK.S OF THE HINDUS. 93 coromony of CDUsociating the iire , ;uul of liallowing the sacrificial imjtlcmoiits; ''bocausc this ceremony is, as it were, the ground-work of all religions acts." First, the priest smears with ('((wn-ilung a level jtiece of ground four cubits square, free from all impurities, and sheltered by a shed. Having bathed and sipped water, he sits down with his face towards the cast, and places a vessel of water with ciisa grass* on his left; tlien, dropping his right knee, and resting on the span of his left hand, he draws with a root of cKsa grass a line, one span or twelve llnirers lona:, and directed towards the east. From the nearest extre- mity of this line he draws another at right angles to it, twenty-one lingers long, and directed towards the north. Upon this line he turning alternately with the shades of night , rousing mortnl and immortal * The niKuii waiitiny- a (li-j^it uf full. 06 ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES beings, and .sniveying worlds: May this oblation to the solar planet be efficacious. " 2. "Gods! prodnce tbat [Moonj which has no foe; which is the son of tlio solar orb, and became tlie olVspring of space, for tlie bene- iit of this worbl;"''' produce it for the advancement of knowledg-p, for protection from danger, for vast supremacy, for empire, and for the sake of indiia's organs of sense: May this oblation to the lunar planet be efficacious. " 3. "This gem of the sky, whose head resembles fire, is the lord of waters, and replenishes the seeds of the earth: May this oblation to the planet Mars be efficacious." 4. "13e roused, fire! and thou, [0 btid'iia !] perfect this sacri- ficial rite, and associate with us; let this votary and all the Gods sit in this most excellent assembly: May this oblation to the planet Mercury be efficacious. " 5. "0 VRiiiASPATi, sprung from eternal truth, confer on us abund- antly that various wealth which the most venerable of beings may revere; which shines gloriously amongst all people; which serves to defray sacrifices ; which is preserved by strength : May this obla- tl(m to the planet Jupiter be efficacious." 6. "The lord of creatures drank the invigorating essence distilled from food; he drank milk and the juice of the moon-plant. By means of scripture, which is truth itself, this beverage, thus quaffed, became a prolific essence, the eternal organof universal perception, indra's organs of sense, the milk of immortality , and honey to tlie manes of ancestors : May this oblation to the planet Venus be efficacious." 7. "May divine waters be auspicious to us for accumulation, for gain, and for refreshing draughts; may they listen to iis, that we may be associated with good auspices : IMay this oblation to the planet Saturn be efficacious. " 8. "0 durva',** which dost germinate at every knot, at every joint, multiply us through a hundred, through a thousand descents: May this oblation to tJie planet of the ascending node be efficacious." 9. "Be thou produced by dwellers in this world, to give know- ledge to ignorant mortals, and wealth to the indigent, en- beauty to the ugly: May this oblation to the planet of the descending node be efficacious. " I now proceed to the promised description of funeral rites, abridg- * According to one legend, a ray of tho sun, called susJnimna, became tlie moon; according to another, a fl.asli of light from the eye of atui was received by space, a goddess; she conceived and bure S('>ma , who is therefore called a son of ATRi. This legend may be found in the //nrivtwsa. (^amuasa ;illnd('S to it in the Raghuvansa , (b. 2. v. 7;!,) comparing .srnAcsniNA, when she con- ceived uAcnnT, to the via lactea receiving the luminary which sprung from the eye of Ana. ** Ayrostiti linearis, kcenig. or THE HINDUS. 07 ing the detail of ceicinouies as delivered ia rlLuals, ouiitting local variatiDiis noticed hy authors who have treated of this sultject, and commonly neglecting the superstitious reasons given by them for the very numerous ceremonies which they direct to be performed in honour of persons recently deceased, or of ancestors long since defunct. A dying man, when no hopes of his surviving remain, should be laid upon a bed.of tv/ivi grass, either in the house or out of it, if he be a 'Sihlni, but in the open air if lie belong to another tribe. AVheu he is at the point of death, donations of cattle, bind, gold, silver, or other things, according to his ability, should be made by him; or if he be too weak, by another person in his name. His liead should be sprinkled with water drawn from the Ganges, and smeared with clay Itrought iVoni the same river. A sdkKjrdma'''- stone ought to be placed near the dying man; holy strains from the Veda or from sacred poems should be repeated aloud in his ears, and leaves ot holy basil must be scattered over his head. "When lie expires, the corpse must be washed, perfumed, and decked with wreaths of flowers; a bit of tutanag, another of gold, a gem of any sort, and a piece of coral, should be put into the mouth of the corpse, and bits of gold in both nostrils, both eyes, and both ears. A cloth perfumed with fragrant oil nmst be thrown over the corpse, which the nearest relations of tlie deceased must then carry with modest deportment to some holy spot in the forest,^ or near water. Tho corpse must be preceded by fire, and by food carried in an unbaked earthen vessel; and rituals direct, that it sliall be accompanied by music of all sorts, drums, cymbals, and wind and stringed instruments. This practice seems to be now dis- used in most provinces (»f Hindustan; but the necessity of throwing a cloth over the corpse, however poor the relations of the deceased maybe, is enforced by the strictest injunctions: it is generally the percjulsite of the priest who ofticiates at the funeral.** Tlie corpse is carried out by the southern gate of tlie town, if the * Till' sii'/af/rti'fifis arc, black stones found in a part of the GiniRacir'wcY, witliiii tlie limits of Nrpdl. Thev are mostly round, and aro commonly per- foraft'd in one or more j)lacc>s by worms, or, as tli(^ Iliudiis believe, l)y visiixi' ill the shape of a reptile. Accordiiif; to the number ofpciforations and ot spiral curves in each, the stone is snpposeil to contain visiixu in various characters. For example, such a stone perforated in one place only , with four spiral curves in the perforation , and with marks resembliup: a cow's foot, and a buip wreatli of ilowers , contains r.AcsiiMi nauavan.v. In like manner stones are found in the Nermat/d, nom'^hirdrtntiiu/uUii, which arc con- sidered as tyiies of siva, and are called />'i/n-liii(/. The sdUit/r/ima is found upon trial not to be calcareous: it strikes lire witli steel, and scarcely at all ert'ervescos witli acids. ** In most parts of India the priests wlio officiate at fuuerals are held in disesteem ; they are distinguished by various appellations, as i\hiliriilimpu. &c. — See Digest of Hindu Law, vol. ii, p. I7r>. (Octavo edit. vol. ii, p- '"I-) 08 ON THE RELiGIOITS CEREMONIES deceased were a 'Si'/tlra : by the western, if lie were a Brt'ildnaiia : by tlie novtbern, if he beb)nged to the military class; and by the eastern portal, if lie sprung from the mercantile tribe. Should the road pass through nny inhabited i)lace, a circuit must b(> made to avoid it; and when the procession has reached its destination, ai'ter once halting by the way, the corpse must be gently laid, with the head towards the south, on a bed o{ ciisa , the tips whereof are pointed southward. The sons or other relations of the deceased having bathed in their clothes, must next prepare the funeral pile with a sufficient quantity of fuel, on a clean spot of ground, after marking lines thereon to consecrate it, in a mode similar to that which is practised in preparing a fire for sacrifices and oblations. They must afterwards wash the corpse, meditating on Cayd and other sacred places, holy mountains, the field of the gurus, the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Causici, Chandrabhaga, Bhadrdvacdsa, QanUaci, Sdi-oiji'i, and JSermadd : Vamara, Vaiu'tlta^ and Pi/uldraca, and all other holy ])laces on the face of the earth, as well as the four oceans themselves. Some of these ceremonies are only observed at the obsequies of a priest who maintanied a consecrated fire; his funeral pile must be lighted from that fire: but at the obsequies of other persons, the carrying of food to be left by the way, and the consecration of the spot whereon the funeral pile is raised, must be omitted, and any unpolluted fire may be used: it is only necessary to avoid taking it from another funeral pile, or from the abode of an outcast, of a man belonging to the tribe of executioners, of a woman who has lately borne a child, or of any person who is unclean. After washing the corpse , clothing it in clean apparel, and nib- bing it with perfumes, such as sandal-wood, saffron, or aloe wood, the relations of the deceased place the corpse supine with its head towards the north (or resupine, if it be the body of a woman), on the funeral pile, whicli is previously decorated with strung and unstrung flowers. A cloth must be thrown over it, and a relation of the de- ceased taking up a lighted brand, must invoke the holy places above- mentioned, and say, "May the Gods with flaming mouths burn this corpse!" He then walks thrice round the pile with his right hand towards it, and shifts the sacrificial cord to his right shoulder. Then looking towards the south, and dro]i])ing his left knee to the ground, he applies the fire to the pile near the head of the corpse , saying, "iYrtwuy/ namahl'" while the attending priests recite the following prayer: "Fire! thou wert lighted by him — may he therefore be reproduced from thee that he may attain the region of celestial bliss. May this offering be auspicious." This, it may be remarked, supposes the funeral pile to be lighted from the sacrificial fire kept up by the deceased; the same ])rayer is, however, used at the funeral of a man who had no consecrated hearth. or Tin: jiindtts. 90 'J'lic fiio must be so manaf^pcl tliat sdino bones may remain for tlie subse(|uenf ceremony of gatlieriny tbe asbes. Wbile tbe pile is burning, tlie relations of tlic deceased lake ni) seven pieces of wood a span long, and cut them severally with an axe over the fire-brands (after walking each time nmnd the funeral itile). and then throw the pieces over their shoulders upon the fire, saying, ''Salutation to thee who dost consume flesh," The body of a young child under two years old must not be burnt, but liuried. It is decked with wreatlis of fragrant flowers, and carried out by the relations, who bury it in a clean spot, saying, ^' Ndmo! uamah!''' while a priest chants the song of yama: "The off"spring of the sun, day after day fetching cows, horses, human beings, and cattle, is no more satiated therewith tlian a drunkard witli wine." When funeral rites are performed for a person wlio died in a foreign country, or whose bones cannot be found, a figure is made with tliree hundred and sixty leaves of the Butea, or as many woollen threads, distriljuted so as to represent the several parts of tlie human body according to a fancied analogy of numbers; round the whole must be tied a thong of leather from the hide of a black antelope, and over that a woollen thread; it is then smeared with barley-meal mixed witli water, and nuist be burnt as an emldem of the corpse. After tbe body of the deceased has been burnt in tlie mode above mentioned, all who have touched or followed the corpse must walk round the pile, keeping their left hands towards it, and taking care not to look at the fire. They then walk in procession, according to seniority, to a river or other running water, and after washing ami again putting on their apparel, they advance into the stream. They tlien ask the deceased's brother-in-law, or some other person able to give the proper answer, "Shall we ])resent water?" If tlie de- ceased were a hundred years old, tbe answer must be simply, "Do so:" but if be were not so aged, the reply is, "Do so, but do not repeat the oblation." Upon this, they all shift the sacerdotal string ti) the right slioulder, and looking towards tlie south, and being clad ill a single garment without a mantle, they stir the water witli the ring-finger of the left baud, saying, "Waters, purify us." With tlie same finger of tlie right hand they throw up some water towards the south, and after plunging once under the surface of the river, they rub themselves with their liands. An oblation of water must be next presented from the joined [lalms of the bands, naming the deceased and tlie family from which he sprung, and saying, "JMaj- this oblation reach thee." If it be intended to show particidar honour to the deceased, three off'erings of water may be thus made. After finishing the usual libations of water to satisfy the manes of the deceased, they qtiit the river and shift their wet clothes for other a]»]iarel ; they then sip water without swallowing it, and sitting down on the soft turf, alleviate their sorrow Ity tlie recital of the 7 ■'' 100 ON THE UELIGIOUS CEREMONIES following or other .suitable moral sentences, refraining at the same time from tears and lamentation. 1. "Foolish is he who seeks pcrnfaneuce in the human state', un- solid like the stem of the plantain tree, transient like the foam of the sea." 2. "When a body, formed of five elements to receive the reward of deeds done in its own former person, reverts to its five original principles, what ro(jm is there for regret?" 3. "The earth is perishable; the ocean, the Gods themselves pass away: how should not that bubble, mortal man, meet des- truction ? " 4. "All that is low^ must finally perish; all that is elevated must ultimately fall; all compound bodies must end in dissolution, and life is concluded with death. " 0. "UnAvillingly do the manes of the deceased taste the tears and rheum shed by their kinsmen; then do not wail, but diligently per- form the obsequies of the dead."* At night, if the corpse were burnt by day ; or in the day time, if the ceremony were not completed until night; or in case of exigency, whenever the priest approves, the nearest relation of the deceased takes up water in a new earthen jar, and returns to the town pre- ceded by a person bearing a staff,** and attended by the rest walk- ing in procession, and led by the youngest. Going to the door of his own house, or to a place of worship, or to some spot near water, he prepares the ground for the oblation of a funeral cake, by raising a small altar of earth, and marking lines on it as is practised for other oblations. Then, taking a brush of cusa grass in his right hand, he washes therewith the ground, over which cusa grass is spread, saying, "Such a one! (naming the deceased, and the family from which he sprung) may this oblation be acceptable to thee." Next, making a ball of three haudfuls of boiled rice mixed wdth ///«,*** fruits of various sorts, honey, milk, butter, and similar things, such as sugar, roots, pot herbs, &c. (or if that be impracticable, with Ida at least), he presents it on the spot he had purified, naming the de- ceased, and saying, "May this first funeral cake, which shall restore thy head, be acceptable to thee." Again purifying the spot in the same manner as before, and with the same words addressed to the deceased, he silently puts iragrant fiowers, resin, alighted lamp, betel-leaves, and similar things, on the funeral cake, and then pre- sents a woollen yarn, naming the deceased, and saying, "May this apparel, made of woollen yarn, be acceptable to thee." He next * The recital of tliese verses is specially directed by va.inyawalcya, B ,*}. v. 7, &c. ** Tiie purpose of his carrying a staff is to scare evil spirits and ghosts. *** Sesaiiiiim Indimm, linn. i)F T>rE HINDUS. KH offers an caitlioii vessel full of liln and water near the funeral cake, and says, "May this vessel of lilu and water be acceptable to thee." It is customary to set apart on a leaf some food for the crows, after which the cake and other things which have been offered must be thrown into the water. This ])art of the ceremony is then con- cluded by wipini;- the ground , and offering tliereon a lamp , water, and wreaths of ilowers, naming the deceased with each oblation, and saying, "May this be acceptable to thee." Fn the evening of the same day, water and milk must be suspencbMl in earthen vessels before tlie door, in honour of tlie deceased, Avith this address to him, "Such a one deceased ! bathe here ; drink this :" and the same ceremony may be repeated every evening until tlie period of mourning expire. When the persons who attended the funeral return home and approach the house-door (before the ceremony of suspending water and milk, but after the other rites aliove-mentioned), they each liite three leaves of?iir}iba''-' between tlyir teeth, sip water, and touch a brancli of .sv/ ;///*"•'• -witli llicir right hands, while the priest sayy, "May the saini tree atone for sins." Each mourner then touches fire, while the priest says, "May tire grant us happiness;" and stand- ing between a bull and a goat, touches both those animals while the j)riest recites an a])propriatc prayer. •'''^'* Then, after touching the tip of a blade o? di'irvd grass, a piece of coral, some clarified butter, water, cow-dung, and white mustard -seed, or rubbing his head and lind)s with the butter and nnistard seed, each man stands on a stone, while the priest says for him, "May 1 be iirm like this stone;" and thus he enters his house. During ten days, funeral cakes, together with libations of water and lil]itabl(' to thee." During this jieriod, a jiebble wrapt up in a tVagiiieiit of the deceased's sliroud is worn by the heir .supended on * Mrlid Aiiiilirnilita, i,ix\. ** Aiifiiiinthera ticuleata, or I'losopis uvidcalu. *** I must for the present omit it, because it is not cihibited at full length in aiiv work I Iiavc vet consullcd. 102 ON Tiir, iu;i,i(ii(ju.s cerkmonies his neck. To that jicbble, iia ;i type of tlie deccasetl, the funeral cakes ai'e offeretl. 'J'he same vessel in which the first ohhitiou was made must be usctl throughout tlie period of iliouruliig; this vessel, therefore, is also carried by the heir in the fraguient of the shroud. lie uses that slip of cloth taken from the winding-sheet as a sacri- ficial cord, and makes the oblations every day on the same spot; should either the vessel or the pebble be lost by any accident , the offerings must be recommenced. If the mourning last three days only, ten funeral cakes must be nevertheless ottered, three on the first and third days, and four on the second; if it lasts no more than one day, the ten oblations must be made at once. All the kinsmen of the deceased, within the sixth degree of con- sanguinity, should fast for three days and nights, or one at the least; however, if that be impracticable, they may eat a single meal at night, purchasing the food ready prepared, but on no account pre- paring victuals at home. So long as the mourning lasts, the nearest relations of the deceased must not exceed one daily meal, nor eat fleshraeat, nor any food seasoned with factitious salt; they must use a plate made of the leaves of any tree but the plantain, or else take their food from the hands of some other persons; tlicy must not handle a knife, or any other implement made of iron, nor sleep upon a bedstead, nor adorn their persons, but remain srj^ualid , and refrain from perfumes and other gratifications; they must likewise omit the daily ceremonies of ablution and divine worship. On the third and fifth days , as also on the seventh and ninth , the kinsmen assemble, bathe in the open air, offer lila and water to the deceased, and take a repast together; they place lamps at cross roads, and in their own houses, and likewise on the way to the cemetery, and they observe vigils in honour of the deceased. On the last day of mourning, or earlier in those countries Avliere the obse(|uies are expedited on the second or third day, the nearest kinsman of the deceased gathers his ashes after oft'ering a sriuhClui singly for him. In the first place, the kinsman smears with co\y-dung the spot where the oblation is to be presented ; and after washing his hands and feet, sipping water, and taking up cusa grass in his hand, he sits down on a cushion pointed towards the south and placed upon a blade of cusa grass , the tip of which must also point towards the south. He then places near him a bundle of riisa grass, consecrated by pronouncing tlie word Namah! or else prepares a fire for oblations ; then lighting a lamp with clarified butter or with oil of sesamum, and arranging the food and other things intended to be offered, he must sprinkle himself with water, meditating on visiixu surnamed the lotos-eyed, or revolving in his mind tliis verse, "Whether pure or defiled, or wherever he may have gone, he wLo remembers the OF Tin; iii.NUUs. JilH being whotie eyes ;iio like the lolos, bliall be pure externally aiul internally." Sliil'ting the sacerdotal cordon his right shoulder, he takes uj) a brush ol' cuba grass, and presents water together with lihi and with blossoms, nanilng tlie deceased and the Caniily from whicii he s|trung, and saying, "i\Iay this water for ablutions be acceptable to tlici'," Then saying, "May this be right," he pronounces a vow or solrnm declaration. "This day I will ofler on a binidle oi' cusa grass (or, ii'such b(^ the custom, "on lire") a siadtClui for a single person, with unboiled food, togetlier with clarilied butter and with water, preparatory' to the gathering of the bones of such a one de- ceased." The priests answering "do so," he says "««wjo/ iiama/t!'''' while the jtriests meditate tlie Gaijalri^ and thrice re])eat, "Salutation to the Gods, to tlie manes of ancestors, and to mighty saints ; to svva'ha [goddess of fire]; to Swadlid [the food of the manes] : salu- tation unto them for over and ever." lie then presents a cushion made of cusd grass, naming the deceased, ami saying, "]\lay thisbe acceptable unto tliee ; " and afterwards distriliutes meal of sesamum, while the priests recite, "May the demons and fierce giants that sit on this consecrated spot be dispersed: and the bloodthirsty savages that inhabit the earth, may they go to any other place to which their inclinations may lead them." I'lacing an oval vessel with its narrowest end towards the south, he takes up two blades of grass, and breaking off a span's length, throws them into the vessel; and after sprinkling them with water, nnikes a libation , while the priests say, "May divine waters be auspicious to us for accumulation, for gain, and for refreshing draughts; may they listen to us, and grant that we may be asso- ciated with good auspices." lie then throws in ///<(, while the priests say, "Thou art iHu, sacred to soma; framed by the divinity, thou dost produce celestial bliss [for him that makes oljlations|; mi.Ked with water, mayest thou long satisfy our ancestors with the food of the manes: be this oblation eflicacious." lie afterwards silently casts into the vessel perfumes, flowers, and durvd grass. Then taking up the vessel Avitli his left hand, putting two blades of grass on the cushion with their tips pointed to the north, he must pour the water from the anjliu thereon. The ])riests meantime recite, "The waters in heaven, in the atmosphere, and on the earth, have been united [by their sweetness] Avith milk: may those silver waters, worthy of oblation, be auspicious, salutary, and ex- hilarating to us; and be hapj)ily offered: may this oblation be effi- cacious." He adds "««/»«///," and pours out the water, naming the deceased, and saying, "I\Iay this urfjlui bo acceptable unto thee." Then oversetting the vess(;l,and arranging in due order the unboiled rice, condiments, clarified butter, and other re((uisites, he scatters lila, while the priests recite, "Thrice did vi.snxi; step," &c. He 101 ON THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES next oflcrs tlie rice, clarified butter, water, and eoudiraents, while he touches the vessel with his left hand, and names the deceased, saying, "INFay this raw food, with clarilicd butter and condiments, together with water, be acceptable unto thee." After the priests have repeated the Gaijdlri, preceded by the names of the worlds, he pours honey or sugar upon the rice, while they recite this prayer : "May the winds blow sweet, tlie rivers flow sweet, and salutary herbs be sweet, unto us; may night be sweet , may the mornings pass sweetly ; may the soil ot the earth , and heaven , parent [of all productions] , be sweet unto us; may [soma] king of herbs and trees be sweet; may tlie sun be sweet, may kinc be sweet unto us." lie then says, '■'■ NannJ! namahV while the priests recite, "Whatever may be delicient in this food, whatever may be imperfect in this rite, whatever may be wanting in its form, may all that become faultless." He should then feed the Brdhmanm whom he has assembled, either silently distributing food among them, or adding a respectful invitation to them to eat. When he has given them water to rince their mouths, he may consider the deceased as fed through their intervention. The priests again recite the (Uhialri and the prayer, "May the winds blow sweet," &c. , and add the subjoined prayers, which should be followed by the music of tlagelcts, lutes, drums , &c. 1. "The embodied spirit, which hath a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, stands in the human breast, while he totally pervades the earth." 2. "That being is this universe, and all that has been or will be; he is that which grows by nourish- ment, and he is the distributor of imnmrtality." 3. "Such is his greatness; and therefore is he the most excellent embodied spirit: the elements of the universe are one portion of him ; and three portions of him are immortality in heaven." 4. "That threefold being rose above [this world]; and the single portion of him remained in this universe, which consists of what does, and what does not, taste [the reward of good and bad actions]: again he pervaded the universe." 5. "From him sprung vira'j * ; from whom [the first] man was produced : and he , being successively re])ro- duced, peopled the earth." 6. "From that single portion, surnamed the universal sacrifice, was the holy oblation of butter and curds produced; and this did frame all cattle, wild or domestic, which are governed by instinct." 7- "From that universal sacrifice were produced the strains of the Rich and Sdman; from him the sacred metres sprung; i'rom him did the rajitsh proceed." 8. "From him were produced horses and all beasts that have two rows of teeth; from him sprung cows; from him proceeded goats and sheep." *Seu translation of menu, Ch. i. v. '62. oi' riii; HINDUS. 105 9. "Iliiii i1h! rioils, tlio (l(Mnij;<)(ls naiinMl Suiriuja, aud tlio holy ^ajit's, consecrated''' as a victim nn sacred j^rass; and tlius [)orf'orinod a solemn act of religion." 10. "Into how many jjortions did they divide this being whom they iiinnolatcdV what did his mouth l)e- conu^ V wliat are his arms, his thighs, and his I'eet now called V" II. ''His mouth becaiim a priest; his arm was made a s(ddier; his thigh was transformed into a husbandman; from his feet sprung the servile man." \'l. "'JMie moon was jnoduccd from his mind; the sun sjtrung from his eye; air and breath jtroceeded from his ear; and lire rose from liis mouth." j;^. "The subtile elenujnt was pro- duced from his navel; the sky from his head; the earth from his feet; and space from his ear: thus did he frame worlds." 14. "In that solenni sacrifice which the Gods ])erformed with him as a victim, spring was the butter, summer the fuel, and sultry weatln-r the oblation." J5. "Seven were the moats [surrounding the altar]; thrice seven were the logs of holy fuel; at that sacrifice which the frtjds jierformed, binding this being as tlu; victim." ip. "By (hat sacriiice the Gods worshipped this victim: such were primeval du- ties; and thus did they attain heaven, where former Gods and mighty demigods abide."** Next spreading n/.vrt grass near the fragments of the repast, and taking some unboiled rice with lila and clarilied butter, he must distribute it on the grass, while the priests recite for him these prayers: "IMay those in my family who have been burnt by fire, or who are alive and yet unluirnt, b(^ satisfied with this food j)resented on the ground, and proceed contented towards the su))reme jiath [of eternal bliss]. May those who have no father nor mother, nor kinsman, nor food, nor supjily of nourishment, be contented -with this food oUV'red on the ground, and attain, like it, a ha]ipy abode." lie then gives thii /irr'/hmd/'ias water to rince their mouths; and the priests once more recite the Gdi/alri and the prayer, "May the winds blow sweet," &c. Then taking in his left hand another vessel containing lila blos- soms and water, and in his right a brusli made oi' cit!>a grass, 1h^ sprinkles water over the grass spread on the consecrated sjiot, naming the deceased, and saying, "I\I;iy this ablution be acce])tabl(^ to thee:" he afterwards takes a cake or ball of food mixed with clarified butter, and jtresents it, saying, "May this cake be ac- ceptable to thee;" and deals out the food with this praycu*: "An- cestors, rejoice; take your respective shares, and be strong as * Literally, "iminolatoil ;" liTit (ho cnmnu'iitator .says, "coiiscciatcd.'' ** I (Iiiiik it uiiiHH-fs^arv to iiuntc iVom llii- cniiniu'iitary (liu ex])laiiatioii of tills curidiis passaLTP of tlic! Cri/t/ hh it is tiicro pivcii, liei;aiis(' it does not really elucidate the si-iisc; the allofjory is, for tJic most part, sullicit'iitly ob- vious. Other prayers may Itc also recited on the same oecaaion: it would be tedious to insert tiiem all in tliis place. 106 ON THE UELICilOUS CEREMONIES built:." Then w alking louml by tlio Irit t<> the northern side of the cousecratetl spot, juitl metlitating , "Ancestors be gUiil ; take your resp(Httivo shares and be strong as bulls, " lie returns by the same road, and again s})rinklcs water lains as sigiiifyinj,'' cattle, literally means "fit to be tied to a pole or stake." The readinj;' of the next term was errone- ous. I read and translated parisruta i'or puiisruin; "promised" instead of "distilled." The commentator explains it as siijrnifying- the nouiishmunt of progenitors. OF Tin; lllNDirS. HIT After the priest has thrice said, ".Salutatiuii t<. llic Gods, tn pro- geuitors, to mi^^hty saints," Sec, lie dismisses him; li-;hts a lamp in houour of the deceased; meditates on ukui with undiverted atti-n- tion; casts the food and otlier thinj^s used at the ol>seqiiies intt> the lire; and then iiroceedsto the cemetery for thepurpose ofgather- \u'^ the ashes of the deceased. The sou or nearest relation of the defunct, accompanied 1»y his kinsmen, and clothed in clean apparel, repairs to the cemetery, carrying;- eij;ht vessels lilhtd witli various ilowers, roots, and similar things. When arrived there , he does honour to the place by pre- senting an anjha , with perfumes, blossoms, fragrant resins, a lamii, i^c. .Some of his kinsmen invoke the deities of the cemetery, when the argha is presented; others, when liowers are oft'ered; others again, when food, fragrant resins, a lighted lamj) , water, wreaths of flowers, and rice are ofiered, saying, "Salutation to the deities whose moutlis are devouring tire." lie advances to the northern gate* or extremity of the funeral pile, sits down there, and presents two vessels as an oblation to spirits, with this prayer, "May the adorable and eternal Gods, who are present in this ce- metery, accept from us tliis eight-fold unperishable oblation: may they convey the deceased to pleasing aud eternal aliodes, and grant to us life, health, and perfect ease. This eight-fold oblation is ottered to .siVA and other deities: salutation unto them." Then walking round the spot with his right side towards it, he succes- sively places two other vessels, containing eight difi'ennit things, at each of three other gates or sides of the enclosure which sur- rounds the funeral pile ; and he presents these oblations with the same formality as before, sprinkles them witli milk, and adds, ''^lay SIVA and the other deities (lejjart to their respective abodes.'' lie then shifts the sacerdotal string to his right shoulder, turns his face towards the south , silently sprinkles the bones aud ashes with cow's milk, and, using a branch oi' sami and another oi' paldsn'--'^' instead nf tongs, lirst draws out from the ashes the bones of tho, head , and afterwards the other bones successively, sprinkles them with per- fumed liquids aud with clarified butter made of cow's milk, aud puts them into a casket made of the leaves of the />rt/^/,s'rt; this he places in a new earthen vessel, covers it with a lid, and ties it up with thread. Clioosing ijome clean spot where encroachments of the river are not to be apprehended, he digs a very deep hole, and spreads nisa grass at the bottom of it, and over the grass a piece of yellow cloth; he jdaces thereon the earthen vessel containing the bones of the deceased, covers it with a lump of mud, together with * The practice of cnclosinn^ the funeral pile with temporary walls is almost nnivers.-illy (li.siisccl. ** BuLca frundosn, i.i.n.n. ; ami auiJciOa, imxu. 108 ON Tin: RELIGIOUS CEREMONIKS thorn;;, inoss and iiuul, and plants a tree in the excavation, or raises a nionnd of masonry, or makes a pond, (u- erects a standard. He, and tlie rest of the kinsmen, then Iiallie in their ch)thes. At a subsequent time, the son or other near relation fills up the excava- tion and levels the ground; he throws the ashes of the funeral pile info the water, cleans the spot with cow-dung and Avater, pre- sents (dilation to siVA and other deities in tlie manner lieforemen- tioned, dismisses those deities, and casts tlie oblation into water. To cover the spot where the funeral pile stood, a tree should be planted, or a mound of masonry be raised, or a pond be dug, or a standard be erected.* Again, at a subsequent time, the son, or other near relation , carries the bones , which were so buried , to the river Ganges: he bathes there, rubs the vessel with the five pro- ductions of kine, puts gold, honey, clarified butter and Hla on the vessel, and looking towards the south, and advancing into the river, with these words, "Be there salutation unto justice," throws the vessel into the waters of the Ganges, saying, "May he (the deceased) be pleased with me." Again bathing, he stands upright, and contemplates the sun; then sipping water, and taking up cusa grass, ///«, and water, pays the priests their fees. So long as mourning lasts after gathering the ashes, the near relations of the deceased continue to offer water with the same for- malities and prayers as abovcmentioned, and to refrain from facti- * This (Iocs not appear to he very uuiversally practised; hut a moiiumeiit is always erectetl on tlie spot where a woman has hurnt herself with her hus- band's corpse, or where any person has died a le^al voluntary death. A mau- soleum is, however, often built in honour of a Hindu prince or noble; it is called in the Hindustani lan!juaeen shown, this bed and furni- ture, which has been duly honoured, and which is sacred to vishnu." 2, "This day T give unto thee (so and so) this gold, sacred to lire, as a sacerdotal fee, for the sake of coniirming the donation I have made of this bed and furniture." The Brahmana both times replies, "He it well." Then lying upon the bed, and touching it with the upper jiart oi'liis middle-finger, he meditates the Gayalri^xWh suitable jtravers, adding, "This lied is sacred to visiixr." VVitli the same ceremonies, and with similar formal declarations, he next gives away to a Brahmana (or more commonly , in both instances, to a married couple) a golden image of the deceased, or else a golden idol, or Ijoth, with clothes and various sorts of fruit. 'Afterwards he distributes other presents among Brdlimai'ias, for the greater honour of the deceased: making donations of land, and giving a chair or stool, clothes, water, food, betel-leaf, a lamj), gold, silver, a parasol, an (u-chard ol' fruit trees, wreaths oi' flowers, a pair of shoes, another bed, another milch cow, and any other pre- sents he may choose to give, such as an elephant, a horse, a carriage, a slave, a house, and so forth. ' It is hardly necessary to remark on this (juotation, tliai none buf very rich or superstitious jjersons make these ample donations, which are not positively enjoined, though strenuou.sly recommended. ilifTer mncli. Those wliicli aro traiisliitcd in tlie jirc.seut ami former o.ssays are mostly taken from the }'fijtiri«'rfa , and may he used by any /frii/iiiirv. instead of the prayers direeted in the jiarticul.ar I'l'ila, by whieli he shonld n^tfularly be. fxnided, Tlu' subject of bislratioiis is nirioiis; they are )>er- formed with varion.s ceremonies, to avert calamities or to ohvi.-ite disappoint- ments. Slinnld other en},'a)^ements permit it, this topic will be treated in a future essay. 112 ox Tin: lUCLIGIOUS CEREMONIES There is some difforoiico in tlie religious formalitios witli wliicli various tilings are given or accepted, on this or on any other occa- sion. In the formal declaration, too, a dil'lerent tutelary Deity is named, and a different ohject is specified; but, in other respects, the I'orni of the declaration is similar, whatever be the occasion on which the gift is made. In making a donation of land, the donor sits down with his face to the east, opposite to the person to whom he gives it. The donor says, "Salutation to this land with its produce; salutation to this priest, to whom I give it." Then, after sliowing him lionour in the usual form, he pours water into his hand, saying, "I give thee this land with its produce." The other replies, "Give it." Upon which he sprinkles the place with water; and taking up water, with holy basil and riisa grass, he pours the water into the other's hand, mak- ing a formal declaration of the donation and the motive of it. He then delivers a bit of gold , with ciisa grass , &c., declaring his pur- pose in giving it, as a sacerdotal fee, to consolidate the donation of land. The other accepts the gift by a verbal acknowledgment, and meditates the Gayalri with some other prayers. A chair or stool is accepted by sitting down on it ; clothes , by putting them on; a parasol , by holding the handle of it ; shoes or sandals, by standing on them; and a couch, l)y lying on it. In these and other donations there is no variation in the prayers; but the gift of a milch cow is made with other texts, which the donor re- cites standing near the cow, and making a libation of water from the palms of his hands after the recital of each prayer. The gift is accepted by holding tlie animal's tail. 1, "j\Iay the Goddess, wlio is the lacshmi of all beings and resides among the Gods, assume the shape of a milch cow and procure me comfort." 2. "May the Goddess who is rudrani in a corporeal form, and who is the beloved of siva , assume the shape of a milch cow and procure me comfort," 3. "May she, who is lacsiimi reposing on the bosom of visiinu; she, who is the lacsiimi of the regent of riches; she, who is the lacsiimi of kings, be a boon-granting cow to me." 4. "May she, who is the lacsiimi of T!UAiima; she, who is • swa'ha', the wife of fire; she, who is tlie exerted power of the sun, moon, and stars, assume the shape of a milch cow for [my] prosper- ity.'" 5. "Since thou art SpMuVhd [the food] of them, who are chief among the manes of ancestors, and swa'iia [the consuming power] of them, who eat solemn sacrifices; therefore, being the cow that expiates every sin, procure me comfort." 6. "I invoke the Goddess who is endowed with the attributes of all the Gods, who confers all happiness, Avho bestows [abodes iu| all the worlds for the sake of all people." 7. "I pray to that ans})icious Goddess for immortality and happiness." The remaining ceremonies, omitting for the present the oonsecra- OF THE HINDUS. 1 13 tion of a bull , consist chiefly in the obsequies called srdddlias. The iirst set of funeral cereinonies is adapted to effect, by means of oblations, the reinibodyin^jj of the soul of tlie deceased, after burniuji; his corpse. The apparent scope of the second set is to raise his shade from this world (where it would else, according to the notions of the Hindus, continue to roam among demons and evil spirits) up to heaven, and there deify him, as it were, among the manos of departed ancestors. For this end, a srnihVlia shoukl regularly be offered to the deceased on the day after mourning expires; twelve other snuUfhas singly to the deceased in twelve successive months; similar obsequies at the end of the third fortnight , and also in the sixth montb, and in the twelfth; and the oblation called Sapu'if'/dfia, oil the first anniversary of his decease. In most provinces the pe- riods for these sixteen ceremonies, and for the concluding obsequies entitled Sapinllana ^ are anticipated, and the whole is completed on the second or third day; after which they are again performed at the proper times, but in honour of the whole set of progenitors in- stead of the deceased singly. The obsequies intended to raise the shade of the deceased to heaven are thus completed. Afterwards a sniihCha is annually ofl'ered to him on the anniversary of his decease. The form of the various sitidil'/ias (for they are numerous'-') is so nearly the same, that it will be only necessary to describe that which is performed in lionour of progenitors in general; and at which three funeral cakes are offered to throe paternal ancestors; as many to tlu'cc maternal forefathers, and two to the J'is/rrdi'vas or assembled Gods. A sraddlui in honour of one person singly has been already noticed. After smearing the place with cow-dung, a square altar of sand is raised on it, one or two fingers high, and a span nearly in each direction. (It must be triangular at the obse([uies of one recently defunct.) The person who performs the ceremony, first washes * In a work entitled \irnei/(i Sind'Itu 1 find aiitlioritv for classing obsequies under twelve lieads. 1 . Daily obsequies, eitlier with food or with water only, in liononr of ancestors in ^^eneral, l)iit exclndins' tlie Visircdevas '1. Obse- quies for a special cause; that is, in honour of n kinsman recently defunct. •{. Voluntary obsequies, performed by way of supererogation, for tlie greater benefit of the doceaseil. -l. Obsequies for increase of ])rosperity , performed upon any accession of wealth or pr(>s]K,'rity, and upon other joyful dccasinns. r>. A .sriidiP/ta intended to introduce the shade of a deceased kinsman to the rest of the manes, (i. Obsequies jjorfornied on ajipointed da^'S, such as that of new moon, full moon, sun's passage into a new sign, '/v//iam JONES, in his observations on the lunar year of the Hindus (As. Res. vol. iii, p. 258), specifies Tapas and Tapasya, the lunar (not the solar) Mfkjha and Plu'ikjuna, as corresponding with 'Sisira: that is, with the dewy season. The text in question shall be subjoined to this note, because it may serve to prove that the Veda ^ from which it is extracted (apastamba.',s copy of the Yajni^veda usually denominated the black Tajush), cannot be much older than the observation of the colures recorded by tara'sara (see As. Res. vol. ii, p. 268, and 3!)3) , which must have been made nearly ]391 years before the Christian era (As. Res. vol, v, p. 288). According to the Veda, the lunar Mad^liu and MMliava, or Chaifra and Vaisuc'Iia, correspond with Vasaula or the spring. Now the lunar ChaUra^ here meant, is the primary lunar month, beginning from the conjunction which precedes full moon in or near Chilra , and ending with the conjunction which follows it. Vaisacha does in like manner extend from the conjunction which precedes full moon in or near Visaclid to that which follows it. The five nacshairas , Ilasla, Chiliad, S/vdti, Visdclid and Anurddlid, comprise all the asterisms in which the full moons of Cliailra and Vaisdcha can happen; and these lunar months may therefore fluctuate between the first degree of Ultara F liahjuni and the last of JyeshVhd. Consequently the season of J'asanla might begin at soonest when the sun was in the middle of Pi'/rva Bliadrapada, or it might end at latest when the sun was in the middle of Miugasiras. Tt appears, then, that the limits of Vasatila are Pisces and Taurus; that is Mi>ia and Vrtsha. (This corresponds with a text which I shall forthwith quote from a very ancient Hindu author.) Now if the place of the equinox did then correspond Avith the position assigned by para'sara to the colures, Vasanta might end at the soonest seven or eight days after the equinox , or at latest thirty- eight or thirty-nine days; and on a medium (that is when the full moon happened in the middle of Chilrd) , twenty -two or tAventy- three days after the vernal equinox. This agrees exactly Avith the real course of the seasons; for the rains do generally begin a Aveek before the summer solstice, but their commencement does vary, in different years, about a fortnight on either side of that period. It seems therefore a probable inference, that such Avas the position of tlie equinox when the calendar of months and seasons Avas adjusted as described in this passage of the Veda. Hence I infer the pro- OP THK HINDUS. 127 li.'iliilifv, tliat tlio J'l-ilas wore not arranf^od in tlicir proHcnt form carlltT than the rourtccntli coutnry bol'oro tlio Christian ora. This, it must he aukimwledged , is vague and conjectural: hut, if tlie Vedas were compiled in India so early as the commencement of the astronomical Cit/i >/ii{/a ^ the seasons must have then corres})ond(Ml with other months; and the passage of the J'nla ^ which shall li(> forthwith cited, must have disagreed with the natural course of the seasons at the very time it was written. I shall now qnote the jiassage so often alluded to in this note. " ,l/«r/V»/.s' c/iu Mudhitvns clt}da)ia : "The lunar month also is of two sorts, commencing either with the light fortnight or with the dark one. Some do not admit the month which begins with the dark fortnight; and oven by them who do, it is not admitted on the south of the Viiid'hya mountains. '' V. On the RELIGIOUS ceremonies of the Hindus, and of the BRAHMENs especially. ESSAY III. [From tlie Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. p. 288 — 311. Calcutta, 1801. 4to. Hospitality has been already mentioned in the preceding Essay, as one of the five great sacraments which constitute the daily duty of a Hindu. The formal reception of such guests as are entitled to peculiar honour was reserved for the subject of the present tract. The religious rites, intermixed with acts of courtesy, which are practised by way of formal hospitality, are nearly the same, whether it be high rank, a venerable profession, or cordial friendship, which entitles the guest to be welcomed with distinction. They chiefly consist in presenting to him a stool to sit on, water for ablutions, and honey mixed with other food for refreshment. It seems to have been anciently the custom to slay a cow on this occasion; and a guest was therefore called gnyhna, or cow-killer. Imperfect traces of this custom remain in the hospitable ceremonies which I shall now describe from the ritual of Brahmanas who use the Sdmaveda. As the marriage ceremony opens with the solemn reception of the bridegroom by the father of the bride, this part of the nuptial solemnity may be fitly chosen as an example of hospitable rites. It will furnish occasion too, for proceeding to describe the Avhole of the marriage ceremony. Having previously performed the obscc^iiies of ancestors, as is usual upon any accession of good fortune, the father of the bride sits down to await the bridegroom's arrival, in the apartment pre- j)ared for the purpose; and at the time chosen for it, according to the rules of astrology. The jewels and other presents intended for him are placed there; a cow is tied on the northern side of the apartment; and a stool or cushion, and other furniture for the re- ception of the guest, are arranged in order. On his approach, the bride's father rises to welcome him, and recites the following prayer, OF Tui; iiiNDrs. 129 vliilfi tlio, hridogrotiin stands Itoforo liini: "May slie [who supplies oblatiun.s tur] religious wursliip, wlio constantly follows her call", and who was the thi^ uiilcli cow when yama was [the votary], abound with milk, and fulfil our wishes, year after year.'' This juayor is seemingly intended for the consecration of the cow, which is let loose in a auljse([uent stage of the ceremony, instead of slaying her, as appears to have been anciently the custom. The commentator, whose gloss has been followed in this version of the text, introduces it by the remark, that a guest entitled to honourable reception is a spiritual preceptor, a priest, an ascetic, a prince, a In-idegroom, a friend, or in short any one, to welcome whose arrival a cow must be tied for the purpose of slaying her, whence a guest In denominated (/nti/iiia, or cow-killer. The prayer seems to contain an allusion, which 1 cannot better explain than by quoting a passage from ca'liij.\sa's poem entitled Hughiimnsa, where vasisht'ha informs the knig dilipa that the cow sukabui, who was offended by his neglect, cannot be now appeased by courtesy shown to herself, because she remains in a place inaccessible to him: "praohktas is performing a tedious sacrifice; to supply the oblations of which, .suKABiii now abides in the infernal region, whose gates are guarded liy huge serpents. "' After the prayer above-mentioned has been meditated, the bride- groom sits down on a stool or cushion, which is presented to him. lie first recites a text of the Yajurveda: "I step on this for the sake of food and other benefits, on this variously splendid footstool.' The bride's father presents to him a cushion made of twenty leaves of cusu grass, holding it up with both hands, and exclaiming, "The cushion! the cusliion ! the cusliion!" The bridegroom replies, "I accept the cushion,'' and, taking it, places it on the ground under his feet, while he recites the foHowiug prayer: " ]\Iay those plants over which ,s<'>ma presides, and which are variously dispersed on the earth, incessantly grant me happiness while this cushion is placed under my feet." Another is prc^sented to him , which he accepts in the same manner, saying, "May those numerous plants over which si')MA presides, and which arc salutary a hundred different ways, incessantly grant me happiness while I sit on this cushion." Instead of these prayers, vhicli are peculiar to the Brdlmiamis that use the Si'imavcda ^ the following text is commonly recited: "1 obscure my rivals, as the sun does other luminaries; 1 tread on this, as the type of him who injures me." The bride's father next offers a vessel of wat(u-, thrice exclaiming, "Water for aldutionsi" The bridegrofvm declares his acceptance of it, and looks into tlu; vessel, saying, "Generous water! I view thee; return in the form of fertilizing rain from bini, from whom tiiou dost proceed:" that is, from the sun; for it is acknowledged, says the connnentator , that rain proceeds from vapours raised liy the ii 130 ON THE RKLIGIOUS CEREMONIES heat of tlie sun. The bridegroom takes up water in the pahns of both liands joined together, and tlirowsitonhis left foot, saying, "I wash my left foot, and fix prospcM'ity intliis realm :'' he also throws water on his nthorfoot, saying, "J wash my right foot, and introduceprosperity into this realm:" andhethen tlu-DWs water on both feet, saying, "1 wash tirst one and then the other, and lastly both feet, that the realm may thrive and intrepidity be gained." The following is the text of the Yajush, which is generally used instead of the preceding prayers: "Thou dost afford various elegance; I accept thee, who dost so: afford it for the ablution of my feet." An urghya (that is, water, rice, and durvd grass, in a conch, or in a vessel shaped like one, or rather like a boat) is next presented to the bridegroom in a similar manner, and accepted by him Avith equal formality. He pours the Avater on his own head, saying, "Thou art the splendour of food; through thee may I become glori- ous." This prayer is taken from the Yajush: but tlie followers of that Veda use different texts, accepting the arghya with this prayer, "Ye are waters («p) ; through you may I obtain {dj)) all my wishes :" and pouring out the water with this text, "I dismiss you to the ocean : return to your source, harmless iintome, most excellent waters ! but my beverage is not poured forth. " A vessel of water is then offered by the bride's father, who thrice exclaims, ''Take water to be sipped:" the bridegroom accepts it, saying, "Thou art glorious, grant me glory;" or else, "Conduct me to glory, endue me with splendour, render me dear to all people, make me owner of cattle, and preserve me unhurt in all my limbs." The bride's father fills a vessel Avith honey, curds, and clarified butter; he coA^ers it with another vessel, and presents it to the bride- groom, exclaiming three times, "Take the madlutparca.'^ The bride- groom accepts it, places it on the ground, and looks into it, saying, "Thou art glorious; may I become so." He tastes the food three times, saying, "Thou art the sustenance (if the glorious; thou art the nourishment of the splendid: thou art the food of the fortunate; grant me prosperity." He then silently eats until he be satisfied. Although these texts be taken from the Yajush, yet other prayers from the same Veda are used by tlie sects which folloAv it. While looking into the vessel, the bridegroom says, "I view thee Avith the eye of the sun [who draAvs unto himself Avhat he contemplates]." On accepting the madliuparca the bridegroom says, "Itakethee« with the assent of the generous sun; Avitli the arms of both sons of Ahvitii: with the hands of the cherishing luminary. " He mixes it, saying, "May I mix thee, venerable present! and remove what- ever might be Imrtful in the eating of thee." He tastes it three times, saying, "May I eat that sweet, host, and nourishing form of honey; Avhich is the SAveet, best, and nourishing form of honey; and may I thus become excellent, SAveet-tempcrod, and Avell nourished OF Tin; HINDI'S. 131 by food." After eating until ho l»o satisfied, and after sipjjing water, be tonclies his numth and otiier jtarts of his body with his hand, saying, "May there be speecli in my mouth, breath in my nostrils, sight in my eye-balls, hearing in my ears, strength in my arms, firmness in my thighs; may my limbs and members remain unhurt together with my soul."' Presents suitable to tlie rank of the parties are then presented to the guest. At the marriage ceremony, too, the bride is formally given by her father to the bridegroom, in this stage of the .s(demnity according to some rituals, but later according to others. The hos- pitable rites are then concluded by letting loose the cow at the intercession of the guest. A barber who attends for that purpose, exclaims, "The cow! the cow!" Upon which the guest pronounces this text: "Release the cow from the fetters of varun'a. May she subdue my foe : may she destroy the enemies of both him (the host) [and me]. Dismiss the cow, that she may eat grass and drink water." When the cow has been released the guest thus addresses her: "I have earnestly entreated this i)rudent perscm [or, accordinij In (i/iiilJicr interprrlalio/i of l/tr lexL each docile person], saying, kill not the innocent harmless cow, who is mother of kudras, daughter of VASUS, sister of a'dityas, and the source of ambrosia." In the Viijurvrda the following prayer is added to this text: "May she i'xi)iate my sins aud his (naming the host). Release her that she may graze." It is evident that the guest's intercessions imply a practice, become obsolete, of slaying a cow for the purpose of hospitality. ^\'hile the bridegroom is welcomed with tliese ceremonies, or more properly before his arrival, the bride bathes during the recital of the following texts. Three vessels of water are severally poured on her head, with three different prayers. ]. "Love! I know thy name. Thou art called an intoxicating beverage. Bring [the bride- groom] hajipily. For thee was framed the inebriating draught. Fire ! thy best origin is here. Through devotion wert thou created. May this oblation be efficacious." 2. "Damsel! I anoint this thy gener- ative organ witli honey, because it is the second mouth of the Cre- ator: by that thou subduest nil males, though unsubdued; by that thou art lively, and dost hold dominion. I\lav this oblation be effi- cacious." ?,. "May the primeval ruling sages, who framed the female organ, as a fire that consumeth fiesh, and thereby framed a procreat- ing juice, grant the prolific power, that proceeds from the three- horned I bull I and from the sun. May this oblation be efficacious." To elucidate tb(> first of these texts the conniientator cites the follow- ing jiassage: "The sage vasisht'ha, the regent of the moon, the ruler of heaven, the ])recei>tor of the Gods, and the great forefather of all l)eings, however old in the practice of devotion and old by the progress of age, were diduded bi,- women. Liquors distilb'd 1 32 ON TIIK RELIGIOUS CKREMONIES from sugar, from grain, and from the IjIossoius of Bassia, are three sorts of intoxicating drinks : the fourth is woman , by whom this world is dchidiid. One who contemplates a beautiful woman becomes intoxicated, and so does he Avho quaffs an inebriating beverage : Avoman is called an inebriating draught, because she intoxicates by her looks." To explain the second text, the -same author quotes a passage of the Veda, intimating that bkaiima has two mouths; one containing all holiness, the other allotted for the production of all beings: 'for they are created from his mouth.' After the bridegroom has tasted the Madhuparca presented to him, as above-mentioned, the bride's right hand is placed on his, both having been previously rubbed with turmeric or some other auspiciovis drug. A matron must bind both hands Avith chsu grass amidst the sound of cheerful music. To this part of the ceremony the author of the poem entitled Naishadldija has very prettily alluded, in describing the marriage of NALAandoAMAYANTi (b. xvi. v. 13 & 14.) 'As he tasted the Mad' hnparca , which was presented to him, those spectators who had foresight reflected, "He has begun the ceremonies of an auspicious day, because he will quaff the honey of bhaimi's lip. The bridegroom's hand exults in the slaughter of foes; the bride's hand has purloined it« beauty from the lotos; it is for that reason probably that, in this well-governed realm of Viderbha , both [guilty] hands are fast bound with strong ciisa. ' " The bride's father, bidding the attendant priests begin their acclamations, such as "happy day! auspicious be it! prosperity attend! blessings!" &c., takes a vessel of water containing ///a* and ciisa** grass, and pours it on the hands of the bride and bride- groom, after uttering the words, "W;h ial salf "God the existent!" and after repeating at full length the names and designations of tlie bridegroom, of the bride, and of himself; and then solemnly declar- ing, "I give unto thee tliis damsel adorned with jewels and protected by the lord of creatures." The bridegroom replies, "Well be it!" The bride's father afterwards gives him a piece of gold , saying, "T this day give thee this gold, as a fee for the purpose of complet- ing the solemn donation made by me." The bridegroom again says, "Well be it!" and then recites this text: "Who gave her? to whom did he give her? Love (or free consent) gave her. To love he gave her. Love Avas the giver. Love Avas the taker. Love ! may this be thine ! With love may I enjoy her'.'" The close of the text is thus varied in the Sdmavcda : "Love has pervaded the ocean. With love I accept Aer. Love! may this be thine." In the common rituals another prayer is directed to bo likewise recited immediately ■ « * Sesamnm Indicum. ** Poa cynosuroides* OF Tin; iiiNDr.s. 133 after thus formally aci-opting the bride: "May the ethereal elempnt give tlioc. May earth accept thee." I?eiiig thus at'lianced , the bride and bridegroom then walk forth, while lie thus addresses her: "May the regents of space, may air, the sun, and fire, dispel tliat anxiety which thou feelest in thy mind, and turn thy heart to me." lie proceeds thus, while they look at each other: "Be gentle in thy aspect and loyal to thy husband; be fortunate in cattle, amiable in thy mind, and beautiful in thy person ; be mother of valiant sons; be fond of delights; be cheerful, and bring prosperity to our bij)cds and quadrupeds. First [in a former birth] SOMA received thee; the sun next obtained tliee; [in successive transmigrations] tlie regent of fire was thy tldrd liusband; thy fourth is a human being, 'soma gave her to the sun; the sun gave her to the regent of fire; fire gave her to me; with her he has given me wealth and male offspring. May she, a most auspicious cause of jjrosperity, never desert me," &c.* It should seem that, according to these rituals, the bridegroom gives a waistcloth and mantl(> to the bride before he is affianced to lier; and the ceremony of tying the skirts of their mantles precedes that of her father's solemnly bestowing her on the bridegroom. But tlie ritual of the Samavcdi priests makes the gift of the damsel pre- cede the tying of the knot; and, inconsistently enougli, directs the mantles to bo tied before the bridegroom has clotliod the bride. After the donation has been accepted as abovementioned, the bride's father should tie a knot in the bridegroom's mantle over the presents given with the bride, while tlie affianced pair are looking at each other. The cow is then released in tlu^ manner before described ; a liltation of water is made; and the bride's father meditates the Gai/alri, and ties a knot with the skirts of the bride's and bride- groom's mantles, after saying, "Ye must be inseparably united in matters of duty , wealth, and love." The bridegroom afterwards clothes the bride with the following ceremonies. He goes to the ]irincipal apartment of the house, prepares a sacri- ficial lire in the usual mode, and hallows tlie implements of sacrifice. A friend of the bridegroom walks round tlie fire, bearing ajar of water, and stops on the south side of it: another does the same, and places himself on the right hand of the first. The bridegroom then casts four double handfuls of rice, mixed with leaves of sami /'"''■ into a Hat basket: near it he jilaces a stone and mullar, after formally touching them, and then entering the house, he causes the bride to be clothed with a new waistcloth and scarf, while he recites the * I omit tlio remainder of tlie text, whicli it would be indecorous to trans- late into a, inoilcrn lanjruage. Tlie literal sense of it is here subjoined in a Latin version : "Ilia redamans accipito fascinnia incum, quod ego peramans intromittain in cam. multic ({ii,\ iilcocbra' sistunt." ** Adenanthera tinilffi/a. 134 ON Tin: KKLIGIOl'S CKREMONIES subjoinrrl prayers: "]\ray those generous women who spun and wound Uie thiead, and wlio wove the warp and weft of this edoth, generously clothe thee to old age: long- lived woman ! put on this raiment." "Clothe her: invest her with apparel: prolong her life to great age. Mayest thou live a hundred years. As long as thou livest, amiable woman! revere [that is, carefully preserve] beauty and wealth. " The first of these prayers is nearly the same with that which is used by the f(dlowers of the Yajush, when the scarf is put on the bride's shoulder. It is preceded by a different one, which is recited while the waistcloth is wrapped round her: "Mayest thou reach old age. Put on this raiment. Be lovely: be chaste. Live a hundred years. Invite [that is, preserve and obtain] beauty, wealth, and male offspring. Damsel! put on this apparel." After- Avards the following prayer is recited: "May the assembled gods unite our hearts. May the waters unite them. May air unite us. May the creator unite us. May the god of love unite us." But, according to the followers of the Sdmavcda , the bridegroom, immediately after the scarf has been placed on tlic bride's shoulder, conducts her towards the sacrificial fire, saying, " son a [the regent of the moon] gave her to the sun:* the sun gave her to the regent of fire: fire has given her to me, and with her, wealth and male offspring." The bride then goes to the western side of the fire and recites the following prayer, while she steps on a mat made of Virana grass** and covered with silk: "May our lord assign me the path by which I may reach the abode of my lord." She sits down on the edge of the mat; and the bridegroom offers six obla- tions of clarified butter, reciting the following prayers, while the bride touches his shoulder with her right hand. 1. "May fire come, first among the gods; may it rescue her oft"spring from the fetters of death; may varuna, king [of waters], grant that this woman should never bemoan a calamity befalling her children." 2. '-May the domestic perpetual fire guard her; may it render her progeny long- lived ; may she never be widowed; may she be mother of surviving children; may she experience the joy of having male offspring." ?,. "May heaven protect thy back; may air, and the- two sons of As'wiNi, protect thy thighs; may the sun protect thy children while sucking thy breast; and vuihaspati protect them until they wear clothes; and afterwards may the assembled gods protect them." 4. "May no lamentation arise at night in thy abode; may crying women enter other houses than thine; mayest thou never admit sorrow to thy breast; mayest thou prosper in thy husband's house, blest with his survival, and viewing cheerful children." 5. "1 lift * GUNAVisHNTi licre explains Gandharba by tlie word Adityo , wliifh may signify the sun, or a deity in general. ** Andropogon arumaticum or muricatwn. OK I 111: iJiNDCs. 135 baiicniic'.ss , the deatli nrcliiltlrcn, sin, and every other evil, a.s I would lilt ii eliaplet oti' thy head; and 1 consign the tetters |ot' pre- mature death] to thy foes." 6. "May death depart from me, and immortality come; may |va.m.v| the child of the sun, render ine fearless. Death! follo-w a ditVcrent patli from that by which we proceed, and from tliat wliicli the gods travel. To thee who seest and who hcarest, I call, saying, hurt nf)t our offspring, nor our pro- genitors. And may tliis oblntion be efiicacious. " The bridegroom then })rcsents oblations, naming the three worlds, separately and conjointly, and otl'ers eitiier four or iive oblations to lire and to the moon. The bride and bridegroom then rise up, and he passes from her left side to her right, and makes her join her hands in a hollow form. The rice,'-' which had been put into a basket, is then taken uj), and the stone is })laced before tlie bride, who treads upon it with the point of her right foot, while the bridegroom recites this prayer: "Ascend tliis stone; be firm like tliis stone; distress my foe, and be not subservient to my enemies." The bridegroom tlien pours a ladleful of clariiied liutter on her hands; another person gives her the rice , and two other ladlefuls of butter are poured over it. She then separates her hands, and lets fall the rice on the fire, wliile the folloAving text is recited: "This Avoman, casting the rice into the fire, says,*May my lord be long lived, may we live a hundred years, and may all my kinsmen prosper: be this oblation efficacious.'' Afterwards the bridegroom walks round the fire, preceded by the bride, and reciting this text: "Tlie girl goes from her jiarents to her husband's abode, having strictly observed abstinence [for three days from factitious salt, &c.] Damsel ! by means of thee we repress foes, like a stream of water." The bride again treads on the stone and makes another oblation of rice, while the subjoined prayer is recited: "'I'he damsel has worshipped the generous sun and the regent of fire; may he and the generous sun liberate her and me from this [family]; be this oblation efficacious." They afterwards walk round the fire as before. Four or five other oblations are made with the same ceremonies and ])rayers, varying only the title of the sun who is here called Pushati, but was entitled Ai-yuman in the preced- ing prayer. The bridegroom then pours rice out of the basket into the fire, after pouring one or two ladlefuls of butter on the edge of the basket; with this offering he simply says, '\'\ray this oblation to fire be efficacious." The o])lations and j)rayers directed by the Yajurvhhi, previous to this period of the solemnity, are very different from those which * From this use of raw rico at tlio nuptial ceremuiiy, arises tlic cu.stdiii of presenting rice, tinged witli turmeric, by way of invitation to guests whose company is requested at a wedding. 136 the bride's father resides, and is there Avelcomed as a guest. 142 ON TlIK RELIGIOUS CEREMONIKS Tho brido is _e;ivcn to him by hor f.atber in the I'onn usual at every solemn donation, and tlioir bauds are bound togctlier with grass. He clothes the bride with an upper and lower garment, and the skirts of her mantle and his are tied together. The bridegroom makes oblations to fire, and the bride drops rice (m it as an oblation. The bridegroom solemnly takes her hand in marriage. She treads on a stone and mullar. They walk round the fire. 'J^he bride steps seven times, C(mducted by the bridegroom, and he then dismisses the spectators, the marriage being now complete and irrevocable. In the evening of the same day the liride sits down on a bull's hide, and the bridegroom points out to her the polar star as an emblem of stability. They then partake of a meal. The bridegroom remains three days at the house of the bride's father : on the fourth day he con- ducts herto his ownhouse in solemnprocession. Sheis there welcomed by his kindred; and the solemnity ends with oblations to fire. Among Hindus, a girl is married before the age of puberty. The law even censures the delay of her marriage beyond the tenth year. For this reason, and because the bridegroom too may be an infant, it is rare that a marriage should be consummated until long after its solemnization. The recital of prayers on this occasion constitutes it a religious ceremony; and it is the first of tliose that are per- formed for the purpose of expiating the sinful taint which a child is supposed to contract in the womb of his mother. They shall be described in a future essay. On the practice of immature nuptials , a subject .suggested in the preceding paragraph, it may be remarked, that it arises from a laudable motive; from a sense of duty incumbent on a father, who considers as a debt the obligation of providing a suitable match for his daughter. This notion, which is strongly inculcated by Hindu legislators, is forcibly impressed on the minds of parents. But in their zeal to dispose of a daughter in marriage, they do not perhaps sufficiently consult her domestic felicity. By the death of an infant husband, she is condemned to virgin widowhood for the period of her life. If both survive, the habitual bickerings of their infancy are prolonged in perpetual discord. Numerous restrictions in the assortment of matches impose on parents this necessity of embracing the earliest opportunity of affi- ancing their children to fit c()m])anions. The intermarriages of ditVer- ent classes, formerly permitted with certain limitations, are now wholly forbidden. The prohibited degrees extend to the sixth of affinity; and even the bearing of the same family name is a sufficient cause of impediment. To conclude the subject of nuptials, I shall only add, that eight forms are noticed by Hindu legislators. (Menu, c. iii.) But one only, which hasbeen here described from the Indian rituals, is now used. YI. Oil ///r PHILOSOPHY of I III' HINDUS. PART I.* [From the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society vol. i. p. 10—43.] INTUODUCTION. The irindns, as is well known, possess various ancient systems of ](liili)S()pliy, which they consider to he orthodox, as consistent with tlie theoh^gy and metaphysics of tlie redas : and liave likcAvise preserved divers systems deemed licretical , as incompatihle with the doctrines of tlieir iioly hooks. Tlie two 3fim(insds (for there are two schools of metaphysics under this title) are emphatically orthodox. The prior one {piirva)^ which has JAIMINI for its founder, teaches the art of reasoning, with the express view of aiding the interpretation of the J'cilas. The latter [iill(ira), commonly called J'rdt'inla, and attributed to VVASA, deduces from the text of the Indian scriptures a refined psychology, which goes to a denial of a material world. Tho, Ni/(hja, of whichGOTAMAisthe acknowledged author, furnishes a philosopliical arrangement, with strict rules of reasoning, not unaptly conii)ared to the dialectics of the Aristotelian school. Another course of philosophy connected with it bears the denomination of Vai'si'shica. Its reputed author is caxa'de; who, like Democritus, maintained tlie doctrine of atoms. A diti'erent pliiloso])liical system, partly hcterddox, an/u , and in the Yoga, that part which is inconsistent with the Vtulas, is to be rejected by those who strictly adhere to revelation. In jaimini's doctrine, and in vya'sa's, there is nothing whatsoever at variance with scripture."* Heretical treatises of philosophy are vei'y numerous: among which that of cha'rvaca, which exhibits the doctrine of the Jainu sect, is most conspicuous ; and next to it, the Pdsirpula. To them, and to the orthodox systems beforementioned, it is not intended here to advert, further than as they are noticed by writers on the Sdncliya, citing opinions of other schools of philosophy , in course of commenting on the text which they are engaged in ex- pounding. It is not my present purpose to exhibit a contrasted view of the tenets of different philosophical schools , but to present to this Society a summary of the doctrine of a single sect; which will serve, however, to elucidate that of several more. Of other philosophical sects, the received doctrines in detail may be best reserved for separate notice, in distinct essays to be here- after submitted to the Society. I must be clearly understood, how- ever, not to pledge myself deiinitively for that task. I proceed without further preface to the immediate subject of the present essay : A system of philosophy, in which precision of reckoning is ob- served in the enumeration of its principles, is denominated Sdncluja .- a term which has been understood to signify numeral, agreably to the usual acceptation of sanc''Ityd , number : and hence its analogy to the Pythagorean philosopliy has been presumed. But the name may be taken to imply, that its doctrine is founded in the exercise of judgment: for the word from which it is derived signifies reason- ing or deliberation;** and that interpretation of its import is coun- tenanced by a passage of the Bhdnilu , Avhere it is said of this sect of philosophers: "They exercise judgment (smicliyn) , and discuss nature and [other] twenty-four principles, and therefore are called iSM«c7??/«." The commentator who lias furnished this (juotati(ni, expounds sanc^hyd, as here importing 'the discovery of soul by means of right discrimination.' *** The reputed founder of this sect of metaphysical i)hilosophy was OAPii.A; an ancient sage, concerning whose origin and adventures * Quotation in vi.jnyan v-imicsuu's Capilu Mdn/ii/n. ** Am. Cu.s/i. I, 1, 4, 11. *** Capila-bhdslnja. SANKIIYA. 145 tlie mytliologicnl fables, wliicli occupy the place of history with the Iliii(his, ar(^ recounted variously. In gaudai'aua's commentary on th(f Sihicliija-ctiricu ^ he is asserted to have been a son of huah.ma; heinj^ one of the seven great Rlshis, or saints, named in Pitrdiias or tluMigonies as the ofVsj)ring of that deity. His two most distinguished disciples, A.srui and i'anchaskj'jia, are there exalted to the same rank and divine origin witli himself. Another connnentator main- tains that capila was an incarnation of visiinu. It had been affirmed liy a writer t)n the VcdanUi, upon the authority of a passage quoted l)y him, wherein catila, the founder oi' the. Sdnr/ii/a sect, is identified with A(;ni (tire), that he was an incarnation, not of visiinu, but ji, to I'AXCiiAh'ic'iiA the diseij)l(' of Asuui, describes capila as an incarnation of the Deity: "The holy and first wise one, entering a mind by himself framed, and becoming the mighty sage (capila) , conq)assionately revealed this science to AsuKi."t It may be ([uestioned whether capila be not altogether a my- thological personage, to whom the true author of the (b)ctriiie, whoever he was, tliought fit to ascribe it. A collection of i«//(/.v, or succinct aphorisms, in six lectures, attri- buted to CAPILA hims(df, is extant under the titles of Sd/ir'/n/u pni- rachuna. As an ancient M'ork (whoever may have been really its author), it must doulitless have liecn cxiMuiiidcil l)y early sclioliasts. * VI.INVANA ill ('tip. Iihiish. *'* Vol. iii. p. '^V.^^^. **'• I'A'iAN.i. Siiiic'h. prav. 1, 25. f I'tinrh. si'ilni, (|ii<>te(1 in vvas.\'s lihiislniti 146 ON Tine I'llILOSOPIIY OK Tin: 1IIXDU8. But tho only coinmont.iry , wliich can at present be referred to by name is tlie (Jiijiila-bliashyii : or, as the author bimself cites it in his other works, Sdnc'hya-hhushya. The title at i'ull length, in the epi- graph of the book, laCupila SHticltya-pravachunu-sdslra-lilu'ishya. It is by vuNYANA-BHicsiiu, a mendicant ascetic (as his designation im- ports), who composed a separate treatise on the attainmi'nt of bea- titude in this life, entitled Sdtic' hya - sdm , and wrote many other works; particularly the Ydya-vdrlicu, consisting of scholia on patan- jALi's Ymia-sdsira, and the RraJinir /ii/nid>isd l/fidsJ/ya. which is a com- mentary on a treatise of /VWrt//// philosophy. It appears from the preface of the Capila-bhdshya , that a more compendious tract, in the same form of sulras or a})horisms, bears the title of Tal/ra -saindsn , and is ascribed to the same author, oa- PILA. The scholiast intimates that both are of equal authority, and in no respect discordant: one being a summary of the greater work, or else this an amplification of the conciser one. The latter was probably the case 5 for there is much repetition in tlie Sdiicliya-pra- vachana. It is avowedly not the earliest treatise on this branch of philo- sophy : since it contains references to former authorities for parti- culars which are but briefly hinted in the sidras :* and it quotes some by name, and among them panciiasic'iia,** the disciple of the reputed author's pupil: an anachronism which appears decisive. The title of Sdncliya-pravachmia seems a borrowed one; at least it is conmion to several compositions. It appertains to patanjali's Ydga-sdslra. If the authority of the scholiast of capila may be trusted , the Tatwa samdsa is the proper text of the Sdncliya : and its doctrine is more fully, but separately set forth, by the two ampler treatises, entitled Sdficliya-pramr/i(ina, Avhich contain a fuller exposition of what had been there succinctly delivered; patanjali's worksupply- ing the deficiency of capila's, and "declaring the existence of gol», which for argument's sake, and not absolutely and unreservedly, he had denied. Of the six lectures or chapters into which the sulras are distri- buted , the three first comprise an exposition of the whole Sdnc'hya doctrine. The fourth contains illustrative comparisons, with refer- ence to fables and tales. The fifth is controversial, confuting opinions of other sects; which is the case also with part of the first. The sixth and hast treats of the most important parts of the doctrine, enlarging upon topics before touched. The ('dried, which will be forthwith mentioned as the text book or standard authority of the Sdncliya, has an allusion to the con- * Cap. 3, 30. ** Cap G. •SANKIIYA. 147 tents of the fourth and fifth chapters, professuig to bo a complete treatise of the science, exchisivc of illustrative tales and contro- versial (lis([uisitions.'' 'riie author naist hav(! had before him the same collection oi' siilras, or one similai-ly arranged. His scholiast** expressly refers to the numbers of the chapters. Whether tlu'. Tatim sdi/idsa of cai'ILa be extant, or whether the si'/lnis- of I'AxcnA.sic'iiA be so, is not certain. The latter are fre- (|nently cited, and by modern authors on the Sancliya: whence a l»r('sumption, that they may be yet forthcoming. 'V\n' best text of the Sdnclii/n is a short treatise in verse, which is denominated Ct'irka, as memorial verses of other sciences likewise "are. The acknowledged author is is waka - orisiina, described iu the concluding lines or epigraph of the work itself, as having re- ceived th(> doctrine, through a succession of intermediate instructors, from I'ANC'iiA.sic'iiA, by whom it was Jirst promulgated, and who was himself instructed by asuki, the disciple of capila.*** This brief tract , containing seventy-two stanzas in dryd metre, has been expounded in numerous connnentaries. One of these is the work of gaui)ai>ada, the celebrated scjioliast of the Upanishads of the Fcdas, and preceptor of ckWinda, who was preceptor of sancaka-a'ciia'uya , author likewise of numerous trea- tises on divers branches of theological philosophy. It is entitled Sdnc'hya bhdsJiya. Another, denominated Sdncliya-chandricd^ isby na'ra'yana-tirt'ha, who seems from his designation to have been an ascetic. He was author likewise of a gloss on the Yoga-'sdslra , as appears from his own references to it. A third commentary, under the title oi' Sdncliya-tattva-caufnudi, or more simply Taitva - caiimmli (for so it is cited by later commen- tators), is by va'ciiksi-ati-miska, a native of Tirhiil, author of similar works on various other pliih)sophical systems. It appears from the umltiplicity of its copies, whicli are unusually frequent, to be the most approved gloss on the text. One more connnentary, bearing the analogous but simpler title of Sdne'hy(i-raii)iii(d/\ is l)y UAMA-cuisiiXA, ijiiatta'ciia'rva, a learned and not ancient writ(u- of Bengal ; who has i'or the most part followed preceding commentators, borrowing frequently from na'ra'yana tIrt'iia, though taking the title of his commentary from va'ches- I'ATl's. The scholiasts of the Cdricd have, in more than one place, noticed the text of the sidras: thus formally admitting the authority of the aphorisms. The excellence of the memorial verses (CrtViWi) , with * Cur. 72 *** Cdr. TOaiul 71 ** nakayana-ti'rt'ha. 1(1* 148 ON I'lIK I'Ull.O.SCH'UY OF THE HINDUS. the gloss of GAUDAPADA and tliat of vaciip:,spati - miska , has been the occasion of both coUections of apliorisms {Tativa-Sdnuisa and Sane liya prdviiclmnu) falling into comparative neglect. They are superseded for a text book of the sect by ib'wARA-CRisiiNA'.s clearer and more compendious work Both suh-as and raricd may be con- sidered to be genuine and authoritative expositions of the doctrine 5 and the more especially, as they do not, upon any material point, ap- pear to disagree. The several works beforementioned are the principal works in which tlie Sanclaja philosophy may be now studied. ( )t]iers, whicli are cited by scholiasts, may possibly Ije yet forthcoming. But they are at least scarce , and no sufticient account of them can be giveii upon the strength of a feAv scattered quotations. Among them, however, may be named the Bdiardiiira. to wliich reference is made, as to a W(jrk held in much estimation, and wliich appears to comprise annotations on the si'ilras; and the Sa?)gra/ii( , which is cited for parallel passages explanatory of the text, being an abridged exposition of tlie same doctrines, in the form of a select compilation. Concerning the presunuible antiquity of either capila'.s aphorisms or isvvARA-ORisiiNA's memorial couplets, T shall here only remark, that notices of them, with quotations from both, do occur in philo- sophical treatises of other schools, whereby their authenticity is so fai' established. Besides the Sdticliya of capila and his followers, another system, bearing the same denomination, but more usually termed the Yoga- idslra or Yuga-sulru^ as before remarked, is ascribed to a mytholo- gical being, patanjali, the supposed author of the great gramma- tical commentary emphatically named the MahdUidsliga : and like- wise of a celebrated medical treatise termed Characa ^ and nther distinguished performances. The collection of Yugu si'i/ras. bearing the common title o{ Sdiicliyu pravacftami, is distriluited into four chapters or quarters (pdda): the first, on contemplation (.sv/j«.d as an emi- nent interpreter of tlie Cdrird : and the same remark is here a])pli- cable, that the nuilti|)licify of copies indicates the estimation in which his gloss is held above other scliolia. Another commentary is by vijnvana- niiicsHU beft)rementioned. He refers to it in his other works under tlie name of Yuga-vdrtica. SANKHVA. 1 1hnres- iritni. It was probably coni])osed at his eonrt. under his auspices; and his name has been aflixed to it in com})linient to him, as is no uncommon j)ractice. It is a succinct and lucid exposition of the text. An amjiler commentary by a modern Mahardshhiyn Brahman, named NAcKKii-iniATTA upa'i/iiya'ya, bears the title of /V/rt;//rt/?-.s7i//7<- r/////. It is very copious and very clear. The tenets of the two schools of the Snnc'hja are on many, not to say on most, points, tliat are treated in both, the same; differing however upon one, whicli is the most important of all : the, jirrnd' of • ■xistencc of supreme cjod. The (me school (pataj^jali's) i-ecognisinj:^ (ioo, is therefore de- iioiiiinat(>d theistical {Sc'swara sancliija). 'I'lie other (capila's) is atheistical {Niri's/rara s/nir'/ii/a) , as the sects oi' Jifia and IhaliUut in effect are, acknowledging no creator of universe nor sui)reme ruling |irnvidcnce. The gods of capila are beings superior to man; but, like him, subject to change and transmigration. A third school, deiumiinatcd Paara/n'ca satir'ftt/a, considers nature as an illusion ; conforming ujton most other p(dnts to the doctrine of PATANJAia, and upon many, to that of capii.a. In several of the /'uramis, as the Malsya, Curma and Vishnu, in particular, the cos- mogony, A\liicli is an essential part of an Indian tlieogony, is de- livered consonantly to this system. That which is found at the be- ginning of menu's institutes of law is not irrccoucileable to it,* Doctrine of (he Sdnc^hya. Tin; professed design of all the schools of (lie Snnchi/a, theistical, atheistical, and mythological, as of other Indian systems of philo- sophy, is to teach the means by which eternal beatitude may be attained after death, if not before it. In a passage of the Vcdas it ia said, "Soul is to be known, it is to be discriminated from nature: thus it does not come again; it does not come again. '' ='='- Consonantly to this and to niunberless other passages of a like im])ort, the wlicde scope of the Vnlania is to teach a doctrine, by the knowledge of which an exemption from metem- psychosis shall be altainalde; and fi> inculcate that as the grand object to be sought, by means inilicated. * MKNU, I. 11 — in. ** OAIM). nil I'dr. 1 5fl ON TUK I'illLO.Sdl'HV (»l' I'll!'. lllNDlilS. Even in the aphorisms of the Nynya* the same is proposed as the reward of" a thorougli acquaintance Avitli tliat philosophical arrange- ment. In like manner the Grecian philosophers, and Pythagoras and Plato in particular, taught that "the end of philosophy is to free the mind from incumbrances which hinder its progress towards perfection, and to raise it to the contemplation of immutable trutli," and "to disengage it from all animal passions, that it may rise above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of intelligence."** In all systems of the Sancliija the same purpose is propoimded. "Future pain," says patanjali, "is to be prevented. A clear know- ledge of discriminate trutli is the way of its prevention."*** It is true knowledge, as capila and his followers insist, t that alone can secure entire and permanent deliverance from evil : whereas temporal means, whether for exciting pleasure or for relieving mental and bodily sufferance, are insufficient to that end; and the spiritual resources of practical religion are imperfect, since sacrifice, the most efficacious of observances, is attended with tlie slaughter of animals, and consequently is not innocent and pure; and the heavenly meed of pious acts is transitory. If In support of these positions, passages are cited from the Vedcis declaring in express terms the attainment of celestial bliss by ce- lebration of sacrifices: "Whoever performs an astvamcxVlui (or immo- lation of a horse) conquers all worlds; overcomes death ; expiates sin; atones for sacrilege." In another place, indra and the rest of the subordinate deities are introduced exulting on their acquisition of bliss. "We have drunk the juice of asclepias fft find are become immortal; we have attained effulgence; we have learned divine truths. How can a foe harm us V How can age affect the immortality of a deathless being '?''§ Yet it appears in divers parts of the Indian scriptures, that, according to Hindu theology, even those deities, tliough termed immortal, have but a definite duration of life, perishing with the whole world at its periodical dissolution. "IMany thousands of Indras and of other Gods have passed away in suc- cessive periods, overcome by time ; for time is hard to overcome. "§§ Complete and perpetual exemption from every sort of ill is the beatitude which is proposed for attainment by acquisition of perfect knoAvledge. "Absolute prevention of all three sorts of pain," as an * Got siilr. ** Enfield's Hist, of Phil. I. :!S2 and '23;$. *** Pat. 2. Irt. and 2tJ. t Cap. 1. 1. C(ir. 1. ft Car. 1. tff Soma, the moon-plant: Asclepias acida. § oAi.u. on Cdr. 2. §§ Ihid. SANK II V A. ^ 151 aphori.siji nftlie Sdnc'liija intimates, "is tlu; liif^lie.st purpose of soul."* Tliosf' tliicc sorts arc evil proceediii};' from s(!lf", f'roui external l)eiugs, or from divine causes: the first is either Imdily, as disease of \arious kinds; or mental, as cujtidity, anger, and other passions: the two remaining sorts arise from external sources ; one excited by some mundane heing; the otiier, by the agency of a being of a su})erior order, or produced l)y a fortuitous cause. True and jjcrfect knowledge, by M-hich deliverance from evil of every kind is attainable, consists in rightly discriminating the prin- ciples, ]ierce]itible and imperceptible, of the material Morld, from the sensitive and cognitive princijde which is the innuaterial soul. 'JMius the Varied premises, tliat "tlie in([uiry concerns means of pre- cluding the three sorts of pain : for ])ain is emban-assment. Nor is the inquiry superlluous, because olivious means of alleviation exist; for absolute and tiiial relief is not thereby accomplished. The re- vealed mode is, like tlie temporal one, ineiVectual: for it is im])ure ; and it is defective in some respects, as well as excessive in ollurs. A method, diflerent from both, is preferable; consisting in a dis- criminative knowledge of perceptible principles, and of the imper- ceptible one, and of tlie thinking soul."** The revealed mode, to which allusion is here made, is not theo- logical doctrine with the knowledge of tirst principles , insuring exem])tion from transmigration ; but performance of religious ceremonies enjoined in the practical Vcdas , and especially the im- molation of victims, for which a heavenly reward, a place among the Gods, is promised. It is not i)ure, observes the scholiast, for it is attended with the slaughter of animals, which if not sinful in such cases, is, to say the least, not harmless. The merit of it, therefore, is of a mixed nature. A particular precept expresses, "slay the consecrated victim:" but a general maxim ordains, "hurt no sentient being,'' It is defective, since even the Gods, ixdua and the rest, perish at the appointed period. It is in other respects excessive, since the felicity of one is a source of unhappiness to another. Visil)le and temporal means, to which likewise reference is made in the text, are medicine and other remedies for bodily ailment; diversion alleviating mental ills; a guard against external injury; charms for defence from accidents. Such expedients do not utterly jiroclude snfl'erance. V>\\{ true knowledge, say Indian philosophers, does so; and they undertake to teach the means of its attainment. By three kinds of evidence, exclusive of intuitimi, which belongs to beings of a superior order, demonstration is arrived at, and cer- tainty is attained, by mankind: namely, perception, inference, and * Siin. prnv. 1.1. ** Car. 1 and 2 with Scholia. 152 ON THE I'lllLOSOl'ilY Ui' TlIK HINDUS. affinnatioii. * All aiitliorities aiiKing tlio Sdnr'ki/as, (patanjali and CAPiLA , as well as tlieir rcspoctivp followfirs) concur in asserting these. Other sources of knowledge, admitted in dittercnt systems of philosophy, are reducible to these, three. (!lomparison, or analogy, which the logicians of (wVpaima's school add to that enumeration, anil tradition and otlier arguments, whichjAiMiNi maintains (?;/;. capacity, aspect, and privation of four sorts, antecedent, reciprocal, absolute, and total), are all comprehended therein. Other philosophers, who recognise fewer sources of knowledge, as cuxRyxcA, Avho acknow- ledges preccption only, and the Vaiseshicas ^ who disallow tradition, are rejected as insufticient authorities. ** Inference is of three sorts, equally admitted by the schools of the Sdncliya and ootama's Nyana, and in all distinguished by the same denominations. The consideration of them more properly belongs to the dialectic jjhilosojDhy than to this, and may therefore be post- poned. It Avill be here sufficient to state the simplest explanation furnished by scholiasts of the Cdricn and Sutras, without going into the dift'erences which occur in their expositions. One sort, then, is the inference of an effect from a cause; the second is that of a cause from an effect ; the third is deduced frcmi a relation other than that of cause and effect. Examples of tliem are, 1st. Rain anticipated from a cloud seen gathering. 2d. Fire concluded on a hill, whence smoke ascends. 3d. A flower's appro- priate colour presumed where its peculiar scent is noticed ; or motion of the moon's orb, deduced from observation of it in different aspects ; or saltness of the sea , concluded from that of a sample of sea-water; or l)loom surmised on raangoe-trees in general, when an individual mangoe-tree is found in blossom. In regard to the third kind of evidence , tradition or right affir- mation,*** explained as intending true revelation, | commentators understand it to mean the J'edas or sacred writ , including the re- collections of those gifted mortals, who remember passages of their former lives, and call to mind events which occurred to them in other worlds; and excluding, on the other hand, pretended revelatiinis of impostors and barbarians. In a dialogue cited from the Vedas, one of the interlocutors, tlie holy Jaigishavya, asserts his presence, and consequent recollection of occurrences, throiTgh ten renovations of tlie universe (il/rtArtSfz/v/^/). In a more extended sense, this tliird kind of evidence is the affirm- ation of any truth, and comprises every mode of oral information or verbal communication whence knowledge of a truth may be draAvn. From these three sources, by the right exercise of judgment and * Cdv I. I'at. I. 7. Cap. 1. *'*■ Com. oil Car. 5. *** Pal. 1, 7. + Cur. 4 and 5. SANKHYA. loo flue application of roasoniiipj , tnio knowlose eleven organs, w itii llu^ two prin(i]tles of int(dligence and consciousness, are thirteen instruments of knowledge : three internal, and ten external, likened to three warders and ten gates. * * r,ir. :?•.'— .^5. 154 ON THK VHILOSOPllY OF THK HINDUS. All external senso perceives; tlie internal one examines; con- sciousness makes the seltisli application ; and intellect resolves : an external organ executes. 20 — 24. Five elements, produced from the five elementary particles or rudiments. 1st. A ditVused, etherial fluid (acasa), occupyiiifi" space : it has the property of audibleuess, beinjj; the vehicle of sound, derived from the sonorous rudiment or etherial atom. 2d. Ail', which is endued Avitli the properties of audibleness and tangi- bility, being sensil)le to hearing and touch; derived from the tangible rudiment or aerial atom. 3d. Fire, which is invested with properties of audibleness, tangibility, and colour ; sensible to hearing, touch, and sight: derived from the colouring rudiment or igneous atom. 4th. Water, which possesses the properties of audibleness, tangil)i- lity, colour and savour; being sensible to hearing, touch, sight, and taste: derived from the savoury rudiment or aqueous atom. 5th. Earth, which unites the properties of audibleness, tangibility, colour, savour, and odour ; being sensible to hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell: derived from the odorous rudiment or terrene atom.. 25. Soul, termed Punisha, Pmnas, or Aimufi] which is neither produced nor productive. It is multitudinous, individual, sensitive, eternal, unalterable, immaterial. The theistical Sdncliya recognises the same principles ; under- standing, however, by PitriislHi., not individual soul alone, but like- wise God {[stvara], the ruler of the world. These twenty-five principles are summarily contrasted in the Cdricd. "Nature, root of all, is no production. Seven principles; the URKAT or intellectual one, &c. are productions and productive. Sixteen are productions (unproductive). Soul is neither a pro- duction nor productive."* To this passage a close resemblance will be remarked in one which occurs at the beginning of erigena's treatise De Divisione Natura>, where he distinguishes these four: "That which creates and is not created; tliat which is created and creates; that which is created and creates not; and that which neither creates nor is created." ** In several of the Upanishads of the Vcdas a similar distribution is affirmed, viz. "eight productive principles and sixteen productions. "'''■"* It is for contemplation of nature, and for abstraction from it, tliat iniion of soul with nature takes place, as the halt and the blind join for conveyance and for guidance (one bearing and directed; the other borne and directing). By that union of soul and nature, creation, consisting in the development of intellect and the rest of the principles, is effected. * Car. 3. ** J. scoTi EuiGENiE de div. mil. lih. 5. *** Garblui, Prasna and iMailrci/a Upanixharls. * SANKIIVA. 155 The soul's wish is f'niition or lihciation. For either piir^tosc, il is in tho, first jilacc iiivostod with a suhtilo, person, towards the t'orm- ation of whirli the evolution of i)rinciples proceeds no further than the elementary rudiments.''' This is coniitoscd then of iiiiilhet, consciousness, and mind, as well as the rest of the orjj,ans and in- struments of life, conjoined with particles, or elementary rudiments, of live sorts: thus seventeen princij)les enter into its composition.** This person or subtile frame, termed Imga^ Unga-sanra, or sucs/mia- s'lir/ra, is primeval, produced from original nature at the earliest or initial development of princijjles. It is unconiined; too subtile for restraint or hinilraiicc (and tlicnce termed alirdhiai, surpassing the wind in swiftness) ; incapable of enjoyment until it be invested with a grosser body, aft'ected nevertheless by sentiments. This is termed the rudimental creation {lanmalni'Sarga). The notion of an animated atom seems to be a compromise between the refined dogma of an immaterial soul, and the difficulty which a gross undei'standing iinds in grasping the comprehension ()f individual existence, unattached to matter. The grosser body, witli which a soul clad in its subtile person is invested for the purpose of fruition, is composed of the five elements ; or of four, excluding the etherial, according to some authorities; or of one earth alone, according to others.*** That grosser body, proj)agated by generation, is perishable. Tlie subtile person is more (hirable, transmigrating through successive bodies, "which it assumes, as a mimic shifts bis disguises to represent various characters. According to ('.\pii.A,t as be is interpreted liy his scholiast, there is intermediately a corporeal frame composed of the live elements, Vjut tenuous or refined. It is termed amish't' hana sarira, and is the vehicle of the subtile person. ft is this, rather tliantlie subtile person itself, whicli ini'ATANJALi'.s Yoga si'istra is conceived to extend, like tlie Hamc of a lamp over its wick, to a small distance above the skull. The corporeal creation {hlintilica-sarga), consisting of souls in- vested with gross bodies, comprises eight orders of superior beings and five of inferior; which, together witli man, who forms a class aj)art, constitute fourteen orders of beings, distributed in three worlds or classes. The eight superior orders of beings bear appellations familiar to Hindu tlieology; Ihahmn . I'rajapalis ^ Itulras ^ I'ilris , Ginul' harvas ^ Yacshas, Biirshasas, and Pisdchas ; gods or demi gods, demons and evil spirits. '^riie iiif(>rior orders of beings are ([uadrui)eds, distinguished in • * Cdr. '10. ** Cup. 3. 8. *** Cap. '^. IH— 18. t Cdr. :?. I". II. 15G ON THE I'lIILOSOPHY OV TIIi; HINDUS. two ordors; liiids, reptiles, fishes, and insects; vegetables uud iin- organic substiinces. Above is tlio abode of goodness, peopled l)y Ix-ings of .sniiciior orders; virtue prevails there, and consecjuent bliss, imperfect liow - ever, inasiniieb as it is transient. Beneatli is tlie abode of darkness or illusion, wliere beings of an inferior order dwcdl; stolitlity or dulness is prevalent. Between is the human world, where foulness or passion predominates, attended with continual misery. Throughout these worlds, sentient soul experiences ill arising from decay and death, until it be finally liberated i'rom its union with person. Besides the grosser corporeal creation and tlie subtile or personal, all belonging to the material world , the Saiic'luja distinguishes an intellectual creation {prahjayasarga or bhdva-sanjd), consisting of the affections of intellect, its sentiments or faculties, wliich are enumerated in f(»ur classes, as obstructing, disabling, contenting, or perfecting tlie understanding, and amount to fifty. Obstructions of the intellect are error, conceit, jiassion, halriMl, fear : which are severally denominated obscurity, illusion, extreme illusion, gloom, and utter darkness. These again are subdivided into sixty-two sorts; error comprising eight species; illusion, as many; extreme illusion, ten; gloom, eighteen ; and utter darkness, the same number. Error, or ol)scurity, mistakes irrational nature, intellect, con- sciousness, or any one of the five elementary atoms, for the soul, and imagines liberation to consist in absorption into one of those eight prolific principles. Conceit, termed illusion, imagines transcendent power, in any of its eight modes, to be deliverance from evil. Thus beings of a su- perior order, as indra and tlie rest of the gods, who possess trans- cendent power of every sort, conceive it to be per))ctual, and believe themselves immortal. Passion, called extreme illusion, concei-ns the five objects of sense; sound, tact, colour, savour, andodotir; reckoned to be twice as many, as different to man and to superior beings. Envy or hatred, denominated gloom, relates to the same (en ob- jects of sense, and to eight-fohl transcendent power, furnishing the means of their enjoyment. Fear, named utter darkness, regards tlie same eighteen subjects, and consists in the dread of ill attendant ou their loss by death or by deprivation of power. l)isability of intellect, whicli constitutes the second class, com- prising twenty-eight* species, arises from defect or injury of organs, wliich are eleven: and to these eleven sorts ar(> jidded the conti'a- ries of the two next classes, containing the one nine, and the other eight species, making a total of twenty-eight. Deafness, blindness, SANKHYA, 157 deprivation «tf taste, want of smell, numbodness, dumbness, liaiul- lessnoss, laiiiciiess, costivenoss, iiiiijoteiu'c, and madness, arc di.s- aljilities preventing' perlorniance nl' l'nnerH)ns. Content or acquiescence, which forms the third class, is either internal or external: the one four-fold, the other five-fold; viz. in- IrriKil, 1st, OoiK-ernini;^ natnre; as, an opinion that a discriniinative. kno\vledj;"e of nature is a modilication of tliat principle itself, with a consequent expectation of deliverance by the act of nature, "id. Concerning the proximate cause; as a belief that ascetic obser- vances snftice to ensure liberation, .'id. Concerning time; asai'ancy that deliverance will cimie in course, without study. 4th, Concern- ing luck; as a supposition that its attainment depends on destiny. External ac(iuiescence relates to abstinence from enjoyment ihmiu temjioral motives; namely, 1st, aversion from tim tmulde (d' accpii- sitiou; (jr, id, from that of preservation ; and, .Vd, reluctance to incur loss consequent on use; or, 4th, evil attending on fruition; or, 5th, ortence of hurting objects by the enjoyment of them. The jK-rfecting nf the intcdlect is the fourtli class, and c()mj)rises eight sjx'cies. i'erfection consists in the prevention of evil; and this being tiiree-fold, its prevention is so likewise; as is the conse- quent perfection of the understanding. This is direct. The re- maining five species are indirect, ?vr. reasoning; oral instruction ; study; anucabl(! intercourse; and purity, internal and external (or according to another interpretation, liberality). They are means of arri\ing at ])erfection. 'V\n\S('titrliii(t,;\>^ (itlier Indian systems of philosojthy, is much enga- ge.l w ith tin! considerutitmofwiiat is termed the throe qualities {(jiti'iu): if indeed (juality be here the proj)er import of the term; for the scholiast of cai-ila understands it as meaning, not (juality or acci- dent, but substance, a modilication of nature, fettering the soul; conformably with an other acceptation of (jii/'ia, signifying a cord, •'= 'JMie first, and highest, is goodness (sall/ra). It is alleviating, en- lightening, attended with pleasure and hapjdness; and virtue pre- dominates in it. In iire it is prevalent; wherefore tiame ascends, and sparks tly upwards. In man, when it abounds, as it does in Ix'ings of a superior order, it is tlie cause of virtue. The second and middlemost is foulness or i)assion {rajas or ie/as). It is active, urgent, and variable; attended with evil and miserv. In air it predominates, wherefore w ind moves transversely. In living beings it is the caus(^ of vice. The third and lowest is darkness [lamas). It is heavy and ob- structive; attended with sorrow, dulness, and illusion. In earth and water it predondnates, wherefore they fall nr tend downwards. In living beings it is the cause ol' stolidity. ■- VI.INVAN. on (\ip. I. (.() 158 ON TIIK IMIII.O.SOTIIY OK 'niF. TIIXDT'S. These throe ([ualities are not more accidents of nature, but are of its essence and enter into its composition. "We s])eak of the qua- lities of nature as we do of tlie trees of a forest ," say the i^rhiry/i/as. '■^■ In the Vi'ihis they are pronoiniced to 1)0 successive niodihrations, one of the other : "A4I was darkness: conniiniideil to change, dark- ness took the taint of foulness; and tliis, ni;aiii coiiniiandod, assumed the form oi' goodness." They co-ojiorate for a purpose, hy union of opposites: as « lamp, which is composed of oil, a wick, and ilaiiie,** siibstances inimi- cal and contrary. Taking the tln-ee qualities hy Avhich nature is modified, for prin- ciples (u- categories, the number, before enumerated, is raised to twenty-eight; as is by some authorities maintained.*** To the intellect appertain eight modes, effects, or properties: four partaking of goodness; namely, virtue, knowledge, dispassion, and power; and four wliicli are the reverse of those, and partake of darkness, viz. sin, error, incontinency, and powerlessness. Virtue here intends moral or religious merit. Knowledge is either exterior or interior; that is, temporal or spiritual. Interior or spiritual knowledge discriminates soul from nature, and operates its deliverance from evil. Exterior or temporal knowledge compre- hends holy writ, and every science but self-knowledge. IJispassion likewise is either exterior or interior; as proceeding from a temporal motive, aversion from trouble; or a spiritual im- pulse, the conviction that nature is a dream, a mere juggle and illusion. Power is eight-fold: consisting in the faculty of shrinking into a minute form, to which every thing is pervious; or enlarging to a gigantic body; or assuming levity (rising along a sunbeam to the solar orb); or possessing unlimited reach of organs (as touching the moon with the tip of a finger); or irresistible will (for instance, sinking into the earth, as easily as in water); dominion over all beings animate or inanimate; faculty of changing- the course of nature; ability to accomplish every thing desired. IMie notion, that such transcendent power is attainable by man in this life, is not peculiar to the Sancluja sect: it is generally pre- valent among the Hindus, and amounts to a belief of magic. A Yogi, imagined to have acquired such faculties, is, to vulgar ap])re- hension, a sorcerer, and is so represented in many a drama and popular tale. One of the four chapters of patanjali's Yoga-mMra (the third), relates almost exclusively to this subject, from which it takes its * Sdne'liija-sdra. ** Car. 13. *** vijNYANA-Biiicsiui ill Siiiic'hya sdrci and Capila-bhushya. SANKUVA. If)*) title. It is full of directions for bodily and mental exercises, con- sistinj^ of iiitensel}- profotmd meditation on special topics, accom- panied hy suppression of lirc^atli and restraint of the senses, wliile stcN-idiiy maiiilainiiij^ prescribed postures. J'>y such exercises, the adept acquires the knowledge; of every thing i)astand future, remote or hidden; he divines the thouglits of otliers; gains the strength of an (dephant, the courage of a lion, and tlie swiftness of the wind; Hies in the air, iioats in water, dives into the earth, contem- ])lates all worlds at one glance, and i)err<>nns otlier strange feats. P.ut neither i>ower, however transcendent, nor dispassicm, nor virtue, however meritorious, suffices for the attAimnent of beatitude. It serves but to prepare the soul for that absorbed contemidation, by which the great purpose of deliverance is to be accomplislied. The ]tromptest mode of attaining beatitude through absorbed contemplation, is devotion to con; consisting in repeated mutterin"- of his mystical name, the syllable ow, at tlu; same time nuulitatiug its signiiication. It is this which constitutes efficacious devotion ; whereity the deity, pro])itiated, confers on the votary the boon that is sought; precluding all impediments, and elfecting the attainment of an inward sentiment that prepares the soul for liberation. "God, iswAUA, the supreme ruler," according to patanjali,* "is a soul or sjdrit distinct from other souls; unaft'ected by the ills with which they are beset; unconcerned with good or bad deeds and their consecjuences, and with fancies or passing thoughts. In him is the utmost omniscience. He is the instructor of the earliest beings that have a beginning (the deities of my thology) ; himself infinite, xndimited bv time." cAiMLA, on the other hand, denies an i.swaua, ruler of the world by volition: alleging that there is no proof of god's existence, un- perceived by the senses, not inferred from reasoning, nor yet re- vealed. *■"■ He acknowledges, indeed, a l)eing issuing from nature, who is intelligence absolute; source of all individual intelligences, and origin of other existences successively evolved and developed. He expressly affirms, "that the truth of such an Lswara is demon- strated:"*** the creator of worlds, in such sense of creation: for 'the existence of efi'ects," he says, "is dejx'udent upon conscious- ness, not upon is'wARA;" and "all else is tVom the great luinciple, int(dlect."t Yet that being is finite; having a beginning and an end; dating from the grand development of the universe, to ter- minate with the cunsummation of all things. Hut an infinite bein"-, creator and guide of the universe by volition, caimla positively dis- * }'iinas(!stra I. 2.'i— 24, and 2()— 29. ■** Cap. 1.<)I-'.IS; 3. ryi— 50; 5.2—12; .-m.l C. r,J-78. *** Cap. W. 55. t Cap. (3. 05 ami (id. • !(>(► ON TJIK IMllI-oSOi'lIY (_)F TilK HINDUS. avows.* "Detached from nature, unaffected therefore by con- sciousness and the rest of nature's tranunels, lie couhl have no in- ducement to cr(!ation; fettered by nature, he couhl not be capable of creation. Guidance requires proximity, as the iron is attracted by the magnet; and, in like manner, it is by proximity that living souls govern individual bodies, enligiitencil l)y animation as hot iron is by heat." Passages of admitted authority, in ■which CtOd is named, relate, according to capila and his followers, either to a liberated soul or to a mythological deity, or that superior, not supreme being, whom mythology places in the midst of the mundane egg. Such is the essential and characteristic difference of CAPiLA'sand PATANJALi's, the atheistical and deistical, Sdnc''hyas. In less momentous matters they differ, not upon points of doctrine, but in the degree in which the exterior exercises, or abstruse rea- soning and study, are weighed upon, as requisite preparations of absorbed contemplation, patanjali's Yuya-sdstra is occupied with devotional exercise and mental abstraction, subduing body and mind: capila is more engaged with investigation of principles and reasoning upon them. One is more mystic and fanatical. The other makes a nearer approach to philosophical disquisition, how- ever mistaken in its conclusions. The manner in which a knowledge of those principles or cate- gories that are recognised by the Smicliyas may be acquired, is set forth in the Crh^icd: "Sensible objects become known by perception. It is by inference or reasoning, that acquaintance with things trans- cending the senses is attained: and a truth, which is neither to-be directly perceived nor to be inferred by reasoning, is deduced from revelation. For various causes, things may be imperceptible or unperceived; distance, nearness, minuteness; confusion, conceal- ment; predominance of other matters; defect of organs or inatten- tion. It is owing to the subtlety of nature, not to the non-existence of this original principle, that it is not apprehended by the senses, but inferred from its effects. Intellect and the rest of the derivative principles are effects; whence it is concluded as their cause; in some respects analogous, but in others dissimilar."*''- "Effect subsists antecedently to the operation of cause:" a maxim not unlike the ancient one, that "nothing comes of nothing;" for it is the material, not the efiicient, cause, which is here spoken of. The reasons alleged by the Sdnc'/iijos''"'^-* are, that "what exists not, can by no operation of a cause l)e brought into existence:" that is, effects are educts, rather than jtroducts. Oil is in the seed of *Cnp.l. ** Car. ti. S. *** Cdr. ery thing is not by every means jmssible:" cloth, not earthen ware, may be made with yarn. "What is capable, does that to which it is "competent:" a potter does not weave cloth, but makes a jar, from a lump of clay, with a wheel and other im- plements. "The nature of cause and efl'ect is the same:" apiece of cloth does not essentially differ from the yarn of which it is wove; as an ox does from a horse : barley, not rice or peas, grows out of barley-corns. "There is a general cause, which is undistinguishable." * This position is supported by divers arguments. "Specific objects are finite;" they are multitudinous and not universal: there must then be a single all-pervading cause. Another argument is drawn from affinity: "homngeneousness indicates a cause." An earthen jar implies a lump of clay oT which it is made; a gcdden coronet pre- sumes a mass of gold of which it was fabricated: seeing a rigidly abstemious novice, it is readily concluded, says the scholiast, that his parents are of the sacerdotal tribe. There must then be a cause bearing affinity tn effects which are seen. Another reason is "exis- tence of effects through energy :" there must be a cause adequate to the effects. A potter is capable of fabricating pottery : he makes a pot, not a car, nor a piece of cloth. The main argument of the Sdur''/ii/as on this point is "the parting or issuing of effects from cause, and the re-union of the universe." A tyjte of this is the tor- toise, which puts forth its limbs, and again retracts them within its sliell. So, at the general destruction or consummation of all things, taking jjlace at an ap])ointed period, the five elements, earth, water, lire, air, and ether, CDnstituting the three worlds, are withdrawn in the inverse order of that in which they proceeded from the primary jirinciples, returning step by step to their first cause, tlie chief and undistinguishable one, which is nature. it ojierates by means of the three ([ualitics of goodness, bmlness, and darkness. It does so by mixture; as the confluence of three streams forms one river; for example, the Ganges: or as threads interwoven constitute a ])iece of cloth : and as a ])icture is a result of the union of pigments. It operates "by modification" too: as water, dropped from a cloud, absorbed by the roots of plants, and carried into the fruit, acquires special flavour, so are different objects iliversified by (lie influence of the several qualities respectively. Tiius, from one c/iirf cause, Avhich is nature, spring three dissimilar worlds, observes the scholiast, peopled by gods enjoying bliss, by men sutTering pain, by inferior animals afi'ected with dulness. It is * Cur. IT). IC. 162 ON THR Plin.OSOPIIY OF TIIK TIINUTIf;. owing to prevalence of particular qualities. In tlie gods, goodness prevails, and foulness and darkness are foreign; and therefore are the gods supremely happy. In man, foulness is prevalent, and goodness and darkness are strangers; wherefore man is eminently wretched. In animals, darkness predominates, and goodness and foulness are wanting; and therefore are animals extremely dull. The existence of soul is demonstrated hy several arguments:^" "The- assemblage of sensible objects is for another's use ; " as a bed is for a sleeper, a chair for a sitter: that other, wlm uses it, must be a sensitive being; and the sensitive being is soul. The converse of sensible objects endued with the three qualities, goodness, foul- ness, and darkness, indiscriminate, common, inanimate, and prolific, must exist, devoid of qualities, discriminate, and so forth: that is soul. "There must be superintendence;" as there is a charioteer to a car: the superintendent of inanimate matter is soul, "There must be one to enjoy" wliat is formed for enjoyment: a spectator, a witness of it: that spectator is soul. "There is a tendency to abstraction:" the wise and unwise alike desire a termination of vicissitude: holy writ and mighty sages tend to that consummation; the final and absolute extinction of every sort of pain: there must then be a being capable of abstraction, essentially unconnected with pleasure, pain, and illusion: and that being is soul. There is not one soul to all bodies, as a string on which pearls are stntng; but a separate soul for each particular body. "i\Iulti- tude of souls" is proved by the following arguments.** "Birtli, death, and the instruments of life are allotted severally : " if one soul animated all bodies, one being born, all would be born; one dying, all would die; one being blind, or deaf, or dumb, all would be blind, or deaf, or dumb; one seeing, all would see; one hear- ing, all would hear; one speaking, all would speak. Tiirth is the union of soul with instruments, namely, intellect, consciousness, mind and corporeal organs; it is not a modification of soul, for soul is unalterable. Death is its abandonment of them"; not an extinction of it, for it is unperishable. Soul then is multitudinous. "Occupations are not at (me time universally the same:" if one soul animated all beina's, then all bodies would be stirred bv the same infiuence, but it is not so: some are engaged in virtue, others occupied with vice; some restraining passions , others yielding to them; some involved in error, otliers seeking knowledge. Souls therefore are numerous. "Qualities afi'ect differently:" one is hap})y ; another miserable; and again, another stupid. The gods are ever happy; man, unhappy; inferior animals, dull. Were there but one soul, all would be alike. The attributes of the several principles, material and immaterial, discrete and undiscrete, perceptible and imperceptible, are compared * Car. 17. ** Cir. 18. SANKIIYA. 163 and contrasted. "A discrete, jninciple," as is affirmed l)y tlie Sdnc'/iyas,* "h causable: " it is uneternal, "inconstant," one while apparent, at another time evanescent: it is " unpervading, " not enterinj^- into all; for ett'ect is possessed witli its cause, not cause with its efl'cct: it is acted upon, and "mutable," changing from one body to another: it is "multitudinous;" for there are so many minds, intellects, &c. as there are souls animating bodies : it is "supported," resting upon its cause: it is involvable, "merging" one into another, and iui])lying one the other: it is "conjunct," consisting of parts or qualities; as sound, taste, smell, &c. : it is "governed," or dependent on another's will. "The undiscrete jjrinciple" is in all these respects the reverse: it is causeless, eternal, all pervading, immutable, or unacted upon ; single, as being the one cause of three orders of beings; unsupported (relying but /Y/Crt/-rt//«.?, or sections, containing two or more sulras relative to the same topic. liike the text of other sciences among the Hindus, the sulras of * Read at a imblic meeting of tlic Royal Asiatic yocicty, Feb. 21, 1821. 106 ON TltK IMIII.O.SOI'IIY OF TlIK HINDUS. GOTAMA and of cana'dk have been explained and annotated by a triple set of commentaries, under the usual titles o^ Bhasliya^ Vd/iica, and Tied. These (the Blinslnja especially) are repeatedly cited by modern commentators, as well as by writers of separate treatises; but (so far as has come under my immediate notice) without naming the authors; and I cannot adventure, having no present opjiortunity of consulting the original scholia in a collective form, to assign them to their proper authors, from recollection of former researches. They are of high authority, and probably of great antiquity; and it freqiiently becomes a question with the later commentators, whether a particular passage is to be taken for a si'ilra and part of the text, or for a gloss of the ancient scholiast. Commentaries which are now at hand, and which have been con- sulted in the course of preparing the present treatise , are the Vdr- tka-ldiparya-i)arisiuid'lii of the celebrated udayana'ciia'rya, and the Vdrtica-ii'ttpanja-'ticd of the no less celebrated vachespati-misra. The more modern scholia of viswana't'ha upon gotama's text, and SANCARA-MiSiiA upon oana'de's , are those to which most frequent reference has been made for the present purpose. Separate treatises of distinguished authors teach, and amply dis- cuss, the elements of the science. Such are the Nydya-lildvcUi of ballabha-a'charya, following chiefly cana'de's system. An easier, and more concise introduction than these abstruse and voluminous works afford , is found reqiiisite to the initiatory study of the science. One of the most approved elementary treatises is the Tarca-^hdslid of cesava-misra, author of many other tracts. Though adapted to the comprehension of the learner without the aid of a gloss, it has nevertheless employed the labour of many commentators, expounding and illustrating it. Among others may be named, in order of seniority, goveri/uana-misra in the Turca- bhdshd-pracdsa; gauricanta (author likewise of the Sadyuclimucld- vali) in the Bhdvdrtliadipicd: mad'iiavadeva (author of the Nydya- sdra) in the Tarca-hhdshd-sdrarnanjari : besides ramalinga-criti in the Nydya-sangraha , whose relative antiquity is less certain; and baeibiiadra, who is known to me only from gauricanpa's citations. Another compendious introduction to the study of Indian logic is the Paddrtlia-dipicd by conda-bhatt'a, a noted grammarian, author of the Vaiydcarana hhushana, on the philosophy of grammatical structure. It does not appear to have had any commentator, and it needs none. Metrical treatises, or memorial verses, comprising the elements of the science, bear the ordinary demonstration of Cdricd. A work of this description is the CnsumdnJaU, with its commentary, by na- rayana -tirt'iia; another, which likewise is expounded by its author, is the Nydya-sancshcpa of govinda-biiatta'cha'rya. Elementary works only have been here spoken of. Distinct trea- XYAVA VAI.SK.SIIICA. 167 tises on divers hranchcs of the wliole subject, ami on various emer- gent topics, arc innunieralile. No deiiartnicnt of science or liter- ature has more enj^aged the attention of the Hindus than the Ni/di/a : and the fruit of their lucubrations has been an infinity of volumes, among which are compositions of very celebrated schoolmen. The order observed, both by gotama and by cana'de, in deliver- ing the [)recept.s of the science which they engage to unfold, is that which has been intimated in a passage of the Vcdas cited in the Rhashya, as requisite steps of instruction and study: viz. enunciation, definition, and investigation. Enunciation («rM'Vrt) is the mention of a tiling by its name; that is, l)y a term signifying it, as tauglit by revelation: for language is considered to have been revealed to man. Definition {lacshana) sets forth a peculiar property, constitut- ing the essential character of a thing. Investigation {paricshd) con- sists in disquisition upon the pertinence and sufficiency of the de- finition. Consonantly to tliis, the teachers of })hilosop]iy premise the terms of the science, proceed to the definitions, and then pass on to the examination of subjects so premised. In a logical arrangement the "predicaments" {paddrllia), or "oh- jects of proof," are six, as they are enumerated by cana'de;* viz. substance, (quality, action, conniiunity, particularity, and aggregation or intimate relation: to which a seventh is added by other authors; jirivation or negation.** Thus augmented, they compose a two- fold arrangement, positive and negative (b/uiva and abhdvci)-^ the first comprising six, the latter one.*** The BaiKhVhas, or followers of budd'iia, arc said to identify the predicaments with knowledge (jni/dna)] and according to the Ve • dd/it/s, who are jtantheists, the predicaments are identified with the universal being (Bra/unc) in whom all exists. | Other categories are alleged by different authorities; as power or energy (sacli) • similarity or resemblance {sddrisi/a); and many more. But the logicians of this school ackno-wledge but six, or at most seven, abovementioned. GOTAMA enumerates sixteen heads or topics: among which, proof or evidence, and that whicli is to be proven, are chief; and the rest are subsidiary or accessory, as contributing to knowledge and as- certainment of truth. Disputation being contemplated in this arrange- ment, several among these heads relate to controversial discussion. Tliey are, 1st, proof; -id, that which is to be known and proven; 3d, doubt; 4th, motive; 5th, instance; 6tli, demonstrated truth ; 7th, mendier of a regular argument or syllogism ; 8th, reasoning by re- duction to al)surdity; 9th, determination or ascertainment; 10th, * ('. I. 3. ** Tare, niidsh. 1. *=** P„d. Dip. I. t Tare. lihiisU. aii>l S . Suikj. 2. 1. 168 ON THE PniLOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. thesis or (lisqnisltion ; lltli, controversy; 12tli, objection; IStli, fallacious reason; Htli, perversion; Ijth, futility; 16tli, confutation.* The ditt'erence between these two ai-rangements is not considered to amount to discrepancy. They are hoM to be reconcileable : tlie one more ample, the other more succinct; but both leading to like results. Tlie Sdncluja philosophy , as shewn in a former essay , ** affirms two eternal principles, soul and matter; ((or pract^'iti or nature, ab- stracted from modifications, is no other than matter): and reckoning, with these two permanent principles, such as are transient, they enumerate twenty-five. The Nydya, as well as the Sdncliya, concur with other schools of psychology in promising beatitude, or {nihsreyas) final excellence; and {mucsha) deliverance from evil, for the reward of a thorough knowledge of the principles which they teach; that is, of truth; meaning the conviction of the soul's eternal existence separable from body. Soul then, as the Blu'tshya affirms, is that which is to be known and proven, gotama, however, enumerates under this head, besides soul, its associate body, the external senses, things or the objects of sense (that is, the elements; and his followers here take occasion to introduce cana'de's six categories), intellect or understanding, mind, or the eternal organ, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit or consequence of deeds, pain or physical evil, and lastly, liberation; making, together with soul, twelve {pra?ticya)ohjects of proof, being topics of knowledge requisite for deliverance. 1. Evidence or proof (pt'candna) by which those objects are known and demonstrated, is of four kinds: perception; inference of three soi'ts (consequent, antecedent, and analogous); comparison, and affirmation (comprehending tradition, as well as revelation). Infer- ence a priori concludes an effect from its cause ; inference a poslcri ori deduces a cause from its effect: another ground of inference is analogy. Or one sort is direct and affirmative; another indirect or negative; and the third is both direct and indirect. Proof (pramdna) is defined to be the efficient or especial cause of actual knowledge: and this intends right notion {aniibhava)] ex- clusive, consequently, of Avrong notion; as error, doubt, and re- duction to absurdity, and likewise exclusive of memory: for notion (jiuiubhavci) is knowledge other than remembrance. Cause (cdrcuia) is that which is efficacious, necessarily preceding an effect that cannot else be : and conversely, effect (cdrya) is that which necessarily ensues and could not else be. For the relation of cause and elfect, and for distinguishing differ- ent sorts of cause, connexion {sanibmuUia) or relation, in general, * G. 1. ** Ante, p. 153, &c. NVAVA — VAISESUICA. 169 must bo considered. It is two-fold: simplo conjunction (sawjoga), and aggrcj^atiim or intimate and constant relation {sfttnaiu'/i/a) ■ tlie latter being the connexion ol' things, whereof one, so long as they coexist, continues united with the other: for example, parts and that which is composed of them, as yarn and cloth; for so long as the yarn subsists the cloth remains. Here the connexion of the yarn and cloth is intimate relation; but that of the loom is simple conjunction. Consonantly to this distinction, cause is intimate or direct, producing aggregation or an intimately relative effect, as clay of ](ottery, or yarn of cloth: or it is mediate or indirect, being proximate to the aggregating caiise, as conjunction of yarn, serving for the production of cloth : or thirdly, it is neither direct nor indi- rect; but instrumental or concomitant, as the loom. Of positive things there must be three causes, and the most efficacious is termed the cliief or especial cause: of negative tliere is liut one, which is the third abovementioned. This would be the i)Iace for an ample discussion of the several sorts of proof abovementioned. But they are topics embracing too great a scope of dis({uisition in tlie Hindu philosophy, to be ade- quately considered within the limits of the present essay. The sub- ject, therefore, is reserved for future consideration, in a connected view of it, with relation to the various Indian systems of philosoph- ising, after tliey sliall liave been severally examined. II. 1. The first and most important of t^cdve olijects of evidence or matters to be proven, enumerated by oiW'Ama, is soul.* It is the site of knowledge or sentiment: distinct from body and from the senses; different for each individual coexistent person; infinite; eternal; perceived by the mental organ; and demonstrated by its peculiar attributes, intellect, &c. For knowledge, desire, aversion, volition, pain and pleasure, severally and collectively, argue the existence of soul: since tliese are not universal attributes, as num- ber, quantity, &c. common to all substances; but are peculiar and characteristic qualities, apprehended exclusively by one orgcin, as colour and other peculiar qualities are; yet belonging not to ap- ))arent substances, as eartli, and the rest; and arguing therefore a distinct substratum, other tlian space, time and mind, to which universal, not peculiar, qualities appertain. That distinct substance, wliich is the substratum of those peculiar qualities, is tlie soul. Tliis concerns the living soul (JivdlDid) , the animating spirit of iii, ""■ Oiit; cominciitHtor (.m.\i>iiav.\i)KV.\) .'specities Mne in place of orange; another (gauiula-nta) omits both, reducing tlic colours to .six. 12 178 ON TIIK PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. it is cold; in light, hot; inearth and in air, temperate. Divers other sorts, likewise, are noticed; as hard and soft, and diversified, &c. Theso I'onr (i^ualities are latent in minute substances, as atoms and double atoms ; mauilest to perception in products or aggregates of greater magnitude. A mote in a sunbeam may be seen, though not felt. The colour of the visual ray, or organ of sight, is ordinarily imperceptible. 5. Number. It is the reason of perceiving and reckoning one, two, or many , to the utmost limit of numeration. The notion of number is deduced from comparison. Of two masses seen, this is (me, and that is one: hence the notion of two, and so of more. It is an universal quality, common to all substances without ex- ception. It is considered of two sorts, unity and multitude; or of three, monad, duad, and multitude. Unity is either eternal or transient : eternal unity regards eternal things; that which is uneternal, concerns effects or transitory substances. 6. Quantity. It is the special cause of the use and perception of measure. It is an universal quality, common to all substances. It is considered to be fourfold : great and small ; long and short. Extreme littleness and shortness are eternal; as mind, or as atoms, Avhether single or double, &c. Extreme length and great- ness (termed infinite) are likewise eternal, as ether. Within these extremes is inferior magnitude or finite quantity ; which is uneternal. It is of various degrees in length and bulk, more or most ; from the mote or tertiary atom, upwards, to any mag- nitude short of infinite. The finite magnitude of products or effects results from number, size, or mass. Multitude of atoms, bulk of particles, and heap of component parts, constitute magnitude. The latter, or cumulation of particles, concerns a loose texture. The others, close or compact. Infinity transcends the senses. An object may be too great, as it may be too small, to be distinguished. 7. Individuality, severalty, or separateness, is a quality common to all substances. It is of two sorts; individuality of one or of a pair; or it is mani- fold, as individuality of a triad, &c. Simple individuality is eternal, in respect of eternal things; transient, in regard to such as are transitory. Individuality, of a pair or triad, &c. is of course transi- tory: it results from comparison, as duad or triad does. H. Conjunction is a transient connexion. It is an universal <|uality incident to all substances and is transitory. It implies two sulijects, and is threefold: arising from the act of either or of both, or else from conjunction; being simple, or reci- procal, or mediate. The junction of a falcon perching, which is NYAYA VAISlSsiIICA. 179 active, witli the itcreli whereon it settles, whicli is passive, is cou- junctiou arising lioin the act of one. Collision of fighting rams, or of wrestlers, is conjunction arising from the act of both. Contact of a finger wilh a tree occasions the conjuuctinii of tlie body with the tree; and this is mediate. 9. Disjunction. It is the converse of conjunction; necessarily preceded by it, and like it, implying two subjects. It is not the mere nei-ation ol" coniunctidn, nor simi)lv the dissolution of it. The knowledge of tills quality, as well as of its counterpart, is derived i'rom perception. It is an universal quality incident to all substances and is simple, reciprocal, or mediate. A falcon taking fiight IVom a rock, is an instance of disjunction arising from the act of one of two subjects; the active from the inactive. The parting of combatants, rams or wrestlers, is an example of disjunction arising from the act of both. Disjunction of the body and the tree, resulting from the disunion of the finger and the tree, is mediate. 10. — 11. Priority and posteriority. These qualities, being con- trasted and correlative, are considered together. They are of two sorts, concerning place and time. In respect of place, they are prox- imity and distance; in regard to time, youth and antiquity. The one concerns {mi'a^la) definite bodies, consisting of circumscribed ([uantity; the other afi'ects generated substances. The knowledge of them is derived from comparison. Two masses being situated in one place, nearness is deduced from the conjunction of one with place- as associated by comparison , re- ferring primarily to the person of the spectator; or, secondarily, to other correlatives of place. Where least conjuncti(»n of conjunct things intervenes, it isnearness; where most does, it is remoteness. Thus, Pnujihja is nearer to MuChurd than C«s/, and Cusi remoter from it than Praydga. In like manner, one of two masses, not restricted to place, is young, as deduced from the association of the object Avitli time, by com}tarison discriminating that which is connected with least time. Another is old, which is connected with most time. Here time is determined by revolutions of the sun. \'l. (iravity is the jieculiar cause of primary descent or falling.* It atVects earth and water. Gold is affected liy this quality, by reason of earth contained in it. In the absence of a countervailing cause, as adhesion, velocity, or some act of voliticui, descent results from this ([uality. Thus a cocoa-nut is withheld from falling by adhesion of the foot-stalk ; but, this impediment ceasing on maturity of the fruit, it falls. According to uoayana achakva, gravity is imperceptible, but to ■'• Tare. Bluisli. aud I'ad. Dip. 12='= 180 ON Tin; piiiLosopriY of the iiindus. be infen-ed from the act of falling, ballabha maintains, that it is perceived in the position of a thing descending to a lower situaticni. Levity is a distinct quality, Imt the negation of gravity. 13. Fluidity is the cause ol' original trickling.* It affects earth, light, and water, ft is natural and essential in water; adscititious in earth and light; being induced by exhibition of fire in molten substances, as lac, gold, &c. Fluidity is perceptible by the external senses, sight and touch. In hail and ice, fluidity essentially subsists ; but is obstructed by an impediment arising from an unseen virtue which renders the water solid. 14. Viscidity is the quality of clamminess and cause of agglutina- tion. It abides in water only. In oil, liquid butter, &c., it results from the watery parts of those liquids.** 15. Sound is a peculiar quality of tlie etherial element, and is to be apprehended by the hearing. It abides in that element exclusive- ly , and is its characteristic quality. Two sorts are distinguished : articulate and musical. *** To account for sound originating in one place being heard in another, it is observed, that sound is propagated by undulation, wave after wave, radiating in every direction, from a centre, like the blossoms of a Nauclea. It is not the first, nor the intermediate wave, that is the sound heard, but the last which comes in contact with the organ of hearing; and therefore it is not quite correct to say, that a drum has been heard. Sound originates in conjunction , in disjunction , or in sound itself. The conjunction of cymbals, or that of a drum and stick , may serve to exemplify the first. It is the in- strumental cause. The rustling of leaves is an instance of dis- junction being the cause of sound. In some cases , sound becomes the cause of sound. In all, the conformity of wind, or its calmness, is a concomitant cause: for an adverse wind obstructs it. The material cause is in every case the etherial fiuid ; and the con- junction of that with the sonorous subject is a concomitant cause. The Mimdnsd affirms the eternity of sound. This is contested by the Naiydipcds , who maintain, that w^ere it eternal, it could not be apprehended by human organs of sense. 16 — -23. Tlie eight following qualities are perceptible by the mental organ, not by tlie external senses. They are qualities of the soul, not of material substances. 16. Intelligence {Intihriii) is placed by ('Anade among qualities; and l)y (iotama, fifth among objects of proof. It will be noticed in tliat place. 17 and 18. Pleasure and pain are among qualities enumerated by * Tare. Blidslt. and Pad. Dip. ** Ibid and Siddk. Sa?i(]. *** Ibid, and GAU. &c. NYAYA — VAISK.SIIICA. 181 CANa'dk. i'aiu or i-vil is phicod by gotama ainong objects of proof; wherft ('under the head of deliverance) it will be further noticed, ^vith its converse. 19 and '20. Desire and aversion are the two noxl in order among qualities. iJesire is the wish ul" pleasure and of liapjuness, and of absence of pain. Passion is extreme desire; it is incident to man and inferior beings. The supreme being is devoid of passion. Neither does desire intend (ioi/s will, nor a saint's Avish. Aversion is loathing or hatred. 21. Volition [yahia). cfi'ort or exertion, is a determination to action px'oductive of gratification. Desire is its occasion, and perception its reason. Two sorts of perceptible effort are distinguished : that proceeding from desire, seeking wliat is agreeable; and that which proceeds from aversion , shunning what is loathsome. Another species, which escapes sensation or perception, but is inferred from analogy of s])ontaneous acts, comprises animal functions, having for a cause the vital unseen power. Volition, desire, and intelligence, are in man transitory, variable, or inconstant. The will and intelligence of god are eternal, uniform, constant. "22 and 23. Virtue and vice {^JPharuui and A(Vhtn-ma\ or moral merit and demerit, are the peculiar causes of pleasure and of pain respectively. The result of performing that which is enjoined, as sacrifice, SiQ. is virtue; the result of doing that which is forbidden, is vice. They are ([ualities of the soul; imperceptible, but inferred from reasoning. The proof of them is deduced from transmigration. The body of an individual, with his limbs and organs of sense, is a result of a peculiar quality of his soul; since this is the cause of that indivi- dual's fruition, like a thing which is produced by his effort or voli- tion. The iK'culiar (juality of the S(jul, which does occasion its being invested with body, lindjs, and organs, is virtue or vice: for body and the rest are not the result of effort and volition.* 24. The twenty - fourth and last quality is faculty (sanscnra). This comprehends three sorts. Velocity {vega), which is the cause of action. It concerns matter only; and is a quality of the mental organ, and of the four grosser elements, earth, water, light, and air. It becomes manifest from the perception of motion. I'^lasticity {sniilisr/irirara) is a quality of ])articular tangible, ter- rene olijects; and is tlie cause oi' that peculiar action, whereby an altered thing is restored to its pristine state, as a bow unbends and a strained branch resumes its former position. It is imperceptible; * Turc. m,ish. 182 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. but is inferred from the fact of the restitution of a thing to its former condition. Imagination (h/i/'iratia) is a pocnliar quality of the soul, and is the cause of nioniory. It is a result of notion or recollection ; and being excited, produces remembrance: and the exciting cause is the re- currence of an association; that is, of the sight or other perception of a like object. III. The next head in canadp:'s arrangement, after quality, is action {carmc). Action consists in motion, and , like quality , abides in substance alone. It affects a single, that is a finite substance, which is matter. It is the cause (not aggregative, but indirect) of disjunction, as of conjunction: that is, a fresh conjunction in one place, after annul- ment of a prior one in another, by means of disjunction. It is devoid of quality, and is transitory. Five sorts are enumerated: to cast upward; to cast downward; to push forward; to spread horizontally; and, fifthly, to go on: including many varieties under the last comprehensive head. IV. Community (Samafii/a) , or the condition of equal or like things, is the cause of the perception of conformity. It is eternal, single, concerning more than one thing, being a property common to several. It abides in substance, in quality, and in action. Two degrees of it are distinguished: the highest, concerning numerous objects; the lowest, concerning few. The first is exist- ence, a common property of all. The latter is the abstraction of an individual, varying with age, in dimensions, yet continuing identical. A third, or intermediate degree, is distinguished, comprehended in the first, and including the latter. These three degrees of commu- nity correspond nearly with genus, species, and individual. In another view, community is two-fold : viz.. genns (jnli) and dis- criminative property (tipddhi), or species. The BmuhThas are cited as denying this category, and maintain- ing that individuals only have existence, and that abstraction is false and deceptive. This, as well as other controverted points, will be further noticed at a future opportunity, V. Difference (visesha), or particularity, is the cause of perception of exclusion. It aftects a particular and single object, which is devoid of community. It abides in eternal substances. Such sub- stances are mind, soul, time, place; and the etherial element; and the atoms of earth, water, light, and air. VI. The sixth and last of cana'de's categories is aggregation {somavdya) , or perpetual intimate relation. It has been already briefly noticed. VII. To the six affirmative categories of cana'de, succeeding writers add a seventh, which is negative. Negation or privation {abhdva) is of two sorts; universal and NYAYA VAISKSIIH'A. 183 mutual. Universal uegalion comprehends three species, antecedent, emergent, and absolute. Antecedent privatinn (prai/ah/utra) is present negation of that which at a t'liture. time will be. It is negation in the material cause previous to the producticm of an efi'ect; as, in yarn, prior to the fabrication of cloth, there is antecedent privation of the piece of cloth which is to be woven. It is without beginning, for it has not been produced; and has an end, for it will be terminated by the production of the etlect. Emergent privation is destruction (dhtva?isa) ^ or cessation, of an ofi'oct. It is negation in the cause. sul)se(|ueut to the production of tlic effect: as, in a broken jar, (smashed by the blow of a mallet) the negation of jar in the heap of potsherds. It has a commencement, but no end; for the destruction of the effect cannot be undone. Abs(dute negation extends through all times, past, present, and future. It has neither beginning nor end. For example, fire in a lake, colour in air. IMutual privation is difference (bheda). It is reciprocal negation of identity, essence, or respective peculiarity. 5. To return to ootama's arrangement. The fifth place, next after objects of sense, is by him allotted to intelligence (^biiihr/ii)^ apprehension, knowledge, or conception; defined as that which manifests, or makes known, a matter. It is two-fold; notion and remembrance. Notion (aniibhava) in- cludes two sorts; right and wrong. Right notion (prama) is such as is incontrovertible. It is derived from proof, and is conse- quently fourfold; viz. from perception, or inference, or comparison, or revelation: for example: 1st, a jar perceived by undisordered organs; 2d, fire inferred from smoke; 3d, agayal* recognised from its resemblance to a cow; 4th, celestial happiness attainable through sacrifice, as inculcated by the Vedas. "Wrong notion deviates from truth, and is not derived from proof. It is threefold: doubt; premises liable to reduction to absurdity; and error (for example, mistaking motlier-o'-pearl for silver). Remembrance {smat^ana), likewise, is either right or wrong. Both occur, and right remembrance especially, v bile aAvake. But, in sleep, remembrance is wrong. 6. The sixth place among objects of i)roof is allotted to mind. It has been already twice noticed; viz. among organs of sense, and again among substances. 7. Activity (pravrilti) is next in order. It is determination, the result of passion, and the cause of virtue and vice, or merit and demerit; according as the act is one enjoined or forbidden. It is * Bos yavu'us s. frontulis. As. Kes. vol. viii. [t. 487. 184 ON Till-: I'lULOSDlMlY OF TUH UIXULS. oral, mental, or corporeal; not comprelientling unconscious vital functions. It is tlie reason of all worldly proceedings. 8. From acts proceed faults [dosha): including under this desig- nation, passion or extreme desire; aversion or loalliing; and error or delusion [moha). The two first of these are reckoned by cana'dk among qualities. 9. Next in gotama's arrangement is (prefijahltfiva) the condition of the soul after death; which is transmigration: for the soul, being immortal, passes from a former body which perishes, to a new one which receives it. This is a reproduction {pmiar-ulpalli). 10. Retribution (pliala) is the fruit accruing from faults which result from activity. It is a return of fruition (piaiarhhuga) , or ex- perience of pleasure or pain, in association with body, mind, and senses. 11. Pain, or anguish, is the eleventh topic of matters to be proven. 12. Deliverance from pain is beatitude: it is absolute prevention of every sort of ill; reckoned, in this system of philosophy, to com- prehend twenty-one varieties of evil, primary or secondary: viz. 1, body; 2—7, the six organs of sense; 8 — 13, six objects {pishaya) of sensation; 14 — 19, six sorts of apprehension and iuttdligence {bii(l(Thi) ; 20, pain or anguish; 21, pleasure. For even this, being tainted with evil, is pain; as honey drugged with poison is reckoned among de- leterious substances. This liberation from ill is attained by soul, acquainted with the truth [talmi), by means of holy science; divested of passion through knowledge of the evil incident to objects; meditating on itself; and, by the maturity of self-knowledge, making its own essence present; relieved from impediments; not earning fresh merit or demerit, by deeds done with desire; discerning the previous burden of merit or demfrit, by devout contemplation; and acquitting it through com- pressed endurance of its fruit; and thus (previous acts being annulled, and present body departed and no future Jiody accruing) , there is no further connexion witli the various sorts of ill, since there is no cause for them. This, then, is prevention of pain of every sort; it is deliverance and beatitude. III. After proof and matter to be proven, gotama proceeds to otlier categories, and assigns the next place to doubt (sansayn). It is the consideration of divers contrary matters in regard to one and the same thing; and is of three sorts, arising from common or from peculiar qualities, or merely from contradiction; discri- minative marks being in all three cases unnoticed. Thus an object is observed, concerning which it becomes a question whether it be a man or a post: the limbs which would betoken the man, or the crooked trunk which Avould distinguish the post, being equally un- / NYAVA -- VAISKSHICA. 185 perceived. A}:;aiii, odour is a peculiar quality of earth: it belongs not to eternal stib.stances, as the etlierial element; nor to transient eloiiKMits, as -wator: is then earth eternal or uneternalV So, one al'iirius that sound is eternal; another denies that position; and a third person doubts. FV. [Motive (prat/oja/in) is that by which a person is actuated, or moved to action. It is the desire of attaining jdeasure, or of shun- ning pain; or the wisii of exemption from botli; for such is the pur- pose or impulse of e,very one in a natural state of mind.* V. Instance {ilrlsli'laiila) is, in a controversy, a topic on which botli disputants consent. It is cither conccn'dant or disdu'dant; direct or inverse: as the culinary hearth, for a direct instance of the argument of the presence of tire betokened by smoke; and a lake, for an inverse or contrary instance of the argument, where tlie indicating vapour is mist or fog.** VI. Demonstrated truth i^sidiV lidnki) is of four sorts; viz, univer- sally acknowledged ; partially so; hypothetically; argumentatively (or, c concessu).'**'^'- TIius, existence of substance, or of that to which properties ap- pertain, is universally recognised, thougli the abstract notion of it may not l)e so; for the BaudiVlias deny abstraction. Mind is by tlie .\'i(ii/tii/'trus considered to be an organ of perception, and so it is by the kindred sect of J'aisrs/iicas. Tlie eternity of sound is ad- mitted in the .1//«u/«,sv/ , and denied in the Nyai/a. Sujiposiug the creation of the earth to be proved, onniiscience of the creator fol- lows. In .lAiMiNi's disquisition on the eternity, or the transitoriness, of sound, it is said, granting sound to be a quality. On the appositeness of some of these examples, in the cases to M'hich tliey are liere applied, as instances of divers sorts of demon- stration, there is a disagreement among commentators, which it is needless to go into. VII. A regular argument, or complete syllogism {fiijciyo), consists of Hve mvinhvrs {(trai/ara) or component parts. 1st, the proposition (pratijtii/ri)- 2d, the reason {heluor apa(lesci)\ 3d, tlie instance {ndn- harm'ut or nnlarsami)] 4th, the application {upanaya)] 5th, the con- clusion (>iif/ama>ui). Ex. l.This hill is fiery: 2. For it smokes. 3. What smokes, is fiery: as a culinary hearth. 4. Accordingly, the lull is smoking: 5. Therefore it is tiery. Somef confine the syllogism {nydya) to three members; either the three first, or tlie three last. In this latter form it is quite re- *■ OUT. 1.1. 1. 1 -3. ** GOT. 1. 1.5. 1-t). t Tlio foUowerd of the Mimdnsd Pad. Dip. 186 ON THE PllILOSOrilY OF THE HINDUS. gular. The recital joined with the instance is the major; the appli- cation is the minor; tlie conclusion follows. VI II. Next in this arranj^ement is [tarca) reduction to absurdity. It is a mode of reasoning, for the investigation of trutli , l»y deduc- tion i'roni wrong premises, to an inadmissible conclusion which is at variance witli proof, whether actual perception or den)onstrable inference. The conclusion to which the premises would lead is in- admissible, as contrary to what is demonstrated, or as conceding what is disproved. It is not to be confounded with doubt, to which there are two sides; but to this there is but one. Five sorts are distinguished by the more ancient writers, to which the moderns have added six, or even seven more varieties. It is needless to enumerate them: one or two examples may suffice. Ex. 1. Is this hill fiery, or not? On this question one delivers his opinion, that it is not fiery. The answer to him is, Were it not fiery, it would not smoke. Ex. 2. If there be a jar in this place, it must look like the ground. Fallacy of the same form, termed iarcdbhdsa , comprises the like number of sorts and varieties. The designations by which they are distinguished are familiar to the Indian scholastic disputation. It would be tedious to enumerate and explain them. IX. Ascertainment {iiinieya) , or determination of truth , is the fruit of proof , the result of evidence and of reasoning, confuting objections and establishing the position in question. ' X. — XII. Disputation (cafhd) is conference or dialogi;e of interlocutors maintaining adverse positions, whether contend- ing for victory, or seeking the truth. It comprises three of the categories. X. One is ijaljni) debate of disputants contending for victory; each seeking to establish his own position and overthrow the opponent's. XI. Another is (vdda) discourse, or interlocution of persons com- muning on a topic in pursuit of truth, as preceptor and pupil together with fellow-students. XII. The third is {viUmlid) cavil, or controversy Avherein the dis- putant seeks to confute his opponent without oii'ering to support a position of his own. XIII. Next in gotama's enumeration is fallacy, or, as it is termed, semblance of a reason {JichcdhJidsdy^ it is the non causa pro frtfWrt of logicians. Five sorts are distinguished, embracing divers varieties or subdivisions. They need not be here set forth. XIV. Fraud (chliala), or perversion and misconstruction, is of NYAYA — VAISESHICA. 187 three sorts: 1st, verbal misconstruing of Avliat is ambiguous; 2d, perverting, in a literal sense, what is said in a metaphorical one; ;id, generalizing w liat is particular. XV. After all tliese is (./'///) a (utile answer, or self- confuting reply. No less than twenty-four sorts are enumerated. XVI. The sixteenth, and last of gotama's categories, is {ni- fjraha - sf lu'tmi) failure in argument, or (parajatja ~ Iiclu) reason of defeat. It is the tonniuation of a controversy. Of this, likewise, no fewer tlian twenty -two distinctions are specified; which are here passed l)y, as the present essay has already been extended to too great a length. VIII. (h( llie THILOSOPHY of llie HINDUS. PART III.* [From the Transactions of the Eoyal Asiatic Society vol. i. p. 439—461.] INTRODUCTION. Of the six systems of philosophy received among learned Hin- dus, four have been noticed in the preceding parts of this essav , viz. the theistical and atheistical Sanclii/as , the dialectic Nyai/a , and the atomical Vaiseahira. The prior or practical Mimnnsd will be now considered; reserving the later or theological Mimnnsd, usually named Vikldnta, for a future disquisition, should it appear requisite to pursue the subject, much concerning it being already before the public. The object of the Mimdnsd is the interpretation of the Vedas. "Its purpose," says a conimentator,** "is to determine the sense of revelation." Its whole scope is the ascertainment of duty. Here duly intends sacrifices and other acts of religion ordained by the Vedas. The same term {dharma) likewise signifies virtue, or moral merit; and grammarians have distinguished its import according to the gender of tlie noun. In one, (the masculine), it implies virtue; in the other (neuter), it means an act of devotion.*** It is in the last-mentioned sense tliat tlie term is here employed; and its meaning is by commentators explained to lie "the scojie of an in- junction ; the object of a command;! a purpose ordained by reve- lation with a view to a motive, such as sacrifice commanded by the Vedas, for the attainment of bliss;" ft and such indeed is the main scope of every disquisition. The prior (piirvu) Mimdnsd then is praclical, as relating to Avorks (canna) or religious observances to be undertaken for specific ends; * Read at a public meptiiio- of the Royal Asiatic Society, March 4th, I82(). ** somanat'ha in the M/njuc'ha, 2. 1. 17. *** MeiHni cdslut. t pakt'ha 1. 1.2. f)i(lh. ibid. ff apadeva; Nydya-pracdsa. mima'nsa. 189 and it is accordingly termed Carma-miiiu'msd , in contradistinction to the theological, which is named Brahme mimunsd. It is not (liroctlv a system of pliiloso])liy ; nnr chioHy .sn. But, in conr.se of delivering caucus ot'scriptural iuterpretatiuu, it iucidently touches uiMiu philosophical topics ; and scholastic disputants have elicited from its dogmas principles of reasoning applicable to the prevailing points of controversy agitated by the Hindu schools of philosophy. Wrilers on ihe Mimdnsd. The acknowledged founder of this school of scriptural interpre- tation is JAiMiNi. He is repeatedly named as an authority in the SHlruit which are ascribed to iiim. Other ancient writers on the same subject, who are occasionally (juoted in those aphorisms, as a'trkya, ua'daki, uadaka'vana,* i.a'bucayaxa, Aitisayana, &c. are sometimes adduced there for authority, but ofteuer for correction and confutation. It is no doubt possible, that the true author of a work may speak in it of himself by name, and in the third person. Nor, indeed, is that very unusual. A Hindu commentator will, however, say, as the scholiasts of menu's and of yajnyawalcya's institutes of law do, that the oral instructions of the teacher were put in writing by some di,sciple; and, fortius reason, the mention of hira as of a third person is strictly proper. The sulras, or aphorisms, thus attributed to jaimini, are arranged in twelve lectures, each subdivided into four chapters, except the third, si.\th, and tenth lectures, which contain twice as many; making the entire number sixty chapters. These again are divided into sections, cases, or topics (atlhicara/ias) , ordinarily comprising several si/tnis, but not uncommonly restricted to one; and instances may be noted where a single sentence is split into several adhkaraiias ; or, on the contrary, a single ])hrase variously interpreted becomes applicable to distinct cases; and 5?i/rrtS, united under the same head by one interpreter, are by another explained as constituting separate topics. The total uumljer of s?//rrt.v is -Jjfjj'i, and of iid/iicant/ius 9lb, as numbered by .m.\u'iiava .u'ii.v'kva. Like the aphorisms of other Indian sciences, those sulras are ex- tremely obscure; or without a gloss utterly unintelligible. They must have been from the first accoui])anied by an oral or written exposition; and an ancient scholiast ( Irillirdra ) , is (|UOted by the herd of commentators for subsidiary aphorisms, supplying the defect of the text, as well as fur explanatory couuuents on it. Besides the work of I he old scholiast, which pr direct mention of him. f f Preface to Wilson's Dictionary, p. xviii. MIMANSA. 191 pa'ut'ha-sa'uat'hi misra, wild has prdfessedly followed the guitl- ance of cuma'rila bhatta. His commentary, entitled 'Sustru dipicd^ has been amply exitonnded in a <;Ioss Ix'aring the title oi Mayui-lta- indld , by sumanat'iia , a Cdniuluci Ihdiiman, whose elder brother was high priest of the celebrated temjjle at Vencdladri (or J'thwata- rctation of commentators, 'Next, after reading the J'riJa; and therefore, for the sake of understand- ing it; the duty enjoined by it Is to be investigated. Duty is a meaning deduced from injunction: its ground must be sifted. A command is not implicitly received for proof of duty.' The business of the Mii/uinsd, then, being to Investigate what is incumbent as a duty to be performed, the primary matter for in- i[uiry is proof and authority (pramcina). This, accordingly , is the subject itf the first lecture, comju-ising four chapters, which treat of tlie i'oUowing matters: Jst, precept and its cogency; 2, affirmation or narrative i^arChavuila)^ as well as prayer and invocation (majilra), their cogency as inculcating some duty; 3, law memorial (^smrlli)^ and usage (dchdra), their authority as presumption of some cogent revtdation; 4, modifying ordinance and specific denomination, distinguished from direct or positive injunction. Proceeding with the subject as above proposed, the Mimdnsd de- clares that })erception or simple apprehension is no reason of duty, for it apprehends a present object only, whereas duty concerns the future. '•••■■' .Simple apprehension is defined in tliese words: "when the organs of man are in contiguity with an object, that source of know- ledge is pcrccpliony The ancient scholiast has here introduced definitions of other sources of knowledge wliicli the autlior liad omitted, viz. inference, verbal conununication , com[iarisoH, jiresum[)tion, and privation. None of these are reasons of duty except verbal comnmnication ; for the rest are founded on perception , which itself is not so. Verljal communication is either human, as a correct sentence {j'lplii vdn/a) , or superhuman, as a passage of the J'rdits. It is indicative or im- perative; and the latter is either positive or relative: Ex. I. "This is to be done:" -2. "That is to be done like this." "On sight of one member of a known association, the conse(|uent apprehension of the other part whicli is not actually pro.\imate, is [aniiDidiKi) inference.**''' The association must be sucli as liad been before directly perceived, or had become known by analogy. "(!omparison [iipaindn(t) is knowledge arising from resemblance more or less strong. It is ajijireliensiun of llie likeness whicli a thing presently seen bears to one before observed : and bkt-ness or simi- f.lAlM. I. I. I .'.. ^ ** JAIM. I.I 1. *"** Ane. .Sc'linl. iHilh.. i-vki'ii., vScc. 13 101 ON THE PllIT.OSOPHV OV TIlH HIXDUS. litude is conconiitancy of associates or .ittribntos with one olijoct, wliicli were associated with another. "Presiunption {arlln'iixilli) is deductitni of a matter from that which couhl not else be. It is assumption of a thing not itself per- ceived, but necessarily implied by another which is seen, heard, or proven. "Knowledge of a thing which is not proximate (or subject to perception) derived through understood sound, that is through words the acceptation whereof is known , is {sdslra) ordinance or revehatiou. It is (sabda) verbal comniunication." These five sources of knowledge, or modes of proof, as here de- fined, are admitted by all Mimdnsacas: and the followers of tra- bha'cara are stated to restrict their admission to those five.* Bha't'ta with his disciples, guided by the ancient scholiast, adds a sixth, which is privation (abhava); and the Vcddnlis or IJllara Mi- mdnsacas concur in the admission of that number. The Chdrvdcas, as noticed in the first part of this essay,** recog- nise but one, viz. perception. The followers of cana'de and those of Siigata {Buddha) acknowledge two, perception and inference. The Sdnc'hyas reckon three, including affirmation. '"'''''■' The A'aij/di/icas, or followers of gotama, count four, viz. the foregoing together with comparison. The Prdbhdcaras , as just now observed, admit five. And the rest of the Mimdnsacas ^ in both schools, prior and later Mimdnsd^ enumerate six.f It does not appear that a greater num- ber has been alleged by any sect of Indian philosophy. The first six lectures of jaimini's Mimdnsd treat of positive in- junction: it is the first half of the work. The latter half, compris- ing six more lectures, concerns indirect command: adapting to a copy, with any requisite modifications, that Avhich was prescribed for the pattern or prototype. The authority of enjoined duty is the topic of the first lecture: its differences and varieties, its parts (or appendant members, con- trasted witli the main act), and the purpose of performance, are suc- cessively considered in the three next, and complete the subject of "that which is to be performed." The order of performance oc- cupies the fifth lecture; and qualification for its performance is treated in the sixth. The subject of indirect precept is opened in the seventh lecture generally, and in the eighth particularly. Inferrible changes, adapt- ing to the variation or copy what was designed for the type or model, are discussed in the ninth, and bars or exceptions in the tenth. Concurrent efficacy is considered in the eleventh lecture; and co-ordinate effect in Ihe twelfth: that is, the co-operation of * Viddnta-m-'hdmnnu ** Ante, p. 152. *** Ante, p. 105 — 108. ■]- Veddniaiic''hdm. MIMANSA. 195 sovoral acts Un- a single rosult is iho. subject of the one; and the incidental eiVcct of an act, oC which the chief ]Mir]mse is difleient, is discussed in the other. • • These which are the princijjal topics of each lecture are not, how- ever, exclusive. Other matters are introduced hy the way, being suggested by the main subject nr its exceptions. In the first chapter of the first lecture occurs the noted disf(uisi- tion of tlie M/nuinsti on the original and perpetual association of ar- ticulate sound with sense.* "It is a jiriniary and natural connexion,'" jai.mim aflinns, "'not merely a conventional one. The knowledge of it is instruction, since the utterance of a particular sound conveys knowledge, as its enunciation is for a ]jarticular sense. It matters luit whether the suliject have been previously a})])reliended (the words being intel- ligilde, or the context rendering them so). Precept is authoritative, independently of human communication." *••' (irammarians assume a special category, denominated splinia, for the object of mental perception, which ensues upon the hearing of an articulate sound, and which they consider to be distinct from the elements or component letters of tlie word. Logicians disallow that as a needless assumption.*** They insist, however, that "sound is an ettect, because it is perceived as the result of effort; because it endures not, but ceases so soon as uttered; because it is spoken of as made or done; because it is at once apprehended in divers jilaces at the same instant, uttered by divers persons; because it is liable to itermut.ation ; and because it is subject to increase of in- tensity with tlie multitude of utterers." To all which the answer is, that "the result of an elVort is uniform, the same letters being arti- culated. Sound is unobserved though existent, if it reach not the ol)ject (vilirations of air emitted from the mouth of the speaker pro- ceed and manifest sound by their a])pulse to air at rest in the .space bounded by the hollow of the ear; for want of such appulse, sound, thoTigh existent, is unapprehended).! Sound is not made or done, but is used; it is uttered, not called into existence. Its universality is as that of the sun (common to all). The ])ernmtati(in of letters is the substitution of a difterent one (as a semivowel for a vowel), not the alteration of the same letter. Noise, not sound, is increased by a multitude of voices. Soinul is perpetual, intended for the ajtpre- heusion of others : it is universal, a generic term being ajiplicalde to all individuals. Its perpetuity is intimated by a passage of the Veda, which expresses 'Send forth praise, with ])erpetual speech. ''ft * A passape cited l)y writer.s on tlie dialectic Nyiii/a from tlie disquisition oil the perpetuity of sound (see ante, page 18o), is not to be found in .iai- mim's siilrns: it must liave lioen taken from one of liis commentators. ** .lAiM. I. 1. .'). *** /)i(i/i., I'Ain'ii. and .ma'uii. f Dfd/i. ft .lAiM. 1. 1. t). 1 — 18 and Com. 13* IOC) ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF TIIF- HtNDTTg. The iirst cluipter terminates witli an inquiry into the authority of the V('da , which is maintained to Ijc primeval and superhuman ; altliougli dilTerent portitnis of it are denominated from names of men, i\H ('(iniara , CiinVlmina, I'dis/ipala ^ &c. and although worldly incidents and occurrences are mentioned. Those denominations of particular portions, it is afhrmed, have reference to the tradition by which a revelation has been transmitted. They are named after tlie person who uttered them, as to him revealed. The eternity of the Veda, or authenticity of its revelation, is at- tempted to be proved by showing that it had no human origin; and for this purpose, the princijjal argument is, that no human author is remembered. In the case of human compositions, it is said, contem- poraries liave been aware that the authors of them were occupied in composing those works: not so with the Veda, which lias been banded down as primeval, and of which no mortal author was known. It is, however, acknowledged, that a mistake may be made, and the work of a human author may be erroneously received as a part of the sacred book by those who are unacquainted with its true origin. An instance occurs among those who use the Bahvnclt^ a suclid of the Rlgveda, by Avliom a ritual of a.swala'yana has been admitted, under the title; of the iiftli Jlranyaca, as a part of the H'/(/veda. The Vt'da received as holy by orthodox Hindus consists of two parts, prayer and precept {mantra and brahmana). jaimixi has at- tempted to give a short definition of the first, adding that the second is its supplement; "Avhatever is not mantra , is hraliwanay^' The ancient scholiast has endeavoured to supply the acknowledged de- fect of JAiMiNi's imperfect definition, l»y enumerating the various descriptions of passages coming under each head. Later scholiasts have shown, that every article in that enumeration is subject to ex- ceptions; and the only test of distinction , finally acknoAvledged, is admission of the expert, or acceptance of approved teachers, who have taught their disciples to use one passage as a prayer, and to read another as a precept, .tatmini's definition, and his scholiast's enumeration, serve but to alleviate "the task of picking u]) grains." Generally, then, a ma/dra is a prayer, invocation, or declaration. It is expressed in tli^ first person, or is addressed in the second. It declares the purjiose of a ])ious act, or lauds or invokes the ob- ject. It nsks a ([uestion or retiu-ns an answer; directs, inquires, or deliberates; blesses or imprecates, exults or laments, counts or narrates , &c. Here is to be remarked, that change's introduced into a prayer to nilapt it, 7)ndalis i)ii/la?al/s\ to a different ceremony from that for * Alim. 2. I. 7. MIMANSA. 197 ^sllicll iniiiiaiily it was intcuulcc], ur the iiibcitiou t'\' an individuar.s licrsoual and iaiiiily names where this is rei|ui.sitc , are not cousi- dort'd to be part of the iiianlra. It is likewise to he ol)served, allhoiij;h maiilras of tlie Vcdas are ordinarily significant, that the chants of the Stitiidreda iivc lunnean- in<^. They consist of a few syllahles, as /m cyird , ov fjira (jihjira ^ r(!}»eated again and a^ain, as required l)y the tune or rhythm. Ne- vertheless, significant nmtilras are likewise chanted; and two of the hooks of the SihiKircda are allotted to hymns of this descri])tion. 'rh(! hymns consist of triplets (ir/c/i) or triple stanzas. The first, or pattern verse or stanza, is found , with the name of the apjiropriate tune, in the Chhafulas or Yi'n}i(jiaiil''lni \ and the two remaining verses or stanzas, to complete the triplet, arc furnished in the supplementary hook called IHlani (jninCltd. Mantras are distinguislnMJ nndcr three designations. Tliose which are in metre are termed m7<, those chanted are sdiium, and the rest are >/aj'i(s/i, sacrificial ]»rayers in prose (for j/ajush imports sacrifice). Nev<'rtheless , metrical prayers occur in the Yajarvcda , and prose in the Sdmarrda. Metrical prayers are recited aloud: those termed .sv/w/oh with mu- sical modnlaticni; but the prose inaudildy muttered.* Such, how- ever, as ar(^ vocative, addressed to a second person, are to be uttered audibly, though in prose: for couniiunication is intended. '•'* Metrical prayers, however, belonging to the Yajurveda are in- aiidibly recited; and so are chants Ixdonging to the same inaudildy chante■■ Ih. 1. 1. 7-^1 I. *** II). '*>. ."$. 1— ',\. Iiist;iiii-c.s ui' tiie same pravLT recm'i-iiii,'' ciflicr •■vurd I'm- word, or with very .slii;lit variation, in more tliaii om; I'rdu, -.iw. iiiiiiinierahle. An i.'ininent exanrple i.s tliat of tlie celebrated Gdyalii, of wiiit'li tlie i)ropcr ])Iaeu i.s ni tlie /i/(/-vt'i/a {'.\ 1. 10.), anionjr ]iynuis of vi-^w.VMii ka. It is, liow- ovL-r, rept-attid in ail tlie Frdas, and part intlarly in tiie 'M , -'"Jd and odtli cliaptcr.s of tlic wliite }'ajusfi. (:\, § :$5; '>2, t? (1; "and HO, § H.) Another nntalilu instance is tiiat of the I'uiusliu-sucta, of wliicli a version was given, from a ritual in wiiicli it was found cited (ante, p. 10 1). It lias a place in tlio liiy the Vdjasaneyi; and Ai'ASTAMiiA and baudha'yana, by the Taidir/'ija of the Yajurveda. Tliere is no presumption of a restrictive revelation, but of one of gen- eral import. The institutes of law , and rituals of ceremonicis, w^ere composed by authors appertaining to particular idc^hds, and by them taught to their fellows belonging to the same, and have con- tinued current among the descendants of those" to whom they were so taught. * GL'KU on Mini. 1. 3. 7. ** c:'uan])A-1)kva. mImansa. 201 A very curioiiii ilib([iii.-5itioii occurs in tlii« part of tlic Minutiisii^'^- ou the accP})tiitionof"words in correct languaj^e and barbaric dialects, aud on the nse of terms taken I'roni either. Instances alleged are yavu , signifying in Sauscrll, barley, bnt in the barbaric tongue, the plant li.uncd pr/'yaiKjit : vard/id, in the one a hog, and in the other a cow; 2>ilii, ica , a black cuckoAV {curuhis indicus); to Avhicli his scholiasts add urina, half, tdiiuirasa , a lotus, and said a wooden colander; but without adducing examples of the actual use of ihem in any of the Vcdas. .Such terms must be taken in their ordinary acceptation, though barbarous; and the passage ((noted from the Vedn where the word i)ica occurs, nuist be interpreted "sacrifice a black cuckow at night." It will here be remarked , that/>/frt corresponds to the Latin picas, and that iicm an,swcrs to the Persic 7iim. On the other hand, a barbaric word, or a provincial corruption, is not to be employed instead of the ])roper Sanscrit term. Thus fid (f/aa/i), ixnil uot f/d/ri, is the right term for a cow. f Drthograjdiy, likewise, is to be carefully attended to; else by writing or reading as/ra for asmi in the directions for the sacrifice; of a horse, the in- junction would seem to be for the sncrilice of a pauper (a s/ra, des- titute, of projx'rty). Generally, words arc; to be applied in strict conformity with correct grammar. The 'Sdcyas , and otlier heretics, as (tm.uula in tills place remarks, ft do not uae, Sanscrit ({\wy emjiloy Prdcrit). * I. ;}. 5. ** 'I'lie name is in vocJiIiiilaries a.s.sicfiied to many tliU'tTciit trees. *** j.vrAi.iiAKA, &e. t r/>i[i(i), Avliicli, among meritorious works, is the act of religion most inculcated by the Vetlas , and consequently most dis- cussed in tlie prior Mimdiisi'i, consists in parting with a thing tliat it may belong to a deity, whom it is intended to propitiate.* Being cast into the fire for that purpose, it is a burnt offering {hihna). Four sorts are distinguished: a simple Qblation {isMi), tlie immolation of a victim {pain), the presenting of expressed juice of the s6/iia plant j^asclepias ackla) , and the burnt- offering above-mentioned.** Tlu; object of certain rites is some definite temporal advantage; of others, benefit in another world. Three ceremonies, in particular, are types of all the rest: the consecration of a sacrificial fire, the presenting of an oblation, and the preparation oHhe soma. The oblation which serves as a model for the rest, is that which is oft'ered twice in each month, viz. at the full and change of the moon. It is accompanied, more especially at tlie new moon, with an oblation of wlicy from new milk. Accordingly, the Yajurveda begins with this rite. It coniju-ehends the sending of selected cows to pasture after sepa- rating ilieir calves, touching them with a leafy branch of paldsa {hitti'a frondosa) cut for tlie purpose, and subsequently stuck in the ground in front of the apartment containing the sacrificial fire, for a protection of the herd from robbers and beasts of prey: the cows are milked in the evening and again in the morning; and, from the new milk, whey is then prepared for an oblation. Concerning this ceremony, with all its details, numerous questions arise, which are resolved in the Mimdnsd : for instance, the milking of the cows is pronounced to l)e not a jtrimary or main act, Imt a subordinate, one; and the parting of the calves from tlieir (hims is subsidiary to that subordinate act.*** The whey, which in fact is milk modified, is the main object of tlic whole preparation; not the * Mini. 1. I. 12. ** lb. \. 1. 1. **•!= lb. 1. :i. 10. 204 UN Tilt; I'lULOfsUI'UY OF TllK HINDUS. curd, which is but incidentally produced, uot being souglit nor wanted. ='' In the i'ourtli cliaptcr of the lir.st book, the autlior discriminates terms that modify the precept from sucli as are specific denomina- tions. Several of the instances are not a little curious. Thus it is a question, wlietlier the hawk-sacrilice (sijrna-yafia) , which is at- tended with imprecations on a liated foe, be performed by tlie actual immolation of a bird of that kind. The case is determined by a maxim, that "a term intimating resemblance is denominative." Hawk^ then, is the name of that incantation: "it pounces on the foe as a falcon on his prey."*'-' So lomjs is a name for a similar incanta- tion , ''which seizes tlie enemy from afar as with a pair of tongs;" and coii\ for a sacrifice to avert such imprecations. It is fit to remark in this place, that incantations for destruction of hated foes, though frequent in the Vcdas (and modes of perform- ing them, with greater or less solemnity, are there taught), cannot be deemed laudable acts of religion ; on the contrary, they are pro- nounced to be at least mediately criminal; and pains in hell, as for homicide, await the malevolent man who thus practises against the life of his enemy. Another instance, discussed in the same chapter, is chib^d^ applied to a sacrifice performed for acquisition of cattle. It is questioned whether tlie feminine termination , joined to the ordinary significa- tion (jfthe word, indicates a female victim of a varied colour. It intends, however, an offering termed various, as consisting of no less than six different articles: honey, milk, curds, boiled butter, rice in the husk as well as clean, and water.**'" In like manner, iidbh/d Is the name of a sacrifice directed to be performed for the like purpose: that is, by a person desirous of possessing cattle. The sense approaches to the etymology of the term: it is a ceremony "by which possession of cattle is, as it were, dug up." It does not imply that some tool for delving, as a spade or hoe for digging up the earth, is to be actually employed in the ceremony. A question of considerable interest, as involving the important one concerning property in the soil in India, is discussed in tin- sixth lecture, t At certain sacrifices, such as that which is called visfvajil, the votary,' for whose benefit the ceremony is performed, is en joined to bestow all his pro])erly on the officiating ])riests. It is asked whether a paramount sovereign shall give all the land, in- cluding pasture- ground, highways, and the site of lakes and ponds; an universal monarch, the whole earth; and a subordinate prince, the entire province over which he rules? To that question the * Mim. J. 1. U. ** l/j.l. 1. 5. aud 3. 7. 23. *** l/>. I. t. 3. t I/j. (5. 7. 2. MIMANSA. $!05 answer i.s : the monarch has not property in tlio earth, nor the snh- (irdinatc prince in the land. By con«{ue.st kindly power is obtained, and property in honse and held which belonged to the enemy. The maxim of the law, that '"tlie king is lord of all excepting sa- cerdotal wealth," concerns his anthority for correction of the wicked and jirotection of the good. His kingly power is for government of the realm and extirpaticni of wrong; and for that purpose he re- ceives taxes from husbandmen, and levies fines from ofi'enders. lint right of prtiperty is not thereby vested in him; else lie would have property in house and land appertaining to the subjects abid- ing in his dominions. The earth is not the king's, but is common to all beings enjoying the fruit of tlieir own labour. It belongs, says .lAiMiNi, to all alike: tlierefore, although a gift of a piece of groiuid to an individual does take place, the Avhole land cannot be given by a monarch, nor a jirovince by a subordinate prince; but house and tiebl, acquired by jinrchase and similar means, are liable to gilt.'"* The case whicli will be, here next cited, willliring to recollec- tion llie instance of the Indian Ca/diiiis/*'-^' wlio accompanied Alex- ander's army, and bnrnt liiiiiself at Dabybm after tlie manner of his country. This jiarticular mode of religious suicide by cremation is now ob- solete; as that of widows is in some provinces of India, and it may be ho|)ed will become so in the rest, if no injudicious interference by direct prohibition arouse opposition and jiri^vent the growing dis- use. Other modes of religions suicide not unfre(|U('ntly occur; such as drowning, burying alive, falling from a precii)ice or under the wheels of an idol's car, i^c. I'ul y are not fonnded on th(^ Vi-this, as that by ])urning is. Self-immoljition, in that ancient form of it, is a s(denni sacrifice, performed according to rites w'hich tiie J't'ilas direct, by a man de- sirous of ])assing inuiiediately to heaven witluuit enduring disease. He engages ])riests, as at other sacrifices, for the various functions requisite to the performance of the rites, being himself the votary for wiiose benefit the ceremony is undertaken. At a certain stage of it, after wrapj)ing a cloth round a branch of iidiniihard (/iriis f/Io infiala), which represents a sacrificial stake, and having apjiointed the priests to complete the ceremony, he chants a solemn hymn, and casts blmsidi' on a burning jiile wherein his body is consuiiie(b Afterwards, whatever concerns the rite as a sacrificial ceremony, is to be completed b\- the ajtendant ))riests: omitting, however, those matters which speciallv appertain to the votary, and which, after liis death, tliere is no one coinpi'lcnl lo peri'onii. "'■** * sAi!. MAhii. anil (•'ri\\ii\, ad Incnm. *'* Cahjiitin. *** Mini. in. •.'. r-\. 20G ON 'I'lIK Tlin.oSOPIlV OF THE HINDUS. In liko manner, if the principal die liy a natural doatli, after en- gaging lirahnKiiids to co-operate Avitli him in tlie celebration of cer- tain rites requiring the aid of several priests , his body is to be burnt, and his ashes kept to represent him: and the ceremony is comjtleted for his benefit, according to one opinion, but for theirs according to another. The ashes, it is argued , do not ])erforni the ceremony, but the priests do. Being inanimate, the bones cannot fulfil the j)rescribed duties peculiar to the ])rinci])al: as ntterance of certain prayers, shaving of hair and beard, measure of his sta- ture with a branch of iidiiDibara , iSiC. These and similar functions are not practicable \^y an inanimate skeleton, and therefore are nn- avoidably omitted.''' The full comi)lement of persons officiating at a great solemnity is seventeen. This number, as is shown, includes the votary or principal, who is assisted by sixteen priests engaged by him for dilferent offices, which he need not personally discharge. Jlis essen- tial function is the payment of their hire or sacrificial fee.** They rank in different gradations, and are remunerated propor- tionably. Four, whose duties are most important, receive the full perquisite; four others are recompensed with a half; the four next with a third; and the four last with a quarter. On occasions of less solemnity four priests only are engaged , making with the principal five officiating persons. A question is raised, whether the immohitor of a victim at the sacrifice of an ani- mal (usually a goat) be a distinct officiating person: the answer is in the negative. No one is specially engaged for immolator inde- pendently of other functions; but some one of the party, who has other duties to discharge, slays the victim in the prescribed manner, and is accordingly termed immolator.*** The victims at some sacrifices are numerous : as many as seven- teen at the vajapi'ija, made fast to the same number of stakes; and at an asivamedlui not fewer than six hundred and nine of all des- scriptions, tame and wild, terrestrial and aquatic, walking, flying, swimming, and creeping things, distributed among twenty - one stakes and in the intervals between them; the tame made fast to the stakes , and the wild secured in cages, nets, baskets, jars, and hol- low canes, and by various other devices. The wild are not to be slain , but at a certain stage of the ceremony let loose. The tame ones, or most of them (chiefly goats), are to be actually immolated. The various rites are successively performed for each victim ; not completed for one before they are commenced for another. But the consecration of the sacrificial stakes is perfected for each in succession , because the votary is required to retain hold of the stake until the consecration of it is done.f * Mim. 10. 2. 17-20. ** lb 3. 7. 8-17. *** ///. 3. 7. 13. f Ih. 5. 2. 1-5. MIMANSA. 0()7 The foregoing instances may suffice to give some idea of tlic na- Ime of the sulijocts treated in the HJimansa, and of the way in Avliicli tliey are handled. They have been selected as in tliemselves cur- ious, rather tlian as instructive specimens of f]io manner in wliich very numerous and varied cases are examined and (|uesti«iiis con- cerning tlicm resolved. The arguments would he tedious, and the reasons of the s(dution would need much elucidation , and after all would, in general, he uninteresting. A few e.\aui])les nC the tojdcs investigated, and still fewer of the reasoning aitplied to them, liave therefore been considered as better conveying in a small compass a nf>tion of the multifarious subjects of the Minii'nisa. IX. 'On Iho PTTII.OSOPHY of the HINDUS. PART IV.* [From the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. p. 1—39.] INTRODUCTION. A PRECEDING essay on Indian pliilosopliy contained a succinct account of the Carina mimunsa. The present one will be devoted to the Bnih)iui mimdnsd; which, as the complement of the former, is termed iillara, later, contrasted with pi'/rva^ prior, being tlie investi- gation of proof, deducible from the Vedas in regard to iheologij ^ as the other is in regard to /vurks and their merit. The two together, then, comprise tlie complete system of interpretation of the precepts and doctrine of the Vcdas ^ both practical and theological. They are parts of one whole. The later Miindnsd is supplementary to the prior, and is expressly afJirmed to be so: but, dilYering on many important points , though agreeing on others, they are essentially distinct in a religious as in a philosophical view. The ordinary designation of the Vllai^a-mimdnsd is Vcddfila, a term likewise of more comprehensive import. It literally signifies "conclusion of the Veda,'" and bears reference to the Upa?iis//ads, which are, for the most ])art, terminating sections of the Vedas to which they belong. It implies, however, the doctrine derived from them, and extends to books of sacred authority, in which that doc- trine is thence deduced; and in this large acceptation, it is "the end and scope of the Vedas.'''' Tlie followers of the Veddida have separated in several sects, as ^ancient' and 'modern' Vedanl'nts , and bearing other designations. The points on which they disagree, and the difference of their opi- nions, will not be a subject of the present essay, but may be noticed ill a future one. Among numerous Upanishads, those which arc principally relied upon for the Veddnta , and which accordingly are most frc(|uently cited, are iXxQCIilidiuh'Kiya, Caushildci , Vriliad draivjaca, Aiku^eyaca , Tailliriiiaca, Cdlliaca, CiifliavaH/, Ula/idara, Prasna, 'StveldsnHilara ; to Avhich may be added the Isd-rdsya^ Vena, and one or two more. * Read at a public mcetiiii; cif tlic I'oyal Asi;iMc Society, April 7, IS'iT. VKDAXTA. 209 Certain religious exercises, consisting chieHy in profound medi- tation, with particular sitting postures rigorously continued, are in- culcated as preparing the student lor the attainment of divine knowledge, and pruuiotiug his acquisition uf it. Directions concern- ing such devout exercises are to be found in several of the Upaimhads, especially in the 'Sweias/vulura ; and likewise in other portions of the f'l'ilas, as a part of the general ritual. These are accordingh cited by the commentaturs of the Vedi'uila^ and must be considered to be comprehended under that general terra;* and others from dirterent sac has of the J'eilus, as further exemplified in a note bulow.^'-' Besides the portion of the Fcdas understood to be intended by the designation of Vedunla, the grand authority for its doctrine is the collection o( stitras, or aphorisms, entitled Brahme-sulra or 'Sdri- rucainimdiisd, and sometimes 'Sdrira-sulra or Vedd/i/a-si'ilra. 'Sdri'ra, it should be observed, signifies embodied or incarnate (soul). Other authorities are the ancient scholia of that text, which is the standard work of the science; and didactic poems comprehended under the designation of smnd, a name implying a certain degree of veneration due to the auth(n-s. Such are the Bhagavud y/'ld and Yogu-vasishVka, reputed to be inspired writings. Writers on the v^danta. The 'Sdriracu-mimdnsd or Brahme siilra, above-mentioned, is a collection of succinct aphorisms attributed to ba'dara'yana, who is the same witli vva'sa or Vedavydsa; also called Dwaipdyana or Crhltun dn-aipdyaiui. According to mythology, he had in a former state, being then a brdhmami bearing the name of apXntara-ta- mas,*** acquired a perfect knowledge of revelation and of the di- vinity, and was consequently qualified for eternal beatitude. Ne- vertheless, by special command of the deity, he resumed a corpo- real frame and the human shape, at the period intervening between the third and fourth ages of the present world, and was compiler of the T'edas, as his title of Vydsa implies. In the Purdnas, and by paka's'ara, he is said to be an incarnation (avaldra) of vishnu. This, however, is not altogether at variance with the foregoing legend; since apa'ntaka-tamas, having attained * For instance, tlie .-)//«i raliasi/ti hriihmalin i.f tlie Ciiiiwds and of tlic I'lijins (or yujasdnrjiiini); tlie Hdsliusnu Indlimnhu of the Tdndiiis and of the I'aiiKjins. ** The L'llijiChii bidlinutuu of tlie Cdjasain'i/ins , the Pauchdgni-vidyd pruca- ranaoi the same, ihcC'liiln yrnnCha of the liiintii/mni/fis, the Pidnn-sdo.vdda or Prdiuividi/d. Da/iarn vid//d. Ildida vidi/d, Pa< nwdbmt v'uhjd Salyn vilifu. f'nis- wd'tina-vidyd , Sdiidili/a vidyd , I'dmudrt'i/a vidtjd , //p(iros(dii viili/d, Parytinca- vidyd, Madliu-vidyd, Sliddasaralu vidyd, Sumvurya vidijd, ,tc. *** SANc. &c. on Br. Siilr. 3. 3. 32. 14 210 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. perfection, was identified with the deity; and his resumption of the human form was a descent of the god, in mythological notions. Apart from mythology, it is not to be deemed unlikely, that the person (whoever he really was ) who compiled and arranged the Vcdas, was led to compose a treatise on their scope and essential doctrine. But vya'sa is also reputed author of the Mahdbharala, and most of the principal pi/rdnas- and that is for the contrary rea- son improbable, since the doctrine of the piirdnas , and even of the Bl/agavad gild and the rest of the Mahdbhdrala , are not quite con- sonant to that of the Vedas , as expounded in the Brahmesutras. The same person would not have deduced from the same premises such different conclusions. The name of badarayana frequently recurs in the sitlras ascribed to him, as does that of JAIMINI, the reputed author of i\ve Pi'trva- mimd?isd, in his. I have already remarked, in the preceding es- say,* on the mention of an author by his name, and in the third person, in his own work. It is nothing unusual in literature or science of other nations : but a Hindu commentator will account for it, by presuming the actual composition to be that of a disciple re- cording the words of his teacher. Besides ba'dara'yana himself, and his great predecessor jaimini, several other distinguished names likewise occur, though less fre- quently: some which are also noticed in the Purva -mhiid/isd , as a'tri^yi and ba'dari; and some which are not there found, as as- marat'hya, aud'ulomi, ca'rshnajini, and ca'sacritsna; and the Toga of Palanjali, which consequently is an anterior work; as in- deed it must be, if its scholiast, as generally acknowledged, be the same vya'sa who is the author of the aphorisms of the UUara-mi- mdnsd. The 'Sdriraca is also posterior to the atheistical Sdncliya of capi- LA, to whom, or at least to his doctrine, there are many marked al- lusions in the text. The atomic system of cana'de (or, as the scholiast of the 'Sdriraca., in more than one place, contumeliously designates him, cana-bhuj or canabhacsha) is frequently adverted to for the purpose of con- futation; as are the most noted heretical systems, viz. the several sects of Jaitias , the Bauddhas^ the Pdsiipalas with other classes of Mdhe'swaras, the Pdnchardlras or Bhdgavalas, and divers other schis- matics. From this, which is also supported by other reasons, there seems to be good ground for considering the 'Sdriraca to be the latest of the six grand systems of doctrine {darsana) in Indian philosophy : later, likewise, than the heresies which sprung uj) among the Hin- dus of the military and mercantile tribes {cshalriya and vaisya) and * See p. 180, of tliis volume. V^DANTA. 211 vliicli. disclaiming the Vedas ^ set up a Jitia or a Buildha for an ob- ject of worship; and later even than some, which, acknowledging the Vi'das, have deviated into heterodoxy in their interpretation of the text. fn a separate essay, * I have endeavoured to give some account of the heretical and heterodox seels which the 'Sdriraca confutes: and of which the tenets are explained, for the elucidation of that confutation, in its numerous commentaries. I allude particularly to the Jaimis, Bauddhas, Cfidri'dcas, Pdsuputas, and Pdtir/ia/dltas. The si'ilras of bauaka'yana are arranged in four books or lectures («r/////^/7/'0, each subdivided into four chapters or quarters (pdda). Like the aphorisms of the prior Minuinsii, they are distributed very unequally into sections, arguments, cases, or topics ( adhicarai'ia). The entire number of sidras is 555; oi adhicaramis 191. But in this there is a little uncertainty, for it appears from sancaka, that earlier commentaries subdivided some ad/ticar-a/ias, where he writes the apliorisms in one section. An adhicara/ia in the later, as in the prior Mimdnsd ^ consists of five members or parts: 1st, the subject and matter to be explained; 2d, the doubt or question concerning it; 3d, the plausible solution or prima facie argument; 4th, the answer, or demonstrated conclu- sion and true solution; 5th, tlic pertinence or relevancy and con- nexion. But in iJADAitAVANA's apliorisms , as in those of jaimini, no adhi- rarai'ia is fully set forth. Very frequently the solution only is given by a single si'ilra^ which obscurely hints the question, and makes no allusion to any dift'erent plausible solution, nor to arguments in fa- vour of it. More rarely the opposed solution is examined at some length, and arguments in supj)ort of it are discussed through a string of brief sentences. Being a sequel of the prior Mimdnsd, the latter adopts the same distinctions of six sources of knowledge or modes of proof''"-' which are taught by .iaimin'i, supplied where he is deficient by the old scholiast. There is, indeed, no direct mention of them in the Brah- me-st'tlras, beyond a frequent reference to oral proof, meaning reve- lation, which is sixth among those modes. But the commentators make ample use of a logic which enqiloys the same terms with that of the Piirva miindnsd, being founded on it, though not without amendments on some points. Among the rest, the Veddtdiiis have taken the .syllogism ( ?j//r///r/) of the dialectic pliilosojiliy , with the obvious improvement ol' reducing its live members to three. **^ "It consists," as expressly declared, "of three, not of five parts; for as the requisites of the inference are exhibited by tliree members, two * See p. 243, of tliis volume. ** Vi'dunlu pm ihliushn. *** I'iddnla parihlidslui. 14* 212 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS, more are superfluous. They are either the proposition, the reason, and the example; or the instance, the application, and the con- clusion." In this state it is a perfectly regular syllogism, as I had occasion to remark in a former essay : * and it naturally becomes a question, whether the emendation was borrowed from the Greeks, or being sufliciently obvious, maybe deemed purely Indian, fallen upon without hint or assistance from another quarter. The improvement does not appear to be of ancient date, a circumstance which favours the supposition of its having been borrowed. The earliest works in which I have found it mentioned are of no antiquity. ** The logic of the two Mimdnsds merits a more full examination than the limits of the present essay allow, and it has been reserved for a separate consideration at a future opportunity , because it has been reiined and brought into a regular form by the followers, ra- ther than by founders of either school. The 'Sdriraca-sulras are in the highest degree obscure , and could never have been intelligible without an ample intei'pretation. Hint- ing the question or its solution , rather than proposing the one or briefly delivering the other, they but allude to the subject. Like the aphorisms of other Indian sciences, they must from the first have been accompanied by the aiithor's exposition of the meaning , whether orally taught by him or communicated in writing. Among ancient scholiasts of the Brahme-si'itras the name of BAUDHAYANA occurs : an appellation to which reverence, as to that of a saint or m/i/, attaches. He is likewise the reputed author of a treatise on law. An early gloss, under the designation of vrUti, is quoted without its author's name, and is understood to be adverted to in the remarks of later writers, in several instances, where no particular reference is however expressed. It is apparently bau- dhayana's. An ancient writer on both mimdnsds (prior and later) is cited, under the name of upavarsha, with the epithet of vener- able [bh(igavat) ,**'* implying that he was a holy personage. He is noticed in the supplement to the Amera-cdshaj- as a saint (muni), with the titles or additions of IIala-bhnli,Cr7ia-C(y/j\ and Aydchila. It does not appear that any of his works are now forthcoming. The most distinguished scholiast of these stilras, in modern esti- mation, is the celebrated .sancara a'cha'rya, the founder of a sect among Hindus which is yet one of the most prevalent. I have had a former occasion of discussing the antiquity of this eminent person; and the subject has been since examined by ra'ma mohen ra'ya and by Mr. Wilson, tt I continue of opinion, that the period when he * See p. 185, of this volume. ** In the Feddnla parihhdslui txnA Paddrt'ha dipicd. *** .sanc. 3. 3. 53. •f Tricdnda sesha. ff Sanscrit Diet., first edit., pref. p. xvi. v^da'nta. 2I;1 flourished may be taken to liave been the close of the eighth in- beginning of the nintli century of the Christian era ; and I am con- firmed in it by tlie concurring ojjinions of those very learned persons. How much earlier the older scholia were, or the text itself, there is no evidence to determine. If the reputed author be the true one, it would be necessary to go back nearly tMo thousand years, to the era of the arrangement of the Vedns by vva'sa. sancara's gloss or j)erpetual CDUimentary of the si'/lras bears the title (A' 'Sdriraca-miinf'msd'bliashya. It has been annotated and inter- preted by a lierd of commentators; and among others, and most noted, by vachespati MiSRA , in tlie Bhdmali or 'Sdriraca-bhdshya- vibhdga. This is the same vachespati , whose commentaries on the Sdn- c^hya-cdricd of i.swara Chandra, and on the text and gloss of pa- TANJALi's Yoga and ootama's Nt/dj/a , were noticed in former es- says.* He is the author of other treatises on dialectics (Nydya), and of one entitled Tatwa-vindu on the Pihva-inimd/isd, as it is ex- pounded by BH.ATTA. All his works, in every department, are held in high and deserved estimation. VAfHEsrATi's exposition of s'akcara's gloss, again, has been amply annotated and explained in the Veddnla- calpaicu-u of AXA- LANAXDA, surnamed Vydsdsrama-^ Avhose notes, in their turn, be- come the text for other scholia : especially a Aoluminous collection under the title nf Pfiriniala, or Veddnla-adpatai-u-jxirimtda^hj apya- yADicsinrA (^author of several other works); and an abridged one, under that of Ve'ddnfa calpataru-manjan, by vidya'na't'ha bhatta. Other commentaries on sancara's gloss are numerous and esteemed, Ihough not Inirdened with so long a chain of scholia upon scholia: for instance, the Brahma-vidydbharana by adwaitaxan- DA,** and the Bhdshya-ratnuprabhd by govindananda; both works of acknowledged merit. These nnilti|)lied expositions of the text and of the gloss furnish an iuexhaustilile fund of controversial disquisition, suited to the dis- putatious schoolmen of India. On many occasions , however, they * See pp. 147. 14S, 106. of this vohime. ** It is by Mr. Ward u.iinefl Vcrldnta sutrn v>//ir'/ii//i by ni! AiiMA-vinTAHHA- RAXA , mistakinjif tlie title of tlie work for the ap]>ellatiuii of the author. Yet it is expressly aftirmod in the ruhrie and eolojilion to he the \vork of adwai- TANAXDA, who abridf^ed it from an ampler commentary bv 1!Amaxaxi>a ti'rt'iia. The mistake is the more remarkable , as the same adwaitanaxda was pre- ceptor of sadaxaxda, whose work, the I'eilihtln sfim, Mr. Ward att mpted to translate; and the only part of sadanaxda's j)reface, whieh is ])reservcd in the version . is that preceptor'.s name. Mr. Ward's eatalopfue of treatises extant belonfjin^' to this school of philosophy exhibits other like errors. He puts Mtidhnvn for Mnilhuxvdana, the name of an author; converts a comment- ary (the Mucliirf/li) into an abridjrment ; and turns the text (mula) of the y^dtinta-sdra into its essence. Ward's Hindus, vol. iv. pp. 172, 173. 214 ON THE nuLosoriiv of the uindus. are usefully consulted, in succession, for annotations supplying a right interpretation of obscure passages in s'ancara's scholia or in vva'sa's text. Another perpetual commentary on the sulrus of the 'Sdriraca by a distinguished author, is the work of the celebrated rama'nuja, the founder of a sect which has sprung as a schism out of the Veddnlin. The points of doctrine, on which these great authorities ditt'er , will be inquired into in another place. It may be readily supposed that they are not unfrequently at variance in the interpretation of the text, and I shall, therefore, make little use of the scholia of rama'- nuja for the present essay. For the same reason , I make no refer- ence to the commentaries of ballabha a'cha'rya, bhat't'a bhascara, ananta tirt'ha surnamed madhu, and nilacant'ha, whose inter- pretations differ essentially on some points from sancara's. Commentaries on the 'Sdriraca-sulras by authors of less note are extremely numerous. I shall content myself with naming such only as are immediately under view, viz. the Veddnla-sulra-muclavali by brahma'nanda-saraswati; * the Brahma-sulrahhdshya or Mimdnsd- bhdshya, by bha'scara'cha'rya; the Vcddnla-sulni-vijdc hyd chandricd, by bhavadeva misra; the Vydsa-sulra-vr'itli ^hy ranganat'ha; the Subodhini or 'Sdrira-si'Ura-sdrdrfha-chandncd^ by gangadhara; and the Brahmdmrllra-rcrshini^ by ra'ma'nanda. This list might with ease be greatly enlarged. Two of the com- mentaries, which have been consulted in progress of preparing the present essay , are Avithout the authors name , either in preface or colophon, in the only copies which I have seen; and occasions have occurred for noticing aiithors of commentaries on other bran- ches of philosophy, as well as on the Brahma-mimdnsd (for instance VIJNYANA BHICSHU, author of the Sdnc'hya-sdra and Yoga-vdrlica).'** To these many and various commentaries in prose, on the text and on the scholia, must be added more than one in verse. For in- stance, the Sancshepasdriraca, wliich is a metrical paraphrase of text and gloss, by sarvajnya'tmagiki a sannydsi: it is expounded by a commentary entitled Jnnmydrfha-pracdsicd , by rama tirt'ha, disciple of crTshna tiht'ha, and author of several other works; in particular, a commentary on the Upadcsa-sahasri , and one on the Veddnta-sdra. Besides his great work, the interpretation of the sutras, s'ancara wrote commentaries on all the principal or important Upanishads. His preceptor, govinda, and the preceptor's teacher, gaudapa'da, had already written commentaries on many of them. s'ancara is author, likewise, of several distinct treatises; the * Mr. Ward calls this an abridgment of the Vcddnta-sutras. It is no abridgment, but a commentary in ordinary form. ** Seep. 116, 148, of thi.s vohime. VEDAXTA. 215 most noted of which is the Upadesa-sahasri, a metvicat summary of the doctrine deduced by him from the Upanishads and Brahma siilr as, in his coiiimcntaries on those original works. The text of the Cpa- desa saluisri has been expounded by more than one commentator; and among otiiers by ra'ma tirt'ha, already noticed for his com- ment on the Sancshepasdriraca. His gloss of the Upadesasahasri is entitled Pada i/ojanicd. Filementary treatises on the Veddnla are very abundant. It may suftice t(i notice a few which are popular and in general use, and which have been consulted in the preparation of the present essay. The Veddnla -pariblidshd of diiarma-ra'ja dicshita explains, as its title indicates, the technical terms of the Veddnla; and, in course of doing so, opens most of the principal points of its doctrine. A commentary on this work by the author's son, ra'ma-crishna dics- hita, bears the title of Veddnla-siclidmaiu. Taken together, they form an useful introduction to the study of this branch of Indian philosophy. The Veddnta-sdra is a popular compendium of the entire doctrine of the Veddnla.'*- It is the work of sada'nanda, disciple of a'dwa- YAXANDA or ADWAiTAXANDA before-mcntionod, and has become the text for several commentaries ; and , among the rest , the Vidwan- mano ranjini, by UAStA-TiRT'HA, who has been already twice noticed for other works; and tha SuWidhiin, by xrisinha saraswati , dis- ciple of crishxa'nanda. * Mr. Ward has given, in tlie fourth volume of his View of the History, Literature, and Mytholofjy of the Hindus (third edition) a translation of the Vcdiinta-sdra. I wish to speak as pfently as I can of ^fr. Ward's perfor- mance; but haviuf^ collated this, I am hound to say it is no version of the orifjinal text, and seems to have been made from an oral exposition throu<;h the medium of a ditferent langfuage, probably the lieno^alese. This will be evident to the oriental scholar on the slightest comparison : for example, the introduction, which does not correspond with the original in so much as a single word, the name of the author's preceptor alone excepted; nor is there a word of the translated introduction countenanced by any of the comment- aries. At the commencement of the treatise, too, where the requisite quali- fications of a student are enumerated, .^f^. Ward makes his author say, that a person possessing those (|ualifications is heir to the Veda (p. ITti)- There is no term in the text , nor in the commentaries, which could suggest the notion of heir; unless Mr. Ward has so translated adhicdri (a competent or qualified person), which in Rengalese signifies proprietor, or, with the epithet iittdrn (ullnriiilliiciiri) heir or successor. It would be needless to pursue the comparison further. Tiic meaning of tlie original is certainly not to be gathered from such translations of this and (as Mr. Ward terms them) of other principal works of the Hindus, whicli he has presented to the public. I was not aware, when |)reparing the former essays on the l^hilosophy of tiie Hindus wliich have been inserted in the (irst volume of the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. thatMr.Ward had treated the same topics: but I think it now unnecessary to revert to the subject, for the purpose of offering any remarks on his explanation of other branches of Indian philosophy. 216 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. A few other treatises may be liore briefly noticed. The 'Sdslra-siddhdnla-lcsa-sangruha^ by apyaya or (apyai) di- CSHITA, son of rangana't'ha orRANGARAJA DicsHiTA, and author of the Parimala on the Siddhdnta calpularu , before-mentioned , as well as of other works, has the benefit of a commentary, entitled Crish- ndlancdra, by achyuta cuishnananda tirt'iia, disciple of swayam- pracas'a'nanda saraswati. The Veddiita-siddhdnta-vindu^ by ma- dhusudana, disciple of visw^SWA-rananda saraswati, and author of the Veddnta-cnlpalalicd, and of other works, is in like manner com- mented on by BRAHMANANDA, disciple of NARAYANA TIRT'hA. Analysis. * » The Uttara- mimdnsd opens precisely as the Purva^ announcing the purport in the same terms, except a single, but most important word, hrahme instead o? dharma, 'Next, therefore, the inquiry is con- cerning GOD.'** It proceeds thus: '[He is that] whence are the birth and [continuance, and dissolution] of [this Avorld]: [He is] the source of [revelation or] holy ordinance.'*** That is, as the com- mentators infer from these aphorisms so expounded, 'He is the omni- potent creator of the world and the omniscient author of revelation.' It goes on to say, 'This appears from the import and right construc- tion of holy writ.' f The author of the st'tlras next ft enters upon a confutation of the Sdncliyas,-who insist that 77a{ure, termed prcurjidna, which is the mate- rial cause of the universe, as they affirm, is the same with the omni- scient and omnipotent cause of the world recognised by the Vcdas. It is not so; for 'wish' (consequently volition) is attributed to that cause, which moreover is termed (diman) soul: 'He wished to be many and prolific, and became manifold.' And again, 'He desired to be many, &c " ttt Therefore he is a sentient rational being; not insensible , as the pracrlli (nature) or pradhdna (matter) of capila is affirmed to be. In the sequel of the first chapter § questions are raised upon divers passages of the Vcdas, alluded to in the text, and quoted in the scholia, where minor attributes are seemingly assigned to the world's cause; or in which subordinate designations occur, such as might be supposed to indicate an inferior being, but are shown to intend the supreme one. The cases (adhicaranas) or questions arising on them are examined * In this analysis of the sutras , a portion of the scholia or explanations of commentators is blended with the text, for a brief abstract and intelli- gible sninmary of the doctrine. *■■' Br. Sutr. 1. 1. § 1. *** lb. § 2 "and 3. f lb. § 4 ff lb. § 5. {sittr. 5. II.) ttt CKMndogija, (i. § § (Uo § 11. V^DANTA. 217 and resolved concisely and obscurely in the sulras, fnlly and per- spicuously in the scholia, 'The omnipotent, omniscient, sentient cause of the universe, is {(inandamaya) essentially happy.* He is the brilliant, golden per- son, soon within {(inlar) the solar orb and the human eye.'^^ lie is the elhcriitl element (dcdsa) , from which all things proceed and to which all return.**'^ He is the breath (prdtiu) in which all beings merge, into which they all rise.f He is the light (Jyolish) which shines in heaven, and in all places high and low, everywhere throughout the world, and within the human person. He is the breath (prdtia) and intelligeut self, immortal, undecaying, and happy, with which ixdra, in a dialogue with pratardana, identifies him- self. ' tf The term prdna, which is the subject of two of the sections just quoted (§ 9 and 1i), properly and primaril}^ signifies respiration, as well as certain other vital actiims (insi)iration , energy, expiration, digestion, or circulation of nourishment); and secondarily, the senses and organs, ttt But, in the passages here referred to, it is employed for a different signification, intending tho supreme Brahme ; as also in divers other texts of the Vedas: and, among the rest, in one where the senses are said to be absorbed into it during profound sleep ;§ for 'while a man sleeps without dreaming, his souHs with Brahme. ' Further cases of the like nature, but in which the indications of the true moaning appear less evident, are discussed at length in the second and thir/y//«?/«) intelli- gent soul (supreme Brahme) which shines with no borrowed light. In the dialogue between yama and naciucktas, before cited, are the following jiassages.*** 'A person {punisha) no bigger than the thumb abides in the midst of self;' and again, 'the person no bigger than the thumb is clear as a smokeless flame, lord of the past (present) and future; he is to-day and Avill be to morrow : such is he (concerning whom you inquire).' This is evidently said of the supreme rulor, not of the individual living soul. Another passage of the same Upaniskadi declares: 'this whole universe, issuing from lireath (/;/•«//«), moves as it imi)els: great, terrible, as a clap of thunder. Tiiey , who know it, become immor- tal.' Brahme, not the thunderbolt nor wind, is here meant. 'The living soul ( samprasada) rising from this corporeal frame, attains the su])ren\e light, and comes fortli witli his identical form. 'ft 'It is neither the light of the sun, nor the visual organ, but Brahme, that is here meant. * Cli'liiimh'iijijn, 8 Daliarn-vidi/ii. Br. Sutr. 1. .?. § 5. (S. 11. 21.) ** Mitridacu, Br. Su/r. 1. 3. § 6. (S. 22, 23.) *** Cat'/ia. 4. Br. Su'r. I. 3. § 7. (S. 21. 25.) t mr/ia. G. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 10. (S. 39.) if CV/ahtiiiJf/i/a 8. Prajaputi-vidyd, Br. Su/r. 1. 3. § 11. (fi. 40.)' 222 ON THE PHILOSOPHV OF THE HINDUS. ''YAhov (dcdsd) is the bearer (cause of bearing) of name and form. That in tlie midst of which tliey botli are , is Bralime : it is iunnor- tality; it is soul.'* Acdsa here intends the supreme being, not the element so named. In a dialogue between ya'jnyawalcya and janaca,** in answer to an inquiry 'which is the soulV the intelligent internal light with- in the heart is declared to be so. This likewise is shown to relate to the supreme one, unaffected by worldly course. It had been intimated in an early aphorism of the first chapter, that the TfV/rtS, being rightly interpreted, do concur in the same import, as there expressed concerning the omnipotent and omni- scient creator of the universe.*** An objection to this conclusion is raised, upon the ground of discrepancy remarked in various texts of the Vedas,'\ which coincide, indeed, in ascribing the creation to Brahme^ but differ in the order and particulars of the world's develop- ment. The apparent contradiction is reconciled , as they agree on the essential points of the creator's attributes; omnipotent and omniscient providence, lord of all, soul of all, and witliout a second, &c. : and it was not the object of the discrepant passages to declare the precise succession and exact course of the world's formation. Two nnn'e sections are devoted to expound passages which define Bralime as creator, and which are shown to comport no other con- struction. In one,tt cited from a dialogvxe between ajatasatru and ba'la'ci, surnamed gargya, the object of meditation and worship is pronounced to be, 'he who was the maker of those persons just before mentioned (regents of the sun, moon, &c.), and whose work this universe is. ' In the other, cited from a dialogue between ya'jnyawai.cya and MAiTREYi,ttt soul, and all else which is desirable, are contrasted as mutual objects of affection: 'it is for soul [dlmati) that opulence, kindred, and all else which is dear, are so; and thereunto soul re- ciprocally is so; and such is the object which should be meditated, inquired, and known, and by knowledge ofwhom all becomes known.' This, it is shown, is said of the supreme, not of the individual soul, nor of the breath of life. Under this last head several authorities are quoted by the author, for different modes of interpretation and reasoning, viz. a^mara- t'hya, aiiuulomi and casacritsna, as jaimini under the next pre- ceding (§ 5). The succeeding section § affirms the important tenet of the Ve- * Ch'hdndnqija S ad iinem. Br. Siitr. 1. 3. § 12. (S 41.) ** VrViad drm'niaca, (J. Br. Sutr. 1. 3. § 13. (S. 42. 43.) *** Br. S. I. I. ^ 4. t Ch'hdndonija. TaiUiriya. and Aitareya. ■\-\ Caushilaci hrdkmaha. Br. S. 1.4. § p. (S. Ui — 18.) ttt Vrihad drahijaca, Maitrh/i brdhmana. Br. SiUr. 1. 4. § 6. (S. 19-22.) § Br. Sutr. 1.4. § 7. (S. 23—27.) VKDANTA. 223 ddtila, that the supreme being is the material, as well as the efficient, cause of the universe; it is a propnsition directly resulting from the tenour of passages of the f'lUlas, and illustrations and examples adduced. The first lecture is terminated by an aphorism,* intimating that, in the like manner as the opinion of a plastic nature and material cause (termed by tlie Sd nc' hi/as , praiUi(imi) has been shown to be unsupported by the text of the Vrda, and inconsistent with its un- doubted doctrine, so, by the like reasoning, the notion of atoms {at'iii ox pa ram an u) and that of an universal void (sihiya), and other as un- founded systems, are set aside in favour of the only consistent po- sition just now affirmed. (/>V. Si'ilr. I. 1. §,5 and 1 . 4. § 7.) Not to interrupt the connexion of the subjects, I have purposely passed by a digression, or rather several, comprised in two sections of this chapter ,^"'"'"' wliorein it is inquired wlipther any besides a re- generate man (or Hindu of the three first tribes) is (jualified for theological studies and theognostic attainments; and the solution of the doubt is, that a si'alra, or man of an inferior tribe, is incom- petent; ■''■'■■■'" and tliat beings superior to man (the gods of mythology) are qualified. In the course of this disquisition the noted question of the eternity of sound, of articulate sound in particular, is mooted and examined. It is a favourite t(ii)ic in both Mimdiisds, being intimately connected with that of tlie eternity of the Veda, or revelation acknowledged by them. I shall not, however, enter into the matter further, in this place, though nuich remain to be added to the little which -was said on it in a former essay, f In the fourth chapter of the first lecture, the author returns to the task of confuting the Sdnc'hya doctrine; and some passages of the Vedas, api»arently favouring that doctrine, are difierently interpreted by him: 'tlie indistinct one {avijavla) is superior to the great one (mahal), and embodied soul (purusha) is superior to the indistiuct.'ff Here the very same terms, which the Sdnc'hyas employ for 'intel- ligence, nature, and soul,' are contrasted, Avith allusion seemingly to the technical acceptations of them. This passage is, however, explained away; and the terms are taken by the Vvddnlms in a ditVerent sense. The next instance is less striking and may bo briefly dismissed, as may that foHowing it: one relative to ajd, alleged to signify in the passage in question i ft the aiihoni sempiternal nature (prarnii), but explained to intend a luminous nature (pracrili) noticed in the * /ir. Suit: 1. 1. .!,■ 8. (S. 28.) ** Br. SiUr. I. ;i. § 8, <) (.S. 20- DH ) **• /ir. Sulr. I. ;i. (S. 28-2!).) f S... ,,. l<)r>, of tliis v..lume. tt Cdriia,:\, Br. Sidr. 1.-1. § 1. (S. 1—7.) ttt 'Sti-(Hu'stvalara. B. S. 1. -1. § 2. (S. 8—10.) 224 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. Cli'lHindijgyir^ (there is in the text itself an evident allusion to the ordinary acceptation of the word, a she-goat): the other concerning the meaning of the words pimchu-panchajandh , in a passage of the Vriluid dno'ujdcd, ''"' which a follower of the Sdncliya would construe as bearing reference to live times five (twenty-live) principles ; but which clearly relates to five objects specified in the context, and figuratively termed persons {pancha jaiui). It is because the Sunc'hya doctrine is, in the apprehension of the Vedunlins themselves, to a certain degree jilausible, and seemingly countenanced by the text of the Fcdas, that its refutation occupies so much of the attention of the author and his scholiasts. More than one among the sages of the law (devala in particular is named) have sanctioned the principles of the Sdnc'^hyu; and they are not uncountenanced by iienu. '"■'■' capila himself is spoken of with the reverence due to a saint (^Muhd-nshi) and inspired sage; and his most eminent disciples, as panchasic'ha, &c. are mentioned with like veneration; and their works are dignified with the appellations of lanlru and smnli as holy writings, by the J'edd/itiiis , at the same time that these oppose and refute the doctrine taught by him. capila , indeed , is named in the Veda itself as possessing trans- cendent knowledge : but here it is remarked, that the name has been borne by more than one sage ; and in particular by va'sudeva, who slew the sons of sagara. "^^"^ This mythological personage, it is contended, is the capila named in the Veda. The second lecture continues the refutation of capila's Sdnc'hya, which, it is observed, is at variance with the smnlis , as with the Vedas: and here the name of menu is placed at the head of them, although the institutes, which bear his name, will be found, as just now hinted, and as subsequently admitted in another section, to afford seeming countenance to Sdnc'/iya doctrines. Such passages are , however , explained away by the Veddidiiis , who rely in this instance, as they do in that of the Veda itself, on other texts, which are not reconcileable to the Sdncliya. The same argument is in the following section, f applied to the setting aside of the Ydrjasmnli of patanjali [Hairanya-garbha) , so far as that is inconsistent with the orthodox tenets deduced from the Vedas : and, by parity of reasoning, to cana'de's atomical scheme; and to other systems which admit two distinct causes (a material and an efficient one) of the universe. The doctrine derived from the tenour of the Vedas is to be sup- ported, likewise, by reasoning independently of authority. 'The objection, that the cause and etiect are dissimilar, is not a valid one: '" Frihad draA. G. Br. Sidr. 1. 4. § 3. (S. 11—13.) ** menu's Institutes, cb, xii., v. 50. *** sANC. on Br. Sutr. 2. 1. § I. (S. 1—2.) t Br. Sidr. 2. 1. § 2. (S. 3.) V^DANTA. 225 instances of such dissimilarity are frequent. Ilair and nails, which are insensible, grow from a sensible animal Ijody ; and sentient vermin (scorpions, &c.) spring from inanimate sources (cow-dung, c^c.) The argument , too, might be retorted; for, according to the adverse jjositiou, sentient I)eiiigs are produced from an insensible plastic nature.* On these and other arguments the orthodox doctrine is maintainable by reasoning: and by like arguments opinions con- cerning atoms and an universal void, which are not received by the best persons, may be confuted.'*^ 'The distinction relative to fruition, discriminating one who en- joys and tliat wliich is enjoyed, does not invalidate the singleness and identity of Bruhme as cause and eftect. *** The sea is one and not other than its waters; yet waves, foam, sjjray, drops, froth, and otlier modihcations of it, diti'er from each other." ' An eft'ect is not other than its cause. Bruhme is single without a second. lie is not separate from the embodied self. He is soul; and the soul is lie.f Yet he does not do that only which is agree- able and beneticial to self. The same earth exhil)its diamonds; rock crystals, red orpiment , &c.; the same soil produces a diversity of plants; the same food is converted into various excrescences, hair, nails, &c. 'As milk changes to curd, and water to ice, so is Brahme vari- ously transformed and diversified, without aid of tools or exterior means of any sort..tt In like manner, the spider spins his web out of his own substance; spirits assume various shapes; cranes {vaUica) propagate without the male; and the lotus proceeds from pond to pond without organs of motion. That Brahme is entire without parts, is no objection: he is not wholly transformed into worldly appearances. Various changes are presented to the same dreaming soul. Differs illusory shapes and disguises are assumed by the same spirit. ' ttt '• Brahmr is omnipotent, able for every act, without organ or in- strument. § No motive or special ])ur])ose need be assigned for his creation of the universe, besides bis will.'§§ 'Unfairness and uncompassionateness are not to be imputed to him, because some (the gods) are happy, others (beasts and inferior beings) are miserable, and others again (men) jtartake of happiness and unha])pinoss. Every one lias his lot, in the renovated world, according to liis merits, his previous virtue or vice in a former stage of an universe, which is sempiternal and had no beginning in time. * lir. Sulr. ■>. 1. § :{. (S. 4. 11.) ** Ibid. § 4. (S. 12.) *■** Ihid. 2. 1. § 6. (S. 1.3.) t Ibid. §fi. (S. 14—20.) and §7. (S.2i— 23.) ft H'id. § H. (S. 24—2.1.) fff Ibid. § 0. (S. 2r)-2«).) § Ibid. § 10. (8 80 -31.) §§ Ibid. § 1 1. (8. 32—33.) 15 226 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. So tlie rain-clond distributes rain impartially; yet the sprout varies according to the seed.'^'- 'Every attribute of a first cause (omniscience, omnipotence, &c,) exists in Brahme^ who is devoid of qualities,'** The second cliapter of the second lecture is controversial. The doctrine of the Sdnc''hijas is confuted in the first section; that of the Vaiseshicus in two more; of the Batidilhas in as many; of the Jainas in one; of the Pasupulas and Pdnchardlt^as , likewise, in one each. These controversial disquisitions are here omitted; as a brief abstract Avould hardly be intelligible , and a full explanation would lead to too great length. They have been partly noticed in a separate treatise on the Philosophy of Indian Sects.*** It is remarkable, that the Nydya of (k')tama is entirely unnoticed in the text and com- mentaries of the Vdih/nUt-sulras. In the third chapter of the second lecture, the task of reconciling seeming contradictions of passages in the Vedas is resumed. 'The origin of air and the etherial element (dcdsci), unnoticed in the text of the Veda {Ch''hdtid6gi/a) , where the creation of the three other elements is described, has been affirmed in another (Tailiinyaca).f The omission of the one is supplied by the notice in the other; there is no contradiction, as the deficient passage is not restrictive, nor professes a complete enumeration. Pother and air are by Brahme created. But he himself has no origin , no pro- creator nor maker, for he is eternal, without beginning as without end. tt So fire, and water, and earth, proceed mediately from him, being evolved successively, the one from the other, as fire from air, and this from ether, ftt The element of earth is meant in divers passages where food (that is, esculent vegetable) is said to proceed from water: for rain fertilizes the earth. It is by his will, not by their own act, that they are so evolved; and conversely, they merge one into the other, in the reversed order, and are re- absorbed at the general dissolution of worlds, previous to renovation of all things.' § 'Intellect, mind, and organs of sense and action, being CDmposed of the primary elements, are evolved and re-absorbed in no different order or succession, but in that of the elements of which they consist.' §§ 'The same course, evolution and re-absorption, or material birth and death, cannot be affirmed of the soul. Birth and death are predicated of an individual, referring merely to his association with body, which is matter fixed or moveable. Individual souls are, in the Veda ^ compared to sparks issuing from a blazing fire; but the * Br. Sidr. 2. 1. §. 12. (S. 34—30.) ** Ibid. § 13. (S. 37.) *** See p. 213, of this volume. f Ibid. 2. 3. §. J and 2. (S. 1-7 and 8.) ft Br. Sulr. 2. 3 §. 3. (S. 9.) fff Ibid. (^ 4—6. (S. 10—12.) § Ibid § 7—8. (S. 13—14.) §tj Ibid. § 0. (S. 15.) VEDANTA. 227 soul is likewise declared expressly to be eternal and unborn. Its emanation is no birth, nor original production.* It is perpetually int<'lli;;('nt and constantly sensible, as the 5r//?r7»/r/.v too maintain; not advent itiniisly so, merely by association witli mind and intellect, as the disciples of can'a'de insist. It is for want of sensible objects, not for want of sensibility or faculty of perception , that the soul feels not during profound sleep, fainting, or trance. 'The soul is not of linite dimensions, as its transmigrations seem- ingly indicate; nor minutely small abiding within the heart, and no bigger than the hundredth part of a hundredth of a hair's point, as in some passages described; but, on the contrary, being identified with supreme Jiralimc, it participates in his infinity.'** 'The soul is active; not as the Sdncliyas maintain, merely pas- sive.*** Its activity, however, is not essential, but adventitious. As the carpenter, having his tools in hand, toils and suffers, and laying them aside, rests and is easy, so the soul iu conjunction with its instruments (the senses and organs) is active, and quitting them, reposes, f 'Blind in the darkness of ignorance , the soul is guided in its actions and fruition, in its attainment of knowledge, and consequent liberation and bliss, by the supreme ruler of the universe, ft who causes it to act conformably with its previous resolves: now, ac- cording to its former purposes, as then consonantly to its yet earlier jtredispositions, accruing from preceding forms with no retrospective limit; for the world had no beginning. The supreme soul makes the individuals act relatively to their virtuous or vicious propen-' sities, as the same fertilizing rain-cloud causes various seeds to s])rout multilariously, producing diversity of plants according to their kind. "I'he soul is a portion of the supreme ruler, ftt as a spark is of fire. The relation is not as that of master and servant, ruler and ruled, but as that of whole and part. In more than one hymn and prayer of the Valas^ it is said, "All beings constitute one quarter of him; three quarters are imperishable in heaven:" and in the fsirara ijil('t%^ and other .wj ////>, the soul, that animates body, is ex- |ires.sly affirmed to be a portion of him. He does not, however, partake of the pain and suffering of which the individual soul is conscious, through .sympathy, during its association with body; so .solar or lunar light appears as that which it illumines, though dis- tinct therefrom. 'As the sun's image reflected in water is tremulous, quaking with * lir. Sulr. 4j 10—11 (H. 10—17.) '^* 11. id. '2. .3. S i;<. (S. 1«.)-:^-.>.) •'=** Ibi.l. t} 14. (S. 33-:W.) t Ibid, i^ I.-,. (S. 40.) ■ It II. id. «5 1(1. (S. 41—4-2.) tft Ihid. «j 17. (.S. 43—53.) § /{iUft-i/a. S. 1. 17. I'ujnrviila { rdjastmci/i) 31. 3. §§ 3ANCARA cites by tlii.s name the lihagnvnd tjitii 1 5 * 228 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THfi HINDUS. the undulations of the pool, without however affecting other watery images nor the solar orb itself; so the sufferings of one individual affect not another, nor the supreme ruler. But, according to the doctrine of the Sdnc'/ii/as , who maintain that souls are numerous, each of them infinite, and all affected by one plastic principle, na- ture {prudhdna or pracr'ili), the pain or plea.sure, which is experienced by one, must be felt by all. The like consequence is objected to the doctrine of canade, who taught that souls, numerous and infinite, are of themselves insensible; and mind, the soul's instrument, is minute as an atom, and by itself likewise unsentient. The union of one soul with a mind would not exclude its association with other souls, equally infinite and ubiquhary; and all, therefore, would partake of the same feeling of pain or pleasure.' The fourth chapter of the second book proceeds in the task of re- conciling apparent contradictions of passages in the Vedus.'^ 'The corporeal organs of sense and of action, designated by the term prdna in a secondary acceptation (it is noticed in its proper signification further on, § 4), have , like the elements and other ob- jects treated of in the foregoing chapter, a similar origin, as modi- fications of Brahme; although unnoticed in some passages concern- ing the creation, and mentioned in others as pre- existent , but ex- pressly affirmed in others to be successively evolved. ** The de- ficiency or omission of one text does not invalidate the explicit tenor of another. 'In various passages, the number of corporeal organs is differently stated, from seven to thirteen. The precise number is, however, eleven:*** the five senses, sight, &c.; five active organs, the hand, &c. ; and lastly, the internal faculty, mind, comprehending intelli- gence, consciousness, and sensation. Where a greater number is specified , the term is employed in its most comprehensive sense ; where fewer are mentioned, it is used in a more restricted accep- tation: thus seven sensitive organs are spoken of, relatively to the eyes, ears, and nostrils (in pairs), and the tongue. 'They are finite and small: not, however, minute as atoms, nor yet gross, as the coarser elements, t 'In its primary or principal signification, prdiia is vital action, and chiefly respiration. This, too, is a modification oi Brahme. It is not wind (vdt/ii) or the air which is breathed, though so described in numerous passages of the Fedas and other authorities ; nor is it an operation of a corporeal organ; but it is a particular vital act, and comprehends five such: 1st, respiration, or an act operating up- wards; 2d, inspiration, one operating downwards; 3d, a vigorous action, Avliich is a mean between the foregoing two; ith, expiration, * Br. Siitr- 2. 4. § 1. (S. 1—4.) ** Ibid. 2. 4. § 1. (8. 1—4.) *** Ibid. § 2. (S. 5— C.j t Ibid. § 3. (S. 7.) V^DANTA. 229 or passage upwards, as in mPtompsychosis; jtli , digestion, or cir- culation of nutriment tlirouglmut the corporeal frame.'* 'Here, too, it must be understood of a limited, not vast or infinite act, nor minutely small. The vital act is not so minute as not to pervade the entire frame, as in the instance of circulation of nourish- ment; yet is small enough to he impercej)tible to a bystander, in the instance of life's passage in transmigration. ' Respiration and the rest of the vital acts do not take effect of thomselves by an intrinsic faculty, but as influenced and directed l)y a presiding deity and rnling power, yet relatively to a particular body, to whose animating spirit, and not to the presiding deity, fru- ition accrues.** 'The senses and organs, eleven in number, as above mentioned, are not modifications of the principal vital act, respiration, but dis- tinct principles. *** 'It is the supreme ruler, not the individual soul, who is described in passages of the Vedas as transforming himself into divers com- binations, assuming various names and shapes, deemed terrene, aqueous, or igneous, according to the predominancy of the one or the other element. When nourishment is received into the corpo- real frame, it undergoes a threefold distribution, according to its iineness or coarseness: corn and other terrene food becomes flesh; but the coarser portion is ejected, and the finer nourishes the mental organ. Water is converted into blood; the coarser particles are re- jected as urine; the finer supports the breath. Oil or other com- bustible substance, deemed igneous, becomes marrow; the coarser part is deposited as bone , and the finer supplies the faculty of speech. ' f The third lecture treats on the means whereby knowledge is attainable, through which liberation and perpetual bliss may be achieved: and, as preliminary thereto j on the passage of the soul furnished with organs into the versatile world and its various con- ditions; and on the nature and attril)utps of the sujireme being. 'The soul is subject to transmigration. It passes from one state to another, invested with a subtile frame consisting of elementary particles, the seed or rudiment of a grosser body. Departing from that which it occupied, it ascends to the moon; where, clothed with an aqueous form, it e.\j)eriences the recompense of its works; and whence it returns to occupy a new body with resulting influence of its former deeds. But evil-doers suffer for their misdeeds in the seven appointed regions of retribution, ft 'The returning soul quits its watery frame in the lunar orb, and * Fir. Sulr. 2. 4. § 4. (S. S.) § f). (S. 0- Ti.) § 6. (S. 13.) ** Il)i(l. § 7. (8. 14 — 16.) *** Ibid. § 8. (S. 17—19.) t Ihid. S 9. (S 20-22.) tt Il'i'b ;?. 1. § 1—3. (S. 1—7 and 8-11 and 12—21.) 230 ON THK PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. passes successively and rapidly through ether, air, vapour, ruist, and cloud, into rain; and thus finds its way into a vegetating plant, and thence, through the medium of nourishment, into an animal embryo.'* In the second chapter of this lecture the states or conditions of the embodied soul are treated of. They are chiefly three; wak- ing, dreaming, and profound sleep: to which may be added for a fourth, that of death; and for a fifth, that of trance, swoon, or stupor, Avhich is intermediate between profound sleep and death (as it were half-dead), as dreaming is between waking and profound sleep. In that middle state of dreaming there is a fanciful course of events, and illusory creation, which however testifies the existence of a conscious soul. In profound sleep the soul has retired to the su- preme one by the route of the arteries of the pericardi^im. ^"^ The remainder of this chapter is devoted to the consideration of the nature and attributes of the supreme being. 'He is described in many passages of the Veda, as diversified and endued with every quality and particular character; but in other and very numerous texts, as without form or quality. The latter only is truly appli- cable, not the former, nor yet both. He is impassible, unaftected by worldly modifications; as the clear crystal, seemingly coloured by the red blossom of a hibiscus, is not the less really pellucid. He does not vary with every disguising form or designation, for all diversity is expressly denied by explicit texts; and the notion of variableness relative to him is distinctly condemned in some sdclids of the Veda. *** 'He is neither coarse nor subtile, neither long nor short, neither audible nor tangible; amorphous, invariable.' 'This luminous immortal being, who is in this earth, is the same with the luminous, immortal, embodied spirit, which informs the corporeal self, and is the same with the [supreme] soul.' 'He is to be apprehended by mind alone , there is not here any multiplicity. Whosoever views him as manifold dies death after death, f 'He is amorphous, for so he is explicitly declared to be; but seemingly assuming form , as sunshine or moonlight , impinging on an object, appears straight or crooked.' ft 'He is pronounced to be sheer sense, mere intellect and thought: as a lump of salt is wholly of an uniform taste within and without, so is the soul an entire mass of intelligence.' This is affirmed both in the Vedas and in the smrltis : and, as such, he is compared to the reflected images of sun and moon, wliich fluctuate witli the rise and fall of the waters that reflect thcm.ttt 'The luminous sun, * /?r. Sutr. 3. I. §4—6. (S. 22-23 and 24—27.) ** Ibid. 3. 2. § 1—4. (S. 1—6, 7, S, 9 and 10.) ***Ibid. 3. 2. § f). (S. 11—13.) f Passaj^cs of the lY'da cited among others bv the .scholiasts commenting on the above. ff Br. Sidr. 3. 2. (S. 14.) fff Ibid. 3. 2. (S. 15—20.) V^DANTA. 231 though single, yet reflected in water, becomes various; and so does the unborn divine soul by disguise in divers modes.' The Vi'ilu so describes him, as entering into and pervading the corporeal sliapes by himself wrought.* 'He framed bodies, biped and quadruped; and becoming a bird, he passed into those bodies, filling them as their informing spirit. ' In the Vrilntil fir<(>'ii/tti-(i , after jiremising two modes of ^/y//«w<', morphous and amorplious; one composed of the three coarser ele- ments, earth, water, and fire; the other consisting of the two more subtile, air and ether; it is said, 'next then his name is propounded,' "neither so nor so; for there is none other but he, and he is the supreme." Here the finite forms premised are denied ; for his exist- ence as the supreme being is repeatedly affirmed in this and in other passages. ** ' He is imperceptible ; yet during devout meditation is, as it were, apprehended by j)erce|ition and inference, through revelation and authentic recollections. *** ' Like the sun and other luminaries, seemingly multiplied by re- flection though really single, and like ether (space) apparently sub- divided in vessels containing it within limits, the (supreme) light is without difi'erence or distinction of particulars , for he is repeatedly declared so to be.f Therefore is one, who knows the truth, iden- tified with the infinite bcMug; for so revelation indicates. But since both are affirmed, tlie relation is as that of the coiled serpent fancied to be a hoop; or as that of light and the luminary from which it proceeds, for both are luminous, ft 'There is none other but he, notwitlistanding the apparent import of divers texts, which seem to im|dy differences, various relations, and aliquot parts. He is ubic^uitary and eternal ; for lie is pronounced to be greater than etherial space, which is infinite, ttt ' The fruit or recompense of works is from him , for that is con- gruous; and so it is expressly affirmed in the Vrdas. .taimini alleges virtue or moral merit; but the autlior of tlie si'/li-as (hadakavaxa vvasa) maintains the former, because the supreme being is in tlie Vcdas termed the cause of virtue and of vice, as of every thing else.'§ The tAvo last chapters of the third lecture relate chiefly to devout exercises and pious meditation, the practice of which is inculcated as proper and requisite to prepare the soul and mind for the recep- tion of divine knowledge, and to promote its attainment. T pass ra- pidly over tiiis copious part§§ ot the text, for the same reason for * liv. Sidr. 3. 2. S. 21. ** Ibid, tj 6. (S. 22.) *** Il)i(l. S. 23—24. t Ibid. S 2.">. tt Ibid. (S. 2()— 30.1 ftt Il>i. (S. Ki— 17). *** rriliad drnni/aca. t Sati/df/finn jj Br. Siitr. 4. 1. § 13. (S. J 8.) C/i'fu/ndaf/i/a. Tt'i" ^^'- ''^'if''- 5? 14. (S. IK.) C/i'fa/ndi)(/;/n and VrVind drdin/nm. § Clt'lniiiddyya. Br. Siilr. 4. 2. § 1 — 3. §§ P'riliad urauynca. 234 ON THK rtllT.OSOVIIV Ol' TUK HINDUS. body, composed of light with the rest of the five elements, in a sub- tile state. "Breath," is, therefore, said to withdraw into "liglit;" not nioaninj;' that element (or fire) exclusively; nor intending direct transition, for a traveller has gone from one city to another, though he passed through an intermediate town.' 'This retirement from the body is common to ordinary uninformed people as to the devout contemplative worshipper, until they pro- ceed further on their respective paths: and immortality (without immediate reunion with the supreme Brahme) is the fruit of pious meditation, though impediments may not be wholly consumed and removed.* 'In that condition the soul of the contemplative worshijjper re- mains united to a subtile elementary frame, conjoined with the vital faculties, until the dissolution of worlds, when it merges in the supreme deity. That elementary frame is minute in its dimensions as subtile in its texture, and is accordingly imperceptible to by- standers when departing from the body: nor is it oppressed by cre- mation or other treatment which that body undergoes. It is by its warmth sensible so long as it abides with that coarser frame, which becomes cold in death when it has departed,** and was warm during life while it remained. 'But he who has attained the true knowledge of god does not pass through the same stages of retreat, ])roceeding directly to re- union with the supreme being, with which he is identified, as a river, at its confluence with the sea, merges therein altogether. His vital faculties and the elements of which his body consists , all the six- teen component parts which constitute the human frame, are ab- sorbed absolutely and completely: both name and form cease; and he becomes immortal, without parts or members.'*** In course of expounding the text, some of the commentators compare the ultimate absorption of the vital faculties to the dis- appearance of water sprinkled on a hot stone, t They seem to be unaware of its evaporation, and consider it to have sunk into the stone. 'The soul, together with the vital faculties absorbed in it, having retired within its proper abode, the heart, the summit of that viscus flashes, and lightens the passage by which the soul is to depart: the crown of the head in the case of the wise ; and any other part of the body, in the instance of the ignorant. A hundred and one arteries issue from the heart, one of Avhich passes to the crown of the head : it is named suslmmna. By that passage, in virtue of ac- f[uired knowledge, and of recollection of the meditated way, the * fir. Sulr. 4. 2. § 4. (S. 7.) ^ ** Ibid. § 5. (S. 8—11.) Cafhavalli, &c. *** Ibid. § 6—8. (S. 12 — 16.) Cdnwa. Mddlnjandina, Pra.imi, &c. T Rangandflia on Bi-. Sutr. 4. 2. § 6. (S. 12). VF^DANTA. 235 soul of the wise, graced by the favour of Brahme, whose dwelling is ill llu- heart, issues and meets a solar ra}-; and by tliat route pro- ceeds, whether it be night or day, winter or summer.* The con- tact of a sunbeam with the vein is constant, as long as the body endures : rays of light reach from the sun to the vein, and converse- ly extend from this to the sun. Tlie prefcraldeness of summer, as exemplified in the case of iuiIsiima , who awaited the return of that ausj)icious season to die, does not concern the devout wor- sliipper, wlio has practised religious exercises in contemplation of Rrahim\ as inculcated by the Vedas, and has consequently acquired knowledge. But it does concern those who have followed the ob- servances taught by the Sancliya Yoga; according to avIhcIi, the time of day and season of the year are not indifferent.' The further progress of the soul , from the termination of the coronal artery couiinunicating with a solar ray to its final destination, the abode of Bra /tine , is variously desoriljed in divers texts of the Veda : some specifying intermediate stations which are omitted by others, or mentioned in a different order.** Tlie seeming discre- pancies of those passages are reconciled, and all are shown to re- late to one uniform route, deduced from the text, for the divine journey {deva-yana) which the liberated soul travels. A question arises, whether the intermediate stations, Avhich are mentioned, be stages of the journey, <'r scenes of fruition to be visited in succession, or landmarks dchignatcd for the course and direction of the route.*** On this point the settled conclusion is,| that the presiding deities or regents of the places or regions indicated are guides to the soul, who forward it on its way in its helpless cimdition , destitute of exerted organs, all its faculties being absorbed and withdrawn; as a blind man is led, or a faint person is conducted, by a guide. The route deduced from the tenour of texts compared, and from divers considerations set forth , f is by a solar ray to the realm of fire; thence to the regents of day, of the semilunatiou, of the summer six months, of the year; and thence to the abode of gods ; to air or wind , the regent of which forwards the journeying soul from his precincts, by a narrow jiassage compared to the nave of a chariot wheel, towards the sun: thence the transition is to the moon, whence to the region of lightning, above which is the realm of vauina, the regent of water; for lightning and thunder are beneath the rain- * Br. Siitr. 4. 2. § 0—11. (S. 17—21.) nUad ,irai>. Ch'hdndngya, &c. ** Ch'hdndt'ijiya, Cniis/iiti/ci, Vrihad dvanyaca, &c. *** BiiAVAOKVA instances Pd'taliputrn and tlic Sdna rivir, as indicated for the direction of the route from Tirnhhucti ('I'irhut) to Vdrdnnsi {^enarea). It is clear that lie understands Pd'taliputra (the anciont Palibotlira) to be I'atna. t Br. Sulr. 4. 3. § 1—4. (S. 1— (i.) 236 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. cloud and aqueous region : the rest of the way is by the realm of INDRA, to the abode of prajapati or Brahme. A question arises, which is liere discussed, whether Brahme^ to whose dwelling and court the soul is conducted, be the supreme being, according to the ordinary and chief acceptation of the term, or be that effect of his creative will which is distinguised as cdrya brahme^ identified with the mythological personage entitled hira- NYAGARBHA, as having been included within the golden mundane egg. JAIMINI affirms the supreme one to be meant: but ba'dari maintains the other opinion : which is that which the commentators of the sulras understand the author of them to adopt.* The souls of those holy persons only, whose devout meditation was addressed to the pure Brahme himself, take the route described ;** not those whose contemplation was partial and restrictive : they have their special reward. Those, too, whose knowledge of god was more perfect, pass immediately, or by any route, to a reunion with the divinity, with whom they are identified. The soul of him who has arrived at the perfection of divine know- ledge, and is consequently liberated, " qiiitting its corporeal frame, ascends to the supreme light which is Brahme, and comes forth iden- tified with him, conform and undivided;"*** as pure water, drop- ped into the limpid lake, is such as that is. Concerning the condition of the liberated man, a difference of doctrine is noticed, f jaimini maintained, that he is endued with divine attributes, omniscience, ubiquitary power, and other trans- cendent faculties, audulomi insisted, that he becomes sheer thought, sentient intelligence. The author of the suiras (ba'darayana) ac- cedes to the last-mentioned opinion; admitting, however, the prac- tical or apparent possession of divine faculties by one who has at- tained perfection of knowledge. By certain devout exercises and meditation ff a less perfect knowledge is acquired, which, as before mentioned, qualifies the possessor of it for reception at Brahma's abode, though not for im- mediate re-unioh and identity with his being. In that condition transcendent power is enjoyed. The pitrls^ or shades of progenitors, may be called up by a simple act of the will; and other super- human faculties may be similarly exerted. The possessor of these is independent, subject to no other's control. He may, at his option, be invested with one or more bodies, furnished with senses and organs, or be unincumbered with a corporeal frame. On this point, however, a difference of doctrine subsists, jaimini maintained the indispensable presence of body; ba'dari, its absence; and the author * /ir. Sidr. 4. 3. § 5. (S. 7—14.) ** Ibid. § 6. (S. 15—16.) *** Ibid. § 1—2. (S. 1—4.) t Ibid. § 3. (S. 5—7.) f f Hdrda-vidyd or Dahara-vidyd in the CJi'hdndugija. V^DANTA. 237 (bauarayana) admits the option. In one case, tlie condition is that of a person dreauiiii}^; in the other case, as of one awake.* 'Master of several bodies, by a simple act of his will, the Yogi does not occupy one only, leaving the rest inanimate, like so many wooden machines. He may animate more than one, in like manner as a single lamp may be made to supply more than one wick. ' *''■' Liberation (///»<•//), besides its prcjper and strict sense, which is that of final deliverance through a perfect knowledge of Bruhme, and consequent identification with the divinity and absorption into his ejjsence, is likewise employed in a secondary acceptation for that which takes eft'ect in life time {jivan-mucti)-^ or which conducts the soul after death to dwell with Brahme: not, however, divested of a subtile corporeal frame. The more complete deliverance is incorporeal [vklvhu miuii). *** The less perfect liberation appertains to a Yogi, similar, in respect of the faculties and powers possessed l)y him, to one who has accomplished the like by the observances taught in the Sdnc''hya or Yi'nja of patanjali. Such a Yogi , uncontrolled and independent as he has been pro- nounced to be, can exert every faculty and superior power ana- logous t(t that of the divinity's which may be conducive to enjoy- ment; but he has not a creative power. His faculties are trans- cendent for enjoyment, not for action, f The more perfect liberation is absolute and linal: there is no return of the soul from its absorption in the divine essence, to undergo further transmigrations as before, ff But incomplete knowledge, which conducts to Brahmc's abode without iiualifying the soul for sucli absorption into the divinity, exempts it from return during the subsisting culpa; \n\i not at a future renovation of worlds, ttt unless by special favour of the deity. Recapitulation. Tn the foregoing summary of the Vcihinta from the sutras of vya'sa, the interpretation by .sancaka has been relied upon ; and his gloss, with notes of his annotators and the commentaries of scholiasts who follow him, have been exclusively employed, lest the doctrine of separate schools and different branches of the Veddula should be blended and confounded. Those commentaries are numerous , and explanations and elucidations of the text have been taken from one or from another indiscriminately, as they have been found pertinent and illustrative, without particular preference or selection. This should be borne in mind in comparing that summary with its author- * Ih. Siilr. I. 4. §. -I. 5. (S. '.1—1 1.) **^ Ibid. «i (j. (S. 15—10.) *** iiiiAVviJKVA OH Br. Slit!-. 4. 4. S. 22. t >?r. 6«/r. 4. 4. § 7. (S. 17—22.) ft I^id. S. 22. jff On tliis point the coiniucntators do not appear to agree. 238 ON TllK PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. ities, as it has not been judged necessary, nor generally practicable, to cite the particular commentary that is especially used in each instance. Some remarks will be now added , in which other authorities are likewise employed, and chiefly the elementary works* mentioned in the introduction of this essay. The principal and essential tenets of the Veddnta are, that god is the omniscient and omnipotentcauseof the existence, continuance, and dissoliftion of the universe. Creation is an act of his will. He is both efficient and material cause of the world : creator and na- ture , framer and frame, doer and deed. At the consummation of all things, all are resolved into him: as the spider spins his thread from his own substance and gathers it in again; as vegetables sprout from the soil and return to it, earth to earth; as hair and nails grow from a living body and continue with it. The supreme being is one, sole-existent, secondless, entire, without parts, sem- piternal, infinite, ineffable, invariable ruler of all, universal soul, truth, wisdom, intelligence, happiness. Individual souls, emanating from the supreme one, are likened to innumerable sparks issuing from a blazing fire. From him they proceed, and to him they return, being of the same essence. The soul which governs the body together with its organs, neither is born; nor does it die. It is a portion of the divine substance; and, as such, infinite, immortal, intelligent, sentient, true. It is governed by the supreme. Its activity is not of its essence, but inductive through its organs: as an artisan, taking his tools, labours and undergoes toil and pain, but laying them aside reposes; so is the soul active , and a sufferer by means of its organs ; but, divested of them, and returning to the supreme one, is at rest and is happy. It is not a free and independent agent, but made to act by the supreme one, who causes it to do in one state as it had purposed in a former condition. According to its predisposition for good or evil, for enjoined or forbidden deeds, it is made to do good or ill, and thus it has retribution for previous works. Yet uod is not author of evil; for so it has been from eternity: the series of preceding forms and of dispositions manifested in them has been infinite. The soul is incased in body as in a sheath, or rather in a suc- cession of sheaths. The first or inner case is the intellectual one (vijnydnatnaya): it is composed of the sheer {jan-7ndtra) ^ or siiiiple elements uncombined, and consists of the intellect (6t(/V«//' llir Hindus. PART v.* ON INDIAN SF.C-'TARIES. [riom the Tninsactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 549 -579.] In tlio present essay, it is my intention to treat of the heretical systems of jina and «uudiia, as proposed in the first essay of this series on the Pliilosophy of the Hindus; and to notice certain other Indian sects, which, like them, exhibit some analogy to the Sou r'/iij(ts, or followers of fAPiLA or of i'atanjai.i. The theological or metaphysical opinions of those sectaries, apart from and exclusive of mythology and ritual ceremonies, may he not inaptly considered as a branch of philosophy , though con- stituting the ossensc of their religion, comprehending not only their belief as to the divinity and a future state, but also certain obser- vances to be practised in furtherance of the prescribed means for attaining perpetual bliss: wliich here, as with most other sects of Indian origin, is the meed jnoijosed for true and perfect knowledge of iirst principles, 'Die Jainas and BaiuhUms I consider to have been originally Hindus;** and the first-mentioned to be so still, because they re- cognised, as tliey yet do, the distinction of the four castes. It is true, tliat in JlimhisClidn , if not in the jicninsula of India likewise, the Jainas are all of one caste : but this is accounted for by the ad- mission of their adversaries (cuma'rila biiat'ta, &c.), who affirm that they are misguided cs/talrii/as (Hindus of the second or military tribe): they call themselves raisijas. On renouncing tlie heresies of the Jaiua sect, they take their place among orthodox Hindus, as belonging to a particular caste (cs/ialriya or i.'aisi/a). The represen- tative of the great family of jagat set'ii, who with many of his kin- * Read at a public meeting of the Roval Asiatic Society, Febr. 3, 1827. ** As. Res., vol. ix. p. 288. 10* 244 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OP THE HINDUS. tired was converted some years ago from the Jai7ia to the orthodox faith, is a conspicuous instance. Such would not be the case of a convert, who has not already caste as a Hindu. Both religions of jina and buddha are, in the view of the Hindu, who reveres the Veda as a divine revelation, completely heterodox ; and that more on account of their heresy in denying its divine origin, than for their deviation from its doctrine. Other sects, as the -S'««- c'hyas and VaisesMcas, though not orthodox, do not openly disclaim the authority of the Veda. They endeavour to reconcile their doc- trine to the text of the Indian scripture, and refer to passages which they interpret as countenancing their opinions. The3I/m('wsa, wliich professedly follows the Veda implicitly, is therefore applied, in its controversy with these half-heretics, to the confutation of such mis- interpretations. It refutes an erroneous construction , rather than a mistaken train of reasoning. But the Jainas and Baiiddlias, disavow- ing the Veda , are out of the pale of the Hindu church in its most comprehensive range ; and the Mimdnsd (practical as well as theo- logical) in controversy with these infidels, for so it deems them, argues upon general grounds of reasoning independent of aiithority, to which it would be vain to appeal. The JJtlara mimdnsd devotes two sections (adhicaranas) to the con- futation of the Bauddlias ^ and one to that of the Jainas. They are the 4th, jth, and 6th sections in the 2d chapter of the 2d lecture; and it proceeds in the same controversial chapter to confute the Pdsupaias and other branches of the Mdheswaru sect; and the Pan- ehardira , a branch of the Vaishnava. The Chdrvdcas are alluded to incidentally in a very important section concerning the distinction of body and soul, in the 3d chapter of the 3d lecture (§ 30). In the Purva mimdnsd, controversy is more scattered; recurring in various places, nnder divers heads : but especially in the 3d chapter of the first book (§ 4). The Sdncltyu of capila devotes a whole chapter to controversy; and notices the sect oi Buddha., under the designation o{ Ndslicas; and in one place animadverts on the Pdsupaias ; and in another, on the Chdrvdcas. It is from these and similar controversial disquisitions, more than from direct sources, that I derive the information, upon which the following account of the philosophy of Jainas and Bauddhas, as well as of the Chdrvdcas, Pdsupaias and Pd?ichard(ras , is grounded. A good collection of original works by writers of their own persuasion, whether in the Sanscril language or in Prdcril or Pdli., the language of the Jainas and that of the Bauddhas, is not at hand to be con- sulted. r>ut, although the information be furnished by their ad- versaries and even inveterate enemies, it appears, so far as I have any opportunity of comparing it with their own representations, essentially correct. 245 SECT OF JINA. The Jamas or Arhalas, followers of jina or arhat (terms of like import), are also donoininated J^irasanas, Mnclavasanas, Miicldmharus or Digambaras , witli reference to the nakedness of the rigid order of ascetics in this sect, who go " bare of clothing," "disrobed," or "clad by the regions of space." The less strict order of 'Srveldm- haras* "clad in white," is of more modern date and of inferior note. Among nicknames by which they are known, that of Lu?ic?ii/a-cesa occurs. It alludes to the practice of abruptly eradicating hair of the head or body by way of mortification, pa'rswana't'ha is des- cribed as tearing five handfuls of hair from his head on becoming a devotee. ** According to the Digambara Jainas , the universe consists of two classes, "animate" and "inanimate" {jiva and ajim)t without a crea- tor or ruling providence (/s/rarn). *** They assign for the cause (cdra/ia) of the world, atoms, which they do not, as the J'aiseshicas, distinguish into so many sorts as there are elements, but consider these, viz. earth, water, fire, and air, the four elements by them ad- mitted, as modified compoimds of homogeneous atoms. These gj'mnosophists distinguish, as already intimated, two chief categories: 1st, Jiva, intelligent and sentient soul {chaitana dtmd or bodhdlmd) endued with body and consequently composed of parts; eternal: 2d, Ajiva, all that is not a living soul; that is, the whole of {jaila) inanimate and unsentient substance. The one is the ob- ject of fruition, being that which is to be enjoyed {b/idf/j/a) by the soul; the other is the enjoy er {bhoctd) or agent in fruition ; soul itself. This second comprehensive predicament admits a six-fold suh- division; and the entire number of categories (paddrTha) , as distin- guisiiod with reference to the ultimate great object oi' the soul's de- liverance, is consequently seven, f I. Jivnov soul, as before-mentioned, comprising three descri])tions : 1st, niU/a siddha, ever perfect, or jjdga-siddha, perfect by profound abstraction; i'or instaiu-o , .ir/nils or Jinas , the deified saints of tlie sect: 2d, miicti or mucldlmd, a soul which is free or liberated; its deliverance having been accomplished through the strict observ- ance of the j)rocopts of the Jhias: 3d, badd/ui or badd/idlind , a soul whicli is bound, being in any stage antecedent to deliverance; re- maining yet fettered by deeds or works {carnut). II. Ajiva taken in a restricted sense. It conijirehends the four olemcnts, earth, water, fire, and air; and all which is fixed {sCltd- iHira) as mountains, or moveable (Jangania) as rivers, i^c. In a * Transact, of the Roy. Asiat. Soc, vol. i. p. lUi. ** II. id. |.. 4.'W. *■** it.VM A\i-.!A on /Ir. S,i(,: t SANCAKA and other coinmeiitators on /ir. Siilr., and aimotators on their gloss. 246 ON THE nilLOSOPHY OK IIIE HINDUS. different arrangement, to be hercaftPr noticed, this category is termed Piidgala matter. Ill — VII. The five remaining categories are distributed into two classes, that which is to be effected {sddhyci) and the means thereof (sddhana) : one comprising two, and the other three divisions. What may be effected [sddhya) is either liberation or confinement : both of which will be noticed further on. The three efficient means [sd- dhanci) are as follow : III. Asrava is that which directs the embodied spirit [dsravayali purusham) towards external objects. It is the occupation or employ- ment [vrllli or pravriUi) of the senses or organs on sensible objects. Through the means of the senses it affects the embodied spirit with the sentiment of taction, colour, smell, and taste. Or it is the association or connexion of body with right and wrong deeds. It comprises all the carinas: for they (dsravaijanti) pervade, influence, and attend the doer, following him or attaching to him. It is a misdirection (mWhyd-pravritli) of the organs: for it is vain, as cause of disappointment, rendering the organs of sense and sen- sible objects subservient to fruition. IV. Samvara is that Avhich stops {samvrinuli) the course of the foregoing; or closes up the door or passage of it : and consists in self-command, or restraint of organs internal and external : embrac- ing all means of self-control, and subjection of the senses, calming and subduing them. It is the right direction {samyac pravritti) of the organs. V. Nirjara is that which utterly and entirely (tur) wears and antiquates (jarayati) all sin previously incurred, and the whole effect of works or deeds (carrna). It consists chiefly in mortification (lapas): such as fasts, rigorous silence, standing upon heated stones, pluck- ing out the hair by the roots, &c. This is discriminated from the two preceding, as neither mis- direction nor right direction, but non-direction (apravnl(i) of the organs towards sensible objects. VI. Baddha is that which binds {badhtidli) the embodied spirit. It is confinement and connexion, or association, of the soul Avith deeds. It consists in a succession of births and deaths as the result of Avorks (carnum). VII. Mocsha is liberation; or deliverance of the soul from the fetters of works. It is the state of a soul in which knoAvledge and other requisites are developed. Relieved from the bondage of deeds through means taught by holy ordinances, it takes effect on the soul by the grace of the ever- perfect ARHAT or .TINA. Or liberation is continual ascent. The soul has a buoyancy or SECT OF ,5INA. 247 natural (('iidciu-y upwards, but i.s kepi down l)y corporeal trammels. When frocd iVoni tlioni, it rises to the region of tlic liberated. Long immersed in corporeal restraint, hut released from it; as a bird let loose from a cage, plunging into water to wash off' the dirt with which it was stained, and drying its jiinions in the sunshine, soars aloft; so does the soul, released from long coniincment, soar high, never to return'. Lil)eration then is the condition of a soul clear of all impediments. It is attained l-y right knowledge, doctrine and observances: and is a result of the unrestrained operation of the soul's natural ten- dency, when passions and every other obstacle are removed. Works or deeds (for so the term carman signifies, though several among those enumerated be neither acts nor the effect of action) are reckoned eight ; and are distributed into two classes, comprising four each: the first, ghdfin, mischievous, and asdilhu , impure, as marring deliverance: the set;ond aghdlin ^ liarinless, or smlhii , pure, as opposing no obstacle to liberation, I. In the first set is : 1st. Jm/dna varaniya, the erroneous notion that knowledge is in- efl'ectual ; that liberation does not result from a perfect acquaintance with true principles; and that such science does not produce final deliverance. •id. Darsana varaniya^ the error of bfilicving that deliverance is not attainable by study of the doctrine of the Arhals or Jinas. 3d. Mi'ihmu'yn^ doubt and hesitation as to particular selection among the many irresistible and infallible ways taught by the Tir- t'hiincards or Jinas. 4th. Antardya, interference, or obstruction off'eredto those engaged in seeking deliverance, and consequent prevention of their accom- plisbmont of it. II. The second contains: — Ist. Vedaniya, individual consciousness: reflection that "1 am capable of attaining deliverance." ■id. AV/'w?W/, individual consciousness of an appellation : reflection that "I boar this name." 3d. Golrica, consciousness of race or lineage; reflection that " I am descendant of a certain disciple of jina, native of a certain province." -ttli. Ayushcd, association or connexion with the body or person: that, (as the etymology of the term denotes), which proclaims (cdyale) age (dyiish), or duration of life. Otherwise interpreted, the four caniins of this second set, taken in the. inverse order, that is, beginning with dyus/ini , import pro- creation, and subsequent progress in the lorniation of the person or body wherein deliverance is attainable by the soul which animates it: for it is by connexion with white or inimaciilatc matter that final 248 ox TllK rillLOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. liberation can be accomplished. I shall not dwell on the particular explanation respoctively of these four carinas, taken in tliis sense. Anotlier arrangement, which likcAvise has special reference to final deliverance, is taught in a five-fold distribution of the pre- dicaments or categories [asltcaya). The word here referred to, is ex])lained as signifying a substance commonly occurring; or a term of g(tu(hlhas or Saurjalas^ followers of in^DniiA or suoata (terms of the same imitort, and corresponding to jina or aiuiat) are also called Mucla-caclilta , alluding to a peculiarity of dress, apparently a habit of wearing the hem of the lower garment nntucked. They are not unfrequently cited l)y their adversaries as {Ndslicas) atheists, or rather, disow uers of another world. BUDDHA MUNI, SO he is reverently named by the opponents of his religious system, is the reputed author of sj/Zrrt^,*** constituting a body of doctrine termed agftma or sastrn , words which convey a notion of authority and holiness. The buddha here intended, is no donbt the last, who is distinguished by the names of gautama and sa'cya, among other appellations. Either from div(^rsity of instruction delivered by him to his dis- ciples at various times, or rather from difl'erent constructions of the same text, more or less literal, and varying with the degree of sa- gacity of tlie disciple, have arisen no less than four sects among the followers of HUDDHA, Commentators of the Vcch'mfa, giving an ac- count of this schism of tlie Bduddhas^ do not agree in applying the scale of intellect to these divisions of the entire sect, some attribut- ing to acuteness or superior intelligence , that which others ascribe to simplicity or inferior understanding. Without regarding, therefore, that scale, the distinguishing tenets of each branch of the sect may be thus stated. Some maintain that all is void, [sarva sumja) following, as it seems, a literal inter- jiretation of buddifa's sulras. To these the designation of 3fn- illiyamii-a is assigned by several of the commentators of the Vednnla : and in the marginal notes of one commentary, they are identified with the Chdrvdcas : but tliat is an error. Other disciples of buddha except internal sensation or intelli- * .See Transact, of the Kov. Asiat Soc, vol i. n. 1:57. ** /ir. Siitr. 1. -2. 1. *** Quotatioiis from lliein in the Sanscrit lanpfnapc occiu- in commentaries on the Vedcinla: (tlie Bhdmali on Br. Siilr. '2. 2. lU.J 252 ON THE I'lULOSOPIiY OF THE HINDUS. gen'ce {vijmjdna) and acknowledge all else to be void. Tliey main- tain the eternal existence of conscious sense alone. These are called Yugdcharas. Others, again, affirm the actual existence of external objects, no less than of internal sensations: considering external as perceived by senses; and internal as inferred by reasoning. Some of them recognise the immediate perception of exterior objects. Others contend for a mediate apprehension of them, through images, or resembling forms, presented to the intellect : ob- jects they insist are inferred, but not actually perceived. Hence two branches of the sect of buddha : one denominated Sautrdntica : the other Vaihhdshica. As these, however, have many tenets in common, they maybe conveniently considered together; and are so treated of by the scholiasts of vya'sa's Brahme-sutras : understanding one adhkarana (the 4th of the 2d chapter in the 2d lecture) to be directed against these two sects of Buddhisls .- and the next the following one (2. 2. 5.) to be addressed to the Yugdchdrus: serving, however, likewise for the confutation of the advocates of an universal void.* The Sautrdntica and Vaibhdshica sects, admitting then external {hd/ii/a) and internal {ahhyantai-a) objects, distinguish, under the first head, elements [bhi'/ta) and that which appertains thereto (lihautica), namely, organs and sensible qualities; and under the second head, intelligence {chitta), and that which unto it belongs {chailia). The elements (hhdta or mahdbMda) which they reckon four, not acknowledging a fifth, consist of atoms. The Baiiddhas do not, with the followers of canade, affirm double atoms, triple, quadruple, &c. as the early gradations of composition; but maintain indefinite atomic aggregation, deeming compound substances to be conjoint primary atoms. Earth, they say, has the nature or peculiar character of hardness; water, that of fluidity; fire, that of heat; and air, that of mobility. Terrene atoms are hard; aqueous, liquid; igneous, hot; ai'rial, mobile. Aggregates of these atoms partake of those distinct charac- ters. One authority, however, states, that they attribute to terrene atoms the characters of colour, savour, odour, and tactility; to aque- * Tliis schi.sin amon<^ the Bauddhas , splitting into four sects, is anterior to the age of .saniaka achakya , who expressly notices all the four. It had commenced before the composition of the Jh'tihme-sutras , and consequently before the days of sabaka swami and cumahila ishatta; since two, at the least, of those sects, are separately confuted. All of them appear to have been indiscriminately persecuted, when the Banddhas of every denomination were exjjelled from liindnaCluin and the peninsula. Whetlier the same sects yet subsist among the /iauddhas of Ceylon, Thibet, and the trans-gangetic India, and in China, deserves inrpiiry. SECT OP BUDDHA. 253 ous, colour, savour, and tactility; to igneous, botli colour ami tac- tility; to ai-rial, tactility only.* The Dauihllias do not recognise a fifth element, dcdsa, nor any substance so designated ; nor soul {jivu or dliiimi) distinct from in- telligence {chill(i)\ nor any thing irreducible to the four categories above-mentioned. Bodies, which are objects of sense, are aggregates of atoms, being composed of earth and other elements. Intelligence, dwelling with- in body, and possessing: individual consciousness, apprelicnds ob- jects, and subsists as self; and, iu that view only, is {dtman) self or soul. Things appertaining to the elements, (bhaitlica,) the second of the jiredicaments, are organs of sense, together with their objects, as rivers, mountains, itc. They are composed of atoms. This world, every thing which is therein, all which consists of component parts, must be atoraical aggregations. They are external; and are per- ceived by means of organs, the eye, the ear, &c., which likewise are atomical conjuncts. Images or representations of exterior objects are produced; and by perception of such images or representations, objects are appre- hended. Such is the doctrine of the S'/•. Si'lir. 254 ON TIIH FIIILOSOI'IIV OP THE HINDUS. under the second division of the first head {t)hautic(i), appurtenance of elements: but, as objects of sensation and knowledge, tliey are deemed interna], and therefore recur under the present head. 2d. Tijnydna-scandliu consists in intelligence (^rhil(a)^ which is the same with self [dlitKm) and [vijmjma) knowledge. It is con- sciousness of sensation, or continuous course and flow of cognition and sentiment. There is not any other agent, nor being whicli acts and enjoys; nor is there an eternal soul: but merely succession of thought, attended with individual consciousness abiding within body. 3d, Vedana-scandha comprises pleasure, pain, or the absence of either, and other sentiments excited in the mind by pleasing or dis- pleasing objects. 4th. SV. Sidr. 2. 2. (S. |<).) 256 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OP THE HINDUS. thing, as the breakhig of a jar by a stroke of a mallet; 2d, unob- served nullity or nnniliilation {apralisa?ir''/ii/a~7u'r(UI/ia)\ and 3d, va- cancy or .space [dcdsd) unencompassed and unshielded, or the ima- ginary ethereal element. The whole of this doctrine is formally refuted by the Veddnlins. 'The entire aggregate, referred to two sources, external and internal, cannot be; nor tlie world's course dependent thereon; for the members of it are insensible; and its very existence is made to de- pend on the flash of thought; yet no other thinking permanent being is acknowledged, accumulating that aggregate, directing it, or en- joying; nor is there an inducement to activity without a purpose, and merely momentary. ' Nor is the alleged concatenation of events admissible : for there is no reason of it. Their existence depends on that of the aggre- gate of which they are alleged to be severally causes. The ob- jections to the notion of eternal atoms with beings to enjoy, are yet more forcible against momentary atoms with none to enjoy. The various matters enumerated as successive causes , do not account for the sum of sensible objects. Nor can they, being but momentary, be the causes of effects : for the moment of the one's duration has ceased, before that of the other's existence commences. Being then a non-entity, it can be no cause. Nor does one last till the other begins, for then they would be contemporaneous. 'The ethereal element (dcdsa) is not a non-entity: for its exist- ence is inferrible from sound. 'Nor is self or soul momentary: memory and recollection prove it: and there is no dt)ubt nor error herein ; for the individual is con- scious that he is the same who to-day remembers what he yester- day saw. 'Nor can entity be an effect of non-entity. If the one might come of the other, then might an effect accrue to a stranger without effort on bis part: a husbandman Avould liave a crop of corn without til- ling and sowing; a potter would liave a jar without moulding the clay; a weaver would have cloth without weaving the yarn: nor would any one strive for heavenly bliss or eternal deliverance. "•■' To confute another branch of the sect of buddha, the Veddnlins argue, that 'the untruth or non-existence of external objects is an untenable position; for there is perception or apprehension of them: for instance, a stock, a wall, ajar, a cloth; and tliat, which actually is apprehended, cannot be unexistent. Nor does the existence of objects cease when the apprehension does so. Nor is it like a dream, a juggle, or an illusion; for the condition of dreaming and waking is quite different. When awake a person is aware of the illusory nature of the dream which he recollects. * SANC. ;ui(l otlier Com. on />V. Siilr. 2. 2. § 1. (S. 18—27.) SECT OF BUDDHA. 257 'Nor have thoughts or fancies an independent existence: for thoy arc founded on external and sensible objects, the wliich, if unapprcliended, iniply that tlioughts must be so too. These are uioiiu'ntary : anil tiie same objections apply to a world consisting of momentary tlmnghts, as to one of instantaneous objects. 'The whole doctrine, when tried and sifted, crumbles like a well sunk in loose sand. The opinions advanced in it are contradic- tory and incompatible: they are severally untenable and in- congruous. By teaching tliem to his disciples, buddiia has mani- fested either liis own absurdity and incoherence, or his rooted en- mity to mankind, whom he sought to delude.'* A h'w observations on the analogy of the doctrine, above ex- plained, to the Grecian philosophy, may not be here out of place. It has been already remarked, in former essays, that the Baiid- (l/ias, like the Vaiseshicas , admit but two sources of knowledge (p. 194 of this volume). Such likewise appears to have been the opinion of the more ancientGreek philosopliers; especially thePy- tliagoreans: and accordingly ocellus, in the beginning of his trea- tise on the universe, declares that he has written such things, con- cerning the nature of the universe, as he learned from nature itself l)y manifest signs, and conjectured as probable, by thought through reasoning: thereby intimating, as is remarked by his annotator, that the means of knowledge are two.** Concerning the atomic doctrine, maintained not only by the Vai- S('s/tiras, or followers of caxa'de, surnamed <; as yap a,*** but by the sect of BUDDHA, and likewise by several others as well heterodox as orthodox, no person needs to be told, that a similar doctrine was maintained by many among the ancient Greek philosophers; and in particular by Leucippu.s (if not previously by Moschus) , and after him by Democritus; and likewise by Empedocles, who was of the Pythagorean school. They disagreed, as the Indian philoso- pliers likewise do, respecting the number of elements or different kinds (jf atoms. Kmpcdocles admitted iive, developed in the I'ollow- ing order: ether, fire, earth, water, and air. Here we have the live elements {bhi'da) of the Hindus, including dcdsa. The great * Com. on /?;•. Siilr. 2. 2. § 5. (S. 28—32.) ** Opusc. iiiytliolo^X- pl'ys. et etli. p. oOJ. *c* \ rcm;irk may lie liure made, wliich was omitted in its proper place (Part 2 of tiiis essay), that the followers of the atomic sect are sometimes cniitumeliously designated hy their orthodox opponents , as Cdiialihuj («) or <'a's scholiast, rama tirt'ha, names the Locdi/akmas^ a branch of the Chdrvdca , as particularly intended. No doubt they are the same with the Locdyaticas of sancara and the rest. 'Seeing no soul but body, they maintain the non-existence of soul other than body; and arguing that intelligence or sensibility, though not seen in earth, Avater, lire, and air, whether simple or cono-regate, may nevertheless subsist in the same elements mctdified in a corporeal frame, they affirm that an organic body {cdya) endued with sensibility and thought, though formed of those elements, is the human person (puriisha).*'-^ 'The faculty of tliouglit results from a mollification of the aggre- gate elements, in like manner as sugar Avith a ferment and other ingredients becomes an inebriating litpior; and as betel, areca, lime, and extract of catechu, chewed together, have an exhilarat- ing property, not found in those substances severally, nor in any one of them singly. ' So far there is a difference between animate body and inanimate substance. Thought, knowledge, recollection, &c., perceptible only where organic body is, are properties of an organised frame, not appertaining to exterior substances, or earth and other elements simple or aggregate, unless formed into such a frame. 'While there is body, there is thought, and sense of pleasure and pain; none when body is not; and hence, as well as from self- consciousness, it is concluded that self and body are identical.' BHASCARA ACHARYA*** qUOtCS the VdrlldSpatyU - SUlmS (VRIHAS- pati's aphorisms), apparently as the text work or standard autho- rity of this sect or school; and the quotation, expressing that "the elements are earth, Avater, fire and air; and from the aggregation of them in bodily organs, tliere results sensibility and tliought, as the inebriating property is deduced from a ferment and other in- gredients. " * SANCARA on Br. Siilr. 2. 2. 2. .nnd 3. 3. 53. *='' sancara, &c. ■**■* On IJr. Siitr. 3. 3. 53. ClIAltVACA.S AND LUCAVATICAS. 261 To the foregoing arguments of the Lucdyaliras or Cfidrviicas , the .inswor of tlie Viulaiitins is, tliat 'thought, sensation, and other pro- jjortics of soul or consciousness, cease at tlie moment of deatli, Avhile the body yet remains; and cannot therefore be properties of the corporeal frame, for they have ceased before the frame is dissolved. The qualities of body, as colour, &c. are apprehended by others: not so those of soul, viz. thought, memory, &c. Their existence, while body endures, is ascertained: not their cessation when it ceases. They may pass to other bodies. Elements, or sensible ob- jects, are not sentient, or cajjable of feeling, themselves; fire, though hot, burns not itself; a tumbler, however agile, mounts not upon liis own sliouhlers. Ai)prchension of an object must be distinct from the thing apprehended. By means of a lamp, or other light, oTgects arc visilde: if a lamp be present, the thing is seen; not so, if tliere be no light. Yet appreliension is no property of the lamp ; nor is it a jiroperty of l)ody, though observed only where a corporeal frame is. Body is but instrumental to apprehension.' Among the Greeks, Dica.'archus of Messenc held tlie same tenet, which has been liere ascribed to the Locdi/alicas, and otlrer followers of cHAiiVACA , that tlierc is no such thing as soul in man; that the principle, by which he perceives and acts, is diffused through the body, is inseparable from it, and terminates with it. ma'heswaras and pa'supatas. The devoted worshippers of siVA or maukswara, take their de- signation from tliis last-mentioned title of the deity whom they adore, and whose revelation they profess to follow. They arc called Md- licsivaras, and (as it seems) 'Siva-bhdgavalas . The ascetics of the sect wear their hair braided, and rolled up round the head like a turban; bonce they are denominated (and the sect after tliem) Ju'tddlidri, 'wearing a braid.' 'Vhv.Mdhcswara arc said to have borrowed much of tlieir doctrine from the Sdncliija philosoj)hy; following capila on many points; and the flieistical system of patanjai.i on more. They have branched into four divisions: one, to which the appel- latiiin iff'Suims, or worshippers ofsivv, esjjccially appertains: a second, to which the denomination of jP^.f/.'/irttos belongs, as followers ol" PASiM'AT!, another title of .^rAII^^.s^vARA : tlie^-hird bears the name of Cdiunh'd-siddltdnlins : but ramankja'-' assigns to this third branch l!ie appellation of Cdldmuc^has: the fourth is by all termed Cdpdlas or Cdpdlicas. They appeal for the text of tlieir doctrine to a book, which they esteem holy, considering it to have been revealed by MAiiii.swARA, * Com. on />'/ . Suir. 2. 2. 37. 262 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OP THE HINDUS. s'lVA, or PASUPATi: all names of the same deity. The work, most, usually bearing the latler title, Pasupaii saslra {JMahesivara-siddlu'inla, or 'Siv(tgama) , is divided into iive Pictures {juVtydya) ^ treating of as many categories {paddrChas). The enumeration of them will afiord occasion for noticing the principal and distinguishing tenets of the sect. I. Cnra/'iff, or cause. The Pdsiqjalas hold, that IstvfD'a, the Supreme Being, is the efficient cause of the world, its creator [caiHd) and superintending {(ulhish'fhdld) or ruling providence; and not its ma- terial cause likewise. They, however, identify the one supreme god, with SIVA, or PASUPATI, and give him the title of maiiks'wara. II. Cdrya or effect: which is nature (pracriti) , or plastic matter (pradJuhia) , as the universal material principle is by the Pdmpalas denominated, conformably with the terminology of the Sdncltyas ; and likewise tnaJml, the great one, or intelligence, together with the further development of nature, viz. mind, consciousness, the ele- ments, &c. III. Yoga, abstraction; as perseverance in meditation on the syllable d?«, the mystic name of the deity; profound contemplation of the divine excellence, &c. IV. Vidhi, enjoined rites; consisting in_ acts, by performance of which merit is gained; as bath, and ablutions, or the use of ashes in their stead; and divers acts of enthusiasm, as of a person over- joyed and beside himself. V. Duhclidnta, termination of ill, or final liberation [nukslui). The purpose, for which these categories are taught and explained, is the accomplishment of deliverance from the bondage (Jjandlui) or fetters (pdsa) , viz. illusion (/««?/«) , &c. , in which the living soul {jiva or dtmd), by this sect tevmed pasu, is entangled and confined. For it is here maintained, that pasiis (living souls) are individual sentient beings, capable of deliverance from evil, through the know- ledge of god and the practice of prescribed rites, together with perseverance in profound abstraction. The Pdsupatas argue, that as a potter is the efficient, not the material, cause of the jar made by him; so the sentient being, Avho presides over the world, is the efficient, not the material, cause of it: for the superintendent, and that which is by him superintended, cannot be one and tlie same. In a more full exposition of their opinions* they are stated as enumerating under the heads of effects and causes, those which are secondary; and as subdividing likewise the heads of prescribed rites and termination of ill. I. They distinguish ten effects (cdrya): namely, five principles * Vidkydbharai'ia on Br. St'dr. 2. 2. 37. MAIIKSWAUA AND I'A.SUl'ATAS. 263 {lulwa) , which arc tlio five elements: eaitli, -svater, fire, air, and ether; and five iiualities {yuiia) colour, Sec. II. They reckon thirteen causes or instruments (curana)] viz. live organs of sense, and as many organs of action; and three internal organs, intelligence, mind, and consciousness. These thirteen causes or means are the same witli the thirteen instruments of knowledge enumerated by capila and his followers, the Saticliyas. III. Yugu^ abstraction, does not appear to admit any subdivision. IV. Enjoined rules {vidhi) are distributed under two heads: 1st. vrala, 2d. divura. To the first head {vrata or vow) appertains the use of ashes in place of water for bath or ablutions : that is , first, in lieu of bathing thrice a day; at morning, noon, and evening: secondly, instead of ablutions for special causes, as purification from uncleanness after evacuation of urine, feces, &c. To the same head belongs likewise the sleeping upon ashes : for which particular purpose they are solicited from householders, in like manner as food and other alms are begged. This head comprises also exultation {iqmhdra) , which compre- hends laughter, dance, song, bellowing as a bull, bowing, recital of prayer, &c. The second head {(l)var(i) consists of, 1st, pretending sleep, though really awake; "id, (juaking, or tremulous motion of members, as if afflicted with rheumatism or paralytic affection; 3d, halting, as if lame; 4th, joy, as of a lover at sight of his beloved mistress; otli, afl'ectation of madness, though quite sane; Gth, incoherent discourse. V. Teruunation of pain (du/iclaitiln) or deliverance from evil, is twofold: one is absolute extinction of all ills; the other is acqui- sition of transcendent power, and exercise of uncontrolled and irre- sistible will. 'I'he last comprises energy of sense and energy of action. The energy of sense (dnc-sucli) varies according to the sense en- gaged, and is of five sorts: 1st, vision {darsnna)^ or distinct and perfect perception of minute, remote, confused and undefined ol)- jects; 2d, {sravanu) perfect hearing of sound; i^\,{)ni(i)'n\{\\\{\\ii knowledge, or science without need of study; 4th, {vijtujdna) certain and undoubted knowledge, by book or fact; 5th, {sarvajivjutwa) omniscience. Energy of action {crhjd sacli) is })roperly single of its kind. It admits nevertlieless of a threefold sul)division; which, however, is not well explained, in tlie only work in which I have found it noticed. •'• The opinions of the Pdsupalas and other Mdhcsivarus , are herot- * Ahharana (§ 30) 2. 2. 27. The only copy of it seen by me is in this part apparently imperfect. 264 ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HINDUS. ical, in the estiirifition of the Vcdanlins, Lecaiise they do not admit pantheism, or creation of the universe by the deity out of his own essence. The notion of a plastic material cause, tevmeA pradhdna,* borrowed from tlie Sdnrlujas, and that of a ruling providence, taken from pa- TANJAi.i, are controverted, the one in part, the other in the whole, by the orthodox followers of the Veddnlu. 'An argument drawn from the prevalence of pain, pleasure, and illusion in the universe, that the cause must have the like qualities and be brute matter, is incongruous,' say the Vtkld/dms, 'for it could not frame the diversities, exterior and interior, which occur: these argue thought and intention, in like manner as edifices and gardens, wliich assuredly are not constructed without design. Nor could there be operation without an operator; clay is wrought by the potter who makes the jar; a chariot is' drawn by horses yoked to it; but brute matter stirs not without impulse. Milk nourishes the calf, and water flows in a stream, but not spontaneously; for the cow, urged by affection, suckles her calf, which, incited by hunger, sucks the teat; a river flows agreeably to the inclination of the ground, as by providence directed. But there is not, accord- ing to the Sdnc'hyas and Pdsupaias , any thing besides matter itself to stir or to stop it, nor any motive: for soul is a stranger in the world. Yet conversions are not spontaneous : grass is not neces- sarily changed to milk; for particular conditions must co- exist: swallowed by a cow, not by an ox, the fodder is so converted. Or, granting that activity is natural to matter, still there would be no purpose. The halt, borne by the blind, directs the progress: a magnet attracts contiguous iron. But direction and contiguity are wanting to the activity of plastic matter. The three qualities of goodness, foulness, and darkness, which characterize matter, would not vary to become primary and secondary in the derivative prin- ciples of intelligence and the rest, without some external instigator whomsoever. Apart from the energy of a thinking being, those qualities cannot be argued to have a natural tendency to the pro- duction of such effects as are produced.'** 'The Pdsupatas'' notion of Supreme uod being the world's cause, as governing both (pradhdna) matter and (puntsha) embodied spirit, is incongruous,' say again the Veddniins , 'for he Avould be charge- able with passiou and injustice, distributing good and evil witli par- tiality. Nor can this imputation be obviated by reference to the in- fluence of works: for instigation and instigator would be recipro- cally dependent. Nor can the objection be avoided by tlie assump- * Tliat by wliich tlie world is aecoiiiplislied (pradhiynte) , and h; which it is deposited at its dissolution, is lirst {pradhdna^ matter. ** SANc, &c. on Br. Siitr. '?. 2. § 1. (S. 1—10.) MAIIKSWAUAS AND Pa'sUPATAS. 265 tion of an infinite succession* (without a beginning) of works and their fruits. 'Neither is tliere any assignable connexion by which his guid- ance of matter and spirit could be exercised: it is not conjunction, nor asirrotration , nor relation of cause and oft'cct. Nor can the ma- terial principle, devoid of all sensible qualities, be guided and ad- ministered. Nor can matter be Avrouglit without organs. But, if the Supreme Being have organs, he is furnished with a corporeal frame, and is not god, and he suffers pain, and exi)eriences pleasure, as a finite being. The infinity of matter and of embodied spirit, and (iOD's omniscience, are incompati!)le; if he restrict them in magni- tude and number, they are finite; if he cannot define and limit them, he is not omniscient (and omnipotent).' '•■' A further objection to the Sdnc'fit/a doctrine, and consequently to the Pdsii/iala grounded on it, is 'its alleged inconsistencies and contradictions:** one while eleven organs are enumerated, at another seven only, the five senses being reduced to one cuticular fu-gan, the sense of feeling. The elements are in one place derived immediately from the great or intelligent principle; in another, from consciousness. Three internal faculties are reckoned in some instances, and but one in others.' The grounds of this imputation , however, do not appear. Such inconsistencies are not in the text ofcAPiLA, nor in that of the Cdricd: and the Veddnla itself seems more open to the same reproach: for there is much discrepancy in the passages of the Veda^ on which it relies. The ]ioint on which tlie Pdsupalas most essentially differ from the orthodox, the distinct and separate existence of the efficient an/as, who follow capila, admitted only one material principle and no efficient cause. This appears to have been the doctrine of Heraclitus in particular. His psegmala correspond with the sheer {tanmdtru) particles of CApila's Sdncliya; his intelligent and rational principle , which is the cause of production and disso- lution, is capila's buddlii ov mahat: as his material principle is pra- dhdna or pracrlli: the development of corporeal existences, and their return to the first principle at their dissolution,* correspond with the upward and downward way, o8og uvoa and o8og oidrco, of Hera- clitus.** I shall not pursue the parallel further. It would not hold for all particulars, not was it to be expected that it should. pa'ncharatras or bhagavatas. Among the Vcdslmavas or special worshippers of vishnu, is a sect distinguished by the appellation of Pd/ichardlras, and also called Vishim Bhdgamlas , or simply Bhdgavalas. The latter name might, from its similarity, lead to the confounding of these witli the fol- lowers of the Bhagavad-gitd , or of the '6'ri Bhdgavata purd?ia. The appropriate and distinctive appellation then is that of Pdnchardlra, derived from the title of the original work which contains the doc- trine of the sect. It is noticed in the Bhdraia , with the Sdncliya, Yoga and Pdsupata, as a system deviating from the Vedas : and a passage quoted by sancara-a'cha'rya seems to intimate that its pro- mulgator was sa'ndilya, who was dissjitisfied with the Vcdas , not finding in them a prompt and sufficient way of supreme excellence (parn-sret/as) and final beatitude; and therefore he had recourse to this sdstra. It is, however, by most ascribed to na'ka'yana or va'su- DEVA himself; and the orthodox account for its heresy, as they do for that, of duddha's doctrines, by presuming delusion wilfully practised on mankind by the holy or divine personage, who revealed the icuitra, or dgama, that is, the sacred book in question, though heterodox. Some of its partisans nevertheless pretend, that it conforms with one of the sdc'hds of the Vedu^ denominated the Ecdyana. This does not, however, appear to be the case; nor is it clear, that any such sdelid is forthcoming, or has ever existed. Many of this sect practise tlie (saiiscdrns) initiatory ceremonies of regeneration and admission to holy orders, according to the * See p. 161 of this vohime. ** Diog. Laert. ix. 8 and 0. pa'nciiauatkas or biia'gavatas. 2G7 forms tHrectcd by the Vaj(isaneji-S(k'hd of the Yajunrda. Others, abidiup^ i"i}?i/Y^^/«rt/7'/ mother. His profession is cai-rying out corj)sos, and executing criminals; and officiating in other abject employ- ments for the public service. A third set of Indian classes originate from the intermarriages of the first and second set: a few only have been named by menu; and, excepting the Abhird ^ or milkman, they are not noticed by the other authorities to which I refer. But the puvdiin names other classes of this set. ' A fourth set is derived from intercourse between the several classes of the second : of these also few have been named by menu; and one only of the fifth set, springing from intermarriages of the second and third ; and another of the sixth set , derived from inter- course between classes of the second and fourth, menu adds to these tribes four sons of outcasts. The kmlra enumerates many other classes, wliich must be placed in lower sets, and ascribes a different origin to some of the tribes in the third and fourth sets. To pursue a verbose comparison would be tedious, and of little use; perhaps, of none ; for I suspect that their origin is fanciful; and, except the mixed classes named by MENU, that the rest are terms for professions rather than tribes, and they should be considered as denoting companies of artisans, rather than distinct races. The luode in which ameua sinha men- tions the mixed classes and the professions of artisans, seems to support this conjecture;. However, the Jdlimdld expressly states the number of forty -two * Gup. ** fiiiiirid Giij). ENUMERATION OF INDIAN CLASSES. 275 mixed classes, springing fi-oni the intercourse of a man of inferior, witli a woman of superior class. Tliougli, like other mixed classes, they are included under the general denomination oi' 'Sudra , tlioy are considered as most abject, and most of tliem now experience the same contemptuous treatment as the abject mixed classes men- tioned by MENU. According to the Riidra ydmala ^ the domestic priests of twenty of these tribes are degraded. "Avoid", says the tiinlni, "the touch of the Cltdti'ldla, and other abject classes; and of those who eat the Hesliofkine, often ultor forbidden words, and perform none of the prescribed ceremonies; they are called Mlcchlia, and going to the region of Favaiia, have been named Yuvcmas. "These seven, the Bajucn, Cannacdra, ISu'ia^ Bariiila, Caiverla, and McilabhilUi , are the last trii)es. Whoever associates with them, undoubtedly falls from his class; whoever bathes or drinks in wells or pools which they have caused to be made, must be purified by the five productions of kine; whoever approaches tlicir women, is doubtless degraded from his rank. "For women of the Nn'ta and Capdla classes, for prostitutes, and for women of the liajaca and Ndpdd tribes, a man should willingly make oblations, but by no means dally with them." I may here remark, that according to the Riuh'a Tjdmala^ the Na'ta and Ndfaca are distinct; but the professions are not discriminated in that lanlni. If their distinct occupations , as dancers and actors, are accurately applied, dramas are of very early date. The Pu/'idrara and Pa't'tast'dracdsa ^ or feeder of silk-worms, and silk-twister, deserve notice; for it has been said, that silk was the produce of China solely until the reign (»f the Greek Emperor .JUSTINIAN, and that the laws of China jealously guarded the exclu- sive production. The fre([uent mention of silk in the most ancient Sanscrit books would not fully disprove that opinion; but the men- tion of an Indian class, whose occupation it is to attend silk-worms, may be admitted as proof, if the anti((uity of the UnUrn be not ques- tioned. 1 am intormed, that the lanlras collectively are noticed in very ancient compositions; but, as they are very numerous, they must have been composed at different periods; and the Umlra which I quote, might l)e thought comparatively modern. However, it may be presumed that tlu^ Jiiidra i/diiiala is among the most authentic, and by a natural inference, among the most ancient; since it is named in the Durrjd inchaUnm where the principal tanlras are enu- merated. * * Thus entunerated, "Ca/i tanlrn , Mundmnld, Tiird, Nirvdi'm tantra, Serva sdvnn, liirn tnnlrn. Sinijihchniut, lilnda tnntrti . I'dthsmi •.xnyXCiilicd (nlpa, Hhair- avi tanira, and /{/iiiiravi crilpa , Tiidaln, MdlrVdirdannrn , Mdi/d tantrd, Ih'rc- swara, f^^iswasdra, Samai/d tantra, /iralimnifdinala tantra, littdru j/dmalatantia, Stincu i/dmala-tantra, (7d//atri tantra, C(di<'iicula servaswa , Cn/n'mava , J'ngini, lb* 270 ENUMERATION OF INDIAN CLASSES. In the comparative tables to which I liave referred, the classes are named, with their origin, and the particular professions assigned to tlieni. IIow far every person is bound, by original institutions, to adhere rigidly to the profession of liis class, may merit some enquiry. Jjawyers have largely discussed the texts of law concern- ing this subject, and some difference of opinion occurs in their writings. This, however, is not the place for entering into such dis- quisitions. I shall therefore briefly state what appears to be the best established opinion, as deduced from the texts of menu, and other legal authorities. The regular means of subsistence for a Brdhmana , are assisting to sacrifice, teaching the Vnlas, and receiving gifts ; for a Cshaln'i/a, bearing arms; for a Vaisi/a, merchandize, attending on cattle, and agriculture, for a 'Sudra, servile attendance on the higher classes. The most commendable are, respectively for the four classes, teach- ing the Veda, defending the people, commerce, or keeping herds or flocks, and servile attendance on learned and virtuous priests. A Brdhmana, unable to subsist by his own duties, may live by those of a soldier; if he cannot get a subsistence by either of these employments, he may apply to tillage, and attendance on cattle, or gain a competence by traffic, avoiding certain commodities. A Cshairiya, in distress, may subsist by all these means; but he must not have recourse to the highest functions. In seasons of distress, a further latitude is given. The practice of medicine, and other learned professions, painting and other arts, work for wages, menial service, alms, and usury, are among the modes of subsistence al- lowed to the Brdlmiana and Cshairiya. A Vaisya, unable to subsist by his own duties, may descend to the servile acts of a 'Sudra. And a 'Sudra , not finding employment by waiting on men of the higher classes, may subsist by handicrafts; principally following those mechanical occupations, as joinery and masonry; and practical arts, as painting and writing; by following of Avhich he may serve men of superior classes: and, although a man of a lower tribe is in general restricted from the acts of a higlier class , the 'Sudra is ex- pressly permitted to become a trader or a husbandman. Besides the particular occupations assigned to each of the mixed classes, they have the alternative of following that profession which regularly belongs to tlie class from which they derive their origin on the mother's side: those, at least, have such an o])tion, who are born in the direct order of the tribes, as the Mi'trdliubJiisliicta , A?n- bashVhu, and others. The mixed classes are also permitted to sub- sist by any of the duties of a 'Sudra; that is, by a menial service, by handicraft, by commerce, or by agriculture. tniitra, and the Tanlra Mdhishnmardbn. Tliesc aro lierc ntiiversallv known, Oh uuAiKAvi, greatest of .soiil.s ! And many arc tlic tantrun uttered bysAMUHU." ENUMERATION OF INDIAN CLASSES. 277 Hence it appears that almost every occupation, tliough regularly it be the profe.s.sion of a jiarticular class, is open to most other tribes; anil that the limitations, far from being rigorous, do, in fact, reserve only one peculiar profession, that of the Brdhmana, which consists in teaching the Veda, and officiating at religious ceremonies. The classes are sufficiently numerous; but the subdivisions of them have further nuiltiplied distinctions to an endless variety. The subordinate distinctions may be best exempliiied from the Brah- mai'ia and Cayastlia, because some of the appellations, by which the dirterent races are distinguished, will be familiar to many readers. , The Brdhrnaiias of Bengal are descended from five priests, invited from Cd/ii/anilijd, by auIswaua, king of Gaura ^ who is said to have reigned about nine hundred years after Christ. These were hhatta NAKAVANA, of the family ofsANDiLA, a son of cas'yapa; dacsha, also a descendant of casyapa; vedagauva, of the family of vats a; CHANDRA, of tlie family of savern'a, a son ofcASYAPA; and snf UEiiSHA, a descendant of hharadwa'ja. From these ancestors have branched no fewer than a hundred and fifty-six families, of which the precedence was fixed by ualla'la SENA, who reigned in the eleventh century of the Christian a^ra. One hundred of these families settled in l^drcndra^ and fifty-six in Rdrd. Tiiey are now di>spersed throughout Bengal, but retain the family distinctions fixed by balla'la sena. They are denominated from the families to which their five jirogenitors belonged, and are still considered as Cdnyacubja Brdhmunas. At the period when these ])rie.sts were invited l)y the king of Gaiini, some Sdrcs/rnla BrdhiiKtiUts ^ and a few Vaidicas, resided in Bengal. Of the Brdhmadas of Sdrcsivata, none are now found in Bengal; but five families of Vaidicas are extant, and arc admitted to intermarry with the Brdhmanas of Rdrd. Among the Brd/imaiias oi' Vdraidra , eiglit families liave pre-emi- nence, and eight hold the second rank."-'^ Among those of Rdrd six * VAKKNUKA BUAIIMANVS. Mniliii. /jtihnri. Tlio hist was admittod by election of tlic other seven. M;IiIIA SlJcVl'KIVA S. CASIITA SROTKIYA.Sl. The luiincs of tliesc 1)2 families seldom occur in common intercourse. CULINA 8 B/iinia, liiidru I 'li'iisi. Sdnymnini, or or cm. Sttmli/tfl. 'i/inttioi. Sildliu- Vagisi. niiadara. 278 ENUMEUATION OF INDIAN CLASSES. lioM tlie first rank.* The distinctive appellations of the several families are home Ity those of the first rank; but in most of the other families tliey arc disused; and scrmcm, or scrmd, the addition common to the whole tribe of Brahmanas , is assumed. For this practice, tlic priests of Bengal are censured by the 7>r^/A/»ft«'rts of BliCliild^ and other countries, where that title is only used on im- portant occasions, and in religious ceremonies. In MUliild the additions are fewer, though distinct families are more numerous ; no more than three surnames arc in use in that district , Tlidcusa , Misra , and OJhd , each apin-oprialcd to many families. The CdyasChas of Bengal claim descent from five Cdyastlms who attended the priests invited from Cdnyaciibja. Their descendants branched into eighty-three families ; and their precedence was fixed by the same prince balla'la sena, who also adjusted the family rank of other classes. In Brnga and Dacshina Rdrd, three families of CdyasChas have pre-eminence; eight hold the second rank.** The Cdyasl'' has of in- ferior rank generally assume the addition oi' Ddsa, connnon to the tribe of 'Stidras , in the same manner as other classes have similar titles common to the whole tribe. The regular addition to the name of a Cshatriya is Verman; to that of a Vaisya, Gupta: but the general title of Bern is commonly assumed; and, with a feminine termination, is also borne by women of other tribes. * KAldvA BUAnjlANAS. CULINA 6. Muc'huti, Ganguli Vulgjirly, Muc'lierja. GlioshiUa. Bandyagati, Vulgai-ly, Banoji. s'kotkiya 50. Tho iiuiiies of these 50 families seldom occur iu common intercourse. Cdiijelala. Clia'tati, Vulgarly, Cliuloji. ** CAYAST'hAS of DACSHINA KAKA and BENGA. CULINA 3. Ghusha. Vasu, Vulg. Buse. SANMAULICA 8. Cava. Ddsa. MAULICA 72. Ilcda. Huhbi. Uudra. Pdla. Suin, &c. Milra. (iuild. Fui. Naga. Adili/a. Jlliadre. Chandra. De. Datta. Cava. Pallia. Sena. Sinlta. Ddsa. (iulia. MAULICA 72. (iuluin Soma. Sdni/a, or Sain. Sift/nui, &c. Teja, SlC. f'/idci, &c. The others are omitted for the sake of brevity; their names seldom occur in common intercourse. ENUMKIIATION OF INDIAN CLASSES. 279 Tlic distinctions of families arc important in regulating inter- marriages. Genealogy is made a particular study; and the great- est attention is given to regulate the alliance according to estab- lished rules, particularly in the first marriage of the eldest son. The principal points to be observed are, not to marry Avithin (he jirohibited degrees; nor in a family known by its name to be of the san\e primitive stock; nor in one of inferior rank; nor even in an inferior branch of an equal one; for within some families grada- tions are established. Thus, among the Ciilina of \\\c CatjasChas^ the rank has been counted from thirteen degrees; and in every generation, so hmg as the marriage has been properly assorted, one degree has been added to the rank. But, should a marriage be contracted in a family of a lower degree, an entire forfeiture of such rank would be incurred. XII. OBSERVATIONS 071 Ihc SECT o/ JAINS. [From the Asiatic Researches, vol, ix. p. 287 — 322. Calcutta, 1807. Ito.] The information collected by Major biackenzie , concerning a religions sect hitherto so imperfectly known as that of the jainas, and which has been even confounded with one more numerous and more widely spread (the sect of buddha) , may furnish the ground of further researches, from which an exact knowledge of the tenets and practice of a very remai'kable order of people may be ultimately expected. What Major Mackenzie has communicated to the Society, comes from a most authentic source; the declaration of two prin- cipal priests of the jainas themselves. It is supported by similar information, procured from a like source, by Dr. i, Buchanan, during his journey in Mysore^ in the year following the reduction of Seringapatam. Plaving the permission of Dr. buchanan to use the extracts which I had his leave to make from the journal kept by him during that journey, I have inserted in the preceding article the information received by him from priests of the jaina sect. I am enabled to corroborate both statements, from conversation with Jaina priests, and from books in my possession, written by au- thors of the Jama persuasion. Some of these volumes were pro- cured for me at Bc?ia?\\<> : others were obtained from the present jAflAT SET, at Jllor.shcddhdd , who, having changed his religion, to adopt the worship of vishnu, forwarded to me, at my request, such books of his former faith as were yet wathin his reach. It appears, from the concurrent result of all the enquiries which have been made, that the jainas constitute a sect of Hindus, differ- ing, indeed, from the rest in some very important tenets; but fol- lowing, in other respects, a similar practice, and maintaining like opinions and observances. Tlie essential cluiracter of the Hindu institutions is the distri- bution of the people into four great tribes. This is considered by themselves to be the marked point which separates them from Mle- cKhas or Barbarians. '^Plie Jainas^ it is found, admit the same division into four tribes, and perform like religious ceremonies, termed san- OBSERVATIONS 0\ IIIi; SECT OF JAINS. 2S I scdras, from tlio hirtli of a male to lils inaniage. Tlioy observe sim- ilar fasts, and j)ractisc , still more strictly, tlio received maxims for refraining from injury to any sentient being. They appear to re- cognise as subordinate deities, some, if not all, of the gods of the prevailing sects; but do not Avorship, in particular, the five princij>al gnds of those sects; or any one of them by jjreference; nor address prayers, or perform sacrifice, to the sun, or to fire: and they diflfer from the rest of the Hindus, in assij;ning the highest place to certain deified saints, who, according to their creed, have successively become superior gods. Another point in ■\vliich they materially disagree is the rejection of the Vcdas, the divine authority of which they deny; condemning, at the same time, the practice of sacrifices, and tlie otiier ceremonies which the followers of the Vedas perform, to obtain specific promised consequences, in this world or in the next. In this respect \\\o. Jainas resemble the Bauddhas or saiigaias, who equally deny the divine authority of tlie Vr'das : and who similarly worship certain pre-eminent saints, admitting likewise, as subor- dinate deities, nearly the whole pantheon of the orthodox Hindus. They differ, indeed, in regard to the history of the personages whom they have deified; and it may be hence concluded, that they have had distinct founders; but tiie original notion seems to have been the same. In fact, this remarkable tenet, from which the Jainas and nauddltas derive tbfir most conspicuous peculiarities, is not entirely unknown to the orthodox Hindus. The followers of the Vedas, according to the theology, Avhich is explained in the f'rdnnla, con- sidering the human soul as a portion of the divine and universal mind, believe that it is capable of perfect union with the divine essence: and tlie writers on the Vedanfa not only affirm that this union and identity are attained tlirough a knowledge of God, as by them tauglit; but have hinted, that by such means the particular soul becomes God, even to tlie actual attainment of supremacy.* So far the followers of tlie Vcdas do not virtually disagree with i\\(i Jainas and Hauddhas. V>\\i they have not, like those sects, framed a myth(dogy upon the siipiiosed history of the persons, who liave successively attained divinity ; nor have they taken these for the objects of national worsliip. All three sects agree in their belief of transmigration. Rut tlie Jamas are distinguished from the rest by tlieir admission of no opinions, as they tliemselves attirm , which ni-f not founded on perception, or on proof drawn from tliat, or from testimony. It does not, liowever, appear that thev really withhold belief from pretended revelations: and the doctrines which characterize the sect, are not confined to a single tenet; but form an assemblage of * f'lViad drauyacu iipmtisliad. 282 OIJSKHVATION.S ON TUK SECT OF JAINS. my tlio logical ;in(l metapliysical ideas luiiud among otlier sects, joinod to many visionary and fantastic notions of" their own. Their belief in the eternity of matter, and perpetuity of the world, is connnon to the Sd>ir'/i!/1)UA in the Sanscrll language, under tlie title of Ldlild fiiinhia , Avhich was procured Ijy Major knox , during his public mission in Nepal, it can be affirmed, that the story of (JAUTAMA BUDiJJiA has been engrafted on the heroic history of the lunar and solar races, received by the orthodox Hindus; an evident sign, that his sect is subse({uent to that, in which this fabulous history is original. The same remark is applicable to the Jainas, Avith whom the le- gendary story of tlieir saints also seems to be engrafted on tlie liinin'iiiir tales of the orthodox sect. Sufticicnt indication of this will appear in the passages which will be subsequently cited from the writings of the Jainas. Considerable weight nu'ght be allowed to an argument deduced from the aggravated extravagance of the fictions admitted by the sects of JiNA aud buduha. The mythology of the orthodox Hindus, their present chronology adapted to astronomical periods, their legendary tales, their mystical allegories, are abundantly extra- vagant. But the Jainas and Jiauildlias surpass them in monstrous exaggerations of the same kind. In this rivalship of absurd fiction, it would not be unreasonable to pronounce tliat to be most modern, which has outgone tlie rest. Tlie greater antiiiuity of the religion of the J'rdas is also rendered probable, from the prevalence of a similar worship of the sun and of lire in ancient Persia. Nothing forbids the supposition, that a religious worship, which was there esta])lish('d in times of anti([uity, may have also existed from a remote period in the country between the Ganges and the Indus. The testimony of the Greeks preponderates greatly for the early ]irevaleiice of the sect, from which the present orthodox Hindus are derived, aiikiav, having said that the l>iaclimancs were the .sages or learned among the Indians,** mentions them under the ''•■ TAciiAiti), I'oi/age de Siam. r,Ai.ouiti;iii:, Iloynume dc Sinin. '** Knl Tcov BQUxncivcov o'l dq oomtarul rots- 'ivdoig liciv v.. x X. Exp. Al. vi. IC. 28G OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. liittcr designation (Gocpiarcd) as a distinct tribe , which , though iu forior to tlic otliorn in miiuber, is suj)orior in rank and estimation: bound to no bodily work, nor contribnting any thing from Ifibour to the public use; in short, no duty is imposed on that tribe, but that of sacrilicing to the gods, for the common beneiit of the Indians 5 and, wlien any one celebrates a private sacritice, a person of that class becomes his guide; as if tlie sacrifices would not else be ac- ceptable to the gods V '■■ Here, as well as in the sequcd of the passage, the priests of a religion consonant to the Vedus^ are well described: and what is said, is suitable to them; but to no other sect, which is known to have at any time prevailed in India. A similar description is more succinctly given by strabo , 'It is said, that the Indian multitude is divided into seven classes; and that the philosophers are first in rank, but fewest in number. They are em])loyed , respectively, for private benefit, by those who are sacrificing or worshipping, etc.'*^- In another place he states , on the authority of megasthenes, 'two classes of philosophers or priests; the Brachmanes and Ger- numes: but the Brachmanes are best esteemed, because they are most consistent in their doctrine"^'*'-' The author then proceeds to des- cribe their manners and opinions : the whole passage is highly deserving of attention, and will be found, on consideration, to be more suitable to the orthodox Hindus than to the Bauddhas ovJai?ias: particularly towards the close of his account of the Braclmumcs^ where he says, 'In many things they agree with the Greeks; for they affirm that the world was produced and is perishable; and that it is spherical: that God, governing it as well as framing it, pervades the whole: that the principles of all things are various; but water is the principle of the construction of the world: that, besides the four elements, there is a fifth nature, Avhence heaven and the stars : that the earth is placed in the centre of all. Such and many other things are affirmed of reproduction, and of the soul. Like PLATO, they devise fables concerning the immortality of the soul, and the judgment in the infernal regions ; and other similar notions. These things are said of the Brachmanes.'' STRAJiO notices likewise another order of people opposed to the Brachmanes, and called Pranmw: he chai'acterizes them as contcn- * Ni^viiirjvtai 01 Ttavtsg IvSol sg sitXK iidXiGxa yfvsag' s-v ^itv avroictv 01 2Jo(pi6rai fi'ai^ v.. r. X. aiuiian. Indie, c. 11. ** wn. lib. 1. c IT), p. |;{0. eil. Sylb. § Slrovt. lib. iii. c. 7. j). 194. cl. Syll). 288 OBSERVATIONS ON TIIK SECT OF JAINS. tliJit ^)hilo.sii|)liy lloiiri-shiul uucloiitly auioiig the barbarians, and at'terwards was introduced among the Greeks, he instances the pro- phets of the Egyptians, the Chaldees of the Assyrians; tlie Druids of the (Jauls (Gahitic) ; the Sanianieans of t\\v, Bactriaus; the })hilo- sophers of the Celts; the Magi of the Persians; the Gymnosophists of the Indians: and proceeds thus: — 'They are of two kinds, some called Sarma/tes, others Brachmcmes. Among the Sarmanes^ those called Allohii /■'■ neither inhabit towns, nor have houses; they are clad with the bark of trees, and eat acorns, and drink water with their hands. They know not marriage, nor procreation of children; like those now called Ena^aletai (chaste). There are likewise, among the Indians, persons obeying the; precepts of butta, whom they worship as a god, on account of his extreme vener- ableness.'** Here , to my apprehension , the followers of buddha are clearly distin^ruished from the Brachmcmes and Sarmancs.**'* The latter, called Gennancs by strabo, and Sanumceans by porphyrius, are the ascetics of a different religion: and may have belonged to the sect of JiNA, or to another. The Brachmanes are apparently those who are described by piiilostratus and iiierocles , as worshipp- ing the sun; and by strabo and by arrian , as performing sacri- fices for the common benefit of the nation, as well as for individuals. The religion which they practised, was so far conformable with the precepts of the Viidas: and their doctrine and observances, their manners and opinions, as noticed by the authors above cited, agree with no other religious institntions known in India, but the orthodox sect. In short, the Brcihmunas are distinctly mentioned by Greek authors as the iirst of the tribes or casts, into which the Indian nation was then, as now, divided. They are expressly discriminated from the sect of buduiia by one ancient author, and from the Sarmancs^ or Samancecms, (ascetics of various tribes) by others. They are des- cribed by more than one authority, as worshippping the sun, as perf(n-ming sacrifices, and as denying the eternity of the world, and maintaining other tenets incompatible with the supposition that the sects of BUDDHA or JiNA could be meant. Their manners and doc- trine, as described by these authors, are quite conformable with the * Same witli the llylohii of stkabo. ** dixTov ds Tovrcov yivog, o[ (.ilv EaQiLCtvcii (xvtwv, oi Ss BQKXunvai KaXoviievot. Kal rcov Uag^avav oi 'AXko^iot. ^rpoffnryojjf yo'fifvot, ovtb no- Xfig oiv.ovGiv , ovrs cz^yag f%ovaiv , dhvdQCov 8h aurptdvvvvtcci (ploiotg, ■Kdl ciKQaSQua citovvTCii, kccI vdcofj ratt,- x^Q^'^ mvovotv ov yduov^ ov nca- doitoiiav i'aaciVj caantQ ot vvv 'Ey/.Qarrjtocl Kalov^i^voi. ft'fft dt rcov Iv- 8av or TOig Bovzza nsL&o^iBVOL TcaQayyiluaaiv. ov Si vtisq^oItjv ofuvo- rr]TOg ■Fig.f)86v Tfrtfir^'xwfft. Strom, lib. 1. c 15. p. 131. ed. Sylb. *** The passaj^i! lias been interpreted differently, as if clemkns said, tliaf. the AHohii were those wlio worshipped butta. (See moukui. Art. Samaneenn.) The text is nmbigiious. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OP JAINS. 2S9 notions and piactice of tlio ortlioflox Ilindu.s. It may therefore be coiiiiilfully iut'erred, that the I'ollowers of the Ftidus llourislied in India wlien it was visited by the Greek under Alexander: and eontiniKul to Hourish from the time of megasthenes. wlio described them in tlic fonrtli century bcfon; ciiiust, to tliat of iM)i{,i'iiYi{ns, wlio speaks of them, on hitcr authority, in the third century after ciiiiiST. I have thus stated, as briefly as the nature of the subject per- mitted, a few of the facts and reasons by which the opinion, that the religion and institutions of the orthodox Hindus are more modern than the doctrines of jina and of ijuudha, may, as 1 think, be suc- cessfully resisted. I have not undertaken a formal refutation of it, and have, therefore, passed unnoticed, objections which are founded on mi.sap[)r(dicnsions. It is only necessary to remark, that the past prevalence of either of those sects in particular places, with its subsequent persecution there by the worshippers of s'iva, or of visiinu, is no proof of its general jiriority. HimUislan })roper was the early seat of the Hindu religion, and the acknowledged cradle of both the sects in question. They were foreigners in the Peninsula of India; and admitting, as a fact, (what need not however be conceded,) that the orthodox Hindus had not been previously settled in the Carnutaca and other districts, in wliich i\w, Jaimis or the BamhUuts have flourished, it cannot be thence concluded, that tlie followers of the Vcdas did not precede them in other provinces. It may be proper to add, that the establishment of particular sects among tlie Hindus who acknowledge the Vcdas , does not afl'ect the general ([uestion of relative antiquity. The special doctrines intro- duced by sancara a'charya, by ra'ma'nuja, andby ma'dhava'charya, and of ce's lists of five Buddlias. As. lies. vol. vii. p. ;?2 and 414. *■'■ I understand that tlie Jitiuas iiavc a niytholonical poem entitled Uari- vansa puidi'in, dili'erent from tiie //cDivav'su of the orthodox. Their icshwacu, likewise, is a different jhtsou; and the name is said to be a title of their first Jinn, nTsirAiiiiA dkva. *:):* j^i,, (In, Asiatic IJesearehcs, vol. ix. ]). t?41,iS:c.] OBSEliVATIONS ON THE SECT OP JATNS. 291 arc all fignrcd in tlio same contemplative posture, with little varia- tion iu ^tiieir a]ipcaraiice, besides a ditVerence of complexion : but the several Jinas have distinguishing mai-ks or characteristic signs, which are usually engraved on the pedestals of their images, to dis- criminate them. 1. Ki!3iiAmiA, or vuisiiABiiA, of the race of ic'Siuva'cu, was son of N A151II by makudeva' : he is figured of a yellow or golden complexion ; and has a bull for his characteristic. Ilis stature, as is pretended, was 500 poles {d/ianiish;) and the duration ofliis life, 8,400.000 great years {pi'trra rarslia.) According to the Culpa sulra , as interpreted by the commentator, he was born at Cosuld or AijmUnja (whence he is named causalica) , towards the latter part of the third age. He was the first king, first anchoret, and first saint; and is therefore entitled PniCliuma Raja, Pratliatna Bliicshdcara, P/af/iama Jina, and PraChama Tii-niancara. At the time of his inauguration as king, his age was 2,000,000 years. He reigned 6,300,000 years; and then resigned his emj)ire to his sons: and having employed 100,000 years in passing through the several stages of austerity and sanctity, de- parted Irom this world on the summit of a mountain, named Ash'td- patht. The date of his apotheosis was 3 years and 8.^ months before the eiul of tlie third age, at the precise interval of one whole age before the deification of tlu^ last Jina. 2. AJiTA was son of jitasatku by vijaya'; of the same race with the first J/7?o, and re])resented as of the like complexion; with an elei)hant for his distinguishing mark. His stature was 450 poles; and his life exteiuled to 7,200,000 great years. His deification took place in the I'ourth age, when iifty /<«\s7«/*' of c/'J;*' of oceans of years had elapsed out of the tenth ci-or of crurs. * 3. SAMiJiiAVA was the son of jita'ui by si'^na; of the same race and complexion with the preceding; distinguished by a horse; his stature was 400 poles; he lived 0,000,000 years; and lie was deified 30 lacshas of crors of sdgaras after the second Jina. 4. AiJiiiNANiJANA was the son of sambaka by siDD'uAUT'nA; he has an ape for his i)eculiar sign. His stature Avas 300 jjoles-, and his life reached to 5,000,000 years. His apotheosis was later by 10 lacshas of rrors of sdijaras than the foregoing. 5. suMATi was son of MK(iiiA by man(;ala'; he has a curlew for his charact(>ristic; His life endured 4,000,000 years , and his deilica- lion was nine lacs/tas of crors oi' tidga/'as alter the fourth Ji/ia. ('>. I'Adm Ai'UAiuiA was son of siuohaua by susIma'; of the same race with the jtreceding, but described of a red complexion. Ho has a lotos for his mark : and li\ed 3,OfK),000 years, being 200 jtules in stature. He was deified [' tinic liuvc licpii noticed by Miijoi mackk.nzii: , As. Res. vol i\ ]i. 257, and will ln' I'lirtlicr i'X]il,iiiic(l. IQ* 292 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. 7. suPAKSWA was son of pratisiit'iia by pri- t'hwi; of the same line with the foregoing, but re- presented witli a golden complexion; his sign is the figure called Swastica. He lived 2,000,000 years ; and was deified 9,000 cnJrs of sdijaras subsequent to the sixth Jina. 8. chandraprabha was son of MAiiA'si-^NA by lacshmana'; of the same race with the last, but figured with a fair complexion; liis sign is the moon ; his stature was 150 poles, and he lived 1,000,000 years; and his apotheosis took place 900 crurs of sdijaras later than the seventh Jma. 9. pusiipadanta, also surnamed suvidhi, Avas son of supriya by rama'; of the same line with the preceding, and described of a sim- ilar complexion, his mark is a marine monster [macara)-^ his stature was 100 poles, and the duration of his life 200,000 years. He was deified 90 cru7^s oi srigaras after the eighth Jijia. 10. sitala was son of drid'harat'ha by nanda'; of the same race, and represented with a golden complexion; his cha- racteristic is the mark called 'Srivalsa. His stature was 90 poles; and his life 100,000 great years; his deification dates 9 crors of sagcifcis later than the preceding. 11. SREYAN (SREYAS) Or SREYANSA, waS SOU of VISHNU by vishna'; of the same race, and with a similar complexion; having a rhinoceros for his sign. He was 80 poles in stature, and lived 8,400,000 common years. His apotheosis took place more than 100 sdgaras of years before the close of the fourth age. 12. va'supujya was son of vasupujya by jaya'; of the same race, and represented with a red complexion, having a buffalo for his mark ; and he was 70 poles high, lived 7,200,000 years, and was dei- fied later by 54 sdgaras than the eleventh Jina. 13. viMALA was son of oritavarman by jsyama; of the same race; described of a golden complexion, having a boar for his character- istic; he was 60 poles high, lived 6,000,000 years, and was deified 30 sdgaras later than the twelfth Jifia. 14. ananta, also named anantajit, was son of sinhas^na by SUYASAH. He has a falcon for bis sign; his stature was 50 poles, the duration of his life 3,000,000 years, and his apotheosis 9 sdgaras after the preceding. 15. DHARMA was SOU of BiiANU by suvRATA, characterised by the thunderbolt; he was 45 pol^s in stature, and lived 1,000,000 years; he was deified 4 sdgaras later than the foregoing. 16. SANTT was son of vis'wasena by AciiiRA, having an antelope for his sign; he was 40 poles high, lived 100,000 years, and was dei- fied 2 sdgaras subsequent to the last mentioned.* * Tlie lil'e ol' this JiiKi is the subject of a separate work entitled 'Sdnti purdna. OBSEIiVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. 293 17. cunt'iiu w.is son of sl'ka, by .s'jti ; he. has a j:,ital for his mark ; liis height was 35 poles, and his life <)5,000 years. His apotheosis is dated in the last /xih/ti of the fourth age. IH. Ai{A was son of sudak.saxa ])y dkvi; ^ / characterised hy the iigure called Nimdii \\ varlu: his stature was 30 poles, his life 84,000 years, and his deification ],000 crors of years before the next Jina. 19. MALLi was son of ci:mj;iia by pra- biiavatI ; of the same race witli the preced- ing; and rcjircsented of a blue coinploxion, having a jar for his characteristic; he was 25 poles high and lived 55,000 years ; and nJ / ^ m A \ / was deified 6,584,000 years before the close of the fourth age. 20. munisuvrata, also named suvrata, or jiijni was sou of su- MiTKA by PAUiMA', sjiruug from the race called iiarivansa; repre- sented with a black complexion, having a tor(ois(> for his sign: his height was 20 poles, and his life extended to 30,000 years. ]Iis apo- theosis is dated 1,184,000 years before the end of the fourth age. 21. NiMi was son of vi.ia.ia l)y vipka'; of the race of icshwa'cu ; figured witli a golden complexion; liaving for his mark a blue water- lily, (niU'itpdld) -^ his stature Avas 15 poles; his life 10,000 years; and his deification took place 584,000 years before the expiration of the fourth age. 22. nkmi, also called ARiSHTAN?:Mr, was son of the king sa.ml'- urajava by .SIVA; of the line denominated iiarivansa; described as of a black comj)lexion , liaving a conch for his sign. According to the calpa si'ilra, he was born at Soriyapura : and, when 300 years of age, entered on the practice of austerity, lie employed 700 years in passing tlirougli the several stages of sanctity, and, having attained the age of 1,000 years, departed from tliis world at UJJinIa, which is described as the peak of a mountain, the same, according to tlio commentator, with Giranara.''' The date of this event is 84,000 years before the close of the fourtli age. 23. rAR.swA (or rARSwANAT'HA) was son of the king as'wa.sena by va'ma', or BA'MAnKvi ; of the race of icsiiw.v'cii; figured with a blue comi)lexion, having a serpent for his characteristic. The life of this celebrated .una, who was ])erbaps the real founder of the sect, is the subject of a poem entitled 7 V//s«vuli a, belong to the indua of the Indian mythology. OnSKRVATIONS ON THE SKCT OF JAINS. 295 II is father gave liiiu tlic name of vakdiiama'na. But he is also known by two other names, sramana and maha'vika. His father has similarly three nitpcllations, siddiiart'iia, suevansa, and ya- SAswi; and his mother likewise has three titles, tiusala, vidkha- DiN.NA, and I'laruARiNi. His paternal uncle was suparswa, his elder brother nandivardiiana , his sister (mother of jama'li) su- DARSANA. Ilis wife was yasoda, by whom he had a daughter (who became wife of jama'li ;) named anmuja and priyadarsana'. Ilis grauddaugliter was called .shsiiavati and yasovati. His fatlier and mother died when he was twenty-eight years of age; and he continued two years with his elder brother: after the second year he renounced worldly pursuits, and dei)arted amidst the applauses of gods and men, to practise austerities. The progress of his devout exercises, and of his attainment of divine knowledge, is related at great length. Finally, he became an Arhal ov Jhia, being worthy of universal adoration, and having subdued all pas- sions;* being likewise oianiscicnt and all-seeing: and thus , at the age of seventy-two years, he became exempt from all pain for ever. This event is stated to have happened at the court of king iiasti- pa'la , in the city of Pihrapuri or Papapuri]'^-'^' and is dated three years and eight and a-half months before the close of the fourth age, (called Diihcliamd sticliama) in the great period named avasar- pini. The autlior nf the CaJjia sulra mentions, in several places, that, when he wrote, 9H() years had elapsed since this ajjotheosis. ^'-'^^'^ According to tradition, the death of the last ///;« happened more than two thousand four hundred years since; and the Culpa si'ilra appears therefore , to have been composed about fifteen hundred •years ago. f The several Jinas arc described as attended by numerous IVd- lowers, distributed into classes, under a few chief disci])les, entitled Ga/iudharas or Gm'indliipas. The last Jina had nine such classes of followers, under eleven disciples, ixdrarhuti, AciNiniiu'Ti, va'yu- nilUTI, VYACTA, SIIDIIARMA, MAXDITAl'UTRA , MAURYAl'UTRA , ACAM- I'lTA, aciialahhra'ta', mkva'rya, prarha'sa. Nine of these disciples died witli maiia'vira; and two of them, indrabiiu'ti and sudiiarma * So tlic coiTimcntator cxpouiuls botli terms. ** Near /(//Jngi i/ui/i, in h'i/nir. It is accord injjly a place of sanctity. Otlier holy i>l;ice.s, wliicli liave been mentioiu'd to mu are, ('linwpiipnri, neiir l>/i,ii/al- piir, (yNt/iilnivati diaiantiew miles from /icnare.'i. and the ancient v'liy //iisli/ni- pnra in llindusldn: also 'Salriuijai/a, said to be situated in the west of India. *** SiimaiiHssa bhasavilu mahakikassa j.-'iva dnbc'lia bi'nassa navab.isa sa- y;Vin liicwantaiii d.isaniassayu b.'isa sayassa .lyjim asi inn' sanibacli'liare c;ile f^ach'hai. "Nine Iniiidri'd years have passed since the adoralile MAn.\iiiuA became exempt from pain ; and of the tenth century of years, eiirhty are the time which is now el;ipsed.'" f The most ancient copy in my possession, and the oldest one which I have seen, is dated iu 101 1 savwal: it is nearly "iOO years old. 206 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF .TAINS. siirvivi'.d him, aiul subscqiiuatlj- attained beatitude. The Crt//>rt sulra adds, that all ascetics, or candidates for holiness, were pupils in succession from sudhak.ma, none of the others having left successors. The author then proceeds to trace the succession from sudharma to the ditVerent 'Sac'' has, or orders of priests, many of which appear still to exist. This enumeration disproves the list connnuni- cated to ^lajor Mackenzie by tlie head priest of r.ELLKiOLA. The ages and periods which have been more than once alluded to in the foregoing account of the Jainas are briefly explained in hemachandra's vocabulary. Tn the second chapter, whicli relates to the heavens and the gods, &c. the author, speaking of time, ob- serves that it is distinguished into Jvasarpii'ii and Ulsarpi/ii , adding that the whole period is completed by twenty cofis oi' co/is of sdgaras-^ or 2,O0(),0O0,on(),O()0,O00 oceans of years. I do not find thai he any wh(!re explains the space of time denominated sagara or ocean. But I under.stand it to be an extravagant estimate of the time, which would elapse, before a vast cavity filled with chopped hairs could be emptied, at the rate of one piece of hair in a century: the time requisite to enter such a cavity, measured by s\, ijnjaiia every way, is a pah/a : and that repeated ten ct'ifis of crj'tis of times* is a sagai^a. F^ach of the periods above-mentioned, is stated by hemachandra, as comprising six aras : the names and duration of which agree with the information communicated to IMajor Mackenzie: In the one, or the declining period, they pass from the extreme felicity (ecdnia sue ha) through intermediate gradations, to extreme misery {ecdnta diihclia). In the other, or rising period, they ascend in the same order, from misery to felicity. During the three first ages of one period, mortals lived for one, two, or three pah/as; their stature was one, two, or three leagues {gavyulis)-^ and they subsisted on the fruit of miraculous trees; which yielded spontaneously food, apparel, ornaments, garlands, habitation, nurture, light, musical instruments, and household utensils. In the fourth ag(% men lived ten millions of year.s; and their stature was 500 poles [tl/iaiius//): in the fifth age, the life of man is a hundred years : and the limit of his stature, seven cubits: in the sixth, he is reduced to sixteen years, and the height of one cubit. In the next period, this succession (»f ages is reversed, and afterwards they retonunence as before. Here we cannot but observe, that the Jainas are still more extra- vagant in their inventions than te prevailing sects of Hindus, ab- surd as these are in their fables. In his third chajiter, iiemachaxdua , liaving stated the term for paramount and tributary princes, mentions the twelve Chacravartis^ and adds the patronymics and origin of them, biiarata is surnamed a'rsharhi, or son of risiiariia; :\iachavan is son of vi.taya; and * 1,000,000,000,000,000 pw/^yas = one siiijara, or sdgarupavia. OBSERVATIOTS 0\ THE SECT OF JAINS. 207 SANATCUMa'rA of A.SWASKNA. s'a'nTI , CUNt'hU aiul AKA are tlie Jinas so named, sagara is described as son of sumitra; subhu'ma is entitled ca'rtaviuva; padma is said to be son of padmottara; IfAUISriKNA of HAUI; JAVA of VIJAYA ; BUAHMADATTA of BRAIIME ; and all are declared tatta is termed son of aoxisixiia; na'ra'vaxa has the patronymic da'sauat'iii which belongs to ra'ma- chandra; and crishna is described as sprung from vasudeva. Nine other persons are next mentioned, under the designation of SutUi balas, viz. I. aciiala, 2. vijava, 3. biiadra, 4. suprahha, 5. su- darsana, 6. a'nanda, 7. nandana, 8. padma, 9. ra'ma. They are followed by a list of nine foes of vishnu: it corresponds nearly with one of the lists noticed by Major Mackenzie, viz. i. as- WAfiRivA, 2. TARACA, 3. MERACA , 4. MADHU, 5. MISIMHUA , 6. BALI, 7. PRAiiEADA, 8. The king of Lancfi (ra'vana), 9. The king of Ma gadha (jara'sandiia). It is observed, that, with the Jinas ^ these complete tlie number of sixty-three eminent personages, viz. 24 Jinas, 12 C/iacravarlis, 9 fasiidi'vas, 9 h'aladevas, and 9 Pralivasiidrvas. It appears from the information jn'ocured by Major Mackenzie, that all these appertain to the heroic history of the Jaina writers. Alost of tliem arc also both known to the orthodox Hindus, and are the principal personages in the Puraiias. hf:maciiaxdra subsequently notices many names of princes, familiar to the Hindus of other sects. He begins with prit'hii son of VENA, whofn he terms the first king: and goes on to maxdiiata, iiAHi.sciiAXDUA liiiAitATA, Son of i>usii YAN'PA, Si.Q. Towards the end of his enumeration of conspicuous princes, he mentions carx'a, kingoi' Champa arn\. iiiga : u.v'la or .s.\'Tiiv.\iiANA ; and ciim.v'rap.^la, surnamcfl (;iiArr,rcYA , a royal saint, who seems from the title Paramarhala , to have been nJidiia, and apparently the only one in that enumcratitm. In a subsequent jiart of the same chajiter, hemachandra , (who was himself a theologian of his sect, and author of hymns to jina,*) mentions and discriminates the various sects; viz. 1st. ArJiatas, or Jainiis , '2d\y, S(u/i/al(is, or Bauddhas , and 3dly, six jtbilosophical schools, viz. 1st. Naiydyica, 2d. Yuya, 3d. capila's Safic'/iya, 4th. J'ai- * A commentary on these liymns is datcrl in 'St/cn ]'2\ 1 f.\. D. r202); Init how mucli earlier iiEMAcii.wDnA lived, is not yet ascertained. 20S OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. sr'shica, jth. Vdrhaspalya , or Ndslica, and 6tli. Chdrvdca ox Locdyala. Tlic two last are reputed atheistical, as denying a future state and a providence. If those be omitted, and the two Mimdnsds inserted, we liavo the six schemes of pliilosophy familiar to the Indian circle of Ihe sciences. The fourth chapter of hiSmachandra's vocabulary relates to earth and animals. Here the author mentions tlie distinctions of countries which appear to be adopted by the Jain(is\ viz. the regions [rarsha) named Dhar-ala Jirdvala, and J'ide/td, to which he adds C'liru: noticing also other distinctions familiar to the Hindus of other sects, but ex- plaining some of them according to the ideas of the Jainas. '■ Jirya- varla ,'' he observes, 'is the native land of Ji?ius, Chacris , and Jrd- dhachaC7-is , situated between the Vindhya and ////««(/// mountains. ' This remark confines the theatre of Jama jiistory, religious and heroic, within the limits of Hindustan proper. A passage in bha'scara's treatise on the sphere, will suggest further observations concerning tlie tipinious of the Jamas on the di- visions of the earth. Having noticed , for the purpose of confuting it, a notion maintained by the Bauddhas (whom some of the com- mentators , as usual among orthodox Hindus, confound Avith the Jainas,) respecting the descent or fall of the earth in space ; he says,'"-' the naked sectaries and the rest affirm, that two suns, two moons, and two sets of stars appear alternately: against them I allege this reasoning. How absurd is the notion which you have formed of duplicate suns, nioous and stars, when you sec the revolution of the polar fish.'** The commentators *''■••' agree that the Jainas are here meant; and one of them remarks, that they are described as naked sectaries &c. ; because the class of JJiyambaras is a principal one among these people. It is true that the Jainas do entertain the preposterous notion here attributed to them: and it is also true tliat the Jh'gatidjaras , among the Jainas, are distinguished from the 'Suddmharas , not merely by the wliite dress of the one, and the nakedness, (or else the t.awny apparel) of the other; but also by some particular tenets and di- versity of doctrine. However, liotli concur in the same ideas re- garding the earth and planets, which shall be forthAvith stated, from the aut!u)rity of Jaina books: after remarking, by the Avay, that ascetics of the orthodox sect, in the last stage of exaltation, when they become ParainaJiansa, also disuse clotlilng. The world, which according to the Jainas is eternal, is figured liy them as a spindle resting on half of another; or as they describe it, three cups, of which the lowest is inverted; and Ibc uppermost * Oi>l/i(Uiytii/a, § 3. v. S & 10. *•'• TTrsa minor. *** LAcsiiMiuAs.v, MUNiswAuA, uud the Vdsanuhhdslii)tt. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. 200 meets at its circumference the middle one. 'J'licy also represent the world by comparison to a woman witli her arms akimbo. ■•^- Her waist, or according to the description first mentidned, the meeting of the lower cups, is the earth. The spindle above, answering to the superior portion of the woman's person, is the abode of the gods; and the inferior part of the figure comprehends the infernal regions. The earth, which they suppose to be a fiat surface, is bounded by a circle, of whicli the diameter is one ?v//».** The lower spindle comprises seven tiers of inferior earths or hells, at the dis- tance of a rajii from each other, and its base is measured by seven rajus. These seven hells are Rabui prahha, 'Sarcard prabhd , Bdhtcd prali/td, Panra pnth/td , D/ii'iina prahhd, Ttiiiia prahhd, Tamatama pnthhd. The upper spindle is also seven rajus high; and its greatest breadth is five rajus. Its summit , which is 4,500,000 yojanas wide is the abode of the deified saints: beneath that are five Vimdnas, or abodes of gods: of which the centre one is named Sarrdrlliasiddlia : it is encompassed by the regions .Ipardjita , Jaijanla, Vaijaijunta and Vi jaya. Next, at the distance of one raju from the smnmit, follow nine tiers of worlds , representing a necklace (graivcyaca) , and in- habited by gods, denominated, from their conceited pretensions to supremacy, Ahamindra. These nine regions are, Adilya, Priliiicara, Si'niKdiasa ^ Su/)ia>iiisa , Suvisdla, Sarvaldbhadra, Mutwruma ^ Supra- vaddha, anil Suddursdna. Under these regions arc twelve (the THcjainharas say sixteen) other regions, in eight tiers, from one to five rajus above the earth. They are filled with Vimdnas, or abodes of various classes of gods, called by the general name of C«//>«t'rt5/s. These worlds, reckoning from that nearest the earth, are, Saud/iama and I'sdna: Sanalcuindra and Muhrndra: Bralunr : Ldulaca : 'Sucra : Sahasrdra: Jiiiala nud Prdaata; Araiia and Acliyutn. The sect of Jina distinguish four classes of deities, the Vainuhticas, /i/iuvanapalis, Jydlis/tis, and Vyautaras. The last comprises eight orders of demigods or spirits, admitted by the Hindus in general, as the Rdrslianas, Pisdcshas , Ciunaras, &c. supposed to range over the earth. The preceding class {Jydlishis) comprehends five orders of luminaries; suns, moons, ])lanets, constellations, and stars, of which mor(^ hereafter. The Vaimdiiicas belong to the various I'i- mdnas, in the twelve regions, or worbls, inhabited by gods. Tlie class of niiuvunapali includes ten orders, entitled Asuracumdra, Ndf/a ruiiiiini, t^c; each govcnuMl by two l/idrns. All these gods are mortal, except, perhaps, llic iMiiiinaries. * The Sangraluiiii vulna and Ldcundb siilia, hotli in /'nt'cril, an- the author- ities here used. ** Tliis is explained to ho a measure of space, tliroiij^li u hiili llic pjods are ahle to travel in six montlis, at tlic rate iif '2,i)bl,lb'2 yijanns, (of 2,000 cifisu ciich), in the tuinl^lin? of an eye. 300 OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. The earth consists of uuiiieious distinct contineutii, in concentric circles, separated by seas forming rings Ijctvveen them. The first circle is Jamhu d/r/jKi, with the mountain Sudarsa Merit in the centre. It is encompassed liv a ring containing the salt ocean; bt^yond \vliicli is the zone, named Dhdluci (hripa ; similarly surrounded by a black ocean. This is again encircled by Pushcara dwipa. of which only the first half is accessible to mankind: being separated from the re- moter half by an imi)assablc range of mountains, denominated Md- nushoUaru parvitUi. Dlidluci divipa contains two mountains, similar to Siimeru , named Vijanga and Achula . and Pushcara contains two others, called Mandird and Vidyunmdli. The diameter of Jamhu d/v/'pu being 100,000 great ydjanas,'^- if y the 190tli part be taken, or 526 /g, we have the breadth oi' Bha- raln rarsha ^ which occupies the southern segment of the circle. Airdvala is a similar northern segment. A band (33648 yojanas wide) across the circle, with Sudarsa Mcru in the middle of it, is Videha varsha , divifled by Mcru (or by four peaks like elephant's teeth, al the four corners of that vast mountain) into east and west J'idrha. These three regions, Bharala^ Airdvala, and Vidclta, are inhabited by men who practice religious duties. They are denominated Carma- bhumi, and appear to be furnished with distinct sets of Tirlhaficaras, or saints entitled Jina. The intermediate regions north and south of Meru are bounded by four chains of mountains; and intersected by two others: in such a manner, that the ranges of mountains, and the intermediate vallies, increase in breadth progressively. Thus y Bimaval IS twice as broad as Bharala varsha (or 1052 jf); the valley y beyond it is double its breadth (2105 ,'\); the mountain Mahdhimaval V y is twice as much (4210 j^); its valley is again double (8421 /^) ; and y the mountain Nishaddha has twice that breadth (16842,2^). The val- lies between these mountains, and between similar ranges reckoned from Airdvala (viz. 'Sicliari, Pacini and N/'Ia) are inhabited by giants {I'ur/ala), and are denominated Bhar/ahhaini. From either extremity of the twMj ranges of mountains named Himaval and 'Sic'har/\ a pair of tusks project over the sea; each divided into seven countries denominated Aniara dwipas. There are consequently iifty-six such; which are called Cuhhdgabhihni, being tlie abode of evil doers. None of these regions sufl'er a periodical destruction, except Bharala and Airdvala, which arc depopulated, and again peopled at tlie close of tlie great periods before-mentioned. We come now to the iunnediate )»urposi->. for which these notions of the Jainas have been here explained. They conceive the setting * Each Qresitydjiinu contains 2000 cos. OBSEUVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS. 301 and rising of stars and planets to be caused by tbe mountain Su- 7ncni: and suppose three times tbe period of" a planet's appearance to be requisite for it to pass round Siimth'u , and return to the place whence it emerges. Accordingly they allot two suns, as many moons, and an equal number of each planet, star, and constellation to Jambit diripa , and imagine that those appear , on alternate days, south and north of Merit. Tbey similarly allot twice that number to the salt ocean; six times as many to hhdtuci d/ripa: 21 times as many, nr 42 of each, to the Cdlodadhi : awd "J'l oi' aich to Pushcara dtvipci. It is this notion, ajjplied to the earth which we inhabit, that iniv- SCAUA refutes. His ai-gument is thus explained by his commentators. 'The star close to tbe north pole, Avith those near it to the east and west, forms a constellation ligured by the Indian astronomers as a fish. In the beginning of the night (supposing the sun to be near Bharani or Musca) ; the fish's tail is towards the west; and bis head towards tbe east; but at tbe close of the night, the fish's tail, having made a half revolution, is towards 'the east, and his head towards the west; and since the sun, when rising and setting, is in a line with the fish's tail, there is but one sun ; not two.' Tliis exi)lanati(>n is given by ^vruxiswAUA and laoshmida'sa. But the Ydsund liluisluia reverses the fish, ])lacing his head towards the west at sun-set, when the sun is near Bliaraiii. XIII. On llic ouioiN and peculiar tenets of certain MUIIAMMEDAN SECTS. [From the Asiatic Researclies, vol. vii. p. 338 — 344. Calcutta 1801. 4to.] The Jh'ihrahs^ numerous in tbe provinces of the Indian peninsula, but found also in most of the great cities o{ Iliiuliisldn , are conspi- cuous by their peculiar customs ; such for example, as that of wear- ing at their orisons an a])propriate dress, which they daily wash with their own hands. Their disposition for trade to the exclusion of every other mode of livelihood, and to the government of their tribe by a hierarchy, are further peculiarities, which have rendered them an object of infj^uiry, as a singular sect. Researches made by myself, among others, were long unsuccess- ful. My informers confounded this tribe with the Ismd/Iiijalis , with tiie Ali ih'iliiyiilis ^ and even with the unchaste sect of i'Jtcrihjh-citsli. Concerning their origin the information received was equally erro- neous with that regarding their tenets. But at length a learned Nc/?///rt J referred me to the MrjdUsH^lmumhiim composed by kurullah of Shusler, a zealous S/u'ah, who sitfl'ered for his religious opinions in the reign of jeiiangiu. In the passage, which will be forthwith cited from that work , the Bohrahs are described by the author as natives of Ciijrdl, converted to the Miihammedan religion about three liundred years before his time, or five centuries ago. To that passage I shall subjoin extracts from the same work, containing an account of similar tribes, with some of which the I'n/ira/is may ]>erhaps have been sometimes confounded. Concern- ing the /i7//^////>/r/A.'^, for wliom they have been actually mistaken, it must be remembered, lliat these form a sect oi' S/iiiiJis , who take their distinctive appellation from Ismail, eldest son and nominated successor of Iindn Jdfcr, surnamed 'Sadik. They consider TsmdU ns the true heir of the hndnirt^ and do not acknowledge the legal suc- cession of his brother m\'s.\ and of the five last Tnidiiis. This sect flourished under the Egyptian dynasty of /rA^^/yi' founded by MU- iiAMMRD MAiiADi, who claimed descent from the Lndm ismail him- self. It was also conspicuous under a dynasty of princes of this OF CKRTAIN MUUAMMKDAN SECTS. 303 sect, the first of wlioin, iiasan sabaii founded a ])riiici})ality in Ira/:. * The sect may still exist in Syria; but it does not seem to be at pre- sent known in tlie Indian portions of Asia. The AU ildhiijults on the contrary, are become numerous in India. This sect is mentioned by tlie author of the Ijdbistan , as prevalent in his time, only at Uzbil^ or Azhdl^ in the mountainous tract near Klidtd. It now prevails, according to information which I have re- ceived in a part of the dominions of nawab-niza'mu'l-mulc. The singular tenets of this heretical sect are thus stated by moiisen fa'nI. '■^'Y'hd Ali-il('ihiija}is\w\i\ , tliat celestial sj)irits , wliich cannot other- wise be known to mankind, have frecjuently appeared in ])alpable shapes. God himself has been manifested in the human form, but especially in the person of ali murteza', whose image, being that of ALi IIM..V1I, or ALI God, these sectaries deem it lawful to wor- ship. They believe in the metempsychosis; and, like others who maintain tliat doctrine, abstain from Heshmeat. They imagine that ALI muhteza', when he quitted this earth, returned to the sun, which is the same with himself; and hence they call the sun alI ullaii. This sect does not admit the authenticity of the Koidn as it is now e.K.tant: some pretending that it is a forgery of auuijecu's , omar's and otiima'n's, others condemning it, simply because it was edited by the last mentioned Khalif. The members of this sect a])])enr to vary in regard to soiue points of doctrine; but the leading and uni- versal tenet oi' this sect is, that, in every age of the world, God is manifested in the persons of prophets and of saints; for instance, he was adam, and afterwards ahmkd and alI : and in like manner these sectaries believe; in the transmigration of God into the jiersons of the hnditis. Some of them ai'lirm , tliat the manil'estation oi" the divine being, in this age of the world, was ali ullaji ; and after him, his glorious j)0sterity : and they consider miiiiammeu as a pro- phet sent by ali itllaii. When God, say they, ])erceived muiiam- Mrj)'s insufliciency, he himseli' assumed the human form for the purpose of assisting the prophet."** It does not appear from any satisfactory information, that the Bd/i- rnhs agree with eitlnu- of these sects, in d(!ifying Ai.i , or in contest- ing the; legal successsion of the six last fiiiuins'. On llu; contrary, the tribe is acknowledged to consist of ortii()(U)X Sioni/'s, and of true Shid/is: but mostly of the last mentioned sect. These and other known circumstances corroborate the following account of that tribe, as given by NURULLAir of S/n'tslcr, in the work before; mentioned. * Sec tlic D/ff/isttin of Miillii Mohscn h'dni: and d'iikkhet.ot's lUtihnlht-que nricnlale. If tlio industrious lldhrnhs and tlic remorseless "assassins" linA, 213, 215. ADWAY.VNAXUA, 215. Afjdina, 270. Aymiuis, 9, 251, 206, 208. AUASTVA, 10, 14. AGUAMAKSUAXA, 17. Afj/tddn, 247, AUNT, autiior of part of llie J'njurveda, 4 1. Incuni.itioii of ACM, 145. Ajjnidlira, 1 19. >4y/ij pnrdna, 77. , .<4y«i rafi/tsi/fi, .35, 209. AtpHsliUma, 31, 44, 49, J 19. Altancdra, 153, 207. AJidiini, 282. AIXI)U.\i'A.\f, 90. Aindri, 117. Aisicariju, 207. AITAKKYA, 25. Ailurcija tirainjaca, 25, &C. -lUurcija bidltiHund, 11, 15, 19, &c. Ailnreyu ?ipanis/utd, 20, 55, 208. Aitiliiju, 259. AITISAYANA, 189. .-/>-, 223. AJATASATRU, 30, 38, 222. AJIGARTA, 10. AJITA, 21)1. Ajiva, 245. Aiocdcdsa, 248. Ali-ildldyalts, 302, 303. ALl'-MtltTEZA', 303. ALI-ULLAU, 303. ^//oi/f", 288. AMltAUISUA, 11. Ainljuslt'Vha, 272. AMI!.\.SHl''llYA, 21. Amli/ius, 20. AMUUINI, 10. AMUHUl.VA, 16. AMEKA SIMIA, 274. Ainfilavindu iipunisliud, 58. anala'nanda, 213. AiKttidn, 4(5, 258. ANANl)A<;iltI, 30. 58. AXAxnAJNY.vxA, 45, 49, 56. axanda.suama, 55. a'xaxdatiut'iia, 25, 49. Atuinddiuuijii, 217. axaxtatiktMia, 211. Anandavalli upanishnd, 59. Ancestors, ceremonies performed in their lionour, 1 13, Sm, Anildjd, 2.39. Amllivd, dialect, 201. AXGA, 11, 22. Align, 271, 297. 20 * 308 INDEX. ANGIR, 56. AXGiRAS, 10, 11, 18, 22,34,39,56, 71, 2U), 284. Aniructa (jiina, 48. Aniruddha, 267, 268. Anna, 2 10. Annamayn, 239. Anomalies of tlie dialect of the Vedua, 202. ANTACA, 90. Aniardyn, 247. Antnricslia, 209. Antarijdndn, 218. ^w«, 223. Amib/iava, 168, 183. Anucramiini, 10, 13. Anuganinna. 74. Amiwdna, 193. ANLMATI, 95, 121. Anurdd'tid, 126. Anush'Vlidna knrira, 155. Aniish'fhubh, 18. Anuvdcas of the 7??^ ijef/a, 8, of the White Vajur veda, 31 , of the Black I'ajur veda 43 , of the AChurvuna veda, 53. Anuvaha, 119. AnnaydrVha pracdsied. 214. ^p, 130, 239. Apdchyas, 20. Apade'sa, 185. Apdna, 27, 122. APANTARATAMAS, 209. APASTAMBA, 6, 61, 73, 90, 120, 200. Apaslamhiyas, 6. Apavarga, 258. Apratinnnr'hya nirudlia, 256. Apravrltti, 246. Apsarases, 71 . .i^;j<« vdcya, 193, .^p^?/«, 14, 20. Apiirva, 203. APYAYA Dl'cSHITA, 213, 216. Aranyn of tiie Rig veda , 25, of the Tailliriyn }'ajur-veda, 45. Aranijaca, 25. Fifth dranyacu, 190. Aranya-gdna, 48, 49. Archiea, 47. Archica gdna, 48. Ardha vahidsicu.i, 253. <4r^7(rt, 84, 103. Arghya, 130. ARHAT, 245, 251, &c. ^ /'/?«/, 290. Arhalas, 245, &c. Arluilas, 297. ARINDAMA, 25. ARJDNA, 43. ^77(tf', 49. ARRiAN , his account of the Indian sage-s, 285, 280. Arshaya hrdlimaj'ia, 48. Art'ha, 172. Arl'/idpnlti, 194. AvCliavdda, 193. ARUNA, 19, 30, 50, 52. ARUNDHATI, 70. Aruniya or Aruniyoga upanishad, 58. ARYAMAN, 46, 1 35, 139. Aryavarta, 298. Asddhu, 247. ASAMATI, 11. Asandival, 21. Asanga, 11. .4.9 r/i!, 17. Asclepias, juice of the acid, 14, 43, See Soma, Ash'taca, 43. Asioii, 85. As/es/ui, 54, 67. AiMARAT'HYA, 210, 220, 222. Asrama upanishad, 59. Asrava, 246. Aslicdyn, 248. Astronomical notions of the Jainas, 300. ^s/^ 29. A.suRi. 63, 89, 145, 164. Asmabdla, 202. As'wALA, 41, 57. AS'WAT,\YANA, 5, 16, 57, 61, 196. Asivaldyani sdc'hd, 8. Aswamedha, 31, 35, &c. 43, 75, 150, 241. Aswamedhya, 35. As'wAPATI, 50. ASWATARASWA, 50, 52. As>rina (month), 117, 121. Aswini, 67. AswiNi, 130, 134. As'wiNs, 14, 16, 32, 67. at'harvan, 2, 32, 34, 39, 56. ACharva ov Afharvai'ia veda, 2, 39, 47, 53, &c. At''harvnsiras npanis/iad, 57. Atheistical iV/«r'%«, 149, 159. Alirdlra, 45. Advdhica, 155. Almabddhn upanishad, 69. ;i/?«r/;?, 154, 219, 253, &c. 262. .5/7«ft upanishad, 58. I N D F. X. 309 Atoms, 153, 155, 176, 210, 223, 249, 257. ATKKYA, 0, ISO. ATKKYl, 210. Atrcyi sdv'hti, G, 4-1. ATRi, 10, 22, 9l3. ATYARATI, 23. Auc'/ii/tii/as, f). Auddrica, 282. AUDULOMi, 210, 222, 230. AIDUMBARA, 90. Aitpavianijavas, 6. Avucltalruca, 22. Avalui, 119. Avasaipini age 290, 295. Ava/dras, 20, of agni, 145. hereditary avaldia of gane.sa, 125. AVICSHIT, 22. Aoidyd, 2*15. Avyacta, 223. aya'sya, 40. Ayatana, 220. Ayin Acheri, 284. Aydgava, 274. Ayushca, 247. B. BABIIRU, 25. badarava.A, 281. Gop , 274. Gripa, 273, 274. Gdpajivt, 274. Goputa Idpaniya vpanishad , 07. Gopafha brdhiimna, 54, 55. Gopichandana vpanisliad , 09. GOTAMA, 52, 74, 143, 165, &c. 226. Giitras, 70. Golrica, 247. GOVKKUHANA MI.SKA , 106. GOVINUA, 214. GOVINDA HIIATTA, 100. noVlNUANANDA, 213. gcWindanat'ha , 03. Grifmngrya gdna , 47, 48. Gviivastala , 84. Great Soul, 13, 314 INDEX. Griluj(c, 71. (ji ilujd (fviint'ha^ 200. (jrishnia , 127. Gurr.sAMADA , 10. Gue.st, solemn reception of , 128, &c. Gujjara Jhiiliinonas , 271. Guna, 157 , 2(')."{. GUNAvisiiNi; , !)2, 134, 138. Gupta, a common termination of pro- per names, 278. GUKU, 190. Gymnosophislfie, 287, &c. H. Hansa upanishnd , 59. Hdrda vidyd, 209. nARinARA, 192. IIAKIXAIGUMKSHI, 294. HARITA , 73. HASAN SABAH, 303. HdHla, 126. Haslindpura , 295. hastipa'la, 295. hayageiva, 50. Ndzdrehs, 305. HELAYUDHA, 92, 138. nKMAC'HANDRA , 289. //cmanta , 127. Heretical systems of Hindu 2)hiloso- phy , 143. Betu, 185,254. Ilelwiiljfidsa , 1 80. niKKocLKs , 287 , 288. Himavat, 20. //i/i(^/2' language : parts of the Vedas translated into it, 1. niKANYAGARBnA , 29, 221, 236. hikanyanabha , 6. hiran'yastuya , 10. Hohicdav /a;// festival, 140, 200. Ilima, 31, 203. Hospitality , 129. Holrh 83, 119. HUHU, 90. Hyhhii, 288. Iddvalsara, 33. Jdunlvntsnra, 33. Ijas, 127. Imdn JAFKR , 302 , 305. Immolation of victims , 68, 151. Al- legorical immolation of ukamm.v, 17, 31, 35, 104, 105. Incarnations. See Avatdra. iKDRA , 13, 20, &c., derivation of the name, 28. Fourteen ixdras, 71. Realm of indra, 236. ini)1{Ai>yiimna , 50,51. IMHiAl'ltAMATI ,4, 5. Tiidras, many admitted by the Jainas, 294. Inference, three kinds of, 151, 152. Intellect, obstructions of, 156. liiddhydya , 34. isdvdxya, 34 , 55 , 208. isliti, 203. LsAVARA, 145, 154, 159, 245, 262. is'wARA CRISHNA, 03, 148, 213. Isirara gild , 227. See Bhagavad yitd. I.vvara prasdda , 241. Itihdsa, 2,3, 39, 57. JABALA, 19. JdhdUis, 6. ddhdia upanishad , 59. Jagati metre, 18. JAHXIT , 85. JAIGISHAVYA, 152. jATMiNi, 4,6, 143, &c. ; 189, 219, 231, 236. Jaina sect, 144, 211 , 243, &c. Jainas, 280 , &c. Jaldca, 285. Jalpa, 186. .lAMADAGNI , 10. Jamhii Divipa, 271. J ANA, 50, 51. JANACA, 25, 40, 42, 222. JANAMEJAYA, 19, 21, 25, 43. janantapa , 23. .tanas'riti , 50. Jangama , 245. Jard, 251. Jdtd copies of the l(ig and Yajur veda , 9. Jii'lddlidris , 2(5 1 . Jiili , 1 82 , ] 87 , 255. Jdlh7idld,210, 271. .TATUCARXA , 90. JixA, 243, &c.; 251 , &c. Jinas, 290, &c. diva, 245, 253, 262 , 267, 282. diuaja , 239. .ll'vALA , 50. divan 7/atcti , 237, 211. Jivdsticdya, 248. I N I) K X. 315 Jivdlmdn, 109, 2()9, Jii/icii/u, 85. Jiti/iiiia , 2(57. Jtiijiinu varaiiiifa, 247. Jnytiiui ydgii , 208. MUV, 16. Jupiter, the planet, 18, OiJ. Ji/rs/iV/ni , 120. Jjjijtish , 31 , 05. Ji/olish'toma , 35, 13. LABirCAYANA, 189. I .acshdna , 107. LAcsiiMi. pi;iyei- to, 112. LACSHM11>-\'.SA . 298, 391. I.ACSllMI N.v'uAYAXA, 97, 121. Jjnqhu (U'nicf! , 45. Lfifita puricua, loo. i.a'i',\ya.\a ,01. Lil)eration of the soul, 155, 237, 241, 240. MC'lIITA, 200. T.ight , iiivokorl , 79, &e. Lhijja, 124, 155. Lingasariva, 155, 239, 209. Li/it/is, 124. Lticti , 2 18. LiicucdS'i , 248. LOCACSIII , 0, 90. Lncdyiitd school, 298. Li'ic(iiii':va , (58. MulidlilttUa , 252. Malidlayd 1 117. Muhdndvdguiui upanisltad , 45. Mitliiirdsli'tvti lirdhinanus y 271. MAIl.Vs'.VI.A, 219. Afa/idsuiga, 152. Mahat, 153,223, 202, 260. Md/tcsiiaras\ 210, 241, 201, &c. MAIIID.VSA, 2(5. iiAiiiiniAUA, 31 , 34 , 60. Md/us/i//a,'21^. Maifhda or MiCMla Brdhmanas, 271, 278. MAITKA , 47.^ Mailrdvaru/ia , 83 , 11 9. maitka'yani, 90. I\liu(rdi/ani sdclid , 40. Mailrdi/ani upanishad, 40. Miiilrdijaniyas, 0. MAITKKYA, 25. ]fiii(rc>/a npnnishad, 154. MAiTiuivf, 39, 40,42,222. Mdldcdra , 273. .]/,///', 273. .MAM ATA, 22. Mananti , 203. .!/«««.«,• 153, 171, 172, 209. Maiilbdns of the liigvcda sanhitd , 8. M.V.NiniATIU , 1 1 • Maiuliica or Mdnlliicya upaidshad, 2, 55, 57. MANUUCKYA, 5. Mdmhandlia tril)e , 272, 274. Miiniviira, 272. Manilas, 7,8,30, 31, 196. Mmitra sdstra , 9. MANi;, see mknt- Manilla , 255. MAKUIII , 10, IS. Marriage ccreuiouies, 128 — 142. Marud> . PA 1 1. A , 4 I'ain, three sorts of, 150, 151. I'aippaliidisdc'lid , 7, 50. J'ala. (iO. r>,ldsa,HO, 107, 203. Pali, 204. Palyas . 200. Panclidyinvidyd pracarana , 209. PancUa panchnjanuh , 224. Panchdla, 20, 23, 40. Pdnchardlraa, 211, 244, 200, &c. pA.vciiAs'ic'iiA, 03, 145, 104, 224. Panc/iavinsa hrdlimana , 49. PAXixi , 0, 10, 13. Panjicd, 10, 40. Pdpdpuri, 205. Purdjayalietu, 187. Paramuliansa , 298. Paramahansa iipanishad, 59. Parniudnn , 223. /'dramdrltata, 297. Piiramdrf/dri, 240. Piiramdlmd , 100. Paramdtma vidyd . 209. Paramexh'Vii, 13, 17, 21 , 32. r.vR.vsAKA, 00, 120. 192, 209. PARASARVA, 40, 90. Ptira.iica lang^uage, 201. Painsrcyaa ,260. PARAs'u , 11. parasu rama , 70. parchas'ic'ha, 89. Paricshd , 107. PAKICSUIT, 19, 21. Paridevand , 255. Pavimala, 213, 210. Parivaha, 119. Parivatsara , 33. Parnutaja ,71. part'ha sarat'hi mis'ra, 191. Parush'ti, >i5. parvata ,21. Paryanca vidyd, 209. /^«W«, 262. /W«, 203, 202. Pdsiipatas, 144, 211 , 244, 261 , &c. PASUPATI. 261. Pasupati td.ilra . 262. Pd'tulipulra , 235. Pdtanjala bhdshya . 148. PATANJALI, 145, &c. 159, 232. Palaiijali siitra vrUti , 149. pat'hva, 7. Pa'tta.mtra cdsa , 275. Pallicdra, 273. Paiirdnicas , 259. Pduriinica sd»c'/iya , 140. Paurus/ia, 110. Patisha, 117. PAUSHVIN.II , 6. PArriM.vsni , 42. paittima'siiya, 40. Pdu'dpiiri, 295. I'erception, 151. 318 INDEX. Persian translation of tlie upanisJiads, 284. Persians, their ancient religion, 285, 280. P'hala, 184. F'/iiil(jiina , 126. Philosophy, Hindu systems of , 227, &c. philostkatus , 287, 288. Pica, 201. PU AVANA , 22. J^ilu, 201. Pirtcla, 73.' Piricldcara , 08. Pii'ila upcndsltad , 58. PIPl'ALADA, 7, 57. Pisticluis, .174. PiU'mldd, 83. Pitris, 114,230. Pili'i iHcdha , 32, 43. J^Ufi pacslia ,117. Planets , sacritice to the , 95. PLAYOGA, 11. PLiNv, 287. poupnYRirs, 287, 288. P(Hrt,ji\, 119. PRABUACARA , 190. Prdbhdcaras , 194. Pracarnnas , 105. PRACilKTAS, 72, 129. prachi'nasala, 50. prachi'nayoga, 51. Prdchjias , 20. Prdcrit, 294. PracriU, 153, 108, 210, 223, 202, 265.^ Pradt's avnUra ,219. Pradhdna, 210, 228, 204. Pradijiunna , 207. Frdjjabhdva , 183. pra.ianat'iia, 06. PRAjAPATi, 13, &c. 29, &c. 44. Abode of praja'pati , 236. Prdjdpatya sacrifice , 73. Pramd, 183. Pramdha , 108, 193. J'ranu'ya, 108. Pramnnc , 280. l\dTia, 122, 217, 228. J'ri!iid', 20. Viiijdca, 275. />'(■//« mdrtanda, 149. lidjirputra , 272. INDEX. 319 Rajas , 157. /{lija.siti/a, 31 , 35, 4Ji. Jiiijii vdrtica , 1-lS. KAMA, 07, 08, 284. Worahipiicrs of KAMA, 124. KAMACltTsilNA , 145, 147. UAMACldsU.NA UILSIUTA, 215. UAMALINUACUITI , lUO. KAMA MoiiK.N KAYA (Kivmiuohiin Roy), 212. KAM.VNUJA, 214, 201 , 207 , 28'.). litinuinujas ^ 124. lidina tdpaiiiija i/panishad , 59, 67. RAMA tikt'iia, 214, 2l5. KANA KANGA MALLA , 14'J. liiiiiiiiiariijjas , 7, 2u9. ranganat'iia, 214, 210. RANGAU.\JA UlCSlilTA, 210. Ruumaca language, 201. Kegions of the world .sacred tu the J«(/w.v,2'.».S,2'.»U. Rehesija, 55. /fK//,4,53, 101. 197. Kice, iLsed at the nuptial ceremonies, 135. Ruj vcdu, 4, S, &c. 107, &e. Passa^ge on the burning of \vido\v.s, 71,72,73. KISUAltllA, 291. Rls/d of a tiiantra, 9, &c. 32, 43, 48. Rituals, 200. RlTLiVlL), 25. Rivers, holy, 85. ROUIDASWA, 12. Iti'iMASA ,11. Kuilimental creation, 155. RLi.KA, 15, 10, 87, 137, &c. Ki dk.Cni, 112. Rudras, 10,20, 44, 131. Riidra ijdinala lantia, 270. Rupa, 255. Riipa scandha , 253. S. 'Sahara bhdshya, 190. fcAIlAKA SWAMI, 190. 'Suhda, 191. 'Sdhda, 259. 'Sdca , 271. 'Sdca divipa , 27 1. SACALYA, 5 , 41 , 90. 'Sdcali/a site lid, 8. SACAPIUNI , 5. S ACAYANA , 47. 'Sdc'hds of tlie J'rdas , I, &c. Sac'hcra, 272. Sdrfn'i/una , 23. Sacraments, live great, 92, &c. Ist. Study of the Frda, 88, &c. Sacrifice to the Deities, 92, 3d. Sacrifice to the Manes, 97, 4th. Sacrifice to the Spirits, &c. 5tli. Hosi>itality, 129, &c. 'Sdctas , 08 , 123 , &c. 'Savd, 123, 107, 207. ^.(cvA, 190,251. 'Sdcyasinlia , 285. SAU.VNANUA , 215. Sddltana , 240. Sddliit, 247. Sadluja, 105, 240. Sdd/iijtis , 20. 'Sudikhjahs , 305. Sddiisi/a , 107. Sudijiicliinuctdvali , 160. sACAu.v, 224. SAHAUEVA , 25. Sa/tas , 127. Sahu^ii/a , 1 27. SulKitaja ,71. ■Sawas,m, 123, &c. 284. 'Siilii/jrdma , 97. Suiiidd/d, 74, 148. Siimayus , 0. Sdiiiun, 4, 47 , 197. Saindna , 122. SamatKi'uns , 287. Sd/uiiiii/a, 182. SAMASUAVAS ,41. Samavdyu , 109, 182. Sdinn vcda, 47, &c. Sdmuvcdiyii priests, 47. Sdinhu pitrdha, 78. Samhand/ia, 168. Sdinbhuvi, 259. Saiiicl sic'hara, 294. 'Sami, 101, 107. 137. Samprusddii , 221, SaiindJ , sdinrdji/a, 20. Samvd/iu , 1 19. Saiiivnyd , 240. Suvwavjja vidi/d, 209. samvauta , 22. Samvatsara , 33, .55. Sumijarpravr'illi, 2 10. !^ANACA,80,89. sanand.\na , 89. sa.nasrita, 25. san at an a, 89. sanatcilmaka, 3, 50. Sanrafpa, 71 , &c. VIZ. 2d. &c. &c. 120, \ 320 INDEX. SANCARA , 20 , 34 , 30 , 45 , 40 , 53 , 55, ^ 57, 63, 123, J90, &c. 212, &c. . SANCAHA ACHARYA, 280. s'anCARA MISRA , 104. 'S/nieara vijeija, 03. 'Sancai'shana , 207 , 208. s'anc'ha , 200. 'Sanc'/iaciira , 272. 'Sane' ha daraca, 272. Sand)yd, 144. 'Sanc/uja, 282, 297. Sdnc'liija, system of philosophy, 143, &c. Sdnc'hya bhdshya, 147. SdncUii/a cdricd, 145. Sdnc'lnja cftumudi , 147- Sdnc' Ill/a cha/idrird, 147. Sdnc'liyn pravachana., 140, 148. Sdnc'hya sdra , 140, 214. Sdnc'hya talwa caiamuU , 147. s.\n"c'hyayana, 5,01. SnncsJicpa sdriraca , 215. Sandhyd , 240. SANDILA, 277. s'andilva , 260. 'SdnclUya vidyd , 200. SANGAMA, 192. Sangraha, 148, 101. SaiKjrithani ratna, 290. S(/)Uded, 4,7, of the /{7g vi-da , 8, &c. Of the White Fajur veda, 31. Of the Black FaJur veda , 43 , &c. Of the Sdma veda , 49. Of the AChar- vana veda, 53, 55. SANJivi , 42. Sanjnyd scandha , 254. Sunmaidica Brdhnianaa . 278. Sannyiisa upunisJiud , 58. Sannydsi , 72. Sannydsia , 287. iSansaya, 184. Satiscdra , 181, 255. Sanscdras , 280. Sunacdra scandha, 254. Sanydya, 100. Siipii'idaiia, 115. Sapla chilica ,110. 'Sdrada, 127. Sdraswata Brdltmanas , 271 , 277. 'Siirasicala nation and language, 294 SAuAswATi, 85, 95, 137. Sdrayu , 08. SAKCARACSnYA, 50, 51. SARJA , 25. 'Sdriia, 218. 'Sdriraca bhdshya vibhdga, 213. 'Sdriraca mimdnsd bhdshya^ 213. 'Sdriraca vnmdnsd siitras , 200 , &c. 'Sdrira siitra sdrdrfha chandricd , 214. SARVA.INYATMA GIKI, 214. SuTvajnyatwa , 203. Sarvamedha . 32. Sarva vaindsicas , 25.3. Sarvdpanishalsdra , 50. SARYATA, 21. 'Sdslra, 104, 251. 'Sdsli^a dipicd , 190. 191. 'Sdslra siddhdnta lesa sangraha, 216. SAs'wATI , 11. .SV//, 17. 'Saladric, 85. SATANICA, 21. SalapaCha brdhmai'ia, 34, 36, 01. SATARU'PA, 38. Sati, 72, &c. SATRAJIT, 21. 'Satrunjaya , 295. Saturn, the planet, 90. Saltwa , 157. ScUwals , 20. SATl-ACAMA, 19 , 57, 218. SATYAHAVYA , 23. SATYAVAHA, 50. Saiya vidyd, 209. SATY'AY'A JNY'A , 50 , 51. Saugaias, 251, 207. SAUNACA, 7, 10, 20, 56, 219. 'Saunaciya s'dc''hd, 50. Sauras, 123, 125. saurayanayya, 40. saurya'yani , 57. Sautrdmani , 31 , 35. Sau/rdnticas, 252, &c. SAVKRNA, 277. Savilr?, 15, 18, 137, 139. SAVITRI, 15. SAVYA, 10. sayana'charya , 8. 15, 19, 20, 44, 48, 49, 55, 102. See ma'dhava a'charya. Scanda upanishad, CO, Scandhas , 253, &c. Seasons, six, 126. Sectaries, Indian, 243, &c. Self-immolation, 205. 'Serman, 278. sesiianaga, 05. Sesicara stincViya, 140. Seven steps, 138. Slididdyalana , 255. Shddmdn , 300. Shndvinsa , 40. Shidhs, 302, 303. . INDEX. 321 Shodasa cala vidyd, 209. Siddhdnla, 185, 102. Siddluinta calpataru , 21U. Silk. 275. Siinan , 2S. SINDHUDWi'pA, 11. 'Sixira, 120, 127. si't.v, 124. SIVA, 124, 261. 'Sivnbluigavatas , 201 . 'Sivdyama , 202. SI VI, 11, 23, 57. 'Sldca vdrlica, 101. Smarai'ia. 183. Smriti, 103, 100, 224, 230. Sndva ,41. 'Soca , 255. S0LINU8, 287. Soma, 14, 150. 203. SOMA, 10,44,06, 114,120, 133, 137. SOMACA . 25. s'oman.^t'iia, 101. somasushman ,21. Sommonacodom , 283. Soul, 20, 154, 102, 108, 226, 238, 200, 201, 282. Sound, its perjietuity , 185, 105. Sources of knowledge, 151, 108, 104, 211. Spars a, 255. Sp'hdta. 105. 'Sruddhd, 241. 'Srdddlta, 73, 102, 103, 113, 117. Srauuinu. 283, 287. 'Sravacas , 282. Sravana, 2()3. Srdvai'ia, 00. 'Siauisli't'ltd , 66. Sreyas , 258. 'Sruli, 100. SRIHEUSHA, 277. Srival.sa, 202. STEriIANl'.S HYZANTINUS, 287. Sl'hdvara, 245. SChilisl'hdvaca, 181. 5/7(«//; V«»7;7/ , 230 . 200. sTRAiio, his account oflndian classes, 2S(). Suhddldni, 214, 215. Substances , nine, of the Nydya sys- tem, ITvJ. Subtile tr.iine, investing the soul, 155, 230 , 200. s'ccA , 03 , 01). SUCARMAN. 0. suc^S'A, 57. Suc'/ta , 258. 'Sue/a, 127. SucTa, 127. Sucshmusarivu, 155, 230,260. Sit via , 8 , 53. 'Siiclahatas , 207. Sucldmharas , 208. SL'DACSHIXA, 00. suDAS . 22 , 25. sudd'ha ganapati, 125. sudhanwa, 190. 'Sudliaa'rdtriyu Bri'thmanas , 277. 'Sudras ,271. SLGAT.V, 251. Siigata , 200. SUMANTU, 4 , 6, 7. s'lMBIIADKSA , 271, Sl'MERU , 175. Sun, 15,82, 83. SUXACA, 56. sunasep'ha, 10. Sundari liipu/ii, 60. Suiiuis , 303 , 304, Siinya, 223. suR.umf. 121, 120. suues'wauaciia'uya , 36. sl'rya, 15. SLSH adman, 25. SUSHAMAN, 11. Sushmana , 136. S-'USHMIXA , 23. Susfiwmia, 06, 234. SUTA, 4. Suta, 273. Sutras of buddhami xi, 251. of c.\-\a'ue, 105, &c. of ija'daraya.va , 200, 211. of gutama, 105, &c. of jaimini, 180 , &c. of panchasic'ha , 147. ofpATANJALI, 148, 140. of vriuaspati , 200. auTWAN, 25. SrVRATA, 06. Swad/id, 17, 103. 112. SWAHA. 103, 112. SWANAYA, 11. Stoar, 33, 200. Swardj , 2(1. Swarya, 20. Swastica , 202. Swdtanlryn , 241. Swdti, 120. SWAVAMRHi: hkaiime , 32. S\VAVAMI'UACA.S.\XAN'11A SAR.VSWAT1.2 16. Sioernagrdma , 271- 21 322 INDEX. SWKTACETU , 30, 50. Sn-eldmharas , 245. •MVETASWATAK.V, 47. 'Sire(tis ii'ulara s lic'/ui , (3, 47. 'Sivi-ldsuHitara upanishad, 47, 208. Sy auras, 282. Syena i/a'ga, 204. Syllogism, 185, 211. T. Tad, n. Taijasa arira, 282. Tailanga Brdhinanas , 271. Tallica, 273. Taitlirinacas , 6, 200. Taittiriya tdc'Iiti, 200. Taitlirii/a sarddtd. 20. Taittiriya Jipaidsltad , 3 , 5 , 45 , 55, 208. Taittiriya Yajur veda, 18, 24, 36, 44, 59, 127. Talavacdras , 7 , 53. Tamarasa, 201. Tamas, 17, 157. Tdmbida ,72. Tmnhidi, 273. Tdiiiradita , 272. Tdiidya hrdhmana, 49. Tanlica, 273. Tanmdtra , 153, 238. Tanmdtrasarga , 155. r««^«, 272. Tantras, 9, 36, 68, 125,224,266, 270, 275. Tantravdya, 272, 273, 274. Tdpaniyas , 6. Tdpuniya upaidshad , 2. T«/>rtA-, 44, 246. Amonth, 66, 126,127. Tapasya, 126, 127, &c. Tarca, 186. Tarcdblidsa , lli6. Tarcabhdshd , 166. Tarcabhdshd pracds a , 1 66. Tarcabhdshd sura mavjari, 166. Tarpana, 72. yV/Cu'rt, 184, 263. Tatwa caiimudi , 147. Tatwa samdsa , 1 4() , &C. Tativa vindu, 213. rrjas, 157, 239, 267. Tcjdvindu iipanis/tad, 58. T'hdcusa, 279. Theistical Sdnc'kya, 149. T//a, 70. Time, 175, 248, 249. Tirabhucli (Tirhiit), 235. TIRINDIRA, 11. Tirt'liancara , 294. TITTIKI, 6. Tirvdre , 3. Tddala tantra , 270. Traipiiriya vpanishad , 69. Transmigrations of the soul, 229. TRASADASYU, 10. TEAYYARUNA , 10. Triad of gods, 78, 153. Tricdnda mandana, 127. Ty^cA, 197. Tripura upainshad, 69. Tripuri upanishad , 69. Trish'tidilt (metre), 18. TRITA, 14. Trivi'di, 3. rnyri!7,202. TURA, 21 , 42. Turiishcas , 273- TWASHTRI, 16. u. uc'ha , 6. uchch'hishta ganapati , 125. Uct'hya , 45. Uddharana , 185. UDAMAYA, 22. ^rfa«a, 122. UDAYANA ACHARYA , 166, 179. Udbhid, 204. Udbhijja , 239. UDD^LACA, 19, 30, 50, &c. 218. Uddesa , 167. Udgdlrt, 83. Udumbara . 205. Udvaha, 119. Ugdna, 49. ^(/ra , 273. UGRASENA, 21. ^7/fl^«w«, 48, 49. L'hyagdna , 49. i^^'«s , 127. UJjinta, 293. UPAgoSALA, 218. Upacosala vidyd . 209. Updddna, 255, 265. Upadi'sa sahasri, 214. Upddhi, 182. Upahdra, 263. Upamdna, 193. UPAMANYU , 50 Upanaya, 185. Upanishad,!, 2b, ^0, 55, 154, 208, &c. INDEX. ;i23 fPAVAKSHA, 212. L'nlimli, 18. L&ic. 11. LSINAKA, 11 , 20. i'tcalu linihmaniis , 271. Utsariiini a{,'o, 290. illara , 192. i' tiara cunt, 20, 23. UUara granl'ha, 197. VUura wadra , 20. i'ltaru j/hdhiuni , 120. illara Uipanii/a, 58. i'Uura valli, 58. UVATA ,31, 60. VACH, 10. VACHACRU, 41. V.VCHACLTI , 90. VACHESPATi, 145, 147, 100, 213. VACPATI, 00. Fiida, 180. Vaibluinhicus , 252, &c. Faicdrica, 282. VAIDAKBHI , 57. Faidc/ta, 274. Vaidicas, '111. ruidi/a, 272. VAUAVAPI, 90. Vaiiiavu, 98. Faisdc'/ia, 72, 126, &c. vai^a.mi'.(yana, 4, 5. Faiscshica, 143, 144. 105, &c. Faise'shica, school, 297. Vainhnavas, 68, 123, 284. Faisirudiva sacrifice, 72, 118. Faisirdnara, 219. Fuiswdnuru vidyd, 209. Vuisyas , 271. Vai.sya class among the Jahias , 283. Vailaraiii, 111. Vailarani dhenu. 111. Vuiydcarniia bliiishana , 106. VAIVASWATA, 90. Fdjapiya , 31 , 35 , 43 , 206. Fdjaratua ,21. Fajasaneya sanhild upanishad, 34. Fdjaxaiicyi J'ajiir vrda , 5, 10, 31, &c. 42', &c. 20(1, 207. Fdjasam'yi hrdltiuana upanishad , 36. Fdjasaiwyin.s , 209. vajaJkavasa , 68. Fdjhis, 0. 42, 209. Fujrasiichi itpaninkud , 09. Faldca, 225. VALLAHHA ACHARYA , 123. ^^r//// itpanisltad , 58. V.VMADEVA, 10, 29, 32. Fdiitadivya hymn, 140. Fdinadi-vya vidyd, 209. Fardliu, 98, 201. Fardha uvatdra . 44. Fdrdlia calpa , 44. Fardjivi, 272. Fdrdnasi (Benares), 235. VARDHAM.VXA, 294. Vdrcndra . n. 27: Farya , see Darya. Fdrhaspalya scliool, 298. Farsha, 127. Fdrlica, 100, 190. Fdrlica tdparya parisuddhi, 106. Fdrlica Idtparyu tied, 100. VAKU .11. VARUNA. 15, 10, 18, 32, 33, 45, 85, 131, 134, 137,235. Fdrui'd upanishad^ 45, 59. Fflsfl, 20. Fdsandhhdslnja, 298, 301. Fasanla, 120, 127. vAsisHT'iiA, 10, 14, &c. 22, &c. 32, 121, 129. VASUDKVA , 200. Fdsudcvas , 297. VASUMANAS, 11, 12. Fasus, 10. 44, 131. VATSA, 277. Fedas, 1, &c. Consisting of parts written at various times, 04, 297, l'.t8. Peculiarities of Dialect. 202. Portions liable to the suspicion of modern origin, 07, 190. Genuine- ness and antiquity of the Fedas generally. 59, &c. Four Fcdas &[- luded to in some ipanisliads , 39, 57. The Fcdas maintained to be primeval, 190, 223. Prayers on be- ginning a lecture of the several /^e- das,HH, 118. A'tV/fl.v, their antiquity, 284. 285, 289. The Fcdas reject- ed by the /iauddlias and Jainas, 281. Fcdadipa , 10 , 31 , 34. VKDAGARVA, 277. VKIiAMlTRA, 5. / 'cdand scaiullia , 254. Fcdanii/a , 247. Fcddnla, 00, 143, 208, 237, &c. 281, 284. Fcddnla calpa laticd , 210. Fcddnla calpaluru , 213. Veddnta calpataru manjari^ 213. 21* 324 I N D K X. Vc(hinta calpatarii jjcirimala, 213. f^eildnta paribhcishd , 215, Veddnla sdra , 56, 215. Vediiiitu sic hdmaiii. 104, 215. Veddnla siddhdnta vuit/ii , 210, Veddnta siitras , 203. Veddnta siitra murldvnli, 214. Veddnta siitra vijdc'lnjd chandrird, 214, , VKDAVVASA, See VYASA. Vega, 181. Vegdna, 49. Vencatddri , 191. Vencatagiri, 191. VeiiiKs, tlie planet, 96. Vermaii, 278. VIBHINDU ,11. Vibhuti, 148. vidagd'ha, 41. vidahbha, 25. F/VAV;«s,40. Vidi'ha mitcti, 237. vid'hatri , 120, FW//i,202,203, Vidriti, 28. Vidwan mano ranjini, 215. Vidydnagara, 192. vidyanat'ha bhatta, 213. viDYARANYA, 30, 37, 46 , 47 , 58. Vigdna drnd, 49. Vijeya vihisa , 4 , 10. r'ijm/dna, 252, 2.J5 , 263. VIJNYANA BHICSHir, 144, 145, 146, 148. Vijni/dna maya, 238. Vijnydna scandlta. 254. VI.JNY ANA YOGI, Or VIJNYANESWARA, 62. Viprd , 74. Viruj, 20, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 104. Virdti (metre), 18. VIROCHANA, 22. Viri/a , 267. Visdc'hd, 120. VI SAL A, 26. Vhiesha, 182. Vishaya, 184. VISHNU. 46, 137. No trace of the worsliip of his incarnation in the Vedas, 68. His tliree strides, 85, 94. VISHNU, his nine foes, 297, Vishnu purdit ri , 4 , 5, 63, 83, 149. VISWACARMAN, 21. Viswadrvas, 10, 20, 113. &c. P'isirajit , 204. visjw.vMiTRA. 10, 14, 32, &c. 197. vis'wana't'ha, 166, vi .swan tar a ,25. VISWESWARANANDA, 216- Vitastd , 85. Vivdddrnuva setu. 270. / 'iv a s a nas, 245. Vivaswat, 32. Vivaha, 119. VOPADEVA , 123. Vrata, 203. Vriddhi srddd'ha ,117, Vinliad drai'njuca , 5, 16. 30, 35 — 43, 55,61, 208, &c„ 231, 281. Vrlhad dhamna purdna, 03, 270. vrihadrat'ha, 47. vrihaduct'ha, 23. vrihangir, 10, VrVuin ndrdyana upanishad, 45, 59, VRiHASPATi, 11, 18, 32, 40, 74, 96, 134, P'riftati (metre), 18. Vi'lhat j)ardsara , 66. Vi^isha, 120, 127. VRISHABHA, 291. VRITRA. 13. vritraghna, 23. vtItrahan , 1 3, VrHti,2\2, 240. Vrlliicdra, 189. VUDILA. 50 , 52. VYAGHRAPAD, 52. T'l/dhrttis, 12, 19. J^ijdna, 122. VYASA, 1 , 10, 40, 63, 74. 143, &c. VYAS.iSRAMA, 213. Vydsasittra vutii, 214. VYASA ti'rt'ha, 49. Vyatipdta, 117. T'ydvaJidrici , 240. W. Waters, prayers to them, 77, iS5, 80. White J'ajiir veda, 5, 6, 31, &c. Widow, 70, &c. Worlds, seven, 80. I'dya, 203, YAJNYA , 17. I'ajnya , 4 , 31 , 35, 54, 68. YA.IXYADEVA , 35. }'(ijnyalantra sudhdnidhi, 48. Y.\.INYAWALCYA, 5, 32. 36, 39, &c. 62 , 78. &c. }'ajnr veda , 2, 5, 31 , &c. yiijush, 5, 31, 197, 198, INDEX. 325 YAMA, 16, 58. 00, 135, 137, '241. YAMt NA . lb. }'amuiui, .'.J, 85, 98. YASCA, 5, t). Fali, 72. Vatis, 282. yatna, 181. y'ava. 111. J'dvdJiu language, 201. J'livuruis, 275. Year, 33, 05. J'fitju, 143, &c. 262,2(33. I'lUjiichdras , 2.32. }V,'oV/a tatlwa upanisluid, 58. F>i(ja vdrlica , 146, 148,214 f^r/'^rt vasislt'Vliu , 200. FtUja y'ikji , 158 J'djaiia, 300. / ojarui, .nni. y'dni