THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 IN MEMORY OF 
 MRS. VIRGINIA B. SPORER

 
 AN INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 METHODS AND MATERIALS OF 
 LITERARY CRITICISM 
 
 THE BASES IN 
 AESTHETICS AND POETICS 
 
 CHARLES MILLS GAYLEY, A.B. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THI 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 FRED NEWTON SCOTT, PH.D. 
 
 JUNIOR PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
 
 1899
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY 
 CHARLES MILLS GAYLEY AND FRED NEWTON SCOTT 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESEKVEP
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE temper and conditions of the age encourage the critical 
 habit. Literature is no longer the affair of patron or coterie, 
 but of the public. The public reads for itself and estimates. 
 It is not the scholar alone but the artisan who judges the 
 latest novel, satire, or barrack-room ballad. He weighs, com- 
 pares, and pronounces judgment. And from the multitude of 
 men that are critics unto themselves, and out of the confusion 
 of conflicting opinions, arises the demand for system and 
 principle. 
 
 What obtains for the disinterested reader obtains a fortiori 
 for those who attempt to express public opinion or to form the 
 taste of others. The reviewer, the student and the teacher of 
 literature, the investigator of literary history or of literary the- 
 ory, all who make of criticism a discipline, an aim, or a trade, 
 are interested in whatever tends to simplify the inquiry. 
 
 What the inquirer wants is guidance, not dogmatic formula- 
 tion of principles, but systematic presentation of the problems 
 that must be solved and of the information available for the 
 process. For literary criticism has not yet reached the scien- 
 tific, still" less the ' cocksure ' period of its development. Its 
 present consciousness is dynamic, and its condition transi- 
 tional. It has outgrown the stage of unquestioning acquies- 
 cence in tradition, authority, personal bias or prejudice. But 
 it is not yet fully alive to its possibilities, scope, or aim, not 
 organized. An appreciative curiosity characterizes the study
 
 iv PREFACE. 
 
 to-day; but this confines itself to a few insistent problems, 
 as if unaware of their relativity ; and it is vague concerning the 
 processes and materials contributory to the inquiry. 
 
 Now this book does not advocate or advance a method, nor 
 does it aim to supply the material necessary for exhaustive 
 investigation of any one department of literary criticism. It 
 seeks to place before those interested a conspectus of the 
 problems to be solved, a review of the methods suggested for 
 their solution, an indication of the materials available with 
 reference to their sources and frequently to their quality. 
 
 Such an attempt should be justified in the opinion of those 
 who are unconsciously, as well as of those who are consciously, 
 interested in criticism. For the direct purpose of the study is 
 not to train literary analysts, but rational lovers of literature. 
 And to be a rational lover demands effort ; for while the process' 
 of literary enjoyment, like that of literary creation, may appear 
 to be unforced and natural, there are degrees of enjoyment, 
 the highest of which is criticism; as there are of creation, the 
 highest of which is art. Each of these processes has its reason 
 for existence and its law of development. But the principles 
 which find expression in enjoyment, and ultimately in criticism, 
 have their root in those that underlie the processes of creation. 
 A study of the canons of literary judgment becomes a study of 
 the principles of literature. It is for this reason that lovers of 
 the art are bidden to what may look like a barmecide feast 
 of methods and materials. 
 
 But as the principles of literary judgment are akin to all 
 aesthetic principles, are, in fact, only the application in a par- 
 ticular field of the general laws of art, so the methods by which 
 these principles shall be applied in the process of critical 
 appraisement are the adaptation to given conditions, and to a 
 given end, of the critical method that characterizes the larger 
 science of Discrimination. The study, therefore, of the methods 
 of literary criticism is a discipline cognate with, and contribu-
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 tory to, the pursuit of other sciences, at the same time that it 
 is correlated with the scientific study of every art. 
 
 The plan of study here outlined has been arranged for con- 
 venience and comprehensiveness. The objects more directly 
 aimed at in this volume, and that which will shortly follow it, 
 are, first, to give the reader his orientation by showing the rela- 
 tion of literature to art, criticism, aesthetics, and the contribu- 
 tory sciences, and by displaying the solidarity and scope of 
 literature; second, to consider the main types or forms which 
 literature has assumed in the course of its development ; third, 
 to trace the movement and determine the law of literary waves 
 or fashions ; and, last, to deduce from these considerations the 
 principles which should guide us in critically estimating given 
 literary products. 
 
 When possible, each topic has been considered in a twofold 
 aspect, theoretical and historical. Generally, it will be found 
 that, under each of these subdivisions, the first section presents 
 an analysis of the subject under discussion, and a statement 
 of the problems involved, with indication of the authorities 
 most necessary to be consulted ; the second section consists of 
 a bibliography alphabetically arranged, and frequently accom- 
 panied by annotations which aim to give the student or the 
 prospective buyer some idea of the content and value of the 
 work in its bearing upon the subject ; and the third section, called, 
 for lack of a better name, General Note, is an omnium gatherum, 
 a receptacle for such references and suggestions as have failed 
 to find lodgment in the preceding sections. 
 
 It will not be for an instant imagined that this course of 
 study need be pursued in the order outlined, or that it should 
 be crowded into six months or a year. To each reader and 
 each class are the conditions thereof. Much will depend upon 
 the previous preparation of the reader. The problems pre- 
 sented in the following chapters require for their solution a 
 running application of rhetorical science and psychology, an
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 acquaintance with literary masterpieces and the history of 
 literature, some knowledge at first hand of art and its history, 
 and a continual study of aesthetics. 
 
 While the introduction to each topic here considered is theo 
 retical, nothing is further from our intent than to encourage 
 a priori speculation. The treatment of literary types in the 
 second volume will especially illustrate our conviction concerning 
 this subject. The principles of criticism depend, to a large ex- 
 tent, upon the principles of art. But to institute a vague theo- 
 rizing about the principles of art is as unprofitable as to pursue 
 a criticism grounded on the uncertain bias or prejudice of indi- 
 vidual taste. That music, poetry, and the plastic arts exist 
 implies a reason for their existence. But to arrive at this rea- 
 son and at the characteristics of its various manifestations the 
 student must advance from the particular to the general. So, 
 in seeking the laws of literature, he should naturally first 
 acquaint himself with the history of literature, with the devel- 
 opment of its kinds, and with the peculiarities of the various 
 kinds. He must have material at his command before he spec- 
 ulates upon the ontology of material. Having a fair knowledge 
 of the scope and the evolution of a literary species, he may pro- 
 ceed to an inquiry into the laws that regulate its evolution. 
 For, as we have already said, the forces that impel and the 
 laws that govern literary production are forces and laws that 
 go far to determine the canons by which that production should 
 be judged. To investigate the principles of literary criticism, 
 the student must investigate literature, not by the study of a 
 national literature only, but comparatively. From the study of 
 a specimen he passes to the comparison with others of the 
 same type ; he proceeds to the comparison of type with type in 
 characteristics and in growth, of national literature with national 
 literature, and finally arrives at the comparison of literary art 
 with other forms of art. But conjointly with this inductive 
 study of literary art there should be acquired an acquaintance
 
 PREFACE. vii 
 
 with the critical judgment of the ages concerning art in gen- 
 eral, with principles philosophically deduced, as well as with 
 those taught by experience. So also with the best opinion 
 concerning the laws and the development of mind. Hence the 
 necessity of aesthetics and psychology to the student of literary 
 criticism. The results contributed by these studies widen the 
 horizon and intensify the gaze of the literary investigator. 
 They teach him to correlate literature with other arts, and all 
 with the other phenomena by which mind is expressed. 
 
 And from this point of view it may appear that this intro- 
 duction to the Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism is 
 an introduction to aesthetics on the one hand, and on the other 
 to the comparative study of literature.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 PART I. THEORY OF CRITICISM. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 i. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS i 
 I. Definitions of Criticism ...... I 
 
 II. Criticism and Kindred Sciences . . .4 
 
 III. Kinds of Criticism ....... 4 
 
 IV. Types of Literary Criticism 5 
 
 V. Purpose of Literary Criticism . . . . . 6 
 
 VI. Relation of Criticism to Creation .... 7 
 
 VII. Qualifications of the Critic 8 
 
 VIII. Canons of Criticism . .... 9 
 
 2. REFERENCES -9 
 
 3. GENERAL NOTE ... -43 
 
 A. Examination of Critiques . . -43 
 
 B. Special Topics . . .46 
 
 C. Miscellaneous References . ... 51 
 
 PART II. HISTORY OF CRITICISM. 
 
 4. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS . 55 
 
 I. Development of Criticism as Practice 55 
 
 II. Development of Criticism as Theory . . -59 
 
 III. Relation of Critical Theory to Critical Practice . . 61 
 
 5. REFERENCES ... . .61 
 
 6. GENERAL NOTE 77 
 
 1. On the History of French Criticism . . 77 
 
 2. On the History of English Criticism . . . . 78 
 
 3. On the History of German Criticism . . -79 
 
 4. On the History of Italian Criticism . . . -79 
 
 5. On the History of Spanish Criticism . ... -79 
 
 ix
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 PRINCIPLES OF ART. 
 
 PART I. THEORY OF ART. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 7. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS; ANALYSIS 80 
 
 I. Fundamental Problems Si 
 
 II. Minute Analysis of Problems 81 
 
 8. REFERENCES . 87 
 
 9. GENERAL NOTE ... 121 
 
 I. Courses of Study t2i 
 
 A. General Reading 122 
 
 B. Suggestions for Historical Study . . .126 
 
 II. Suggestions for Investigation of Special Problems . 135 
 
 A. The Beautiful 135 
 
 B. The Ugly 136 
 
 C. The Sublime 136 
 
 D. The Pathetic . . . . 137 
 
 E. The Comic . 137 
 
 F. Genius . . 138 
 
 G. Rhythm ' . 138 
 
 H. The Relation of Art to Nature . . . .139 
 
 7. Growth of the Feeling for Nature . . . 163 
 
 III. Methods of Research 166 
 
 IV. Miscellaneous . 168 
 
 PART II. DEVELOPMENT OF ART. 
 
 10. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS 172 
 
 I. Art in General 173 
 
 II. The Several Arts 180 
 
 si ii. REFERENCES , 182 
 
 12. GENERAL NOTE 198 
 
 A. A Short Course of Reading . . . . ' . 198 
 
 B. Reading for Advanced Students 199 
 
 C. Collateral Aids 199
 
 CONTENTS. xi 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 PRINCIPLES OF LITERATURE. 
 
 PART I. THEORY OF LITERATURE. 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 13. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS; ANALYSIS 200 
 
 I. Nature and Scope of Literature 200 
 
 II. Relation of Literature to Art ... . . . 202 
 
 III. Relation of Literature to Science and Philosophy . 203 
 
 IV. The Elements of Literature .... 204 
 V. The Author .... ... 210 
 
 VI. The Public ... 210 
 
 VII. The Classification of Literature . . . 210 
 
 14. REFERENCES . .211 
 
 15. GENERAL NOTE .... .... 233 
 
 I. Literature and Language . . . 233 
 
 II. Style .233 
 
 III. Figures ....... . 235 
 
 IV. Classification of Literature ... . 239 
 
 V. Classification of Literary Theory . . . ' . 242 
 
 PART II. COMPARATIVE LITERATURE. 
 
 16. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS . . . . . . 248 
 
 17. REFERENCES 250 
 
 18. GENERAL NOTE 266 
 
 I. Collateral Aids 266 
 
 II. The Origins of Poetry 266 
 
 III. General Histories of Literature . . . . . 274 
 
 IV. Studies in Literary Influence . . . . 275 
 V. Miscellaneous References . . . ... -277 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE THEORY OF POETRY. 
 
 19. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM; METHOD OF STUDY . 279 
 
 I. Elementary Conceptions , . . . . '. . 280 
 
 II. Scheme of Investigation i . 288 
 
 20. REFERENCES . . . . , . . . . . 294
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 21 A. THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY . . . 350 
 
 1. The Aim of the Historian 350 
 
 2. The Approach . . .... 351 
 
 3. The Materials . . 353 
 
 4. The Process 353 
 
 5. Literature of the Subject 368 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 21 B. THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS . . . .380 
 
 1. Latin Treatises 380 
 
 2. Development of Poetics in England .... 383 
 
 3. Development of Poetics in Germany .... 422 
 
 4. Development of Poetics in France .... 428 
 
 5. Development of Poetics in Other Romance Literatures 445 
 
 6. Poetics of Northern European Literatures . . . 450 
 
 7. Poetics in the Orient ....... 450 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF VERSIFICATION. 
 
 22. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS; ANALYSIS 451 
 
 I. Rhythm 451 
 
 II. Metre 452 
 
 III. The Kinds of Metre 454 
 
 IV. Rhyme, the Refrain, etc 456 
 
 V. The Strophe 457 
 
 VI. The History of Metre 458 
 
 VII. The Study of Comparative Versification . . -458 
 
 VIII. Metric from the Phonetic Point of View . . . 458 
 
 23. REFERENCES . -459 
 
 24. GENERAL NOTE 487 
 
 A. Classical Metres 487 
 
 B. Modern Metres 495 
 
 APPENDIX : A Bibliography of Aristotle's Poetics . . . -519 
 
 INDEX 527
 
 LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 
 PART I. THEORY OF CRITICISM. 
 
 1. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS. 
 
 THE study of , literary criticism may best be begun by an 
 inquiry into the meaning of the term. The following questions 
 then suggest themselves : What is the nature of the process 
 called criticism ? How many kinds of criticism are there, and 
 what is the principle of classification ? How is literary criticism 
 distinguished from other varieties or types of criticism ? 
 
 /. Definitions of criticism. These may be drawn from the 
 usages of speech and writing, or framed in accordance with 
 some theory ; or, the two methods may be combined, one being 
 used to correct and verify the other. In what follows we shall 
 first consider popular usages of the term, then call attention to 
 its theoretical aspects. 
 
 A. USAGE. The following are some of the meanings 
 commonly attached to the word : 
 
 i. Criticism is used in the sense of fault-finding or taking 
 exception. The critic is one who takes a hostile attitude.
 
 2 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 1, i 
 
 He is " a carper and a caviller." His business is to discover 
 imperfections. This may be said to be the traditional meaning. 
 
 2. Of late years writers like Matthew Arnold have attempted 
 to give criticism a more genial function than it had formerly. 
 Such writers maintain that the business of criticism is less to cen- 
 sure than to praise. Some even go so far as to say that the critic 
 ought never to censure. (See Moulton and Taine.) Is not 
 this going too far ? May we apply the name critic to a man 
 who sees only the good points of what he is criticising ? or who 
 registers what he sees without saying whether it is good or bad ? 
 
 3. Another and more philosophic way of defining criticism 
 is to say that it is a process, or the process, of passing judg- 
 ment upon anything. For this view, support is found in the 
 derivation of the term criticism from npivuv, meaning originally 
 to separate and then to judge. 
 
 4. Allied to the preceding definition is a fourth, which 
 makes criticism a process of comparison. "Criticism," says 
 Mr. Robertson (Essays, p. i), "is a process that goes on over 
 all the field of human knowledge, being simply comparison or 
 clash of opinion." And Mr. Godkin, in forum, 17: 45, says: 
 "All genuine criticism consists in comparison between two 
 ways of doing something." Does comparison in these cases 
 mean the same as judgment ? or as classifying with or with- 
 out ranking ? Do these definitions exclude from criticism the 
 exercise of the imagination and the emotions? 
 
 5. A famous definition is that which Matthew Arnold gives 
 in his essay, On the Function of Criticism, namely, " to see the 
 object as in itself it really is." To this should be joined 
 another phrase from the same essay, "the endeavor to learn 
 and propagate the best that is known and thought in the 
 world." Do the two definitions come to the same thing ? Is not 
 seeing a thing as in itself it really is, the same as judging it? 
 If judging means making a comparison, with what do we com- 
 pare a thing when we see it as in itself it really is ? Again,
 
 ff.] DEFINITIONS OF CRITICISM. 3 
 
 what attitude does Mr. Arnold assume towards fault-finding 
 or censuring ? May his method be regarded as impartial 
 appreciation ? and would his definition exclude the destructive 
 kind of criticism ? With Mr. Arnold's definition should be com- 
 pared the idea held by Kant, that criticism is an endeavor to 
 find the principle or common ground which lies back of every 
 difference of opinion. (See 3, B i.) 
 
 For other definitions, see Elze, Blass, Urlichs, Moulton, 
 Dowden, Fuller, Brunetiere, Ward, Brandes, in 2, below. 
 
 B. THEORY. Approaching the subject now from a different 
 direction, we may ask : 
 
 1. What is the SCIENTIFIC BASIS of criticism? .Is criticism 
 a science, or an art, or merely a method ? If a science, may it 
 be classed among the exact sciences ? Does it belong to 
 the descriptive sciences like psychology, or to the normative 
 sciences like ethics and logic ? Is it an inductive or a deduc- 
 tive process ? 
 
 2. What is the PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS of criticism? Does criti- 
 cism proceed from the emotions, or from the intellect ? or do 
 both combine in the critical process ? If it is purely intellectual, 
 how does it differ from other operations of the intellect, such as 
 imagination and judgment ? Is there a critical element in every 
 mental process ? If criticism is an act of the judgment, in what 
 way does it differ from other judgments ? 
 
 3. What is the SOCIAL BASIS of criticism ? Is criticism indi- 
 vidual or social in its aim ? Is the test which it applies an 
 individual or a social test ? What part does criticism play in 
 the workings of the social body ? How does it affect social 
 progress ? 
 
 4. What is the PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS of criticism ? Where 
 in the division of the field of human knowledge and activity, is 
 the place of criticism ? Is it a principal or a subordinate 
 division ? Is it a process, or a principle, or is it both ? Is it sub'
 
 4 LITERARY CRITICISM. [!.//. 
 
 jective or objective ? May it deal with things of nature, or is 
 it concerned only with things of art ? Is it abstract or con- 
 crete ? Is it analytic, or synthetic, or organic ? Is it a positive 
 force or a negative force ? 
 
 //. Criticism and kindred sciences. A. In philology and 
 religion, and sometimes in law, it is customary to distinguish 
 between criticism and hermeneutics (interpretation, exegesis). 
 According to Boeckh (Encykl. d. Phil. Wissensch., p. 77), the 
 purpose of hermeneutics is ''to understand the object itself in its 
 own nature," while the purpose of criticism is not to understand 
 an object in and for itself, but " to establish a relation with 
 some other object in such wise that the knowledge of the 
 relation is the end in view" (p. 170). (Cf. Blass, Urlichs, 
 Paul. See also Lieber, who writes on hermeneutics from the 
 legal point of view, and Landerer and Schleiermacher, who 
 write on the same subject from the point of view of the 
 theologian.) 
 
 B. How is criticism related to such sciences as ethics, 
 psychology, sociology, politics, anthropology ? What is its 
 relation to aesthetics ? 
 
 ///. Kinds of criticism. Although the difficulties of classi- 
 fication are as great as those of definition, we shall find upon 
 careful examination that much of the confusion is due to 
 the fact that two principles of classification have been com- 
 monly employed, one referring to the subject matter of the 
 criticism, the other to the method of procedure. 
 
 A. According to the first principle of division, any critical 
 process which deals with the facts of history is called historical 
 criticism, any critical process which deals with science is 
 scientific criticism ; and so any critical process which deals 
 with literature is called literary criticism. The kinds of 
 criticism are as numerous as the kinds of subject matter.
 
 IV.\ TYPES OF LITERARY CRITICISM. 5 
 
 B. According to the second principle of division, the name 
 is determined by the method. If the historical method is 
 pursued, the result is called historical criticism. In like 
 manner the application of the principles of science is scientific 
 criticism, and of philosophy is philosophical criticism, whether 
 applied to history, philology, art, or literature. 
 
 //. Types of literary criticism. A. LITERARY criticism, 
 it will be noticed, is named with reference to its subject 
 matter. It is not a method which can be applied to other 
 subjects. Its method may be scientific, historical, philo- 
 sophical, psychological, or any other that answers the purpose. 
 Some, it is true, hold that literature is a species of art and that 
 only the methods of criticism appropriate to art are applicable 
 to literature. But is this the case? (Examine the article by 
 J. H. Leuba in Am. JL of Psychology, 5 : 496 ; The Case of 
 John Bunyan by Prof. Royce in Psychological Review, i: 22, 
 134, 230 ; La Psychologic des Auteurs dramatiques by A. Binet 
 and J. Passy in Rev. Philos., Fevr. 1894, p. 228.) 
 
 B. Two varieties or types of literary criticism which are 
 often contrasted, are judicial criticism and inductive criticism. 
 (See Moulton, Archer, Robertson, Blass, Saintsbury.) 
 
 1. THE JUDICIAL METHOD passes judgment on the work of 
 literature, that is, evaluates it or appraises it. Of this class, 
 Jeffrey with his famous "This will never do" (essay on 
 Wordsworth) is a striking example. 
 
 2. IHTDUCTIVE CRITICISM, when employed in its simplicity, 
 busies itself solely with the collection and arrangement of 
 facts. It refuses to evaluate or appraise. (See Moulton, 
 Howells v Taine, Saintsbury.) 
 
 Under inductive criticism we may point out two subdivisions. 
 (a.) The first occupies itself with the work in hand. It 
 aims to examine the work and in a methodical way to describe 
 the contents. Perhaps Mr. Moulton's method falls in this divi-
 
 6 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 1, F. 
 
 sion. (If.) The second kind of inductive criticism sees in the 
 work an expression of external influences, and hence pays most 
 attention to the environment. Its aim is to classify the work, 
 to place it in its proper relation to other works of the same 
 kind and time. Taine and Sainte-Beuve may serve as examples. 
 
 C. Many other divisions of literary criticism may be sug- 
 gested, some of which are perhaps more philosophical than 
 the division into judicial and inductive. Criticism may be 
 divided into personal (or subjective) criticism, such as we find 
 in the writings of Henry James, and impersonal or objective 
 criticism, such as was advocated by mile Hennequin ; it may 
 be classed as analytic and synthetic ; as positive and negative ; 
 as higher (when it deals with writings as a whole), and lower 
 (when it deals with isolated passages); as internal and external; 
 as static, dynamic, and organic; as scientific, philosophic, ethical, 
 and aesthetic. Possibly no comprehensive and strictly logical 
 classification has yet been made. 
 
 An interesting question is whether various types of criticism 
 may not be combined ; whether certain types are not comple- 
 mentary to one another. Thus, should not judicial criticism 
 also be inductive ? analytical criticism also be synthetic ? (See 
 Moulton, p. 22.) 
 
 Literary criticism so differs in different countries that it is 
 possible to speak of British, American, French, German, Italian 
 and Russian criticism. (See 3, 8.) 
 
 On the kinds of criticism, see in general, Patin, Blass, Elze, 
 Urlichs, Saintsbury. 
 
 /. Purpose of IHerary criticism. The object of criticism 
 should be very closely related to its definition. As there are 
 different opinions on the first point, we may expect to find 
 different opinions on the second. The following are some 
 of the objects which have been advanced as proper to 
 criticism.
 
 *Y.] RELATION OF CRITICISM TO CREATION. 7 
 
 (i) Like any other means of obtaining or imparting knowl- 
 edge, criticism is interesting for its own sake. (2) Since 
 criticism is a kind of literature, its justification rests on the 
 same basis as other literary forms. (3) Criticism is a help to 
 our appreciation of literature. It enhances the impression ; 
 it interprets and makes clear what is obscure in the thing 
 criticised. (4) It teaches us what in literature is good, and 
 what is bad, and thus saves our time and mental energy. 
 (5) It prepares the public for the author. (See Arnold's essay, 
 On the Function of Criticism.) (6) It shows the author how to 
 adapt himself to his public. (7) It regulates and disciplines \ 
 literary taste. (8) It frees literature from the tyranny of 
 prejudice or whim. (On this view and the preceding, see 
 Nisard and Dowden.) (9) It destroys morbidity in the author 
 or the public. (10) It gives people who have not time to read 
 the originals information about new books and new ideas. 
 
 In connection with this topic the question may be raised 
 whether in criticism the writer's character is a proper subject 
 of praise or blame ; also, whether the purpose of criticism is to 
 convince or to persuade. 
 
 (See Villemain, Mabie, Bristed, Lowell, Saintsbury, Arnold, 
 H. James, Stedman, Archer.) 
 
 //. Relation of criticism to creation. A. It has been 
 often maintained that criticism as a form of intellectual effort 
 is lower than creation. (See Arnold, Shairp, Macaulay, Posnett, 
 and Robertson.) If this is so, does the argument apply as 
 well to inductive as to judicial criticism ? 
 
 . The statement has also been made that critics are 
 naturally hostile to authors and that the history of criticism 
 has been a history of the triumph of the author over the critic. 
 (See Moulton, p. 7 ; Robertson, p. 142 ; Birrell.) Is such in 
 fact the case? Does criticism necessarily lag behind creation 
 (Caine, p. xxx) ? Why should it ? If it does, is its tardiness
 
 8 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 1, /'//. 
 
 irremediable ? or is it merely due to vicious methods of 
 criticism employed by bad critics? Is "the judicial attitude 
 unreceptive"? (Moulton, p. 7.) 
 
 C. Again, it is sometimes said that criticism tends to crush 
 out originality ; yet according to Mr. Howells (Harper, June, 
 1887) all criticism is futile ; the literary movement is "never 
 stayed in the least or arrested by criticism." Which is the 
 sounder view? 
 
 D. Another theory, a theory for which Macaulay is often 
 given credit, is that an age of fine creation cannot also be an 
 age of fine criticism. (See Macaulay's essay on Dryden, and 
 compare Burke's On the Sublime and Beautiful, p. 21.) Was 
 this true of the literary history of Greece and Rome? Has it 
 been true in the history of English literature ? of the French, 
 and German, and Italian literatures? A corollary is that a 
 
 [ good poet cannot be a good critic. Is there anything in 
 the nature of criticism and of creation to make the two 
 incompatible? Have both ever reached a high degree of 
 excellence in the same man? What shall be said of Shake- 
 speare's critical powers (Lewes, Actors and the Art of Acting ; 
 Robertson, p. 14)? of Dante's? of Goethe's? of Schiller's? 
 Shenstone (quoted by Robertson, p. 15) thought that "every 
 
 | good poet includes a critic," but he was careful to add, "the 
 reverse will not hold." 
 
 E. May not criticism itself be creative? (See Arnold, 
 Robertson, Shairp, Mabie.) May not criticism be even an 
 advance upon the work which is criticised? (Wilde, Posnett, 
 H. James.) 
 
 ///. Qualifications of the critic. Should the critic be in 
 the main a man of intellect or a man of taste ? Ought he to 
 be a specialist ? (See Saintsbury.) Can he be a good critic 
 if he knows no literature but that of his own nation ? Should 
 he be disinterested? (See Arnold.) In general, consult
 
 CANONS OF CRITICISM. 9 
 
 Wilkinson, Jennings's Curiosities of Criticism, Sainte-Beuve, 
 Allen, Dowden. 
 
 ////. Canons of criticism. Under this head the question 
 may first be asked whether such things as canons of criticism 
 exist. If they exist and have validity, on what principles, 
 scientific, philosophic, psychological, ethical, or aesthetic, do 
 they rest ? Are they relative or absolute ? Are they fixed and / 
 good for all time, or do they shift with the progress of 
 intelligence and change of taste ? (See Saintsbury, Posnett, 
 Moulton, Symonds.) What is the standard of taste ? (Begg, 
 Hume.) How far is it alike for all nations? How are individual 
 differences of critical opinion to be accounted for and recon- 
 ciled ? Of what value are the classics as guides in matters of 
 criticism ? Are they to be accepted as models ? Is it possible 
 to deduce from them all the canons of criticism ? (Lewes, 
 Principles of Success, p. in.) Is it possible for a literary 
 work to violate the canons of criticism and yet be a master- 
 piece? What value should be attached to consensus of opinion? 
 to the test of time ? 
 
 Attempts to formulate canons of criticism have been made 
 by some of the authors mentioned in 2. The validity of such 
 canons may be tested, first, by the success of those who have 
 conformed to them ; and, secondly, by comparison with the 
 unformulated rules that may be gathered from the practice of 
 more spontaneous, but perhaps none the less admirable, critics. 
 
 2. REFERENCES. 
 
 AINGER, A. Charles Lamb. New York: 1882. 
 
 In pointing out Lamb's place as a literary critic (pp. 168-182), 
 the author brings into relief some of the fundamental charac- 
 teristics of criticism, especially the part played by " the higher 
 imagination."
 
 10 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 ALLEN, GRANT. Fortnightly, 37: 339 Decay of Criticism. 
 
 Stimulated by the article of M. Caro (in Rev. d. D. Mondes, 
 i Fevr. 1882) on the Decay of Criticism in France, Mr. Allen 
 looks about him for the causes of a similar decay in England. 
 What he sees, however, is not retrogression, but advance. While 
 the old criticism was very bad indeed, the new, based on the 
 models of Sainte-Beuve and Saint-Marc Girardin, shows signs of 
 improvement. "Just as the critical impulse is dying out in 
 France, it has begun to live in England." Still there are 
 untoward influences, and they correspond in two particulars to 
 those detected by M. Caro in France, namely, the rise of 
 journalism and the growth of specialization. (See infra under 
 CARO.) 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Essays in Criticism. Boston: 1869. 
 
 pp. 138 On the Function of Criticism at the Present Time. 
 Perhaps the most important utterance upon criticism in 
 modern times. The value, practical as well as theoretical, of 
 the definition which is its starting-point "to see the object 
 as in itself it really is" cannot well be called in question. 
 The greater part of the essay is occupied with a discussion of 
 the relation between critic and poet: The materials with which 
 the poet works are ideas, the best ideas of his time. He is 
 dependent, therefore, upon the intellectual current of his time, 
 and it is the critic's business to see that the current is broad, 
 and that it moves in the right direction. In the interest of the 
 creative man the critic must help the best ideas prevail. Thus 
 the critic's task may be summed up as "a disinterested 
 endeavor to learn and propagate the best that is known and 
 thought in the world." The essay has given rise to a great 
 deal of discussion, the nature and trend of which are indicated 
 by the following questions : Is Arnold right in subordinating 
 criticism to creation ? Is the critical faculty necessarily lower 
 than the inventive faculty? If Arnold is using 'creative'
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 11 
 
 in the sense of 'original,' may not the critic be as creative as 
 the writer of fiction or drama ? If poetry is a ' criticism of 
 life ' (see essay on Wordsworth), is not the poetic faculty also 
 a critical faculty? Concerning his definition of criticism, we 
 may ask whether, philosophically speaking, it is possible to see 
 anything as in itself it really is. Things are understood only 
 as they are seen in their relations to other things. More than 
 that, we always see them as they are colored by our personal 
 views and tendencies; the same thing has different meanings 
 for different persons. Again, is it best for the critic to be 
 disinterested? Is he not likely to be indifferent? Is it not 
 better for each critic to have an interest, and allow one extreme 
 to offset the other? (Cf. Goethe's view in Kunst-Aphorismen, II : 
 " I am more and more convinced that, when one has to vent an 
 opinion on the actions or on the writings of others, unless this 
 be done from a certain one-sided enthusiasm or from a loving 
 interest in the person and the work, the result is hardly worth 
 gathering up.") For discussion of Arnold's views, see Westm., 
 80: 468; No. Am. Rev., 101 : 208; Century, 14: 184; No. Brit. 
 Rev., 42: 158; Robertson, Essays, pp. 4244, 144148. 
 
 See also Arnold's article ' Sainte-Beuve ' in the gth edition 
 of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 BEGG, W. P. The Development of Taste. Glasgow: 1887. 
 pp. 140-157 Is there a Standard of Taste? 
 
 BERNHEIM, ERNST. Lehrbuch der historischen Methods. 
 Leipzig: 1889. 
 
 pp. 202-390 Kritik ; pp. 395-428 Interpretation. 
 A comprehensive and methodical treatment of criticism from 
 the point of view of the historical investigator. The task of 
 historical criticism is, positively, to pass judgment upon the 
 truthfulness of the information which has come down from the 
 past, and so to assign to it its proper grade of probability;
 
 12 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 negatively, to set aside certain data as untrustworthy. The 
 form which the criticism takes is a judgment partly upon the 
 relation of the data to the facts, partly upon the relation of the 
 facts one to another. Judgments regarding the trustworthiness 
 of the information as historical evidence make up the lower or 
 external criticism (niedere oder aussere Kritik) ; the higher or 
 internal criticism (hohere oder innere Kritik) consists in judg- 
 ments regarding the relation of the evidence to the facts. 
 
 BLAIR, HUGH. Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. 
 
 Philadelphia: 1833. 
 
 A definition of criticism will be found at the beginning of 
 Lecture 3. 
 
 BLASS, FRIEDR. Hermeneutik und Kritik. (In Iwan Miiller's 
 Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft. Nord- 
 lingen : 1886. Bd. i, pp. 127272.) 
 
 Blass's chapters on hermeneutics and criticism, the " metho- 
 dology" of Miiller's Handbook, are intended as a practical 
 guide for the investigator in classical philology. Hermeneutics 
 or interpretation is considered under the three heads, gram- 
 matical, historical, and technical. The first is concerned with 
 matters of grammar (and rhetoric); the second with the kinds, 
 stages, and limitations of literature ; the third with matters of 
 literary form. Criticism is looked upon as a kind of judgment. 
 In every judgment, says Blass, there is involved a doubt. 
 We raise the question whether something is true, or right, or 
 useful, or beautiful. How is this doubt " resolved " (auf- 
 gehoben) ? By comparing, is the answer, the object to be 
 judged with another object, regarding which we are not in 
 doubt. If the two harmonize, there follows a judgment of 
 truth, or Tightness, or beauty, as the case may be. When the 
 question is one of Tightness, or beauty, the object with which 
 we make comparison is an ideal of right or beauty. In philology,
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 13 
 
 there are two kinds of criticism : historical and aesthetic. The 
 latter is not strictly philological, but the shrewd philologist will 
 be, so Blass thinks, auch in dieser Weise tirtheilsfdhig. In his 
 treatment of the practical aspects of the subject, Blass dis- 
 cusses such topics as the kinds of errors and their origin, 
 causes of critical doubt, conjectural criticism, and criticism of 
 genuineness (Kritik der Echten und Unechten). 
 
 BOECKH, A. Encyklopadie und Methodologie der philo- 
 logischen Wissenschaften. Herausg. von E. Bratuschek. 
 Leipzig: 1877. 
 
 pp. 169-254 Theorie der Kritik. 
 
 See the note on Blass, supra. Interpretation expounds the 
 object as it is in itself, with reference (i) to objective or (2) to 
 subjective conditions. In the first instance the interpretation 
 may be (a) grammatical, that is, it may deal with the meaning 
 of the word in itself ; or (b} historical, that is, it may deal with 
 external relations. Subjective interpretation is divided into 
 individual interpretation and interpretation of the species or 
 type (Gattungsinterpretation). Criticism differs from inter- 
 pretation in that it considers the object not as it is in itself, 
 but as it is in its relations to other objects. Its purpose is to 
 understand the relation rather than the objects themselves. 
 The kinds of criticism are the same as the kinds of inter- 
 pretation, namely, grammatical, historical, and individual criti- 
 cism, and criticism of types (Gattungskritik). 
 
 A second edition, edited by R. Klussmann, appeared in 188.6. 
 
 BOURGET, P. fitudes et Portraits. 2 vols. Paris: 1889. 
 
 Vol. i, pp. 299-306 Reflexions sur la Critique. 
 
 Called out by Caro's article on the decay of modern criticism. 
 (See below.) In a few paragraphs Bourget reviews rapidly 
 but suggestively the progress of modern critical writing. Criti- 
 cism,, he thinks, is not dead, but metamorphosed into psychology.
 
 14 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 BRANDES, GEORG. Die Litteratur des neunzehnten Jahr- 
 hunderts in ' ihren Hauptstromungen. Uebersetzt und 
 eingeleitet von A. Schodtmann. 5 vols in 3. Berlin: 
 1872-73. 
 
 Bd - 5> PP- 35'-373 Sainte-Beuve ; pp. 374-387 Sainte-Beuve und 
 die moderne Kritik. 
 
 Presents in clear and attractive style the literary life of 
 Sainte-Beuve and his part in the history of the French Roman- 
 ticists. Sainte-Beuve reformed criticism by putting it on a 
 historical and scientific basis (p. 379). See pp. 386, 387 for a 
 definition of criticism and an estimate of its importance. 
 
 BRIM LEY, G. Essays. Edited by W. G. Clark. 3d edition. 
 London: 1868. 
 
 Pp. 184-203 Poetry and Criticism. 
 
 BRISTED, C. A. Pieces of a broken down Critic. 4 vols. 
 Baden-Baden: 1858. 
 
 Vol. 4, p. 34 Purpose of Criticism. 
 
 BROCKHAUS' Conversations-Lexikon. Article 'Kritik.' 
 
 The various kinds of criticism are enumerated and briefly 
 defined. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. La Critique litteVaire. Part of the article 
 
 ' Critique ' in the Grande Encyclopedic. 
 
 1 The article ' Critique ' in the Grande Encyclopedic covers 
 pp. 409-431. Omitting subdivisions irrelevant to our purpose, 
 we may divide it into six parts, as follows : (i) Philosophy by 
 L. Dauriac, (2) Philology by A. Waltz, (3) Literature by 
 F. Brunetiere, (4) Music by R. Lavoix, (5) History by A. Giry, 
 (6) Religious History by M. Vernes. Brunetiere's article 
 covers pp. 411-424. It is divided into two parts, the first 
 historical, the second systematic. For a notice of the first part,
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 15 
 
 see 5. The second and systematic part treats first of the 
 Object and Methods of Criticism ; second, of the Function oT 
 Criticism. The object in criticism is threefold, (i) to explain, 
 (2) to classify, (3) to judge. By explanation is meant descrip- 
 tion, analysis, and comment. The critic must explain the au- 
 thor, whose character is not always an analogue of his book, 
 but he must not stop with the author. Others have helped 
 write the book. The author's contemporaries are his col- 
 laborators. Other books have influenced him. He lives in 
 a particular moment or phase of the evolution of the genre to 
 which his work belongs. A part of the explanation, therefore, 
 consists in placing the work in its milieu, national and interna- 
 tional. To perform the work of classification criticism needs 
 sound principles of three kinds : i. Scientific, analogous to those 
 of natural history; 2. Moral, establishing an ethical hierarchy 
 without identifying morals and art; 3. Aesthetic, measuring the 
 work of art by the absolute quantity that it expresses. Fur- 
 nished with these principles criticism, as a mode of classifying, 
 would become scientific. Finally, criticism is under obligation 
 to pass judgment ; for a work of art, while it is a record to 
 be explained and classified, is also a poem or statue better or 
 worse than some other poem or statue. Distinct from the ob- 
 ject of criticism is its function. According to Brunetiere the 
 function of criticism is to act on public opinion, on authors, and 
 upon the general direction of literature and art. By maintain- 
 ing literary traditions criticism perpetuates from age to age 
 the literary consciousness of the nation. 
 
 Cf. in the same work the article by Alfred Ernst on the 
 Aesthetics of Literature (under Esthe'tique, p. 409). 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. Involution des Genres dans 1'histoire 
 de la litterature. Tome icr. Paris: 1890. 
 
 Pp. 35-278 L'fivolution de la critique. 
 In his discussion of the work of the principal French critics
 
 16 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 from du Bellay to Taine, M. Brunetiere considers the function 
 of criticism in most of its aspects. See in particular pp. 35, 36, 
 on the influence of criticism on literature; pp. 1846 on the 
 substitution of the criticism of beauties for the criticism of 
 defects; pp. 195201 on dilettanteism and individualism in 
 criticism, and the chapters on Sainte-Beuve and Taine, passim. 
 For comment on the work, consult 5. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. Questions de Critique. Paris: 1889. 
 Pp. 297-324 La critique scientifique (on . Hennequin). 
 
 BUCHANAN, ROBT. Master-spirits. London: 1873. 
 I. Criticism as one of the Fine Arts. 
 
 Criticism cannot be reduced to a science, but as an art it is 
 susceptible of high cultivation. The old idea of criticism was 
 the application of tests by which to ascertain the value of the 
 work ; modern criticism means the impression produced on cer- 
 tain minds by certain products. 
 
 BURROUGHS, J. Century, 14: 185 Matthew Arnold's Criti- 
 cism. (Reprinted in Indoor Studies, p. 79. Boston: 1889.) 
 The strength of Mr. Arnold's criticism lies in his sincere ef- 
 fort to grasp the totality of life ; its ineffectualness is due to 
 the unclassical age and people with whom he has to deal. An 
 interesting question is raised on p. 190, namely, whether 
 Arnold's criticism is in line with the movement of individual- 
 ism which, in Mr. Burroughs's opinion, characterizes the 
 literature of this century. 
 
 CAINE, T. HALL. Cobwebs of Criticism. London: 1883. 
 
 A contribution to the history of criticism. Discussions, not 
 too profound, of critical theory are scattered through its pages. 
 See, for further notice, 5.
 
 2.] REFEKENCES. 17 
 
 CAIRO, EDW. The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant. 2 
 
 vols. Glasgow: 1889. 
 
 See vol. i, pp. 1-20, for a statement of the meaning of criti- 
 cism in the Kantian sense. 
 
 CARO, E. Rev. d. D. Mondes, i FeVr. 1882 La critique contem- 
 poraine et les causes de son affaiblissement. 
 
 The kinds of criticism are enumerated, not very logically, 
 and the methods employed by Villemain, Nisard, St.-Marc 
 Girardin, Sainte-Beuve, and Taine, are briefly characterized. 
 Decadence in French criticism is traced to three causes : 
 (i) Absorption of literary talent in the business of politics, 
 which gives rise to partisan hostility ; (2) the rise of journalism 
 with its attendant evils ; (3) the growth of specialization. (See, 
 above, Allen's Decay of Criticism, and Bourget's fitudes et 
 Portraits.) 
 
 COAN, T. M. Lippincott, 13: 355 Critic and Artist. 
 
 An interesting and suggestive paper discussing the attitude 
 which the critic should assume toward the artist. The follow- 
 ing are some of the ideas advanced by the author: (i) The 
 theory of evolution, by giving a new aspect to everything in 
 art, has set new tasks for the modern critic. His business is 
 to see, not to say, new things. (2) In a work of art the artist 
 himself is a chief object of interest. Knowledge of his person- 
 ality is a short cut to knowledge of the work. Still, from the 
 critical point of view, the character of the artist is not a proper 
 subject for praise or blame. (3) The critic by a methodi- 
 cal study of himself should determine his personal equation, 
 and when it is determined should make allowance for it. 
 (4) The order of development of the critical faculty is as fol- 
 lows : (a) Naive admiration ; (b*) search for truth ; (c) interest 
 in the personality of the artist.
 
 18 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 DESCHANEL, MILE. Physiologic des ecrivains et des artistes, 
 
 ou essai de critique naturelle. Paris: 1864. 
 An extreme application, after Sainte-Beuve and Taine, of 
 laws of physiology to the science of criticism. The author 
 shows, by a remarkable assemblage of facts and illustrations, 
 that it is possible to determine by scrutiny of a given piece of 
 literature (i) the period in which it was written, (2) the cli- 
 mate, (3) the nationality of the author, (4) the author's sex, 
 (5) his age, (6) his temperament, (7) his character, (8) his 
 profession, (9) his education, (10) his state of health. 
 
 DOWDEN, E. Fortnightly, 52 : 737 Literary Criticism in France. 
 A careful analysis of the literary theories of Bourget, Sainte- 
 Beuve, Nisard, Taine, and fimile Hennequin. A good intro- 
 duction to the comparative study of theories. 
 
 DROZ, D. La critique litteraire et la science. Paris: 1893. 
 
 The purpose of this interesting paper, which was read before 
 a body of scientists at Besanc.on in 1891, is to show that the sci- 
 entific method, as understood by men of letters (that is, as 
 misunderstood), has not been of much service to modern 
 literary criticism. The position is supported by an unsparing 
 examination of the pretensions of Sainte-Beuve, Taine, Brune- 
 tiere, and E\ Hennequin. The treatment is admirable in both 
 spirit and style, and especially valuable as showing how the 
 ' scientific ' views of the greatest modern French critics strike 
 a man of science. 
 
 DRYDEN, J. Works. Edited by Sir Walter Scott. London : 
 1808. 
 
 DRYDEN, J. Dramatic Works. Edited by G. Saintsbury. Edin- 
 burgh: 1882. 
 
 In the Preface to the State of Innocence Dryden defines criti- 
 cism as ' a standard of judgment whose purpose is to enable us
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 19 
 
 to observe those excellencies which should delight a reasonable 
 reader.' For other studies of the nature and province of criti- v 
 cism, consult the Essay of Dramatic Poesy, the Essay on 
 Satire, the Defense of Epilogue, the Essay on Translation, the 
 Parallel between Poetry and Painting, the Introduction to 
 Don Sebastian, the Essay on Heroic Plays, and in general 
 the prefatory essays of the plays. (See Wylie's Evolution of 
 English Criticism.) 
 
 ELIOT, GEORGE. Essays and Leaves from a Note- Book. 
 
 Edinburgh: 1885. 
 
 A brief essay, entitled Judgments on Authors, begins on 
 p. 294. George Eliot would make the test of good writing ' the 
 author's contribution to the spiritual wealth of mankind.' 
 
 ELZE, KARL. Grundriss der englischen Philologie. 2d ed. 
 Halle: 1889. 
 Pp. 36-99. 
 
 Elze agrees with Boeckh in making criticism the art or the- 
 ory of judgments. He adopts (p. 170) Boeckh's definition of 
 hermeneutics and criticism. The divisions of hermeneutics are 
 (i) lexicological, (2) grammatical, (3) stylistic, and (4) metri- 
 cal exposition, and (5) exposition of the meaning or content 
 (inhaltliche Exposition). Criticism he divides into textual criti- 
 cism and aesthetic criticism. Determination of the text rests 
 upon the postulate that every author has a lexicological, gram- 
 matical, stylistic, and metrical individuality, in addition to the 
 individuality of his ideas. Aesthetic criticism judges a work in 
 its relation to other works by comparing it with literature of the 
 same kind, and on the basis of such judgment and comparison 
 assigns it to its proper place in literary history. Its value as 
 member of a class is determined by asking how far it cor- 
 responds to the canon or class-ideal (Gattungsideal, cf. Boeckh's 
 Kunstregel) laid down by aesthetics.
 
 20 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 EMERSON, R. W. Complete works. 12 vols. Boston: 1893. 
 i : 40 Natural History of Intellect (Law of Criticism : " Every 
 scripture is to be interpreted in the same spirit which gave it 
 forth"); 2: 252 The Over-Soul ("The supreme critic ... is that 
 Unity, that Over-Soul, within which every man's particular being 
 is contained and made one with all others"): 3: 61 Experience 
 (The futility of criticism) ; 243-5 New England Reformers 
 (Outbreak of critical spirit in New England); 8: 58 Poetry and 
 Imagination (" The critic ... is a failed poet "). 
 
 FULLER, S. MARGARET. Papers on Literature and Art. New 
 York: 1848. Pt. i, pp. 1-9 A short essay on critics, 
 pp. 11-14 A Dialogue. 
 
 Two sketchy but suggestive articles touching the relation of 
 criticism to creation. The writer is sure that criticism is a 
 legitimate thing, but is not clear as to its function. "The 
 critic is the historian who records the order of creation." 
 " The use of criticism in periodical writing is to sift, not to 
 stamp a work." 
 
 HARDY, A. S. Andover Rev., 14: 522 Letters and Life. 
 
 Maintains that each critic is entitled to his independent and 
 personal judgment, and that the value of his criticism for us 
 depends on our knowledge of the critic and of his point of 
 view. 
 
 HARRIS, JAS. Philological Inquiries. 2 vols. London: 1781. 
 
 (Vols. IV and V of the Miscellanies.) 
 
 One of the earliest attempts by an Englishman to treat criti- 
 cism in a scientific manner. The work is in three parts. The 
 first is on the rise, nature, and kinds of criticism ; the second 
 consists of illustrations of critical principles as they appear in 
 the writings of distinguished authors, ancient and modern ; the 
 third is an essay on the taste and literature of the middle ages. 
 On p. 7 criticism is defined as " a deep and philosophical
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 21 
 
 search into the primary laws of good writing, as far as they 
 could be collected from the most approved performances." 
 Critics are characterized (p. 38) as " a sort of masters of the 
 ceremony in the court of letters." They are divided into 
 philosophical, historical, and corrective critics. 
 
 HENNEQUIN, &MILE. La Critique scientifique. Paris: 1888. 
 
 An attempt, by a follower of Herbert Spencer, to put criti- 
 cism upon a scientific basis. Hennequin's method, which he 
 terms Esthopsychologie, is in some respects similar to that of 
 Taine. It differs from Taine's in attaching less importance to 
 the race, and in throwing emphasis upon the individuality of 
 the author and his power to create an environment for himself. 
 The purpose of criticism is not to evaluate the work of art, nor 
 yet to determine the means by which it is produced, but 
 to show the relation of the work to the social and psycho- 
 logical characteristics of the artist whom it reveals. See 
 review by L. Arreat in Rev. Philos., 27:83; by F. Brunetiere 
 in Rev. d. D. Monties, i Juillet, 1888, p. 213; and by Dowden in 
 Fortnightly, 52: 752; and the passing notice by J. A. Symonds 
 in Fortnightly, 52: 774: " His method of criticism may be de- 
 fined as the science of the work of art regarded as a sign." 
 
 HOWELLS, W. D. Editor's Study. Harper's Mag., 72:321, 
 and each number thereafter to 84: 643. (The articles deal- 
 ing with the theory of criticism are reprinted in Criticism 
 and Fiction. New York: 1891.) 
 
 The business of criticism is to observe and register. The 
 test of any work of the imagination is, first of all, " Is it true 
 true to the motives, the impulses, the principles that shape the 
 life of actual men and women ? " Criticism, as ordinarily prac- 
 ticed, has no effect on the movements of literature. For com- 
 ments on Mr. Howells's views, see Academy, 40: 209; Atlantic^ 
 68: 566.
 
 22 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 HUME, D. Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects. 2 vols. 
 London: 1768. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 255-281 Of the Standard of Taste. 
 
 HUNT, T. W. N. Princ. Rev. 4: 75 Literary Criticism. 
 
 A discussion, mainly of Arnold's essay On the Function of 
 Criticism. 
 
 JAMES, HENRY, A. LANG, and E. GOSSE. New Review, 4: 398 
 The Science of Criticism. 
 
 Intended for the readers of a popular magazine, these enter- 
 taining papers do not go very deeply into the subject. Henry 
 James, in opening, contrasts French criticism with the criticism 
 of England, much to the disadvantage of the English. Among 
 the writers of Paris criticism is a fine art ; the critics disdain to 
 touch anything except books of the higher class. In England 
 they do these things differently. Mr. James then goes on to 
 consider the function, or ' programme,' of the good critic, which 
 he thus characterizes : It is " to lend himself, to project him- 
 self and steep himself, to feel and feel until he understands, 
 and to understand so well that he can say, to have perception 
 at the pitch of- passion and expression in the form of talent, to 
 be infinitely curious and incorrigibly patient, with the intensely 
 fixed idea of turning character and history and genius inside 
 out." An interesting comparison is made between critic and 
 novelist. The critic deals with the swarm of authors, "the 
 clamorous children of history," as the novelist deals with char- 
 acters, but his task is harder because he cannot invent and 
 select an opinion which gives a new turn to the old question 
 of the superiority of creation to criticism. 
 
 The article is reprinted, with a few curious changes, in the 
 author's Essays in London (New York: 1893), p. 259. 
 
 According to Andrew Lang, the only kind of criticism worth 
 reading or writing is " that which narrates the adventures of an
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 23 
 
 ingenious and educated mind in contact with masterpieces." 
 Its value for us who read it is that it gives acquaintance with 
 the experiences of another in the same literary world as our- 
 selves. At its best, however, criticism is a sorry business, and 
 in the world of letters is likely to do more harm than good. 
 
 Edmund Gosse takes a more hopeful view. He distinguishes 
 two kinds of criticism. The first is impersonal and uncompara- 
 tive, merely a record of books as they are issued ; the second, 
 however, is comparative and composite, and in value falls but 
 little below creative work. The function of the critic is not to 
 praise or to blame, but to analyze. His necessary qualifica- 
 tions are intelligence, sympathy, and personality. 
 
 JOUBERT, J. Pensees. 2 vols. Paris: 1880. 
 
 See vol. 2, pp. 231, 326, 327, for epigrammatic utterances 
 upon criticism and critics. Joubert's definition of criticism 
 occurs on p. 327 : "La critique est un exercice methodique du 
 discernement." 
 
 KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD. The Elements of Criticism. 
 New York: 1838. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Criticism is a " regular science governed by just principles." 
 These principles are valid so far as they agree with human 
 nature. 
 
 KRANTZ, E". Essai sur I'esthetique de Descartes. Paris: 1882. 
 See pp. 1-6 for the relation of criticism to the idea of the 
 beautiful and to movements in literature. 
 
 LESSING, G. E. Dramatic Notes (Bonn Libr.). London: 1889. 
 See Nos. 101-4 f r brief but suggestive remarks on the value 
 and function of criticism. 
 
 LEWES, G. H. Principles of Success in Literature. 2d ed. 
 
 Boston: 1892. 
 See esp. Chap. I, and pp. 110119.
 
 24 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 LIEBER, F. Legal and Political Hermeneutics. Boston: 1839. 
 Although the author writes from the legal and political point 
 of view, the fundamental principles from which he starts, and 
 the analysis which he makes of the subject, may be applied to 
 every field of thought. Beginning with a discussion of the 
 meaning of words, and the causes of ambiguity in human 
 speech, he defines Interpretation, gives a classification of it, 
 and expounds its principles at length. 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Prose Works. 6 vols. Boston: 1890. 
 
 Lowell's enunciations on criticism are brief but always char- 
 acteristic. The following references indicate a few of the best : 
 1:354 Emerson the Lecturer (on Emerson's criticism); 369 
 Thoreau (on the inadequacy of Thoreau's criticism); 3: 28-35 
 
 ' Shakespeare Once More (Need of sympathy plus fixed princi- 
 
 . pies; Greek standards still prevail; 55 comparison futile in 
 criticism; 67 criticism destructive and criticism productive); 
 114 Dryden (Duty of the critic to look on all sides; 140 "the 
 
 I higher wisdom of criticism lies in the capacity to admire"); 
 332 Chaucer (Criticism of parts misleading ; "criticism cleaves 
 to the teleological argument"); 4: 355 Wordsworth (Necessary 
 to consider failures and defects); 6: 63 Fielding (No recog- 
 nized standard in criticism); 71-2 Coleridge (Coleridge's 
 method of criticism); 121-3 Don Quixote (Constructive criti- 
 
 > cism, " He reads most wisely who thinks everything into a book 
 
 1 that it is capable of holding "). 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. N. A. Rev., 66: 358 Literary Criticism. 
 
 As introduction to a review of Browning, Lowell reads the 
 critics a lesson on their dullness and incapacity, and lays down 
 the principles by which they should be guided. 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Century, February, 1894 Criticism and Culture. 
 
 In this posthumous essay Lowell takes the position that the 
 
 object of criticism is not to criticise (i.e., to judge), but to
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 25 
 
 understand. The critic should look for the strong rather than 
 for the weak points of the work. 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Letters. Ed. by C. E. Norton. 2 vols. New 
 
 York: 1893. 
 
 The occasional brief references to critics and criticism may 
 be traced by means of the index. Of especial interest, as bear- 
 ing on the question of criticism and creation, is Lowell's remark 
 (vol. II, p. 62) regarding his criticism of himself: "I believe 
 no criticism has ever been made on what I write (I mean no 
 just one) that I had not made before, and let slip through my 
 fingers." 
 
 MABIE, H. W. Short Studies in Literature. New York: 1891. 
 See p. 174 for an admirable little essay on the origin, devel- 
 opment, and sources of criticism. 
 
 MABIE, H. W. Andover Rev., 15: 583 Significance of Modern 
 Criticism. (Reprinted in Essays in Literary Interpre- 
 tation. New York: 1892.) 
 
 Reviewing the development of modern criticism, the writer 
 shows that through Herder, Goethe, Sainte-Beuve, Coleridge, 
 Arnold, Emerson, and others, a new form of literature has come 
 into existence, perfectly adapted to the intellectual methods and 
 tendencies of the age. In this new field the creative impulse, 
 following the scientific method, but in the truest literary spirit, 
 works with perfect freedom. " Criticism discloses the law and 
 the fact of art and life as these final realities are revealed 
 through literature." 
 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Essays, Critical and Miscellaneous. New 
 
 York: 1861. 
 
 See the essay on Dryden for Macaulay's theory regarding the 
 relation of criticism and the creative imagination, and the essay 
 on the Athenian Orators for brief notes on the critics of antiquity.
 
 26 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 MCLAUGHLIN, EDW. T. Literary Criticism for Students, 
 
 Selected from English Essays. New York: 1893. 
 Selections from Sidney, Jonson, Dryden, Addison, Swift, 
 Johnson, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Lamb, De Quincey, Carlyle, 
 Arnold, Lowell, Ruskin, Hutton, and Pater; with an introduc- 
 tion not so much on criticism as on methods of studying litera- 
 ture. The author has little sympathy for scientific criticism. 
 " 'Laboratory work' in literature may be deferred until scien- 
 tists introduce literary methods into the laboratory." Literature 
 will never " yield its best unless we approach it in a spirit not 
 of fact but of sensibility." Our first aim, therefore, should 
 be to acquire the art of sympathy. This can be done by mus- 
 ing, at odd times, upon some poem that pleases, and asking 
 ourselves such questions as, What suggestion can we note of 
 this or that taste or opinion in the author ? In what lines does 
 his heightened style appear at its best ? When is he most happy 
 in fancy, or in cadence ? Later, a wider and more philosophical 
 study, as of literary development and biography, is, for some, 
 valuable and interesting, provided they can avoid " the old 
 danger of mechanical and harshly intellectualized study." 
 " The most profitable criticism is that broad and philosophical 
 general discussion which is illustrated by such authors as Coler- 
 idge or Arnold." The function of such criticism is to bring us 
 in contact with "a more theoretical and aesthetic range of 
 ideas," and so "to widen our intellectual and artistic world." 
 
 MACMILLAN, 53: 278 Some Random Reflections on Criticism. 
 Raises the question whether a knowledge of the familiar life 
 of the author enables us better to criticise his writings. 
 
 MACMILLAN, 61: 73 Principles and Practice of Criticism. 
 
 Because there are certain forms of beauty for the appreciation 
 of which it is not possible to give intelligible reasons, it is hope- 
 less to expect that a general canon of criticism will ever be framed.
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 27 
 
 MALLET, L' ABBE. Le Critique. (In Encyclopedic Me'thodique.) 
 A brief and formal division of the subject. The name critic 
 is by common use applied to six classes of writers : (i) Those 
 who busy themselves in discriminating between authors and in 
 judging of their styles and deserts ; (2) those who clear up ob- 
 scure points in history; (3) those who collate and edit ancient 
 manuscripts ; (4) those who write historical and philological 
 treatises; (5) those who prepare bibliographies or catalogues 
 raisonnes ; (6) those who write commentaries on ancient authors. 
 
 MARMONTEL, J. F. La Critique. (In Encyclope'die Methodique. 
 The same article will be found in his Elements de Litte'ra- 
 ture. 3 vols. Paris: 1846. T. I, pp. 344-367.) 
 The articles of Mallet and Marmontel are chiefly of interest 
 as showing the point of view of the French Encyclopedists. 
 The essay of Marmontel is of considerable length. He takes 
 a broad view of criticism, considering it, first, as the study to 
 which we owe the restoration of ancient literature ; second, as the 
 illuminating examination and equitable judgment of human pro- 
 ductions, whether in science, the liberal arts, or the mechanic arts. 
 
 MAURICE, F. D. Friendship of Books. London: 1880. 
 
 P. 354 Critics. 
 
 The central thought of the chapter is that true criticism aims 
 to discover the things which are true and abiding. (Cf. Sy- 
 monds.) Historical criticism should not judge other times by 
 the standard of our own, but should try to see ages and men 
 just as they were. 
 
 MOULTON, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. A pop- 
 ular Illustration of the Principles of Scientific Criticism. 
 2d ed. Oxford: 1888. 
 
 Pp. 1-40 Literary Criticism as an Inductive Science, pp. 265-331 
 Dramatic Criticism as an Inductive Science. 
 
 The author's avowed purpose is to establish literary criticism
 
 28 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 on a scientific basis. In the development of science there are 
 three stages: (i) The observation of subject-matter; (2) an- 
 alysis and classification ; (3) systematization. The science of 
 literary criticism is still in the second stage. In time it will 
 pass into the third, and then critics will be able to explain the 
 modus operandi of literary production, and show how different 
 classes of writing produce their different effects. At present 
 such explanation is mostly of a speculative character. All that 
 the critics of to-day can hope to do is to classify their observa- 
 tions (pp. 266, 267). Such criticism should be called inductive, 
 induction being the universal scientific method. It must be 
 distinguished from judicial criticism. Inductive criticism in- 
 quires what is ; judicial criticism inquires what ought to be. 
 Judicial criticism is outside science altogether. It belongs to 
 the creative side of literature (pp. 21, 22), being the expression 
 of individual taste. Inductive criticism rests upon four axioms : 
 
 (1) interpretation in literature is of the nature of a scientific 
 hypothesis, the truth of which is tested by the degree of com- 
 pleteness with which it explains the details of the work; 
 
 (2) the function of criticism is to distinguish literary species ; 
 
 (3) art is a part of nature (and hence may be treated scien- 
 tifically like any other natural object); (4) literature is a thing 
 of development (hence must always be far ahead of criticism 
 and analysis). The inductive method besides having a scien- 
 tific interest assists more than any other kind of treatment to 
 enlarge our appreciation of the author. 
 
 Prof. Moulton tests his method by applying it, with great 
 wealth of detail and aptness of illustration, to twelve plays of 
 Shakespeare. It will repay the student, while he reads the 
 studies, to observe whether the author does not allow himself 
 at times to use criticism of a judicial character. He may, also, 
 ask himself such questions as these : Are judicial and inductive 
 criticism mutually exclusive ? Is not a kind of criticism possi- 
 ble which shall reconcile the claims of both judge and investi-
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 29 
 
 gator? Is the inductive criticism real science or pseudo- 
 science ? Does Prof. Moulton understand the true relation 
 of art to nature when he says that art is a part of nature ? 
 (Cf. Goethe's saying that art is called art because it is not 
 nature, and see Bosanquet, History of Aesthetic, pp. 3, 4.) 
 For comments on Prof. Moulton's theories see Macmillan 
 54: 45 Criticism as an Inductive Science, by Wm. Archer; 
 Nation 41: 201 A New Inductive Science, by G. E. Wood- 
 berry; and J. M. Robertson's Essays towards a Critical 
 Method, pp. 46-65, 77-9, 83. 
 
 NISARD, D. Histoire de la litterature franchise. 4 vols. 
 
 Paris: 1844-49. 
 
 In vol. I, pp. 141, this eminent historian of literature sets 
 forth the principles which have guided him in the composition 
 of the work. The aim of criticism is " to regulate our intel- 
 lectual pleasures, to free literature from the tyranny of the 
 notion that there is no disputing about tastes, to constitute an 
 exact science, intent rather on guiding than gratifying the 
 mind." M. Nisard applies to each work a threefold test : 
 (i) The ideal of the nation, that is, the national type of lit- 
 erature ; (2) the ideal of the language ; (3) the ideal of human- 
 ity. See Dowden's article, Fortnightly, 52 : 744. 
 
 NISARD, D. Eludes de critique litteraire. Paris: 1858. 
 
 Discussing the critical methods of jSt.-Marc Girardin, M. 
 Nisard finds occasion to distinguish (pp. 147-150) four spe- 
 cies of criticism, as follows: (i) A kind of general history 
 in which authors are the heroes. Of this species the writ- 
 ings of Villemain are examples. (2) A species which is to the 
 first what memoirs are to histories. Each author is looked 
 upon as a type, and the aim of the critic is to present a series 
 of portraits. (3) A treatise, the object of which is to regulate 
 intellectual pleasures, and deliver works from the tyranny of
 
 30 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 chacun son gout. This, M. Nisard hints, is the method which 
 he himself endeavors to put in practice. (4) Attempts to draw 
 from literature practical instruction and lessons in morals. 
 
 PAGE, G. H. Westm. Rev., 139: 646 Personality in Art. 
 
 The writer seeks to establish four propositions: (i) A critic 
 should distinguish a writer's method, his creative power, and 
 his personality ; (2) the individuality of the writer is his diver- 
 gence from the typical man ; (3) the personality of the writer may 
 appear in his work both unconsciously and self-consciously ; 
 (4) the writer may be held accountable for the effect pro- 
 duced by his personality. 
 
 PATER, W. Studies in the History of the Renaissance. Lon- 
 don: 1873. 
 
 Preface. 
 
 Approves of Arnold's definition of criticism. The first step 
 in aesthetic criticism is to realize one's own impressions clearly. 
 
 PATIN, H. J. G. fitudes sur les tragiques grecs. 
 
 Vol. II, p. 415 Kinds of Critical Judgments. 
 
 Critical judgments are of the following kinds or stages : 
 (i) Nai've feeling; (2) reflection directed towards beauties and 
 faults ; (3) theories drawn (a) from experience, (b) from a 
 speculative view of the means and end of art. Criticism may 
 take the form of (i) textual criticism ; (2) historic research 
 directed upon writings or writers. 
 
 PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. Strass- 
 burg: 1889. 
 
 i. Lief., III. Abschn., pp. 152-237 Methodenlehre. 
 Every student of criticism, whether he be a philologist or not, 
 should have some acquaintance with the methods of research 
 which philologists pursue. To such knowledge there is no
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 31 
 
 better guide than the methodology of this monumental work. 
 The treatise comprises four divisions: (i) General Considera- 
 tions, including such subjects as Sources, Inferences from 
 Data, the Comparative Method, etc.; (2) Interpretation (p. 170); 
 
 (3) Textual Criticism (p. 176); (4) Criticism of Evidences 
 (p. 188); (5) History of Language (p. 192); (6) History of 
 Literature. Perhaps the part of most interest to the non-tech- 
 nical reader is that on the history of literature. Paul holds 
 that the business of the historian of literature is not so much 
 to pass a judgment for which he can claim universal validity, 
 as to search for the aesthetic impulse in writer and public 
 through which the work has arisen and has been effective. To 
 accomplish this end the critic should study the impression 
 which the work makes on him and others of his time, and also 
 the impression which it made on the contemporaries of the 
 author. Further, he should compare the effect of this work 
 with that of preceding works, seeking to determine the epoch 
 of taste to^ which it belongs. If, after such a study has been 
 made, he passes judgment upon the work, his evaluation will 
 rest upon a broad, empirical basis, and be susceptible of his- 
 torical verification. 
 
 PERRY, T. S. English Literature in the Eighteenth Century. 
 New York: 1883. 
 
 Pp. 162-174 Addison's influence upon English criticism. 
 
 A scholarly and spirited treatment of an important force in 
 English criticism. 
 
 POPE, A. Essay on Criticism. 
 
 Regarded as a treatise on criticism, not as an ars poetica, 
 Pope's essay discusses (i) the formation of a critical judgment ; 
 (2) the faults of critics ; (3) the qualifications of a good critic ; 
 
 (4) the history of criticism.
 
 32 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 PORTER, NOAH. Books and Reading. New York: 1876. 
 
 Chap. 17, The Criticism and History of Literature, and 
 Chap. 1 8, The Criticism of English Literature, are reprinted 
 from New Englander, 29: 295, where they appeared under the 
 title The New Criticism. This new criticism is said to be of 
 German origin, and its characteristics are given as (i) a more 
 enlarged and profound conception of literature ; (2) a catholic 
 and liberal spirit ; (3) more philosophical methods ; (4) a more 
 generous and genial attitude ; (5) interpretation of the author 
 by means of his times ; (6) interpretation of the times of an 
 author by means of his works. 
 
 POSNETT, H. M. Comparative Literature. London: 1886. 
 Pp. 177-9. 
 
 Looking at literature from a strictly scientific point of view, 
 Professor Posnett has no hesitation in ranking criticism as supe- 
 rior, in important respects, to artistic creation. " The true glim- 
 merings of human divinity are visible, not in the creation of the 
 artist, but in the reflection of the critic." The artist, dwelling 
 in his little world of imagination, working for the most part 
 blindly, and unconsciously, limited by particular conditions of 
 space and time, of current language and thought, lives " a life 
 of limitation fancied to be limitless. If he should know and 
 feel his limits, if he should eat of the fatal tree of science and 
 his eyes be opened, the ideas he expresses are likely to be 
 revealed ephemeral in their essence, and his hands are apt to 
 lose their cunning in a craft that has lost its divinity." The 
 critic, on the other hand, by comparing and contrasting diver- 
 gent social types attains to a scientific freedom of treatment 
 both in idea and language. He loses in enthusiasm but he 
 gains in range and quality of knowledge. He pierces through 
 the veil of appearances, and catches a glimpse of the light 
 which the artist can only imagine.
 
 2.J REFERENCES. 33 
 
 RENAN, J. E. Studies of Religious History and Criticism. 
 Trans, by O. B. Frothingham. New York: 1864. 
 
 Pp. 39-43, 215-262, and passim. 
 
 Detached utterances upon criticism will be found scattered 
 through these brilliant and attractive studies. From the sug- 
 gestive ideas which the author throws out may be selected the 
 following : " Each order of greatness has its own eminence and 
 should not be contrasted with another " (p. 40). ". . . That deli- 
 cate feeling for shades of thought which we call criticism, with- 
 out which there is no insight into the past and consequently 
 no extended understanding of human affairs. It is surprising 
 how destitute the English in general are of that gift of histori- 
 cal intuition, so richly bestowed on Germany, so largely pos- 
 sessed by some minds in France, provided the matter in hand 
 does not involve an antiquity too remote, or an intellectual 
 state differing too much from our own" (p. 310). (Is this just 
 to English critics? Cf. Arnold's Lectures on Translating 
 Homer, in Essays in Criticism : " Almost the last thing for 
 which one would come to English literature is just that very 
 thing which now Europe most desires criticism.") "The 
 critical sense is not inoculated in an hour ; he who has not cul- 
 tivated it by a long scientific and intellectual discipline will 
 always find adverse arguments to oppose to the more delicate 
 intuitions" (p. 217). "Perhaps our age has overworked the 
 term spontaneity in explaining phenomena which neither the 
 experience of the present nor the testimonies of history will 
 enable us to comprehend ; . . . the spontaneous is perhaps 
 simply the obscure " (p. 262). " Criticism displaces admira- 
 tion, but does not destroy it " (p. 263). 
 
 ROBERTSON, J. M. Essays towards a Critical Method. Lon- 
 don: 1889. 
 
 The first part of this work deals with science in criticism, 
 under the four heads : Historic Phases, Recent Nihilism, The
 
 34 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 Problem Stated, Principles of Practice. The resume of the 
 History of Criticism, while unavoidably condensed and incon- 
 clusive, is replete with information concerning the methods of 
 the science from Aristotle, Horace, and Longinus, down to Vida; 
 from Webbe, Puttenham, and Sidney, to Pope ; from Addison 
 to Kames and Hume, and so on to Diderot, Lessing, Sainte- 
 Beuve, Matthew Arnold, Lowell, and Henry James with side- 
 glances at, and incisive judgments upon, Rapin, the Abbe 
 Dubos, Batteux, Rymer, and a great horde of caterpillar critics. 
 The article is admirable ; not so systematic as the lectures of 
 M. Brunetiere in his L'fivolution des Genres dans Phistoire de 
 la Litterature, but suggestive of the methods of the various 
 nations. In Recent Nihilism, pp. 46-65, Mr. Moulton, of the 
 Inductive School, comes in for as thorough a demolition as 
 might justly be meted out to a man proposing an inductive 
 system and (in Mr. Robertson's opinion) practicing methods 
 largely judicial and deductive. The Problem Stated, pp. 65- 
 105, sifts the various theories of a standard of taste, and reviews 
 the results of the Fortnightly 's Symposium (Aug.-Nov. 1887). 
 In Principles of Practice, pp. 105-148, the charge upon the 
 Inductive School is renewed, and some good-natured advice 
 about people who live in glass houses is administered to 
 Mr. W. D. Howells. The studies of Mr. Robertson do not 
 build up a method, but they certainly clear the atmosphere and 
 reveal the possibility of a criticism which may be methodical. 
 Mr. Robertson's formal definition of criticism is found on p. 6 : 
 " The wording of the active or energizing result of the mental 
 impression made by books ; as all art including verse, and all 
 literature as apart from criticism is an energizing result of an 
 impression made by things or actions." For review of the 
 work see Sat. ftev., 67 : 673. 
 
 SACHER-MASOCH, L. VON. Ueber den Werth der Kritik. 
 
 Erfahrungen und Bemerkungen. Leipzig: 1873. 
 Controversial and satirical. The author raises the question
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 35 
 
 whether modern criticism is of any avail, and answers it by print- 
 ing numerous critiques upon his own productions, with charac- 
 teristic comments. All criticism, he decides, is either adver- 
 tisement or polemic. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, C. A. M. de Fe'letz et de la Critique litteraire 
 
 sous 1'Empire. Causeries de Lundi, 25 Fevr. 1850. 
 Sainte-Beuve in this causerie takes a somewhat low view of 
 his art. Criticism by itself can accomplish nothing. It suc- 
 ceeds only when it acts in concert with the public and in col- 
 laboration with it. Criticism is the secretary of the public, 
 divining and expressing every day what the public thinks or 
 desires. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, C. A. Chateaubriand. Nouveaux Lundis, 
 21, 22 Juillet, 1862, Tome 3ieme. Paris: 1884. 
 
 In this double paper Sainte-Beuve expounds in detail his 
 method of literary criticism. Starting with the author of the 
 work, the critic studies him zoologically, as it were, with ref- 
 erence to his race and his habitat. He traces his family 
 history, seeking in the parents (especially the mother), the 
 brothers and sisters, and even the children, the secret of his 
 peculiar individuality. From the family he passes to "le 
 premier milieu," the group of friends and contemporaries who, 
 like a literary family, shared in the author's aims and ambitions. 
 The expressions of his enemies and admirers also furnish clues. 
 The result of this method of study, which places the author in 
 his environment of heredity and influence, is the discovery of a 
 characteristic name by which his peculiar talent may be desig- 
 nated. 
 
 Though Sainte-Beuve calls his method naturalistic, he does 
 not claim for it a place among the exact sciences. The day 
 will indeed come, he thinks, when the great families of genius 
 and their principal divisions shall be accurately determined \
 
 36 LITER A R Y CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 but men in their moral nature are so complex that the critic can- 
 not hope ever to treat them just as he would animals or plants. 
 Criticism must forever remain an art, demanding like the art 
 of medicine a special tact or talent in those who practice it 
 (p. 17). Comments on Sainte-Beuve will be found in Cornhill 
 for July, 1878 (by A. A., presumably Alfred Austin); Robert- 
 son's Essays, p. 42-4, 94, 107, 116, 141-3; the article 'Sainte- 
 Beuve ' in the Encycl. Brit., gth ed., by Matthew Arnold ; Brune- 
 tiere's L' Evolution des Genres, p. 217-243; Dowden's article 
 on French Criticism in Fortnightly, 46: 737; A. Birrell's Res 
 Judicatae (London: 1892), p. 271; Brandes's Litteratur des 
 igten Jahrh. (see supra); P. Deschanel's Figures litteraires 
 (Paris: 1889), p. 127; R. Flint's Historical Philosophy in 
 France, p. 621. 
 
 SAINTSBURV, G. Essays on English Literature. London : 
 1891. 
 
 IX. The Kinds" of Criticism. 
 
 An entertaining essay by an experienced and opinionated 
 critic. The test of the value of any criticism, according to 
 Mr. Saintsbury, is the question, What idea of the original would 
 this criticism give to a tolerably instructed person who did not 
 know the original ? 
 
 SCHERER, EDM. fitudes critiques sur la Litterature contem- 
 
 poraine. 9 vols. Paris: 1863-89. 
 
 Expositions of critical method are given in M. Scherer's 
 admirable studies of Nisard, vol. I, p. 171; of Sainte-Beuve, 
 p. 321; of Taine, vol. II, p. in; of Shakespeare, p. 137; of 
 the Portfolio of Sainte-Beuve, vol. IV, p. 114; of the Method 
 of Taine, p. 253. In vol. I, pp. 239-254, the author treats of 
 historical criticism. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. Sammtliche Werke. Hrsg. von J. Frauen- 
 sta'dt. 6 vols. Leipzig: 1877. 
 
 Bd. 6, pp. 486-512 Ueber Urtheil, Kritik, Beifall und Ruhm.
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 37 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. The Art of Literature. Trans, by B. Saun- 
 ders. London: 1891. 
 
 See p. 87 for translation of Schopenhauer's Essay Ueber Urtheil, 
 
 Kritik, u. s. w. 
 
 One of the most readable of Schopenhauer's shorter essays. 
 The author discusses the relation of criticism to the aesthetic 
 sense, the duties of critics, the test of genius, anonymity in criti- 
 cism, the rarity of critical insight, and numerous related top- 
 ics. The essay contains acute remarks, such, for example, as 
 the saying that critical taste is the feminine of genius ; but it 
 presents no connected theory. 
 
 SHAIRP, J. C. Aspects of Poetry. Boston: 1882. 
 
 Pp. 31-55 Criticism and Creation (repr. from Macm. 38: 246). 
 Traverses Arnold's thesis that the critic prepares the way for 
 the poet. The tendency of the critic is to mar the poet. 
 "The critic has had his day; it is time once more the poet 
 should have his " (p. 48). 
 
 SNIDER, D. J. Goethe's Faust. First part. Chicago: 1886. 
 
 Pp. 75-101 Critical Standards. 
 
 A distinction must be made between the criticism of works of 
 the second or third class and works of the first class. The former 
 may be criticised by rules drawn from models or by native good 
 taste; the latter, the "literary bibles," since they are wholly 
 original and revolutionary, can be judged only by the law of 
 their own being. 
 
 STAFFER, P. Petite Comedie de la critique litteraire, ou Moliere 
 
 selon trois ecoles philosophiques. Paris: 1866. 
 In the introduction to this entertaining little work, Stapfer 
 divides critics into three schools : first, the dogmatic school, 
 which judges according to literary theories ; second, the criti- 
 cal school, which analyzes impressions ; third, the historic 
 school, which seeks the causes of the work in its sources and
 
 38 LITERARY CRITICISM. 2. 
 
 environment. These schools may also be regarded as three 
 stages or movements through which passes the thought of every 
 man who examines the problems of literary criticism. In the 
 dogmatic stage the mind affirms ; in the critical stage it doubts : 
 in the historic stage it returns to beliefs, principles, and meth- 
 ods. This book is the record of a mind that has passed 
 through the three stages. To illustrate his theory the author 
 examines Moliere from the three points of view. The dog- 
 matic school is represented, first, by an essay supposed to be 
 written by a pupil of W. Schlegel ; second, by " Thoughts of a 
 Humorist, or Mosaic from the Poetics of Jean-Paul," imitated 
 from Richter ; third, by a " Meditation of a Hegelian Philoso- 
 pher, or, Picturesque Voyage through Hegel's Aesthetics"; 
 fourth, by a French chorus singing praises of Moliere. To rep- 
 resent the critical and the historic schools, no writers can 
 be found ; but their places are ingeniously supplied by two 
 characters from Moliere's Critique de l'cole des Femmes, 
 Dorante, a man of the world, and Lysidas, a pedantic poet. 
 Dorante, who has turned Kantian, criticises the ideas of 
 Lysidas in two essays, "A Criticism of Literary Dogmatism " 
 and an " Essay on Taste." Lysidas, as a representative of the 
 historic school, replies in three essays : " A Critique of Taste," 
 " Doctrine of the Historic School," and " Moliere." In his 
 conclusion Stapfer takes a despondent tone, being unable to see 
 how the contradictions of the schools can be reconciled. He 
 inclines to the historic school, but finds it too ferocious and 
 inhuman. 
 
 STAFFER, P. Les Artistes juges et parties. Causeries pari- 
 siennes. Paris: 1872. 
 
 Pp. 1-36 La critique litteraire. 
 
 Starting with an idea from Matthew Arnold's essay on the 
 Function of Criticism, Stapfer holds that criticism is inferior to 
 creation, but denies that they are mutually exclusive. The
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 39 
 
 critic may feel some of the joy of the poet. The function of 
 the critic is to take what is best in literature and present it to 
 the public. 
 
 STEDMAN, E. C. Victorian Poets. Boston: 1876. 
 
 In the preface Mr. Stedman sets forth briefly his method of 
 criticism and the principles " out of fashion just now " on 
 which he relies. See, also, pp. 4, 5, for his view of the critic's 
 province, and detached remarks, passim. 
 
 STEDMAN, E. C. The Nature of Poetry. Boston: 1892. 
 
 Consult the index for the author's frequent and pointed 
 remarks upon the relation of poetry and criticism, English criti- 
 cism, the age of criticism, etc. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. The Renaissance in Italy. The Catholic 
 Reaction. London: 1886. 
 
 Pt. 2, pp. 396-402 Fundamental Principles of Criticism. 
 The author's view of criticism may be summed up as 'judg- 
 ment based upon abiding relations between art and human 
 nature.' 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Essays Speculative and Suggestive. Lon- 
 don : 1890. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 84-123 Some Principles of Criticism. 
 Further development of the ideas brought out in the preced- 
 ing reference. Three types of critic are distinguished: The 
 judge, the showman, and the scientific analyst. The good 
 critic is a combination of the three. 
 
 TAINE, H. History of English Literature. Trans, by H. Van 
 Laun. London : 1883. 
 
 Vol. I, p. 1-36 Conditions of Literary Development. 
 Taine's method of criticism is flatly and frankly scientific. 
 Literature is a natural product whose characteristics are to be
 
 40 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 investigated and recorded, like those of trees and flowers. 
 Criticism is thus a kind of botany applied to human works, and 
 the efforts of the critic are devoted to determining the literary 
 system or organism which is made up of the productions of a 
 given period or nation. Within such a system, when it has 
 been found, will be arranged the authors and their works accord- 
 ing to the dominant characteristic of each. The literary activity 
 of any member of such a system is shaped by three influences: 
 
 (1) The race, or influence of heredity and temperament ; 
 
 (2) the environment, political, social, and physical ; (3) the 
 time. Taine's method can be properly studied only in connec- 
 tion with his general theory of art. 
 
 TAINE, H. Essais de critique et d'histoire. Paris: 1858. 
 
 Pp. i-xv Preface De la methode. 
 
 The author explains briefly his method of criticism (see 
 above), which is founded, he says, upon Aristotle and Hegel. 
 
 TOBLER, A. Methodik der philologischen Forschung. (In 
 Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, 1, pp. 251- 
 280.) 
 Similar in purpose to the methodologies of Blass and Boeckh, 
 
 which are noticed above. The topics treated by Tobler are 
 
 as follows : I. Textkritik ; II. Litteraturhistorische Kritik ; 
 
 III. Hermeneutik. 
 
 URLICHS, L. VON. Begriffsbestimmung und Einteilung der 
 Philologie. (In Iwan Muller's Handb. der klassischen 
 Altertumswissenschaft.) 
 
 Pp. 7-15 Kritik und Hermeneutik. 
 
 Urlichs divides criticism into two classes, lower and higher 
 criticism. By the term lower criticism he means textual emenda- 
 tion, conjecture, recension, and the like. The higher criticism, 
 dealing with the work as a whole, is of two kinds : (i) Criticism 
 of the species (Gattungskritik) which judges the work accord-
 
 2.] REFERENCES. 41 
 
 ing to the law of its type and its relation to its time ; and (2) 
 individual criticism, which attributes a work to a particular 
 author, or pronounces it not to be his. Hermeneutics is simi- 
 larly divided. 
 
 VILLEMAIN, A. F. Cours de litterature franchise. Paris: 1861. 
 See vol. Ill, pp. 197-242, of this standard work, for an 
 account of eighteenth century criticism. Three classes of criti- 
 cism are distinguished : dogmatic, historic, and conjectural. 
 
 VILLEMAIN, A. F. Discours et melanges litteraires. Paris : 
 
 1873- 
 
 P. 29 Discours sur les avantages et les inconvenients de la 
 critique. 
 
 Of especial interest on account of the lofty ideal of criticism 
 which it upholds. Villemain believes that criticism may itself 
 be creative. " The good critics cause the differences between 
 the art of judgment and the faculty of production to disap- 
 pear, or rather by pure force of genius, they carry a kind of 
 creation into their examination of the fine arts. They have the 
 air of inventing that which they observe" (p. 31). Reviewed 
 by W. B. O. Peabody in N. A. Rev., 31 : 94. 
 
 WARD, S. G. Criticism. (In Eliz. P. Peabody's Aesthetic 
 
 Papers. Boston: 1849, pp. 5-25.) 
 
 An attempt at a philosophical exposition of the subject. The 
 essence of criticism consists in seeing the world from a new 
 point of view, in finding a point from which facts arrange them- 
 selves in a new and unexpected manner, so that circumstances 
 before isolated are seen as a part of a new whole. "Such 
 criticism is creative in character." 
 
 WESTMINSTER, 80: 468 (p. 215, in Amer. ed.) Aims and 
 
 Methods of Criticism. 
 
 Concerned mainly with the question of criticism and creation 
 apropos of Arnold's essay On the Function of Criticism.
 
 42 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 2. 
 
 WHIPPLE, E. P. Essays and Reviews. 2 vols. Boston : 
 1861. 
 
 Vol. II, p. 208 Shakespeare's Critics (reprinted from N. A. Rev., 
 67:84). 
 
 Criticism has changed from an application of external rules 
 to an interpretation of inward life. 
 
 WILDE, O. iqth Century, 28: 123, 435 The True Function 
 and Value of Criticism. (Reprinted, under the title Critic 
 and Artist, in Intentions. New York: 1891.) 
 An entertaining, though paradoxical and fantastic, argument 
 upholding the value of criticism as a creative art. Extrava- 
 gances and affectations aside, it is an article of remarkable 
 insight and originality. 
 
 WILKINSON, W. C. A Free Lance in the Field of Life and 
 Letters. New York: 1874. 
 
 Pp. 108-113 Qualifications of the Critic. 
 
 The endowment of the critic should include broad knowledge 
 of his subject and related subjects, sympathetic appreciation, 
 and standards of judgment which, although not arbitrary, are 
 yet matters of personal conviction. 
 
 WUNDT, WILH. Logik. Eine Untersuchung der Principien 
 der Erkenntniss und der Methoden wissenschaftlicher 
 Forschung. 2 vols. Stuttgart: 1883. 
 
 Kd. 2 Methodenlehre. 
 
 Hermeneutics and criticism (pp. 518-549) are treated as 
 methods of research employed in the two historical sciences, 
 philology and history. The function of criticism (p. 529) is (i) 
 to distinguish the true from the false, and (2) according to the 
 grade of truthfulness to estimate worth. In discriminating the 
 various kinds of criticism Wundt follows closely the analysis of 
 August Boeckh.
 
 3, A.} GENERAL NOTE. 43 
 
 WYZEWA, T. DE. Revue Bleue, 28 Avril, 1894. Du role de la 
 critique dans la litterature de ce temps. 
 
 The writer laments that the encroachments of criticism upon 
 literature have given to France a Taine and a Renan in place 
 of a Balzac and a Victor Hugo. In an ideal state of culture 
 humanity would have no use for criticism, since works of art are 
 made not to be judged but to be loved. 
 
 Such value as modern criticism has it derives from the 
 originality of the critic's mind. Most of the so-called critics do 
 not criticise at all. Under pretext of writing criticisms they 
 turn off prose poems, narratives, or philosophical reveries 
 graceful transcripts of subtle variations of impression. 
 
 MARSHALL. H. R. Aesthetic Principles. New York: 1895. 
 
 See pp. 84-1 1 r of this excellent little work for a discussion 
 of the aesthetic standards of the critic. Mr. Marshall recog- 
 nizes a hierarchy of standards ranging from the individual 
 standard of the moment to which we refer when we make off- 
 hand judgment, through the " relatively stable individual stand- 
 ard," and the standard of the cultivated man as we conceive 
 him, up to the ideal aesthetic field of the individual. Judicious 
 remarks on the relation of artist to critic, and on the critic's 
 responsibility, are found on pp. 105111. 
 
 3. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 A. EXAMINATION OF CRITIQUES. The student of criticism, at 
 the beginning of his course, is advised to read a few recognized 
 masterpieces of critical workmanship, such as are given below, 
 asking himself, as he reads, the following questions : (i) Is the 
 critic's method inductive or judicial ? (2) If the former, what 
 factors of literary production does he investigate ? What 
 laws of literary growth are stated or implied ? (3) If the 
 critic's method is judicial, what standards of evaluation does he
 
 44 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 use, and what canons are stated or implied ? (4) How closely 
 does he follow Arnold's rule of disinterestedness ? (5) What 
 seems to have been the critic's object in writing his critique ? 
 
 ARNOLD, MATTHEW. Essays in Criticism. 
 
 Essays on Heine, Joubert, and E. de Guerin. 
 ARNOLD, MATTHEW. Essays in Criticism. 2d series. 
 
 Essays on Milton, Gray, Keats, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, 
 Tolstoi, and Amiel. 
 
 AUSTIN, A. The Poetry of the Period. 
 
 Critiques on Tennyson, Browning, Swinburne, Arnold, and 
 Morris. 
 
 BAGEHOT, W. Literary Studies. 
 BRIMLEY, G. Essays. 
 
 Essays on Tennyson, Wordsworth, Patmore, Thackeray, 
 Bulwer, Dickens, and Kingsley. 
 
 BIRRELL, A. Obiter Dicta. 
 
 Critique on Browning. 
 DOWDEN, E. Studies in Literature. 
 DOWDEN, E. Transcripts and Studies. 
 GIFFORD, WM. Quarterly Rn>ieu> for April, 1818, p. 204. 
 
 The famous attack on Keats's Endymion. 
 
 GOSSE, E. Seventeenth Century Studies. 
 
 Essays on Lodge, Webster, Herrick, Cowley, Otway. 
 
 HOWELLS, W. D. Editor's Study, in Harper's Magazine, begin- 
 ning in vol. 72. 
 
 JEFFREY, F. Contributions to the Edinburgh Review. 
 
 See particularly the essay on Wordsworth's Excursion, Nov. 
 1814; the paper on Keats's Endymion and Eve of St. Agnes,
 
 A.} GENERAL NOTE. 45 
 
 Aug. 1820; on the Lay of the Last Minstrel, April, 1805 ; on 
 the Lady of the Lake, Aug. 18.10 ; on Childe Harold, Dec. 1816. 
 
 JOHNSON, SAMUEL. Lives of the Poets. 
 
 No choice need be indicated here. The Life of Milton 
 should not be overlooked. 
 
 LESSING, G. E. The Laokoon, The Hamburg Dramaturgy. 
 LOWELL, J. R. My Study Windows. 
 
 Essays on Swinburne, Chaucer, and Pope. 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Among My Books. 2d series. 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Essays. 
 
 See especially essays on Milton, Dryden, Comic Dramatists 
 of the Restoration, and Robert Montgomery. 
 
 MASSON, D. Essays. 
 
 Essays on Dryden, Swift, and Wordsworth. 
 
 MAZZINI, Jos. Essays. 
 
 Essays on Byron and Goethe, Carlyle, and the Minor Works 
 of Dante. 
 
 NOEL, RODEN. Essays on Poetry and Poets. 
 
 Essays on Shelley, Wordsworth, Keats, Hugo, Tennyson, 
 Browning, and Whitman. 
 
 PATER, W. Appreciations. 
 
 Essays on Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Lamb. 
 SCHERER, EDM. Studies in Contemporary Literature. 
 STEDMAN, E. C. Victorian Poets. 
 STEPHEN, L. Hours in a Library. 2d series. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, C. A. Causeries de Lundi. 3d ed. 
 See especially the essays in vols. i, 3, 6, 7, n, and 13.
 
 46 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 WILSON, J. Recreations of Christopher North. 
 
 See, for further specimens of -criticism, if they are desired, 
 the reviews by Mr. Howells, Mr. Aldrich, and Mr. Scudder, in 
 the Atlantic Monthly ; the earlier numbers of the No. Am. Rez>. ; 
 the Edinburgh, Westminster, Quarterly, and Scottish Reviews; 
 the London Spectator, Athenaeum, Speaker, Academy, and Sat- 
 urday Review ; and the articles by Brunetiere, Ganderax, and 
 Therese Bentzon, in the Rev. d. D. Mondes. Goethe's and Les- 
 sing's critical essays may be looked up in the complete editions 
 of their works. 
 
 The following list is recommended by Prof. Adolfo Bartoli 
 (I migliori libri italiani, Milano : 1892, p. 12) to students who 
 intend devoting themselves to Italian literary criticism : P. Fau- 
 riel, Dante e le origin! della lingua e della letteratura (Palermo: 
 1856); A. D'Ancona, Studi di critica e di storia letteraria 
 (Bologna: 1880); F. D'Ovidio, Saggi critici (Napoli : 1879); 
 P. Rajna, Le fonti dell' Orlando Furioso (Firenze : 1876); 
 P. Villari, Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (Firenze: 1877); F. De 
 Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana (3d ed., Napoli), Saggi 
 critici (jd ed., Napoli), Nuovi saggi critici (2d ed., Napoli); 
 G. Carducci, Poliziano (Preface); D. Comparetti, Virgilio nel 
 medioevo (Liyorno). To these should certainly be added 
 Bartoli's own Storia della letteratura italiana (7 v., Firenze). 
 
 Brandes, Juan Valera, and Belinski' are representative names 
 in Danish-Norwegian, Spanish, and Russian criticism, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 B. SPECIAL TOPICS, i . Criticism in the Philosophical Sense. 
 The term criticism is used in the history of philosophy to des- 
 ignate the philosophical system of Immanuel Kant. The 
 meaning which Kant attached to the term has doubtless had 
 considerable influence in shaping modern views upon the sub- 
 ject; hence it will be well for the advanced student to gain 
 some acquaintance with the Kantian philosophy. Kant's
 
 jR.] GENERAL NOTE. 47 
 
 three critiques are now available in good translations, and 
 should, if possible, be read, especially the critique of Judg- 
 ment (see 8); but if they seem too formidable, Wallace's 
 Kant (Blackwood's Philos. Classics), or the histories of Ueber- 
 weg, Erdmann, or Windelband, will give the desired information 
 in brief compass. Those who care to push their inquiries far- 
 ther may consult with profit the two volumes of Caird's Critical 
 Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, especially the first twenty 
 pages of vol. I. On the critical movement in English thought 
 see Stephen's History of English Thought in the i8th Century 
 (2 vols., New York: 1876), vol. I, p. 34. 
 
 Discussions of hermeneutics from the philosophical point of 
 view are contained in Schleiermacher's Ueber den Begriff der 
 Hermeneutik (in Abhandl. der Berlin. Akad. 1829, and in 
 Werke zur Philos. 3:387), and in Wundt's Logik, Bd. 2, 
 Abschn. IV. Cap. 2 (see 2). On philosophical criticism in 
 general, see Schelling's Ueber das Wesen der philosophischen 
 Kritik (Sammtliche Werke, Stuttgart: 1859, I. Abth. 5. Bd.). 
 
 2. Philological Criticism. The leading methodologies are 
 given in 2. In addition may be mentioned : Biicheler, Philolo- 
 gische Kritik (Bonn: 1878); Steinthal, Ueber die Arten und 
 Formen der Interpretation (in Verhandlungen der 32. Ver- 
 sammlung deutschen Philologen, Wiesbaden: 1877); H. Paul, 
 Paul u. Braune's Beitrage, 5: 428 Nibelungenfrage und philo- 
 logische Methode; O, Froehde, N. Jahrb. f. Phil. u. Paed. 
 147: 433 Begriff u. Aufgabe d. Litteraturwissenschaft ; O. Rib- 
 beck, Rheinisches Museum, 29: 209 Ueber ' unabhangige ' Kritik 
 mit einem Anhang iiber gewissenhafte Exegese ; Bursian, Ar- 
 chaol. Kritik u. Hermeneutik (in Verhandlungen d. 21. Philo- 
 logenversammlung zu Augsburg, 1862, p. 55); Levezow, Ueber 
 archaol. "Kritik u. Hermeneutik (in Abhandl. d. Berliner Akad. 
 1833, pp. 225-248); L. Preller, Grundziige derarchaol. Kritik u. 
 Hermeneutik (in Zeitschr. f. Alterthumswiss. 1845, Suppl. Nr. 
 i3ff.); G. Bernhardy, Grundlinien zur Encyclopadie der Phi-
 
 48 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 lologie, p. 53; C. von Prantl, Verstehen und Beurtheilen (in 
 Munch. Akad. 1877). 
 
 3. Biblical Criticism. Exhaustive discussions of this im- 
 portant phase of criticism will be found in the articles by 
 Ebrard and Landerer on ' Kritik ' and ' Hermeneutik ' in Her- 
 zog's Real-Encyclopadie fur prot. Theologie. Those who do 
 not read German may consult the lectures of Prof. Tholuck, of 
 Halle, translated by E. A. Park, and published in Bibliotheca 
 Sacra i: 178, 332, 552, 726. On pp. 3536 is given an excel- 
 lent account of the controversy regarding the higher and the 
 lower criticism. A recent work of high character is T. K. 
 Cheyne's Founders of Old Testament Criticism (New York : 
 
 4. Historical Criticism. The most systematic treatise is 
 Ernst Bernheim's Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, Leipzig : 
 1889 (see 2). Additional references are: E. B. Andrews, 
 Brief Institutes of General History ; Edm. Scherer's fitudes 
 critiques, vol. I, p. 239-254; E. Dottain, Rci\ contcmp. 1862- 
 II: 452 Nouveau systeme de critique historique ; Floto, Ueber 
 historische Kritik ; A. Rhomberg, Die Erhebung der Geschichte 
 zum Range einer Wissenschaft, 1883; H. Sidgwick, Mind, n: 
 203 The Historical Method ; G. Waitz, Hist. Zeitschrift, 6: 349 
 Zur Wiirdigung von Ranke's historischer Kritik ; Ed. Zeller, 
 Hist. Zcitschr. 6:356 Die hist. Kritik und das Wunder ; 
 A. Ritschl, Hist. Zeitschr. 8: 85 Erlauterungen u. s. w. ; Ed. 
 Zeller, Hist. Zts. 8: 100 Zur Wiirdigung der Ritschl'schen 
 Erlauterungen; L. Weiland, Hist. Zts. 58: 310 Quelleneclition 
 und Schriftstellerkritik ; C. K. Adams, The Study of History, 
 Introduction to his Manual of Historical Literature (Harpers). 
 
 5. Musical Criticism. But a few references out of many 
 can be given on this point. Of value to the general student 
 are Hueffer's Italian Studies, pp. 213-237; Gurney's Power of 
 Sound, chap. 23, and Tertium Quid ; R. de Re'cy's La Critique 
 musicale au siecle dernier, Rev. d. D. Mondes, \ Jan. 1887;
 
 B.} GENERAL NOTE. 49 
 
 Sat. Rev. 72: 187; 73:332; V. Stanford, Fortnightly, N. s., 
 55: 826 Musical Criticism in England; J. F. Runciman, Fort- 
 nightly, N. s., 56: 170 Musical Criticism and the Critics. 
 
 6. Art Criticism. On this head see Colvin, Fortnightly, 
 32:210; Fleeming Jenkin, Papers, Literary, Scientific, etc. 
 (London : 1887), vol. I, p. 93; R. St. J. Tyrwhitt, Contemporary, 
 1 1 : 1 01 ; Herder, Werke, Bd. i, p. 245, Ursprung des Kunstrich- 
 ter; H. Grimm, Deutsche Rundschau, 51:398 Bemerkungen 
 iiber Werth und Wirkung der Kunstkritik ; Atlantic, 39 : 486 
 Artists and Art Criticism; Scribner, N. s., 9: 132 Artists as 
 Critics; Jonathan Richardson, Works (London: 1792), II. Es- 
 say on the Art of Criticism ; Mrs. M. W. Costelloe, iqth Cen- 
 tury, 35 : 828 The New and the Old Art Criticism (favors the 
 scientific study of art); H. Helferich, Kunst fur Alle, 1891, pp. 
 164, 1 80 Kunstler und Kunstkritiker ; F. Brunetiere, Histoire 
 et litterature (3 vols., Paris: 1884-6), i: 129 La critique d'art 
 au xvii e siecle ; A. Bougot, Essai sur la critique d'art, ses prin- 
 cipes, sa methode, son histoire en France (Paris: 1877), 
 
 7. Curiosities of Criticism. Collections of the mistakes of 
 the critics, being usually made for purposes of entertainment, 
 are as a general thing not very trustworthy. If use is made of 
 them the references should be carefully verified. Among the 
 best of the kind are T. Hall Caine's Cobwebs of Criticism ; 
 Jennings's Curiosities of Criticism ; Allingham's Varieties in 
 Prose (3 vols., London: 1893), vol. Ill, p. 313 ; W. Mathews's 
 Great Conversers, p. 239; A. Repplier's Books and Men (Bos- 
 ton: 1888), p. 125; W. S. Walsh's Paradoxes of Philosophy 
 (Philadelphia: 1889), p. 45; Disraeli's Curiosities of Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 8. National Types of Criticism. These are best studied 
 from the original sources by a comparison of the critical essays 
 of Arnold, Lowell, Sainte-Beuve, Goethe, Brandes, De Sanctis, 
 and other representatives of national criticism. The following 
 references may be helpful : AMERICAN : H. H. Boyesen, Ameri-
 
 50 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 can Literary Criticism and its Value, Forum, 15: 459; C. A. 
 Bristed, American Criticism, N. A. Rev., 114: 23. BRITISH: 
 A. H. Everett, Tone of British Criticism, N. A. Rev., 31: 26; 
 Mrs. M. O. W. Oliphant, Literary History of England (3 vols., 
 London: 1882), vol. II, p. 35, English Critics; C. C. Felton, 
 British Criticism, N. A. Rev., 43: 407; E. P. Whipple, Essays 
 and Reviews, vol. II, British Critics (also in N. A. Rev., 61: 
 468); W. H. Prescott, British Criticism, JV. A. Rev. 49: 325. 
 FRENCH: H. Harisse, French Criticism, N. A. Rev., 93:99; 
 Atlantic, 65: 708 some recent volumes of French Criticism; 
 J. Levallois, Corrcspondant, N.S., 55 (1873): 904 Critique lit- 
 te'raire en France, sa tradition et ses devoirs ; W. Rells, Vossische 
 Zeitung, 1891, No. 21 Die psychologische Kritik in Frankreich ; 
 At/antic, 43:650 Zola as a critic; Peschier, Phases de la 
 Critique en France, Herrigs Anhir, 1 1 : 294 ; Rev. d. D. 
 Mondcs, 3 : 59, 593 La Critique sous le premier Empire. ITALIAN : 
 P. Ferrieri, Francesco De Sanctis e la critica letteraria (Milano : 
 1888); G. Trezza, La critica moderna (2d ed., Bologna : 1880). 
 GERMAN : G. H. Lewes, Life and Works of Goethe (2 vols., 
 London: 1855), vol. II, p. 201 German philosophical criticism 
 of literature. 
 
 (See, also, supra, Brunetiere, Dowden, Caro, Scherer, and the 
 references under 5.) 
 
 9. Practical Aspects of Criticism. Phases of this subject 
 are touched upon by most of the English and American writers 
 on criticism whose works are cited above. Additional refer- 
 ences are the following : J. C. Adams, Literary Log-Rolling, 
 Forum, 2:515; E. Fawcett, Should Critics be Gentlemen? 
 Lippincott, 39: 163 (reprinted in Agnosticism, New York: 1889, 
 p. 194); W. Knight, Criticism as a Trade, iqth Century. 26: 423; 
 A. J. Church, Criticism as a Trade (reply to Knight's article), 
 iqtti Century, 26:833; A. Lang, Manners of Critics, Forum, 
 4: 58; G. H. Lewes, English Errors and Abuses of Criticism, 
 Westtn., 38: 466; C. Thomas, Ethics of Criticism, Nation, 45:
 
 C] GEA^ERAL NOTE. 51 
 
 269; Should Critics be Gentlemen ? Sat. Rev., 63 : 41 ; W. Wat- 
 son, Critics and their Craft, National, 16: 789 (reprinted in 
 Excursions in Criticism, London : 1893, p. 81); Scribner, 6: 238 
 Conscience and Courtesy in Criticism, 9:625 Indecencies of 
 Criticism; Atlantic, 53: 578 Ignorant Criticism; R. Blake, 
 Anonymous Criticism (London: 1877). 
 
 C. MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES ON CRITICISM. J. L. Allen, 
 Caterpillar Criticism, Forum, 4: 332; H. F. Amiel, Journal 
 intime, vol. II, pp. 72, 238-40, 244; W. Archer, About the 
 Theatre (London: 1886), p. 203 English of Critics; J. C. 
 Bailey, A Plea for Critics, Murray, 10: 923; R. Buchanan, The 
 Coming Terror (London: 1891), p. 143 The Modern Young 
 Man as Critic; J. Buckham, Human Element in Criticism, 
 Critic, 22: 268; G. R. Carpenter, Literary Criticism, Harvard 
 Mo,, 7: 185; M. A. Dodge, Skirmishes and Sketches, p. 399 
 Critics; Essays from the Nation (New York: 1867), II. Crit- 
 ics and Criticism ; W. Hazlitt, Table-Talk (2d ed., 2 vols., Lon- 
 don: 1824), p. 117 On Criticism (rails at bad critics); W. Haz- 
 litt, Round Table (London : 1884), Commonplace Critics ; 
 W. C. Hazlitt, Offspring of Thought (London: 1884), p. 145 
 Progress of Criticism ; W. C. Hazlitt, Sketches and Essays 
 (London: 1839), p. 227 On Taste (the best critic is he who \ 
 feels to the utmost); A. Helps, Brevia (London: 1871), Crit- 
 ics, How to Bear Criticism, the Slyly-denigrating kind of 
 Criticism (brief notes on criticism, of no great value) ; A. Helps, 
 Friends in Council (4 vols., London: 186972), ist ser. I. On 
 Giving and Taking Criticism, 2d ser. I. Criticism (principally 
 moral reflection on bad and hasty criticism, etc.); J. G. Holland, 
 Every-day Topics (2 vols., New York: 1892), vol. I, p. 53 Criti- 
 cism ; T. H. Huxley, Nature, 27: 396 Art and Science (see p. 
 397 on the critical element in art appreciation) ; W. Irving, 
 Biography and Miscellanies (New York: 1866), p. 447 Desul- 
 tory Thoughts on Criticism (doubts " whether either writer
 
 52 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 or reader is benefited by what is commonly called criticism"); 
 S. S. Kingdon, Writer, 2: 222 Rules of Criticism; V. Knox, 
 Essays (3 vols., London: 1823), vol. I, p. 155 Modern Criti- 
 cism; A. Lang, National, 19:603 A Critical Taboo; Literary 
 World (Boston), 22: 110 Criticism of Books; Macmillan, 60: 
 134 Critics in Court; B. Matthews, New Rei>., 3: 455 Whole 
 Duty of Critics (reprinted in Americanisms, New York: 1892; 
 draws up "12 good rules for critics"); B. Matthews, Recent 
 Essays in Criticism, Cosmopolitan, 12: 124; W. Mathews, Lit- 
 erary Style, p. 100 Folly of Sensitiveness to Criticism; E. S. 
 Nadal, Essays (London: 1882), p. 261 Newspaper Literary 
 Criticism ; T. Purnell, Literature and its Professors (London : 
 1867), p. 14 Weight of Criticism; A. Rickett, Modern Criti- 
 cism, National, 21: 717; J. Ruskin, Arrows of the Chace, vol. 
 II, pp. 235-264; E. F. Wheeler, Critic on the Hearth, Lippin- 
 cott, 43:755; Atlantic, 66:712 A Critic on Criticism; J. F. 
 Genung, The Practical Elements of Rhetoric, pp. 302-7 Inter- 
 pretation, pp. 4045 Criticism ; Scribner, 5 : 384 Criticism ; 
 Scribner, N.S., 8: 658 Mechanical Criticism; Atlantic, 40: 102 
 A New Kind of Criticism, 44: 257 Change in Criticism, 56: 
 138 Criticism of a Critic, 59: 283 The Book Notice and the 
 Criticism ; W. James, Principles of Psychology (2 vols., New 
 York: 1890), vol. 2, p. 365; I. Disraeli, The Calamities and 
 Quarrels of Authors (London : 1860), p. 51 Influence of Bad 
 Temper in Criticism, p. 139 Undue Severity of Criticism, 
 p. 423 Political Criticism on Literary Composition ; J. Runci- 
 man, Side Lights (London : 1893), Colour-Blindness in Litera- 
 ture (on individual opinion as opposed to received standards, 
 on sham admiration, etc.); Catharine B. La Monte, Poet-Lore, 
 6: 332 A Brief Defense of Criticism ; H. James, Author, 3: 67 
 Literary Criticism ; A. Birrell, New Rev., 6 : 97 Critics and 
 Authors; Blatter f. literarische Unterhaltung, i (1857): 130 
 Kritik und kiinstlerisches Schaffen, 183 Kritik und Anti- 
 Kritik, 262 Zur Kritik (the service of criticism is to cultivate
 
 C.] GENERAL NOTE. 53 
 
 a sense for good art and prevent dilettanteism); A. Neugraf, 
 Deutsche Zeitung, 7096, Krit. u. Rasonnement; F. Spielhagen, 
 Aus meiner Studienmappe (Beitrage z. litt. Aesth. und Kritik, 
 2 Aufl., Berlin: 1891), pp. 1-46 Produktion, Kritik und Publi- 
 kum (the critic a necessary medium between the artist and his 
 mixed public); A. Liibben, Herrigs's Arckiv., 6: 349 Die 
 Kritik, besonders die aesthetische Kritik ; Herrig's Archiv., 
 45 : 35 Ueber die aesthetische-psychologische Beurtheilung der 
 Poesie ; B. Mazzarella, Delia critica (Geneva : 1866), vol.1, 
 pp. 1-33; Necker, Unsere Zeit, 1889-! 1 : 273 Werth der Kritik ; 
 Th. Lipps, Zts. f. vergl. Litterattirgeschichte, 5 : 438 Tragik, 
 Tragodie und wissenschaftliche Kritik ; G. Barzellatti, Nuova 
 Antologia, 16 Gennaio, 1890 Francesco De Sanctis (see pp. 323, 
 324, for an exposition after Villari, of De Sanctis' method 
 of criticism); Chas. de Remusat, Rev. d. D. Mondes, i Nov. 
 1863 L'Art par la critique ; Gustave Planche, Rev. d. D. Mondes, 
 i Mai 1856 Mceurs et devoirs de la critique ("The aim of the 
 critic should be to envisage under all its aspects the work of 
 the poet, the historian, the philosopher"); C. de Mazade, Rev. 
 d. D. Mondes, 15 Juillet 1867, p. 499 Le realisme dans la 
 critique (criticism of Taine's methods); The'odore Dupuy, 
 Melanges litteraires et historiques (Milan: 1886), I. De la 
 critique litteraire ; J. Barbey d'Aurevilly, Les ridicules du temps 
 (2 e ed., Paris: 1883), pp. 113 La comedie de la critique (writ- 
 ten 1867; abuses bad critics, and asserts that criticism is 
 dead), p. 27 Les chats de la critique (written 1866; two 
 things constitute the essence of criticism : positiveness and 
 clearness). 
 
 The works of Sir Egerton Brydges contain frequent discus- 
 sions of criticism. The following references are to the Censura 
 Literaria (10 vols., London: 18059): i: 349, 2: i Puttenham's 
 Art of Poesie ; 2: 275 Webbe's Discourses, 364 James's Essayes 
 of a Prentise, 234 Notices regarding several old English Poets; 
 7: 400 Severity of Fashionable Criticism. In the Anti-Critic
 
 54 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 3. 
 
 (Geneva : 1822), pp. 1-4 treat of the character of modern criti- 
 cism ; pp. 4-29, of modern taste in poetry; pp. 49-57, of the 
 true principles of poetry. 
 
 In Johnson's Cyclopaedia, under 'Critic' and 'Criticism/ 
 in Vapereau's Dictionnaire Universel des Litteratures, under 
 ' Critique,' will be found articles of merit. The article in 
 Vapereau is of some length. 
 
 On the use of the word KPLTIKOS among the Greeks and 
 Romans, see the citations from classical authors in Prof. A. 
 Gudeman's Outlines of the History of Classical Philology 
 (Boston: 1894), pp. 3, 4. 
 
 For further references on criticism, see Gayley and Scott's 
 Guide to the Literature of Aesthetics (Berkeley: 1890): pp. 47- 
 49 Histories of Art; pp. 50-53 Treatises on the Arts in Gen- 
 eral; pp. 53-72 Special Treatises on the different Arts, 
 classified under Architecture, Sculpture, Ceramics, Painting, 
 Engraving, Etching, etc., and Music; pp. 73-107 Literature.
 
 PAHT II. HISTORY OF CRITICISM. 
 
 4. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS. 
 
 THE history of criticism may be taken to mean either of two 
 things : The history of the practice of criticism, or the history 
 of critical theory. While the two are intimately related, they 
 have not always advanced at the same rate of progress, nor 
 developed along lines which are exactly parallel. For purposes 
 of study and investigation, therefore, they may be regarded as 
 measurably distinct. 
 
 /. Development of Criticism as Practice. A. For the 
 origin of criticism we must go back to very early times. Ex- 
 pressions of approval or disapproval that may be looked upon 
 as primitive critical utterances, are found in some of the old- 
 est monuments of literature. According to Mr. Bosanquet 
 (History of Aesthetic, p. 12) the following passage from the 
 Iliad (xvii, 548) on the shield of Achilles, is one of the earliest 
 aesthetic judgments in Western literature : " The earth looked 
 dark behind the plough, and like to ground that had been 
 ploughed, although it was made of gold ; that was a marvellous 
 piece of work." (Cf. Egger, pp. 15.) Whether the Homeric 
 poems contain criticisms of literature, as well as criticisms of art, 
 is a question the student should investigate for himself. (See 
 Iliad iii, 300, and Mr. Bosanquet's observation on the passage, 
 Hist, of Aesthetic, p. 102.) The Vedas, the Nibelungen Lied, 
 Old-English poetry, the Kalevala, and other early literatures 
 may be examined with the same end in view. 
 
 The causes, psychological or social, which give rise to ex- 
 pressions of criticism may also be explored. These may be
 
 56 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 4, i. 
 
 brought out by questions such as the following : Of what is 
 criticism the outcome ? Of curiosity, as held by Mr. Arnold 
 (essay on Function of Criticism) ? Of curiosity and self-expres- 
 sion combined, as suggested by Mr. Robertson (Essays, p. i) ? 
 Of egotism ? Of wonder ? Of admiration ? Of the competi- 
 tion of poets or schools of poets ? Of a universal spirit of de- 
 nial or pessimism ? Or of " a divine discontent " ? An inter- 
 esting subject for investigation is the question whether criticism 
 in literature, as in philosophy (according to Kant), is preceded 
 by dogmatism and skepticism. 
 
 These are questions to be asked in specific cases when the 
 student has the evidence before him. 
 
 B. The principle or law of development in the practice of 
 criticism should be examined both deductively and inductively. 
 
 1. Working deductively, we may inquire whether the nature 
 of criticism is such that in its history a law of evolution, or of 
 progression, or of rhythmical alternation, is likely to be exem- 
 plified. Is it not so bound up with its object-matter, litera- 
 ture, that independent development is impossible ? 
 
 2. Working inductively, we must first determine what shall 
 be regarded as a sign of advance in criticism, whether (a) 
 increase in intellectual activity ; (l>) in amount of production ; 
 (<r) in ability to deal adequately with past literature ; (</) in abil- 
 ity to estimate the value of current literature ; (e) in ability to 
 forecast the literary future ; (/) in catholicity of appreciation ; 
 or (g) in rationality of critical judgment. Furnished with a 
 provisional test of this kind, we may examine in chronological 
 order the critical utterances of a period or a people, noting, as 
 we read, the signs of progress, of retrograde, or of rhythmical 
 ebb and flow. The relation of criticism to the character of the 
 age and the spirit of the people should also receive attention, 
 as well as the influence of a preceding age on a following, and 
 of one people upon another. Questions which should be
 
 C-D.} DEVELOPMENT OF CK1T1CISM AS PRACTICE. 57 
 
 kept in view are : Whether the same principle of growth is ob- 
 served in all countries and at all times ; and whether this prin- 
 ciple of growth is independent of, or intimately related to, the 
 principle which determines the growth of literature. 
 
 C. STAGES OF GROWTH. Critical practice, if it develops in 
 an orderly way, should exhibit well-marked stages of progres- 
 sion. One kind or phase of criticism should come into being, 
 rise, flourish, decay, and pass into another kind or phase. As a 
 fact, do such stages appear in the history of criticism ? If so, the 
 student should note at what points the lines of demarcation oc- 
 cur, and the reasons why they occur where they do. He should 
 observe whether criticism tends to pass from negative to posi- 
 tive, from abstract to concrete ; and where a succession of 
 stages has been discovered he should endeavor to arrive at the 
 leading characteristic of each. Such orders of succession as 
 are indicated by the terms (i) Synthetic, (2) Analytic, (3) Or- 
 ganic ; or the terms (i) Clan, (2) Individual, (3) Social, may 
 be suggested as helpful ; but the student should not adopt them 
 as working bases without careful, independent research. 
 
 It may not be superfluous to suggest the following simple and 
 convenient chronological division : i. Ancient, including (a) 
 Oriental, () Greek, (t) Roman ; 2. Mediaeval ; 3. Renaissance ; 
 4. Modern. 
 
 D. DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES OF CRITICISM. A comparison 
 may be made of different countries to determine whether the 
 different kinds of criticism develop everywhere in similar fash- 
 ion. The student should note whether activity in one kind 
 of criticism is always accompanied by activity in other kinds. 
 The question should also be asked whether the various types 
 of literary criticism, as judicial and inductive, appear contem- 
 poraneously. Most writers who touch upon them assume that 
 one follows and grows out of the other, e.g., inductive follows 
 judicial criticism (Moulton). But is this borne out by the facts ?
 
 58 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 4, i. 
 
 E. Certain periods in literary history are distinguished as 
 periods of great critical activity. Examples are the Alexan- 
 drian age of Greek literature, the eighteenth century in English 
 literature, the present century in French literature. They are 
 often set over against periods of great creative activity, such as 
 the age of the tragic poets of Greece and the Elizabethan age 
 of England. An age of criticism is often said to alternate with 
 an age of creation. Matthew Arnold (On the Function of 
 Criticism) holds that critics set in motion the ideas which the 
 creative writer makes use of when his turn comes. 
 
 It will be well to examine the critical literature of so-called 
 creative periods, in order to determine the amount and value of 
 it. In some cases it will be found more extensive and of much 
 greater importance than is generally supposed. (See Macaulay, 
 Essay on Dryden ; F. E. Schelling, Criticism of the Reign of 
 Elizabeth ; Egger, Essai sur Phistoire de la critique.) 
 
 F. RELATION OF THE GROWTH OF CRITICISM TO THE GROWTH OF 
 LITERATURE. This topic presents for consideration two phases : 
 The effect of criticism on the growth of literature, and the effect 
 of literature on the growth of criticism. 
 
 i. Criticism, according to some writers (Caine, Arnold, 
 Bascom, Grucker), can hasten, retard, or divert the currents of 
 literary energy. It can get the ear of the public for an author 
 who would otherwise remain obscure ; it can hold back for 
 many years the recognition due to genius ; it can lead or drive 
 a writer into modes of expression which, if he were left to his 
 own impulses, he would not choose to cultivate. By others all 
 these statements are denied. Indeed, the facts that are brought 
 forward by one side to prove the critic's power, are some- 
 times regarded by the other side as evidences of his impo- 
 tence. It may be that both extremes are wrong, and that 
 the truth lies somewhere between them. Thus, it may be that 
 different kinds of criticism are of different degrees of effective-
 
 F-G.} DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICISM AS THEORY. 59 
 
 ness. If negative criticism has no deterrent influence, con- 
 structive criticism may yet have power to hasten. Inductive 
 criticism may prevail after judicial criticism has spent itself in 
 vain. (See Howells, Robertson, Sainte-Beuve.) 
 
 2. Under the second head, the influence of literature on 
 criticism, an interesting question is as to the effect which a new 
 and splendid work of genius exerts upon critical opinion. The 
 effect of Shakespeare's plays, of Milton's Paradise Lost, of 
 Goethe's Faust, of the novels of Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, and 
 George Eliot, upon the movement of European criticism, may 
 be studied in contemporary pamphlets, essays, and reviews. 
 Another question is whether critical practice lags behind liter- 
 ary creation. It has been said that the critic can do no more 
 than convince his generation. (Robertson, Essays, p. 93.) Is 
 this true? Has not criticism at times outstripped creative > 
 literature, so called ? Has not some critic in each epoch fore- | 
 seen the course of literary development ? 
 
 G. INFLUENCE OF OTHER MOVEMENTS OF THOUGHT UPON CRITI- 
 CISM. How is critical practice affected by movements in re- 
 ligion ? In art ? In industry ? In politics ? In science ? In 
 education ? (On the Puritan element in criticism, see Robert- 
 son, Essays, pp. 15, 17.) 
 
 //. Development of Criticism as Theory. By criticism as 
 theory we mean the principles which critics have brought for- 
 ward as the ground of their judgments or as the basis of their 
 methods of procedure. As grounds of judgment they may or 
 may not be the same as the principles of artistic or literary 
 practice. The critic may work upon one principle, the artist 
 whom he criticises upon another. Again, the critic's practice 
 may not conform to his theory. (This charge has frequently 
 been brought against Taine, as by Brunetiere. See, also, 
 Robertson's review of Moulton.)
 
 60 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 4, //. 
 
 Most of the questions upon criticism as practice will apply 
 to critical theory as well. The following scheme of study is 
 presented : 
 
 1. First Appearance of a Theory of Criticism. (a) To be 
 discovered by an examination of early literatures. What writer 
 first gives reasons for his expressions of approval or disap- 
 proval ? (b~) What principles underlie the earliest criticisms, 
 and why should these principles get the start of the rest ? 
 
 2. Provenience of Critical Theories. Where and when did 
 the various principles of criticism come into being ? Many 
 of them have been handed down from early times, and trans- 
 mitted from nation to nation with the progress of culture. 
 Many are known to be of recent origin. Possibly examples 
 may be found of independent rediscovery of old principles. 
 
 3. Law of Development. Does the body of critical theory 
 grow by accretion ? By the development of contradictions, 
 which, destroying one another, give place to new principles ? 
 By the development of specialized forms, or members with spe- 
 cific functions, like a plant or an animal ? Where seek for the 
 principle of critical evolution in psychology, anthropology, 
 philosophy, sociology, or biology ? Mr. Robertson (Essays, 
 PP- 95 > 96) suggests Herbert Spencer's law of economy (Essay 
 on Style) as a fundamental principle according to which diver- 
 gent opinions tend to unanimity. 
 
 4. Stages of Growth. The stages of development in art- 
 theory outlined in the general histories of aesthetics, such as 
 Schasler's and Bosanquet's, may be applied with little change 
 to the history of criticism. (See 8.) The same may be said 
 of the periods or movements indicated in the standard histories 
 of literature. How far do these divisions correspond to the 
 stages of criticism as such ? 
 
 5. Relation of Critical Theory to Literature. Does criticism 
 lay down laws and principles for literature, or does literature 
 give laws and principles to criticism ? (Moulton, Robertson.)
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 61 
 
 In the works of reputable writers probably every critical theory 
 is exemplified ; but which came first, the theory or the work ? 
 The question should be answered by a comparative study of the 
 literatures of several periods or of several nationalities. 
 
 6. Influence of Science upon Critical Theory. The effect of 
 the scientific spirit upon recent critical theories and methods, 
 as in the case of Taine, Sainte-Beuve, Brunetiere, and Moulton, / 
 is a striking phenomenon. It will be interesting to note what 
 each of the scientific critics understands by the term science, 
 and the use each makes of it. Are these theories really scien- 
 tific or only quasi-scientific ? Or perhaps pseudo-scientific ? 
 
 ///. Relation of Critical Theory to Critical Practice. The 
 
 main question to be asked under this head is the following : In 
 the case of any particular critic, how far is his critical theory 
 adequate to the task which he has undertaken ? A similar 
 question may be asked with regard to the critical literature of a 
 given period, or of a nation. (See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesthetic, 
 PP- 4, 15-) 
 
 5. REFERENCES. 
 
 ALLEN, G. Fortnightly, 37: 339 Decay of Criticism. 
 See 2. 
 
 BAGEHOT, W. Literary Studies. 2 vols. London : 1879. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 1-40 The First Edinburgh Reviewers. 
 Mainly concerned with the characteristics of Homer, Jeffrey, 
 and Sydney Smith. 
 
 BASCOM, JOHN. Philosophy of English Literature. New York : 
 1893. 
 
 Pp. 155-209 The Critical Movement from Pope to Johnson. 
 Beginning with a consideration of the balance existent be- 
 tween creative and critical periods, the author enters upon an
 
 62 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 inquiry into the causes that induced what he calls the First 
 Critical Period in English Literature. This period he divides 
 into a first and a second phase ; he discusses the relation of the 
 French influence, of the classical influence, of the scientific and 
 political influences of the age to the incipient school of criti- 
 cism, and exemplifies by a study of Swift, Pope, Addison, and 
 Steele, as critics. Under the second phase are discussed the 
 general influence of theological inquiry, and the special influence 
 of Samuel Johnson upon the litera-ry temper of the age. 
 
 BINTZ, J. Der Einfluss der Ars Poetica des Horaz auf die 
 deutsche Literatur des xviii. Jahrhunderts. Progr. Ham- 
 burg: 1892. 
 
 The text of the Ars Poetica, accompanied by copious foot- 
 notes showing by whom and to what purpose the text was cited 
 in German literature of the last century. The author intended 
 an introduction, but died in the midst of his labors. 
 
 BOSANQUET, B. History of Aesthetic. 
 
 Indispensable to the student of the history of criticism. 
 For notice see 8. 
 
 BORINSKI, K. Die Poetik der Renaissance und die Anfange 
 
 der litterarischen Kritik in Deutschland. Berlin : 1886. 
 An account, interesting, and in the main accurate, of the de- 
 velopment of poetical theory and criticism from Opitz to 
 Gottsched. 
 
 BOURGOIN, AUGUSTE. Les Maitres de la critique au xvii e 
 
 siecle. Paris: 1889. 
 
 A brief introduction, pp. 515, discusses the criticism of the 
 seventeenth century in its general features. The authors 
 selected for treatment in the body of the work are Chapelain, 
 Saint-Iwremond, Boileau, La Bruybre, and Fe'nelon.
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 63 
 
 BRANDES, G. Die Litteratur des igten Jahrhunderts. 
 
 Bd. 5, pp. 374-387 Sainte-lteuve und die moderne Kritik. 
 An interesting and valuable chapter. Sainte-Beuve is looked 
 upon as the reformer of modern literary criticism. 
 
 BRAITMAIER, FRIEDR. Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und 
 Kritik von den Discursen der Maler bis auf Lessing. 
 2 Thl. Frauenfeld: 1888-9. 
 Perhaps the best connected account of this period of German 
 
 criticism. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. La Critique litte'raire. Part of the arti- 
 cle ' Critique ' in the Grande Encyclopedie. 
 In the first division of this article M. Brunetiere gives in brief 
 outline the history of criticism, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. 
 Ancient criticism began by observation of the development and 
 the laws of literary types ; it closed by furnishing the poet a 
 means of imitating models. Aristotle was the true founder of 
 criticism. Others of importance in ancient times were The- 
 ophrastus, Aristoxenus, Aristarchus, Zoilus, Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassus, Lucius Aelius Stilo, Varro, Horace, Cicero, Tacitus, 
 Quintilian, Plutarch, Dio Chrysostom (whose Olympic Discourse 
 is the first essay in criticism of art), Aristides the Orator, 
 Hermogenes, Lucian, and Longinus. In the middle ages there! 
 was little criticism, because mediaeval man, being a part of his! 
 caste or corporation, was not master of his ideas. The litera- 
 ture of the middle ages is impersonal, universal, anonymous. 
 The only critics of this period are Dante (in his De vulgari 
 Eloquio) and Petrarch (in his philological investigations). In 
 the Renaissance, philological criticism arose to resume the inter- 
 rupted work of the Alexandrian school. In modern times the 
 only country which has had a definite history of criticism is 
 France ; she furnishes the scheme for the history of criticism in 
 all other European countries.
 
 64 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 In the remainder of this part of his article Brunetiere traces 
 the history of French criticism, following the same plan as in 
 his L' Evolution de la Critique. (For a notice of the second 
 division of the article see 2.) 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. L' Evolution des Genres dans 1'histoire de 
 la Litterature. Tome i er . Paris: 1890. 
 
 Pp. 35278 L'fivolution de la critique depuis la renaissance 
 jusqu'a nos jours. 
 
 In a series of lectures delivered to the students of the ficole 
 normale superieure, M. Brunetiere sketches with a rapid hand 
 the rise and development of the spirit of modern criticism. He 
 finds it beginning in Italy in the period of the Renaissance. It 
 came into existence as the result of two causes : (i) The redis- 
 covery of the classics ; (2) (following Burckhardt's Civilization 
 in Italy) the growth of the sense of personality. The first led 
 to philological criticism of a pedantic kind, the second to rivalry 
 and envy, and so to criticism in the sense of fault-finding. 
 When criticism passed over into France, laying aside its pedan- 
 try and its satire it became at first strictly literary, then in turn 
 aesthetic, philosophical, historical, and scientific. 
 
 Beginning with Joachim du Bellay's Defense et illustration de 
 la langue franchise, M. Brunetiere takes up the principal French 
 critics in chronological order, and assigns each his proper place. 
 Du Bellay, by setting up imitation of the ancients as the 
 standard of the French language and literature, broke with 
 mediaeval traditions, dissevered national life and national liter- 
 ature, gave the norm to the Ple'iade, and laid the foundation of 
 the classic spirit in France which endures to our day. Scaliger 
 with his Poetics (1607) set aside Greek models in literature and 
 criticism, and substituted for them Roman models like the 
 Aeneid and Horace's Ars Poetica. He introduced also precise 
 classifications and definitions. With Malherbe criticism became 
 formal ; regularity, order, and correctness were emphasized at
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 65 
 
 the expense of emotion and imagination. Chapelain was the first 
 to seek principles wider in their application than the personal 
 impression of the critic. He tried, also, to discover the ' law of 
 the type ' in the works that he examined, though he fell into the 
 error of confounding ' les lois ' with 'les regies.' Boileau rep- 
 resents the reaction of the bourgeois spirit upon the aristocratic 
 spirit in French literature. His critical doctrine is the rational 
 imitation of nature. Because he believed that ancient writers 
 best imitated nature, Boileau taught imitation of the classics. 
 This part of his doctrine was attacked by Perrault in the Paral- 
 lele des Anciens et des Modernes, and thus was begun a con- 
 troversy on the relative merits of classic and contemporary 
 literature which weakened faith in the infallibility of Boileau's 
 principle, and resulted in a great extension of the field of criti- 
 cism. With Perrault came in the ideas of naturalism and rela- 
 tivity, the first taking form under the hands of Diderot, the 
 second culminating on the one hand in the extreme individual- 
 ism of Rousseau, and on the other in the comparative and his- 
 torical methods of Mme. de Stael, Villemain, Sainte-Beuve, and 
 Taine. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. Etudes critiques sur 1'histoire de la lit- 
 
 terature franchise. 5 e Se'r. Paris : 1893. 
 Contains (p. in) an admirable study of the criticism of 
 Bayle. The closing essay, on the essential character of French 
 Literature, will be found indirectly helpful. 
 
 CAINE, T. HALL. Cobwebs of Criticism. London : 1883. 
 
 A popular account of periodical criticism in the early part of 
 this century. The picturesque and dramatic features of the at- 
 tacks upon Coleridge, Keats, Wordsworth, and the rest are 
 presented in a readable style. Of the history of criticism, in 
 the sense of development, the author has no definite concep- 
 tion. Such statements as " criticism in Shakespeare's day must 
 have been an unknown quantity," and "it was ... at the be-
 
 66 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 ginning of the nineteenth century that English critical literature, 
 properly so called, began," testify to a slender acquaintance 
 with the history of English critical literature. See the com- 
 ments of Mr. Robertson, Essays, p. n, note. 
 
 CAIRO, E. The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant. 
 
 Vol. I, Chap. I The Idea of Criticism. 
 
 See especially pp. 2-8, on the Kantian conception of the 
 way in which the critical stage is reached in the development 
 of philosophical thought. 
 
 CARD, E. Rev. d. D. Mondes, i Fevr. 1882 La critique con- 
 
 temporaine et les causes de son affaiblissement. 
 Discusses the question whether modern criticism is retrograd- 
 ing. See 2. 
 
 CARTON, H. Histoire de la critique litteraire en France. 
 
 Paris: 1886. 
 
 In a volume of less than two hundred pages the author at- 
 tempts to cover the history of criticism in France from the 
 earliest times to the present. Beginning with Marguerite of 
 Navarre and closing with M. Brunetiere, he has space for only a 
 few paragraphs upon each author, and as a result his work is 
 scrappy and superficial. It is of some value as a list of names 
 and works, though the bibliography is far from complete. 
 
 CHARPENTIER, J. P. La litte'rature franchise au dix-neuvieme 
 siecle. Paris. 
 
 Pp. 280-297 Critique (le second Empire). 
 
 The critics treated of are Sainte-Beuve, Planche, Girardin, 
 De Sacy, Cuvillier-Fleury, Jules Janin, de Pontmartin, Veuillot, 
 Vitet, Patin, and t. Egger. 
 
 COAN, T. M. Lippincott, 13 : 355 Critic and Artist. 
 See 2.
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 67 
 
 CROUSL, L. L' Instruction publique, 1888, pp. 22, 68, 116, 
 2 3 l , 275, 295, 325, 344, 372, 397, 424, 455, 485, 535, 581, 
 600, 616, 645, 661, 694, 725 La critique au ig 6 siecle. 
 Revue de 1'histoire de la critique avant le ig 6 siecle. 
 A brief history of French criticism from Voltaire to Sainte- 
 Beuve. The principal topics treated of are the following : The 
 critics of Voltaire's school, Marmontel and La Harpe ; Vol- 
 taire judged by his disciples ; La Harpe as critic of Voltaire ; 
 M.-J. Che'nier ; critics of the classic school ; critics of the 
 romantic school; the independents, Villemain and Sainte- 
 Beuve. 
 
 CRUGER, JOH. J. C. Gottsched und die Schweizer. Berlin : 
 
 1884. 
 A useful and trustworthy account. 
 
 DEMOGEOT, J.-C. La critique et les critiques en France au xix e 
 siecle. Paris: 1857. 
 
 DOWDEN, E. Fortnightly, 52 : 737 Literary Criticism in France. 
 Treats in an interesting way French criticism in the latter 
 half of the nineteenth century. The system and methods of 
 Nisard, Sainte-Beuve, Taine, Bourget, Brunetiere, and fimile 
 Hennequin are clearly set forth. 
 
 EGGER, E\ Essai sur 1'histoire de la critique chez les Grecs. 
 
 2 e e'd. Paris: 1886. 
 
 Intended as an introduction to a course in Greek literature, 
 the first edition of this scholarly work, published in 1849, con- 
 sisted mainly of a translation of the Poetics of Aristotle. A 
 sketch of the history of criticism among the Greeks, which it 
 also contained, was intended merely to throw light upon the 
 Poetics. In succeeding editions the history grew in impor- 
 tance until in the last and posthumous edition the translation 
 disappeared, and the history became the main idea of the 
 book.
 
 68 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 According to the author the term critique is used by him in 
 the sense of esthetique ; but the work is not, as one might infer 
 from this statement, a general history of aesthetics ; it is a his- 
 tory only of the aesthetics of literature. The main divisions 
 are as follows : Criticism before the Philosophers (the Rhap- 
 sodes, Homeric Criticism, the Comic Writers); Criticism among 
 the Philosophers before Aristotle ; Aristotle ; Criticism after 
 Aristotle (including the history of the Poetics of Aristotle in 
 the Middle Ages and among the Arabs). A conclusion, all too 
 brief, touches upon the relation of Hellenism to Oriental 
 thought. The grace and lucidity of the author's style make 
 the work delightful reading. 
 
 FELLNER, R. Deutsche Rundschau, 75:464 Die neuere fran- 
 
 zosische Kritik. 
 
 A review and exposition of Tissot's Les evolutions de la 
 critique franchise. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, O. Present State of Polite Learning. 
 
 In chapter X Goldsmith gives his opinions of the critics and 
 criticism of his time. 
 
 GATES, LEWIS E. Selections from the Essays of Francis 
 
 Jeffrey. Boston: 1894. 
 
 In his introduction the editor shows how Jeffrey developed 
 ethical criticism, and made use of the historical method. 
 
 GRUCKER, MILE. Histoire des doctrines litteraires et esthe'- 
 
 tiques en Allemagne. Paris: 1883. 
 
 A voluminous work dealing with Opitz, Leibnitz, Gottsched, 
 and the Swiss, Bodmer, Breitinger, Liscow, and Pyra. The 
 author's estimate of the work of these critics is summed up as 
 follows : " The dogmatic and abstract criticism which began 
 with Opitz and closed with Gottsched, founded on the author- 
 ity of masters, on the traditions of Latin antiquity and the
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 69 
 
 Renaissance, on the imitation of French models, accomplished 
 its work. It saved German literature from anarchy and barbar- 
 ism. It purified, established, and fixed the national tongue. 
 It gave to poetry rules, precepts, and a discipline ; it was the 
 first instructress of the German spirit." 
 
 HARRIS, JAS. Philological Inquiries. 2 vols. London: 1781. 
 See 2. 
 
 HATZFIELD, A., et GEORGES MEUNIER. Les Critiques litteraires 
 
 du xix e siecle. Paris : 1894. 
 
 Brief notices of leading French critics, with extracts from 
 their writings. 
 
 KRANTZ, . Essai sur 1'esthe'tique de Descartes. Paris : 1882. 
 On pp. 1-6 the author treats briefly, but suggestively, of the 
 relation of criticism to the development of literature. 
 
 MABIE, H. W. Andover Rev., 15: 583 Significance of Modern 
 Criticism. 
 
 See 2. 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Essays. 
 
 See 2. 
 
 MAZZARELLA, B. Delia Critica libri tre. Vol. I, Storia della 
 
 critica. Genova : 1866. 
 
 A very unsatisfactory book, prolix in style and defective in 
 arrangement; yet noteworthy as almost a solitary attempt 
 at a history of literary criticism from the Greeks to the 
 present time. Having little sense of perspective, the author 
 has given disproportionate space to writers of small moment. 
 He has brought together, however, a mass of curious learning 
 for which other students may be thankful. Two promised vol- 
 umes, one on the science and the other on the art of criticism, 
 seem not to have been published.
 
 70 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 MERLET, G. Rev. d. D. Mondes, i Oct. 1883 La critique sous 
 
 le premier empire. 
 
 To be read in connection with Sainte-Beuve's paper on the 
 same subject. The critics treated of are Geoffrey, Francois 
 Hoffman, Dussault, and M. de Feletz. 
 
 MOULTON, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. 2d ed. 
 Oxford: 1888. 
 
 On pp. 7-21 Mr. Moulton maintains the thesis that "the 
 whole history of criticism has been a triumph of authors over 
 critics," and to prove it reviews the course of criticism from the 
 renaissance to the present time, dwelling mainly upon the his- 
 tory of Shakespeare criticism. The order of progression has 
 been from judicial to inductive, criticism passing through five 
 distinct stages. There was first the idea of judging solely by 
 classic standards, as in the instance of Rymer's attack upon 
 Shakespeare. The second stage was reached when literature 
 of the modern type was admitted to have merit, though ' con- 
 trary to rule'; a third stage when the classics and the moderns 
 were put side by side, as in the ' Parallels ' of Perrault. In the 
 fourth stage, illustrated by Addison, the idea of judging, tossed 
 about between two standards, began to change to the idea of a 
 search for beauty. Finally has come the fifth or inductive 
 stage, when literature, just as it stands, is analyzed for the pur- 
 pose of discovering its underlying principles. Inductive criti- 
 cism (pp. 266, 267) also has its stages : First, mere observation ; 
 then analysis and topical arrangement ; finally, systematization ; 
 but the criticism of literature has never gone beyond the second 
 stage. 
 
 For comment, see Robertson's Essays, p. 51 ff. 
 
 NETTLESHIP, H. Journ. of Philology, 18:225 Literary Criti- 
 cism in Latin Antiquity. 
 
 Traces the growth of criticism from Cicero to Quintilian. 
 An admirable paper.
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 71 
 
 NISARD, D. Histoire de la litterature franchise. 4 vols. 
 
 Paris: 1844-9. 
 
 See vol. IV, pp. 568-573, for an excellent account of the 
 criticism of the i8th century. 
 
 PATIN, H. J. G. fitudes sur les tragiques grecs. 
 
 Vol. II, P . 415. 
 
 Criticism, as it advances, passes through the following stages: 
 (i) Nai've feeling; (2) reflection; (3) theories of criticism, 
 which may be drawn (a) from experience, or (b) from specula- 
 tive views as to the means and end of art. 
 
 PERRY, T. S. English Literature in the i8th Century. New 
 York: 1883. 
 
 Pp. 164-174. 
 
 The author writes entertainingly on Addison's criticisms of 
 Milton, and on the critical spirit of the i8th century in its 
 relation to Aristotle's Poetics and Horace's Ars Poetica. 
 
 PELLISSIER, G. Le mouvement litteraire au xix e siecle. 2 e ed. 
 Paris: 1890. 
 
 A work of unusual merit. It contains two chapters on the 
 criticism of the century, of which one (pp. 213-231) treats of 
 romantic and the other (pp. 305-321) of realistic criticism. 
 The characteristic of the classic criticism was that it made 
 rigid application of fixed laws and formulas. The romantic 
 criticism, taking the historical point of view, interpreted litera- 
 ture as a picture of society. Later, the literary work became a 
 mere ' document ' for the study of mankind. 
 
 The writers selected for treatment are Mme. de Stael, Ville- 
 main, Nisard, Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and Renan. 
 
 PESCHIER. Herrig's Archiv, n : 294 Des Phases de la critique 
 
 en France. 
 
 A rapid sketch of the history of French criticism in the i7th 
 and 1 8th centuries.
 
 72 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 POPE, A. Essay on Criticism. 
 
 Lines 643-744 are devoted to a history of criticism and to 
 characterizations of famous critics of ancient and modern times. 
 It is interesting to note those whom Pope selected for this 
 history, and still more interesting to note those whom he 
 omitted. " The mighty Stagirite first left the shore," followed 
 by Horace, Dionysius, Petronius Arbiter, Quintilian and Lon- 
 ginus, who complete the list of ancient critics. After these 
 criticism fell into decay, but revived with Erasmus, and reached 
 a high plane in the Art of Poetry of ' immortal Vida.' In 
 France the critical impulse was transmitted to Boileau ; in 
 England to Roscommon and Walsh. 
 
 PORTER, N. Books and Reading. N. Y.: 1876. 
 
 In chapters XVII and XVIII, on the New Criticism, is an 
 estimate of the influence of German upon English criticism, 
 and a brief sketch of the course of criticism in England. 
 
 QUARTERLY REVIEW, 175: 102 The Porson of Shakespearian 
 
 Criticism. 
 
 Theobald is reinstated in his rights as a master of Shake- 
 spearian criticism. An interesting comparison is made between 
 him and Bentley, and incidentally light is thrown upn the 
 course of criticism in the eighteenth century. 
 
 RENARD, GEORGES. Les Princes de la jeune critique. Paris : 
 
 1890. (Libr. de la Nouvelk Revue?) 
 
 The 'princes' are Jules Lemaitre, Ferd. Brunetiere, Anatole 
 France, L. Ganderax, P. Bourget. 
 
 RIGAULT, H. Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des 
 
 modernes. Paris: 1856. 
 
 The standard history of this famous episode in modern criti- 
 cism.
 
 S 5.J REFERENCES. 73 
 
 ROBERTSON, J. M. Essays towards a Critical Method. 
 See 2. 
 
 The author suggests (pp. 40-42) that the movement of criti- 
 cism is rhythmical in character, yet tending to ever greater 
 universality. Until recent times the aim of critics has been to 
 secure consistency of dictum within a very limited field. This 
 is illustrated by the systems of criticism evolved in the lyth 
 and 1 8th centuries. Collision of dicta, however, the result of 
 differences of taste, induced a general distrust, with the result 
 that men turned from writings about literature to literature 
 itself. Thus the inductive criticism came into being. But in- 
 ductive criticism must give way in time to a new process of 
 judgment, founded on comparative aesthetics and comparative 
 sociology ; in other words, consistency of dictum, which in the 
 eighteenth century could be secured only within a narrow circle, 
 will at some time in the future be secured within a circle of 
 great circumference. The criterion of consistency is " that 
 universal logic by which facts and principles are settled in nat- 
 ural science." The reasonable attitude towards criticism is 
 the attitude of research. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, C. A. M. de Fe'letz et de la critique litte'raire 
 sous 1'empire. Causeries de Lundi, 25 Fevr. 1850. 
 See 2. 
 
 SAINTSBURY, G. Essays in English Literature. London: 1890. 
 Pp. 100-134 Jeffrey. 
 
 SAINTSBURY, G. History of Elizabethan Literature. London: 
 
 1887. 
 
 On pp. 33-35 Saintsbury refers, in passing, to the remarka- 
 ble school of critics which sprang up amid the creative activity 
 of the time.
 
 74 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 SCHELLING, F. E. Poetic and Verse Criticism of the Reign of 
 Elizabeth. Philadelphia: 1891. (Pubs, of the Univ. of Penn- 
 sylvania, Series in Philol., Literature, and Archaeol., I, i.) 
 
 A ' plain exposition ' of the theories of poetry, and especially 
 of versification, which were evolved in England between 1507 
 and 1603, contemporary estimates of poets and poetry being 
 purposely excluded. While the order of treatment is mainly 
 chronological by authors, three classes of criticisms are distin- 
 guished: (i) Attempts to apply to English poetry the princi- 
 ples of classical prosody (Ascham, Harvey, Webbe, and Cam- 
 pion) ; (2) attempts to formulate inductively the rules of existing 
 English prosody (Gascoigne, James I); (3) treatises on the 
 wide field of poetical theory (Puttenham, Sidney). Sidney is 
 regarded as the sole representative of " that broader criticism 
 which has founded modern criticism." 
 
 SCHERER, EDM. fitudes critiques. 
 
 See vol. I, p. 171, of these valuable essays, for a study of 
 Nisard; p. 321 for a study of Sainte-Beuve. On Taine's place 
 in the history of criticism, see vol. II, p. in; vol. IV, p. 253. 
 
 STEDMAN, E. C. The Nature of Poetry. Boston: 1892. 
 
 The passing references to modern criticism may be traced 
 by means of the index. 
 
 STEDMAN, E. C. Poets of America. Boston: 1885. 
 
 Of value in the study of American Criticism. See the Index. 
 
 STEPHEN, L. History of English Thought in the i8th Century. 
 2 vols. New York: 1876. 
 
 Vol. I, p. 34. 
 
 Invaluable as a guide to the movements of English thought 
 which determined the growth of English literary criticism.
 
 5.] REFERENCES. 75 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Essays speculative and suggestive. 2 vols. 
 
 London: 1890. 
 
 In the essay On some Principles of Criticism (vol. I, pp. 84- 
 123), the author touches here and there upon the history of 
 critical efforts. He distinguishes three stages, which he calls 
 classical, romantic, and scientific criticism (pp. 96-98). The 
 passages describing the origin and rise of modern criticism 
 (pp. 109-114) are of special interest. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Greek Poets. 2d ser. 
 
 P. 303 Greek Criticism, 
 
 Gives the attitude of the Alexandrian critics towards Greek 
 literature. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. The Renaissance in Italy. 
 
 Contains full and excellent accounts of critics and critical 
 movements of the Renaissance. These may be traced by 
 means of the index. 
 
 THERY, AUG. Histoire des opinions litteraires chez les anciens 
 et chez les modernes. Nouvelle e'd. 2 vols. Paris: 1849. 
 
 TISSOT, ERNEST. Les Evolutions de la critique franchise. 
 
 Paris: 1890. 
 
 In some respects an admirable work, though not what its 
 title would lead the reader to expect. Purporting to be a his- 
 tory of criticism, it is in reality a classification of critics. 
 Tissot distinguishes three types of modern criticism : Literary, 
 of which Brunetiere and Jules Lemaitre are representatives ; 
 moralizing, represented by Barbey d'Aurevilly and Edmond 
 Scherer ; analytic, as seen in the writings of Taine, Bourget, 
 and fimile Hennequin. Literary criticism judges a work ac- 
 cording to set rules or dogmas, without reference to historical 
 development. The aim of the moralizing criticism is suggested 
 by its name, it judges according to ethical standards. The
 
 76 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 5. 
 
 analytic criticism, taking into account both the aesthetic and 
 the sociological aspects of the work, makes special search for 
 the spiritual environment in which it came to birth. Like most 
 attempts at hard-and-fast classifying, Tissot's threefold division 
 breaks down in practical application, but this fact does not 
 greatly diminish its value, which lies in its felicitous characteri- 
 zations of individual critics. 
 
 VILLEMAIN, A. F. Discours et melanges litteraires. P. 29 Dis- 
 
 cours sur ... la critique. 
 
 Contains a brief sketch of the history of criticism, with char- 
 acterization of the most important authors. 
 
 VILLARI, P. Nuova Antologia, 1884-1!!: 73 Francesco De 
 
 Sanctis e la critica in ftalia. 
 
 A good account of the work and influence of this leading 
 Italian critic. 
 
 WYLIE, LAURA JOHNSON. Studies in the Evolution of English 
 
 Criticism. Boston :- 1894. 
 
 This little work, a doctoral thesis, covers the period from 
 1660 to the close of the first quarter of this century. Its plan 
 and scope may be inferred from the subjects of the chapters, 
 as follows : I. John Dryden ; II. The Evolution out of Classi- 
 cism ; III. The German Sources of Coleridge's Criticism; 
 IV. Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In style and method the writer 
 shows the influence, perhaps, of Brunetiere's L'eVolution de la 
 critique in her fondness for large generalizations and for rhe- 
 torical indirectness of statement, but her ideas are, in the main, 
 her own, and her conclusions are based upon much original 
 research. The writer was fortunate in being equipped with a 
 working knowledge of the history of aesthetics.
 
 GENERAL NOTE. 77 
 
 . 6. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 In studying the history of a particular period of criticism, 
 the student will of course consult the standard histories of lit- 
 erature as well as monographs upon individual critics. These 
 are too numerous to be cited here. On Methods see Chapter V. 
 
 In Chapter VI the names and works of those who are 
 esteemed most important as contributors to critical theory or to 
 critical practice are given in their chronological sequence. 
 
 The following references are of less importance than' the 
 foregoing, or deal with individual critics : 
 
 On the History of French Criticism. A. Bettelheim, Maga- 
 zin f. d. Litteratur d. In- und Auslandes, 1888 : 256-258 Neuere 
 franzosische Kritiker; A. Caumont, La critique litteraire de 
 Sainte-Beuve {Frankf. Neuphilol. Beitrdge 1-29, Frankfurt 
 a. M.: 1887); Em. Des Essarts, L'Instruction publique 1888: 
 675-677 Boileau devant la critique moderne ; G. Lanson, Revue 
 Bletie 27 Janvier 1894 Critiques d'aujourd'hui: fimile Faguet; 
 G. Pellissier, Essais de litterature contemporaine (Paris : 1893), 
 La doctrine de F. Brunetiere ; G. Planche, Rev. d. D. Mondes 
 1835 (4 e ser., vol. I): 5 De la critique franchise en 1835; A. A. 
 J. M. F. de Pontmartin, Correspondant N.S., 48 : 5 La critique 
 en 1871; P. Stapfer, Rev. pol. et lit. 3 e sdr. xiv: 297-303 
 Poetes et critiques du xix e siecle; A. P. Soupe, Rei>. Contemp. 
 5 (1868): 496, 6 : 5 Precurseurs de la critique moderne : Grimm; 
 G. Renard, Nouvelle Revue 57 : 704-729 Brunetiere; J. B. 
 Stiernet, Muse'on 10: 122 L'evolution de la critique (a review 
 of Brunetiere's work of the same title) ; E\ Zola, Documents 
 litteraires (Nouv. dd.; Paris : 1894), p. 333 La critique con- 
 temporaine (A scathing review of modern criticism); Louis de 
 Lome'nie, Esquisses historiques de litte'rature (Paris: 1879), 
 p. 221 Chateaubriand et la critique; G. Larroumet, fitudes de 
 litterature et d'art (Paris: 1893), p. 347 Brunetiere, p. 83 Le
 
 78 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 6. 
 
 xviii e siecle et la critique contemporaine; C. A. Sainte-Beuve, 
 Revue d. D. Mondes, Dec. 1835 Bayle et le genie critique ; 
 J. F. Boissonade, Critique litteraire sous le premier* empire 
 (Paris: 1863); A. de Pontmartin, Derniers Samedis (III e ser. 
 Paris: 1892) Brunetiere; E\ Faguet, Revue de Paris, i Fevr. 
 1894 Ferdinand Brunetiere (The impersonal element is the most 
 striking characteristic of Brunetiere's criticism); G. Planche, 
 Revue d. D. Mondes, i Janvier 1835 De la critique frangaise en 
 1835; P- Lirnayrac, Revtte d. D. Mondes, i Sept. 1847 De 
 1'esprit critique en France. 
 
 An interesting collection of critical judgments, illustrating the 
 progress of French criticism, will be found in the work of 
 R. P. Chauvin and G. Le Bidois, La Litterature franchise par 
 les critiques contemporains (Paris: 1887). Among the authors 
 from whom specimens are drawn are Villemain, Sainte-Beuve, 
 St.-Marc Girardin, Nisard, H. Rigault, Lemaitre, Vinet, Taine, 
 Paul Albert, Brunetiere, and Faguet. 
 
 On the History of English Criticism. - Fraser, 21 : 190 The 
 Present State of Literary Criticism in England (1840); Fraser, 
 28 (1843): 43 Jeffrey and Gifford vs. Shakespeare and Milton ; 
 Blackwood, 2 (1818): 670 Remarks on the Periodical Criticism 
 of England ; H. Hettner, Geschichte der englischen Literatur 
 (Braunschweig: 1856), p. 415 Die psychologische Aesthetiker, 
 Burke, Gerard, Home; p. 420 Die Kritik S.Johnson's; Retro- 
 spective Review, vol. I, pt..II, p. 305 Nature and Effects of Mod- 
 ern Criticism (a review of the writings of John Dennis); H. T. 
 Tuckerman, Characteristics of Literature illustrated by the 
 Genius of Distinguished Writers (Philadelphia : 1851), pp. 216- 
 238 The Critic : Hazlitt. 
 
 A collection of criticisms upon noted English writers has 
 been made by E. Stevenson, under the title Early Reviews of 
 Great Writers (London: 1890; Camelot series). The extracts 
 cover the years 1786-1832, and include critiques upon the Vicar 
 of Wakefield, Burns, and the Lyrical Ballads.
 
 6.] GENERAL NOTE. 79 
 
 On the History of German Criticism. O. Wichmann, L'Art 
 poetique de Boileau dans celui de Gottsched (Berlin : 1879); 
 R. Weitbrecht, Blatter/, litt. Unterhaltung 1891-1!: 625 Krit- 
 iker und Dichter. For Gerhard Voss, Opitz, Gottsched, Breitin- 
 ger, Baumgarten, Sulzer, Eberhard, Solger, Lessing, Schiller, 
 Goethe, Herder, Richter, Tieck, A. W. von Schlegel, and later 
 authorities on criticism and its history, see, below, 21, B 3, 
 The Development of Poetics in Germany. 
 
 On the History of Italian Criticism. L. Ceci, Ateneo Ro- 
 magnolo 1882, Nos. 9, 10 Un' occhiata allo svolgimento storico 
 della critica letteraria e politica del seicento (Firenze : 1878); 
 G. Trezza, La critica moderna (2 a ed., con aggiunte, Bologna : 
 1880); L. Morandi, Antologia della nostra critica letteraria 
 moderna (4* ed., Citta di Castello : 1889); P. Ferrieri, Francesco 
 De Sanctis e la critica letteraria (Milano : 1888). See 21, B 5. 
 
 On the History of Spanish Criticism. F. F. Gonzalez, His- 
 toria de la critica literaria en Espafia (Madrid: 1867); M. 
 Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de las ideas esteticas en Espana 
 (5 vols. in 8 ; Madrid: 1883-91). See 21, B 5. 
 
 For brief accounts of Russian and Danish critics, consult 
 Wm. Knight's Philosophy of the Beautiful, Part II (London : 
 1893), pp. 251272, and 273281. 
 
 In De Gids for April-May, 1891, will be found an able arti- 
 cle by Polak on Huet and Potgieter, the two greatest literary 
 critics of Holland.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF ART. 
 
 PART I. THEORY OF ART. 
 
 7. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS ; ANALYSIS. 
 
 STUDY of the underlying principles of literature leads the 
 student back inevitably to the principles of art. The principles 
 of literature, he finds, are but special applications of the 
 broader principles which lie at the base of all the arts. 
 
 It would seem desirable, therefore, that the student early 
 in his course should gain clear and right notions regarding the 
 fundamental conceptions of aesthetics. Familiar with the prin- 
 ciples of the broader science, he should be better prepared 
 to work within the limits of the narrower. From a study 
 of writings on the theory of art he should gain a power to dis- 
 criminate among writings on the theory of literature ; he should 
 be enabled to detect the hidden bases of literary principles or 
 precepts ; he should be enabled to judge independently of the 
 source and value of traditional literary doctrines. 
 
 Aesthetics is a large subject. None but a specialist can hope 
 to master it in all its extent, and but few can hope to keep 
 abreast of the active discussions and investigations that are 
 going on at present. Nevertheless, complex and difficult as 
 the subject appears, its fundamental principles are simple and 
 its main problems few. Further, as in many other branches 
 of knowledge, a thorough study of some one problem or prin- 
 ciple will put the student in possession of all the rest. The
 
 7,7.] FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS. 81 
 
 following are suggested as some of the important questions 
 likely to arise in a search for the fundamental principle of art. 
 
 /. Fundamental Problems. (i) What is the relation of Art 
 to Nature ? (2) What is the relation of Art to Imitation ? 
 (3) What is Beauty ? (4) Is Beauty subjective or objective, or 
 both ? (5) How is the Beautiful related to the Sublime, the 
 Ludicrous, the Pathetic, the Comic, and the Tragic ? (6) What 
 is the function of the Imagination in Art ? (7) What are the 
 Aesthetic Emotions ? (8) What is the purpose of Art ? (9) 
 What part is played in the theory of Art by Pleasure ? By the 
 Play-impulse ? Rhythm ? Harmony ? Regularity ? Economy ? 
 (10) What is the relation of Art to Science, Morals, and Re-/ 
 ligion ? (i i) Can Art be useful ? (12) What are the principal 
 classifications of Art ? (13) Upon what basis of differentiation 
 do these classifications rest? (14) If there is a hierarchy of 
 the Arts, upon what principle does it rest? (15) What is the 
 function of Taste ? (16) What determines the validity and 
 the limitations of canons of Art ? 
 
 The answers to these questions may be sought in the au- 
 thorities mentioned under 8 and 9. 
 
 //. Minute Analysis of Problems. For those who desire 
 to go more profoundly into the subject the following analysis is 
 presented. 
 
 The problems of aesthetics may be classified under four 
 heads: (i) Physiological problems, (2) psychological problems, 
 (3) speculative problems, (4) social problems. It is not easy, 
 perhaps not desirable, to keep the four classes wholly distinct ; 
 consequently, in the statement of the problems, some overlap- 
 ping may be expected. 
 
 A. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. The general problem of physi- 
 ological aesthetics may be stated in this way : What is the 
 origin, nature, and physical explanation of the aesthetic thrill ?
 
 82 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 7, //. 
 
 As the inquiry usually proceeds upon the assumption that aes- 
 thetic feeling is a species of pleasurable feeling, the line of 
 research is in the direction of differentiating this kind of sen- 
 suous pleasure from sensuous pleasure in general. Thus the 
 following series of subsidiary problems arises : 
 
 (1) What changes in the nervous system, resulting from the 
 application of stimuli, produce the sensation of pleasure ? 
 
 (2) (a) What class of objects supply these stimuli ? (^) What 
 are the attributes of these objects ? (c) Do dissimilar qualities 
 furnish the same result, or is there some one quality, existing 
 in different forms, in all objects that occasion pleasure ? 
 
 (3) Is the relation between the stimulus and the pleasurable 
 feeling necessary and invariable, or accidental and mutable ? 
 
 (4) How are pleasurable feelings related to the vital functions ? 
 
 (5) ( a ) What quality in the stimulus, or (/>) what modification 
 of the neural process occasions the aesthetic quality of the 
 feeling ? 
 
 (6) What are the preeminently aesthetic senses ? 
 Assuming that hearing and seeing are the only, or the pre- 
 eminently, aesthetic senses, the physiologist may inquire : 
 
 (7) What in the nervous structure and function of the ear cor- 
 responds to the relations of tones constituting the musical scale ? 
 To the relations of tones constituting harmony or discord ? 
 
 (8) What are the exact mathematical relations of such tones ? 
 (See Helmholtz.) 
 
 (9) What are the neural equivalents of rhythm and melody ? 
 
 (10) What colors and combinations of colors are pleasing to 
 the eye ? (See Allen's Color Sense.) 
 
 (n) What forms and proportions of objects are pleasing? 
 
 (12) What movements of the eye and modifications of its 
 neural processes correspond to pleasing forms and colors of 
 objects ? 
 
 (13) What are the neural equivalents of contrast, climax, 
 and effective anti-climax ?
 
 .] MINUTE ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS. 83 
 
 (14) Is pain a necessary accompaniment, or condition pre- 
 cedent, of aesthetic feeling ? 
 
 On these problems the student may consult the writings of 
 Allen, Ladd, Sully, Spencer, Helmholtz, and Marshall, and 
 
 9,111.2. 
 
 B. PSYCHOLOGICAL. (See 9, III. i.) Aesthetics as psy- 
 chology is most obviously concerned with the nature of aesthetic 
 emotions, although it is bound to take into account all facts of 
 consciousness involved in the production of such emotions. 
 Calling, for convenience, all objects that can arouse aesthetic 
 emotion aesthetic objects, the psychologist may inquire : 
 
 (1) Does the perception of the aesthetic object differ from 
 that of other objects ? And if so, how ? 
 
 This problem resolves itself into two subordinate problems : 
 (;) What sensations do the peculiar physical marks of the 
 
 aesthetic object, as, e.g., color, symmetry, etc., produce ? 
 
 () How is this raw material of sensation worked up into 
 
 consciousness through perception ? 
 
 (2) What is the nature and function of imagination in so far 
 as it has to do with the aesthetic object ? 
 
 (3) Are there aesthetic pleasures which are separable from 
 the imagination? 
 
 (4) Characteristics of the different kinds of aesthetic imagi- 
 nation ? 
 
 (5) Are all aesthetic objects (e.g., natural objects) products 
 of the aesthetic imagination ? 
 
 (6) Can the aesthetic imagination do anything more than 
 combine what has been given it in experience ? 
 
 (7) \Vhy does the mind take an interest in the aesthetic ob- 
 ject ? May the same object be at times aesthetic and at other 
 times non-aesthetic ? 
 
 (8) Characteristics of aesthetic emotion ? How related to 
 sensation ?
 
 84 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 7. /,-. 
 
 (9) Is pleasurableness the essential characteristic of aes- 
 thetic emotion ? 
 
 (10) Kinds of aesthetic emotion ? 
 
 (n) Relations between aesthetic emotion and other kinds of 
 emotion ? 
 
 (12) Are aesthetic pleasures sense-pleasures? 
 
 (13) Is immediacy of pleasure-getting the distinction between 
 ordinary emotion and aesthetic emotion ? (See Fechner.) 
 
 (14) Is all aesthetic emotion the revival oft. pleasurable emo- 
 tion or of a pleasurable content ? (See Sully, Marshall.) 
 
 (15) What is the nature of the impulse that leads to the pro- 
 duction of works of art ? Is there a difference between ' ex- 
 pression ' and ' discharge of emotion ' ? (See Bosanquet, Mind, 
 
 N.S. 3: 153.) 
 
 (16) Is the emotional state which is produced by a work of 
 art, passive and receptive, or active ? (See Allen, Fechner, 
 Guyau, Ladd, and Marshall.) 
 
 (17) What is the importance of sub-conscious processes as 
 explanation of aesthetic effects ? (See Helmholtz.) 
 
 (18) Aesthetic function of the Will? 
 
 C. SPECULATIVE PROBLEMS. The problem of aesthetics as 
 philosophy may be said, in a general way, to be the relation of 
 the subject-matter (whatever that may be determined to be) to 
 human experience. As suggested by the parenthesis, the 
 nature of the subject-matter is itself a part of the problem. 
 Retaining the convenient term aesthetic object, we may in- 
 quire: 
 
 i. What is it about things that makes them aesthetic ob- 
 jects ? 
 
 The number of the answers which have been made to this 
 question is very large. Among the qualities or characteristics 
 posited of the aesthetic object are the following: Truth, Con- 
 flict, Reconciliation of Opposites, Repose, Growth, Life, Order,
 
 C.] MINUTE ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS. 85 
 
 Symmetry, Fitness, Unity in Variety, Simplicity, Intricacy, 
 Harmony, Usefulness (recognized or unrecognized), Expression, 
 Suggestion, Personality, Novelty, Consistency, Proportion, Free- 
 dom, Economy, Rhythm. By most writers these and all simi- 
 lar characteristics are held to be summed up in the comprehen- 
 sive term Beauty. 
 
 If it is necessary to posit some particular thing as the essence 
 of the aesthetic object, it would perhaps be better to substitute 
 for the ambiguous term beauty the term aesthetic value, which 
 has at least the advantage of suggesting its question-begging 
 character. Adopting this term as a matter of convenience, we 
 may ask: 
 
 2. Is aesthetic value subjective or objective, or both? 
 
 3. Kinds of aesthetic value, and relation of one kind to 
 another ? 
 
 As examples of the different kinds, may be mentioned the 
 Beautiful, the Sublime, the Ludicrous, the Pathetic, the Tragic, 
 the Grotesque, etc. 
 
 4. Relation of the work of art to nature ? 
 
 This question may take on a great diversity of forms, as, for 
 example : 
 
 (a) Is art an imitation of nature, and if so, is that all that 
 art is ? 
 
 () In what respect does the aesthetic value of art differ 
 from that of nature ? 
 
 (c) Is there a higher and a lower aesthetic value, and if so, 
 which is higher, that of nature or that of art ? 
 
 (d) Does nature, when it takes on aesthetic value, become 
 art? - 
 
 5. Character of the work of art ? 
 
 In dealing with the work of art, we may inquire, (a) What is 
 its essential principle ? Or, taking into account the conditions 
 of its production, may ask (fr) Why works of art should be pro- 
 duced at all ? Or, (c) What were the aims and motives of the
 
 86 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 7, //. 
 
 producer of a particular work ? Or, (d) By what processes and 
 in obedience to what laws he gave embodiment to his idea ? 
 Or, (e) In what material he embodied it ? Or, (/) What are 
 the laws of the development of art in general ? The answer to 
 the first question will bring before us the theory of art ; to the 
 second, the genesis of art, or the art-impulse ; to the third, the 
 relations of art and the artist ; to the fourth, the technique of 
 art and the nature of genius ; to the fifth, the classification of 
 the arts; and to the sixth, the evolution of art as a historical 
 growth. For authorities on speculative problems see 8 and 
 9, II. 1-8. 
 
 D. SOCIAL PROBLEMS. These are such as relate to the 
 communal origin and development of the aesthetic impulse, 
 and the effect exerted upon the community by aesthetic pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 (A) (i) What part has sympathy or altruism played in the 
 origin and development of aesthetic pleasure ? In the produc- 
 tion of works of art? Are aesthetic pleasures ever selfish 
 pleasures ? 
 
 (2) What part has been played in aesthetic production by 
 the imitative instinct the instinct of one man to do what 
 another has done or is doing ? 
 
 (3) To what extent does the law of supply and demand gov- 
 ern the production of art ? 
 
 (4) To what extent is art individual, and to what extent is it 
 social ? Is art the possession of the whole people ? 
 
 (5) To what extent are the principles of cooperation and 
 division of labor effective in art ? 
 
 (6) Place of art in the theory of the State ? 
 
 (a) In what form of government does art best flourish ? 
 () Does inequality of condition promote or hinder the 
 healthy development of art ? 
 
 (7) To what extent is art the expression of pleasure in the 
 labor of production ? 

 
 (j o.J REFERENCES. 87 
 
 (8) To what extent is freedom of the artist essential to good 
 art? 
 
 (9) What part is played by machinery in the production of 
 works of art ? Are machine-made articles necessarily bad art ? 
 
 (10) Does civilization inevitably bring ugliness with it ? 
 (i i) Does art go hand in hand with luxury ? 
 
 (R) (i) What effect has art upon social development? 
 
 (2) What is the relation of art to morality ? May art be 
 non-moral ? 
 
 (3) Is the best art that which appeals to the people thef 
 masses? Or that which appeals to an aristocracy of intellect' 
 and emotion ? 
 
 (4) What is the service which useful art renders to the com- 
 munity, and how does this differ from the service rendered by 
 fine art ? 
 
 For information upon the social side of art as yet but lit- 
 tle understood the student may consult the works of Guyau 
 (L'Art au point de vue sociologique), Wm. Morris, Wilde, 
 De Greef, and Dewey (Outline of Ethics). 
 
 8. REFERENCES. 
 
 ALISON, ARCHIBALD. Essays on the Nature and Principles of 
 
 Taste. 2 vols. Edinburgh ; 1825. 
 
 The student will find in Alison's voluminous essay an inter- 
 esting defense of the theory that association is the source of 
 the Beautiful. If the association theory is valid, the theory of 
 Beauty as an intrinsic quality in the object will be difficult to 
 maintain. The question will be worth consideration whether 
 the recollection of other objects associated with the one we con- 
 template is requisite to the awakening of the sense for beauty ? 
 Also, whether the Useful is an index to the Beautiful, or vice 
 versa ? Is Professor Blackie, in the Preface to his Discourses 
 on Beauty, reasonable on the one hand in his denunciation of
 
 88 LITERARY CRITICISM. . [ 8. 
 
 Alison, Jeffrey, and the whole school of Scottish philosophers 
 as half-thinkers, and on the other in his outspoken admiration 
 of the stand taken by Sir W. Hamilton ? For an interesting 
 essay on Alison's work, see Blackw. 13 : 385 Alison explained 
 by Jeffrey. 
 
 ALLEN, G. . Physiological Aesthetics. New York: 1877. 
 
 Allen is also author of the Color Sense. Among articles 
 contributed by him to magazines the following are noteworthy : 
 Mind, 3:324 Origin of the Sublime ; 4 : 301 Origin of the Sense 
 of Symmetry ; 5 : 445 Aesthetic Evolution in Man. As devel- 
 oping more fully in a single direction the line of thought fol- 
 lowed in psychology by Maudsley, Bain, Spencer, and Sully, 
 this work on Physiological Aesthetics is of considerable histori- 
 cal value. Grant Allen attempts to translate the aesthetic feel- 
 ings into terms of neural change and the subjective concomi- 
 tants of such change. Beginning with an extended analysis of 
 the two physiological facts of pleasure and pain, he shows that 
 the first is caused by the normal activity of the tissues, the 
 second by wasted or arrested activity. To distinguish aesthetic 
 from non-aesthetic pleasures he adopts Spencer's distinction 
 between life-serving processes and processes or activities car- 
 ried on purely for the sake of the gratification they afford. 
 He thus arrives at the following definition : Aesthetic pleasure 
 is " the subjective concomitant of the normal amount of activ- 
 ity, not directly connected with the life-serving function, in the 
 peripheral end-organs of the cerebro-spinal nervous system." 
 Aesthetic pleasure, Allen holds, differs from play only as a 
 passive pleasure differs from an active pleasure. On this point 
 he has been vigorously opposed by Guyau (L'Esthe'tique Con- 
 temporaine), Marshall, and Bosanquet (Mind, N.S. 3: 153). 
 Mr. Marshall notes that Mr. Allen has apparently lost faith in 
 certain of his own doctrines. (See Mind, N.S. i : 364 and 
 No. 45.)
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 89 
 
 ARISTOTLE. De Arte Poetica (Vahlen's Text), with Transla- 
 tion by E. R. Wharton. Oxford: 1883. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. The Nicomachean Ethics. Trans, by F. H. 
 Peters. London: 1887. 
 Pp. 131-3 Wit; 185-9 Art. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. The Metaphysics. Trans, by J. H. McMahon. 
 Bohn Libr. London : 1857. 
 Pp. 4-6, 320. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. The Politics. Trans, by J. E. C. Welldon. Lon- 
 don: 1883. 
 
 Pp. 227-249 Music ; 245, 246 Purging of the Emotions. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. The Rhetoric. Trans, by J. E. C. Welldon. 
 London : 1886. 
 
 Bk. Ill, chaps. V, VIII. 
 
 As a starting-point for the history of aesthetic theories no 
 work is of greater importance than the Poetics. The student 
 must, however, beware of adopting hastily-formed and careless 
 conclusions concerning Aristotle's meaning. Of a hundred 
 critics upon Aristotle not more than one has fairly expounded 
 his theory of art in the light of his philosophy as developed in 
 the Rhetoric, the Politics, the Ethics, and the Metaphysics. 
 The student should hold himself unbiased concerning Aristotle's 
 greatest contribution to aesthetics, the theory of Imitation, 
 until he has reconciled on one basis the various statements 
 about art as Imitation scattered through the Poetics. It 
 should not be assumed without investigation that Aristotle 
 by Imitation meant copying (9, Relation of Art to Nature). 
 Light on this point may be had by comparing Plato's Theory 
 of Imitation and his views on the relation of art to ethics with 
 the corresponding theories of Aristotle. On such questions as 
 Aristotle's leanings to symbolism, his treatment of the ugly, his
 
 90 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 idealism, his view of the relation of art to nature, and other 
 fundamental problems, see the careful and profound exposition 
 of Bosanquet (History of Aesthetic, chaps. II-IV, especially 
 pp. 5576). Assistance in determining the relation of Aris- 
 totle's philosophy of art to the Aristotelian system may be 
 obtained from Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and 
 Fine Art; Ueberweg's Hist, of Philosophy, vol. I, pp. 177-180; 
 Erdmann's Hist, of Philos., vol. I, pp. 173-177 ; E. Wallace's 
 Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle; Zeller's Philosophic 
 der Griechen, Theil 2, Abth. 2, pp. 763-787; Schasler's Krit. 
 Gesch. Aesth., Theil i, pp. 120-151. See, also, references, 
 under ARISTOTLE, 9, II. H, 20, 38, 41, 47. 
 
 The following are some of the most important of the numer- 
 ous monographs on Aristotelian aesthetics 
 
 Twining, Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry (London: 1789); 
 Pye, Commentary illustrating the Poetic (London : 1792); Tyr- 
 whitt, De Poetica Liber (Oxford: 1794); Raumer, Ueber d. 
 Poetik (Berlin: 1829); Egger, La Critique chez les Grecs; 
 Be'nard, L'Esthetique d'Aristote (Paris: 1887); and Vahlen, 
 Teichmiiller, Boring, as described in 47, 48; Schrader, 
 De artis apud Arist. notione ac vi (Berlin: 1843; Miinchen : 
 1881) ; L. Spengel, Ueber Ka$upo-is TOM/ Tra^/xartov bei Arist. 
 (Miinchen: 1859); Martin, Analyse critique de la Poetique 
 d'Aristote (Paris: 1836); Von Wartenburg, Die Katharsis des 
 Arist. u. d. Oedipus Coloneus d. Sophokles (Berlin: 1866); 
 Stahr, Aristoteles u. d. Wirkung d. Trag. (Berlin: 1859); 
 Reinkens, Arist. lib. d. Kunst, besonders iib. d. Trag. (Wien : 
 1870); A. Dehlen, Die Theorie d. Arist. u. d. Tragodie d. 
 Antiken Christl. Naturwissenschaftl. Weltanschauung (Got- 
 tingen : 1885); E. Jerusalem, Ueber d. Arist. Einheiten im 
 Drama (Leipzig: 1885); F. Susemihl, Rhein. Mus. 18:366, 
 471, 19 : 197, 22:217 Studien zur Aristot. Poetik; Th. Strater, 
 Zeitschr. f. Philos, N.F., 40: 219-247, 41: 204223 ; F. Ueber- 
 weg, Zeitschr. f. Philos. 50: 16-39 ^ e Lehre des Aristoteles
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 9i 
 
 von dem Wesen und der Wirkung der Kunst ; G. Zillgenz, 
 Aristoteles und das deutsche Drama (Wiirzburg : 1865) ; Liepert, 
 Aristoteles und der Zweck der Kunst (Passau: 1862); F. C. 
 Petersen, Skandin. Litteraturselskab. 16 Om den Aristoteliske 
 Poetik; Ernst Essen, Bemerkungen zu Aristoteles' Poetik 
 (Leipzig: 1878); R. Schultz De poetices Aristoteleae princi- 
 piis (1874); M. Seibel, Zu Arist. -n-epl TTOIT?/^? (1891); C. Alt- 
 miiller, D. Zweck d. schonen Kunst : Eine Arist. Studie (1873); 
 R. P. Hardie, Mind, July, 1895, The Poetics of Aristotle. 
 
 The two essays of J. Bernays which have played so impor- 
 tant a part in the discussion of the Aristotelian theory of trag- 
 edy, Grundziige d. verlornen Abhandlung d. Arist. iib. die 
 Wirkung d. Trag. (Breslau : 1857), and Erganzung zu Aris- 
 toteles Poetik {Rhein. Mus. N.F., 8, pp. 561-596), have been 
 reprinted in one volume .under the title Zwei Abhandl. iib. d. 
 Arist. Theorie d. Dramas (Berlin: 1880). See, further, Bernays's 
 Brief an L. Spengel iib. d. trag. Katharsis bei Arist. (Rhein. 
 Mus. N.F., 14 : 367, 488), and Zur Arist. Katharsis-Frage 
 (Rhein. Mus. N. F., 15 : 606), and Spengel's Zur " tragischen 
 Katharsis" d. Arist. (Rhein. Mus. N. F., 15 : 458). 
 
 BAIN, ALEX. The Emotions and the Will. London: 1859. 
 
 Pp. 65, 91, 92, 117, 143, 153 Laughter, 156, 182, 183, 196, 197, 204, 
 225 Imitation, 246, 247-285 (chap. XIV) The Aesthetic Emo- 
 tions. 
 
 BAIN, ALEX. Mental Science. New York: 1870. 
 
 P. 106 Association in Fine Art, 122, 123 Acquisitions in the Fine 
 Arts, 149, 172-4,289-317 Aesthetic Emotions. 
 
 BAIN, ALEX. The Senses and the Intellect. 2d ed. London : 
 1864. 
 
 Pp. 45 2 -454. 543-55' 555. 6o4, 605, 614-624. 
 
 Perhaps no psychologist is more painstaking in gathering 
 facts, and stating them, than Professor Bain ; but his interpre- 
 tation of the facts must be accepted with caution. Regarding
 
 92 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 aesthetic emotions as a sublimation of the simpler feelings, and 
 distinguishing these aesthetic emotions by the presence of cer- 
 tain characteristics not essential to mere existence, Bain is to be 
 studied with especial profit in connection with Spencer and the 
 physiological school. In a third edition of The Emotions and 
 the Will (London : 1875) changes have been made in conformity 
 with Sully's investigations into the aesthetic emotions ; and the 
 author discusses at some length the bearing of the evolution 
 hypothesis on his premises as hitherto stated. See Mind i : 
 154. 
 
 BEGG, W. P. The Development of Taste and other Studies in 
 Aesthetics. Glasgow: 1887. 
 
 A work which, while it cannot be said to advance a new the- 
 ory of the Beautiful, or of Art, presents with clearness the 
 nature of the theories of the Evolutionists and of the Associa- 
 tionists (chaps. I-IX), and elaborates with enthusiasm the doc- 
 trines of Hegel and of the brothers Caird. The chapters on 
 the development of taste among the Assyrians, Egyptians, 
 Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Christians especially in re- 
 gard to the beautiful in nature are profitable and of extreme 
 interest. The student will find the distinctions drawn in chap. 
 VIII between the Pretty, the Picturesque, the Beautiful, and 
 the Sublime, suggestive; he should note carefully Begg's an- 
 swers to the two great questions : What is Beauty ? and Is 
 there an absolute standard of Taste ? In saying that divine 
 thought immanent in the universe is the supreme cause of 
 Beauty in nature, Begg provokes at once the question : Then 
 how comes the Ugly here ? His answer is that of Leibnitz and 
 the Optimists. See review in Rev. Phtios. 23 : 654. 
 
 BELL, SIR CHAS. The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression 
 as connected with the Fine Arts. 6th ed. London .-1872. 
 
 Of considerable importance as a forerunner of the evolution-
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 93 
 
 ary and physiological school of aesthetics represented by Bain, 
 Spencer, Sully, and Allen. 
 
 BOSANQUET, BERNARD. A History of Aesthetic. London : 
 1892. 
 
 This is the only adequate historico-critical survey of the sub- 
 ject produced outside of Germany. Aesthetic theory is treated 
 as a branch of philosophy ; but the result is something more 
 than a history of speculation. The author's appreciation of art, 
 and his sense for the intimate connection between theory and 
 practice, cause him to regard aesthetic theory "as only the 
 clear and crystallized form of the aesthetic consciousness 
 or sense of beauty." His work is thus at one and the same 
 time a history of aesthetic opinion and a history of the aes- 
 thetic consciousness; and although he has avoided what he 
 calls " the impertinence of invading the artist's domain with an 
 apparatus belli of critical principles and precepts," his interpre- 
 tations of art, and especially of literature (see in particular 
 chap. VII A comparison of Dante and Shakespeare in respect 
 of some Formal Characteristics), are not the least valuable 
 parts of the work. The point of view is speculative, but ample 
 justice is done to the " exact aesthetic " of Germany and the 
 related investigations in England. The treatment is by ideas, 
 not by authors. 
 
 The appearance of this work was preceded by several stud- 
 ies of aesthetics from the pen of the author. Among the most 
 important were the essay prefatory to his translation of Hegel, 
 and the following articles in the Proceedings of the Aris- 
 totelian Society: Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 77-96 The Part played by 
 Aesthetic in the Growth of Modern Philosophy ; vol. I, No. 3, 
 pt. I, pp. 32-48 The Aesthetic Theory of Ugliness. Since the 
 History appeared Mr. Bosanquet has published in Mind, N.S. 
 3 : 153, an interesting article entitled On the Nature ef Aes- 
 thetic Emotion, in which he discusses the relation between 
 emotion and expression.
 
 94 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 BROWN, BALDWIN. The Fine Arts. London : 1892. 
 
 One of the University Extension Manuals, edited by Professor 
 Knight. It has the double merit of being scholarly in treat- 
 ment and fresh and spirited in style. As an introduction to the 
 general theory of the arts it has few rivals. 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our 
 Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful. London: 1821. 
 (First published 1756.) 
 
 Of much importance historically, and useful to the student 
 as suggesting a comparison between the physiological theory of 
 aesthetic which Burke advanced and the theory of associated 
 ideas maintained by Alison and the Scotch school. Burke 
 was one of the earliest writers to emphasize the relation of the 
 Sublime to the Beautiful. The validity of his premises calls 
 for careful examination. Does the sense for Beauty rest upon 
 man's impulse toward society, and that for the sublime on the 
 impulse of self-preservation? Cf. Schasler's Geschichte, Bd. i, 
 159-161 ; Bosanquet, Hist. Aesthetic, pp. 203-6. 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Aesthetik. Die Idee des Schonen und ihre 
 Bewirklichg. durch Natur, Geist, und Kunst. 2 vols. 
 Leipzig: 1873. (ist ed. 1859, 3d ed. 1886.) 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kulturent- 
 wickelung, und die Ideale der Menschheit. 5 vols. Leip- 
 zig: 1871-3. (ist ed. 1862, 3d ed. 1886.) 
 Carriere is one of the most readable of modern German writ- 
 ers on aesthetics. He has done as much as any one man, per- 
 haps, to spread a knowledge of the subject among his country- 
 men. As regards his philosophical position, he is in essentials 
 a Hegelian, though he differs with Hegel upon many minor 
 points. He calls himself a real-idealist. The work entitled 
 Art in Connection with the Development of Culture is a nota- 
 bly successful attempt to write the aesthetic history of human-
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 95 
 
 ity. Carriere has also written Das Wesen und die Formen der 
 Poesie (Leipzig: 1854). In his Die Sittliche Weltordnung 
 (Leipzig: 1877), pp. 339-354 deal with art. A criticism of 
 Carriere's aesthetics appeared in Bibl. Sacr. 18 : 227. 
 
 COLVIN, S*. Encycl. Brit, gtii ed. ' Art.' 
 
 A somewhat formal discussion of the various meanings of the 
 word Art, with classification of the arts into useful and fine 
 arts. 
 
 COLVIN, S. Encycl. Brit, gth ed. ' Fine Arts.' 
 
 The definition, classification, and historical development of 
 fine art is here handled with great clearness and considerable 
 accumulation of interesting fact. The writer makes no pre- 
 tense to historical insight, but refers in one place and another 
 to the theories of the important authorities. 
 
 COUSIN, V. Cours de 1'histoire de la Philosophic moderne. 
 i e ser. 5 vols. Paris: 1846. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 120-205 Du Beau, 419-428 Du Beau reel et du Beau 
 Ideal. 
 
 COUSIN, V. Du Vrai, du Beau, et du Bien. Paris: 1853. 
 Pp. 141-270 Du Beau. 
 
 COUSIN, V. Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the 
 Good. Trans, by O. W. Wight. New York : 1860. 
 
 Pp. 123-214. 
 
 With Leveque and Jouffroy, Cousin is a member of the 
 school of Spiritualistes. For him the sense of Beauty is purely 
 subjective. His aesthetic is the result of a reaction from the 
 sensationalism of the i8th century. His studies were made 
 first in the wake of Reid and the Scotch philosophers, but after 
 his visit to Germany in 1817 he became a follower of the 
 German idealists. Though calling himself an eclectic spirit- 
 ualist, he was the most enthusiastic advocate in France of 
 German philosophy. Attempting to steer a middle course be-
 
 96 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 tween the Scotch philosophy and German Absolutism, he finally 
 made port with the psychologists. His work on aesthetics was 
 produced at this period in his development. 
 
 DEWEY. J. Psychology. New York: 1887. 
 
 See chap. XV on Aesthetic Feeling, and compare with it 
 chap. VII on Imagination and chap. IX on Intuition. These 
 will be found an excellent introduction to the psychology of 
 aesthetics. In his Outlines of Ethics (Ann Arbor: 1891) Pro- 
 fessor Dewey considers briefly the social aspects of art (pp. 1 1 1- 
 113, 120-127), an d develops several highly original conclusions. 
 Especially noteworthy is his attitude with regard to the relation 
 of fine and useful art (p. 112). He holds that the rigid separa- 
 tion of the two in aesthetic theory has no justification. " Both 
 are products of intelligence in the service of interests, and the 
 only difference is in the range of intelligence and the interests 
 concerned." 
 
 DIDEROT, D. CEuvres Completes, rev. . . . par J. Assizat. 
 20 vols. Paris: 1875-7. 
 
 T. VII, pp. 307-394 De la Poesie dramatique; T. X, pp. 3-42 Sur 
 POrigine et la Nature du Beau, 461-520 Essai sur la Peinture 
 (written about 1775); T. XII, pp. 75-133 Pensees detachees sur 
 la Peinture, la Sculpture, 1'Architecture, et la Poesie ; T. X-XII 
 Salons ; T. XIII-XVII Diet. Encyclopedique (See articles ' Art,' 
 ' Beaute,' etc.). 
 
 One of the most penetrating and original of French writers 
 on art. His additions to theory, however, are made by way of 
 suggestion in the course of his art-criticisms, and not in sys- 
 tematic form. 
 
 EMERSON, R. W. Complete Works. Riverside ed. n vols. 
 Boston: 1883-4. 
 
 Vol. I (Nature), pp. 21-30 Beauty ; vol. II (Essays, ist ser.), pp. 
 327-343 Art; vol. VI (Conduct of Life), pp. 265-290 Beauty ; 
 vol. VII (Soc. and Solitude), pp. 41-59 Art; vol. VIII (Letters 
 and Soc. Aims), pp. 9-75 Poetry and Imagination, 151-166 The 
 Comic.
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 97 
 
 May well be laid aside until some progress has been made in 
 the study of aesthetics. The reading of Emerson at an early 
 stage is likely to fill the student's mind with catch-words and 
 epigrams about art, the meaning of which he is not prepared to 
 understand. Emerson's theories of art may best be viewed in 
 the light of his philosophy as a whole. His oracular fragments 
 will then assume a measure of completeness and system. 
 
 EVERETT, C. C. Poetry, Comedy, and Duty. Boston: 1888. 
 
 For this work, as for his Science of Thought, Professor 
 Everett has drawn his inspiration from Schopenhauer and his 
 method from Hegel. The result has been in each case a logi- 
 cal and at the same time a fresh and fascinating treatise. Pro- 
 fessor Everett discusses in Poetry, Comedy, and Duty, three 
 sides of life, faces of a prism : The enjoyment of Beauty, the 
 independence of the spiritual life, the obedience to the law of 
 righteousness. The rare interdependence of the three is deli- 
 cately expressed. Perhaps no writer in America has with equal 
 charm set forth the philosophic connection between Ethics and 
 Art, Art and Imagination, Imagination and the Actual, the 
 Comic and the Tragic, the Beautiful and the Right. The stu- 
 dent should consider carefully the ground occupied by both 
 Everett and Schopenhauer (vol. II, pp. 270-284), that the 
 sense of the ludicrous is purely subjective. There is an enter- 
 taining article by Professor Everett in the Andover Rev., 
 August, 1890, on the Sublime. Here, again, his views are in 
 sequence with those of Schopenhauer (vol. I, pp. 259-268). 
 
 EVERETT, C. C. The Science of Thought. Boston : 1882. 
 
 This work is an excellent introduction to the study of 
 aesthetics and of criticism. Special attention should be paid 
 to pp. 153-163 Propositions of Beauty, and pp. 221232 The 
 Logic of Aesthetics. .
 
 98 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 EYE, A. VON. Das Reich des Schonen. Berlin: 1878. 
 
 Though outwardly forbidding from its lack of table of contents 
 and index, and its paucity of internal divisions, this work, for 
 one who has the courage to attack it, presents a fairly com- 
 prehensive survey of the field of Aesthetic inquiry. A brief 
 review of German Aesthetics begins on p. 38. 
 
 FECHNER, G. T. Zur experimentalen Aesthetik. Leipzig : 
 1871. 
 
 FECHNER, G. T. Vorschule der Aesthetik. Leipzig: 1876. 
 
 Fechner's importance lies in his having been among the first 
 to test by actual experiment preferences for outlines, surfaces, 
 and colors. He laid the foundation of modern experimental 
 aesthetics. (See the article by J. Sully in Mind 2 : 102, and 
 Bosanquet, Hist. Aesthetic, pp. 381-387.) 
 
 GAUCKLER, PH. Le Beau et son Histoire. Paris: 1873. 
 
 An excellent little manual, covering in a popular style both 
 the theoretical and the historical aspects of aesthetics. On 
 pp. 1-9 the author reviews briefly the important definitions of 
 Beauty. His own is given on p. 14: "The true manifestation 
 in finite phenomena of the unity of being." 
 
 GAYLEY, C. M., and F. N. SCOTT. A Guide to the Literature 
 of Aesthetics. Berkeley (California): 1890. 
 
 This is No. 1 1 of the University of California Library Bulle- 
 tins, and can be obtained by librarians by way of exchange. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON. Werke. (Hempel ed.) 36 vols. in 23. 
 Berlin : 1879. 
 
 Bd.II.pp. 175-220 Kunst; Bd. XXVIII Schrif ten und Aufsatzezur 
 Kunst ; Bd. XXIX Aufsatze zur Literatur. See indexes in Bde. 
 II, XXVIII and XXIX, and index to Bde. I-XXXVI in Bd. 
 XXXVI.
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 99 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON. Sammtliche Werke. '40 vols. in 20. 
 Stuttgart: 1840. 
 
 Bd. Ill, pp. 257-274 Verschiedenes Einzelne iiber Kunst ; Bd. 
 XXX Winckelman, Ueber Laokoon, Wahrheit und Wahrschein- 
 lichkeit, u. s. w.; Bd. XXXI von Deutsche Baukunst, Verschie- 
 denes iiber Kunst, u. s. w.; Bd. XXXII Deutsche Literatur; Bd. 
 XXXIII Auswartige Literatur und Volkspoesie; Bd. XXXV, 
 pp. 333-459 Theater und dramatische Poesie. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON, and ECKERMANN, J. P. Gesprache mit 
 Goethe. 6 te Aufl. 3 vols. Leipzig: 1885. 
 See Register in Bd. III. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON, ECKERMANN, J. P., and M. SORET. Con- 
 versations of Goethe. Trans, by J. Oxenford. London : 
 1875. (Vol. VI of Goethe's Works.) 
 
 As in the case of Plato so in that of Goethe, it did not lie 
 within the purpose of the man to develop a complete system of 
 aesthetics. But up and down the works of Goethe are scat- 
 tered thoughts of a finished art-amateur concerning the subject 
 with which he was most intimate. His opinions are not so 
 much upon beauty or art in general as upon the peculiar 
 beauty and the comparative art of this or the other artistic 
 product. A propos of architecture, of the plastic arts, of 
 Shakespeare, of the French dramatists, of the German Roman- 
 ticists, Goethe delivers himself frequently and fully. In his 
 conversations there will be found suggestive passages touching 
 upon the Unities, the quarrel between Classicism and Romanti- 
 cism, the theories of Lessing and Winckelmann, the tenets of 
 various schools of criticism, the necessary principles of art, the 
 nature of the Beautiful, and the growth of the author's aes- 
 thetic convictions. For his definite contribution to the advance 
 of aesthetic speculation, see Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth., pp. 304- 
 316, and 20 below, under GOETHE.
 
 100 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 GURNEY, EDM. The Power of Sound. London: 1880. 
 
 In the first chapters of this work is outlined a complete sys- 
 tem of the Fine Arts as introduction to the treatment of the art 
 of music. Gurney is here, as everywhere, clear, straightforward, 
 and entertaining. 
 
 GUYAU, M.-J. Les Problemes de 1'Esthetique contemporaine. 
 
 Paris: 1884. 
 
 The problems here discussed are (i) the nature of Art, (2) 
 the future of art and poetry, (3) the form of poetry, and the laws 
 of verse. The author maintains the seriousness of art (cf. Aris- 
 totle's and Wordsworth's " high seriousness '') as against the 
 "play" theory of Spencer and Allen. He deals a hard blow 
 at the view of aesthetic emotion which makes it a distinctively 
 passive or receptive attitude of the mind. 
 
 GUYAU, M.-J. L'art au point de vue sociologique. Introd. 
 
 par A. Fouillee. Paris: 1889. 
 
 In this posthumous work M. Guyau presents with great force 
 and brilliancy of style an interpretation of art in terms of social 
 relationship. His doctrine is summed up in the statement that 
 the function of art is to make all men feel alike, and so to de- 
 velop social sympathy. M. Guyau's views are presented appre- 
 ciatively in Alfred Fouille'e's La Morale, 1'art et la religion 
 d'apres M. Guyau (Paris: 1889). 
 
 HARTMANN, E. VON. Ausgewahlte Werke. 2 vols. Berlin : 
 1887. 
 
 9-12 Hfte. Die deutsche Aesthetik seit Kant ; 13-20 Hfte. Philoso- 
 phic des Schonen. 
 
 Of these two volumes the first deals with the history of Ger- 
 man Aesthetics since Kant, the second presents the author's 
 system. In the first volume pp. 1-362 are taken up with a 
 historico-critical exposition of systems ; pp. 363-580 with a con- 
 sideration of special subjects and problems in aesthetics, such
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 101 
 
 as the Ugly, the Comic, the Classification of the Arts, etc. 
 Indexes and tables of contents enhance the value of the work 
 as a reference book. For those who read German readily this 
 work is perhaps the best key to modern German aesthetics. 
 For Von Hartmann's philosophic position see Ueberweg's Hist, 
 of Philos., vol. II, p. 336 ; Erdmann, vol. Ill, pp. 236248 ; 
 Bosanquet's Hist, of Aesth., pp. 424-440. 
 
 HEGEL, G. W. F. Werke. 18 vols. Berlin: 1833-48. 
 
 Bd. X, Theile 1-3 Aesthetik. (The three parts of the Aesthetik 
 will be referred to as vols. I, II, and III.) 
 
 The importance of this work in the history of Aesthetics is 
 generally recognized, and it is to be regretted that no complete 
 translation has as yet been made. The Einleitung and Ein- 
 theilung (vol. I, pp. 3-114) give an excellent outline of the 
 whole work, and form the best introduction to it, but give 
 little idea of the wealth and fertility with which the funda- 
 mental conceptions are developed. The remark of Sully that 
 the German theories of aesthetics ' can be adequately esti- 
 mated and criticised only in connection with the whole system 
 of thought of which they are a part," is particularly true of 
 Hegel. A thorough examination of the Aesthetik, preceded 
 by a review of the Logik and exposition of the Hegelian Idee, 
 may be found in Von Hartmann, Aesthetik, Bd. I, pp. 107- 
 129. See, also, Schasler, Bd. II, p. 974, and in briefer com- 
 pass, p. 1084; Lotze's Geschichte der Aesthetik; Ulrici's 
 Ueber Princip und Methode der Hegelischen Philosophic 
 (Halle: 1841), pp. 216-244. Ueberweg's and Erdmann's His- 
 tories of Philosophy may also be profitably consulted. Exposi- 
 tory articles are: Brit. 6 for. Rev. 13 : i, No. Am. 84: 385, 
 Church Rev. 46 : 372, Macm. 16 : 441 (Stirling's prefatory note). 
 Hastie's translation contains a eulogistic preface and a trans- 
 lation of Zeller's summary of the Hegelian philosophy. Best 
 of all are, for the beginner, the account in Wm. Knight's Phi-
 
 102 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 losophy of the Beautiful, pt. I, pp. 70-74, and for the more ad- 
 vanced student the elaborate interpretation in Bosanquet's 
 Hist, of Aesth., pp. 334-362. 
 
 HEGEL, G. W. F. The Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of 
 
 Fine Art. Trans, by B. Bosanquet, London: 1886. 
 This fine translation of the Einleitung and Eintheilung should 
 be in the hands of every student. The prefatory essay "On 
 the True Conception of Another World," may be recommended 
 as an admirable introduction to the reading of Hegel. 
 
 HEGEL, G: W. F., and MICHELET, C. L. The Philosophy of 
 Art : An Introduction to the Scientific Study of Aesthetics. 
 Trans, from the German by W. Hastie. Edinburgh : 
 1886. 
 
 This handy little book contains (i) an appreciative preface 
 with some remarks on Ruskin and Taine ; (2) a translation of 
 Zeller's summary of Hegel's Philosophy of Art ; (3) a translation 
 of pp. 3-30 of Hegel's Einleitung, covering in this volume 
 pp. 3-34; (4) a translation (not an analysis, as Bosanquet 
 wrongly assumes) of pp. 105-114 of Hegel's Eintheilung, ex- 
 tending in this volume to p. 46 ; (5) a translation of pp. 406- 
 453 of Michelet's System der Philosophic. While the transla- 
 tion is readable and fairly representative of Hegel's thought, it 
 falls far below Bosanquet's in point of critical value. The lat- 
 ter has the great advantage, also, of giving the Einleitung and 
 Eintheilung entire. 
 
 The following are translations of parts of the Aesthetik: 
 /. Spec. Philos. i : 36, 91, 169, 221 ; 2 : 39, 157 ; 3 : 31, 147, 
 281, 317 Bdnard's Exposition of Hegel, translated by J. A. 
 Martling (see comment in 'Mind, 12: 599): 5 : 368; 6: 125, 
 2 5 2; 7 : 33 Hegel's Philos. of Art Chivalry, translated by S. A. 
 Longwell ; i : 337; 12: 18 Hegel's Symbolic Art, translated 
 by W. M. Bryant; 12:145, 277 Hegel's Classical Art, trans-
 
 8.] . REFERENCES. 103 
 
 lated by W. M. Bryant; 12: 403; 13: 113, 244, 351 Hegel's 
 Romantic Art, translated by W. M. Bryant; Macm. 16:441 
 Hegel's Symbolism of the Sublime, translated by J. H. Stirling. 
 
 HELMHOLTZ, H. L. F. VON. Sensations of Tone as a Physio- 
 logical Basis for a Theory of Music. Translated and edited 
 by A. J. Ellis. London: 1875. 
 
 Upon the physical and physiological problems of music Helm- 
 holtz is the highest authority. In the speculative field, into 
 which he ventured long excursions (chaps. XIII and XIX), his 
 opinions do not have and do not deserve so much considera- 
 tion. In most points of his aesthetic philosophy Helmholtz is 
 a close follower of Kant. "Art," he says, "creates regularly 
 without conscious law, designedly without conscious aim" 
 Kant's " Zweckmassigkeit ohne Zweck." 
 
 HERDER, J. G. Sammtliche Werke. Hrsg. von B. Suphan. 
 27 vols. Berlin: 1877-81. 
 
 Bd. I, pp. 43-56 Schonheit, Bd. IV, pp. 1-218 Kritische Walder 
 oder Betrachtungen iiber die Wissenschaft und Kunst des 
 Schonen; Bd. XII, pp. 1-308 Vom Geist der Ebraischen Poesie ; 
 Bd. XXII (Kalligone), pp. 3-122 Vom Angenehmen und Schonen, 
 pp. 125-224 Von Kunst und Kunstrichterei, pp. 227-360 Vom 
 Erhabenen und vom Ideal. 
 
 Although of great importance as an independent thinker in 
 the field of literature, Herder is known in aesthetics chiefly by 
 his criticisms of the view of Kant. These will be found in the 
 Kalligone. 
 
 HOGARTH, WM. The Analysis of Beauty. London: 1753. 
 
 Of especial interest because of its influence upon the course 
 of modern speculation regarding the standard of taste. Among 
 those who are indebted to it are Burke, Lessing, Reynolds, and 
 Goethe. Bosanquet in his Hist, of Aesth., p. 208, assigns to 
 the work a high degree of importance, in that it " represents 
 the abstract principle of unity in variety on its highest level, so
 
 104 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ a 
 
 as to form a point of transition to the analysis of the present 
 century." (See Schasler, Gesch. d. Aesth., Thl. i, pp. 307-313.) 
 
 HUME, D. Philosophical Works. 4 vols. Boston: 1854. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 30-36 Of Beauty and Deformity; vol. Ill, pp. 211- 
 216 Of Simplicity and Refinement in Writing, pp. 237-247 Of 
 Tragedy, pp. 248-273 Of the Standard of Taste, pp. 217-522 
 Of Essay Writing. 
 
 Hume's utterances on questions of aesthetics are brief and 
 fragmentary. They derive their interest partly from their in- 
 trinsic value and partly from the fact that they are by Hume. 
 In writing upon Beauty and Deformity (in the Treatise on 
 Human Nature) Hume rests his exposition mainly upon the 
 principle of utility, though the utility of which he conceives 
 is like the Kantian "purposiveness without purpose" and 
 " pleasure without interest," in that it is devoid of selfishness 
 on the part of the spectator. (See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth., 
 pp. 178-180.) 
 
 JOUFFROY, TH. Cours d'Esthe'tique . . . Preface par Ph. 
 
 Damiron. Paris : 1845. 
 
 A precise handling of the subject by a somewhat hard-headed 
 disciple of Cousin. The point of view is psychological. 
 
 KANT, IMM. Sammtliche Werke. Hrsg. von C. Hartenstein. 
 8 vols. Leipzig: 1867-8. 
 
 Bd. II, pp. 227-280 Beobachtungen Uber das (Jefiihl des Schonen 
 und Erhabenen ; Bd. V, pp. 205-368 Kritik der Aesthetischen 
 Urtheilskraft ; Bd. VI, p. 386 Von der Aesthetik des Beurtheils- 
 vermbgens. 
 
 KANT, IMM. Critique du Jugement, suivie des Observations 
 sur le Sentiment du Beau et du Sublime. Trad, par 
 J. Barni. 2 vols. Paris : 1846. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. i-xvi Avant-propos du traducteur ; pp. 1-60 Intro- 
 duction de 1'auteur; pp. 63-340 Critique du Jugement Esthe'tique 
 (1790); vol. II, pp. 233-320 Observations sur le sentiment du 
 Beau et du Sublime (1764).
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 105 
 
 KANT, IMM. Kritik of Judgment-. Trans, by J. H. Bernard. 
 London : 1892. 
 
 In the history of modern aesthetics the writings of Kant are 
 of the very highest degree of importance. In aesthetics, as in 
 other branches of philosophy, he is a kind of pivot upon which 
 all later speculation turns. His chief merit is that he attacks 
 with immense critical power the vital problem of his time. If 
 he does not succeed in solving the problem, yet he states it 
 with wonderful clearness, and divines the factors needful for 
 its solution. 
 
 The French translations of Imhoff (1796) and of Keratry and 
 Weyland (1823) attest the esteem in which this critique was held 
 by Kant's contemporaries. Barni's translation of the Observa- 
 tions is valuable ; the rest of his work is superseded by Bernard's. 
 For a clear and brief statement of Kant's aesthetical doctrine 
 of Zweckmdssigkeit ohne Zweck, and of the position which the 
 Grit. Judgm. (analyzing phenomena of Feeling) occupies in 
 relation to the Crit. Pure Reason, and the Grit. Pract. Reason 
 (analyzing respectively the phenomena of Knowledge and of 
 Desire), see Bernard's introduction to his translation. 
 
 The obscurity of his style, and the difficulty of compre- 
 hending his philosophical doctrines in their entirety, have 
 made Kant's writings on aesthetics, except for specialists in phi- 
 losophy, practically a sealed book. The first obstacle has now 
 in some measure been removed by the publication of Bernard's 
 translation of the Gritique-of Judgment, and the second has 
 been considerably diminished by the appearance of Gaird's 
 Gritical Philosophy of Kant (2 vols. ; Glasgow: 1889) and 
 Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic. 
 
 KAMES, LORD. Elements of Criticism. New York: 1838. 
 
 (Published 1761.) 
 
 Of interest to the student of the history of aesthetics because 
 of its influence upon Lessing. Kames's attempt at the discov-
 
 106 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 ery of the characteristics of the object which arouse aesthetic 
 feelings, and at the analysis of these feelings, is, notwithstand- 
 ing Fr. Vischer's condemnation of his work (Aesthetik, p. 106), 
 a contribution to the science. His independence of judgment 
 and method, and his reference of the source of criticism to the 
 human soul are specially emphasized in W. Neumann's admirable 
 dissertation Die Bedeutung Home's fiir die Aesthetik u. s. 
 Einfluss auf die deutschen Aesthetiker (Halle : 1894). Note 
 the indebtedness of Kames to Gerard's Essay on Taste (Edin- 
 ' 755~ 6 )- 
 
 KEDNEY, J. S. The Beautiful and the Sublime. New York : 
 1880. 
 
 This is an interesting discussion of some of the leading prob- 
 lems of aesthetics. The author's aim is to analyze the emotions 
 of the sublime and the beautiful, and to establish constructively 
 the objective character of beauty. A critical supplement re- 
 views the most important theories of the sublime and the beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 KEDNEY, J. S. Hegel's Aesthetics. A Critical Exposition. 
 Chicago: 1885. 
 
 This little work has value as being the only detailed exposi- 
 tion in English of the whole of Hegel's Aesthetik. Unhappily 
 the author has followed the plan of substituting his own theo- 
 ries for those of Hegel at every point where he differs with the 
 latter, and the reader, although warned of the interpolated 
 matter by the insertion of brackets, cannot be sure whether the 
 impressions that he carries away from the work are those of the 
 expositor or the expounded. Pages 1 14-181 are to be regarded 
 as an independent treatise by the author, in which no effort is 
 made to distinguish between his own views and those of Hegel. 
 Professor Kedney has called attention to this fact in the pref- 
 ace, but since few students are in the habit of consulting prefaces,
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 107 
 
 the information should have been repeated at the beginning of 
 Part II. The remaining portion of the work is a fairly success- 
 ful exposition, although serious errors of interpretation are not 
 wanting. The author's criticism on p. 16 is clearly based upon 
 a misreading of Hegel. (See Aesthetik, vol. I, pp. 58, 59.) 
 The same is true of the bracketed paragraph, pp. 187, 188. 
 
 KER, W. P. The Philosophy of Art. (In S.eth and Haldane's 
 
 Essays in Philosophical Criticism. London: 1883.) 
 A finished and thoughtful paper. The trend of thought is 
 Hegelian. 
 
 KNIGHT, WM. The Philosophy of the Beautiful (Part I): being 
 Outlines of the History of Aesthetics. New York: 1891. 
 
 KNIGHT, WM. The Philosophy of the Beautiful (Part II): be- 
 ing a Contribution to its Theory, and to a Discussion of 
 the Arts. London : 1893. 
 
 By the use of these university-extension manuals the student 
 can lay an excellent foundation for more advanced study. In 
 the first book the writer's aim is not to trace the evolution of 
 aesthetics but merely to give an impartial account of the impor- 
 tant theories in chronological order. As a guide to the litera- 
 ture of the subject it is without a superior. The second book 
 undertakes to outline the fundamental principles of art and of 
 the several arts of poetry, music, architecture, sculpture, paint- 
 ing, and dancing. The author's point of view is frankly ideal- 
 istic, the " meagre doctrine " of the experimentalists receiving 
 in this volume very little notice. Of especial value are the 
 accounts of Dutch, Danish, and Russian aesthetics. 
 
 KOSTLIN, K. Aesthetik. Tubingen : 1869. 
 
 Neither the idea of Art (as in Schleiermacher and Hegel) 
 nor the idea of the Beautiful (as in more recent writers) covers 
 the field of aesthetics, The former must be supplemented by
 
 108 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 the idea of Nature, the latter by that of the Aesthetic Subject 
 in its relation to life. In his correlation of aesthetic form 
 with the concrete world of forms lies Kostlin's contribution to 
 the science. 
 
 KOSTLIN, K. Prolegomena zur Aesthetik. Tubingen: 1889. 
 For Kostlin's Aesthetics, see Zeitschrift fur Philos. 87 : 215 ; 
 Von Hartmann's Aesthetik, vol. I, p. 305-317. The Pro- 
 legomena, a school-program of 103 pages, forms an excellent 
 brief introduction to the study of Aesthetic. The principal 
 subjects discussed are : Man's Interest in the World, the 
 Meaning and Power of the Agreeable and the Disagreeable, 
 the Beautiful, Taste, the Objectivity and the Relativity of 
 Beauty. The starting-point is psychological. See, also, Kost- 
 lin's Ueber d. Schonheitsbegriff (60 pp. Tubingen : 1878). 
 
 LESSING, G. E. Werke. 20 vols. in 12. Berlin: 
 
 Bd. VI Laokoon; Bd. VII Hamburgische Dramaturgic; Bd. XI, 
 Abth. i, 2 Kleinere Schriften zur dramatischen Poesie und zur 
 Fabel ; Bd. XIII, Abth. 2, pp. 249-306 Wie die Alten den Tod 
 gebildet, pp. 332-347 Anmerkungen zu Winckelmann's Ge- 
 schichte der Kunst. 
 
 The Laocoon is indispensable whether as a historic landmark 
 or as the ablest of all discussions of the boundaries of poetry 
 and painting. It has the advantage also over many other Ger- 
 man treatises of being perfectly intelligible to the beginner. 
 The student should not hesitate to question the soundness of 
 Lessing's conclusions, and should inquire especially as to the 
 adequacy of the principle upon which he bases his canon of 
 limitations. See Univ. of Mich. Philos. Papers, series II, 
 No. 3 Lessing on the Boundaries of Poetry and Painting, by 
 Professor E. L. Walter ; H. Bliimner's Laokoon-Studien (Frei- 
 burg i. B. : 1881-2); and the long and careful interpretation of 
 Lessing in Bosanquet's Hist, of Aesth., pp. 216-238. The 
 Laocoon has been translated by E. C\ Beasley (Bohn Libr.j
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 109 
 
 and by Ellen Frothingham (Boston : 1890), and edited with 
 notes by A. Hamann (Oxford: 1892). See, also, 20, under 
 LESSING. 
 
 LEVEQUE, CH. La Science du Beau. 2 e dd. 2 vols. Paris : 
 
 1872. 
 
 This is the most systematic and comprehensive of the French 
 treatises on aesthetics. Like Cousin the author belongs to the 
 school of the spiritualistes. Consequently his treatment in 
 many particulars resembles that of Hegel. 
 
 LONGINUS, D. Quae Supersunt Graece et Latine. Recens. 
 . . . J. Toupius. Ace. emend. D. Ruhnkenii. Editio 
 altera. Oxford: 1778. 
 
 LONGINUS, D. On the Sublime. Trans, by H. L. Havell. 
 
 With an Introduction by Andrew Lang. London: 1890. 
 The earliest work in which the Sublime is treated as a dis- 
 tinct aesthetic quality, within or beside the Beautiful. For a 
 discussion of the date and authorship of the treatise, see Egger's 
 Essai, pp. 426-9. 
 
 LOTZE, H. Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland. Miin- 
 
 chen : 1868. 
 
 Treats of the German writers from Baumgarten down. The 
 method adopted leads to three different surveys of the same 
 subject-matter : First, with regard to the point of view from 
 which the Beautiful has been discovered ; second, with regard 
 to the fundamental problems of aesthetics ; third, with regard 
 to the chronological sequence of theories. 
 
 LOTZE, H. Microcosmus. Trans, by E. Hamilton and E. E. C. 
 Jones. 2 vols. Edinburgh : 1885. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 324, 578-586 ; vol. II, pp. 168, 169 History and Poetry, 
 pp. 398-443 Beauty and Art. 
 
 Mainly on types of beauty as conceived in different periods 
 of civilization.
 
 110 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 LOTZE, H. Outlines of Aesthetics. Trans, by T. Ladd. 
 
 Boston: 1886. 
 
 A handy little volume, and easily obtainable, but one from 
 which the student will not carry away much that is of value un- 
 less he has previously acquired some acquaintance with Lotze's 
 philosophical point of view. See Erdmann's or Ueberweg's 
 Hist, of Philosophy. 
 
 MARSHALL, H. R. Pain, Pleasure, and Aesthetics. An essay 
 concerning the Psychology of Pain and Pleasure, with 
 special reference to aesthetics. New York : 1894. 
 
 This is, in the main, a reprint of essays published in Mind. 
 The portion dealing directly with aesthetics appeared in vol. I, 
 N.S., pp. 358-378, 453-469 ; vol. II, N.S., pp. 15-41. 
 
 In order to secure a proper basis for his theory, Mr. Mar- 
 shall first discusses the broad subject of the feelings of pleas- 
 ure and pain. In this part of his treatise he makes many 
 acute criticisms of Allen, Spencer, and other recognized au- 
 thorities. Aesthetics is then classified as a division of hedon- 
 ics, and the following definition of the aesthetic field is pro- 
 posed : " Each one's field of aesthetic judgment is his relatively 
 permanent pleasure-field of revival." The remainder of the 
 work is largely taken up with an exposition of aesthetic laws, 
 which are divided into negative and positive. The handling of 
 the subject is unusually able and suggestive. 
 
 A still clearer exposition will be found in the author's 
 Aesthetic Principles (New York : 1895). 
 
 MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, M. Historia de las ideas esteticas en 
 Espana. 5 vols. in 8. Madrid: 1883-91. 
 
 The standard work on the history of Spanish aesthetics. It 
 includes also valuable chapters on writers of other nationalities, 
 ancient and modern; thus: Vol. I, pp. 1-156 Greek and Ro- 
 man writers; vol. Ill, pt. I, pp. 1-153 French and German
 
 8.] REFERENCES. Ill 
 
 writers of the i8th century ; vol. IV, pt. I German aesthetics 
 of the igth century; pt. II English and French aesthetics. 
 The work is as yet unfinished. 
 
 MORRIS, G. S. J. Spec. Philos. 10 : i Philosophy of Art. 
 
 A lecture read before a class who were studying Taine's Phi- 
 losophy of Art. Besides being a careful criticism of Taine's 
 philosophical position, it is one of the best brief expositions of 
 the philosophy of art anywhere to be found. 
 
 MORRIS, WM. Hopes and Fears for Art. Boston : 1882. 
 
 Pp. 1-37 The Lesser Arts, pp. 38-70 The Art of the People, pp. 71- 
 113 The Beauty of Life, pp. 114-168 Making the Best of it, 
 pp. 169-217 The Prospects of Architecture in Civilization. 
 
 MORRIS, WM. Lectures on Art. 3d ed. London: 1883. 
 
 MORRIS, WM. New Revieu< 4: i The Socialist Ideal Art. 
 
 (See, also, Mr. W. H. Mallock's reply to Morris in New 
 
 Review 4: 100 The Individualist Ideal.) 
 Morris is mainly interested in the social aspects of art, a 
 subject which he treats not only with the grace and finish of 
 the literary artist, but also with the insight of the philosopher. 
 
 PATER, WALTER. Studies in the History of the Renaissance. 
 
 London : 1873. 
 
 See especially the Preface, the Conclusion, and the essay on 
 Winckelmann. 
 
 PLATO. The Dialogues of Plato. Trans, by B. Jowett. 3d ed. 
 5 vols. London and New York : 1892. 
 
 Vol. I, Ion, Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus ; vol. II, Republic 
 
 (bk. II, 376-383 ; bk. Ill, 386-404 ; bk. VII ; bk. IX, 580-591; 
 
 " bk. X, 595-608); vol. Ill, Gorgias, Philebus ; vol. IV, Laws 
 
 (bk. II ; bk. IV, 719; bk. VII, 796-803, 811-17; bk.-VIII, 829). 
 
 The figures refer to the marginal numbers. 
 
 With these dialogues the student of the history of aesthetics 
 may properly begin his reading, and to them he will in the
 
 112 LITERARY CRITIC ISbf. [ 8. 
 
 course of his studies return again and again with renewed de- 
 light. " Consciously, or unconsciously," says Professor Knight, 
 "all idealism draws its inspiration from Plato." It will be no 
 small part of the student's task to trace the influence of the 
 Platonic doctrine of art its relation to Nature and the Idea, 
 and its function in Education upon the aesthetics of the 
 ancients. Its influence, also, upon Goethe, Schopenhauer, 
 Ruskin, and other modern writers, will demand historico-critical 
 investigation. See the treatment of Plato in Bosanquet and 
 Schasler, and the analysis of his Theory of Imitation in 9 below. 
 The following are some of the most important monographs 
 on the Platonic aesthetics : Ed. Miiller, Ueber das Nachah- 
 mende in d. Kunst nach Plato (Ratibor : 1831); A. Ruge, Die 
 Platonische Aesthetik (Halle: 1832); Ch. Leveque, Platon, 
 fondateur de 1'esthe'tique (Paris: 1857); K. Justi, Die aesth. 
 Elemente in d. Platon. Philos. (Marburg: 1860); Jos. Reber, 
 Plato und die Poesie (Munchen : 1864); M. Remy, Plat. doct. 
 de Artibus liberalibus (Halle: 1864): A. H. Raabe, De Poetica 
 Plat. (Rotterdam: 1866); C. von Jan, Die Tonarten bei Plato 
 (in Neuejahrb.f. Philol. u. Paed., 95 : 815). 
 
 PLOTINUS. Opera. Recognovit A. Kirchoff. 2 vols. Leipzig: 
 1856. 
 
 PLOTINUS. Opera Omnia, cura Creuzer. 3 vols. London : 
 1862. (Creuzer, Moser, Dubner, Paris: 1855, cum Marsilii 
 Ficini interpretatione.) 
 
 PLOTINUS. Liber de Pulchritudine (ed. Creuzer). Heidelberg : 
 1814. (Ennead i. 6.) 
 
 The greatest of the neo-Platonic philosophers. His obser- 
 vations on beauty are scattered through the Enneads ; but 
 Ennead i. 6 (on the Beautiful) and 5. 8 (on Spiritual Beauty) 
 are wholly occupied with the subject. On his aesthetic see 
 R. Volkmann's Die Hohe d. antiken Aesthetik oder Plotin's
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 113 
 
 Abhandlung vom Schonen (1860); Bosanquet's Hist, of Aesth., 
 pp. ni-ii8 ; E. Brenning's Die Lehre vom Schonen bei Plotin 
 im Zusammenhang seines Systems dargestellt (Gottingen : 
 1864) ; Ed. Miiller's Geschichte d. Theor. d. Kunst, vol. II ; 
 A. J. Vitringa, De egregio, quod in rebus corporeis constituit 
 Plotinus, pulcri principio (1864); and works cited in A. Richter's 
 Neu-Platonische Studien (Halle: 1864-7), Hft - * PP- 13-15; 
 Hft. 2, pp. iv-vi. For Richter's exposition of the aesthetics 
 of Plotinus, see Die Ethik des Plotins (1867). 
 
 A French translation of the Enneads by Bouillet appeared in 
 Paris in 1857-61. There is a German translation by H. F. 
 Miiller (Berlin : 187880). Thomas Taylor translated Plotinus 
 on the Beautiful into English, London: 1787; Five Books of 
 Plotinus, London: 1794; and Select Works of Plotinus, Lon- 
 don: 1817. For other translations see Richter's Neu-Platonische 
 Studien, as above. A translation of Ennead i. 6, by Thomas 
 Davidson, may be found i the Platonist, 
 
 REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA. Literary Works. 2 vols. London ; 
 1852 (Bohn Libr.). 
 
 Discourses on Art, and Three Letters to the Idler. 
 Reynolds reduces our pleasure in beauty to mere force of 
 custom. " If we were more used to deformity than Beauty, 
 deformity would then lose the idea now annexed to it, and take 
 that of Beauty." He also advances the idea of a beauty of 
 typical form " beauty is the medium or center of all various 
 forms " which appeared later under different aspects in 
 Goethe, Taine, and Ruskin. 
 
 RICHTER, JEAN PAUL. Vorschule der Aesthetik. 3 vols. Stutt- 
 gart-: 1813. 
 
 Like Schiller and W. von Humboldt, Jean Paul is important 
 as a popular aesthetician. Although failing in logical precision 
 and method he has contributed in an intuitive fashion to 
 aesthetic theory. For his distinction between imagination and
 
 114 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 fancy, and between the sublime and the comic, see Schasler, 
 pp. 67 1, 695. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. " A Joy Forever " (And its Price in the Market) : 
 being the Substance (with Additions) of two Lectures on 
 the Political Economy of Art. Orpington: 1880. 
 RUSKIN, J. Arrows of the Chace. 2 vols. Orpington : 1880. 
 Vol. I, pp. 3-252 Letters on Art, 3-50 Art Criticism and Art Ed- 
 ucation, 1:3-82 Public Institutions and the National Gallery, 85- 
 114 Pre-Raphaelitism, 117-158 Turner, 161-178 Pictures and 
 Artists, 181-252 Architecture and Restoration ; vol. II, pp. 235- 
 264 Literary Criticism. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Lectures on Architecture and Painting. New 
 York: 1856. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Modern Painters. 5 vols. Orpington : 1887. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. On the Old Road. 2 vols. in 3. Orpington: 1885. 
 Vol. I, pt. I, pp. 21-132 Lindsay's Christian Art, 133-205 East- 
 lake's History of Oil Painting, 329-348 Pre-Raphaelitism, 349- 
 400 Architecture ; pt. II, 405-438 Address at Cambridge School 
 of Art, 549-624 Picture Galleries, 643-698 Minor Writings 
 upon Art; vol. II, pp. 3-166 Fiction Fair and Foul, 167-176 Fairy 
 Stories. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Seven Lamps of Architecture. New York: 1859. 
 RUSKIN,]. Stones of Venice. 3 vols. New York: 1860. 
 RUSKIN, J. The Eagle's Nest. Ten Lectures on the Relation 
 
 of Natural Science to Art. Orpington: 1880. 
 RUSKIN, J. The Two Paths : being Lectures on Art, and its 
 
 Application to Decoration and Manufacture. Orpington : 
 
 1884. 
 RUSKIN, J. Aratra Pentelici: Six Lectures on the Elements of 
 
 Sculpture, delivered at Oxford. 1870. 
 
 The reading of Ruskin is a powerful stimulus to the sense 
 for beauty, but a bad propaedeutic to the science of aesthetics. 
 Ruskin's dogmatism, eccentricity, and exaggeration are con- 
 tagious, and make upon the novice impressions from which he
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 115 
 
 does not readily recover. A careful study of the relations of 
 art to ethics, and the acquisition of sound views on the main 
 questions of political economy, will fortify the student against 
 Ruskin's most harmful perversities. Leslie Stephen's article 
 (Fraser 89 : 688) on Ruskin's later works, and a criticism of 
 the third volume of the Modern Painters by C. C. Everett in 
 No. Am. 84: 379, may be recommended. Milsand's L'Es- 
 thetique Anglaise is perhaps the most thorough criticism of 
 Ruskin's Aesthetics as a whole. See, also, P. Bayne, essays in 
 Biography and Criticism, ist ser., pp. 281-333, and Lessons 
 from My Masters, by the same author, pp. 380-449 ; A. H. 
 Japp's. Three Great Teachers, pp. 187-243; and Bosanquet's 
 Hist, of Aesth., pp. 447-460. The best of Ruskin is in vols. I 
 III of Modern Painters. 
 
 SCHASLER, M. Aesthetik (Das Wisscn der Gcgenwart, Bd. 55). 
 1886. 
 
 SCHASLER, M. Das System der Kiinste aus e. neuen, im Wesen 
 der Kunst begriindeten Gliederungsprincip. 2.Aufl. Leip- 
 zig: 1885. 
 
 SCHASLER, M. Grundziige d. Wissenschaft d. Schonen und der 
 Kunst. 2 vols. 1886. 
 
 SCHASLER, M. Kritische Geschichte der Aesthetik. 2 vols. 
 
 Berlin: 1872. 
 
 Schasler's Geschichte is the standard work on the general 
 history of aesthetics. On the whole it is remarkably compre- 
 hensive, though important names in French and English aesthet- 
 ics are conspicuously absent. The place of an index is in part 
 supplied by a very full table of contents. For German Aesthet- 
 ics since Kant, Lotze's and Von Hartmann's histories are more 
 complete in some ways, the latter bringing the history down to 
 very recent times. Schasler's work has not been translated into 
 English. For a criticism of certain portions, see Bosanquet's 
 Hist, of Aesth., pp. i66ff., 180-182, 246.
 
 116 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 SCHELLING, F. W. J. VON. Sammtliche Werke. Stuttgart : 
 1856-61. 
 
 Bd. V, Abth. i, p. 357 Philosophie der Kunst ; Bd. VII, Abth. i, 
 pp. 289329 Ueber das Verhaltniss der bildenden Kunste zu der 
 Natur. 
 
 The objective idealism of Schelling is derived from Kant and 
 Schiller on the one hand, from Winckelmann on the other. 
 For his theory of art and its influence upon Hegel, see Bosan- 
 quet's Hist, of Aesth., pp. 316-334; Watson's Schilling's 
 Transcendental Idealism (Chicago: 1882), pp. 181190; von 
 Hartmann's Deutsche Aesthetik, pp. 27-44 (abstract idealism) ; 
 Schasler, pp. 827-870. 
 
 SCHILLER, J. C. F. Sammtliche Werke. 12 vols. in 6. Stutt- 
 gart : 1847. 
 
 Bd. V, pp. 375-383 Ueber den Gebrauch des Chors in der Trago- 
 die ; Bd. XI, pp. 383-483; Bd. XII Aesthetische Schriften. 
 
 SCHILLER, J. C. F. The Aesthetic Letters, Essays, and the 
 Philosophical Letters. Translated, with an Introduction, 
 by J. Weiss. Boston : 1845. 
 
 SCHILLER, J. C. F. Works: Historical Dramas, etc. Trans. 
 London : 1854. 
 
 Pp. 439-444 On the Use of the Chorus in Tragedy. 
 
 Most of Schiller's aesthetic writings, and especially his Aes- 
 thetic Letters, are well adapted to the understanding of begin- 
 ners. Their place in the history of Aesthetics, however, can be 
 appreciated only when they are read in the light of Kant's 
 Critique of Judgment, from which their material is principally 
 drawn. Attention may be called to Schiller's treatment of the 
 play-impulse (Spieltrieb), and the development of the same idea 
 by Herbert Spencer. On his theory of Poetry see note under 
 SCHILLER, 20.
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 117 
 
 SCHLEGEL, A. W. VON. Kritische Schriften. 2 vols. Berlin: 
 1828. 
 
 Theil i, pp. 416-436 ; Theil 2, pp. 145-336. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, F. VON. The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works. 
 Trans, by E. J. Millington. London : 1860. (Bohn Libr.) 
 
 Pp. 413-424 On the Limits of the Beautiful. See, also, Index. 
 On the Schlegels, see Hegel's criticism, Aesthetik, vol. I, 
 pp. 83-90 (Bosanquet's translation, pp. 120-132). 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. Sammtliche Werke. Hrsg. von J. Frauen- 
 stadt. 6 vols. Leipzig: 1877. 
 
 Bd. II, pp. 197-316 Object der Kunst ; Bd. Ill, pp. 99-112 ; The- 
 orie des Lacherlichen ; Bd. VI, pp. 447, 448 Metaphysik des 
 Schonen und Aesthetik, 536-586 Schriftstellerei und Stil. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. The World as Will and Idea. Trans, by 
 R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp. 3 vols. London : 1883. 
 Vol. I, pp. 219-346 The object of Art ; vol. II, pp. 270-284 Theory 
 of the Ludicrous; vol. Ill, pp. 173-219, 231-244 Aesthetics. 
 
 Perhaps the most readable and entertaining of modern writ- 
 ers on aesthetics, but valuable rather for his remarks by the 
 way than for his system as a whole. Indeed, the reader will do 
 well to guard himself against the seductions of Schopenhauer's 
 brilliant logic by some previous study of his philosophical 
 standpoint. Cf. especially his theory of ideas with that of 
 Plato. In his treatment of the ludicrous Schopenhauer has 
 made a real contribution to aesthetic doctrine. See Everett's 
 Poetry, Comedy, and Duty, p. 171 et seq. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY, COOPER, A. A., 3d Earl of. Characteristicks. 
 3 vols. 1749. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 3-38 Enthusiasm, 41-101 Wit and Humor, 105-245 
 
 Advice to an Author; vol. Ill, pp. 5-233 Miscellaneous, 269- 
 
 279 Art of Design. See, also, index, vol. Ill, following p. 267. 
 
 Shaftesbury is a kind of Christian Platonist on a small scale. 
 
 He divides the field of experience into the True, the Good, and
 
 118 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 8. 
 
 the Beautiful, but makes confusion by attempting to bring the 
 second division under the third. Bosanquet (Hist, of Aesth., 
 p. 178) points out in Shaftesbury an interesting anticipation of 
 Lessing's Laocoon. 
 
 SOLGER, K. W. F. Vorlesungen iiber die Aesthetik. Leipzig : 
 
 '18^9. 
 
 For characterization see Schasler, pp. 875-910. His aes- 
 thetic resembles that of Schelling in its symbolic and allegorical 
 tendency. On Solger's doctrine of the affinity of the ugly for 
 certain phases of the beautiful see Bosanquet, pp. 394-397. 
 
 SPENCER, H. The Principles of Psychology. 2 vols. New 
 York: 1885. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 272-290 Pleasures and Pains, 472-494 The Feelings ; 
 vol. II, pp. 539-557 Language of the Emotions, 627648 The 
 Aesthetic Sentiments. 
 
 SPENCER, H. Education. New York : 1883. 
 Pp. 71-84. .^ 
 
 SPENCER, H. Essays: Moral, Political, and Aesthetic. New 
 York: 1873. 
 
 P. 9, Philos. of Style, 149 Personal Beauty, 312 Gracefulness. 
 
 SPENCER, H. Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative. 
 
 Philos. of Style, Origin and Function of Music, Physiology of 
 Laughter. 
 
 SPENCER, H. Illustrations of Universal Progress. (Repr. of 
 
 preceding.) 
 
 Spencer's starting-point is Schiller's Spieltrieb, which he de- 
 velops in its physiological and psychological bearings. His the- 
 ory of the ludicrous, set forth in the essay entitled Physiology 
 of Laughter, has been much discussed. His doctrine of econ- 
 omy is, perhaps, his most important contribution to aesthetics. 
 
 SULLY, J. ' Aesthetics,' in Encyclopaedia Britannica. gth ed.
 
 8.] REFERENCES. 119. 
 
 SULLY, J. Sensation and Intuition: Studies in Psychology and 
 Aesthetics. London: 1874. 
 
 Essays: 7-9 Music, 10 Aesthetic Aspects of Character, n Char- 
 acter in Art, 12 Lessing's Hamburg Dramaturgy, 13 Possibility 
 of a Science of Aesthetics. 
 
 SULLY, J. Outlines of Psychology. London: 1884. 
 
 Pp. 316-329, 531-552. 
 
 SULLY, J. Mind, 4: 172 Harmony of Colors. 
 SULLY, J. Mind, i : 479 Art and Psychology. 
 
 Sully is one of the ablest and clearest of modern writers on 
 aesthetics. He is a mild empiricist, a psychologist of the 
 school of Herbert Spencer, and hence somewhat intolerant of 
 what he calls "metaphysical speculation." Essay 13 of Sen- 
 sation and Intuition, and the first part of the article in the En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica, will be of especial value to those who 
 are seeking for a statement of the scientific problems of aes- 
 thetics. 
 
 TAINE, H. The Ideal in Art. Trans, by J. Durand. New 
 York: 1869. 
 
 TAINE, H. Italy, Florence, and Venice. Trans, by J. Durand. 
 New York: 1869. 
 
 Pp. 98-159 Florentine School of Art, 272327 Venetian Art. 
 
 TAINE, H. Italy, Naples, and Rome. Trans, by J. Durand. 
 London: 1867. 
 
 TAINE, H. Lectures on Art. Trans, by J. Durand. 2d ser. 
 (Italy, the Netherlands, Greece.) New York: 1877. 
 
 TAINE, H. The Philosophy of Art. London: 1867. 
 
 According to Brunetiere, Taine has put in circulation more 
 new and suggestive ideas upon art than any writer since Hegel. 
 In two points this statement is open to question. It may be 
 doubted whether his ideas were strikingly original, and it may
 
 120 LITERARY CRITICISM. [8. 
 
 also be doubted whether they were numerous. But with regard 
 to their superior suggestiveness Brunetiere is unquestionably in 
 the right. Taine's views have aroused more criticism, friendly 
 or hostile, and set more brains at work upon problems of aes- 
 thetics, than the views of any other writer of the time. For 
 this reason, if for no other, the student should become familiar 
 with his writings. 
 
 For criticisms of Taine see J. Spec. Philos. 10: i; Colvin's 
 article on Fine Art in Encyc. Brit., vol. IX, p. 214; Brunetiere's 
 L'EVolution des Genres, etc., vol. I, pp. 245278 ; Edm. Scher- 
 er's fitude Critique, vol. IV, pp. 253-272 ; AmiePs Journal 
 Intime, vol. II, p. in; J. Fiske's The Unseen World and other 
 Essays (Boston: 1876), p. 280; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries de 
 Lundi (in Essays of Sainte-Beuve, translated by Eliz. Lee, 
 London: 1894); C. de Mazade, Rev. d. D. Mondes, 15 Juillet 
 1867, p. 499. 
 
 VAN DYKE, J. C. Principles of Art. New York: 1887. 
 
 A brief manual in which will be found clear statements of the 
 leading problems in art. See especially pp. 173-199. The 
 work is in two parts, the first dealing with art in history, the 
 second with art in theory. 
 
 VERON, E. Aesthetics. Trans, by W. H. Armstrong. Lon- 
 don : 1879. 
 
 The author was long the editor of L 1 Art, the leading French 
 art journal, and his treatment of aesthetics is colored largely by 
 his bent toward pictorial art. His consideration of other forms 
 of art, especially of literature, is inadequate to their importance. 
 The work, as a whole, is rambling and exclamatory, but full of 
 suggestion drawn from long experience as critic. The English 
 translation is good, and easily to be procured. An interesting 
 but not altogether trustworthy essay on Plato's Aesthetics forms 
 an appendix to the volume.
 
 9, /.] COURSES OF STUDY. 121 
 
 VISCHER, F. T. Aesthetik oder Wissenschaft des Schonen. 3 
 
 vols. Reutlingen : 1846. 
 
 The truly German proportions of Vischer's work, and the 
 juicelessness of his style, are likely to deter any except the 
 most determined student of aesthetics from examining what is 
 undoubtedly one of the ablest treatises on the subject in any 
 language. Fortunately the value of the work lies rather in the 
 elaboration of the details than in the system, and a full table of 
 contents, and an astonishingly complete index, enable the stu- 
 dent to find whatever topic he desires. (As an example of his 
 comprehensiveness, see index under Shakespeare.) As Schas- 
 ler points out, Vischer is particularly fruitful in his treatment 
 of the beauty of nature. See vol. II, pp. 3-78. For his treat- 
 ment of the relations of nature to art, see vol. Ill, pp. 77-86. 
 A criticism of Vischer may be found in Schasler, vol. II, p. 1040, 
 or briefer, p. 1087. 
 
 XENOPHON. The Anabasis . . and the Memorabilia (Bohn Libr.). 
 Pp. 447-450 Socrates on Beauty, 454-456 Painting and Sculpture, 
 499 Beauty. 
 
 XENOPHON. Minor Works. 
 
 Pp. 176-178 Banquet, chap. V. 
 
 These are the sources for the aesthetics of Socrates. Es- 
 pecial attention should be given to the idea of utility, or pur- 
 pose, as standard of beauty, presented in the passages of the 
 Memorabilia referred to above. 
 
 9. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 /. Courses of study. In suggesting a course of study in 
 the theory of art, as an introduction to the study of literary 
 criticism, account must be taken of two pretty distinct classes 
 of students : first, those who prefer to take their opinions from 
 trustworthy authorities without being put to much expense of
 
 122 LITERARY CRITICISM. L 9, / 
 
 time and trouble ; second, those who, desiring to form for 
 themselves an independent judgment, are determined to go to 
 the bottom of the matter at whatever cost. These two classes, 
 since their aims are different, will of necessity pursue their 
 studies in a somewhat different order and according to differ- 
 ent methods. 
 
 A. GENERAL READING. i. Every student, whatever his pur- 
 pose may be, will do well to learn, at the outset, the limits of 
 the subject he is to pursue. He should learn also the most 
 important problems that are likely to arise in the course of his 
 study, and should make himself acquainted with the names of 
 the recognized authorities. These facts may be gleaned from 
 the preface (better, from the whole) of Professor Knight's 
 Philosophy of the Beautiful, Part I, 1 from chapter I of Bosan- 
 quet's History of Aesthetic, from Hamerton's Portfolio Papers, 
 p. 163 ff., or from the articles on Art, Fine Art, and Aesthetics 
 in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The stu- 
 dent who is taking a general survey of the subject, when he 
 has thus got his bearings in the science, should next try to 
 gain some familiarity with its psychology and its philosophy. 
 On the first, such works as Dewey's Psychology, chapters VII 
 and IX, Sully's Outlines of Psychology, pp. 316-329, 531-552, 
 and Hoffding's Outlines (translated by Mary E. Lowndes, 
 London: 1891), pp. 274387, may profitably be consulted; or, 
 if these prove too abstruse for the beginner, a gentler approach 
 is open to him through the first chapter of Everett's Poetry, 
 Comedy, and Duty, or the article in Mind i : 479 on Art and 
 Psychology. 
 
 For the philosophical treatment, Knight's Philosophy of the 
 Beautiful, Part II, and Baldwin Brown's The Fine Arts will be 
 
 i For details of bibliography, see the references under 8, and for further refer- 
 ences, if they are desired, consult A Guide to the Literature of Aesthetics, by C. M. 
 Gayley and F. N. Scott (Berkeley: 1890).
 
 A.} COUKSES OF STUDY. 123 
 
 found especially serviceable. Both are admirable in spirit, 
 and so elementary in character that they may be understood 
 and enjoyed by any one. On the same plane is an article by 
 Professor Seeley in Macmillan's 16 : i Elementary Principles of 
 Art. More difficult to follow, but well worth the extra effort, 
 are the lecture by Professor G. S. Morris in Jl. Spec. Philos. 
 10 : i on the Philosophy of Art, and the paper on Art, by 
 W. P. Ker, in Seth and Haldane's Essays in Philosophical 
 Criticism (London : 1883). 
 
 The student who has read the foregoing with intelligence 
 and appreciation has made a fair beginning. He has done 
 more, perhaps, than the majority of those who enter upon the 
 advanced study of literature. Should he wish, however, to 
 continue his reading, the following suggestions may be helpful. 
 
 2. Of the writings that fill an important place in the history 
 of aesthetics, there are many which can be properly under- 
 stood only in connection with the philosophical systems of 
 which they form component parts. Though profoundly inter- 
 esting to the specialist, the casual reader is apt to find 
 them obscure and contradictory. But it sometimes happens 
 that of an abstruse treatise some part is fairly well adapted to 
 the needs of the general reader. Such, for example, is the 
 Introduction to Hegel's Aesthetik. This valuable work is now 
 available in an excellent translation (by Bernard Bosanquet, 
 London : 1886), and should be in the hands of every student. 
 Others of these important contributions to the history of 
 aesthetic are of a semi-popular character throughout. To 
 this class belongs Goethe's Conversations with Eckermann. 
 In this fascinating work almost all the main questions of art- 
 theory are touched upon and rendered luminous. In the same 
 category may be placed Schiller's Aesthetic Letters, which, by 
 their enthusiasm and the charm of their style, carry the student 
 into philosophic deeps that with another companion he might 
 not venture to explore. More readable still are the aesthetic
 
 124 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,7. 
 
 writings of Schopenhauer, most brilliant and entertaining of 
 modern philosophers, the value of whose works, however, lies 
 rather in remarks by the way than in main conclusions. Les- 
 sing's Laocoon is delightful reading, and not less important as 
 a contribution to aesthetics than as a contribution to literature. 
 Cousin's lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good, 
 which at one time enjoyed no little vogue as a text-book, are 
 written in popular form, but cannot be recommended as an 
 adequate presentation of aesthetic theory. Ruskin is, of 
 course, read by every one, and should be ; but, by the begin- 
 ner, he should be read rather for his descriptions than for 
 his philosophy. As a corrective of over-enthusiasm for Ruskin 
 may be read Miss Paget's article on Ruskinism, in Belcaro. 
 In seeking to rectify Ruskin's moral bias, Miss Paget goes 
 far in the opposite direction. A careful yet popular criticism 
 of the third volume of Modern Painters will be found in an 
 article by Professor Everett in No. Am. 84 : 379. 
 
 3. To make popular expositions of the results of aesthetic 
 speculation has been the aim of many writers. A few of these 
 will be referred to. Miss Paget (Vernon Lee) writes with a 
 capricious self-assurance that makes her occasional essays 
 charming literature. They are interesting, however, rather as 
 recording the shifting moods of a sensitive personality than as 
 constituting careful and connected thinking about art. Bel- 
 caro (London : 1886) and Juvenilia (London : 1887), collec- 
 tions of articles upon sculpture, music, and poetry, originally 
 printed in the English magazines, are full of fresh and striking 
 observations. Miss Paget's most ambitious flight is an article 
 on Comparative Aesthetics, in Contemp. 38 : 300, a not alto- 
 gether successful attempt to weld Hegel and Taine. It is an 
 interesting article, and exceedingly suggestive to beginners. 
 The essay on the Value of the Ideal, in Baldwin (London : 
 1886), defines pretty clearly her philosophical position, in so 
 far as she can be said to have one. Walter Pater's delicacy of
 
 A.] COURSES OF STUDY. 125 
 
 intuition leads him to safe conclusions even where his writings 
 seem mere transcripts of impression. The fundamental princi- 
 ple of his aesthetic is perhaps most clearly set forth in his 
 essay on Style, in Appreciations (London : 1889). In connec- 
 tion with this essay should be read the introduction and con- 
 clusion of his Studies in the History of the Renaissance, and 
 the essay on Winckelmann, published in the same volume. 
 Based upon a consistent and easily comprehensible theory of 
 art, are the critical writings of J. A. Symonds. In one or two 
 places the author has stated them with some explicitness; for 
 example, in the Renaissance in Italy, the Catholic Reaction, 
 Part II, pp. 396-402, and Essays, Speculative and Suggestive 
 (London : 1890). Upon the last-named work, see the criti- 
 cism in Nation 51 : 173. [The younger Symonds should not 
 be confused with J. A. Symonds, M.D., author of Principles 
 of Beauty (London : 1857).] Less speculative, and more sci- 
 entific are the writings of Edmund Gurney, whose magazine 
 articles have been collected in the Power of Sound (London : 
 1880) and Tertium Quid (2 v. London : 1887). The third 
 chapter of the Power of Sound is an exposition of the author's 
 aesthetics. Sully is not to be mentioned in the category of 
 the merely popular, though the clearness and simplicity of his 
 treatment of difficult matters adapt his writings to the needs 
 of the beginner. His Sensation and Intuition presents the 
 scientific aspect of many important questions. 
 
 4. Inquiries are often made by students for some popular 
 compend which shall embrace within its covers all the infor- 
 mation about art that any one need acquire. It is hardly 
 necessary to say that all such hopes are vain ; no such book 
 exists or ever will exist. Nevertheless, as popular com- 
 pends have their value, some of the most notable will be 
 briefly indicated. Day's Science of Aesthetics (New York : 
 1876), being designed for a text-book, deals mainly in formal 
 definitions and classifications. Samson's Elements of Art
 
 126 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,7. 
 
 Criticism, recently reissued in condensed form, aims at great 
 comprehensiveness, but really does little more than bring into 
 juxtaposition unrelated details. Harris's Theory of the Arts is 
 largely composed of commonplaces grouped about a theory of 
 no great worth or coordinating power. McDermot's Critical 
 Dissertation is clear enough, but antiquated. The popularity 
 enjoyed by Bascom's Aesthetics (New York : 1886) has been 
 deserved by the lucidity and readableness of the text. The 
 prominence given to the author's ethical and theological views 
 may seem to some a trifle obtrusive. Van Dyke's Principles 
 of Art covers much ground, but is restricted by its small com- 
 pass to a brief treatment of the separate topics. A useful 
 primer of art is Lucy Crane's Lectures on Art and the Forma- 
 tion of Taste (Six Lectures. Illustr. by T. & W. Crane. Lon- 
 don : 1882). 
 
 Of the French compends, Gauckler's Le Beau is perhaps the 
 simplest and handiest. Veron aims to cover the whole field of 
 speculation, but is exceedingly unsystematic. 
 
 In the German language, Lemcke's Populare Aesthetik, al- 
 though condemned by Schasler as trivial and conventional, is 
 about the best thing of the kind to be obtained. Other Ger- 
 man compends are StockeFs Allg. Lehrbuch d. Aesthetik 
 (3. Aufl. Mainz : 1889) and Prolss's Katechismus d. Aesthetik 
 (2. Aufl. Leipzig: 1889). 
 
 B. SUGGESTIONS FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. i. For the second 
 class of students, those who desire to make themselves thor- 
 oughly at home in this subject, there is no method so satisfac- 
 tory as the historical. First obtaining a general view of the 
 science in the manner recommended above ( 9, ^), let the stu- 
 dent resolutely attack the aesthetic doctrines of the Greeks. 
 The theories of Socrates may be gathered from Xenophon's 
 Memorabilia and Banquet. Of Plato's dialogues, the Ion, 
 Phaedo, Symposium, Gorgias, and Philebus should be read
 
 #.] . COURSES OF STUDY. 127 
 
 entire, and at least books II, III, VII-X of the Republic. 
 Jowett's translation of the dialogues is, of course, unrivaled, 
 except in the case of the Republic, where it shares honors with 
 that of Davies and Vaughan. Aristotle's Poetics should be 
 studied, if possible, in the original. Of the translations, Whar- 
 ton's is by far the best. 1 The passages of the Rhetoric, Meta- 
 physics, and Psychology that throw light on Aristotle's theory 
 of art, should not escape attention. The writings of Plotinus 
 and Longinus are important for the history of aesthetics, but if 
 time presses may be left for later investigation. 
 
 2. The Germans should next receive attention. In taking 
 up the German authorities, it is desirable that some acquaint- 
 ance should first be formed with the theories and results of 
 Baumgarten (Aesthetica, Frankfurt a. d. Oder: 1750-58), Les- 
 sing, and Winckelmann. All of the Laokoon should be read, 
 and of Winckelmarin's History of Greek Art, at least the Intro- 
 duction. Passing then to Kant, the student should master the 
 principles of the Kritik der Aesthetischen Urtheilskraft by a 
 reading of the text in the original or in Bernard's translation, 
 or by a careful study of Caird's Critical Philosophy of Kant, 
 vol. II, pp. 420-476. The aesthetic writings of Goethe and 
 Schiller may next be taken up. Much of Goethe's writing on 
 aesthetics is still untranslated, as, for example, the Deutsche 
 Baukunst ; but the Conversations, the Correspondence with 
 Schiller, Wahrheit und Dichtung, and several of the shorter 
 essays may be had in fair English translations. Schiller may 
 be read in Weiss's translation or in the Bohn Library edition. 
 Especial attention should be directed to Schiller's indebtedness 
 to Kant, and to his advance upon the latter. Schelling's Phi- 
 losophic der Kunst, of considerable importance in the historical 
 sequence, must be read in the original, if read at all. With 
 Hegel's Vorlesungen iiber die Aesthetik the student should 
 
 1 A new translation by Professor S. H. Butcher, which has just appeared (London: 
 1895), takes rank with Wharton's. See 20 under ARISTOTLE.
 
 128 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,7. 
 
 make himself thoroughly at home. If it is too much to ask of. 
 the student that he read the Aesthetik entire a task which 
 will amply repay him for his lime let him at least read all the 
 available translations. Bosanquet's admirable rendering of the 
 Einleitung and Eintheilung puts in the student's hands the key to 
 the entire work. Hastie has translated pp. 130 of the Einleitung 
 and pp. 105-114 of the Eintheilung. Kedney's exposition 
 goes over the whole Aesthetik, but has serious limitations, 
 which are pointed out above in 8. Much translation of 
 Hegel's Aesthetik, made through the medium of a French para- 
 phrase, will be found in the //. Spec. Philos. For reference 
 to it, see 8, under Hegel. 
 
 Of the remaining German writers Schopenhauer and Lotze 
 may be read in translation. Then follows a long list of those 
 whose works have not been translated, and perhaps will never 
 be translated, such as Ruge (Neue Vorschule d. Aesth. Halle: 
 1837), SchleiermacKer (Vorles. iib. Aesth. Berlin: 1842), Sol- 
 ger, Richter, Weisse (System d. Aesth. als Wissensch. v. d. 
 Idee d. Schonen. Leipzig: 1830), Vischer, whose monster 
 treatise is a complete encyclopaedia of aesthetic theory, Krause 
 (System der Aesthetik. Leipzig: 1882), Zimmermann (Allge- 
 meine Aesthetik. 2 vols. : 1858-65), Carriere (one of the most 
 popular of German writers), Schasler, Kostlin, Von Kirchmann 
 (Aesth. auf realistischer Grundl. Berlin : 1869), Horwicz 
 (Grundl. e. Systems d. Aesthetik. Leipzig : 1869), and Siebeck 
 (Das Wesen d. aesth. Anschauung. Berlin: 1875). Trahn- 
 dorff (Aesthetik. 2 vols. Berlin: 1830) has been revived by 
 Von Hartmann (Philos. Monatshefte 22: 59), but hardly seems 
 entitled to the space allotted to him by the latter in his Aes- 
 thetik (I. 129-156). Herbart's wide-reaching influence in psy- 
 chology makes it desirable to know something of his aesthetics, 
 in which he includes his ethical theory. Zeising's name (Aes- 
 thetische Forschungen. Frankfurt a. M.: 1855) is so identified 
 with the ' golden section ' that his other theories are generally
 
 B.} COURSES OF STUDY. 129 
 
 neglected. Though his standpoint is Hegelian, his aesthetic 
 is influenced by Herbart. The psychophysicist, Fechner, who 
 has verified by elaborate experiment the discovery of Zeising, 
 represents a revolt against the method of speculative aesthetics. 
 The investigations of Helmholtz with reference to the physiol- 
 ogy of sound and of light (Optique Physiologique. Paris : 1867) 
 are indispensable to the specialist. Wherever he has expanded 
 his theories in systematic form, Helmholtz has followed the 
 lines laid down by Kant in his Critique of Judgment. The 
 most formidable, and at the same time one of the ablest, of late 
 contributions to aesthetics, is the systematic treatise of Von 
 Hartmann. It is defective in that it gives little or no space to 
 art in its historical aspect. 
 
 3. Among the French writers, P. Andre (Traite sur le beau, 
 in CEuvres Philos. Paris: 1843), Buffier (Sur la Nature du 
 Gout, in Cours general et particulier des Sciences. Paris: 1732), 
 Batteux (Les Beaux Arts reduits a un meme principe. Paris : 
 1747), and Diderot, in the last century; and Cousin, Jouffroy, 
 Pictet (Du Beau dans la Nature. Paris: 1856), Le'veque, 
 Chaignet (Principes de la Science du Beau. Paris: 1860), 
 Prudhomme (L'Expression dans les Beaux-Arts. Paris: 1883), 
 Taine, and Veron, in the present century, have the strongest 
 claim to attention. Of the whole number the treatise of 
 Leveque is the most systematic. Chaignet is most interested 
 in the psychology of aesthetics. The brilliancy of Taine's 
 style, and the glib simplicity of his system, have made his the- 
 ories better known in this country than those of any other for- 
 eign writer. His caractere essentiel should be compared with 
 Herder's Bedeutsame, Hirt's Charakteristische, and Goethe's 
 Bedeutende. 1 (See Schasler's Gesch. d. Aesth., vol. I, pp. 498, 
 
 1 For his celebrated formula of the race, the moment, and the environment, Taine 
 was indebted to Hegel's Aesth., vol. I, p. 20 : " Sodann gehort jedes Kunstwerk seiner 
 Zeit, seinem Volke, seiner Umgebung an." Brunetiere, who adds to the three condi- 
 tions specified by Taine the element of individuality (L'Evolution des Genres dans 
 1'Histoire de la Litt., vol. I, p. 22), seems also to have been anticipated by Hegel,
 
 130 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,7. 
 
 499, Hegel's Aesth., vol. I, pp. 23-26, Bosanquet's translation, 
 
 PP- 31-37-) 
 
 Of late writers who have discussed special topics with ability 
 should be mentioned Benard, Milsand, Guyau, Se'ailles, Lechalas, 
 Souriau, Charles Henry, Arre"at, Paulhan, and Sorel. All have 
 been frequent contributors to the Rev. d. D. Mondes, or the 
 Rev. Philosophique. Benard represents the Hegelian influence. 
 Henry inclines to the mathematical interpretation of aesthetic 
 facts. Sorel is a follower of Fechner. The writings of Guyau 
 throw much light on the social aspect of art. 
 
 4. English aesthetics, because the science has not been recog- 
 nized as a department of philosophy, has been slow in taking 
 systematic form. The attitude of the British mind, up to a 
 very late period, is perhaps best indicated by the brief note in 
 the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica : 
 
 " AESTHETICS. A term . . . employed by the followers of 
 the German metaphysicians to designate philosophical investi- 
 gations into the theory of the Beautiful or Philosophy of the 
 Fine Arts, which they are disposed to regard as a distinct sci- 
 ence. . . . Aesthetic speculations do not appear to have con- 
 tributed anything to the improvement of the fine arts, or to our 
 real knowledge of mental phenomena." 
 
 Nevertheless the number of British investigators has been 
 large, and their contributions to the science have been of the 
 utmost importance. Bacon, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Reid, 
 Hume, Stewart, Lord Kames, Burke, Alison, Jeffrey, and Sir 
 Wm. Hamilton are the most important of the earlier writers. 
 Of the modern contributions, Spencer's chapter on the Aesthetic 
 Emotions in his Psychology, an elaboration of Schiller's doctrine 
 of the Spieltrieb, has had most influence on scientific thought ; 
 
 Aesth., voL I, p. 45 : " Denn das Kunstwerk, urn seiner zugleich materiellen und indi- 
 viduellen Natur willen, geht wesentlich aus besonderen Bedingungen der mannig- 
 fachsten Art, wozu vorziiglich Zeit und Ort der Entstehung, dann die bestimmte 
 Individualitat des Kiinstlers und hauptsachlich die technische Ausbildung der Kunst 
 gehoren, hervor."
 
 .] COURSES OF STUDY. 131 
 
 Ruskin's Modern Painters most influence upon the popular con- 
 sciousness. Grant Allen, in his physiological Aesthetics, has 
 followed the line of research marked out by Spencer, and has 
 added much illustrative material. The writings of William 
 Morris and Oscar Wilde call attention to the social side of art. 
 
 5. It may be useful to those pursuing this line of historical 
 study to mention some of the most important histories and 
 critical essays. Among the general histories Bosanquet's His- 
 tory of Aesthetic is easily the first. It has the merit of being 
 a contribution to the history of culture as well as to the history 
 of aesthetics. Knight's Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. I, 
 though much humbler in its aim, deserves honorable mention 
 in the list. Of the German works, Schasler's Kritische Ge- 
 schichte should be noted first as the most comprehensive. Zim- 
 mermann's Geschichte and Herrmann's Die Aesthetik in ihrer 
 Geschichte are valuable, but not so complete. Sully's article 
 in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, though ex- 
 cellent for reference, does not pretend to be more than a sketch. 
 Sully's evolutionist inclinations lead him to minimize the results 
 of German speculation, just as the speculative inclinations of 
 the philosophical writers often lead them to minimize the results 
 of the experimentalists. Of the histories of philosophy both 
 Ueberweg's and Erdmann's histories give generous space to 
 aesthetics; Windelband's history merely touches the subject in 
 passing. A short summary of aesthetic theories is given in 
 Bain's Mental Science, and a fuller account in Leveque's Sci- 
 ence du Beau. 
 
 Of authorities on Greek aesthetics, Ed. Miiller's Geschichte 
 der Theorie der Kunst bei den Alten (Breslau : 1834) has as 
 yet no rival. Egger's Essai sur 1'histoire de la Critique chez 
 les Grecs is admirably clear, but is concerned rather more with 
 rhetoric and poetics than with aesthetics proper. The first vol- 
 ume of Chaignet's Histoire de la Psychologic des Grecs (Paris: 
 1887) systematizes the implied psychology of Socrates and
 
 132 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, /. 
 
 Plato. For Chaignet's treatment of Aristotle, see his Essai sur 
 la Psychologie d'Aristote (Paris : 1884). Zeller's summaries of 
 Aristotle and Plato (Die Philosophic der Griechen, 3. Aufl. 
 Leipzig: 1879, and Plato and the older academy. London: 
 1876) are searching, but have a rigidity peculiar to his mode 
 of treatment. The article by Nettleship in Abbott's Hellenica 
 (Oxford : 1880), though dealing solely with the Republic, con- 
 tains a fairly adequate exposition of Plato's theory of art. Less 
 technical, and therefore of more interest to the general reader, 
 is Walter Pater's characteristic study of Plato's aesthetics in his 
 Plato and Platonism (New York: 1893), pp. 24-256. Jowett's 
 introductions to the Dialogues are too well known to require 
 commendation. The exposition of Plato, which forms the ap- 
 pendix to Veron's Aesthetics, is superficial. For monographs on 
 Aristotle see 8. Doring's Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles is 
 one of the best. It contains a fairly complete bibliography. 
 Teichmuller's Aristotelische Forschungen, though hard and dry, 
 may be recommended for carefulness and minuteness of re- 
 search. Be'nard's L'Esthetique d'Aristote et de ses Succes- 
 seurs (Paris: 1890) is done with the author's customary thor- 
 oughness. Benard is especially severe on those who practice 
 what he calls I' Art d'accoucher les grands esprits, i.e., who read 
 into Aristotle the results of later speculation. 
 
 The standard history of German aesthetics is that of Lotze, 
 of which an extended exposition may be found in Erdmann's 
 Hjstory of Philosophy (translation), vol. Ill, pp. 315-322. A 
 brief review of German aesthetics will be found in Von Eye's 
 Das Reich des Schonen (Berlin : 1878), p. 38. For the lines of 
 development leading up to Kant, see Fenner's Die Aesthetik 
 Kants und seiner Vorganger. On Kant himself, Caird's expo- 
 sition of the Critique of Judgment is entitled to particular con- 
 sideration. Essays and monographs are numerous. Among 
 them may be mentioned as specially worthy of note, Friedlan- 
 der's Kant in seinem Verhaltniss zur Kunst und schonen
 
 #.] COURSES OF STUDY. 133 
 
 Natur, in Preuss.Jahrb. 20 (2);.H. Cohen's Kant's Begriindung 
 der Aesthetik (Marburg: 1889); H. Falkenheim's Die Entsteh- 
 ung d. Kantischen aesthetik (Diss. Heidelberg : 1890). 
 
 German writers since Kant are treated with minuteness by 
 Von Hartmann in the first part of his Aesthetik. On the same 
 period Neudecker's Studien zur Geschichte der deutschen Aes- 
 thetik seit Kant (Wurz : 1878), though much condensed, is of 
 no little asssistance to the student. Of especial interest is that 
 portion of Hegel's Aesthetik in which Hegel points out the re- 
 awakening of the science of art that accompanied the reawak- 
 ening of German philosophy in general (Aesth., vol. I, pp. 72- 
 88; Bosanquet's translation, pp. 107-132). It contains cri- 
 tiques of Kant, Schiller, Lessing, Winckelmann, Goethe, the 
 Schlegels, Fichte, Solger, and Tieck. See, on the same move- 
 ment, Bernard's Bosanquet's masterly paper on The Part 
 Played by Aesthetic in the Development of Modern Philosophy, 
 published in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. I, 
 No. 2. For a criticism of some of the most recent German 
 (and other) writers, the student may consult Th. Lipps's Aes- 
 thetischer Litteraturbericht, in Philos. Monatshefte 26 : 17, 169, 
 
 323- 
 
 Of monographs on Schiller, G. Zimmermann's Versuch einer 
 Schillerschen Aesthetik (Berlin: 1889), and K. Berger's Die 
 Entwickelung von Schiller's Aesthetik (Weimar : 1894) are speci- 
 mens of careful research. See, also, L'Esthetique de Schiller, 
 by F. Montargis (Paris: 1890). On Schelling, chap. VII of 
 Watson's volume in the Griggs Philosophical Classics, may be 
 profitably consulted. The limitations of Kedney's Exposition 
 of Hegel are pointed out above. Some assistance may be de- 
 rived from Hastie's somewhat over-enthusiastic introduction to 
 his translation of Hegel and Michelet, and valuable suggestions 
 from Ritchie's review of Bosanquet's translation, Mind, 12 : 597. 
 The leading article in vol. XIII of the British and Foreign Re- 
 (by G. H. Lewes) is one of the earliest attempts to intro-
 
 134 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,7. 
 
 duce Hegel's Aesthetics to English readers. 1 Both Michelet 
 and Ulrici (Princip. u. Methode d. Hegelschen Philos. Halle : 
 1841, pp. 216-245) nav e expounded the Aesthetik, but the 
 original will be found in most cases clearer than the exposition. 
 
 Schopenhauer's aesthetic doctrines are briefly touched upon 
 by Helen Zimmern in Arthur Schopenhauer, His Life and Phi- 
 losophy, and by Bowen in his Modern Philosophy, and devel- 
 oped at some length by H. Klee (Grundziige einer Aesth. nach 
 Schopenhauer) and S. Stransky (Versuch d. Entw. e. allg. 
 Aesth. auf Schopenhauerischer Grundl.). E. Reich's Schopen- 
 hauer als Philosoph der Tragodie deals with an interesting 
 feature of Schopenhauer's aesthetic. On Lotze, see T. Kogel's 
 Lotze's Aesthetik, and Rohr's Kritische Untersuchungen iiber 
 Lotze's Aesthetik. A detailed exposition of Fechner may be 
 found in Erdmann's History of Philos. (translation), vol. Ill, 
 296-298. 
 
 An excellent monograph on Herbart is O. Hostinsky's Her- 
 bart's Aesthetik in ihren grundlegenden Theilen quellenmassig 
 dargestellt und erlautert (Hamburg: 1890). 
 
 In Contemp. i =279, Professor Dowden discusses French Aes- 
 thetics, dealing with Cousin, Jouffroy, Lamennais, and Leveque. 
 Jouffroy's importance is perhaps over-emphasized. An inter- 
 esting article by Professor Eaton on Modern French Aesthet- 
 ics, containing notices of Leveque, Chaignet, and others, ap- 
 peared in the New Englander, 49: 246. In the same line is an 
 exhaustive review of Leveque's La Science du Beau, from the 
 pen of E. Saisset, in the Rev. d. D. Monties, 15 Nov., 1861, re- 
 printed in the latter's L'Ame et la Vie, p. 91. On Taine, see 
 the references given in 8. For the place of the Cartesian 
 
 i The article contains considerable translation, including a passage from Hegel's 
 Aesthetik, which has since been frequently quoted : " Metre is the first and only con- 
 dition absolutely demanded by poetry, etc." See the article ' Poetry,' by Th. Watts, 
 in Encyc. Brit., gth ed., and Gummere's Poetics, Introduction. That this quotation 
 does not accurately represent Hegel's thought will be apparent from a reading of the 
 Aesthetik (vol. Ill, 280 et scg., especially pp. 227 and 289).
 
 9, //.], INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 135 
 
 philosophy in the history of aesthetics, the reader may consult 
 Schasler's Geschichte, vol. I, pp. 280, 283, and Krantz's Essai 
 sur 1'esthetique de Descartes. 
 
 On the aesthetics of Pascal consult the article by Bertrand in 
 La critique Philosophique, 1886-!: 228-234; on the aesthetics 
 of Boileau, the article by Brunetiere in the Rev, d. D. Mondes, 
 1889-111 : 662-685. 
 
 //. Investigation of Special Problems. A few references 
 bearing directly upon leading problems will perhaps be of 
 service to the student who is specializing in this field. 
 
 A. THE BEAUTIFUL. As every writer on aesthetics has some- 
 thing to say on this head, no general references need be given. 
 Blackie's On Beauty (Edinburgh : 1858) is directed against the 
 views of Alison. A great part of the work is taken up by an 
 exposition of the Beautiful according to Plato. Professor 
 Blackie also contributed an article on the Philosophy of the 
 Beautiful to the Contemp. 43: 814. Die Idee des Schonen in 
 der Platonischen Philosophic is the title of the first volume of 
 Strater's Studien zur Geschichte der Aesthetik (Bonn : 1861). 
 On the Kantian conception of beauty, see Nicolai's 1st der 
 Begriff des Schonen bei Kant consequent entwickelt ? (Kiel : 
 1889), and Blencke's Die Trennung d. Schonen vom Angeneh- 
 men in Kant's Kr. d. Urtheilskraft (Leipzig: 1888). Byk's 
 Physiologic des Schonen (Leipzig: 1878) will be found useful 
 to compare with Grant Allen's method of treatment of the same 
 subject. Those who are interested in this phase of aesthetics 
 should not overlook the paragraphs on the Acquisition of 
 Beauty in Darwin's Origin of Species (paragraphs 302-304, 
 792), and on Ideas of Beauty, in Descent of Man (2d ed., 
 pp. 92, 410-414, 54, S4i, 573-5 8 5> 595' 59 6 )- A considera- 
 tion of the Beautiful from a speculative point of view will be 
 found in 77. Spec. Philos. 17 : 94 in an article by W. H. Kimball. 
 Kostlin's Ueber d. Schonheitsbegriff will repay perusal. For
 
 136 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, II. 
 
 the psychological aspects of the question see Dimetresco's Der 
 Schonheitsbegriff (Leipzig: 1877). 
 
 B. THE UGLY. Die Aesthetik des Hasslichen, by K. Rosen- 
 kranz (Konigsberg : 1853), is the most comprehensive work on 
 this subject. Von Hartmann reviews recent theories of the 
 Ugly, devoting also considerable space to it in his systematic 
 aesthetics. See indexes to vols. I and II, under hassliche. A 
 brief account of German theories will be found in Lotze's Ge- 
 schichte, pp. 333-342. By far the ablest single article on the 
 Ugly is Mr. Bernard Bosanquet's paper, The Aesthetic The- 
 ory of Ugliness, in Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, No. 3, 
 pt. I. A full discussion of the subject will be found in the 
 same writer's History of Aesthetic, and may be traced by 
 means of the index. Other authorities who have treated it at 
 length are F. Schlegel, Solger, Weisse, Ruge, Von Kirchmann, 
 Schasler, and Carriere. 
 
 C. THE SUBLIME. A short list of those who have written 
 upon the sublime, with a rapid sketch of the opinions of each, 
 will be^ found in the supplement to Kedney's The Beautiful and 
 the Sublime (New York : 1880). Arthur Seidl's Zur Geschichte 
 des Erhabenheitsbegriffes seit Kant (1889) considers with some 
 fullness Kant and his predecessors (pp. 1-15), and with ex- 
 haustiveness the writers with whom it is especially concerned. 
 The list of books (pp. vii-x) that the author has not been able 
 to consult is rather formidable. A summary of Seidl's conclu- 
 sions will be found in the article by Professor Everett in An- 
 dover Review, August, 1890, on the Philosophy of the Sublime. 
 See, also, index to vol. II of Von Hartmann's Aesthetik, 
 under Erhabene, Bosanquet's History under Longinus, Burke, 
 Winckelmann, Kant, Hegel ; Lemcke's Populare Aesthetik, 
 p. 94, Vischer's Aesthetik, i : 218-333 ( see index to vol. V 
 under Erhabenheit), J. Walter's Geschichte d. Aesthetik im 
 Altertum (Leipzig: 1893), pp. 86-95, 836-851, and Lotze's
 
 D-E.} INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 137'. 
 
 Geschichte, pp. 324-333. A fragment of Kant's writings on 
 the Sublime has been translated by De Quincey (Works, 
 Masson's ed. 14: 46), and Hegel's chapter, Die Symbolik der 
 Erhabenheit (Aesth., vol. I, p. 454), by Stirling (Macm. 16 : 44 
 Symbolism of the Sublime). With the second, cf. Hegel's 
 Aesth., vol. I, p. 427 et seq. The Origin of the Sublime is the 
 title of an article by Grant Allen in Mind, 3 : 324. See, also, the 
 treatise by Blencke, cited in the references on the Beautiful. 
 
 D. THE PATHETIC. The modern phases of the pathetic have 
 not been fully investigated. Schiller's essay on Pathos deals 
 mainly with the Greek conception. Von Hartmann gives but 
 two pages to Das Pathetische (vol. II, pp. 313, 314), but the 
 entire chapter should be read, especially the paragraphs on 
 Das Riihrende, Das Traurige, Das Elegische oder Weh- 
 miithige, etc. See also the works of Lemcke and Vischer. 
 
 E. THE COMIC. Only a few references will be given here, 
 since the subject in its whole extent is to be considered under 
 comedy. 
 
 Hobbes's often-discussed definition of laughter may be found 
 in his English works (London : 1839-45), vol. Ill, pp. 45-47 
 (see, also, vol. IV, pp. 46, 455). For other important theoriz- 
 ings on the subject, see Spencer's Physiology of Laughter, 
 Darwin's Expression of the Emotions (London : 1870), Hecker's 
 Physiol. u. Psychol. des Lachens, L. Dumont's Des Causes du 
 Rire (Paris : 1862), Professor Butcher's article on the Evolution 
 of Humor, in Harper, 80 : 898, Marshall's Pain, Pleasure, and 
 Aesthetics, p. 329, J. Dewey in Psychol. Rev. i : 558-560. A 
 recent work is Masci's Psicologia del Comico (Naples : 1889). 
 For a review of German theories see Lotze's Geschichte, pp. 
 342-352, Von Hartmann's Aesthetik, vol. I, index, under 
 Anthropologischer. A rather full bibliography of the subject 
 will be found in Regnard's OEuvres Completes (Paris : 1860). 
 
 On the Tragic, see 37-48 below.
 
 138 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 F. GENIUS. On the nature of genius the student may con- 
 sult the following : E. Caro, Melanges et Portraits (2 vols. 
 Paris : 1888), vol. I, p. 299 (on Seailles); G. Seailles, Essai sur 
 le genie dans 1'art (Paris: 1884); C. Lombroso, The Man of 
 Genius, with illustrations (London: 1891); Max Nordau, 
 Entartung (2 vols. Berlin: 1893; tr. Degeneration, N. Y.: 1895), 
 Paradoxes (Engl. tr. Chicago : 1886) ; R. Falckenberg, Nord 
 u. Stiff, 56 : 376 Kunstler und Mensch (Discusses the subject 
 under three heads: i. What are the characteristics distinguish- 
 ing the productive from the non-productive man ? 2. How 
 does artistic practice react on the artist? 3. What relation 
 is there between the characteristics of the work and the 
 characteristics of the artist?); C. Spitteler, Kunstwart, 1891: 
 113 Fleiss und Eingebung : Zur Psychologic des clichterischen 
 Schaffens ; Karl Bleibtreu, Letze Wahrheiten (Leipzig: 1891), 
 pp. 1-98 Die naturwissenschaftliche Anschauung und das 
 Genie, 99-142 Das Genie an sich, 143-189 Genie, Wahnsinn 
 und Strafgesetz ; O. Panizza, Genie und Wahnsinn (Miinchen : 
 1891. Miinch. Flugschriften, i. ser. 5-6); Ferd. Brunetiere, 
 Histoire et litterature (3 vols. Paris: 1884-6), vol. I, p. 353 
 Le Genie dans 1'art (on Se'ailles); F. Spielhagen, Produktion, 
 Kritik und Publikum (Berlin: 1891. Thinks genius and work 
 come to the same thing); Grant Allen, Falling in Love, with 
 other essays on more exact Branches of Science (London : 1889), 
 p. 328 The Recipe for Genius ; G. H. Lewes, Principles of Suc- 
 cess in Literature (2d ed. Boston : 1892. See index under 
 'Genius'); F. Gallon, Hereditary Genius (New York: 1877); 
 Wm. James, Principles of Psychology (see index). 
 
 Lombroso, Gallon, and Se'ailles are foremost authorities. 
 The remarks in James's Psychology though brief are extremely 
 good. For a popular and yet accurate characterization of 
 genius, consult Lewes's Principles of Success in Literature. 
 
 G. RHYTHM. On this fundamental question the student may 
 consult the able study by T. L. Bolton in the American Jl. of 

 
 G-H.1 INVESTIGA TION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 139 
 
 Psychol. 6 : 145-238, in which he will find a fairly complete 
 bibliography of the subject. Of especial interest among recent 
 investigations is E. Meumann's Untersuchungen zur Psycho- 
 logic und Aesthetik des Rhythmus, in Wundt's Philos. Studien 
 x. pp. 249-322, 393-430. See also 22, A, and 24, C, below. 
 
 H. THE RELATION OF ART TO NATURE. For advanced 
 students pursuing independent research a number of references 
 bearing upon this fundamental question are here brought 
 together. 
 
 The relation of art to nature has given rise to a metaphysical 
 discussion ranging all the way from the theory of imitation to 
 that of symbolism. 
 
 I) Among the Ancients. 
 
 Beginning with Plato's diagnosis of the fine arts as servile 
 imitations and thrice removed from the truth, the speculative 
 criticism of the ancients may be traced through a series of 
 conceptions, such as Aristotle's theory of representation 
 (selective or idealizing imitation), the theory of fantastic sym- 
 bolism, the theory of mental imitation (which uses penetrative 
 and creative imagination), and finally the theory of adequate 
 symbolism of Plotinus, which, though based upon and read out 
 of Plato's philosophy of ideas, practically destroyed the Platonic 
 doctrine of imitative naturalism. 
 
 The imitative naturalism of Plato and the Aristotelian theory 
 of representation call for serious examination. They are the 
 historical keys to the situation. In what follows will be found 
 topical references to these authors which may be useful in first- 
 hand investigation. 
 
 A) PJ aid's Theory of Art as related to Nature: 
 
 i) The ideal, the phenomenal ; creation and imitation. 
 
 a) The ideal and the phenomenal : 
 
 Repub. 472-477 ; 485 Lovers of knowledge, and lovers of 
 sights and sounds ; the real beauty compared with its copy ; 
 509510, 511, 514517 the good the prime cause, things on
 
 140 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, II. 
 
 which it shines are visible and knowable, phenomena a stepping- 
 stone to the vision of the ideal good ; the figure of the cave. 
 
 ) Relation of the good, the true, the beautiful to the ideal, 
 and to each other : 
 
 Repub. 509-511,514-517 ; 534. Phaedrus 238-258 ; 261-279. 
 Philebus 22-63. 
 
 c) Creation : 
 
 Sophist, 264-267 : Divine creations are (i) of divine things, 
 (2) of shadows ; human creations are (i) of production for use, 
 (2) of images of things. Images are either likenesses or phan- 
 tasies. Symposium 196206 Love as a creator, a maker of 
 poets, an intermediary between the divine and the human. All 
 passage of not-being into being is poetry or making ; the 
 processes of all art are creative; 210 The grades of beauty 
 which the poet may see and reveal. Timaeus 28 The world 
 created by God after the eternal pattern. Kind of making : 
 Repub. 597 Three kinds: (i) the creation of the divine image, 
 (2) the creation of the visible likeness, (3) the imitation of 
 that likeness. 
 
 d} Imitation : 
 
 Repub. 393397 ; 595-607 Imitations three removes from 
 the truth ; indiscriminate, hypocritical, futile, ignorant, incon- 
 sistent, provocative of irrational excess. Laws 669-674 How 
 to judge of imitations ; 889 Art produces in play imperfect imita- 
 tions of natural phenomena (works of fine art) and, in earnest, 
 worthy results equal to those of nature (such as the craft of the 
 statesman). Sophist 219 Imitation as a productive or creative 
 art ; 235-237 Comparison between imitation as practiced by the 
 sophist and by the painter ; 264-267 Imitation a form of creation. 
 Timaeus 19 The poets disgrace their calling when they imitate 
 merely the superficial aspect of life. Cratylus 423 Music and 
 painting imitate color and sound ; words imitate the essence of 
 things. Two kinds of imitation : Sophist 235-237 Copying and 
 fantastic production ; the former makes an image, the latter an
 
 ff.} INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 141 
 
 appearance ; 264-267 The place of imitation among forms of 
 creation ; further discussion of likenesses and phantasies. 
 Knowledge required of the imitator : Repub. 402,602. Phaedrus 
 261-279 Poets, orators, and legislators must understand the 
 soul and how it is affected ; i.e., they should be philosophers. 
 Theaetetus : Sense apprehends only the phenomenal, the 
 fleeting ; reason grasps the real and permanent. 
 
 2) Art : 
 
 a] Art cooperates with nature and chance to fulfill the divine 
 purpose: Laws -709, 889. 
 
 b] Connotation of Art : 
 
 Repub. 342 The word is generally used as including both 
 useful and fine art. 
 
 c] Kinds of art (in a general sense) : 
 
 Repub. 602 There are three arts : (i) that of use, (2) that of 
 making instruments for use, (3) that of imitating these. States- 
 man 279286 All arts either causal or cooperative; the latter 
 used by the painter. 
 
 3) The metaphysical aspect of the Relation of Art to 
 Nature : 
 
 a) The principle of unity in variety : 
 
 Phaedrus 261-269 ^ n rhetoric as a prerequisite to poetry and 
 oratory. 
 
 b} Art as a medium of ideas : 
 
 Statesman 277 The higher ideas seem to require examples as 
 a medium of expression ; especially for the enlightenment of 
 dull persons ; 286 The highest truths cannot thus be adequately 
 expressed. (See also above the references on Creation and 
 Imitation.) 
 
 4) Other aspects of the Relation of Art to Nature which 
 throw light on the metaphysical discussion : 
 
 a) The psychological : 
 
 Repub. 511. Sophist 264267 Imagination is opinion ex- 
 pressed under the forms of sense. Phaedrus 238-258 The
 
 142 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9,77. 
 
 contrast between opinion, which leads to the best, and desire, 
 which devoid of reason leads to the excessive. The four kinds 
 of madness : prophecy, inspiration, poetry, love. The love that 
 springs from the contemplation of beauty as expressed in sen- 
 sible form. 
 
 b) The aesthetic : 
 
 (1) Art and the love of beauty : 
 
 Repub. 403. Phaedrus 238-258 Love, a form of madness. 
 Its highest enjoyment is in the temperate contemplation of 
 beauty. " Symposium 177, 196-205, 210 Love is a poet, a master 
 of poets, an artist, and a creator of order. The truly initiated 
 lover rises to the vision of the eternal reality, of which he may 
 reveal the beauty to the eye of the mind. 
 
 (2) The disinterestedness of art : 
 Repub. 342, 346. 
 
 (3) The pleasure proper to art : 
 
 Repub. 581, 582 ; Laws 652-669 Pleasure not a criterion of 
 excellence; but an attendant; 700, 701. Statesman 279-289 
 In art the fitting does not primarily produce pleasure. Gorgias 
 500-513 Pleasure should be sought for the good, and not good 
 for the sake of pleasure. The arts that minister to pleasure 
 only are flattering and false. Philebus, 22, 27, 31, 32, 42, 51-54, 
 56, 63 The relation of pleasure and pain to knowledge, and the 
 cause of all these ; pure and impure pleasures. The good a 
 union of pure pleasures and knowledge, of which the virtue lies 
 in beauty, symmetry, and truth. Pure pleasure is one of the 
 five good things. Symposium 64, 87-89 The interrelation of 
 pain and pleasure. Order and harmony preventives of disease ; 
 and motion productive of harmony. Gymnastics as a means of 
 purification. 
 
 (4) The aesthetic judgment : 
 
 Laws 652-667 The worth of melodies does not depend 
 upon the pleasure they produce ; 669 Three elements in an 
 aesthetic judgment, to know that which is imitated, whether
 
 J7.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 143 
 
 the imitation is correct, whether the form is beautiful or well 
 executed; 700, 701 The vicious criterion of pleasure intro- 
 duced by the poets. Statesman 279-286 Two kinds of 
 measurement of value, quantitative and qualitative. The 
 qualitative demands a fixed standard : the good, which is the 
 mean, any deviation wherefrom is bad. Qualitative arts judge 
 not of mathematical or dynamical conceptions but of the 
 fitting, the opportune and the due. Artistic pleasure may 
 attend the fitting; but does not primarily spring from it. 
 Repub. 581, 582 The philosopher only is competent to judge 
 of pleasure, whether it be noble or ignoble. 
 
 c] The moralistic : 
 
 1 i ) The immorality of certain forms of art : 
 
 Repub. 364, 366, 377, 379-386 ; 568 Tragedians to be 
 banished from the Republic ; 607 Homer must be expelled ; 
 Laws 700-701. 
 
 (2) The educative value of certain forms of art : 
 Repub. 397-411 ; 522, 531 ; Laws 662-667 ; 670-674. 
 
 (3) The relative excellence of the arts : 
 
 Statesman 304 Statesmanship dominates the lower arts : 
 music, rhetoric, etc. 
 
 (4) The relation of art to science: 
 
 Statesman 259, 260 The sciences give judgments on matters 
 of theory ; the arts give commands on matters of practice. 
 5) Poetry and Music: 
 
 d) Poetry : 
 
 Ion 532-540 The poet either a charlatan or divinely 
 inspired. Phaedrus 238-258 Prophecy, inspiration, poetry, and 
 love as forms of madness. 261-269 Poetry depends upon the 
 principle of unity in variety ; 270-279 When the poet rests 
 upon truth he is a philosopher. Symposium 177-210 It is 
 love that makes the poet, the object of love is birth in beauty, 
 hence immortality. The truly initiated lover is the ideal poet. 
 Timaeus 19 The poets capable of doing better if they were not
 
 144 LITER AR Y CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 a tribe of imitators. Protagoras 339 d seq. The poets and 
 their interpreters ridiculed. Lysis 204 The poets called 
 fathers and authors of wisdom. Apology 22 The poets write 
 not by wisdom, but by genius and inspiration. Repub. 393 
 Kinds of poetry. 
 
 //) The theory and function of music : 
 
 Repub. 397; 400-403; 409-411; 424; 442; 452; 531. 
 Statesman 304. Philebus 27, 31, 32, 41, 51-53, 56. Cra- 
 tylus 423. Laws 657-669; 670-674; 700,701. Symposium 
 205. Timaeus 47, 8789. 
 
 Of authorities on Plato's Theory of Imitation, the best are 
 Ed. Miiller, Gesch. d. Theorie d. Kunst bei den Alten, minute, 
 exhaustive, and critically sound, save that it defers the treat- 
 ment of Plato's idea of Beauty until after the discussion of his 
 philosophy of art; Schasler i: 89-97; 134, 135; 2: 1159- 
 1166, 1171, of historical and bibliographical value; Zellers 
 Philosophic der Griechen, in its historical development, the 
 Platonic philosophy is regarded as an artistic creation, but the 
 treatment of the theory of imitation is practical and broad- 
 minded ; Zimmermann's Geschichte d. Aesthetik, follow- 
 ing close in the wake of Miiller; A. Ruge's Platonische Aes- 
 thetik, furnishing ample material in the way of reference 
 to the originals, but lacking interpretative insight; Egger 144 
 148, admirably clear ; Bosanquet, Hist. Aesth., 43-55 ; Butcher's 
 Greek Genius, 257-260, and 287-290, and corresponding chap- 
 ters in his Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art; Walter 
 Pater, Plato and Platonism, Chap. 4 Plato's Aesthetics. Writ- 
 ten with his usual subtlety is the Pulchri Artis notione, pt. I 
 (apud Platonem, Aristotelem et Plotinum. Diss. 1850) of Prof. 
 R. Haym. This dissertation is one of the best comparative 
 treatments of the fundamental aesthetics of the three philoso- 
 phers. See also Ritter's Analyse u. Kritik d. von Plato in 
 seiner Schrift vom Staate aufgestellten Erziehungslehre (Prog. 
 1881) ; and LeVeque, Justi, Reber, Remy, Raabe as given above, 
 authorities on Greek Aesthetics.
 
 H.-\ INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 145 
 
 B} The Aristotelian Theory by References to the Works of 
 Aristotle : 
 
 In the Poetics of Aristotle no words are more liable to mis- 
 interpretation than /At/ATfo-is (imitation), the correlative parts of 
 speech (ju.i/u.U7&u, etc.), and the words and phrases more or less 
 nearly synonymous with these. The student should collate all 
 passages in which such words occur, with a view to determining 
 what Aristotle meant by /XI/XTJO-IS in respect of the material used 
 by the artist, the form inspiring him, the purpose inciting, and 
 the result produced ; what he meant by the Nature that art 
 imitates, whether imitation of a real thing or of an ideal, and 
 whether imitation implies truth to nature as an object or as a 
 process ; whether Aristotle was what some would now call a 
 'realist,' what distinction he would make or does make 
 between copying, representation, and imaginative creation or 
 idealization, to what extent the theories of selection, illusion, 
 .and suggestion are involved, whether the work of art may sur- 
 pass nature ; what he considers to be the relative values of his- 
 torical fidelity and imaginative probability, what aesthetic worth 
 he might, for instance, have attached to photography ; what 
 was his theory of the impulse to imitation, of the aesthetic value 
 of the beautiful, the wonderful, the sublime, the awful, the 
 horrible, the ugly, the loathsome ; what are the respective pecu- 
 liarities of imitation by lyrical poetry, by drama, by epic, etc., 
 by music, by dancing, and the plastic arts. Misconceptions of 
 Aristotle's doctrine frequently arise from the various and im- 
 perfect nomenclature of translations of the Poetics. Twining, 
 Pye, Butcher, and Wharton are recommended to English 
 readers ; but scholarly and satisfactory work can be done only 
 with the "original. Shades of signification depend upon the 
 context. For /nt'/x^cris in the sense of copying see 1:4; 3:2; 
 (imitate persons acting and doing) ; 4 : 1-5 (delineation}, and 
 other passages. For /u/xT/o-ts as representation see i : 5 ; 6 : 
 2 ; 6:4; 6:6, and other passages. For the signification of
 
 146 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 selective and imaginative creation, or idealization see 2 : 2 ; 4 : 
 9 ; 5: i ; 9: 1-9; 15: 8, and other passages. 
 
 Before attempting to formulate the Aristotelian theory of 
 'imitation' and to compare it with the aesthetic theories of 
 Plato and Plotinus among the ancients, or of Bacon, Words- 
 worth, Hegel, Goethe, Arnold, Austin, Ruskin, and others 
 among the moderns, the meaning and bearing of the words 
 nature, art, imitation, etc., in the Aristotelian writings other 
 than the Poetics should be ascertained. Many popular and 
 ordinarily respected expositions of the theory in question are 
 worthless because the originators of them were ignorant of 
 the connection between Aristotle's Poetics and his general 
 philosophical system. 
 
 The following topical references, though by no means in- 
 tended to be exhaustive, may be of assistance. 
 
 1. Nature. 
 
 TJ <|>v<ris : Nature is opposed to accidental spontaneity (rd O.VT/>IMTOV) 
 and chance (17 rvxrj). As self-producing and self-determined it is opposed 
 to art, in that while art is an originating principle in something outside 
 itself, nature is so within itself. [Wallace, Outlines of the Philos. of 
 Aristotle, pp. 34, 35.] Consult Phys. 2:1, 192^14; 2:2, 194*28; 2:8, 
 1991*15; 2:1, 193328; Meta. 11:3, 1070^6; 4:4, ioi5 a 7; Polit. i: i, 1252^ 
 30; De Coel. 3 : 2, 3Oib 17. 
 
 i] 0tf<m is a continuous development from plants to animals, through 
 animals to man, De Part. Anim. 4 : 5, 68i 12. It must never be mistaken 
 for the appearance, or face, of the visible universe. 
 
 il 0t/<rts works always toward an end, De Coel. 1:4, 271333, and makes 
 the best of her material, De Coel. 288* 2; De Part. Anim. 4 no, 687* 15; 
 Phys. 2:8, 199^31. In some of her works she excels the possibilities of 
 art, De Part. Anim. I : I, 639b 19 ; 
 
 but she is sometimes baulked of her intent, matter (vXij) overcoming 
 her, Gen. Anim. 4 : 4, 77O b 16 ; Phys. 2 : 9, 200* 14, 
 
 and she sometimes makes mistakes, Phys. 2 : 8, 199* 33. 
 
 2. Art, in general. 
 
 Phys. 2 :8 199^ 15, 8Xw$ rt rj r^x vr l T <* f^ v ^riTeXet a rj Qfois 
 dir(py<iffaff0ai, TO. 5 /MUflrat. In general, art on the one hand ann-
 
 //.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 147 
 
 pletes what nature is unable to carry through, on the other hand it imitates. 
 According to Butcher (Aristot. Theory of Poetry and Fine Art), the 
 distinction is not between useful and fine art, but between two aspects 
 of useful art. On the one hand useful art satisfies those needs of man 
 for which nature has not fully provided, on the other hand its processes 
 are those of nature. It imitates TTJP <j>vcriv (the productive principle). If 
 the two clauses do not " respectively mark the end and the method of 
 useful art," they may indicate two methods by which art (in general) 
 realizes the idea of nature (i) by assisting natural processes, (2) by 
 imitating them. Compare, for instance, Meteorol. 4:3,38^6. The 
 process of cooking is similar to the physical process of digestion : "OTTTTjens 
 titv oiiv Kal tyi)<ru yivovrat /jv r^x"?7. &"ri 5', uvirep Myofjuev, ra ctdi) 
 xaOoXov ravra /cat 0tf<ret O/JLOIO. yap rd yivb^va. 7rd0ij, d\\' dvwvvfjLa 
 /j.i/j.eiTai yap i) T^X VT ? T$)V <j)tiffiv. ^Trei Kai i] TT;S Tpofpijs tv r<p trufjMT 
 ir^is bfjLoia e^<rei fffrlv. . . . Here not only is Nature to be explained as 
 the process of nature, but Art is to be construed as useful art though 
 not assisting nature in her processes, but imitating her processes for the 
 material benefit of man. 
 
 Art and education supply the deficiencies of nature, Pol. 7:17, I337 a ; 
 Art assists natural processes, Met. 6:7, io32b6, by the skill of the physi- 
 cian ; it imitates the order of nature and realizes her ends in the useful art 
 of the politician, Pol. 1:2, 1253*3, an d in the fine arts of painting, music, 
 poetry, etc., De Mundo 5:396^12, Poet. 1:4; 4:2-6; 6:9-18. 
 
 According to Eth. Nic. 6:4, 1140* 10, ravrbv S,v efij r^x"?! xal ?ts pera 
 \6yov d\?7(?oDs iroirjTiKri, art is a faculty which realizes, or produces, in 
 accordance with a true idea ; and according to Meta. i: i, 981* 5 and 6, 
 art conies into being when out of many conceptions of experience one 
 universal opinion is evolved with respect to similar cases. . . . Experience 
 is a knowledge of particulars, art of universals. See also Rhet. i: 2, 1356^ 
 29 ; Meta. 6 : 7, 10323 32 dtrb rtynp dt yiyverat, K.T.\. From art are born 
 those things the forms of which are in the soul (8ffwi> rb e?5os). For 
 explanation of eiSos, or form, in this context see Meta. 6 : 7, 10321)15; 
 Meta. 6 : 9, 1034* 24 " For art is form," etc. 
 
 3. Imitation. 
 
 a) In general. 
 
 (iifieicrGai : Poetics 4:1 " It is innate in men from childhood (i) to imitate 
 (fjunetaOai) : in this we differ from the other animals because we are the 
 most imitative and acquire our first knowledge through imitation, and (2) 
 to delight in imitations." Note that here man shares the imitative faculty 
 with other animals, but excels them (a) in imitative excellence, and (b) in
 
 148 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9, //. 
 
 the ability to reason from his attempts at imitation. The original imitative 
 effort is evidently not directed toward the production of images of natural 
 objects ; but toward the furtherance of nature's purposes and the satisfac- 
 tion of man's desires by the methods of nature. 
 
 For imitation among the lower animals, see De Animalibus Historia 
 8 : 12, 597. Instances of the imitation of natural processes by art are cited 
 from Aristotle by Db'ring (Die Kunstlehre d. Aristoteles) 49-62, 80-83, 
 143-188. 
 
 Other examples of the general use of the words imitate, imitation, etc., 
 are as follows : Rhetorica ad Alexandrum I : 13, 14223 30, rbv avrbv Tpbirov 
 7rpoo"^/cei Toys vleis fjufjieiffOai ras rCtv irar^p^v Trpdfets. So a/so it is fitting that 
 sons should imitate the deeds of their fathers. Meteorol. 1 : 9, 34&b 36 
 ylverat Se /cuxXos oiiros /M/j,ovfj.evos rbv rou i)\iov K<JK\OV. Eth. Nic. 9:11 Not 
 inferior but superior natures must be imitated ; Kth. Nic. 3 : 5 Homer as 
 an imitator ; Meta. 98;b 1 1 The Pythagoreans believed that things subsist 
 by the imitations of numbers. Eth. Nic. 3:5, 1113^8 Now this is evident 
 from the ancient polities which Homer depicted (^fyteiro). |upTHJ.a : Rhet. 
 3:1, 14043 21 Names are the imitations (/zi/ttiJ/iaTa) of things. Note also the 
 place of the voice in imitation, Rhet. ad Alexandrian 29, 14363 7. On the 
 imitation of ethical qualities in practical life, see Problemata 19 : 10, 95i a 7> 
 pLifjL-qTT|s : For the different uses of imitator, see Problemata 19:15, 918^ 28; 
 Moral. Magn. i : 19, 1 190. The imitator (painter) is not praiseworthy unless 
 he have an excellent purpose (Stv ^ rbv ffKoirbv 6% TO. KciXXiara pi/jxtfft)a.i). 
 
 l>) In particular. 
 
 On Aristotle's conception of Imitation as involved in art, especially in 
 the fine arts, the following references may be consulted : 
 
 |U|ir|TiKa( : Poetics 8 : 4 \pr) o$i>, KO.6a.irep KO! tv rais AXXais JU/XTJTIKCUS f) 
 fila fil/j.r)cri.s fv6s etrnv, OVTU nal rbv fj.G0ov, fVet 7rpaews /j.i/j.r)iris fan, /uas re 
 eJvai rai^Tijs /ecu 8X77$, K.r.X. As in other mimetic arts one imitation is of one 
 object, so the plot since it is an imitation of action must be of one comflcte 
 action. See also De Animalibus Historia 8:12, 597. 
 
 Synonyms for the "imitative arts" (fu/j.r,TiKal T^W) are given by 
 Butcher as //iti}<mj, modes of imitation, and tXevOtpioi r^yai, liberal arts. 
 
 : The term occurs in the following passages : Pol. 8 : 5 *Ert S 
 V /junfocuv "yi^vovro.1 irdTs ffv/j.iraMs KO.I x u P^ T ^ v P^O^Csv Ka.1 
 T&V fte\dv a.f>ru>v. Besides, when men listen to imitations all their feelings 
 are aroused in sympathy even though there be no rhythm or melody. Some 
 commentators supply "of the feelings" after "imitations." Poetics r:2 
 Epic Poetry and Tragedy, and also Comedy and the Dithyramb and most 
 flute and guitar playing are all of them, to speak generally, imitations 
 ; also, Rhet. i:ii, I37i b , painting and sculpture; also, Poet, i =5,
 
 //.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 149 
 
 dancing. Architecture is not mentioned in the list of fine arts, save in so 
 far as it is adorned by sculpture. Poet. 9 : 9 ficn^ TrotijTTjs /card rrjv /jLlfjaja-lv 
 ftrri, /jufieiTai 5t ras irpdl-eis. Since the poet is a poet (maker) by means of his 
 imitation, and he imitates action. 
 
 The following passages, also, throw light upon the connotation of the 
 words "imitative arts." Problemata 19:15, 9i8b 28, On the skill necessary 
 to imitation in music. Note especially the context of 6 nlv yap inroKpiTrjs 
 dywvurrris /ecu ytu/irjrijs, 6 8i xP^ s rjrrov mnefrai. Pol. 8 : 5 ti> rots nt\e<rii> 
 aurots fort fj.ifjLrnj.ar a r&v yQ&v, /c.r.X., On the place of music in education, 
 and as an imitation of moral qualities. Music has a greater ethical influence 
 than painting or sculpture, which do not produce imitations but signs of 
 moral habits; whereas in mere melodies there is an imitation of character, 
 and the various melodies and rhythms have . . . various ethical effects. 
 Pol. 8 : 6, 7. Ethical melodies and passionate melodies. The former 
 are preferable in education, but the latter have their uses in affecting and 
 then relieving natures prone to religious frenzy, pity, fear, enthusiasm, and 
 other emotions, in excess. These chapters 8 : 5-8 are valuable also for the 
 light they throw on the tragic catharsis, Poetics 6. 
 
 4. Aristotle's conception of artistic ' imitation ' is liberally developed 
 and illustrated by his use of parallel words such as 6/j.oiu/j.a, a likeness ; 
 ffrifneiov, a symbol or sign ; ei'/cwi', an image ; <pavraffla, imagination ; <pdv- 
 racr/ua, a mental impression. 
 
 6p.oiu>[ia : De Interp. i. TO, aitra iraO^fJMTa rrjs ^ux^s, xal uv TO.VTO. 
 6/ioiWjLiaTa, irpdy/JiaTa f/Sr) ravra. Polit. 8:5, 1340333 ffVfj.ft^i)Ke 5 rdv 
 v, K.T.X.; 8 : 5, 1340* 18 In rhythms and melodies we have imitations 
 ) of anger and mildness, etc. Also 8 : 5 Figures and colors are 
 not likenesses (6/j.oiw/j.ara) but signs (a-r^eia) of moral habits. Probl. 19 : 27, 
 9i9b26 S/ocws x 6 ' ^0s ar d 19:29, 92O a 3 TO. ^\TJ tpuvT) otoa TJBeffiv toiicev 
 (fXei dfwi6rrjTa) the ability of musical sound to convey likenesses of moral 
 and emotional feelings. Physiognom. i : 2, 806*28. 
 
 o-T)|ieiov or o-vupoXov : De Interp. 1:1, 1623; 2:16827; Polit. 8 : 5. 
 
 clKwv : Topics 6 : 2, 6 An image produced by imitation. De Part. Anim. 
 i : 5, b 45, a 5. See also reference to the De Mem. in Teichmuller 2 : 149. 
 
 <}>avTa.<ria : On the meaning of this word J. Freudenthal has thrown con- 
 siderable-light in a compact pamphlet entitled Ueber den Begriff des Wortes 
 <pa.vra.tTla bei Aristoteles. Diss. 1863. 
 
 According to De Anim. 3:3, 429*1, phantasy, or imagination, is the 
 movement which results upon an actual sensation (Wallace, Outlines, p. 43). 
 De Anim. 3:3, 427b 17-20; 3:10, 433*10. See also Rhet. i:ii, 1370*28; 
 De Somno 1:459*17, i:454b28, i:458b25, and numerous passages in the 
 De Insomn. 458-462, and the De Sensu. Aristotle's Psychology (De
 
 ISO LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, // 
 
 Anima), Bk. 3, chap. 3, treats in detail of the imagination. This chapter 
 must be mastered before a just conception of Aristotle's theory of imitation 
 can be formed. Wallace, in his Introd. to the Psychology, sums up the 
 materialistic character of A.'s conception thus : " The pictures which imagi- 
 nation, either in our waking moments or in our dreams, presents to us are 
 simply the result of a physiological process, in which the movement of the 
 organ of sensation continues the impression which either originally excited 
 it, or might at least have originally done so." But Professor Wallace 
 reminds us that the materialistic aspects of the process do not exhaust 
 Aristotle's theory of image-making. There is always the background of 
 the ^t/x 7 ? as the reality of body. 
 
 <t>dvTa(T(xa : De Anim. 3:7,431*14, De Memor. 449!^ 31 The pifturcs 
 representative of external objects furnished by the phantasy form the mate- 
 rials upon which reason (rb voetv) (rrf 5 StawijTt/cjj ifsvxy) works. On morbid 
 excitement of the senses and the resulting phantasms, see De Insomn. 46ob 
 25. For other references, see Teichmuller 2 : 148. 
 
 5. General considerations. 
 
 a) On the pleasure produced by art, for artist or percipient, and on the 
 end or purpose of fine art, see Butcher's Aristotle's Conception of Fine 
 Art and Poetry (Aspects of Greek Genius, pp. 253-289), Doring, Teich- 
 muller and Ed. Muller. The discussion bears in many ways upon the 
 theory of ' imitation.' 
 
 b) For the source of the pleasure derived from artistic representation 
 of objects (KO.I rd roidSt dvdjKrj ijdfa eivai olov r6 re ntfju^^vov, wffirep 
 ypa0iK7j KCU dvdpiavToiroda cat Troi-jT/Ki), K.T.\.), see Rhet. 1:11, 137^6. This 
 passage throws light upon Poetics 4:5" The reason that we delight in 
 seeing likenesses is that by viewing them we can learn and conclude what 
 each is, e.g., that ' this is so and so.' " On the pleasure afforded by meta- 
 phors, see Rhet. 3 : 10, 2 ; and cf. 3 : 8, 2 ; 3 : 9, 2, and 2 : 9. Compare also 
 Probl. 30 : 6, 956* 14. "Is man the most trustworthy of animals because 
 he is the most imitative, and hence best able to learn ? " and 19:5 where 
 the pleasure produced by music is similarly explained. On the pleasure 
 derived from the imitation even of disagreeable objects, see De Part. Anim. 
 1:5, 645, as. 
 
 c) On the universal element in art, its tendency to the philosophic, 
 Poet. 9:3, see Teichmuller 2:178, and Butcher's Theory of Poetry. 
 Teichmuller and Butcher translate the passage comparing poetry and 
 history: Poetry is more philosophic and of higher worth (<rirov5a.t6Tepov) 
 than history, for it approaches nearer to the universal (/j.d\\ov rd naObXov) 
 while history deals with particulars.
 
 ff.} INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 151 
 
 d} According to Teichmuller, Forschungen 2:142-157, the fine arts 
 realize the ideal of nature not by assisting natural processes, or imitating 
 them and their results for practical purposes, as do the useful arts, nor by 
 producing a symbolic representation of nature's moods, processes, and ends, 
 but by completing in a likeness (freed from all material uncertainty) forms 
 which shall express her universal meaning. Butcher in this respect closely 
 follows Teichmuller. 
 
 For the standard texts and translations of the Poetics, Ethics, 
 Metaphysics, Politics, Rhetoric, Psychology, and other works of 
 Aristotle necessary to this investigation see 8 ARISTOTLE, and 
 the Bibliography appended to this volume. 
 
 Among the more noteworthy and available critiques on the 
 Aristotelian 'Imitation' may be mentioned Carl Altmiiller's Der 
 Zweck der schonen Kunst, a painstaking Aristotelian study 
 (Doctor's dissertation at Jena ; Cassel : 1873). Ch. Be'nard, 
 L'Esthe'tique d'Aristote et de ses Successeurs (Paris : 1889), 
 gives a brief resume ; theoretical and historical, pp. 28-39, 53> 
 145-151. F. Biese (Die Philosophic des Aristoteles, Berlin : 
 1842) in his chapter on Aristotle's Aesthetics, pp. 661723, 
 discusses the essential relationship of the arts as based upon 
 the idea of imitation (667 et seg.~), and compares Aristotle's 
 theory with that of Plato. Cf. Plato, Repub. 3, 394 c, imitation 
 in poetry, with the broader connotation and denotation of /tu/tu/o-is 
 in the Poetics. Bosanquet's treatment (Hist. Aesth. Lond.: 
 1892) involves a catholic view of the Aristotelian system of 
 thought. Chapters 1-5 are essential to the discussion, though 
 it may be doubted whether full justice is done to the idea of 
 /U'/ATJO-IS, since the theory which construes /xi/xijo-is in terms of a 
 process is not considered. One of the most valuable of recent 
 contributions is Prof. S. H. Butcher's treatise in Some Aspects 
 of the Greek Genius (Lond.: 1891), pp. 234-394 Aristotle's 
 Conception of Fine Art and Poetry. From the author's synopsis 
 of the chapters on Useful Art and Fine Art, the End of Art, 
 the Meaning of " Imitation " as an Aesthetic Term, Poetry as an
 
 152 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 Imitation or Expression of the Universal, and from the text itself, 
 may be gathered the outline of his argument : " The saying 
 4 Art imitates Nature ' is specially applied in Aristotle to Useful 
 Art, which follows nature's methods and supplies her defects. 
 Fine art is imitation in another sense. A work of art is not 
 a servile imitation of an original as it is in itself, nor a sym- 
 bolical representation of it, but a copy of the original as it is 
 presented to the ' phantasy.' Fine Art, in poetry, reproduces 
 under sensuous form the universal elements in human life, .... 
 is an idealized image of character, emotion, action. In her 
 structural faculty lies nature's perfection. Useful art, employing 
 nature's own machinery, aids her in her effort to realize the 
 ideal in the world around us, so far as man's practical needs 
 are served by furthering this purpose. Fine art sets practical 
 needs aside ... By mere imagery it reveals the ideal form at 
 which nature aims in the highest sphere of organic existence, 
 in the region namely of human life where her intention is 
 most manifest, though her failures too are most numerous .... 
 Plato saw in Fine Art an illusion as opposed to the reality : 
 Aristotle saw in it the image of a higher reality. The end is 
 pleasure for the spectator or hearer : not the recreation 
 (avaTravo-is), nor the pastime (?rai8ta) which may be afforded 
 by the lower arts to the weary or to children, but rational 
 enjoyment (StuywyT?), the delight which comes from the ideal 
 employment of leisure." Professor Butcher gives copious 
 references to the original. He has made an exhaustive study 
 of Doring and Teichmiiller, but is by no means dependent on 
 them. All of these ideas and many others have now been 
 embodied in Butcher's latest work, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry 
 and Fine Art (with a critical text and a translation of the Poetics. 
 Lond. : 1895). This book takes rank as the most complete 
 apparatus in English for the study of Aristotle's aesthetics. One 
 of the most profoundly critical studies of the subject has been 
 made by A. Doring, Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles (Jena:
 
 H.} INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 153 
 
 1876). Chapter i considers the Aesthetics in its broader 
 sense and in relation to the Aristotelian system ; Chapter 2, 
 Aesthetic and Imitation in the limited aspects of the dis- 
 cussion. Boring falls foul of Teichmiiller (see below), at nearly 
 every step of the discussion, and on the whole makes good 
 his critical position. The work is a storehouse of biblio- 
 graphical reference and supplementary material. E\ Egger, 
 Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Critique chez les Grecs (2 e ed. Paris : 
 1886), is of unquestioned worth. The translation of Aristotle's 
 Poetics which appeared in the first edition has been omitted from 
 the second to make way for a large amount of new material in 
 the way of criticism and exposition. The student will find the 
 Essay, if not the most profound, one of the most lucid and com- 
 prehensive treatises on Greek aesthetics and rhetoric (both are 
 included in the term critique) available in any language. For 
 theories of imitation see pp. 144148, 199, 238245, 336. J. 
 Frohschammer's Ueber die Principien der Aristotelischen Philo- 
 sophic (Miinchen: 1881) is of the systematic order. Apposite to 
 this subject are pp. 98-106 Die Kunst als allgemeine Analogic 
 in der Aristotelischen Welterklarung. More closely bearing upon 
 the discussion is F. Heidemann's inaugural dissertation De doc- 
 trinae artium Aristotelicae principiis (Halle : 1875). Masson in 
 Theories of Poetry (Essays, Biographical and Critical) attempts 
 to distinguish sharply between the Aristotelian ' imitation ' and 
 the Baconian 'creation' but bases his argument upon a 
 misconception of Aristotle's philosophy. See 19, 20. Ed. 
 Miiller in Uebej das Nachahmende in der Kunst nach Plato 
 (Ratibor : 1831), and the Geschichte der Theorie der Kunst bei 
 den Alten (Breslau : 1834) has given us the most learned 
 treatises on Greek aesthetics. One of the clearest and most 
 discriminating expositions of the theory of Imitation is to be 
 found on pp. 359 et seq. of the Geschichte. An elementary but 
 still comprehensive and careful study has been recently issued 
 by Prickard : Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. See pp. 19-35
 
 154 LITERARY CRITICISM, [ 9, //. 
 
 and 65-68. " When he says that poetry is imitation, Aristotle 
 is asserting its power to set forth a special and an elevated kind 
 of truth .... After allowing for the power which lies in mere 
 eloquence and rhythm, and for the subtler charm of association, 
 is it not still the simple elementary feelings upon which the epic 
 poet plays, reproducing and imitating them?" (p. 65). Among 
 English scholars, Pye and Twining though not broadly philo- 
 sophical are to be regarded as authorities on the Poetics. In 
 the first volume of Modern Painters, Ruskin treats of Ideas of 
 Imitation, placing them lowest in the scale of art-ideas. His 
 definition of imitation is arbitrary, but has the merit, if it be 
 one, of restricting the term to a definite range of aesthetic effects. 
 Reinkens, Teichmuller, and Ueberweg have made special study 
 of the Poetics. The'first in his Aristoteles iiber Kunst, beson- 
 ders liber Tragodie (Wien : 1870) ; the second in his Aristote- 
 lische Forschungen (3 v. in i, Halle : 1867-9), which is the best 
 general commentary on the Poetics. Vol. I consists of running 
 annotations on the text; vol. II is a dissertation on Aristotle's 
 philosophy of Art. Chapter i of the second volume treats of the 
 common nature of the fine arts, or of the meaning of imitation. 
 On the different significations of the word Imitation see pp. 143- 
 145. Section i, pp. 145-155 elaborates the important thesis: 
 Works of Fine Art are reproductions (Ebenbilder) of reality as it 
 is given in (exists for) the Phantasy (Imagination). Teichmuller 
 distinguishes between symbol and likeness ; shows that the arts 
 furnish likenesses of reality ; explains the relation of the like- 
 ness in the imagination to the work of art, and asserts that his 
 proposition, as above enunciated, holds good for poetry the 
 highest of the arts. In chapter 2 he considers the object 
 imitated by art; shows that nature and art have the same ideal, 
 and attempts to prove that the object of the imitation is deter- 
 mined by the laws of truth and beauty. On pp. 200-207 he 
 explains the aim and effect of imitative art. For an unsympa- 
 thetic handling of his premises, Boring should be consulted.
 
 //.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 155 
 
 Ueberweg's Aristotelis Ars Poetica (Griechisch und Deutsch) 
 is valuable for the Anmerkungen, pp. 47-91. Anmerkung 2 
 develops briefly the thesis that Aristotle by the term artistic 
 imitation meant not a slavish copying (Nachbildung) of 
 the particular object, but a representation (Darstellung) which 
 expresses reality and law in concrete form. See also under 
 Anmerkungen 23, 25, 39-41. With these notes may be read 
 pp. 177-180 of the author's Hist. Philos. volume I although 
 the passage deals rather with catharsis than with imitation ; and 
 also his Die Lehre d. Aristot. von d. Wesen und d. Wirkung d. 
 Kunst (Zeitschr. f. Philos. 36 : 260291 ; 50 : 1639). O^ a more 
 general character are the appropriate sections in M. Schasler's 
 Kritische Geschichte der Aesthetik ; and E. Zeller's Die Philo- 
 sophic der Griechen (31.6 Aufl. Leipz. : 1879). In the former, 
 see vol. I, pp. 120203 f r exposition of Aristotle; especially 
 pp. 136-146, on imitation. Schasler interprets Aristotle's /U/ATJO-IS 
 as the clothing of the idea according to laws of natural form, or 
 the representation of nature according to the laws of the idea. 
 In the latter see Theil 2, Abth. 2, Aristoteles und die alten 
 Peripatetiker, pp. 763-770 Die Nachahmung. The author bases 
 his statement of Aristotle's theory on passages from the 
 originals, principally the Poetics, which are cited in full, and 
 shows how Plato's conception of art (mere copy of sensible 
 phenomena, worthy of contempt as untrue and worthless) falls 
 below the Aristotelian conception. 
 
 E. Wallace's Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle (Oxford 
 and Lond. : 1880) is useful as furnishing in brief and lucid form, 
 and with appropriate references, the general information requisite 
 for a systematic study of Aristotle's theory of art. The same 
 writer's Aristotle's Psychology, in Greek and English, with 
 Introduction and Notes (Cambridge: 1882), is even more 
 serviceable. Pp. Ixxxvi-xcvii of the Introduction, on Imagina- 
 tion, Dreams, Memory, furnish a trustworthy outline of the 
 theory of Images. This section should be read in connection
 
 156 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 with Bk. Ill, chap. 3 of the Psychol. (de Anima). J. C. van 
 Dyke discusses ' Imitation ' in a semi-popular style, in the opening 
 chapters of Parts i and 2 of his Principles of Art ; and E. Veron 
 makes occasional, not extremely profitable, reference to the 
 subject in his Aesthetics. 
 
 In Mind for July, 1895, Mr. R. P. Hardie expounds certain 
 doctrines of the Poetics with special reference to the inter- 
 pretations of Bosanquet, Prickard, and Butcher. He thinks 
 that the great advance of Aristotle upon Plato is the former's 
 introduction of the conception of v\rj, 'medium.' "This con- 
 ception necessarily modifies in an important way the meaning 
 of p,L/j.r)(Ti<; .... When it is recognized that two things having 
 the same etSos may differ in respect of v\rj, there is no longer 
 any reason why the copy should be regarded as an attempt to 
 rival reality. The imitation is simply the solution of an artistic 
 problem : Given xy when x is e?8os and y vXrj, to express x in 
 terms of a new medium y'. The relation of xy' to xy is naturally 
 expressed by ' imitation,' or /U'/ATJO-IS in its ordinary meaning. 
 We may call the other relation, that of xy' to x (or of xy to .v), 
 'expression.' . . . Now both Plato and Aristotle use /u'/x^o-is of 
 the latter relation as well as of the former. In the case of 
 Plato this is due to the fact that in his theory x, the iSea, is merely 
 another concrete reality, over and above, and somehow external 
 to xy'. But the case of Aristotle is different. He must have 
 been aware, to some extent at least, of the perpendicular relation, 
 so to speak, of xy' to x as distinct in kind from the horizontal 
 relation of xy' to xy." 
 
 Many of the critical expositions of the Poetics are men- 
 tioned in 8, 20, 38, 47 (under Aristotle), and in the 
 bibliography of editions, Appendix to this volume. Espe- 
 cially valuable to the investigator of the topic now under 
 consideration are Spengel (in Abh. d. k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss., 
 philos.-philolog. Cl., II, 1837, un ^ XI, 1867); Vahlen in his 
 B^itrage zu Arist. Poet (Sitzungsberichte der philos.-hist. Cl. der
 
 //.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 157 
 
 k. Akad. d. Wiss. Wien : 1865-6); F. Ritter, Arist. Poet., 
 Koln: 1839; Barth. St. Hilaire, Poet. Arist., Paris: 1858; 
 J. A. Hartung, Lehren d. Alten iiber die Dichtkunst, Hamb. : 
 1845; a profound treatise of 115 pages by F. L. G. von Raumer, 
 Ueber die Poetik des Aristoteles u. sein Verhaltniss zu den 
 neuern Dramatikern (Berlin Akad. Wiss. Abh. 1828); and Ver- 
 mischte Schriften, vol. 2; Ernst Essen, Bemerkungen zu 
 Aristoteles' Poetik; H. Martin, Analyse critique de la poetique 
 d'Aristote (1836. These); W. Schrader, De Artis apud Arist. 
 notione ac vi, Berlin: 1843, Miinchen : 1881 ; F. Susemihl, 
 Studien zur Aristot. Poetik (Rhein. Mus. 18: 366, 471; 
 19: 197; 22: 217); F. C. Petersen, Oin den Aristoteliske 
 Poetik (in Skandin. Litteraturselskab. vol. XVI) ; J. Lemaitre, 
 Corneille et la poetique d'Aristote, Paris: 1888, and the Rev. 
 d. Deux Mondes, 1888, IV: 830; Ch. Be'nard, L'Esthe'tique 
 d'Aristote et de ses successeurs, Paris: 1889. As stated above 
 (Plato's Theory of Art), the De Pulchri atque Artis notione of 
 R. Haym, sets forth with remarkable clearness the respective 
 theories of Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus. 
 
 (7) The Post- Aristotelians on Imitation : 
 
 For theories of the relation of art to nature in the suc- 
 cessors of Aristotle such as Chrysippus, Poseidonius, Seneca, 
 Philodemus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, see Bosanquet, Hist. 
 Aesth. 99-103. For Theophrastus Trepi /u.ou<n/c^s, see Zeller's 
 Aristoteles, 867-869, and Egger's Hist. Crit. 345 ; also 
 Plutarch, Symp. lib. i, Quaest. 5, who cites Theophrastus' 
 three principles of the origin of music (pain, pleasure, and 
 enthusiasm). For Aristoxenus, another disciple of Aristotle, 
 see Zeller and Egger. A French translation of Aristoxenus' 
 On Music has been made by M. E. Ruelle (Paris: 1870). On 
 theories of imitation, representation, and symbolism among the 
 Peripatetics, Stoics, and Epicureans, see Schasler i: 204210. 
 Among the Eclectics, Cicero and Plutarch have contributed to 
 the discussion. Cicero, in the following passages: Orator 71
 
 158 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 We must be content with the probable in all things since the 
 truth is hidden ; De Inventione 2: 12 Art works by selection 
 from particulars ; De Officiis i : i, 27-36 and Orator, 
 chaps. 2, 3. Plutarch, in De Audiendis Poetis 2, Symp. 5, 
 Quaest. i, and Symp. 7, Quaest. 5. 
 
 Of the critical grammarians and rhetoricians, Dionysius of 
 Halicarnassus and Dio Chrysostom have made contributions to 
 the theory in question. For Dionysius see Schasler i : 219,220, 
 and Professor Nettleship's Literary Criticism in Latin Antiquity 
 (Journ. Philol. 18: 230). Dio Chrysostom's conception of 
 legitimate symbolism in art and of the boundaries between 
 poetry and the formative arts (cf. Lessing's Laokoon) will be 
 found in the De Dei Cognitione Oratio 1 2 (pp. 400 et scq. of 
 Reiske's edition ; the passage is translated by Egger and 
 Bosanquet). Commentary on Chrysostom will be found in 
 Schasler p. 222, Bosanquet p. 108, and Egger pp. 440455. 
 
 The writings of Plotinus as developing the possibilities of 
 Plato's aesthetic beyond the narrow theory of imitation, and 
 definitely propounding a doctrine of symbolism, are more impor- 
 tant than any other contribution to the subject since the death 
 of Aristotle. The best guides to Plotinus' writings on Beauty, 
 v/hich are included in his Enneads, are Ed. Miiller 2 : 285-315, 
 Schasler i : 233-251, Bosanquet 111-119, Egger 474, 475. The 
 standard edition of his works is by Creuzer. The Enneads are 
 translated by H. F. Miiller (Berlin : 1878) Ennead i, Bk. i, 
 chap. 6 Das Schone ; and by others cited in 8, PLOTINUS. 
 
 In Philostratus the Elder (Flavius), Vita Apoll. vi. 19 (circa 
 A.D. 210), ^avTcuna is distinguished from ^u^cris. The former 
 is of a higher grade than the latter. "tun-curta. creates that which 
 it has not seen, /u^o-is reproduces what it has seen. The statues 
 of the gods by Phidias and Praxiteles are therefore productions 
 of the tfrwrturii. Butcher, Greek Genius, p. 279, considers this 
 the nearest approach in Greek literature to the idea of imagina- 
 tion as a creative faculty. Cf. Philostratus, Imagines 1:15, and
 
 H.} INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 159 
 
 see Schasler i : 249, 250 for the relation between the theories of 
 Philostratus and Plotinus ; consult, also, Egger 511-515, Bosan- 
 quet 109, Overbeck, Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden 
 Kiinste 801, and Ed. Miiller 2 : 317 et scq. The treatise on 
 the Sublime, attributed to Longinus, is discussed by Bosan- 
 quet, pp. 104106, by Andrew Lang in his introduction to 
 Havell's translation, and by Egger, pp. 476-484; but, except in 
 one or two passages, quoted by Bosanquet, the essay on the 
 Sublime does not touch upon the aesthetic theory of imitation. 
 In James Drummond's Philo Judaeus (London : 1888), 2 : 97, 
 will be found an instructive passage on the oneness of art under 
 all its manifestations. "Perfect art," concludes Philo, "being 
 an imitation of nature, seals all materials with the same idea." 
 
 The utterances and the practice of the Roman poets are of 
 indirect rather than of positive value in the discussion. The 
 Ars Poetica of Horace is historically, if not critically, helpful. 
 See Bishop Hurd's notes. For the best known of Horace's poetic 
 canons see Ars Poetica, 333, 334, 343 ; Epist. Lib. II, i : 126, 
 138. By far the most fruitful of recent articles on aesthetic 
 theory among the Romans is Nettleship's Literary Criticism in 
 Latin Antiquity (Journ, Philol., vol. 18, p. 230, to which refer- 
 ence has already been made ; and F. Barta's Ueber die auf d. 
 Dichtkunst beziiglichen Ausdriicke bei den romischen Dichtern; 
 i Dichten u. Dichter, Prog. Linz a. D.: 1889; 2 Gedicht, 1890). 
 
 To the relation of allegorical representation to natural and 
 traditional symbolism in the formative art and the architec- 
 ture of the ancients, Bosanquet, referring to Overbeck, Carriere, 
 Wm. Morris, and other authorities, devotes an interesting and 
 suggestive section of chapter 5, Hist. Aesth. Concerning 
 theories of the relation of art to nature in the Early Christian 
 and the Middle Ages, something of value may be gathered from 
 Egger, 524570; Schasler, i : 250, 251 ; Bosanquet, 120150; 
 Carriere, Die Kunst in Zusam. d. Culturentwickelung, 3: 77- 
 138. The names of St. Augustine, Gregory the Great, Abelard,
 
 160 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9, //. 
 
 Scotus Erigefta, St. Francis of Assisi, and Thomas Aquinas 
 will indicate the line of investigation to be pursued. 
 
 II) Among the Moderns. 
 
 For references to the works of modern authorities, Schasler, 
 Bosanquet, and Von Hartmann may be consulted. Shaftesbury 
 considers art to be the construction of material according to 
 the standard of Beauty. Lord Kames limits natural beauty 
 and consequently the representation of it to the objects of 
 vision. Batteux (Traite des Beaux Arts) thinks that he is 
 inculcating Aristotle's theory of imitation while he is more 
 nearly advocating Plato's, and draws a distinction between 
 mechanical, fine, and ornamental art which, although mistaken, 
 still obtains in certain quarters of French criticism. Diderot 
 (Essais sur la Peinture) also makes imitation the principle of 
 his aesthetics, but while he appears to understand that nature 
 should be imitated, according to Aristotle, not as an object, 
 but as a process, he falls into the grievous error of attributing 
 infallibility to natural processes : " Nature," he says, " makes 
 nothing that is incorrect," a radically non-Aristotelian thesis. 
 He does well, however, in insisting upon the imitation of the 
 characteristic in nature. By confusing actuality with truth, 
 Baumgarten in his Aesthetica comes to a conclusion like that of 
 Diderot concerning the perfection of natural objects presented 
 to perception, deducing therefrom the dictum : u The whole 
 duty of the artist lies in the exact imitation of nature." Karl 
 Philipp Moritz in his pamphlet, Ueber die bildende Nach- 
 ahmung des Schonen, Braunschweig: 1788, advances a theory 
 of imitation as emulation of the model given in nature, which, 
 although his argument ends in the air, is at least suggestive of 
 the truth. 
 
 Winckelmann, through all his writings, his Ueber den 
 Geschmack der griechischen Kunst, his Ueber die Erganzung 
 der alten Statuen, his Kunst-Geschichte, his critique of his 
 own work Ueber die Nachbildung der Alten, emphasizes and
 
 //.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 161 
 
 reiterates the well-known proposition, that there is but one art, 
 that of the Greeks, and that would-be artists of modern times 
 must draw from this well of inspiration. By this statement he 
 meant not that modern artists must imitate the creations of the 
 ancients, but that they must practice the ancient manner of 
 imitation. He distinguishes between the servile copying and 
 the selective imitation of nature, and by nature he means the 
 ideal beauties revealed in nature. It is hardly necessary to 
 remind the student of the Laokoon and the Hamburgische Dra- 
 maturgic of Lessing, and of the important distinction which that 
 critic makes between the kinds of imitation appropriate to poetry 
 and to painting. Herder (Kritische Walder u. s. w., Riga : 
 1769 ; Plastik u. s. w., Riga: 1778 ; Kalligone) appears to 
 narrow art to the imitation of natural beauty, but his identifica- 
 tion of the Beautiful with the True and the Good again extends 
 the scope of the artist. On Kant and the opinions of writers 
 who succeeded him, Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, W. von Hum- 
 boldt, Friedrich Schlegel, Adam Miiller, Solger, and others of that 
 period, the student must be referred to Bosanquet and Schasler, 
 whence the step to the originals (see 8), is easily made. 
 For Schelling's opinions Ueber das Verhaltniss der bildenden 
 Kunste zu der Natur, see the Sammtliche Werke, Bd. 7, Abth. 
 i, 289-329. Hegel's arraignment of the theory of imitation as 
 the end of art is brief, but conclusive. See Aesthetik, vol. I, pp. 
 55-61; Bosanquet's Trans., pp. 79-87 ; Kedney's Exposition, 
 pp. 1518. The superfluousness of Kedney's criticism on p. 16 
 will be 'seen by reference to the original, esp. p. 58 of the 
 Aesthetik, p. 84 of Bosanquet's Trans. Cf. Aesthetik, p. 5, 
 Bosanquet's Trans., pp. 4, 5. In F. T. Vischer's Aesthetik, and 
 in Schopenhauer's World as Will and Idea (Haldane and 
 Kemp), vol. I, pp. 219346, and vol. Ill, 173219, 231244, will 
 be found valuable material, as also in Von Hartmann's Aesthetik. 
 For Von Hartmann's exposition of Deutinger's views on imita- 
 tion, see vol. II, pp. 184-187; of Kirchmann's, see pp. 256-259;
 
 162 LITERARY CRITICISM. [9, //. 
 
 of Zirrrmermann's, pp. 270, 271. On the interesting question, 
 how architecture is to be regarded as a kind of imitation, see 
 the author's discussion of Schelling, pp. 466, 467. For Von 
 Hartmann's view of imitation as one of the three preliminary 
 stages of artistic activity, see vol. II, pp. 523-526. The subject 
 is~ touched upon in several other places ; see index under 
 Nachahmung. 
 
 The best modern exposition is that of Bosanquet in his 
 paper, The Part played by Aesthetic in the Growth of Modern 
 Philosophy (Proc. Arist. Soc. I. 2, pp. 77-96), with which cf. 
 his History of Aesthetic. 
 
 The following authors have been selected for brief mention : 
 Professor Bain, Emotions and the Will, pp. 156, 182, 183, 
 196, 197, 204, 225 ; Beckenstedt, Die Nachahmung der Natur 
 in der Kunst ; Baldwin Brown, The Fine Arts (an excellent 
 introduction to the subject) ; Ch. Benard, L'Esthe'tique con- 
 temporaine : La Mimique dans le Systeme des Beaux- Arts 
 (Rev. Philos. 28 : 225. Be'nard advocates a psychological and 
 physiological basis for the investigation of the arts as members 
 of an organism. The utility of a theory which predicates a 
 system of united arts, is, however, called in question by 
 Lotze) ; Walter Borman, Kunst und Nachahmung (Stuttg.: 
 1892); E. S. Dallas, The Gay Science, vol. I, pp. 97-111; 
 Diderot, The Paradox of Acting, translated by W. H. Pollock, 
 with a Preface by Henry Irving (London: 1883); C. C. 
 Everett, Poetry, Comedy and Duty (the object of Prof. 
 Everett's chapters on The Philosophy of Poetry, pp. 5097, is 
 to reconcile Aristotle's definition of poetry as imitation and 
 Milton's specification that it should be "impassioned" a ); Alex- 
 ander von Humboldt, Cosmos (transl. Otte'), vol. 2, pp. 1-105; 
 The description of nature in poetry and painting; Kawczinski, 
 (see 23), pp. 17, 18, 20, 30 Imitation ; Professor Knight, 
 
 1 Milton's word is "passionate." See the Tractate on Education, and Mod. 
 Lang. Notes 5 : 230.
 
 /.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 163 
 
 Philosophy of the Beautiful, vol. II, pp. 56-65 (the author 
 concurs with Goethe in his maxim "Art is art, precisely because 
 it is not nature ") ; J. F. Marmontel, FJe'ments de Litterature 
 (for Imitation see vol. I, Action; vol. Ill, Unite); D. Masson, 
 Essays Biographical and Critical, pp. 408-424; G. S.Morris, 
 Philosophy of Art, J. Spec. Philos. 10: i; J. F. Pici, De 
 imitatione libellus, 1530 ; Quatremere de Quincy, An Essay 
 on the Nature, the End, and the Means of Imitation in the Fine 
 Arts, transl. by J. C. Kent (an elaborate if somewhat conven- 
 tional discussion); B. Riccii, De imitatione libri tres, Venetiis: 
 1541; J. J. Rousseau, De 1'imitation the'atrale (CEuvres Com- 
 pletes, vol. Ill, pp. 183-191, a rather superficial contribution 
 to the subject);. P. Stapfer, Petite comedie de la critique 
 litte'raire (Paris: 1866), pp. 366-368 ; Wm. Main, Expression 
 in Nature (Lond.: 1894); E. du Bois-Reymond, Relation of 
 Natural Science to Art (Smithsonian Reports, 1891); Victor 
 Cherbuliez, Rev. d. D. Mondes 15 Juin, i et 15 Juillet, i et 15 
 Aout 1891 L'art et la nature; K.. Biederman, Nord u. Siid, 
 1883, p. 95 Die Natur als Gegenstand poetischer Empfindung 
 und Darstellung ; Ernst Hallier, Aesthetik der Natur (Stuttgart: 
 1890) ; R. Vischer, D. Rundschau 76 : 192 Ueber aesthetische 
 Naturbetrachtung ; Adam Smith, Of the Imitative Arts (Works, 
 vol. V, p. 241). 
 
 / GROWTH OF THE FEELING FOR NATURE. In presenting the 
 literature of this important topic, we may distinguish between 
 writings jntended for the general reader and writings intended 
 for the specialist. To the first class belong such works and 
 articles as the following : J. Veitch, The Feeling for Nature in 
 Scottish Poetry (2 vols. Edinb.: 1887. The introductory 
 chapters treat nature-feeling in general) ; E. Dowden Contemp. 
 2 ' 535 Poetical Feeling for Nature (an article of unusual 
 interest) ; E. Dowden, Studies in Literature (Lond.: 1889), 
 chapter on The Scientific Movement in Literature; Hamerton, 
 Portfolio Papers (Notes on Aesthetics); Symonds, Essays
 
 164 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, //. 
 
 Speculative and Suggestive, vol. II, pp. 78-149 (on Landscape 
 and Nature-myths) ; Victor de Laprade, Histoire du Sentiment 
 de la Nature (Paris : 1883). 
 
 Among those of the second class attention may be drawn 
 first to the highly original paper by Bosanquet on The Part 
 played by Aesthetic in the Growth of Modern Philosophy 
 (Proc. Arist. Soc. I. 2, pp. 77-96) and to the observa- 
 tions scattered through the same author's History of Aes- 
 thetic. With this philosophical treatment, compare the 
 " scientific " views of Posnett presented in the latter's work 
 on Comparative Literature (see index under Nature). Still 
 more profound are the voluminous writings of the Germans, 
 among whom A. Biese takes a foremost place. The following 
 are the most important of Biese's contributions : Die Ent- 
 wickelung des Naturgefiihls bei den Griechen (Kiel: 1882); 
 Die Entw. d. Naturgefiihls bei d. Romern (Kiel: 1884) ; Die 
 Entw. d. Naturgefuhls im Mittelalter und in der Neuzeit (Leipz.: 
 1888); Das Metaphoriscbe in d. dichterischen Phantasie ; 
 Zeits. f. Volkerpsychol. 20 : 245 Die poetische Naturbeseelung 
 bei den Griechen (1890); Zeits. f. d. deiitschcn Unterricht 5. 
 Jahrg. pp. 822839 Die Naturlyrik Ludwig Uhland's und 
 Eduard Morike's ; Zeits. f. vergleich. Litteraturgcschichte. 
 N.F. 7: 311 Zur Litteratur der Geschichte des Naturgefuhls 
 (reviews at length previous contributions to the literature of 
 this subject). A few other German writers have ventured to 
 discuss nature-feeling in both its ancient and its modern aspects, 
 as K. K. Hense in his article Ueber das Naturgefiihl in alter 
 und neuer Poesje (Zeits. f. vergl. Litteraturgesch. N.F. i : 182), 
 and Winter, in his Beitrage zur Geschichte des Naturgefuhls 
 (Harburg : 1883) ; but the majority have so far specialized in 
 this field as to restrict their researches either to its ancient or 
 to its modern aspects. 
 
 Of those who have discussed nature-feeling among the 
 ancients, the following are especially worthy of note : Ad. 

 
 /.] INVESTIGATION OF SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 165 
 
 Gerber, Naturpersonification in Poesie und Kunst der Alten 
 (Bes. Abdr. aus d. XIII. Supplementbande d. Jahrb. f. 
 klass. Philol., pp. 241317); Grosse, Ueber Naturanschauung 
 d. alten griechischen und romischen Dichter (Progr. Ascher- 
 leben : 1890); O. Koerner, Ueber d. Naturbeobachtung im 
 homerischen Zeitalter (Frankfurt a. M.: 1886. Sonder-Abdr. 
 aus d. Bericht iib. d. Senckenberg. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft 
 in Frankf.) ; H. Planck, Die Entwickelung des Naturgef iihls im 
 Alterthum (Stuttgart : 1891. Beilage des Staats-Anzeigers fiir 
 Wiirtemberg, pp. 145-148); L. Schmidt, Die Ethik der Alten 
 Griechen (2 vols. Berlin.: 18812, Bd. 2, p. 80 Der Mensch im 
 Verhaltniss zur Naturumgebung) ; Chr. Semler, Jahrb. d. offentl. 
 Handelslehranstalt zu Dresden, 1891, pp. 3-26 Die Gleichnisse 
 Homers aus der Natur und ihre Bedeutung f. den Unterricht 
 und die Erziehung ; W. Straub, Der Natursinn der alten 
 Griechen (Progr. Stuttgart: 1889); Ed. Voss, Die Natur in 
 der Dichtung des Horaz (Diisseldorf : 1889) ; L. Friedlander, 
 Das Interesse fiir Natur und das Naturgefiihl iiberhaupt, Die 
 Entwickelung d. Gefiihls fiir d. Romantische in d. Natur im 
 Gegensatz zum antiken Naturgefiihl (Sittengeschichte Roms, 
 5th ed. 3 vols. Leipz.: 1881, vol. II, pp. 170-243. An admir- 
 able analysis of. the emotions aroused in ancient Roman tourists 
 by objects of natural scenery). 
 
 Of German writers who have touched upon the modern 
 aspects of nature-feeling may be mentioned the following : 
 W. Dilthey, Arch. f. Geschichte d. Philos. 1889-! 1 : 45 Zu 
 Goethe's Philosophic d. Natur ; H. Drees, Die poetische 
 Naturbetrachtung in den Liedern der deutschen Minne- 
 sanger (Festschr. Wernigerode: 1888); V. Hehn, Gedanken 
 iiber Goethe (Berlin : 1887), pp. 277-307 Naturphantasie; 
 Ludw. Kaemmerer, Die Landschaft in der deutschen Kunst 
 bis zum Tode Albrecht Diirer's (Beitr. z. Kunstgeschichte, 
 N.F. 4: 107. Leipz.: 1886); Max Kuttner, Das Naturgefiihl 
 der Altfranzosen und sein Einfluss auf ihre Dichtung (Diss.
 
 166 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, ///. 
 
 Berlin: 1889); O. Luning, Die Natur, ihre Auffassung und 
 poetische Verwendung in der altgermanischen und mittel- 
 hochdeutschen Epik bis zum Abschluss der Bliitezeit (Zurich : 
 1889) ; K. Marold, Zeits. f. deutsche Philol. 23 : i Ueber 
 die poetische Verwertung der Natur und ihrer Erschein- 
 ung in den Vagantenliedern und im deutschen Minnesang ; 
 Th. Urbach, Zur Geschichte des Naturgef iihls bei den Deutschen 
 (Progr. Dresden : 1885). 
 
 ///. Methods of Research. i. Psychological. Of value in 
 the investigation of psychological methods are the following 
 books and articles : L. Arreat, Psychologic du Peintre (Paris : 
 1892); Bain's various writings ( 8); II. Cohen, Die dichterische 
 Phantasie und der Mechanismus d. Bewusstseins (Berlin: 1869); 
 J. Dewey, Psychology (New York : 1887) ; C. D. Dimetresco, 
 Der Schonheitsbegriff (Leipzig: 1877); E. Dreher, Kunst in 
 ihrer Beziehung zur Psychologic u. zur Naturwissenschaft (Ber- 
 lin : 1878) ; O. D. Ernst, Mag. f. Lift. d. In- und Auslamles, 
 60 : 56 Gedankenwerkstatt des Dichters ; M.-J. Guyau, Rev. d. 
 D. Mondes, 15 Aout, 1881 Le Plaisir du Beau et le Plaisir du 
 Jeu ; C. Hermann, Aesthetische Farbenlehre (Leipzig : 1876) ; 
 H. Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology; Max Jahn, Psychologic 
 als Grundwissenschaft der Padagogik (Leipzig: 1883), pp. 96- 
 103; W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York: 1890. 
 The subject of aesthetic is purposely excluded, but the chapters 
 on Imagination and Feeling are rich in suggestions) ; Robt. 
 Jardine, Elements of the Psychology of Cognition (London : 
 1874), pp. 172-179; Lazarus, Das Leben d. Seele (2 vols. 
 Berlin: 1875-8); Ch. LeVeque, Rev. d. D. Mondes, i Sept. 
 1873 Le Sens du Beau chez les betes, le Darwinisme psycholo- 
 gique et la Psychologie compare'e ; H. R. Marshall. Pain, Pleas- 
 ure, and Aesthetics; J. C. Murray, Handbook of Psychology 
 (London: 1885), pp. 223-235, 387-390; F. Paulhan, Rev, 
 Philos. 19 : 652 Sur Emotion esthe'tique ; Th. Ribot, English
 
 METHODS OF RESEARCH. 167 
 
 Psychology (Translation. New York: 1874), pp. 231-237; 
 S. Rubinstein, Psychologisch-aesthetische Essays (Heidelberg : 
 1878); P. Souriau, L'Esthetique, La Suggestion dans Part 
 (Paris : 1892); P. Souriau, L'Esthe'tique du mouvement (Paris : 
 1889); J. Sully, Outlines of Psychology (London : 1884); D. G. 
 Thompson, A System of Psychology (2 vols. London : 1884), 
 vol. I, pp. 585-594; J. Baldwin, Psychology, vol. II. 
 
 For an outline of study consult the Syllabus of Lectures on 
 the Psychology of Pain and Pleasure, published by B. I. Gil- 
 man in the Am. Jl. Psychol. 6 : i. 
 
 2. Physiological and Psycho- Physical. As the subjects are 
 now studied, there is much difficulty in drawing the line between 
 this method and the preceding. Many of the writings cited 
 under the former head might also be called studies in physiol- 
 ogy, or in physiological psychology. Among undoubted inves- 
 tigators in this field are Spencer, Allen, Zeising, Fechner, Helm- 
 holtz, Wundt, and Ladd. The following are a few of the re- 
 cent treatises : E. Briicke, Principes scientifiques des beaux- 
 arts (Paris: 1893. Together with Helmholtz's L'optique et 
 les Arts); G. Hirth, Aufgaben der Kunstphysiologie (Miinchen: 
 1891; also as Physiologic de 1'art, translated from the Ger- 
 man by L. Arreat. Paris: 1892); Th. Lipps, Aesthetische 
 Faktoren der Raumanschauung (Beitrage zur Psychologic und 
 Physiologic der Sinnesorgane. Hamburg u. Leipzig : 1891, pp. 
 219307); P. Montegazza, Epikurische Physiologic d. Schonen 
 (translated by R. Teuscher. Jena: 1891); L. Witmer, Philos. 
 Studieh, ix. i : 96-144, 2 : 209-263 Zur experimentalen Aes- 
 thetik einfacher raumlichen Formverhaltnisse ; A. Binet, La 
 Psychologic Experimentale (Paris : 1894) ; Chas. Pdkar, Rev. 
 Philos. 40: 186 Astigmatisme et esthdlique (maintains that 
 certain hitherto inexplicable aesthetic preferences are due to 
 what is known as ' regular astigmatism.' Reference is made 
 to a forthcoming work of the a-uthor's entitled Esthetique 
 physiologique et psychologique, of which the first part ap-
 
 168 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, IV. 
 
 peared in 1890 in the Athenaeum, a philosophical review 
 published by the Hungarian Academy). 
 
 An interesting article by Sorel on psycho-physical contribu- 
 tions to the study of aesthetics will be found in Rev. Philos. 29: 
 561, 30: 22. 
 
 3. Sociological. In this promising field the laborers are 
 few and the method of work is as yet but ill defined. Among 
 those whose writings will be found helpful as guides, may be 
 mentioned the following : A. Comte, The Positive Philosophy 
 (Translation. N. Y. : 1854), vols. 2, pp. 213-220, 297-8, 
 392-405 ; H. Spencer, First Principles, and Principles of 
 Sociology ; G. de Greef, Introduction a la sociologie (2 vols. 
 Bruxelles et Paris: 1886-9), v l- 2 PP- 148-188 Fonctions et 
 organes artistiques (unusually suggestive); A. Schaffle, Bau 
 und Leben des socialen Korpers (4 vols., Tubingen: 1881, 
 Index under Kunst). (The brief but numerous references 
 touch upon a great variety of problems); L. F. Ward, Dynamic 
 Sociology (2 vols. N. Y. : 1883, Index under Aesthetic and 
 Art) ; M. J. Guyau, L'Art au point de vue sociologique 
 (Paris: 1889); Von Hartmann, Aesthetik, vol. 2, pp. 425-492 
 Die Stellung des Schonen im menschlichen Geistesleben und 
 im Weltganzen. See also 11 under these names, and under 
 MORRIS; and 8 under GUYAU, DEWEY, MORRIS, and WILDE. 
 
 //. Miscellaneous. English. W. H. Beard, Action in 
 Art (New York : 1893. The author thinks that a knowledge of 
 the laws governing action will guide the natural feeling of 
 artists who represent action ; by means of instantaneous photo- 
 graphs he shows what actions are possible of representation); 
 A. L. Frothingham, Sr., Amer. Jl. of Archaeology, 9 : 165 The 
 Philosophy of Art (traverses the whole field of aesthetic, using 
 the divisions: i. Personality of the artist; 2. Place of Art in 
 civilization ; 3. Philosophy of Art : 4. Aesthetic Dualism ; 5. Psy- 
 chology of Art; 6. Art Ideals and Standpoints of Thought;
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 169 
 
 7. Definition of Art " the universal organon for the repre- 
 sentation of the total ideality of existence "; 8. Mission of Art); 
 A. W. Holmes-Forbes, The Science of Beauty, an Analytical 
 Inquiry (London : 1889); W. Holman Hunt, New Rev. 4: 420 
 The Ideals of Art; G. L. Raymond, Art in Theory, an Intro- 
 duction to the Study of Comparative Aesthetics (New York : 
 1874. The preface advances the curious idea that art is not 
 the expression of the age.. The best thing in the book is an 
 appendix by Professor Baldwin, who defines the sense of 
 beauty as an " emotional state arising from progressive psycho- 
 physical accommodation to mental objects"); A. Wolf, The 
 Truth about Beauty (New York: 1894) ; B. Bosanquet, E. W. 
 Cook, and D. G. Ritchie, The Relation of the Fine Arts to 
 one another (a Symposium. In Proc. of the Aristotelian Soc., 
 vol. I, No. 3, pt. 2, p. 98) ; P. N. Waggett, Beauty (in Proc. 
 of Aristotelian Soc., vol. i, No. 3, pt. 2, p. 129). 
 
 French. E. Blemont, Esthetique de la Tradition (Paris : 
 1891); A. de Chambrun, Une etude d'esthetique (Paris : 1891); 
 Victor Cherbuliez, L'Art et la Nature (Paris : 1892. Repr. 
 from Rev. d. D. Mondes, 106:5, 2 4 2 4^ x 7 21 ) > Maurice 
 Griveau, Les elements du beau: Analyse et synthese des faits 
 esthetiques d'apres les documents du langage (Paris: 1893); 
 E. Ledereq, Philosophic de 1'enseignement des beaux-arts 
 (Paris- Verviers : 1891); A. Magnard, Revue de Paris, 15 Sept. 
 1894, p. 424 La synthese des arts; E\ Rabier, Le9ons de Phi- 
 losophic-^ 6 e'd. Paris : 1888), vol. I, Psychologic, pp. 623-643 
 Notions d'esthetique, pp. 644-653 De 1'art. 
 
 The article Esthetique, in the Grande Encyclopedic, is divided 
 into four parts : C. Adams contributes a history of aesthetics ; 
 Henri d'Arges, a follower of Taine, writes on the plastic arts 
 and literature ; Alf. Ernst writes on Music. 
 
 German. H. Fleischer, Ueber die Moglichkeit e. normativen 
 Aesthetik (Breslau : 1891. An attack, on W. Scherer); Ernst
 
 170 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 9, IV. 
 
 Grosse, Gegenwart, 40 : 70 Der erste Baustein zu einer ethnolo 
 gischen Aesthetik (with reference to Hein's Die bildenden 
 Kiinste bei d. Dayaks auf Borneo. Wien : 1891); E. Grosse, 
 Die Anfange der Kunst (Freiburg: 1894); G. Hauck, Preuss. 
 fahrb. 46 : 126 Ueber die Stellung der Mathematik zur Kunst 
 und Kunstwissenschaft ; Anna Holz, Die Kunst, ihr Wesen 
 und ihre Gesetze (Berlin: 1891. 'Modern' in tone, but not 
 genuinely scientific) ; H. Kratz, Aesthetik : Grundziige einer 
 Lehre von der Gefiihlen (Giitersloh : 1891); H. Marbach, Das 
 Mysterium d. Kunst (Leipzig: 1890); E. Kiihnemann, PJiilos. 
 Monatshefte, 27 : 442 Bericht iiber neuere Erscheinungen aus 
 dem Gebiete der Geschichte der Aesthetik ; N. M. Pichtos, Die 
 Aesthetik Aug. W. von Schlegels in ihre;- geschichtlichen 
 Entwickelung (Berlin : 1893); Alex. Raciborski, Die naturwissen- 
 schaftlichen Grundlagen unserer aesthetische"n Urtheile (trans- 
 lated from the Polish. Of slight value) ; H. Stein, Die Entsteh- 
 ung der neuern Aesthetik (Stuttgart: 1886); O. Voigt, Das 
 Ideal der Schonheit und Hasslichkeit in den altfranzosischen 
 Chansons de geste (Marburg: 1891); R. Wahle, Das Ganze 
 der Philosophic und ihr Ende (Wien: 1894), pp. 396-426 Das 
 Schone ; K. Werner, Zur Metaphysik des Schonen (Sitznngsl>. 
 d. Akad. d. Wiss. Wien: 1874, p. 737); B. Wille, Freie Buhne 
 f. mod. Lcben, 1891, p. 467 Tendenz in d. Poesie (distinguishes 
 four methods of normative aesthetics : i. The postulating 
 method, " I want so-and-so"; 2. The metaphysical, proceeding 
 from a philosophical system ; 3. The authoritative, taking its 
 law from the work of an artist ; 4. The psychological, which 
 observes the effects of the work, notes uniformities [laws] of 
 effect, and establishes a norm); J. Wohlgemuth, Henry Home's 
 Aesthetik (Rostock : 1894); Theobald Ziegler, Zeitschr. f. vergl^ 
 Litteratiirgesch., N.F. 7: 113 Zur Genesis eines aesthetischen 
 Begriffs. 
 
 Italian. Salvatore di Pietro, Sul Bello (Palermo: 1882); 
 G. S. Ferrari, Sul Bello (Verona: 1882); Maria Pilo, Estetica
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 171 
 
 (Milano : 1893) ; L. Leynardi, La Psicologia dell' arte nella 
 Divina Commedia (Torino: 1894). 
 
 A review of Italian writers of this century may be found in 
 K. Werner's Idealistische Theorien des Schonen in der italie- 
 nischen Philosophic des XIX. Jahrhunderts (Sitzungsb. d. Akad. 
 Wiss. Wien : 1884, p. 645), and in L. Ferri's Essai sur 1'his- 
 toire de la philosophic en Italic au XIX. siecle (1869). 
 
 On Dutch, Danish, and Russian aesthetics, see Wm. Knight's 
 Philosophy of the Beautiful, parts I and II. 1 
 
 i A pamphlet entitled Aesthetics, its Problems and Literature (by F. N. Scott), 
 published at Ann Arbor in 1890, but now out of print, has been drawn upon for some 
 portions of this chapter.
 
 PART II. DEVELOPMENT OF ART. 
 
 10. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS. 
 
 THE term history of art is used in a variety of senses. In 
 the writings of one author it means biographies of painters ; in 
 the writings of another, descriptions, chronologically arranged, 
 of famous monuments of architecture ; a third employs it to 
 designate an account of the arts of form, viz. architecture, 
 sculpture, and painting. In this chapter the term will be 
 employed in a large and general sense. Art we shall inter- 
 pret broadly to mean products of aesthetic activity. History 
 of Art will designate a record of the development of this 
 activity, whenever and wherever and however it may have 
 taken place. The histories of the several arts will be con- 
 ceived as integral parts of this great record, segregated for 
 purposes of convenience. 
 
 For this organic conception of art-history the student may 
 consult the following references : Hegel's Introduction to the 
 Philosophy of Fine Art, in Bosanquet's Translation ; Bosan- 
 quet's History of Aesthetic, pp. 345-352; Wm. Knight's 
 Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. II, p. 68 ; and Miss Paget's 
 article on Comparative Aesthetics in Contemp. 38: 300. Of a 
 universal history of art such as this view demands, Carriere's 
 Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Culturentwickelung und die 
 Ideale der Menschheit is the unique example. 
 
 The objections to the organic conception should be con- 
 sidered impartially. See Colvin's article, ' Fine Arts,' in the 
 Encycl. Brit., gth ed., for a clear statement of the reasons why 
 architecture, sculpture, and painting should be regarded as one 
 group, and music and poetry receive independent treatment.
 
 10, /.] ART IN GENERAL. 173 
 
 It will be convenient to consider the problems of art-evolu- 
 tion under two principal heads : (i) problems concerning the 
 history of art in general ; (2) problems concerning the several 
 species or sorts of arts. Under each head it will be necessary 
 to consider origins, principles and stages of growth, and 
 influences. 
 
 A Art in Genera/. A. The ORIGIN OF ART should receive atten- 
 tion first. Under what circumstances, in response to what 
 stimulus, in obedience to what instinct, did art first make its 
 appearance ? The following hypotheses should be carefully 
 examined : 
 
 1. Art is the Outgrowth of an Imitative Instinct. The oldest 
 of all theories of art, this is also the most persistent, having been 
 revived recently by both psychologists and sociologists. For 
 the views of Plato and Aristotle, see the references in 7 
 above, pp. 140150. For more recent views, see pp. 160-163. 
 To these references may now be added G. Tarde's La logique 
 sociale (Paris : 1895), chap. IX, and J. M. Baldwin's Social and 
 Ethical Interpretations of Mental Development (N. Y. : 1897), 
 pp. 147-153. It may not be amiss to observe that by adopt- 
 ing this view of the origin of the art-impulse, the student does 
 not necessarily commit himself to an imitation-theory of modern 
 art. 
 
 2. Art is the Outgrowth of an Instinct for Self-Expression. 
 This appears under a great variety of forms, being often com- 
 bined with other theories. For a statement of the point of 
 view, see Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic, chap. I, and the 
 article by the same writer in Mind, N. s. 3: 153. 
 
 3. Art is the Outgrowth of the Play-Impulse. This will be 
 recognized as the view of Schiller, which Spencer in his 
 Psychology and Grant Allen in his Physiological Aesthetics, 
 have elaborated into a system. The student should observe 
 that Spencer combines this theory with the theory of imitation.
 
 174 LITERARY CRITICISM. [10,7. 
 
 Play, he says, is the result of superfluous energy, accumulated 
 in periods of inactivity ; but it is the instinct for imitation that 
 causes the expenditure of this energy to take the form of mimic 
 chasing, fighting, killing, etc., leading to the dance, to rude 
 forms of drama, and to the beginnings of the graphic arts. 
 
 4. Art is the Outgrowth of an Instinct for Order. Under 
 the guise of rhythm, measure, proportion, harmony, and other 
 similar terms, this principle of aesthetic origins has been a 
 favorite. By Professor Baldwin Brown it is ingeniously united 
 with the preceding. There are, he says, "two elements that 
 must combine for the production of even the simplest form of 
 art. (i) There must exist a certain raw material in the form 
 of a movement, an act, a process, which may be the mere 
 instinctive throwing off of superfluous nervous energy, or may 
 possess more or less pronounced emotional or intellectual 
 character, and (2) this material must be disciplined into a 
 certain distinctness of form by the principle of 'Order' till it 
 becomes a rational product." (The Fine Arts, p. 12 ; the 
 idea is elaborated in pp. 10-19.) 
 
 5. Art is the Outgrowth of an Instinct to Attract Others. This 
 idea is used by Darwin to explain the colors of animals and 
 the adornments of primitive peoples. For references to the 
 Origin of Species and Descent of Man, see supra, p. 135. The 
 reader should also consult G. Semper's Der Stil in den techni- 
 schen und tektonischen Kiinsten (2 vols. Miinchen : 1878-9), 
 and Brown's The Fine Arts, pp. 20, 21. In H. R. Marshall's 
 Pain, Pleasure, and Aesthetics, the theory is used effectively 
 and given wide application. 
 
 6. Art is the Outgrowth of an Attempt to Repel or Terrify. 
 This is a counterpart of the preceding. It is used, in connec- 
 tion with other theories, by De Greef, Introd. a la sociologie, 
 vol. II, pp. 148-188. Adopting the Spencerian view of art as 
 the outcome of superfluous energy, De Greef says that such 
 energy finds expression in two forms : (i) in the decorations
 
 A."] ART IN GENERAL. 175 
 
 with which warriors adorn their persons to render them more 
 terrible or imposing ; (2) in the pleasing embellishment of 
 arms and utensils. The same idea is advanced by Sully in 
 Mind, N. s. 2 : 404. 
 
 7. Art is the Outgrowth of an Impulse to Communicate. 
 This theory has been developed mainly in its application to the 
 origin of language, on which see 13. From writers on art 
 it has not received the attention to which it would seem 
 to be entitled. The student will do well to give it serious 
 consideration. 
 
 8. Art is the Outgrowth of Festal or Ceremonial Celebrations. 
 Properly considered, this origin is secondary rather than 
 primary. The festal occasion merely supplies a channel for 
 the overflow of some one of the impulses enumerated above. 
 For a brief treatment of this view, see Brown's The Fine Arts, 
 p. 23. 
 
 9. Art is the Outgrowth of a Desire to Obtain an Image of the 
 Intangible or Spiritual Part of Man. Seemingly akin to the 
 imitation-theory, but in reality very different. The best state- 
 ment of this view is that of Professor Giddings, Principles of 
 Sociology (N. Y. : 1896), pp. 247, 248 : "There was one class 
 of phenomena in which a living self, ordinarily united with the 
 body though separable from it, seemed to the primitive man to 
 be already partly separated or in the act of separation. Walk- 
 ing in the sunlight, he always saw a shadow that moved as he 
 moved or was motionless when he stood still, but which never 
 completely detached itself from him. What could this be but 
 a conscious self, belonging to the bodily self and usually 
 merged in it, but capable of going away, to live alone ? Look- 
 ing in the pool, he saw the shadow self more distinctly, and 
 it behaved as before. When he called aloud to his comrades, 
 his voice came back from the mountain. His double then 
 could be far away and invisible, and yet speak and preserve 
 the identity of his proper tone.
 
 176 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 10, /. 
 
 "Here were data for curious inferences. The shadow and 
 the echo were parts of one's intangible self. Words, then, and 
 names must be a part of the spiritual self, and to know a man's 
 name must be to have a part of his essential personality in 
 one's possession and therefore to have a mysterious control 
 over him. This belief is found among savages in every quarter 
 of the world to-day. Possibly before it arose some one had 
 traced with a stick the outlines of a shadow on the sand, and 
 rude drawings may have been used as written names. Whether 
 so or not, the thought would arise that to have an image of 
 any object conceived as personal, would be to possess an 
 essential part of that object and to have its name. Words 
 and images then were charms, in themselves, and mediately, 
 as names. Through words and images one could come into 
 subtle relations with the very spirit of another, could feel the 
 stirrings of a spiritual life external to his own. The aesthetic 
 sense was born. Here were the vital origins of writing and 
 literature, and of all the plastic arts of expression." 
 
 See also supra, p. 86, D. 
 
 One fundamental question about origins should not be 
 overlooked : Is art something inherent and ineradicable in 
 man's nature, so that in some form it will be found at all 
 stages of his development ? or, on the other hand, is it an 
 acquisition which he makes only when in the struggle upward 
 he reaches a certain point ? In other words, is there in man's 
 history a pre-artistic stage? See Brown's The Fine Arts, pp. 
 3-11. A comparison of the aesthetic products of men and 
 animals is held by some to throw light upon this problem. 
 See Brown's The Fine Arts, pp. 12-16. 
 
 B. PRINCIPLE OR LAW OF DEVELOPMENT. Principles of artis- 
 tic evolution may be roughly classified as: (i) speculative or 
 philosophical, and (2) scientific. 
 
 i. Speculative Principles. Under this head, for convenience, 
 may be classed all schemes of ideal evolution, whether simple
 
 .] ART IN GENERAL. 177 
 
 or elaborate. As an example of a simple (and formal) scheme 
 may be mentioned that which Winckelmann expounds in the 
 opening chapter of his History of Art, viz. that art begins 
 with the necessary, culminates in the beautiful, and closes 
 with the superfluous. 
 
 Of elaborate systems, that of Hegel is the most eminent 
 example. Indeed it is not going too far to say that, positively 
 or negatively, it has shaped the views of all succeeding writers 
 upon art. It behooves the student, therefore, to make him- 
 self thoroughly at home in the general principles of Hegel's 
 Aesthetik, as they are set forth in the Einleitung (Introd. to 
 the Philos. of Fine Art, Bosanquet's Trans, and Appendix 
 to Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic). Although the Hegelian 
 law of progression can be better understood from Hegel's own 
 language than from the exposition and comments of his critics, 
 yet help may be derived from the excellent analysis in Bosan- 
 quet's History of Aesthetic, pp. 334-354, especially p. 335. 
 
 The student should not accept the Hegelian view of art- 
 evolution without careful scrutiny of the bases on which the 
 conception rests. He should inquire whether Hegel in his 
 theorizings did violence to the artistic materials then accessible 
 to him, and also whether his theories are consistent with the 
 facts of art-history as they have been brought out by later 
 research. A question of no less interest is whether according 
 to the Hegelian principle art at the present day is in a period 
 of decline, " tending to pass out of the strictly artistic region " 
 and " not possessing in modern civilization the same sole 
 supremacy that it" claimed in the Periclean age or in the first 
 flush of the Renascence." On this question, see Von Hart- 
 mann's Aesthetik, vol. I, p. 127, Bosanquet's History of 
 Aesthetic, pp. 343, 344, 354, and Laprade's Essais de Critique 
 iddaliste. 
 
 For other philosophic principles of art-evolution, see HENRY, 
 LOTZE, CARRIERS, and VISCHER.
 
 178 LITERARY CRITICISM. [10,7. 
 
 2. Scientific Principles. The application of scientific theories 
 of evolution to the facts of art-history has resulted in a variety 
 of principles, which may be roughly classed as (a) biological 
 and (/>) social. 
 
 a. By the first is meant a principle of growth more or less 
 exactly analogous to that which governs the life-history of a 
 plant or animal. According to this analogy, art during a cer- 
 tain period of years is born, comes to the fulness of its strength, 
 grows old, and dies. Although in one form or another this 
 view goes back to very ancient times, Winckelmann was perhaps 
 the first to employ it with a distinct appreciation of its value. 
 "The history of art," according to Winckelmann, "is intended 
 to show the origin, progress, change and downfall of art." 
 (Preface of Winckelmann's History of Ancient Art, p. 107.) 
 How the principle is used by Winckelmann the student should 
 learn for himself by a reading of the History. 
 
 A semi-scientific elaboration of this idea is made by Mr. 
 J. A. Symonds in an essay entitled On the Application of Evolu- 
 tionary Principles to Art and Literature, published in Essays, 
 Speculative and Suggestive (Lond. : 1890), vol. I, p. 42. With 
 it should be compared Miss Paget's article on Comparative 
 Aesthetics, in Contemp. 38:300. 
 
 Reference should be made at this point to .the famous 
 theory of Taine, which also rests upon a biological metaphor. 
 The object of Taine's formula, however, is not so much to 
 furnish a law of progression as to account for the condition of 
 art at any given epoch. 
 
 Brunetiere in his recent work, L 'evolution des genres dans 
 1'histoire de la litterature, supplementing the formula of Taine 
 by a special application of Spencer's theory of evolution, pro- 
 poses to establish the law of artistic development on a scientific 
 foundation ; but his theories, if sound, are as yet too vague to 
 be susceptible of criticism. 
 
 b. Social theories of art-evolution, so far as they have
 
 C.] ART IN GENERAL. 179 
 
 been developed, appear to be of two kinds: (i) those which 
 simply posit a connection between certain stages of artistic 
 development and corresponding stages of social development; 
 (2) those which endeavor to determine the place and function 
 of art as a factor in the evolution of society. For information 
 on these types of theory and for illustrations of them, the 
 student may consult the writings referred to on p. 168 above, 
 and the works of Herder, Comte, Spencer, Ward, Guyau, De 
 Greef, and Giddings ( 11). See especially Ernst Grosse's 
 The Beginnings of Art (N. Y. : 1897), chaps. II and IX. A 
 satisfactory treatment of art-evolution from the social point of 
 view is, however, still to seek. 
 
 In investigating scientific principles of art-development the 
 student should keep in view such questions as the following : 
 How far may one trust an analogy with any other set of 
 phenomena to reveal the essential principle of artistic growth ? 
 What warrant have we for comparing art with a plant or an 
 animal ? Why should we not seek the principle of development 
 in the nature of art itself rather than in things which resemble 
 or accompany art ? 
 
 For questions touching particularly the social aspects of art, 
 see above, pp. 86, 87. 
 
 C. STAGES OF GROWTH. Hegel's division into Symbolic, 
 Classic, and Romantic art, or, what is the same thing, into 
 Eastern, Greek, and Christian art, is still accepted as the 
 simplest and most practicable. These broad divisions have 
 been variously subdivided. Miss Paget in Contemp. 38: 300 
 proposes to divide each main period into three stages, viz. 
 heroic, dramatic, idyllic. Most of the divisions proposed by 
 others are chronological, as for example, the division of Chris- 
 tian Art into Early Christian, Renaissance, and Modern. They 
 may or may not be based upon a philosophical or scientific 
 theory of art-evolution.
 
 180 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 10, //. 
 
 If the student is able to make extended research he will 
 find it profitable to inquire into the correspondence of the 
 stages of art-development in different and isolated countries, 
 in Egypt and in Chaldea, for example. The labors of 
 Perrot and Chipiez have made the sources for such studies 
 easily accessible. 
 
 D. INFLUENCES. The student should inquire as to the influ- 
 ence of climate, religion, science, industry, morals, education, and 
 politics upon the growth of art. See TAINE, HENNEQUIN, and 
 GROSSE. He may also inquire how the art of one country has in 
 general affected the art of another. See MULLER, and PERROT 
 and CHIPIEZ. How the art of any single nation has been 
 influenced by the materials at hand and by local customs, as, 
 for example, the art of Greece by the presence of marble in 
 her soil and love of athletics in the minds of her citizens, is 
 also a profitable inquiry. See WALDSTEIN and WINCKELMANN. 
 
 //. The Several Arts. A. With reference to the origin 
 of the several arts, the following theses should be examined : 
 (i) All art was originally one, and the several arts have come 
 into being by a process of differentiation. (2) The arts of form, 
 viz. architecture, sculpture, and music, were originally com- 
 bined; the other arts had an independent origin. (3) Each 
 art arose in independence of every other. (4) The arts arose 
 in different ways and at different relative periods in different 
 countries. See SPENCER, COLVIN, and KNIGHT. On the origin 
 of architecture, consult Liibke's History of Art, chap. I, Liibke's 
 and Fergusson's histories of Architecture, and Brown's The 
 Fine Arts, pp. 24-33. On the origin of sculpture, see Liibke's 
 History of Sculpture, and Grant Allen's Physiological Aesthet- 
 ics, pp. 232-242. On the origin of painting and the graphic 
 arts generally, see Brown's The Fine Arts, pp. 19-24, Miss 
 Simcox's Primitive Civilizations, vol. I, p. 4, Middleton's article,
 
 B.} THE SEVERAL ARTS. 181 
 
 'Schools of Painting,' in the Encycl. Brit, gth ed., Lubke's 
 History of Art, vol. I, p. 243 et seq., Grant Allen's Physiological 
 Aesthetics, pp. 222-232, and especially Hamerton's Drawing 
 and Engraving (Lond. : 1892: repr. from the Encycl. Brit., 
 9th ed.), pp. 6-18. For an interesting controversy regarding 
 the origin of music, see Darwin's Descent of Man, vol. II, p. 336, 
 Spencer's essays On the Origin and Function of Music (Essays, 
 Scientific, Political, and Speculative), and On the Origin of 
 Music (Mind, October, 1890), Gurney's Power of Sound, chap. 
 XXII, J. F. Rowbotham's essay on the Origin of Music (iqth 
 Century, October, 1880), and Richard Wallaschek's Primitive 
 Music (Lond. : 1893). The origins of poetry and prose will 
 be discussed in following chapters. 
 
 On the origin of all of these arts and also of dancing, see the 
 chapters on the general arts in Wm. Knight's Philosophy of 
 the Beautiful, pt. II, pp. 85-250. 
 
 B. PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES OF GROWTH. For 
 
 the sake of brevity these topics may here be considered together. 
 The student should inquire whether the various arts in their 
 development pass through similar stages, whether for example 
 the history of architecture in its principal features has been the 
 same as the history of sculpture, whether in painting there is a 
 sequence corresponding to the drum, pipe, and lyre stages in 
 music. He may also compare the course of any one art as it 
 has developed in different countries, e.g., the history of sculpture 
 in Egypt and Assyria. The stages of evolution in the minor 
 arts, such as engraving and ceramics, may be profitably com- 
 pared with the stages of evolution in the greater arts. See the 
 references cited above, and also J. F. Rowbotham's History of 
 Music (Lond.: 1885). 
 
 An interesting though difficult question is as to an art's 
 seeming disappearance. When an art declines and passes 
 away, does it, we may ask, really die as a plant dies ? Is it,
 
 182 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 11. 
 
 not rather transformed into some other species, and is not 
 the art-germ in changing shapes thus perpetuated forever? 
 Ingenious though unsatisfactory speculations touching this 
 question will be found in Brunetiere's L'evolution des genres 
 dans 1'histoire de la litterature. Consult also Fergusson's 
 History of Architecture. 
 
 The question has also been raised, especially in the discus- 
 sion of the Wagnerian Opera, whether through the modern dif- 
 ferentiation of artists art has advanced or retrograded. See 
 Colvin's ' Fine Arts ' in the Encycl. Brit., gth ed. 
 
 The part played by convention in the development of certain 
 of the arts is worthy of careful consideration. On the conven- 
 tions of architecture and sculpture, see Brown's The Fine Arts, 
 pp. 244-258. 
 
 C. INFLUENCES. The student should inquire regarding the 
 influence which one art exerts upon another, such as the influ- 
 ence of dancing on sculpture, of the textile arts on painting. 
 See Brown's The Fine Arts, pp. 23, 46, 50, 52, 75. He may 
 also ask how the history of an art in one country has operated 
 upon the same art in another country, either contemporaneously 
 or successively. See Perrot and Chipiez, Introd. to History of 
 Ancient Egyptian Art. The influence of the environment, and 
 of movements in religion, science, education, etc., upon the 
 several arts is a profitable question for discussion. See in 
 general, RUSKIN, TAINE, MACAULAY, WALDSTEIN. 
 
 The influence of guilds, schools, factions, academies, prizes, 
 and publications devoted to art, upon the development of the 
 several arts, awaits the attention of the investigator. 
 
 11. REFERENCES. 
 
 BEGG, W. P. The Development of Taste, and other Studies 
 in Aesthetics. Glasgow : 1887. 
 See 8.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 183 
 
 BROWN, B. The Fine Arts. 
 
 Especially useful in the study of the origin and connection 
 of the arts. 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Cultur- 
 entwickelung und die Ideale der Menschheit. 5 vols. 
 Leipz. : 1871-73. 
 
 CARRIERS, M. Die sittliche Weltordnung. Leipz. : 1877. 
 
 P P- 339-354 Die Kunst. 
 
 Following the line of thought which he had so eloquently 
 expressed in his Religious Discourses, that of a God self-con- 
 scious and eternally revealing himself in Nature, Carriere, in 
 his celebrated work on 'Art in its Connection with the Develop- 
 ment of Civilization, traces, from the point of view of Ideal- 
 realism, the development of the idea of the Beautiful and its 
 gradual realization in life and art. Vol. I treats of The Begin- 
 ning of Civilization, and the Oriental antiquity in Religion, 
 Poetry, and Art; vol. II of Greece and Rome in their Religion, 
 their Wisdom, Poetry, and Art; vol. Ill (i) of Christian An- 
 tiquity and Mohammedanism; vol. Ill (2) of the Middle Ages 
 in Europe ; vol. IV of the Renaissance and the Reformation ; 
 vol. V, of the Period of the Ascendancy of Spirit. For com- 
 ment, see article in Bib. Sac. 18: 227. 
 
 COLVIN, S. Encycl. Brit., gth ed. ' Fine Arts.' 
 
 Pt. Ill of this excellent article is upon the History of Art. 
 It is principally an analysis and criticism of the views of Hegel, 
 Spencer, and Taine. 
 
 COMTE, AUG. The Positive Philosophy. Trans, by Harriet 
 Martineau. 2 vols. N. Y. : 1854. 
 
 Vol. II, p. 195 Relation of Fetichism to the Fine Arts; pp. 213- 
 220 Polytheistic Art; pp. 297-298 Catholic Art; pp. 392-405 
 Aesthetic Development ; p. 432 Modern Art ; pp. 454-455 
 Recent Aesthetic Progress; pp. 559-561 The Aesthetic Action.
 
 184 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 11 
 
 According to the social philosophy of Auguste Comte, man 
 in his evolution from a lower to a higher plane passes through 
 three stages or 'states.' There is first the theological state, 
 within which are the three phases, fetichism, polytheism, 
 monotheism ; then the metaphysical state ; finally the positive 
 state. In each of these periods, art as "an ideal and sympa- 
 thetic representation of human sentiment, personal, domestic, 
 and social," conforms to the stage of civilization. " The best 
 way, therefore, of ascertaining its state at any particular time 
 is, not by regarding it by itself, but by looking at those charac- 
 teristics of modern civilization with which it is incorporated, to 
 ascertain its share in them, and observe what new properties it 
 may have disclosed " (p. 218). This Comte attempts to do in 
 the passages indicated above. 
 
 The results of this method of treatment are highly interest- 
 ing and valuable, and will always be suggestive to those who 
 are seeking to establish a theory of art-evolution upon a 
 sociological basis ; but at the same time, it must be remarked 
 that Comte's sweeping generalizations rest upon data which he 
 appears not always to have verified. It would be a mistake, 
 therefore, for the student to accept his conclusions and especially 
 to use them as a basis for further investigation, without sub- 
 jecting them to careful scrutiny. 
 
 CROWE, J. A. and CAVALCASELLE, G. B. A New History of 
 Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century. 
 3 vols. Lond. : 1864-66. 
 
 CROWE, J. A. and CAVALCASELLE, G. B. A History of Paint- 
 ing in North Italy. . . . From the Fourteenth to the 
 Sixteenth Century. 2 vols. Lond. : 1871-74. 
 
 The authors of A New History of Painting in Italy have 
 added to the information furnished by Vasari and Lanzi much 
 that has been drawn from the direct comparison of works of
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 185 
 
 art with each other and much that has hitherto been buried in 
 rare and inaccessible archives. Towards forming a theory of 
 the evolution of art in general, perhaps the following chapters 
 will most contribute : vol. I, chap. I, Art to the Close of the Sixth 
 Century; chap. II, Italian Art from the Seventh to the Thirteenth 
 Century ; chap. V, Decline of Painting in Central Italy in the 
 Thirteenth Century ; chap. XII, Giotto's Influence on the Sculp- 
 tors of his Time; chap. XXVI, Religious Art in Convents; vol. 
 
 II, chap. II, Fundamental Difference between Sienese and 
 Florentine Art; also chaps. VI, VIII, XI, XIII-XVII; vol. 
 
 III, chap. Ill, Decline of the School of Siena ; chap. IV, 
 Rise of the Perugian School. 
 
 Crowded with information as is the History of Painting in 
 North Italy, it is not so suggestive of theories as directly to 
 benefit the student. 
 
 EASTLAKE, SIR C. L. [ed.] Handbook of Painting. The 
 Italian Schools. Based on the Handbook of Kugler. 
 4th ed. Revised ... by Lady Eastlake. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 1874. 
 
 In the preface to this work will be found a brief but some- 
 what useful reminder of the dependence of art upon religion, 
 social and political relations, circumstances of climate and of 
 place, the character of a nation, a school, and an individual. 
 Otherwise the scope of this work is beside the present purpose 
 of the student. 
 
 FERGUSSON, JAMES. A History of Architecture in all Countries, 
 from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. 2d ed. 
 4 vols. Lond.: 1874. 
 
 In vol. I, pp. 52-84, of this standard work will be found an 
 interesting chapter on ethnography as applied to architecture. 
 The main conclusions, so far as concerns the principle of 
 artistic development, appear in brief in the following sentence :
 
 186 LITERARY CRITICISM. [11. 
 
 " Progress among men, as among the animals, seems to be 
 achieved not so much by advances made within the limits of 
 the groups, as by the supersession of the less finely organized 
 beings by those of a higher class ; and this, so far as our 
 knowledge extends, is accomplished neither by successive crea- 
 tions, nor by the gradual development of one species out of 
 another, but by the successive prominent appearances of 
 previously developed, though partially dormant creations." 
 
 GAUCKLER, PH. Le beau et son histoire. 
 
 A chapter on the Influence of Religion, pp. 60-78, con- 
 tains original ideas regarding the relation between the develop- 
 ment of art and the development of religious thought. Other 
 passages bearing upon this and cognate topics are scattered 
 through the work. 
 
 GREEF, GUILLAUME DE. Introduction a la sociologie. 2 vols. 
 Brussels et Paris : 1886-89. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 148-188, Fonctions et organes artistique. 
 A work of high standing. The chapter on the social aspects 
 of art, though less satisfactory than other portions of the work, 
 is valuable by reason of its suggestiveness. Art for De Greef, 
 as for Spencer and Allen, is the product of superfluous energy, 
 finding vent, at times of leisure, in simulated and idealized 
 activity. The part which it has played, in its various forms, 
 in the growth of the individual and the evolution of society, is 
 sketched, if too rapidly, yet clearly and firmly. 
 
 GROSSE, ERNST. The Beginnings of Art. N. Y. : 1897. 
 
 An attempt to find a scientific basis for the theory and 
 history of art. Grosse connects the rise of art with methods 
 of securing food and makes the form of production depend on 
 geographical and meteorological conditions. Of especial inter- 
 est is his distinction of social art, belonging to primitive 
 stages, and individual art, belonging to later stages.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 187 
 
 GUYAU, M.-J. L'Art au point de vue sociologique. 
 
 See 8. 
 
 The author does not deal directly with the development of 
 art, but by connecting in his theory the growth of aesthetic 
 feeling with the growth of the social instinct, he suggests to 
 students of art-evolution an interesting line of research. 
 
 HEGEL, G. W. F. WERKE. 18 vols. Berlin : 1838-48. Bd. 
 X, Theile 1-3, Aesthetik. 
 
 The importance of this work has already been affirmed in 
 10. It is at once the most elaborate and the most profound 
 of all attempts to philosophize about the history of art. Nor 
 is it all pure speculation. Its conclusions are based upon 
 observations both wide and minute, and the keenness of Hegel's 
 criticisms upon particular types and specimens of art is acknowl- 
 edged by all who have read them. 
 
 The greater part of the Aesthetik, and in some respects the 
 most interesting part, is still untranslated, but those portions 
 which deal especially with the principles of the history of art 
 are now accessible in English. The following references bear 
 especially upon the historical aspect : Aesthetik, vol. I, pp. 387- 
 547 ; vol. II, pp. 3-240 (Bosanquet's Trans., pp. 133-156, Ked- 
 ney's Exposition, pp. 114-150, Hastie's Trans., pp. 34-46, and 
 the translations by Bryant and Miss Longwell in /. Spec. Philos.}. 
 Notice Hegel's application of the terms Symbolic, Classic, and 
 Romantic to the particular arts as well as to the stages of Art, 
 and his reasons therefor. In connection with the original 
 should be read the exposition and comment in Bosanquet's 
 History of Aesthetic. In the course of an article on Ruskin, 
 No. Am. 84 : 385, Prof. Everett presents a clear exposition of 
 Hegel's theory of Art-evolution. 
 
 HENRY. CH. Rev. Philos. 22 : 81. La loi devolution de la 
 sensation musicale.
 
 188 LITERARY CRITICISM. [11. 
 
 Evolution has taken place from the objective to the subjec- 
 tive side of experience. This is shown by the fact that sensa- 
 tions of pitch among the Greeks- were given an objective 
 interpretation, being associated with the distance of the 
 sonorous body from the hearer ; whereas in modern times 
 pitch is associated with the purely subjective conception of 
 upward and downward direction. 
 
 LANZI, L. The History of Painting in Italy : from the period 
 of the Revival of the Fine Arts to the end of the 
 Eighteenth Century. Trans, by Thos. Roscoe. 6 vols. 
 Lond. : 1828. 
 
 The author's purpose was threefold : to mark the successive 
 stages of the history of painting in Italy, to contribute to the 
 advancement of the art, and to facilitate the study of the 
 different styles of painting. His treatment of the subject is 
 captivating, and in so far as he has indicated the relation 
 between the political and social history of Italy and the art of 
 the country he is of advantage to the student of aesthetics. 
 Many questions pertinent to the evolution of art are touched 
 upon in Lanzi's preface to vol. L Since Lanzi died in 1810, 
 it will be advisable for the student to revise his statements 
 with the aid of more recent investigation. 
 
 LOTZE, H. Microcosmus. Trans, by E. Hamilton and E. E. 
 C. Jones. 2 vols. Edinb. : 1885. 
 Vol. II, pp. 398-443, Beauty and Art. 
 
 An account of the characteristic forms of beauty and art in 
 ancient and modern times. Readable but not always trust- 
 worthy. 
 
 LAPRADE, VICTOR DE. Essais de Critique iddaliste. Paris: 
 1882. 
 
 Pp. 49-77 De 1'idee de progres appliquee a 1'histoire des arts ; 
 pp. 337-365 Les origines du realisme.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 189 
 
 In these entertaining essays the author presents views of 
 the development of art based upon the theories of Hegel. 
 Starting from Hegel's statement that the age of art is past, he 
 arrives at the conclusion that the idea of illimitable progress, 
 though illustrated in other branches of human activity, is 
 wholly inapplicable to the arts. Art is destined to run its 
 course ; when its season is past a new development is incon- 
 ceivable. Science can furnish it means of facile execution and 
 of rapid multiplication of copies, but not a single principle of 
 original creation or veritable progress. The Parthenon, the 
 cathedrals, the music of Beethoven are the highest ideals in 
 art. To surpass them is impossible. Laprade constructs a 
 "ladder of the arts," which he epigrammatizes as follows: 
 " God is architectural, the half-god, hero, or saint is sculptural, 
 man is pictorial, external nature is musical." At the present 
 time, he says, through the pursuit of realism, the arts are 
 breaking up into little genres; nature is vanquishing man. (Cf. 
 Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth., p. 343 ff., esp. the footnote on 
 P- 344-) 
 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Critical, Historical and Miscellaneous Essays. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 208-211 (Milton) Poetry and Civilization; pp. 325-351 
 (Dryden) Laws of Progress of the Fine Arts. See also Index 
 under Art. 
 
 MIDDLETON, J. H. ' Schools of Painting.' In Encycl. Brit., 
 9th ed. 
 
 A sketch of the development of painting from the earliest 
 times to the present. 
 
 MULLER, C. O. Ancient Art and its Remains. With additions 
 by F. G. Welcker. Trans, by John Leitch. Lond. : 1852. 
 
 As the first general history of ancient art to appear in 
 Germany, this work may be said to have laid the foundation 
 for a comparative study of art. Miiller understood and pre-
 
 190 LITERARY CRITICISM. [11. 
 
 sented with great clearness the connection between the art of 
 Greece and the art of Rome ; but since in his time the study of 
 Oriental art was still in its infancy, he failed to comprehend, 
 or at least did not present, the intimate connection which exists 
 between Greek art and the art of more ancient civilizations. 
 
 OVERBECK, J. Geschichte der griechischen Plastik. 3. Aufl. 
 2 vols. Leipz. : 1881-82. 
 
 Overbeck esteems it the duty of the historian of art not to 
 accumulate disconnected facts, nor to indulge the vice of arbi- 
 trary classification, but " to seek in the multiplicity of works of 
 art that which is universal and conformable, for it is only by 
 such method that he can attain to a comprehension of the 
 inherent continuity of development." The Einleitung is well 
 worth reading in its entirety. 
 
 PAGET, VIOLET (Vernon Lee). Contemp. 38 : 300, Compara- 
 tive Aesthetics. 
 
 Follows Hegel in calling the grand divisions of art-history 
 Symbolic, Classic, and Romantic Art, but makes under each 
 division three subdivisions corresponding to the rise, the cul- 
 mination, and the decline of the art-impulse. These subdivi- 
 sions she terms the heroic, the dramatic, and the idyllic stages. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. History of Art in Ancient Egypt. 
 2 vols. Lond. : 1883. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Art in Chaldea 
 and Assyria. 2 vols. Trans, by W. Armstrong. Lond. : 
 1884. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Ancient Art in 
 Phoenicia and its Dependencies. 2 vols. Lond. : 1885. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Ancient Art in 
 Sardinia, Judaea, Syria, and Asia Minor. Lond. : 1890.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 191 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Ancient Art in 
 Persia. Lond. : 1892. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Ancient Art in 
 Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia. Lond. : 1892. 
 
 PERROT, G., and C. CHIPIEZ. A History of Mycenian Art. 
 2 vols. Lond. : 1894. 
 
 Both in substance and in form these are works of the highest 
 order of merit. The several volumes which are enumerated 
 above are to be regarded as a single work having for its aim 
 "to trace the cause of the great plastic evolution which cul- 
 minated in the age of Pericles and came to an end in that of 
 Marcus Aurelius." In the Introduction to the volumes on 
 Ancient Egyptian Art, M. Perrot speaks out boldly for the 
 evolutionary point of view in the study of art. He asserts that 
 the conception of an isolated Greek art held by Karl Miiller 
 and others is no longer tenable : " Our age is the age of history ; 
 it interests itself above all others in the sequence of social 
 phenomena and their organic development, an evolution which 
 Hegel explained by the laws of thought. It would be more 
 than absurd in these days to accept Greek art as a thing self- 
 created in its full perfection, without attempting to discover 
 and explain the slow and careful stages by which it arrived at 
 its apogee in the Athens of Pericles." He also attacks and 
 skillfully confutes the popular theory that Egyptian art under- 
 went no change. On this point see the valuable chapter 
 entitled, " That Egyptian Art did not escape the law of change, 
 and that its history may therefore be written " (Egyptian Art, 
 p. 70). 
 
 REBER, F. VON. History of Ancient Art. Trans, and augm. 
 by J. T. Clarke. Lond. : 1883. 
 
 This handbook is one of the most available for the student 
 of Ancient Art. Its trustworthiness is guaranteed by the fact of
 
 192 LITERARY CRITICISM. [11. 
 
 von Reber's original authorship ; its usefulness as a compend 
 of the results of recent investigations is enhanced by the col- 
 laboration of Mr. Clarke, who was director of the explorations 
 at Assos. The discoveries made at Olympia and Pergamon are 
 considered. The scope of the work, embracing art in Egypt, 
 Chaldea, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Phoenicia, Palestine, and 
 Asia Minor, Hellas, Etruria, and Rome, would render it invalu- 
 able to the student, had only the author or translator seen fit 
 to interpolate an occasional chapter containing criticisms upon 
 the art as a whole of any one of these countries, or a comparison 
 of the art of one country with that of another. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Stones of Venice. 
 
 A principal thesis of this work is that corruption of art 
 accompanies and corresponds to degradation in religion and 
 public morality. 
 
 SCHAFFLE, A. E. F. Bau und Leben des Socialen Korpers. 
 4 vols. Tubingen: 1881. 
 
 Contains a large amount of interesting fact and speculation 
 on the history of art and its relation to the development of the 
 social organism. See especially vol. Ill, p. 129 ff. For the 
 sections bearing upon art, consult the Index under Kunst. 
 
 SCHNAASE, KARL J. F. Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste. 
 2te verb. u. verm. Auflage. Unter Mitwirkung des 
 Verfassers bearb. von C. von Liitzow. 8 vols. Diissel- 
 dorf u. Stuttgart : 1866-79. 
 
 This formidable work attempts to survey the history of art 
 from its origin to the present century in all important countries, 
 except China and Japan. The author's hold upon the evolu- 
 tionary thread is not very firm, and at times, casting aside this 
 clue, he follows the uncertain guidance of chronology or mere 
 geographical association.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 193 
 
 SPENCER, H. First Principles. 
 
 Chaps. XIV-XVI The Law of Evolution. 
 
 The progress of the arts and their differentiation is used to 
 illustrate the law of evolution. 
 
 SPENCER, H. The Principles of Sociology. 3d ed. 2 vols. 
 N. Y. : 1893. 
 
 This work is cited for the sake of one brief passage on 
 p. 43 1 of vol. I, in which Spencer brings the study of art within 
 the scope of sociology. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Studies of the Greek Poets. First Series. 
 Pp. 219-222 Law of Sequence in Art. 
 
 The law of inevitable progression in art is " from the severe 
 and animated embodiment of an idea to the conscious elabora- 
 tion of merely aesthetic motives and brilliant episodes." Three 
 stages of progress are distinguished, corresponding to those 
 described by Miss Paget in her article on Comparative Aesthet- 
 ics (tj. v. supra). The law is illustrated from poetry, sculpture, 
 and painting. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. The Renaissance in Italy. 
 Vol. II, pp. 395-401, The Catholic Reaction. 
 
 A brief statement of the principles of art-development. The 
 idea is the same as in the preceding work. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Essays, Speculative and Suggestive. 2 vols. 
 Lond. : 1890. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 42-83, On the Application of Evolutionary Principles 
 to Art and Literature. 
 
 The course of the writer's thought is the same as in the 
 passage from the Studies of the Greek Poets, referred to above, 
 but the idea is elaborated with greater fulness, and illustrated 
 from the drama and from architecture. The following sentences
 
 194 LITERARY CRITICISM. [11. 
 
 contain the substance of Mr. Symond's theory : " A type of art, 
 once started, must, according to my view, fulfill itself, and 
 bring to light the structure which its germ contained potentially. 
 As this structure is progressively evolved, it becomes impossible 
 to return upon the past. No individual man in the age of 
 Scopas could produce work of Pheidian quality, albeit his brain 
 throbbed with the pulse of Marathonian patriotism. Original- 
 ity has to be displayed by eliciting what is still left latent in 
 the partially exhausted type. To create a new type, while the 
 old one is existent, baffles human ingenuity, because the type 
 is an expression of the people's mind, and has its roots deep 
 down in the stuff of national character. . . . After meridian 
 accomplishment, a progressive deterioration of the type becomes 
 inevitable and cannot be arrested" (pp. 76, 77). 
 
 TAINE, H. History of English Literature. Trans, by H. Van 
 Laun. 4 vols. Lond. : 1883. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 1-36, Conditions of Literary Development. 
 
 TAINE, H. The Ideal in Art. Trans, by J. Durand. N. Y. : 
 1869. 
 
 TAINE, H. The Philosophy of Art. Lond. : 1867. 
 
 Taine's formula of the race, the moment, and the environment 
 is most clearly expounded in the Introduction to his History of 
 English Literature. For criticisms, see references under 8. 
 
 VAN DYKE, J. C. Principles of Art. 
 Pt. I Art in History. 
 
 A rapid outline of the development of art, mainly of sculpture 
 and painting, from primitive times to the present. An excellent 
 introduction to more comprehensive histories. The art of the 
 three chief periods treated is designated as : (i) imitative, 
 decorative, and symbolic ; (2) classical and symmetrical ; (3) 
 emotional, intellectual, and individual.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 195 
 
 VISCHER, F. T. Aesthetik oder Wissenschaft des Schonen. 
 3 vols. Reutlingen : 1846. 
 
 Vischer treats of the historical development of art at great 
 lengthj at too great length for most readers to follow him. 
 Beginning at p. 403 of the second volume, he first traces the 
 history of the ideal through the ancient, mediaeval, and modern 
 periods. In vol. Ill, pp. 134138, he deals with the development 
 of style ; pp. 265-330, the history of architecture ; pp. 468-496, 
 the history of the plastic arts ; pp. 692-755, the history of paint- 
 ing; pp. 11221151, the history of music. Though the history 
 of poetry is not taken up separately, Vischer's views upon the 
 principles of its development may be found in vol. Ill, pp. 1194- 
 1198. The reasons for this change of method in the treat- 
 ment of poetry are stated at the end of 86 1, vol. Ill, p. 258. 
 
 The trend of thought is throughout Hegelian. 
 
 WALDSTEIN, CHAS. Essays on the Art of Pheidias. Cam- 
 bridge : 1889. 
 
 Two of these fascinating and scholarly essays the reader 
 cannot by any means afford to pass by : they are that on the 
 province, aim, and methods of the study of classical archaeol- 
 ogy ; and that entitled the Spirit of Pheidias, in its Relation 
 to his Age, Life, and Character. As a valuable contribution to 
 the study of the evolution of art should also be consulted the 
 article in the appendix, p. 394 : The Influence of Athletic 
 Games upon Greek Art. 
 
 WARD, LESTER F. Dynamic Sociology. 2 vols. N. Y. : 
 1883. 
 
 In this important work some attention is given to the soci- 
 ological aspects of art, but the references are scattering and 
 the treatment tentative. Consult the index under the terms 
 Aesthetic Forces, Aesthetic Sentiments. References under Art
 
 1% LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 11. 
 
 are to the industrial or useful arts, to which the author devotes 
 a great deal of space. Cf. the same author's more recent 
 Outlines of Sociology (N. Y. : 1898). 
 
 WINCKELMANN, J. The History of Ancient Art. Trans, by 
 G. H. Lodge. 2 vols. Boston : 1880. 
 
 This work is the earliest of its kind worthy of mention, for such 
 treatises as Winckelmann himself knew of, Monier's History of 
 Art, for instance, and Turnbull's Ancient Painting, lack breadth 
 of knowledge and artistic acumen. Winckelmann's especial 
 merit is that he was the first to apply the historic method to the 
 study of the Fine Arts. His revelations concerning the prin- 
 ciples of Greek Art had an influence that did not stop with 
 Lessing and Goethe ; it has extended even to our time. But 
 the student, though he may gain infinite information and sug- 
 gestion from this great critic, should remember that Winckel- 
 mann's conclusions are drawn rather from the study of Greek 
 art and even with that his acquaintance was limited than 
 from the study of art in general. Hegel, Aesthetik, vol. I, 
 p. 8 1, says of him : "Winckelmann was inspired by the con- 
 templation of the ideals of the ancients to such a degree that 
 he has awakened a new sense for the appreciation of art, has 
 removed such appreciation from the point of view of common 
 aims and a mere imitation of nature, and has set us to seeking the 
 idea of art in the works and history of art. Winckelmann is to 
 be regarded as one of the men who have been able in the realm 
 of art to open for the spirit a new organ and entirely new 
 fashions of contemplation." The student's attention is espe- 
 cially called to vol. I, pp. 285-320, On the Causes of the Supe- 
 riority of Greek Art, and on the essential of Art ; pp. 133-167, 
 On the Origin of Art. Cf. also the interesting preface to the 
 Monumenti Inediti (2 vols. Rome : 1867), in which Winckel- 
 mann explains with care the method of his History.
 
 11.] REFERENCES. 197 
 
 WOLTMANN, A., and WOERMANN, K. History of Painting. 
 
 Trans, by Clara Bell. 2 vols. Lond. : 1887. 
 Dr. Alfred von Woltmann, who had been professor of Art at 
 Prague and afterwards at Strassburg, lived after undertaking 
 this great work only long enough to complete that part on 
 Christian and Mediaeval art which occupies the latter half of 
 the first volume, and the sections in vol. II on the Renascence 
 in the North, the first chapter on the Renascence in Germany, 
 and the History of Italian art in the i5th century (as far as 
 p. 380). Nearly all the rest of the history : Painting in the 
 Ancient World, and the latter chapters of vol. II on the Painting 
 of the Renascence, is the result of the labor of Dr. Karl 
 Woermann. The sections on the attitude of the early Chris- 
 tians toward Art, vol. I, p. 151 ; and the general remarks on 
 pp. 201, 207, 221, 251, 324, 423, 492 ; and in vol. II, pp. 3-7, 
 61, 93, 124, 253, 270, 459, will give the reader an idea of the 
 theory underlying the volume. Professor Colvin, writing in 
 1880 the preface to the first volume of this work, says that the 
 narrative now set before the reader will be found to' be the 
 most complete and trustworthy history of painting yet written. 
 
 LUBKE, W. Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle 
 Ages. Trans., with appendix, by L. A. Wheatley. Lond. : 
 1870. 
 
 LUBKE, W. History of Sculpture. Trans, by F. E. Bunnett. 
 
 2 vols. Lond. : 1872. 
 LUBKE, W. Geschichte der Architectur von den altesten 
 
 Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart dargestellt. 1875. 
 
 LUBKE, W. Outlines of the History of Art. Trans, and ed. 
 
 by C. Cook. 2 vols. N. Y. : 1878. 
 
 It will be seen from the following synopsis of the Outlines of 
 the History of Art, how extended is the scope of this famous 
 work : vol. I, pp. 1-16, Origin and Beginnings of Art; pp. 17-
 
 198 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 12 ' A - 
 
 121, The Ancient Art of the East : Egypt, Central Asia, Western 
 Asia, Eastern Asia, India ; pp. 121-337, Classic Art : Greek, 
 Etruscan, Roman ; p. 337-vol. II, p. 121, Mediaeval Art : Early 
 Christian, Mohammedan, Romanesque, Gothic; pp. 121-640, 
 Art of Modern Times : Modern Architecture, Plastic Art in 
 Italy and in the North. 
 
 Liibke has in a clear, noble, and scholarly manner attempted 
 to trace a progressive development of ideas in the course of 
 art, wherever art has had beginning, has flourished, and has 
 died. He studies this universal language of mankind in its 
 primitive stammering when not the individual but the law 
 behind him seems to speak, and in its mature eloquence when 
 the differences of minds stand out conscious and clear. The 
 rise of the intellectual movement and its expression in the 
 later Romanesque style is of absorbing interest, and from 
 the beginning of the second volume the growth of the spirit of 
 liberty attracts attention with every broadening symptom of art. 
 While the chapter opening on p. 121 of this volume gives a 
 remarkably comprehensive view of the characteristics of modern 
 art, it is, perhaps, a matter of regret that Liibke has seen fit to 
 crowd English Art in the nineteenth century into a page, 
 American Art into a paragraph, and to omit all reference to 
 French contributions to reproductive art. However, this work 
 is, on the whole, a great authority on the evolution of art. 
 
 12. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 A. A SHORT COURSE OF READING in the history of art should 
 cover at least the following classes of works : 
 
 (1) A good representative of the philosophical or speculative 
 treatment of art-evolution, as Hegel's Introduction to the Phi- 
 losophy of Fine Art (Bosanquet's Translation). 
 
 (2) A good representative of the scientific treatment of the 
 same subject, as Baldwin Brown's The Fine Arts.
 
 JB-CJ] GENERAL NOTE. 199 
 
 (3) Some standard history of a single art or a single group 
 of arts, as Liibke's History of Art, or Perrot and Chipiez's 
 History of Ancient Egyptian Art, or Woltmann and Woer- 
 mann's History of Painting, or Hamerton's Drawing and 
 Engraving. For further references, see Sturgis and Krehbiel's 
 Bibliography of Fine Art (Boston : 1891). 
 
 Longer courses of reading have been sufficiently indicated in 
 the references in 9, 10. 
 
 B. ADVANCED STUDEHTS, who wish to form an independent 
 judgment upon the principles of the history of art, must of 
 course go to the sources study for themselves not only the 
 scientific histories of Art, but also the history which, growing up 
 day by day out of the investigations of archaeologists and 
 students of the arts, finds a record in such publications as 
 the American Journal of Archaeology, L'Art, Die Archaeologische 
 Zeitung, the bulletins, annals, and memoirs of the Institute 
 Archeologico, etc. 
 
 C. COLLATERAL AIDS. (i) A succinct statement of the evolu- 
 tionary theories on which the history of art is sometimes based, 
 may be found in Huxley's article ' Biology ' in the Encycl. 
 Brit., Qth ed. (2) For sociological principles the reader may 
 be referred to Professor Giddings's Principles of Sociology 
 (N. Y. : 1896), in the opening chapter of which is a brief 
 statement of many theories, including the author's own ; to 
 Vincent's The Social Mind (N. Y. : 1897) ; and to Ward's 
 Outlines of Sociology (N. Y. : 1898).
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF LITERATURE. 
 
 PART I. THEORY OF LITERATURE. 
 
 13. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS ; ANALYSIS. 
 
 IN this chapter we shall consider questions relating to litera- 
 ture as a whole, reserving for succeeding chapters questions 
 relating to special classes, epochs, or phases of literature. 
 
 /. Mature and Scope of Literature. The student may 
 begin by comparing a few notable definitions. The following 
 are especially worthy of examination : " All knowledge that 
 reaches us through books is literature " (Matthew Arnold, Dis- 
 courses in America, p. 90). "The written thoughts and feelings 
 of intelligent men and women, arranged in a way that shall give 
 pleasure to the reader" (Brooke, English Literature, ist ed., 
 p. 5). "By letters or literature is meant the expression of 
 thought in language, where by 'thought' I mean the ideas, 
 feelings, views, reasonings, and other operations of the human 
 mind" (Newman, Idea of a University, p. 291). "The repre- 
 sentation ... of a specific personality in its preference, its 
 volition and power. Such is the matter of imaginative or 
 artistic literature this transcript, not of mere fact, but of fact 
 in its infinite variety, as modified by human preference in all 
 its infinitely varied forms" (Pater, Appreciations, pp. 6, 7). 
 "Literature consists of all the books . . . where moral truth 
 and human passion are touched with a certain largeness, sanity, 
 and attractiveness of form " (J. Morley, On the Study of Litera-
 
 13, /.] NA TURE AND SCOPE OF LITER A TURE. 201 
 
 ture, pp. 39, 40). " We may be content to set out with a rough 
 definition of literature as consisting of works which, whether in 
 verse or prose, are the handicraft of imagination rather than 
 reflection, aim at the pleasure of the greatest possible number 
 of the nation, rather than instruction and practical effects, and 
 appeal to general rather than specialized knowledge " (Posnett, 
 Comparative Literature, p. 18). "Literature is the effort of 
 man to indemnify himself for the wrongs of his condition " 
 (Emerson, paper on Walter Savage Landor, The Dial, 2 : 262). 
 " Literature, more especially poetic and dramatic literature, is 
 the expression in letters of the spiritual, cooperating with the 
 intellectual, man, the former being the primary, dominant 
 coefficient " (H. Corson, The Aims of Literary Study, p. 24). 1 
 For other definitions the following sources may be consulted : 
 Dowden, Transcripts and Studies, pp. 237-240 ; Nettleship, 
 The Moral Influence of Literature; J. Morley, Voltaire, 
 pp. 1315 ; Sherman, Analytics of Literature, chap. I ; Bascom, 
 Philosophy of English Literature, Lecture I ; Thos. Arnold, 
 Manual of English Literature, pp. 341-342 ; Lewes, Prin- 
 ciples of Success in Literature, chap. I ; De Quincey, Brevia 
 (Posthumous Works), pp. 300-305 ; Mabie, Short Studies in 
 Literature, p. 5 ; Brother Azarius, The Philosophy of Litera- 
 ture ; Wendell, Stelligeri, and Other Essays, pp. 93-107; 
 Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship (the Hero as Man of 
 Letters) ; H. Paul, Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie, Bd. 
 I, p. 216 ; Gerber, Die Sprache als Kunst, Bd. I, pp. 43-122 ; 
 Boeckh, Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Philol. Wissen- 
 schaften, p. 614; Joh. Scherr, Allgemeine Geschichte der 
 Litteratur, Bd. I, p. i ; The article ' Litteratur ' in Brockhaus' 
 Conversations-Lexikon ; G. Korting, Encyklopadie u. Metho- 
 dologie d. Romanischen Philologie, pp. 63, 64, 73. 
 
 1 Although these quotations will be found interesting and valuable in 
 themselves, the student should bear in mind that they can be rightly inter- 
 preted only when they are studied in their proper context.
 
 202 LITERARY CRITICISM. [13. 
 
 An attempt should be made to group these definitions in 
 accordance with some principle or system. In one class may 
 be put definitions which assume that literature is one of the fine 
 arts, in another class definitions which do not make this 
 assumption. Definitions may also be grouped accordingly as 
 they survey literature from the aesthetic, the psychological, and 
 the social point of view ; or they may be arranged in a descend- 
 ing scale, from the most to the least comprehensive. 
 
 The following questions will be found suggestive when any 
 definition is under examination : Does the definition recognize 
 a unity in all literature ? Does it include all recognized literary 
 movements ? Does it include compositions transmitted by 
 word of mouth ? Does it apply equally well to all nationalities ? 
 Does it throw emphasis equally upon prose and poetry ? Does 
 it include all literary types? Does it set forth or imply some 
 standard of literary value ? 
 
 //. Relation of Literature to Art. Upon this interesting 
 question the authorities differ widely. Four opinions may be 
 distinguished, as follows : (i) Literature is a variety of fine 
 art, coordinate with music and painting. (2) A single branch 
 of literature, namely, poetry, may be classed with the fine arts ; 
 prose is not fine but useful art. (3) Either poetry or prose may 
 be classed as fine art, provided it is an embodiment of the 
 beautiful ; otherwise it is useful art. (4) Literature is not an 
 art at all, but is a product, stti generis, of the mind of man, 
 touching art at one or two points. 
 
 The evidences of the artistic character of literature are ably 
 and clearly set forth in an article on Principles of Criticism, by 
 E. R. Sill in the Atlantic, 56: 665, and in the opening chapter 
 of Crawshaw's Interpretation of Literature. The same concep- 
 tion underlies Pater's essay on Style, and Newman's Lecture 
 on Literature, in The Idea of a University. The student may 
 also consult Mabie's Short Studies in Literature, Higginson's
 
 ///.] RELATION OF LITERATURE TO SCIENCE. 203 
 
 Atlantic Essays, pp. 23-47, and Vernon Lee's article on Literary 
 Construction in Contemp. 68 : 404. For a conception in which 
 art is set aside or is relegated to a minor office, see Posnett's 
 Comparative Literature, and H. Paul's Methodenlehre in his 
 Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. 
 
 The following questions may be found suggestive : If litera- 
 ture is an art, how is it differentiated from architecture, paint- 
 ing, sculpture, music, etc., in point of medium and content? 
 What ideas may be expressed in literature that cannot find 
 expression in the other arts ? (See Strieker's Du langage et 
 de la musique, Watts's article ' Poetry ' in the Encycl. Britan- 
 nica, and Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic, pp. 460-462. The 
 questions raised by Lessing in the Laocoon, concerning the 
 boundaries of poetry and painting, may profitably be considered 
 at this point. See Lessing, 8, and the references there 
 given ; also Hazlitt, Offspring of Thought, pp. 130-144.) What 
 is the relation of literary form to literary content? How is 
 literary art related to nature? What is the fundamental prin- 
 ciple of literary art is it life, expression, personality, unity ? 
 (See supra, pp. 84, 85.) 
 
 ///. Relation of Literature to Science and Philosophy. 
 
 On the relation of literature to science the student may con- 
 sult Huxley's Lecture on Literature and Science in Nature, 
 22 : 545 (also in Pop. Set. Mo. 18 : 159) ; Matthew Arnold's] 
 Discourses in America, pp. 72-137 ; Huxley's Liverpool Lec- 
 ture, in London Jnl. of Education for March, 1883 (see abstract 
 in Nature, 27 : 396) ; Brackett's essay on the Relation of 
 Modern Science to Literature, in Pop. Sci. Mo. 15: 166 ; 
 Burroughs's Indoor Studies, p. 43 ; Bishop Thirlwall's Essays, 
 Speeches, and Sermons, pp. 284-311 ; and the discussion by 
 O. L. Triggs and L. A. Sherman, in Poet-Lore, 6 : 113, 323, on 
 Literature and the Scientific Spirit. One phase of the ques- 
 tion is touched upon in an interesting way in Woodrow Wil-
 
 204 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 13, IV. 
 
 son's essay on Mere Literature, in the book which bears the 
 same title, and in A. S. Cook's address on the Province of 
 English Philology (Pubs, of the Mod. Language Assoc., N. s. 
 vol. VI, No. 2). See also Knight's article on Poetry and Sci- 
 ence : Their Contrasts and Affinities, in University of Chicago 
 Record, 3:9. 
 
 On the connection between literature and philosophy, see 
 J. Dewey's Poetry and Philosophy, Andover Review, n : 92, 
 and B. C. Burt's Some Relations between Philosophy and 
 Literature. 
 
 IV. The Elements of Literature. These are commonly dis- 
 tinguished as content and form. Regarding the relation of the 
 two much has been written, but the most interesting questions 
 refer to the influence of one upon the other and the degree to 
 which they may be separated by analysis. See on this point 
 the opening paragraphs of De Quincey's essay on Style and 
 the closing paragraphs of his essay on Language ; Steinthal, 
 Zeitschrift f. Volkerpsychologie, 4 : 465, Zur Stylistik ; Brune- 
 tiere, Histoire et litte'rature, p. 31 et seq. For detailed analyses 
 of the elements of literature, see Crawshaw, Boeckh, Korting, 
 Paul, ten Brink. 
 
 "A. COHTEFT. The following are some of the leading ques- 
 tions to be asked upon this point : 
 
 Has literature a distinctive subject-matter ? (See Bagehot, 
 Literary Studies, vol. II, p. 341. Some of the subject-matters 
 that have been proposed are, experience, humanity, nature, 
 aspiration, life, God, the relation of man to God, society.) 
 
 What is the relative value of the thought-element and the 
 emotional-element in literature ? (See Bascom's Philos. of 
 English Literature, p. 344; Crawshaw's Interpretation of 
 Literature, pp. 44-50.) 
 
 Must every literary work have an ethical content ?
 
 /?.] THE ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE. 205 
 
 In what sense may the personality of the author be said to 
 be subject-matter of his literary work ? 
 
 Is literature restricted to the presentation of objects possess- 
 ing beauty? ideality? universality? 
 
 Is unity of subject-matter essential to a work of literary art? 
 
 B. FORM. The problems relating to literary form are 
 numerous and perplexing. Only those will be mentioned 
 which concern literature in its broader aspects. For a treat- 
 ment of the details of rhythm, metre, structure, and so forth, 
 see the following chapters. 
 
 i. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE. This is an abstruse subject, 
 and one, moreover, which is so overlaid by controversy that 
 many of' its profounder aspects must remain, for all except 
 specialists, hopelessly obscure. Nevertheless, some insight 
 may be gained, even by the general reader, into the fundamen- 
 tal principles of the science of language ; and these, once 
 mastered, -become powerful weapons of attack upon certain 
 questions of style that otherwise must remain insoluble, or be 
 only vaguely, apprehended. The old quarrel as to the origin 
 of language, though now generally abandoned by philologists, 1 
 will always remain interesting reading. A resume of the most 
 important speculations may be found in Whitney's article 
 'Philology' in the Encycl. Brit., in Max Miiller's Lectures on 
 the Science of Language, ist Series, p. 343, and in Ellis's 
 article on the Relations of Thought to Sound, in Trans, of the 
 English Philol. Society, 1873-74, pp. 10-15. More to the 
 present purpose is the question, What is the relation of 
 thought and language ? A suggestive discussion of this 
 problem occurs in Jowett's Translation of Plato's Dialogues, 
 3d ed. vol. I, pp. 281-321. More scientific treatment is 
 
 1 The increasing interest in the study of the language of children seems 
 likely to revive speculation on this question.
 
 206 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 13, IV. 
 
 given in Whitney's Language and the Study of Language, 
 pp. 403-407, Life and Growth of Language, chaps. II and XIV, 
 the article 'Philology' in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and 
 Max Miiller's Science of Thought. For those who care to pursue 
 the subject further, Paul's Principles of the History of Lan- 
 guage may be unhesitatingly recommended. The introduction 
 and pp. 119 of the main body of this valuable work may be 
 read with profit even by the general reader. The peculiar 
 theory enunciated by Max Miiller (the identification of thought 
 and language) is developed at great length in his Science of 
 Thought. For a more popular exposition, see his Three 
 Introductory Lectures on the Science of Thought, first 
 published in the Open Court. The questions raised by the 
 philologists have been pursued with great zeal by writers on 
 psychology. Brief statements of the psychological function of 
 language are given in Dewey's Psychology, pp. 211-214, and in 
 Sully's Outlines of Psychology, pp. 337-351. James's Principles 
 of Psychology, vol. I, pp. 236, 241, 245, 251283, vol. II, 
 pp. 356-358, 364, is unusually fertile in suggestions: See also 
 the article by G. J. Romanes in the Monist, Oct., 1891, on 
 Thought and Language. The more technical points involved 
 in the discussion may be traced through Bruchmann's Psycho- 
 logische Studien, 2. Theil ; Victor Egger's La parole inte'rieure ; 
 Ballet's Le langage intdrieur ; Bateman's On Aphasia, chap. 
 V ; Lemoine's Physionomie de la parole ; Rabier's Legons de 
 philosophic, I, pp. 596-622 ; Paulhan's article Le langage 
 inte'rieur in Revue PhiJos. 21 : 26; and A.Kussmaul's Strorungen 
 der Sprache (Leipz. : 1877). The interesting article, ' Thought 
 and Language,' by G. F. Stout (in Mind, 16 : 181) does not 
 treat of language as a means of communication, but as " a 
 means by which a man is enabled to understand himself." 
 The comparison of words to algebraic symbols, often quoted 
 in these discussions, will be found in Lewes's Problems of Life 
 and Mind, 3d Ser., Prob. 4, chap. V. For a suggestion as to
 
 B.~] THE ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE. 207 
 
 the light which studies of the nature of language may throw 
 upon questions of style, see Posnett's Comparative Literature, 
 pp. 44 5 2, Whitney's Life and Growth of Language, pp. 301, 302, 
 Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, Bk. II, chap. VII, Spencer's 
 Philosophy of Style, Gerber's Die Sprache als Kunst, and 
 Santayana's The Sense of Beauty, pp. 167174. 
 
 2. STYLE. Uporl the threshold of his inquiry the student will 
 encounter the great problem of style, which in the hands of 
 some writers is made to swallow all other problems, whether 
 of literature or of criticism. To answer the question, What 
 is style ? the student who reads German may get help from 
 Rumohr's Italienische Forschungen, where the different mean- 
 ings attached to the term 'are carefully discriminated, or from 
 the article ' Stil ' in Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon, in 
 which Rumohr's views are summarized. On the relation of 
 originality, style, and manner he may read Hegel's Aesthetik, j 
 vol. I, pp. 365-374, and compare with it Matthew Arnold's | 
 Mixed Essays, p. 200. The definition of style enunciated by 
 Buffon will be found in the Discours sur le style. The question 
 as to what Buffon meant by it is discussed briefly in Lewes's 
 History of Philosophy, chapter on Hobbes, Note, in Saintbury's 
 French Literature, p. 500, and in Modern Language Notes, 
 vol. V, pp. 179-180. De Quincey's essay on Style, long- 
 winded though it is, must be carefully studied by all who 
 would understand the history of thought on this subject. With 
 it should be read his essay on Rhetoric. Coleridge's remarks 
 on Style (in vol. IV of his Complete Works, pp. 337-343) should 
 not be overlooked. Ruskin's peculiar theories about the grand 
 style (in Modern Painters, vol. Ill, and in Fiction, Fair and I 
 Foul) should be compared with those of Matthew Arnold as 1 
 set forth in the essay on Translating Homer. Selections from 
 both, with an interesting preface, will be found in A. S. Cook's 
 Touchstones of Poetry. In the case of Arnold, the question
 
 208 LITER A R Y CRITICISM. [ 13, IV. 
 
 should be asked, Can extracts from one class or one period 
 I of literature be made to serve as tests for literature of another 
 I class or another period ? Other essays and books dealing with 
 certain phases of style are Spencer's Philosophy of Style, 
 Pater's essay on Style, Stevenson's essay On Style in Litera- 
 ture, Joubert's Pense'es, and Bourget's chapters on Flaubert 
 and the brothers de Goncourt, in Essais de psychologic. Those 
 who desire to go more deeply into the philosophy of style may 
 consult Von Hartmann's Aesthetik, vol. II, references in Index 
 under Stil ; Vischer's Aesthetik, references under Stil, Stylge- 
 gensatz, Stylgesetz, and Stylisirung ; Richter's Aesthetik, vol. 
 II, pp. 601-656 ; Schopenhauer's Sammtliche Werke, vol. VI, 
 pp. 536-581; Steinthal's article in Zeitschrift filr Volkcrpsycho- 
 logic, 4: 465 ; and Veron's Aesthetics, references in Index under 
 Style. 
 
 The following questions will be found useful as guides in 
 the study of this somewhat difficult topic : (i) Meaning of the 
 term style as applied to art in general ? (2) Its special use, or 
 uses, as applied to literature ? (3) Relation of style to individ- 
 uality ? (4) Relation of style to manner ? (5) In what sense 
 is the style the man ? (6) Can style be preserved in transla- 
 tion from one language to another (see Posnett's Comparative 
 Literature, pp. 44-49 ; Newman's Idea of a University, pp. 285- 
 290 ; Lewes's Life of Goethe, Bk. VI, chap. VII ; Boswell's 
 Life of Johnson, Index, under Translation) ? (7) Charac- 
 teristics of national styles ? (8) Relation of style and idea ? 
 (9) Tests of style? (10) Are the tests the same for all litera- 
 ture and all kinds of literature? (n) Is Lewes's threefold 
 principle of Vision, Sincerity, and Beauty exhaustive ? (12) Will 
 Spencer's principle of Economy account for all literary values ? 
 
 3. FIGURES. The following outline of study is submitted. 
 The references are to the bibliography of figures in 15. 
 a. Nature of figures.
 
 C.] THE ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE. 209 
 
 (1) Relation of figures to images? to plain statements? to 
 concrete terms ? See LEWES, BUCK, DARMSTETER, SCOTT and 
 DENNEY, GENUNG. 
 
 (2) Are figures deviations from the ordinary forms of speech ? 
 See Du MARSAIS, QUINTILIAN, WHATELY, BAIN, GUMMERE. 
 
 (3) What part has analogy in the composition of figures? 
 What part has resemblance ? identification ? union, or recon- 
 ciliation, of opposites ? contrast ? See D. J. HILL, BAIN, BUCK, 
 SHERMAN. 
 
 b. The effectiveness of figures. 
 
 (1) In what sense are figures 'ornaments' of discourse? 
 See GENUNG, TOMPKINS. 
 
 (2) How do figures contribute to force? to clearness? to 
 beauty of style ? See WENDELL, SPENCER, GREENE, HALE, 
 BATES. 
 
 c. Classification of figures. 
 
 (1) What is the simplest and most natural basis of classifica- 
 tion origin, effectiveness, kind of image aroused, association, 
 etc.? 
 
 (2) Value of the division into figures and tropes ? See 
 QUINTILIAN, MINTO, GUMMERE. 
 
 Schemes of classification are numerous and varied. For 
 specimens of them, see De Mille. Interesting attempts at 
 re-classification have been made by C. B. Bradley, Hale, Greene, 
 Buck, Hart, Sherman, and others. See in general, KOHFELDT, 
 BIESE, GERBER, WACKERNAGEL. 
 
 4. RHYTHM. See the sections on Poetry and Versification, 
 19-24, below. 
 
 C. PURPOSE. The purpose (tendency, aim, object, end, 
 meaning, message) of a literary work is by some writers sub- 
 sumed under the content, by others regarded as a distinct 
 literary element. Its various meanings should be carefully dis- 
 tinguished. Thus it may mean : (i) the theme of the work ;
 
 210 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 13, V-VIL 
 
 (2) the guiding impulse of the author ; (3) the effect which the 
 work is expected to have on the public ; (4) the extra-artistic 
 element in the work. 
 
 /. The Author. (i) What distinguishes the man of letters 
 from other kinds of artists, as the musician, the painter, and 
 the sculptor ? What elements in his organization are akin to 
 theirs ? See GIRARDIN. (2) Is it true historically that in 
 great authors the artistic impulse has been the strongest incen- 
 tive to literary work ? (3) Is the literary artist helped or 
 hindered by a strong moral purpose ? (4) To what extent 
 have authors been conscious of their own methods of work ? 
 (See Bainton, Art of Authorship.) (5) Is it necessary that an 
 author, in order to write effectively, should feel the emotions he 
 depicts? (See Horace, Ars Poetica, 1. 102 ; Diderot's Paradox 
 of Acting ; Lewes's Principles of Success in Literature, p. 91 ; 
 and the Critic for March 24 and March 31, 1888.) 
 
 //. The Public. (i) To what extent and in what sense is 
 the success of a work the test of its real value ? (See Lewes's 
 Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 23-30.) (2) W r hat is 
 the influence of any given mode of publication upon the char- 
 acter of literature ? (See De Quincey, Essay on Style, pt. IV.) 
 
 (3) To what extent have great works of literature been shaped 
 or influenced by public demand or by the author's conscious- 
 ness of a public ? 
 
 Consult, in general, on this topic the able work of A. Beljame, 
 Le public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au dixhuitieme 
 siecle. Paris : 1883. 
 
 ///. The Classification of Literature. Most authorities 
 agree in dividing literature into two principal kinds, poetry 
 and prose. The basis of the division is sometimes held to be 
 form, sometimes content, sometimes both form and content. 
 For a careful treatment of the subject in its most important
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 211 
 
 phases, see the article ' Poetry,' by Watts, in the Encycl. Brit., 
 9th ed. ; Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic, pp. 460462 ; and 
 Crawshaw's Interpretation of Literature, pp. 25-28. For objec- 
 tions to this division, see Masson, 20, infra, who proposes 
 (after Coleridge) a division into poetic and scientific literature ; 
 and cf. Moir's article on Poetry in the "jth ed. of the Encycl. 
 Brit, (reprinted in Poetry, Romance, and Rhetoric, Edinb. : 
 1851), and Bain's On Teaching English, p. 254. See also L. A. 
 Sherman's Analytics of Literature, p. 5 ef seq. 
 
 De Quincey's division into the literature of power and the 
 literature of knowledge will be found in his essay on Pope and 
 also in Letter III of Letters to a Young Man. 
 
 Other divisions that have been proposed are : (i) creative, 
 
 (2) critical; (i) instrumental, for the ends of business, (2) 
 artistic, for the ends of pleasure ; (i) narrative, (2) subjective, 
 
 (3) dramatic, (4) descriptive (Crawshaw, Interpretation of 
 Literature, p. 41). 
 
 A division into good literature and great literature is proposed 
 by Walter Pater at the close of his essay on Style. 
 
 For the subdivisions of the two great branches of literature, 
 see 15, 4, and the following chapters ; and for the classifi- 
 cation of literary theory, 'stylistic,' rhetoric, poetics, metric, 
 see 15, 5, and 19. 
 
 14. REFERENCES. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Discourses in America. Lond. : 1885. 
 Pp. 72-137 Literature and Science. 
 
 Arnold makes a distinction between literature and belles- 
 lettres (p. 90), and maintains, against Professor Huxley, the 
 educative value of letters, on the ground that they furnish (as 
 science does not) nourishment for the sense for beauty and the 
 sense for conduct. For Huxley's lecture, see Nature, 22: 545, or 
 Pop. Sci. Mo. 18: 159. Huxley touches on the same theme (but
 
 212 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 with somewhat more liberality towards letters) in his Liverpool 
 Lecture (London Jnl. of Education, March, 1883; abstract in 
 Nature, 27: 396). 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Essays in Criticism. Boston : 1869. 
 
 In his lectures On Translating Homer, pp. 284-367, Arnold 
 twice touches upon the nature of the " grand style " in litera- 
 ture. See especially pp. 330-333, 392-396 ; but the lectures 
 should be read in their entirety. Cf. A. S. Cook's Touchstones 
 of Poetry. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Mixed Essays. N. Y. : 1879. 
 
 See p. 200 for interesting remarks on Addison's style and 
 the relation of style to manner. The essay on Wordsworth 
 contains the paradoxical statement that Wordsworth, when at 
 his best, had no style at all. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Introduction to Ward's English Poets. 4 vols. 
 Lond.: 1883. 
 Pp. xxv-xxix. 
 
 Arnold here, as in his lectures On Translating Homer, gives 
 passages which may be applied as " an infallible touchstone for 
 detecting the presence or absence of high poetic quality, and 
 also the degree of this quality, in all other poetry which we 
 may place beside them." 
 
 ARNOLD, THOS. A Manual of English Literature, historical 
 and critical. With an appendix on English metres. 
 Boston: 1891. 
 See pp. 341-343 for definition and classification of literature. 
 
 AZARIAS, BROTHER. Philosophy of Literature. 6th ed. N. Y. : 
 1890. 
 
 In these thoughtful and suggestive essays the author's starting- 
 point is a theory of the beautiful that is equally applicable to
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 213 
 
 art and letters. Literature is defined as the expression of 
 humanity. Its origin, functions, and relations to society are 
 entertainingly discussed. 
 
 BAGEHOT, W. Literary Studies. Ed. by R. H. Hutton. 2 vols. 
 Lond. : 1879. 
 
 A plea for the use of the term literatesque to mean what is 
 available for purposes of literary art, will be found in vol. II, 
 P- 34i. 
 
 BAIN, ALEX. On Teaching English. With detailed examples, 
 and an Enquiry into the Definition of Poetry. Lond. : 
 1887. 
 
 A brief consideration of the kinds of literature will be found 
 on p. 254. 
 
 BALLET, G. Le langage interieur et les diverses formes de 
 1'aphasie. Paris : 1886. 
 
 An interesting and valuable work treating of the psychology 
 of language processes. 
 
 BASCOM, J. Aesthetics : or the Science of Beauty. N. Y. : 
 1872. 
 
 Lecture 1 6 is on the aesthetics of literature. 
 BATES, ARLO. Talks on Literature. Boston : 1897. 
 Discusses the simpler fundamental questions. 
 
 BOECKH, AUG. Encyklopadie und Methodologie der philo- 
 logischen Wissenschaften. (See 2.) 
 
 This is a work which every earnest student of literature may 
 consult with profit ; for whether he adopts Boeckh's system in 
 its entirety or not, the book will get him in the way of thinking 
 of literature as an organic whole, and will furnish him with an 
 instrument of analysis for approaching literature at any point.
 
 214 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 In order to understand Boeckh's philosophy of literature in its 
 entirety one should read at least pp. 124-156, but something 
 may be gleaned from a reading of pp. 142147. A definition 
 and a classification of literature will be found on pp. 614-616. 
 
 BOURGET, P. Essais de psychologic contemporaine. 4 e e'd. 
 
 Paris : 1885. 
 See pp. 156173 of the essay on Flaubert. 
 
 BOURGET, P. Nouveaux essais de psychologic contemporaine. 
 Paris: 1886. 
 
 See pp. 180-198 of the essay on MM. de Goncourt. 
 
 These books contain valuable contributions to the psychology 
 of style. 
 
 BURROUGHS, JOHN. Indoor Studies. Boston : 1889. 
 
 See p. 43 for an entertaining discussion of the relation of 
 science and literature. The interests of the two, according to 
 the author, are widely different, but not hostile nor mutually 
 destructive. 
 
 BRACKETT, W. Pop. Sci. Mo. 15 : 166 Relation of Modern 
 Science to Literature. 
 
 Maintains the inferiority of literature to science in usefulness 
 and permanence. 
 
 BROOKE, S. A. English Literature. (Literature Primers.) 
 Lond. : 1878. 
 
 In the opening paragraph is an often-quoted definition of 
 literature: "The written thoughts and feelings of intelligent 
 men and women arranged in a way that will give pleasure to 
 the reader." The definitions and classifications in the follow- 
 ing paragraphs are simple but carefully worded. See Matthew 
 Arnold's review of the work, in Mixed Essays, pp. 180-204.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 215 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. Histoire et litterature. 3 vols. Paris: 
 1884-86. 
 
 Vol. I, p. 31 Theorie du lieu commun. 
 
 M. Brunettere holds the view that in the substance of litera- 
 ture invention plays no part ; all is commonplace. Originality 
 inheres only in the form. The thesis is maintained with spirit, 
 and is supported by a great number of illustrations. 
 
 BUFFON, G. L. L., Comte de. Discours sur le style. Notes 
 d'Antoine Rondelet. Paris: 1883. 
 
 A curious example of a piece of literature that has become 
 famous by a single phrase, le style c'est Fhomme, a phrase, 
 moreover, that Buffon never wrote, his own expression being, 
 le style est de Fhomme meme. Buffon makes the point that style, 
 unlike subject-matter, is individual, and therefore non-transfer- 
 able. Contrary to the theories of modern rhetoricians, he 
 prefers general to specific terms. 
 
 BURT, B. C. Some Relations between Philosophy and Litera- 
 ture. Univ. of Mich. Philos. Papers, No. 4. 
 
 In part a criticism of Matthew Arnold. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOS. On Heroes, Hero- Worship, and the Heroic. 
 N. Y. : 1846. 
 
 Lect. 3 The Hero as Poet; Lect. 5 The Hero as Man of Letters. 
 See p. 151 for Carlyle's characterization of literature. 
 
 CHAIGNET, A.-Ed. La rhetorique et son histoire. Paris : 1888. 
 Pp. 413-539 Theorie du style. 
 
 CHRIST, W. Geschichte der Griechischen Litteratur. (In 
 Iwan Miiller's Handbuch der Klassischen Altertumswissen- 
 schaft. Bd. VII. Munchen: 1890.) 
 
 An outline of the divisions of literature will be found on 
 pp. i-8. The author closely follows Boeckh.
 
 216 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 COLERIDGE, S. T. Complete Works. Ed. by Prof. Shedd. 
 7 vols. N. Y. : 1853-54. 
 
 Vol. Ill, Biographia Literaria, chaps. III-IV, X-XXII ; vol. IV, 
 pp. 19-22 Definition of Poetry, pp. 22-46 Drama, pp. 328-336 
 Poesy as Art, pp. 337-343 Style, pp. 368-370 Taste, pp. 370- 
 373 Beauty, pp. 387-388 Wonderfulness of Prose. 
 
 Although Coleridge nowhere presents his conception of 
 literature in systematic form, his occasional definitions and 
 discussions are always suggestive. 
 
 CORSON, H. The Aims of Literary Study. N. Y.: 1895. 
 See p. 24 for a definition of literature. 
 
 CRAWSHAW, W. H. The Interpretation of Literature. N. Y. : 
 1896. 
 
 An admirable little work, treating in a clear and readable 
 style of the elementary principles of literary theory. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, T. The Collected Writings. Ed. by D. Masson. 
 14 vols. Edinb. : 1890. 
 
 The Letters to a Young Man, the essays on Style and on Rhetoric, 
 and one of the essays on Language are in vol. X ; the essay on 
 the Poetry of Pope is in vol. X I ; the remaining essay on Language 
 is in vol. XIV. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, T. Essays on Style, Rhetoric, and Language. 
 Ed. with Introduction and Notes by F. N. Scott. Boston: 
 1893. 
 
 De Quincey's dissertation on Style consists mainly of a his- 
 tory of Greek style and numerous digressions on other national 
 styles. As Renton points out, De Quincey has occasional 
 flashes of insight that make this essay in some respects the 
 most notable contribution to the theory of style after Aristotle. 
 See Renton's Logic of Style, Introduction. Cf. also De Quin- 
 cey's Essay on Rhetoric and the concluding paragraphs of the
 
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 217 
 
 Essay on Language. For De Quincey's distinction between 
 the literature of knowledge and the literature of power, see 
 his essay on the Poetry of Pope (the passage is reprinted in 
 the Appendix of this edition, pp. 238240), and Letter III 
 of his Letters to a Young Man. 
 
 DEWEY, J. Psychology. N. Y. : 1890. 
 
 See p. 3 and pp. 211-213 on the psychology of language. 
 
 DRAKE, N. Essays, Biographical, Critical, and Historical. 
 Illustrative of the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian. 2d ed. 
 Lond.: 1814. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 1-116 On the Progress and Merits of English Style. 
 
 EGGER, V. La parole in terieure. Paris: 1 88 1. 
 
 A valuable discussion of the relation of thought and language. 
 
 ELLIS, A. J. Trans, of English Philological Society, 1873-74, 
 PP- 3~34 Relations of Thought to Sound as the Pivot of 
 Philological Research. 
 See pp. 10-15 f this able paper for a statement of theories 
 
 concerning the origin of language. 
 
 ELSTER, ERNST. Prinzipien der Literaturwissenschaft. Bd. I. 
 
 Halle: 1897. 
 
 The author attempts to construct a systematic theory of 
 literature upon psychological, aesthetic, and philological founda- 
 tions, drawing his underlying philosophy mainly from Wundt 
 and his philology (very properly) from Paul. The work is in 
 eight chapters, of which four and a part of the fifth are in the 
 first volume. The subjects of the chapters are as follows: I, 
 The Poetic Conception of Life ; II, Imaginative and Intellectual 
 Activity of the Poet; III, Poetic Feeling and Intuition; IV, 
 Aesthetic Conceptions; V, Style; VI, Modern German Metres; 
 VII, Kinds of Poetry; VIII, The Various Aims of the Science 
 of Literature.
 
 218 LITERARY CRITICISM. [14. 
 
 EMERSON, R. W. Complete Works. Boston: 1883-93. 
 
 See the Index in vol. XII, under Literature, for suggestive 
 utterances on the meaning, value, and uses of works of literary 
 art. Perhaps the best single essay is Thoughts on Modern 
 Literature, in Natural History of Intellect, p. 171 (from The 
 Dial, i: 137). 
 
 FERRI, E. Les criminels dans 1'art et la litterature. Paris: 
 1897. 
 
 A study of art and literature from the point of view of 
 criminology, by a leading criminologist. 
 
 FEUILLEE, A. Education from a National Standpoint. Lond.: 
 1892. 
 
 See Bk. V, chap. IV, for a discussion of the relations of 
 literature and aesthetics. 
 
 FROEHDE, O. Neue Jahrb.f. Philol. und Faedagogik, 147: 433 
 Der Begriff und die Aufgabe der Literaturwissenschaft. 
 
 An attempt to supplement the methodology of Boeckh. 
 GAUCKLER. Le beau et son histoire. Paris: 1873. 
 
 Gauckler calls literature in general I'art fie la parole, and 
 treats it under the three heads, la poesie, l'art oratoire, and 
 la prose ecrite. See pp. 178-197. 
 
 GERBER, G. Die Sprache als Kunst. 2 vols. Bromberg: 1871. 
 
 Pp. 43-122 of Bd. I give in brief the author's views upon 
 the ' speech-art.' 
 
 GERUZEZ, E. Cours de litterature, rhdtorique, poetique, histoire 
 litte'raire. Paris. 
 
 An excellent manual, intended for beginners. Part II, deal- 
 ing with literature, has passed through about thirty editions.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 219 
 
 GIBBON, EDWARD. Essai sur 1'dtude de la litterature. (In 
 Miscellaneous Works. 3 vols. Lond. : 1796. Pp. 449- 
 495-) 
 
 The student will find this famous essay interesting because 
 it was written by Gibbon rather than because it contains ideas 
 that he can use in his researches. Nevertheless, some of the 
 remarks on the relation of literature to science and philosophy, 
 and on the interconnection of literary thought and national life, 
 are worth pondering. 
 
 GILMAN, B. I. American Journal of Psychology, 6 : i Syllabus 
 of Lectures on the Psychology of Pain and Pleasure. 
 Pp. 48-50 Literature. 
 
 GIRARDIN, ST. MARC. Essais de litterature et de morale. 
 2 vols. Paris: 1876. 
 
 Vol. II, p. 143 De la profession d'homme de lettres. 
 
 GREEK, G. DE. Introduction a la sociologie. 2 vols. Bruxelles 
 et Paris: 1886-89. 
 
 See vol. II, pp. 187, 188, for a brief treatment of the social 
 aspects of literature. 
 
 GROSSE, ERNST. Die Literaturwissenschaft, ihr Ziel und ihr 
 Weg. 1887. 
 
 The author's aim in this doctoral thesis is to formulate a 
 theory of literature based on the methods of the natural 
 sciences. 
 
 HARTM-ANN, E. VON. Aesthetik. 2 vols. Berlin: 1887. 
 See vol. II, pp. 139-143, 554-556, for style in general. 
 
 HEGEL. Aesthetik. (See 8, p. 101.) 
 Vol. Ill, pp. 220-282.
 
 220 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 Like most writers on aesthetics, Hegel has chosen poetry 
 instead of literature as the representative of the speech-art. 
 His remarks on literature are, therefore, incidental to his 
 remarks on poetry. 
 
 HIGGINSON, T. W. Atlantic Essays. Boston: 1871. 
 Pp. 23-47 Literature as an art. 
 
 The author, in the capacity of mentor to young writers, lays 
 down the essential requirements of good literature, which he 
 finds to be simplicity, freshness, choice of words, thoroughness. 
 
 HUNT, T. W. Studies in Literature and Style. N. Y.: 1890. 
 
 The main object of the author is to present the characteristics 
 of literature as determined by the personality of the writer. 
 Style is considered under eight heads: intellectual, literary, 
 impassioned, popular, critical, poetic, satirical, humorous. For 
 a definition of literature, see p. 7. 
 
 JAMES, W. The Principles of Psychology. 2 vols. N. Y. : 
 1890. 
 
 See vol. I, pp. 236, 241, 245, 251283; vol. II, pp. 356 358, 
 364, 407, for suggestive remarks on the relations of thought 
 and language. 
 
 JONSON, BEN. Timber, or Discoveries made upon Men and 
 Matter. Ed. by F. E. Schelling. Boston: 1891. 
 
 Observations, generally brief, upon a great variety of subjects 
 pertaining to literature and style. They are characterized by 
 acuteness and good sense. See 21, B 2. 
 
 JORDAN, ALFRED. Literature in Relation to Science. Lond. : 
 1891. 
 
 An attempt, fairly successful, to combine the definitions of 
 Brooke and Posnett.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 221 
 
 JOUBERT, J. Pensees. 2 vols. Paris: 1880. 
 
 Pp. 263-272 De la poesie, 273-300 Du style, 300-341 Des qualities 
 de 1'ecrivain, 342390 Jugements litteraires. 
 
 Contains suggestive thoughts on many topics of literary 
 theory. 
 
 KAMES, LORD. Elements of Criticism. 
 See 2, 8. 
 
 KORTING,G. Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Romanischen 
 Philologie. Heilbronn: 1884. 
 
 Erster Theil, pp. 63-82 Die Litteratur ; zweiter Theil, pp. 296- 
 311 Die Stylistik. 
 
 The broad fields of literature and style are here mapped out 
 for the student in an instructive, if rigid and over-minute, 
 fashion. Korting's treatment may profitably be compared with 
 that of Boeckh and of Paul. 
 
 KRANTZ, E\ Essai sur 1'esthe'tique de Descartes. Paris: 1882. 
 The opening chapter points out the conditions of literary 
 growth which make a philosophy of literature possible. 
 
 LAURIE, S. S. Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method 
 
 in the School. Cambridge: 1890. 
 
 For an excellent discussion of language as literature, from 
 the teacher's point of view, see pp. 81-104. 
 
 LECLERQ. L'art est rationnel. Bruxelles. 
 
 For a rambling essay on literature as an art, see pp. 211218. 
 
 LEWES, G. H. The Principles of Success in Literature. Ed. 
 with Introduction and Notes by F. N. Scott. 2d ed. 
 Boston: 1892. (Originally appeared in Fortn. i : 85, 185, 
 572, 687; 2: 257, 689. Reprinted by A. S. Cook, San 
 Francisco, 1885, and by W. D. Armes, San Francisco, 1891.) 
 An admirable discussion of the fundamental principles of 
 
 literature.
 
 LITERARY CRITICISM. [14. 
 
 LEWES, G. H. Problems of Life and Mind. 3d Series. 2 vols. 
 Boston: 1879-80. 
 
 See Probl. 4, chap. V, for relations of thought to language. 
 
 Lewes's writings are especially adapted to the needs of 
 persons who are beginning the study of literary theory and 
 criticism. They combine the merits of soundness, lucidity, 
 and interest. 
 
 LONG, G. An Old Man's Thoughts about Many Things. 2d 
 ed. Lond. : 1872. 
 Pp. 92-161 Style. 
 
 This essay is more profitable as an example than as an 
 exposition of style, but some old truths are so freshly stated as 
 to have the force of new ones. 
 
 LONGINUS, DIONYSIUS. On the Sublime. Trans, by H. L. 
 Havell. Lond.: 1890. 
 
 The enthusiasm and catholic taste of the author, whoever he 
 may be, of this little treatise have made a lasting place for it in 
 the history of criticism. Its chief value at the present time, 
 when its most notable passages have become rhetorical common- 
 places, is that it shows us how the classic literatures appealed 
 to the literary sense of the ancients. On the meaning of the 
 Greek irepl ityous, see De Quincey's Essay on Milton, and Minto's 
 Manual of English Prose, p. 19, note. 
 
 LYTTON, SIR E. B. Caxtoniana. 2 vols. Edinb. : 1863. 
 
 See vol. II, pp. 129169, for some interesting remarks On 
 Certain Principles of Art in Works of the Imagination. 
 
 LOTZE, H. Microcosmus. Trans, by E. Hamilton and E. E. C. 
 Jones. 2 vols. Edinb.: 1885. 
 
 See pp. 618639 f r a discussion of the relations of thought 
 and language.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 223 
 
 McCoRMicK, W. S. Three Lectures on English Literature. 
 
 Lond.: 1889. 
 
 The opening chapter, on English Literature and University 
 Education, is a criticism of Professor Freeman's article in 
 Contcmp. 52 : 549. 
 
 MABIE, H. W. Short Studies in Literature. N. Y.: 1891. 
 
 The author announces that his purpose is to study books not 
 as fragments, but as illustrations of the art of literature ; but, 
 owing to the brevity of the treatment,- the underlying principles 
 of this art are nowhere worked out in detail. They seem, 
 however, to be sound. See p. 5 for a definition of literature,' 
 p. 29 for a discussion of literary form, and p. 35 for remarks on 
 personality in literature. 
 
 MARMONTEL, J. F. E"le'ments de litte'rature. 3 vols. Paris: 
 1846. 
 
 Tome I, pp. 1-51 Essai sur le gout, pp. 204-219 Beau, pp. 306-319 
 Comedie, pp. 319-324 Comique, pp. 344-367 Critique; T. II, 
 pp. 100-121 Epopee; T. Ill, pp. 90-104 Pathetique, pp. 137- 
 208 Poesie, poete, poetique. 
 
 This work is a kind of encyclopaedia of literature, the topics 
 being arranged in alphabetical order. An excellent index at 
 the end of each volume makes of it as perfect a reference book 
 as the character of its contents will permit. The treatment of 
 the topics is conventional. 
 
 METHNER, JUL. Poesie und Prosa, ihre Arten'und Formen. 
 Halle: 1888. 
 
 MINTO, WM. Manual of English Prose Literature. Boston: 
 1889. 
 
 MINTO, WM. Characteristics of the English Poets from Chaucer 
 
 to Shirley. Boston: 1891. 
 
 See the introduction to the Manual of Prose and the remarks 
 passim in the Characteristics.
 
 224 LITERARY CRITICISM. [14. 
 
 MOIR, GEO. Poetry, Romance, and Rhetoric. Edinb.: 1851. 
 (From the yth ed. of the Encycl. Brit.) 
 
 Moir classes fiction with poetry rather than with prose. 
 
 MORLEV, H., and TYLER, M. C. A Manual of English Litera- 
 ture. N. Y.: 1880. 
 
 See the Introduction for a definition of literature. 
 
 MORLEV, J. On the Study of Literature. Lond.: 1887. 
 
 This is a lecture in Morley's best style. It should be read 
 by every student of literature. See pp. 38, 39, for definitions 
 by various writers, and p. 40 for Morley's own definition. 
 
 MORLEV, J. Voltaire. N.Y.:i8 7 2. 
 
 See pp. 13-15 for a definition and classification of literature. 
 
 MULLER, MAX. The Science of Thought. 2 vols. N. Y.: 
 1887. 
 
 Sets forth the writer's well-known theory of the identity of 
 thought and language. 
 
 NETTLESHIP, H. The Moral Influence of Literature; Classical 
 Education in the Past and Present. Two popular addresses. 
 Lond.: 1890. 
 
 NEWMAN, J. 'H. The Idea of a University Defined and 
 Illustrated. Lond.: 1891. 
 
 Cardinal Newman's Lecture on Literature (pp. 268-294) 
 treats the subject in a refreshingly broad and liberal spirit. 
 That style is the effluence of character, and not merely an 
 external decoration, is the writer's principal contention. 
 
 PALLEN, COND B. The Philosophy of Literature. Freiburg 
 1897.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 225 
 
 PATER, VV. Appreciations; with an Essay on Style. Lond.: 
 
 1889. 
 
 The essay on Style, with which this volume opens, was first 
 published in Fortn. 50: 728. Structural unity pervading all the 
 elements of composition, from the largest to the smallest, is the 
 requirement upon which the author most strenuously insists. 
 For the quotations from Flaubert, see Flaubert's Correspondence, 
 i Ser. 1830-50 (Paris: 1887). On Flaubert's theory of art, cf. 
 Bourget's Essais de psychologic contemporaine, pp. 156-173. 
 
 PAUL, H. Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie. Methoden- 
 
 lehre. (See 2.) 
 
 Under the heading Litteraturgeschichte Paul writes ably of 
 such subjects as the meaning and scope of literature, its classi- 
 fications, its elements, its relations to other fields of culture, etc. 
 A work of the first importance. 
 
 PAUL, H. Principles of the History of Language. Trans, from 
 
 the 2d ed. by H. A. Strong. N. Y.: 1889. 
 Every student of literature should make himself familiar at 
 least with the Introduction and first two chapters of this 
 admirable work. 
 
 RALEIGH, WALTER. Style. Lond.: 1897. 
 
 A brilliantly written, novel, and suggestive treatment of the 
 subject. 
 
 REN AN, E. The Future of Science. Boston: 1893. 
 
 Chaps. VIII-XIV, although they profess to deal with the 
 science of philology, abound in striking and suggestive thoughts 
 on many aspects of literary theory. 
 
 ROBERTSON, J. M. New Essays towards a Critical Method. 
 
 Lond.: 1897. 
 
 Contains in the opening essay a forcible and sympathetic 
 exposition of the method of Hennequin.
 
 226 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 RENTON, W. The Logic of Style, being an Introduction to 
 
 Critical Science. Lond. : 1874. 
 
 This is an able examination, from a philosophic standpoint, 
 of some of the leading questions of style. The abstract char- 
 acter of the reasoning, however, and the highly technical 
 language in which it is expressed, make the work hard reading 
 for any save advanced students. 
 
 RICARDOU, A. La critique litteraire : etude philosophique. 
 
 Avec une preface de M. F. Brunetiere. Paris: 1896. 
 See pp. 161-271 for a readable discussion of the fundamental 
 principles of literary art. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Modern Painters. 5 vols. Orpington: 1887. 
 RUSKIN, J. On the Old Road. 3 vols. Orpington: 1885. 
 
 Ruskin's remarks on the grand style, in the opening chapters 
 of vol. Ill of Modern Painters, apply as well to literature as to 
 painting, and in chap. I the illustrations are drawn from the 
 former. In Fiction, Fair and Foul (in On the Old Road, vol. 
 II, pp. 3-166, reprinted from igth Century, 7: 941, 8: 195, 394, 
 748, 10 : 516), the tests of good style are formulated (pp. 87- 
 92) in six canons: self-command, brevity and simplicity, emphatic 
 and clear utterance, spontaneity, melody, spiritual content. To 
 illustrate these canons, Ruskin, with characteristic willfulness, 
 has chosen passages of Shakespeare which few besides himself 
 would think of commending. See A. S. Cook's Touchstones 
 of Poetry, pp. vii-ix, 12-16. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, C. A. Causeries du Lundi. 3 e'd. 15 vols. 
 
 Paris: 1857-62. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve's contributions to the theory of literature must 
 be extracted from the Causeries by a process of inference. 
 Only in three or four instances does he stop the steady flow of 
 criticism to enlighten the reader upon his methods and his 
 working basis. One of these pauses occurs in vol. Ill, pp. 38-
 
 jj 14.] REFERENCES. 227 
 
 55, where a classic is defined (see for translation, Morley, On 
 the Study of Literature, pp. 38, 39) ; another is in vol. XV, 
 p. 345, where the relations of art and ethics are referred to ; and 
 still another is p. 356 of the same volume, at which point the 
 authority of tradition in literature is briefly discussed. In vol. 
 Ill of the Nouveaux Lundis, in the articles on Chateaubriand, 
 Sainte-Beuve sets forth his system of procedure at some little 
 length; but naturally he is more concerned here with a theory 
 of criticism than with a theory of literature. See Dowden's 
 article on Literary Criticism in France, Fortn. 52: 737, esp. 
 p. 740 (reprinted in New Studies in Literature, Lond. : 1895, 
 p. 388). 
 
 SALT, H. S. New Review, 4:19 The Socialist Ideal: Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 The writer's main contention is that the evils of modern 
 literature grow out of an individualistic form of society. The 
 ideal of equality will put new life into literary expression. 
 
 SCHAFFLE, A. E. F. Bau und Leben des socialen Korpers. 
 4 vols. Tubingen: 1881. 
 
 Bd. I, p. 398 ff.; Bd. IV, p. 70 ff., p. 129. 
 An original treatment of the social function of literature. 
 
 SCHERR, JOH. Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur. 2 vols. 
 Stuttgart: 1881, 1882. 
 
 See pp. i, 2, for a definition and classification of literature. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. Sammtliche Werke. 6 vols. Leipz.: 1877. 
 Bd. VI, pp. 536-581 Ueber Schriftstellerei und Stil. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. The Art of Literature. Ed. by F. B. 
 
 Saunders. Lond.: 1891. 
 
 Contains readable, often brilliant, essays on authorship, 
 style, men of learning, genius, etc.
 
 228 LITERARY CRITICISM. [14. 
 
 SHERMAN, L. A. Analytics of Literature. A Manual for the 
 Objective Study of English Prose and Poetry. Boston: 
 1893. 
 
 An attempt to apply " scientific methods " to the study of 
 the elements and sources of power in English literature. The 
 results of the author's investigations as applied to prose possess 
 undoubted value; it is not so clear that he has made substantive 
 additions to the theory of poetry. Chap. I deals with literature 
 and its divisions. 
 
 SILL, E. R. Atlantic, 56: 665 Principles of Criticism. 
 
 A valuable paper. Assuming that literature takes rank among 
 the fine arts, the writer seeks for principles broad enough to 
 include artistic manifestations in any medium. Art is defined 
 as the expressed power and activity of the human spirit. Like 
 other arts, literature gives delight because it satisfies man's 
 aspiration for full and abounding life. The forms of literature 
 must be ranked according to their expressiveness. 
 
 SPENCER, H. The Philosophy of Style. Together with an 
 Essay on Style by T. H. Wright. Ed. by F. N. Scott. 2d 
 ed. Boston 11894. ( First published in Westm.Rm., October, 
 1852 ; republished in Essays : Moral, Political, and Aesthetic, 
 and Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative.) 
 
 One of the most important of modern contributions to the 
 theory of style. Spencer attempts to explain the effect of both 
 prose and poetry upon the principle that that language is most 
 forcible which best economizes the mental energies and the 
 mental sensibilities. In order to a correct understanding of 
 the essay some acquaintance with the Spencerian psychology 
 is necessary. (See References, 8.) For a criticism of 
 Spencer's theory of style, see the essay by T. H. Wright 
 (Macmillan, 37 : 78, reprinted in the edition cited above), and 
 Hiram M. Stanley's Studies in the Evolutionary Psychology
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 229 
 
 of Feeling (Lond.: 1895), chap. XVIII The" Psychology of 
 Literary Style. 
 
 SPENCER, H. Contemp. 68 : 228 (also in Pop. Sci. Mo., September, 
 
 1895) Orator and Poet, Actor and Dramatist. 
 A brief and inadequate consideration of the part played in 
 society by writers and actors. 
 
 STAEL, MME. DE. De la .itterature considered dans ses 
 rapports avec les institutions sociales. Paris: 1845. 
 
 Pp. 213-221 Preface de la seconde edition; pp. 222-240 Discours 
 preliminaire. 
 
 The purpose of the work, as stated by the author, is to 
 examine the influence of religion, manners, and laws on litera- 
 ture, and the reciprocal influence of literature on religion, 
 manners, and laws. The portions indicated above deal with 
 the subject in a theoretical way. 
 
 STANLEY, HIRAM M. Studies in the Evolutionary Psychology 
 
 of Feeling. Lond. : 1895. 
 
 Chap. XVIII, on the Psychology of Literary Style, is mainly 
 an examination of Spencer's Philosophy of Style, which the 
 writer endeavors to supplement at certain points. The treat- 
 ment is able and highly suggestive. 
 
 STEINTHAL, H. Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie, 4: 465 Zur 
 
 Stylistik. 
 
 A thoughtful article, written from the point of view of the 
 ' folk-psychologist.' The subject is treated first historically, then 
 theoretically, style being defined as a relation between speech 
 and the thing expressed. The author draws a careful distinc- 
 tion between form and content, and discusses with some fullness 
 the relation of one to the other. 
 
 STEINTHAL, H. Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie, 6: 285 Poesie 
 und Prosa.
 
 230 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 14. 
 
 Of this valuable article the most interesting part is the section 
 entitled ' Poetry and Prose according to their Purpose and 
 Content.' 
 
 STEVENSON, R. L. Contemp. 47: 548 On Style in Literature. 
 
 As one of the foremost stylists of the century, Stevenson is 
 entitled to speak upon his art with the air of an authority. His 
 essay will be found readable, and in many ways suggestive; but 
 the student should ask himself whether the author does not 
 emphasize form at the expense of substance. For a criticism 
 of Stevenson's own style and thought, see the article by Wm. 
 Archer in the Critic, 8: 7, 19. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Essays Speculative and Suggestive. 2 vols. 
 London. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 256-331; vol. II, pp. 1-30 Notes on Style. 
 
 A fairly comprehensive and consistent theory of style, 
 expounded in the florid and over-strenuous manner charac- 
 teristic of the writer. 
 
 TEN BRINK, B. Ueber die Aufgabe der Litteraturgeschichte. 
 Strassburg: 1891. 
 
 On pp. 1-2 1 the author outlines clearly and interestingly the 
 elements which constitute a work of literature. A reading 
 of the whole of this brief address (28 pages) is warmly 
 recommended. 
 
 THOREAU, H. D. Early Spring in Massachusetts. Boston: 
 1894. 
 
 See p. 301 for a remarkable passage on the social aspects 
 of literature. 
 
 VINET, ALEX. Outlines of Philosophy and Literature. 2d ed. 
 Lond.: 1867. 
 
 Pp. 457-639 Literature, Poetry, and Eloquence.
 
 14.] REFERENCES. 231 
 
 Readable but not especially penetrating remarks upon the 
 philosophical aspects of literature. 
 
 WARNER, CHAS. D. Literature and Life. N. Y. : 1897. 
 
 Delightfully written essays, of a reflective character, on the 
 worth of literature in the conduct of life, on the relation of 
 literature to the age in which it is produced, and on kindred 
 topics. 
 
 WEIL, H. The Order of Words in the Ancient Languages 
 Compared with that of the Modern Languages. Trans, by 
 C. W. Super. Boston: 1887. 
 
 A work of the highest authority on the subject of which it 
 treats. 
 
 WHITNEY, W. D. Language and the Study of Language. N. Y. : 
 1867. 
 
 Pp. 403-420. 
 WHITNEY, W. D. Life and Growth of Language. N. Y. : 1877. 
 
 Pp. 1-13. 
 WHITNEY, W. D. Philology,' in the Encycl. Brit, gth ed. 
 
 See especially p. 766 et seq. 
 
 The writings of Professor Whitney, because of the simplicity 
 and charm of their style, furnish an excellent introduction to 
 the study of questions relating to language. 
 
 WILSON, WOODROW. Mere Literature and other Essays. Boston : 
 1896. 
 
 The opening essay, which gives the volume its title, is a 
 spirited plea for the study and appreciation of literature as 
 literary art. 
 
 WORSFOLD, W. BASIL. The Principles of Criticism. Lond. : 
 1897.
 
 232 LITERARY CRITICISM. [14. 
 
 The following criticism by Dr. F. I. Carpenter in Nation, 
 65: 1691, states very fairly the quality of Mr. Worsfold's book. 
 It does not, however, deserve the commendation here given for 
 the historical character of its method. Addison is exalted 
 altogether out of his place Ben Jonson, Dryden, Shaftesbury, 
 Goldsmith, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Carlyle, etc., are wholly or 
 practically ignored. . See 21, B 2, below. "The book presents 
 a combination of an analysis of the leading ideas in literary 
 aesthetics of Aristotle (superfluous in view of the recent work 
 of Mr. Butcher), Plato, Addison, Lessing, Cousin, Matthew 
 Arnold, and others, together with a discursive discussion of 
 current topics of related interest in the review style. The 
 original ' principles of criticism,' which are the outcome of the 
 last four chapters, are somewhat obscure and indecisive. 
 
 " Mr. Worsfold waives the attempt of German metaphysics 
 at a ' transcendental ' aesthetics, and defends ' psychological ' 
 aesthetics as agreeing both with Greek experience and with 
 sound philosophy. The truth of art and the truth of logic and 
 nature are not the same. Art, as Bacon maintained, idealizes 
 and submits the shows of things to the desires of the mind, 
 while its peculiar faculty is the imagination, as Addison first 
 demonstrated. Plato is nearer modern ideas than Aristotle, in 
 that he emphasizes the test of truth rather than the test of form 
 in art. Lessing is Aristotelian in concerning himself chiefly 
 with form and with imitations of the arts. Cousin returns to 
 the idealist or Platonic aesthetics ; while Matthew Arnold has 
 been most conspicuous among recent critics in subjecting poetry 
 to the tests of imagination and of truth, or, in other words, of 
 , the application of moral ideas to the criticism of life. Further 
 than this there are chapters devoted to the topics of Poetic 
 Justice, of The Drama as a Composite Art, of The Novel as a 
 Form of Literature, and of Authority in Literature and Art. 
 The later chapters are full of a clever young man's confident 
 modernity of view, while the preceding chapters are soundly
 
 15, /-//.] LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. STYLE. 233 
 
 historical in method. The most striking differentiae of the plan 
 of the book as a whole are the historical importance assigned 
 to Addison and to Cousin, and the gaps resulting from neglect- 
 ing the contributions of other modern writers who are quite as 
 important. Addison is important in the history of applied 
 criticism in England, but in aesthetic theory Mr. Worsfold 
 hardly vindicates the large claims he makes for him. Although 
 the term imagination is little used in critical discussion before 
 his day, the essential idea of the faculty, under the terms 'fancy ' 
 (phantasy) or ' wit,' is common enough with the Elizabethan 
 writers, and is regarded by more than one of them as the 
 ground idea of the poetic faculty and function." 
 
 15. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 /. Literature and Language. Additional references under 
 this head are : O. Jespersen, Progress in Language (Lond. : 
 1894), chaps. I and IX (delightful reading, and a work of the 
 first importance); H. Brunnhofer, Deutsche Revue, 1886, III, 
 pp. 83-99 Die Aesthetik der Sprachen ; J. M. Baldwin, Philos, 
 Rev. 2 : 385 Internal Speech and Song; S. Strieker, Ueber die 
 Sprachvorstellungen (Wien : 1880) ; S. Strieker, Revue Philos. 
 22 : i De la parole et des sons interieurs ; B. Bourdon, L'expres- 
 sion des emotions et des tendances dans le langage (Paris: 
 1892). 
 
 //. Style. The advanced student who desires to investigate 
 some problem relating to literary style will do well to pursue 
 a course of reading that will take him through the most impor- 
 tant of "the earlier treatises in their historical order. The list 
 is a very long one and might easily be made formidable, since 
 nearly every writer on aesthetics or rhetoric has touched at 
 least briefly upon questions of style. The following references, 
 however, will perhaps suffice for most students: (i) Plato's
 
 234 LITERARY CRITICISM. [15 
 
 Ion, Phaedo, Symposium, Gorgias ; (2) Aristotle's Poetics and 
 Rhetoric; (3) Cicero's De Oratore, Brutus, and De Inventione 
 Rhetorica; (4) Horace's Ars Poetica; (5) Quintilian's Institutes; 
 (6) Longinus on the Sublime; (7) Vida's De Arte Poetica; (8) 
 Sidney's Apologie for Poetry; (9) Webbe's Discourse of English 
 Poetrie; (10) Puttenham's Arte of English Poetrie; (i i) Jonson's 
 Discoveries; (12) Boileau's L'Art poetique; (13) Roscommon's 
 Essay on Translated Verse; (14) Addison's Spectator, Nos. 411- 
 421 ; (15) Pope's Essay on Criticism; (16) Voltaire's article on 
 ' Style,' and Montesquieu's article on 'Gout,' in the Encyclope'die 
 methodique; (17) Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric; (18) Constable's 
 Reflections on Accuracy of Style; (19) Johnson's Lives of the 
 Poets; (20) Lord Kames's Elements of Criticism; (21) Camp- 
 bell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 
 
 In the discussion of national styles, if it is desired to make 
 the investigation thorough, information should be sought in such 
 works as BrownelPs Characteristics of the French, Hamerton's 
 French and English, Baring-Gould's Germany, Present and 
 Past, Andrew D. White's The New Germany, and similar 
 monographs; and an attempt should be made to connect literary 
 characteristics with peculiarities of the social or industrial life 
 of the people. 
 
 The following references on the general subject of Style con- 
 tain suggestions of greater or less value : H. Liers, Neuc Jahrb. 
 f. Philol. u. Paed. 135: 68 1 Zur Geschichte der Stilarten; 
 W. Forsyth, Essays Critical and Narrative (Lond. : 1874), 
 p. 162 ; W. Wackernagel, Poetik, Rhetorik, und Stilistik (2. Aufl. 
 Halle: 1888), p. 412 (an excellent handling of the subject); 
 E. B. Condillac, CEuvres(io vols. Paris: 1798), vol. VII, pp. 
 337-424 Du caractere du style, pp. 429-443 Dissertation sur 
 1'harmonie du style ; Sir E. B. Lytton, Caxtoniana (2 vols. 
 Edinb. : 1863), vol. I, pp. 123-153 On Style and Diction; 
 K. F. Becker, Der deutsche Stil (3. Aufl. Leipz.: 1884); Em. 
 Zanella, Lingua e Stile (Roma: 1886); J. Swift, Letter to a
 
 ///.] FIGURES. 235 
 
 Young Clergyman (contains a famous definition of style) ; Ferd. 
 Loise, Traite de litterature: Les lois du style (Bruxelles : 1887); 
 F. Harrison, igth Cent. 43 : 932 On Style in English Prose. 
 
 ///. Figures. The following bibliography of figures is 
 taken, with some additions, from Miss Gertrude Buck's Figures 
 of Rhetoric: A Psychological Study (Contributions to Rhetorical 
 Theory, No. i, edited by F. N. Scott) : 
 
 Ancient Writers. Among the ancients, the observations upon 
 figures of Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian outweigh in value those of 
 all the rest. For the views of Aristotle, see the Rhetoric, Bk. Ill, 
 chaps. X, XI ; but cf. also Poetics, chaps. XXI, XXII. Cicero speaks 
 of figures briefly in Orator 27, and more at length in De Oratore 38- 
 43. The remarks of Quintilian will be found in the Institutes, Bk. 
 VIII, chap. VI, and Bk. IX, chaps. I-III. Lesser rhetoricians who 
 wrote treatises on figures are Alexander, Phoebammon, Tiberius, 
 Herodianus, Zonaeus, Tryphon (each the author of a work entitled 
 ' Concerning Figures ') ; Gregorius Corinthius, Cocondrius, Georgius 
 Choeroboscus (each the author of a work entitled ' Concerning 
 Tropes'); and Polybius Sardianus, author of a work entitled 'Con- 
 cerning Schematism.' These are Greek writers and may be consulted 
 in Walz's Rhetores Graeci. For the lesser Latin rhetoricians, Rutilius 
 Lupus, Rufinianus, Aquila Romanus, and others, see Halm's Rhetores 
 Latini Minores. 
 
 Modern Writers. Du Marsais was one of the first to lay stress 
 upon the fact that figures of speech are not ' deviations ' from what 
 is natural or ordinary. " Figures," he says, "removed from the 
 ordinary method of speaking should be regarded as ornamental affec- 
 tations." Herbert Spencer offered the first adequate scientific expla- 
 nation of figurative effects. Bain's classification has perhaps been 
 more widely accepted than any other. The remaining writers are too 
 numerous to distinguish, except by an occasional passing comment. 
 
 J. Q. Adams, Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, vol. II, Lects. 
 30-34 ; H. Arendt, Die Metaphern in den dramatischen Werken 
 Corneilles (Marburg: 1889); H. Arminius, Die Tropen und Figuren 
 (Innsbruck: 1890); Atlantic Mo. 73: 574 American Metaphor; A.
 
 236 LITERARY CRITICISM. [15. 
 
 Bain, Engl. Comp. and Rhet, vol. I, pp. 135-232; J. Bascom, Philos. 
 of Rhet, pp. 244-246; Arlo Bates, Talks on Writing English (Boston: 
 1896), pp. 96-106; J. Bauer, Das Bild in der Sprache (Ansbach: 
 1878, 1889); Bede, De Schematis et Tropis Sacrae Scripturae Liber; 
 A. Biese, Das Metaphorische in der dichterischen Phantasie; A. Biese, 
 Die Philosophic des Metaphorischen (Hamburg: 1893); Blackivood's 
 Mag. 18: 719 On the Use of Metaphors; H. Blair, Lects. on Rhet. 
 and Belles Lettres, Lects. 14-18; C. B. Bradley, Mod. Lang. Notes, 
 i: 140 The Classification of Rhetorical Figures; A. Braun, Versuch 
 iiber die Tropen (Miinnerstadt: 1847); F. Brinkmann, Die Metaphern 
 (Bonn: 1878. Cf. Herrig's Archi-v, 54: 155, 337, 55: 327, 56: 343, 
 58: 193) ; F. Brunetiere, Rev. d. D. Mondes, i fdvr. 1888 Les me"ta- 
 phores de Victor Hugo; G. Campbell, Philos. of Rhet, Bk. Ill, chap. 
 I; G. R. Carpenter, Exercises in Rhet. (Adv. Course), pp. 196-200; 
 W. Caspers, Ueber die Tropen und Figuren (Recklinghausen: 1873); 
 A. Darmsteter, La vie des mots (Paris: 1887), pp. 45-72 (a highly 
 interesting chapter on the way in which words change in sense from 
 literal to figurative); A. Dathi, Libellus de variis loquendi figuris 
 (Ferrariae: 1471); H. N. Day, Art of Discourse, pp. 313-331; E. 
 Degenhardt, Die Metapher bei den Vorlaufern Molieres (Marburg: 
 1888); Jas. De Mille, Elements of Rhet., pp. 87-203 (gives on p. 91 
 eight schemes of classification); Robt. Dodsley, Rhet. and Poetry 
 (Boston: 1796); F. C. Doyle, Introd. to the Study of Rhet, pp. 80- 
 103; C. C. Du Marsais, Des Tropes (CEuvres, vol. Ill); J. Earle, 
 English Prose, pp. 234-253; E. Elster, Prinzipien der Litteraturwis- 
 senschaft (Halle: 1897), Bd. I, pp. 374-394; D. Erasmus, De Para- 
 bolis sive similibus (opera, vol. I, p. 557); H. W. Frost, Galaxy, 
 24: 204 Figures of Speech; J. P. Fruit, Mod. Lang. Notes,?.: 251 The 
 Evolution of Figures of Speech; J. F. Genung, Practical Rhet, pp. 85- 
 107; G. Gerber, Die Sprache als Kunst (2 vols. Bromberg: 1871. 
 The greater part of this large work is devoted to figures); O. Gold- 
 smith, Essays, Essay 21 On the Use of Metaphors ; H. E. Greene, 
 Pubs. Mod. Lang. Assoc., vol. VIII (1893. A Grouping of Figures 
 of Speech, based on the Principle of their Effectiveness); P. Gross, 
 Die Tropen und Figuren (Leipz. : 1888. A text-book for use in 
 Greek and Latin classes); F. B. Gummere, The Anglo-Saxon Meta- 
 phor (maintains that the metaphor is an earlier form of expression
 
 ///] FIGURES. 237 
 
 than the simile); F. B. Gummere, Poetics, pp. 83-132; F. B. Gum- ^ 
 mere, Mod. Lang. Notes, \ : 83 Metaphor and Poetry; J. A. Guyet, 
 L'e'le'gance: Dialogue sur 1'emploi des figures dans la conversation 
 (Paris: 1858); E. E. Hale, Jr., Constructive Rhetoric (N. Y.: 1896), 
 pp. 248-298; J. M. Hart, Handbook of Engl. Comp., pp. 177- 
 192 (classifies figures as objective and subjective); W. C. Hazlitt, 
 Offspring of Thought, p. 285; F. H. Hedge, Atheism in Philosophy 
 and other Essays, p. 306 Irony; Hegel, Aesthetik, vol. I, p. 498, vol. 
 Ill, p. 282; H. Henkel, Das Goethesche Gleichnis (Halle: 1886); 
 Hense, Poetische Personification in griech. Dichtung (Halle: 1868); 
 A. S. Hill, Foundations of Rhet., pp. 192-1 96 (on the force and office 
 of figures) ;*A. S. Hill, Principles of Rhetoric, pp. 87-99 Tropes ; D. V 
 J. Hill, Science of Rhetoric, pp. 203-243; A. Hirzel, Gleichnisse und 
 Metaphern im Rigveda (Leipz.: 1890); H. Hoffding, Outlines of 
 Psychology, pp. 153-154; J. P. Huber, Zu den platonischen Gleich- 
 nissen (Passau: 1879); W.James, Lectures on the Figurative Lan- 
 guage of the Holy Scriptures (Lond.: 1821); Kames, Elements of 
 Criticism, chap. XX; C. F. Koch, Figuren und Tropen (Jena: 1880); 
 G. Kohfeldt, Zeitschr. f. Philos. tt. Philos. Kritik, N. F. 103 : 221 
 Zur Aesthetik der Metapher (one of the latest and ablest contributions 
 to the philosophy of metaphor); D. Krupp, Homerische Gleichnisse 
 (Zweibriicken: 1882); E. 'K.usz\,Herrig's Archiv, 53:241 Ueber Schil- 
 lers Gleichnisse ; H. R. Lang, Am. Journ. Philol. 6: 74 On Spanish 
 Metaphors; Langen,/0^r. f. Philol. u. Paed. 125: 673, 753 Meta- 
 pher von Plautus bis Terentius ; G. H. Lewes, Principles of Success 
 in Literature, pp. 69-78 (principally on imagery, but indirectly of much 
 value); Lingenberg, Platonische Bilder und Sprichworter (Koln : 
 1872); D. N. Lord, Laws of Figurative Language; W. P. Lunt, Chr. 
 Examiner, 68: 390 Figurative Language; K. Maass, Ueber Metapher 
 und Allegoric im deutschen Sprichwort (Leipz.: 1891); J. G. R. 
 McElroy, Structure of English Prose, pp. 235-246 ; Magdeburg, 
 Ueber Bilder und Gleichnisse bei Euripides (Danzig: 1882-88); 
 Marheirreke, Herrig's Archiv, 51 : 173 Ueber die Shakespeare'schen 
 Gleichnisse; Marmontel, Elements de litte'rature, vol. II, p. 185 ;AV. f- 
 E. Mead, Elementary Compos, and Rhet., pp. 40, 41, 53, 54; Meyer, 
 Vergl. und Metapher bei Moliere ; Meyer, Herrig's Archiv, 20: 174 
 Begriindung d. Redefiguren ; W. Minto, Manual of Prose Literature,
 
 238 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 15. 
 
 pp. 11-14; Max Muller, Lects. on the Science of Language, 2d Sen, 
 p. 351 ; Max Miiller, Science of Thought, vol. II, pp. 481-512; Max 
 Muller, Fortn. 46: 61 7 Metaphor as a Mode of Abstraction; F. Niggli, 
 Ueber die Redefiguren und deren Behandlung in der Schule (Aaran: 
 1871); R. Noel, Fortn. 5: 670 Use of Metaphor and Pathetic Fallacy 
 in Poetry ;JG. C. D. Odell, Development of Simile and Metaphor from 
 the Ballad Poetry to Shelley (Columbia University, Thesis); H. Paul, 
 Principles of the History of Language, chap. IV, Change in Word- 
 significance (highly suggestive); J. Rappold, Die Gleichnisse bei 
 Aeschylus, Sophokles u. Euripides (1876-78; also, Beitrage zur 
 Kenntnis der Gleichnisse u. s. w., Wien: 1886); W. C. Robinson, 
 Forensic Oratory, 290-298; Rofsler, Beitrag zur Lehre von den 
 Tropen (Budweis: 1853); A. Schopenhauer, The World as Will and 
 Idea, vol. I, p. 305 Allegory; Schiirmeyer, Vergl. u. Met. bei Racine 
 (Marburg: 1886); F. N. Scott and Jos. V. Denney, Composition- 
 Rhetoric (Boston: 1897), pp. 219-225 Imaginative Expressions; L. A. 
 Sherman, Analytics of Literature, pp. 60-86, 399, 400 (distinguishes 
 figures based on (i) imaginative processes in which spiritual identity 
 is discerned, and (2) imaginative processes in which spiritual likeness 
 is discerned); H. Spencer, Philos. of Style, pp. 21-28, 38-40; J. 
 Stirling, System of Rhetoric, containing all tropes and figures neces- 
 sary to illustrate the classics (Lond.: 1764); Stoessel, D. Bild. d. 
 altprovenz. Lyrik (Marburg: 1886); Theo. and Lit. J I. 3: 613 Objec- 
 tions to Figurative Language, 4: 687 Figurative Lang, of Scripture; 
 A. Tompkins, Science of Discourse, pp. 366-420; K. Tumlirz, Tropen 
 u. Figuren (Prag : 1883); W. Wackernagel, Poetik, Rhetorik und 
 Stilistik (2. Aufl. Halle a. S.: 1888), pp. 501-535; Victoria Welby, 
 Monist, 3:510 Meaning and Metaphor: B. Wendell, English Composi- 
 tion, pp. 245-261 (treats figures, after A. S. Hill, as a means of secur- 
 ing force ; the remarks on the uselessness of the distinction between 
 metonymy and synecdoche are judicious); K. Weyman, Studien iiber 
 die Figur der Litotes (I. Allgemeiner Theil. Miinchen: 1886); Whately, 
 Elements of Rhetoric, pt. Ill, chap. II, 2, 3; Whitney, Life and 
 Growth of Language, pp. 85-89; H. F. Wilhelmi, Von den Tropen 
 (Heidelberg: 1839); H. F. Wilhelmi, Von den Figuren der Wort- 
 wiederholung (Heidelberg : 1841).
 
 7F.] CLASSIFICATION OF LITERATURE. 239 
 
 IV. Classification of Literature. At the close of his essay 
 on Style, Walter Pater suggests a division of literature into 
 great literature and good literature. The basis of the classifi- 
 cation is given, but the idea is not developed. To pursue the 
 suggestion further, on philosophical grounds, showing the value 
 of the distinction and illustrating it by examples taken from 
 many literatures, will prove an interesting and profitable task. 
 It will be found to involve questions regarding the ethical value 
 of art which can be answered only by a careful study of the 
 appropriate references under 8. See also, on this point, 
 Matthew Arnold's remark on Shakespeare's art, in Mixed 
 Essays, p. 193, and M. Thompson's Ethics of Literary Art 
 (Hartford: 1893). 
 
 The methodological works of the German philologists contain 
 interesting attempts at philosophical classification. One of the 
 simplest is that of August Boeckh (Encyklopadie und Metho- 
 dologie der Philologischen Wissenschaften, pp. 144-146, 614- 
 6 1 6). It may be presented in outline as follows : 
 
 
 Objective. 
 
 Subjective. 
 
 Subjective- Objective. 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Epic. 
 
 Lyric. 
 
 Dramatic. 
 
 Prose. 
 
 Historical. 
 
 Philosophical. 
 
 Rhetorical. 
 
 As a specimen of a more complex and systematic classifica- 
 tion, the following outline, much abbreviated, is reproduced 
 from Korting's Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Roma- 
 nischen Philologie, pp. 63-82. 1 
 
 1. Literature in a wide sense includes the totality of written 
 works produced in a given time and place. According to its 
 
 1 For the application of this system to Romance literature, see the 
 amazing list on pp. 444-454, a highly characteristic product of the 
 Teutonic intellect.
 
 240 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 15. 
 
 purpose and its content, literature in this sense may be classi- 
 fied as follows : 
 
 A. Works whose purpose is to present the real. 
 
 1. Compositions whose sole purpose is practice in penman- 
 ship and in the written expression of thought, e.g. school 
 exercises. 
 
 2. Records of facts, including 
 
 a. Writings of a private character not intended for publi- 
 
 cation, e.g. private letters, accounts, diaries, etc. 
 
 b. Writings of a private (personal) character intended for 
 
 publication, e.g. mortuary inscriptions, lampoons, etc. 
 
 c. Writings of an official character not intended for publi- 
 
 cation, e.g. deeds, passports, secret treaties, etc. 
 
 d. Writings of an official character intended for publica- 
 
 tion, e.g. laws, public inscriptions. 
 
 e. Writings of a general character, intended for publica- 
 
 tion, e.g. political and local news, statistics, geographi- 
 cal and historical works (in which the presentation 
 of facts and not of the inner relation of facts is the 
 main purpose), parliamentary reports, etc. 
 
 3. Works intended to give instruction about matters of fact, 
 including 
 
 #. Text-books for the schools. 
 
 b. Books on scientific or technical matters designed for 
 
 the educated public, together with travels, popular 
 histories, etc. 
 
 c. Compendiums for specialists in certain sciences and 
 
 technical subjects. 
 
 4. Works intended to amuse and entertain, as collections of 
 anecdotes, riddles, comedies (without moral purpose), etc. 
 
 B. Works whose purpose is to present the ideal. 
 
 i. Writings which express and communicate subjective 
 reflections upon the relations of personal life, e.g. lyric poems, 
 reflective letters, etc.
 
 7F.] CLASSIFICATION OF LITERATURE. 241 
 
 2. Criticism, which may be 
 
 a. Direct, as in aesthetic and philosophical critiques, or 
 
 b. Indirect, as in Utopias (so-called), fairy stories, idyls, 
 
 moralizing novels, and the like, in which the defi- 
 ciencies of the actual are contrasted with the perfec- 
 tions of the ideal. 
 
 c. Negative, or destructive. 
 
 d. Positive, or constructive. 
 
 3. Writings which tend to widen the scope of human knowl- 
 edge, such as the great contributions to science. 
 
 4. Writings which tend to uplift and refine man's moral 
 nature, including 
 
 a. Writings whose purpose is ethical, either 
 
 (1) Directly, or 
 
 (2) Indirectly. 
 
 b. Writings whose purpose is religious, either 
 
 (1) Directly, or 
 
 (2) Indirectly. 
 
 II. In a narrower sense literature is the totality of written 
 works produced in a given place and time in which a people 
 have found expression for their thoughts and feelings about the 
 ideal. Taken in this sense, literature may be classified as 
 follows : 
 
 A. Works of the understanding, or scientific works. 
 
 B. Works of the imagination, or poetical works. 
 
 Korting also classifies literature according to its form. The 
 form of literature is threefold: (i) material, relating to the 
 division and arrangement of the subject-matter; (2) linguistic, 
 relating 4:o the choice and syntax of words and the combination 
 of sentences ; (3) rhythmical, relating to the musical quality of 
 speech. According to material form, literature may be divided 
 into 
 
 A. Works composed artistically.
 
 242 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 15. 
 
 B. Works not composed artistically. 
 
 According to linguistic form, literature may be divided into 
 
 A. Logical discourse. 1 
 
 B, Aesthetic discourse. 
 
 According to rhythmical form, literature may be divided into 
 
 A. Free, or unmetrical discourse (prose). 
 
 B, Metrical discourse (poetry). 
 
 Finally, viewing works according to both form and content, 
 four classes of ideal literature may be distinguished : 
 
 1. Scientific works in which the material and linguistic form 
 are logical, the rhythmical form free. 
 
 2. Scientific works in which the material and linguistic form 
 are aesthetic, the rhythmical form free. 
 
 3. Poetical works in which the material and linguistic form 
 are aesthetic, the rhythmical form free, e.g. dramas in prose. 
 
 4. Poetical works in which the material and linguistic form 
 are aesthetic, the rhythmical form metrical. 
 
 The student may also consult H. Paul, Grundriss der ger- 
 manischen Philologie, Methodenlehre, p. 216 et seq.; F. Blass, 
 Hermeneutik und Kritik (in Iwan Miiller's Handbuch, Bd. I, 
 pp. 127-272; see 2). 
 
 V. Classification of Literary Theory. Before passing, as 
 in 19-24, to Poetry, Poetics, and Versification, attention must 
 be directed to the necessity of discrimination between the term 
 Poetics and the terms more or less involved in the concep- 
 tion of aesthetics: 'Stylistic,' Rhetoric, Metric, etc. The sub- 
 ject is discussed by Elze (Grundr. d. Engl. Philol., pp. 342- 
 360 Stilistik, 361-362 Metrik) and by Boeckh (Encyklopadie, 
 
 1 In the original : 
 
 a. In sachlicher Redeform. 
 
 b. In aesthetischer Redeform abgefasste Litteraturwerke. 
 
 By 'logical' discourse is meant discourse that aims primarily at clearness and 
 intelligibility.
 
 V.~\ CLASSIFICATION OF LITERARY THEORY. 243 
 
 p. 810). The latter had included Stilistik (the theory of style) 
 under grammar, because, in his opinion, it held the same rela- 
 tion to syntax that syntax did to etymology ; but Elze proceeds 
 to show (p. 323) that ' stylistic ' is no more closely connected 
 with syntax than it is with lexicography. And he concludes 
 that ' stylistic ' should be regarded as a discipline entirely sepa- 
 rate from grammar. Adopting Wackernagel's definition of 
 style (Poetik, Rhetorik, und Stilistik, p. 112, 2. Aufl. Halle: 
 1889), "the method of representation possible to language 
 according to the conditions imposed by the personality of the 
 artist, and by the content and purpose of the object represented," 
 Elze approves of the following distinction: Style is subjective 
 when it is regarded in its character of individual expression 
 resting upon individuality (personal peculiarity) of thought, 
 though both of these factors are, in turn, influenced by the 
 general culture and the stylistic temperament of the people and 
 the period under consideration. Style is objective in so far as 
 it is determined by the laws of a literary species, and in so far 
 as it follows methods dictated by the aim of the species in 
 question. These, then, may be called the Unities of Style, 
 subjective and objective. Style as represented by these unities 
 is found in both poetry and prose. 
 
 Boeckh, too, had drawn a similar distinction showing the 
 presence of both unities in both kinds of composition. In the 
 following remarks about style and manner the characteristics 
 assigned to style are rather those of the subjective unity; those 
 to manner, of the objective: " Style is Nature; it proceeds from 
 the culture of the period, from circumstances, and from the 
 character of the individual, but it may be also heightened by 
 art, as was the case with Herodotus. Manner, on the other 
 hand, is the imitation of a by-gone style the conditions of whose 
 existence no longer exist. . . . Style springs from an inspira- 
 tion that is begotten of existing circumstances ; manner apes 
 but is uninspired because the conditions fail, or the author him-
 
 244 LITERARY CRITICISM. [15. 
 
 self " (p. 248). With regard to the external limitations of style 
 the same author expresses himself (p. 144 ff., 648) to the 
 effect that the objective unity of the literary production is form, 
 prosaic or poetic, decided in accordance with the psychological 
 faculty to which the author appeals. " The purpose of speech 
 is to express thought ; and thoughts are expressed for compre- 
 hension either by the understanding or by the imagination. If 
 by the former, we have prose ; if by the latter, poetry." 
 
 But while poetry and prose are the forms of the objective 
 unity of the literary production, the choice between these forms 
 is determined by the quality of the stylist, that is to say, by 
 the nature of the thought that the author would express. For 
 there are qualities of style, subjective and objective, as well as 
 unities; and these qualities, combined in various proportions, 
 decide the species of objective form, and the subspecies, which 
 shall suit the author's thought. Sometimes this thought is a 
 concept to which sense impression is subordinate, therefore 
 a thought, impersonal, objective in quality, and demanding 
 impersonal or objective expression. Sometimes the thought is 
 an imaginative or emotive ideal, therefore personal or subjec- 
 tive in quality, and demanding a symbolic form that may appeal 
 to the imagination of the reader. What the objective unity of 
 the style shall be is a question of proportion depending upon 
 the purpose and the quality of the author's thought. If the 
 purpose is to appeal to understanding, then the objective unity 
 of the style is that of prose ; if to imagination, then poetry. 
 According to the quality of the author's thought, the sub- 
 species vary in prose and in poetry. If, in accordance with the 
 purpose, the objective form is prose, then the subspecies will 
 be historical narrative when the quality of the thought is 
 impersonal, or objective ; and it will be philosophical disquisi- 
 tion when the quality of the thought is of inner or subjective 
 relations. If, in accordance with the purpose, the external 
 unity is that of poetry, then an impersonal or objective quality
 
 PI] CLASSIFICATION OF LITERACY THEORY. 245 
 
 of thought will demand the epical subspecies of expression ; 
 but a personal or subjective quality will choose the lyrical. 
 When the subjective, or personal, conviction or ideal tries to 
 realize itself by finding expression in the conduct of others, 
 then there results in prose, oratory ; in poetry, the drama. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the individuality and the pur- 
 pose of the author, the quality of his thought, and the objective 
 characteristics of literary species and form, are all of them 
 factors of style. And it would appear that ' stylistic ' should 
 cover the theory of all kinds of writing poetic and prosaic. 
 The ancients, indeed, were inclined to apply the term rhetoric 
 as a cross-division to many common qualities of poetry and 
 prose. But the moderns do not generally accept that cross- 
 division. Elze, Boeckh, Maas, and others arrange the matter 
 thus: Style is the form and method of expression in language. 
 ' Stylistic ' is the general theory of style, and this general theory 
 divides itself naturally into the theory of prose style (rhetoric, 
 or, if that have an oratorical or any other special significance, 
 prosaics) and the theory of poetic style (poetics). This is more 
 reasonable (Elze, p. 347) than to limit ' stylistic,' or the theory 
 of style, as Wackernagel does, to the material which lies between 
 the two realms, on the border land of prosaics and poetics, 
 but belongs to neither. That would be to make ' stylistic ' 
 coordinate with prosaics and poetics. The theory of style, it 
 may be held, is no more coordinate with, that is, a category 
 parallel with, prosaics and poetics, than it is subordinate to 
 either or both of them. Still, writers on rhetoric and poetics 
 generally propagate one or the other of these opinions, in Eng- 
 land and America, usually the second ; and accordingly we find 
 style tre'ated as a subdivision of rhetoric, or again of poetics ; 
 both of which may be regarded as subdivisions of 'stylistic.' 
 
 As for metric, if it is not a subdivision of poetics, as von 
 Gottschall, Gummere, and others say, then it must be either 
 coordinate or distinct ; entirely distinct, according to Elze, who
 
 246 LITERARY CRITICISM. [15. 
 
 says (p. 348) " it does not belong to poetics because it has 
 nothing whatever to do with style." But that is a rash state- 
 ment ; for, even if metres are to be regarded as purely con- 
 ventional and mechanical, external to the creative spirit and 
 of no appreciable effect, they still fall within the jurisdiction of 
 form, which is itself determined by the objective unity of the 
 style : their formal rules and regulations affect the utterance of 
 the poet, and combine to govern the finality of his expression 
 (i.e. his style) in very much the same way as do the methods 
 and purposes of the literary species in which he chooses to 
 cast his thought. So much, indeed, would seem to be con- 
 ceded by Elze, for in his chapter on Metrik (p. 361), he tells us 
 that " the style of a poem does not remain unaffected by 
 the selection of verse- and strophe-forms." 
 
 Metric, therefore, is not a distinct science ; it is much more 
 likely to be coordinate with poetics. If so, the term Poetics ought 
 to be restricted to questions affecting the subjective unity of 
 style in poetry, and metric and technique might be regarded as 
 dividing between them questions affecting the objective unity 
 of the style ; technique dealing with the question of literary 
 species or forms, and metric with that of rhythmic sequences 
 arranged in recurring measures. 
 
 But such a connotation of poetics would win the approval of 
 none. Metric does not lie outside of poetics, either as distinct 
 or coordinate ; for metres as well as literary species betray in 
 their individual and in their generic development their kinship 
 with, if not their descent from, emotional, physical, and cultural 
 conditions that determine the subjective quality of poetic style. 
 It is, in other words, impossible to sunder the theory of 
 measures of sounds, verses, and strophes, from the theory 
 of motives from which those measures spring. The motives 
 psychical, ethical, and physical underlie the existence of 
 poetry as a whole. The rhythms of metres, though chosen 
 with the ease and indifference of conventionality, have their
 
 V.\ CLASSIFICATION OF LITERARY THEORY. 247 
 
 roots as firmly imbedded in the rhythm of nature and of thought 
 as have other qualities of poetry, whether objective or subjec- 
 tive. Elze's " allein die poetische Stilistik findet die Verse und 
 Strophen vor und hat nichts mit ihrer Bildung und ihrem Bau 
 zu thun " betrays a momentary oblivion of historical method. 
 Has poetic style always found its appropriate measures ready- 
 made ? Have measures and poetic style, bred in diverse climes 
 and times, managed somehow to run into each other's arms, as 
 if by happy accident ? 
 
 The definition and classification of disputed terms may be 
 stated somewhat as follows : ' Stylistic ' is the general theory of 
 style; the discussion of it should precede that of rhetoric and 
 poetics, and should cover the various elements and qualities 
 of style common to and belonging to both. Rhetoric (or 
 prosaics) is that division of the theory of style which treats of 
 the expression of thought addressed to the understanding, as 
 opposed to poetics, which treats of the expression of thought 
 addressed to the imagination. The appeal to will and emotion 
 may variously but in a subordinate degree enter into both 
 kinds of expression. Metric, or versification, should be regarded 
 not as a separate discipline, nor as coordinate with poetics and 
 rhetoric, but as subordinate to poetics. The components of 
 poetics are as follows : the material of the conception (ethi- 
 cal, intellectual, emotional), the technique of construction, the 
 aesthetics of effect. Technique (or technics) regulates the 
 various processes of construction so as to produce a form that 
 is generic (having the characteristic of a poetical kind 'or 
 species) and rhythmical (having the requisite qualities of verbal 
 measure and sound). Metric deals with rhythmic form in the 
 field of poetry. 
 
 On this whole matter see BOECKH, ELZE, and WACKERNAGEL, 
 as above; also von GOTTSCHALL, SCHIPPER (Metrik), KORTING, 
 GERBER (Die Sprache als Kunst), GUMMERE (Poetics), and 
 further references at the beginning of 19 below.
 
 PART II. COMPARATIVE LITERATURE. 
 
 16. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS. 
 
 THE term Comparative Literature is here employed, as in 
 Professor Posnett's work of that title, to designate the general 
 theory of literary evolution, the idea that literature passes 
 through stages of inception, culmination, and decline. Unfor- 
 tunately for those who are not prepared to undertake original 
 research, this is a phase of evolution which has received but slight 
 attention. Histories of literature are, of course, common enough, 
 and the tendency at the present time is to connect in some way 
 the biographical and critical fragments of which they mainly 
 consist with the growth of religious and political institutions ; 
 but to set forth explicitly the nature and value of this connec- 
 tion, to show that the birth, rise, culmination, and decline of 
 literary movements are manifestations of a general law, or to 
 point out " any tolerably permanent principle of social evolu- 
 tion round which the facts of literary growth and decay may be 
 grouped " this has been the task of but a very few, Posnett, 
 Brunetiere, Letourneau, Symonds, and one or two others, none 
 of whom can be said to have been unqualifiedly successful. 
 
 In approaching this large subject, the student should hold 
 fast to the clues put into his hands in preceding chapters. 
 Literature has been assumed to be an art. Principles of literary 
 growth will, then, be special applications of the general prin- 
 ciples of art-evolution. The first question to be asked is, 
 obviously, (i) What form does the general law of art-evolution 
 assume when it manifests itself in the growth of literature ? If 
 the theory of art adhered to makes growth dependent on condi- 
 tions of environment, the student will be led to inquire, (2) How 
 have these conditions affected the development of literature ?
 
 16.] STA TEMENT OF PROBLEMS. 249 
 
 (3) What facts of physical, social, political, or religious life 
 will serve as permanent data to which any stage of literary 
 growth may be referred ? These questions may be further 
 differentiated : (4) Why do certain types of literature become 
 prominent at certain epochs in history? (5) Why should 
 certain literary forms and ideas persist from generation to 
 generation, or recur at intervals ? (6) Is there any law govern- 
 ing the times of such recurrence ? (7) What signs accompany 
 the rise, the maturity, and the obsolescence of a given type? 
 
 (8) Does one literary type, as epic, ever pass into another, as 
 drama, by a definite process of transformation ? and, if so, 
 
 (9) what are the modifying influences which effect such a 
 metamorphosis? (10) Why are certain literary forms missing 
 from certain literatures? (n) What modifications of environ- 
 ment or national character will account for the broad differ- 
 ences in ancient and modern literature ? (12) in Eastern and 
 Western literatures? (13) What has been the influence upon 
 literary development of the discovery of printing and (14) of 
 the rise of the newspaper? (15) Which has come first in the 
 historical development, prose or poetry? (16) On what grounds 
 may the precedence of either be accounted for ? 
 
 Other inquiries which it is profitable to pursue concern the 
 influence of one nation upon another, as of France upon Eng- 
 land in the seventeenth century ; the influence of one author 
 upon another, as of Dante upon Chaucer; the influence of 
 literary schools ; and the reflex influence, not to be overlooked, 
 of literature on social and individual development. 
 
 The authorities may be briefly dismissed, since their merits 
 are discussed in the references that follow. Posnett's Com- 
 parative Literature is the only work that can make pretense to 
 having traced a single principle of evolution through all, or at 
 least the most noteworthy, literatures of the world. It is a work 
 which is likely, at a first perusal, to arouse, in many readers, 
 violent and unreasoning prejudices. Against assuming such
 
 250 LITER AR Y CRITICISM. [ 17. 
 
 an uncritical attitude of mind the student should be warned at 
 the outset, and recommended, not indeed to accept the author's 
 conceptions of literature as the last word on the subject, but, 
 having gained an exact comprehension of the point of view, to 
 determine for himself whether or not violence has been done 
 to the literary material. Whatever may be thought of the 
 value of Posnett's method, a reading of Greek and Latin litera- 
 ture to verify or overthrow the conclusions arrived at in his 
 chapter on " Clan Survivals in the City Commonwealth," or a 
 reading of English authors with a view to filling out the hurried 
 sketch of Nature in National Literature (Bk. V, chap. XXXI), 
 will be found at once fascinating and profitable. A similar 
 process of verification may be urged in the case of the elaborate 
 theory of Brunetiere. The speculations of Symonds, though 
 easily understood, are too broadly and vaguely stated to be used 
 as a working basis. They will, however, be found remarkably 
 suggestive. In connection with these authorities the student 
 will do well to make a thorough study of Taine, Sainte-Beuve, 
 M.-J. Guyau, and E. Hennequin, as writers who have endeavored 
 to explain literary phenomena on purely physical grounds, or to 
 relate them to social organization. 
 
 17. REFERENCES. 
 
 BASCOM, J. Philosophy of English Literature. N. Y. : 1886. 
 
 The author believes that an alternation of creation and criti- 
 cism can be detected in the history of literature. 
 BIEDERMANN, WOLDEMAR VON. Zeitschrift f. vergl. Litteratur- 
 geschichte, 2: 415 Zur vergleichenden Geschichte der poeti- 
 schen Formen. 
 
 A good illustration of the comparative method applied to 
 primitive forms of literature. The material is drawn from folk- 
 lore collections, early literary monuments, accounts of savage 
 life, and the like.
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 251 
 
 BETZ, L. P. Revue de philologie fran^aise et de litterature, X, 4, 
 p. 247 Essai de bibliographic des questions de litterature 
 comparee. 
 A classified and fairly comprehensive list of references. 
 
 BETZ, L. P. Zcitschrift f. franzosch. Sprache und Litteratur, 
 XVIII, 3, 1896 Kritische Betrachtungen iiber Wesen, 
 Aufgabe und Bedeutung der vergleichenden Litteratur- 
 geschichte. 
 An excellent account of the present status of the subject. 
 
 BOUTERWEK, FR. Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit. 
 2 vols. Gdttingen: 1801-19. 
 
 Vol. I Introduction to modern poetry and eloquence; from the 
 thirteenth century down. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. L'evolution des genres dans 1'histoire de 
 la litterature. Tome icr. Introduction; 1'evolution de la 
 critique depuis la renaissance jusqu'a nos jours. Paris : 
 1890. 
 
 The object of this work, as given by the author, is to dis- 
 cover the underlying principles of literary development by 
 applying the theory of evolution to the study of literature. The 
 volume opens with an outline of the author's method, and an 
 indication of the results at which he hopes to arrive. The 
 question of the evolution of literary types (genres) resolves 
 itself into five subsidiary questions : (i) the reality and inde- 
 pendence of types ; (2) the differentiation of types ; (3) the 
 stability of types ; (4) modifying influences ; (5) the transforma- 
 tion of types. The differences in types correspond to differ- 
 ences m the means and ends of different arts and to diversities in 
 families of minds. The principle of differentiation is the same 
 that operates in nature, namely, the advance, through ' divergence 
 of character,' from simplicity to complexity, from homogeneity to 
 heterogeneity. Under stability of type are discussed questions
 
 252 LITERARY CRITICISM. . [17. 
 
 regarding the signs of youth, maturity, or decay which the type 
 exhibits at any given time ; it seems in Brunetiere's treatment 
 of it to be most closely connected with the relations of classi- 
 cism and romanticism. In his discussion of modifying influ- 
 ences the author builds upon the theory of Taine. The main 
 influences are three : (i) heredity, or the race ; (2) environ- 
 ments, divided into geographical or climatic conditions, social 
 conditions, and historical conditions ; and (3) individuality. 
 The transformation of types takes place according to princi- 
 ples analogous in their operation to the Darwinian struggle for 
 existence, survival of the fittest, and natural selection. 
 
 The system is ingenious, but the question may be raised 
 whether Brunetiere does not overwork the biological parallel. 
 
 BRUNETIERE, FERD. L'evolution de la poesie lyrique en France 
 au dix-neuvieme siecle. 2 vols. Paris : 1894. 
 
 This is a continuation of the preceding work and an appli- 
 cation of its theories, the object being to trace in part the 
 evolution of an important genre. In vol. I, pp. 3-42, the author 
 dwells upon his method. The evolution of a genre is different 
 from the history of a genre : history comes down the course of 
 time ; evolution goes back over the stages which have led to 
 the present form. 
 
 BUCKLE, H. T. History of Civilization in England. 3 vols. 
 Lond. : 1875. 
 
 Buckle maintains the thesis that literature is the product, and 
 not in any true sense the cause, of civilization. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOS. Lectures on the History of Literature. Lond. : 
 1892. 
 
 Presents at least one thesis worthy of discussion : " During a 
 healthy, sound, progressive period of national existence, there 
 is, in general, no literature at all."
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 253 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Culturent- 
 wickelting und die Ideale der Menschheit. 5 vols. Leipz. : 
 87i-73- 
 The opening chapters of vol. I (pp. 7-121) deal with the 
 
 early development of poetry. Scattered through the remaining 
 
 volumes are chapters in which is traced the development of 
 
 both poetry and prose. (See 11.) 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Poesie, ihr Wesen und ihre Formen, mit Grund- 
 ziigen der vergleichenden Litteraturgeschichte. 2. Aufl. 
 Leipz. : 1884. 
 
 An application of the Hegelian aesthetic to the history of 
 poetry. Written in a charming style. 
 
 CHECCHIA, G. Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, vol. VI, Gennaio, 
 1887 Del methodo-evolutivo nella critica letteraria. 
 
 The author fits ingeniously the ideas and terminology of the 
 doctrine of evolution to the phenomena of literature as he 
 conceives them. The struggle for existence, natural selection, 
 survival of the fittest, hereditary transmission, and atavism are 
 illustrated in literature, he thinks, as clearly as in biology. 
 
 COMTE, AUG. The Positive Philosophy. Trans, by Harriet 
 Martineau. 2 vols. N. Y. : 1854. 
 See 11. 
 
 DEMOGEOT, J. Histoire des litteratures etrangeres considerees 
 dans leurs rapports avec le developpement de la litterature 
 frangaise. 2 vols. Paris : 1880. 
 
 A study of the influence of Italian, Spanish, English, and 
 German literatures on the literature of France. 
 
 DE VERE, A. Essays Literary and Ethical. Lond. : 1889. 
 Contains some remarks on the social aspects of literature.
 
 254 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 17. 
 
 DYER, Louis. Studies of the Gods in Greece. Lond. : 1891. 
 
 See pp. 25, 28, 33, 38, 104, in for interesting observations 
 on the relations between Greek religion and Greek poetry. 
 
 ELLIS, HAVELOCK. The New Spirit. Lond. : 1890. 
 
 The book may be taken as an illustration of modern attempts 
 to treat literature from the scientific and sociological points of 
 view. 
 
 ELSTER, ERNST. Die Aufgaben der Litteraturgeschichte. 
 Akademische Antrittsrede. Halle : 1894. 
 
 FALKENHEIM, H. Kuno Fischer und die litterarhistorische 
 Methode. Berlin: 1892. 
 
 A clear and readable exposition of the methods of criticism 
 employed by the eminent German philosopher whose name 
 appears in the title. 
 
 'GROSSE, E. Die Litteraturwissenschaft, ihr Ziel und ihr Weg. 
 (Dissert.) 1887. 
 
 GROSSE, E. The Beginnings of Art. N. Y. : 1897. 
 
 These are the writings of an able and original investigator in 
 the field of literature and aesthetics. They may be consulted 
 with profit by the advanced student. 
 
 GROTH, E. Die Grenzboten, 49 (3) : 540-551 Kulturgeschichte 
 und Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 . Groth is a follower of Taine, but, like Brunetiere, adds to 
 Taine's formula the principle of individuality. He holds that 
 the presence of the individual element makes it impossible for 
 us to infer from any given work the general character of the 
 period in which it was written. The great masters lie outside 
 their age. The major literary products, therefore, as a source 
 for the history of culture, are inferior to the minor.
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 255 
 
 A second article by Groth, entitled " Die Aufgabe der Littera- 
 turgeschichte," appeared in Die Grenzboten, vol. L, p. 260. 
 
 GAYLEY, C. M. The Dial, Chicago, August i, 1894 A Society 
 of Comparative Literature. 
 
 The author calls for the organization of a society for the 
 comparative investigation of literary growths. His statement 
 of the need is substantially as follows : 
 
 Trustworthy principles of literary criticism depend upon the sub- 
 stantiation of aesthetic theory by scientific inquiry. For lack of 
 systematic effort the comparative investigation of literary types, 
 species, movements, and themes is not yet adequately prosecuted. No 
 individual can, unaided, gather from various literatures the materials 
 necessary for an induction to the characteristic of even one literary 
 type. The time has come for organization of effort. In the proposed 
 Society of Comparative Literature (or of Literary Evolution) each 
 member should devote himself to the study of a given type or 
 movement in literature with which he is specially, and at first hand, 
 familiar. Thus, gradually, wherever the type or movement has existed 
 its evolution and characteristics may be observed and registered. In 
 time, by systematization of results, an induction to the common and, 
 probably, some of the essential characteristics of the phenomena, to 
 some of the natural laws governing its origin, growth, and differentia- 
 tion, may be made. The history of national criticism and the 
 aesthetics of sporadic critical theory are, of course, interesting subjects 
 of study ; but to adopt canons of criticism from Boileau, or Vida, or 
 Puttenham, or Sidney, or Corneille, or even Lessing and Aristotle, and 
 apply them to types or varieties of type with which these critics were 
 unacquainted, is illogical, and, therefore, unhistorical. To come at 
 the laws which govern the drama, it is not sufficient to modify by 
 generally accepted aesthetic principles the canons of any one school 
 of dramatic critics, even if we revise the results in the light of our 
 inductions from the drama of the Graeco-Roman-Celto-Teutonic 
 circle with which we are familiar. The specific principles of technical 
 (or typical) criticism must be based upon the characteristics of the 
 type not only in well-known but in less-known literatures, among
 
 256 LITERARY CRITICISM. [17. 
 
 aboriginal as well as civilized peoples, and in all stages of its evolu- 
 tion. The comparative formulation of results would assist us to 
 corroborate or to renovate current aesthetic canons of dramatic criti- 
 cism. So, also, with other types, lyric, epic, etc., and with the 
 evolution of literary movements and themes. This work is not yet 
 undertaken by any English or American organization, or by any 
 periodical or series of publications in the English language. 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B. Old English Ballads. Boston : 1894. 
 
 In an admirable introduction prefixed to this collection of 
 ballads, Professor Gummere discusses at considerable length 
 the question of the communal origin of popular literature. The 
 author's reviews of books and articles bearing upon the ques- 
 tion, and the bibliographical references in the footnotes will be 
 of great assistance to the student. Gummere's position is, in 
 essentials, that of ten Brink. 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B. The Ballad and Communal Poetry. Child 
 
 Memorial Volume. Boston : 1897. 
 For a detailed synopsis of this valuable paper, see 18, //. 
 
 HALLAM, H. Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 
 Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. 4 vols. 
 N. Y. : 1870. 
 Perhaps the most successful of all attempts at a general 
 
 history of literature. The preface contains a critical review of 
 
 preceding works of this character. 
 
 HEGEL, G. W. F. Aesthetik. (See 8, p. 101.) 
 
 In the chapter on Poetry, vol. Ill, pp. 220-281, Hegel applies 
 his principle of development to the various forms of literary 
 production. 
 
 HERDER, J. G. Sammtliche Werke. Hsgb. von B. Suphan. 
 31 vols. Berlin : 1877-89. 
 
 Bd. VIII Ueber die Wirkung der Dichtkunst auf die Sitten der 
 Volker in alten und neuen Zeiten.
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 257 
 
 Herder's writings abound in suggestions of laws of literary 
 growth, as might be expected in the case of one in whom the 
 historical sense was so highly developed, who was indeed the 
 great pioneer of the doctrine of evolution ; but the suggestions 
 are not given systematic form, and consequently the laws are 
 somewhat vague. Of especial interest are his two essays, The 
 Effect of Poetry on Popular Morals (vol. VIII, p. 334), and 
 The Causes of Decay and Corruption of Taste (vol. V, p. 593). 
 
 HUMBOLDT, ALEX VON. Cosmos. Trans, by E. C. Otte. 
 
 5 vols. N. Y. : 1850-62. 
 
 The chapter on the Poetic Delineation of Nature (vol. II, 
 pp. 1-105) contains material of much interest to the student of 
 comparative literature. 
 
 JACOBOWSKI, LUDW. Die Anfange der Poesie. Grundlegung 
 zu einer realistischen Entwickelungsgeschichte der Poesie. 
 Dresden: 1891. 
 An ambitious attempt to lay the foundations of all future 
 
 theories of literary evolution. Amid a good deal of chaff there 
 
 are some substantial grains of common sense. 
 
 KAWCZYNSKI, M. Essai comparatif sur 1'origine et 1'histoire des 
 
 rhythmes. Paris : 1889. 
 
 In his introductory chapter (Questions preliminaires, espe- 
 cially pp. 10-30) the author makes attack upon the theory of the 
 autochthoneite of literature, that is, the theory of the spontaneous 
 origin of literature in each nation. He holds that there is in 
 literature no Volksgeist ; each literary product is first invented 
 by an individual, then imitated by the people. The chapter 
 also contains valuable observations on the transformation 
 through which literary material passes when borrowed by one 
 nation from another. 
 
 KOCH, MAX. Zeitschrift f. vergL Litteraturgeschichte, N. F., 
 Heft I. Einleitung.
 
 258 LITERARY CRITICISM. [17. 
 
 States the field and purpose of the magazine of which Koch 
 is editor. 
 
 KORTING, G. Encyklopadie und Methodologieder Romanischen 
 
 Philologie. 2. Theil, 4. Buch, Die Litteraturcomplexe. 
 A comprehensive and philosophical discussion of the under- 
 lying principles of literary development, intended for the 
 instruction of students of Romance philology. 
 
 LETOURNEAU, C. L'evolution litteraire dans les diverses races 
 
 humaines. Paris: 1894. 
 
 An able treatment of the subject by a patient and conserva- 
 tive scientist. A summary of the author's results is given by 
 D. F. Hannigan in Westm. Rev. 141: 400, under the title The 
 Literary Evolution of Man. See also the Origin of Literary 
 Forms, in Pop. Set. Mo., September, 1893, p. 675, translated 
 from the article by Letourneau in the Revue mensuclle de rtcole 
 d 'anthropologie. 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Essays, Critical and Miscellaneous. N. Y. : 
 
 1861. 
 
 See the essays on Dryden and Milton for Macaulay's theory 
 that as civilization advances the literary imagination suffers a 
 decline. 
 
 MOBERLY, GEORGE. Oxford English Prize Essays. 5 vols. 
 Oxford : 1830-36. 
 
 Vol. IV, p. 131 Is a rude or a refined age more favorable to the 
 production of works of fiction? 
 
 A readable, though somewhat conventional, treatment of the 
 theme. 
 MORLEY, H. English Writers. Vol.1. Lond. : 1887. 
 
 At the beginning of this volume are brief observations on the 
 methods of the literary historian. The first hundred pages 
 treat of English literature as affected by the influence of other 
 national literatures.
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 259 
 
 NODIER, C. Romans. Paris : 1850. 
 
 Pp. 7-19 Des types en litterature. 
 
 A pleasing though somewhat fanciful essay on the origin of 
 individual and national literary types. 
 
 OLIPHANT, MRS. M. O. W. Literary History of England in 
 the End of the Eighteenth and Beginning of the Nineteenth 
 Century. 3 vols. Lond. : 1882. 
 
 Mrs. Oliphant maintains (vol. I, pp. 7-15) that the develop- 
 ment of literature is not subject to the operation of discoverable 
 laws. The evolution of mind "has been regulated by some 
 spasmodic force which no one has tried to define [a surprising 
 statement !], and which acts by great unforeseen impulses of 
 irregular recurrence, of which no one has succeeded in calculat- 
 ing the times or seasons." (Cf. the preface to Perry's English 
 Literature in the Eighteenth Century.) 
 
 PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. Strass- 
 burg : 1889. I. Lief., III. Abschn., pp. 152-237 Metho- 
 denlehre. 
 
 See 2. 
 PELLISSIER, GEORGES. Essais de litterature contemporaine. 
 
 Paris : 1893. 
 
 Contains an interesting discussion of Brunetiere's doctrine of 
 the evolution of literary types. 
 
 PERRY, T. S. English Literature in the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 N. Y. : 1883. 
 
 In the preface to this work the author considers the views 
 advanced by Mrs. Oliphant in the preface to her Literary 
 History- of England. He dissents from her opinion that " every 
 singer is a new miracle, ... no growth developed out of pre- 
 ceding poets, but something sprung from an impulse which is 
 not reducible to law," maintaining that law prevails in the 
 progress of literature quite as much as in the growth of society.
 
 260 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 17. 
 
 The resemblance of the author's conception of literature to that 
 of Posnett is pointed out by W. D. Howells in Harper, 73 : 318. 
 
 PNIOWER, O. Freie Biihne f. modernes Leben, i : 289 Die neue 
 
 Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 The author draws a distinction between the old method of 
 literary investigation and the new method. The old method 
 made search for the spiritual content, the ethical purpose, the 
 idea of the work. The new method, which owes its existence 
 to recent activity in science and philology, proceeds to an 
 analysis. Working in the spirit of the analytical chemist, 
 it examines the literary compound to discover its constituent 
 elements. As representatives of the new method, Pniower 
 mentions Erich Schmidt, Scherer, and Goedecke. 
 
 POSNETT, H. M. Comparative Literature. N. Y. : 1886. 
 
 In spite of many obvious defects and limitations, this work 
 is a remarkable production. It is the first serious attempt, in 
 English, to apply to the history of literature the results of the 
 researches of Herbert Spencer, Sir Henry Maine, and others 
 who have written on the development of social organizations. 
 Beginning with the lowest orders of expression, Posnett traces 
 the evolution of literature to its present complex forms, the 
 stages being : clan literature, literature of the city common- 
 wealth, world literature, national literature. The advance is 
 marked by the widening and deepening of the elements of 
 personality. 
 
 Attempting to treat so large a subject within somewhat 
 narrow limits, the work as a whole makes upon the reader an 
 impression of haste and incompleteness. Many facts essential 
 to the argument are perforce omitted. Sweeping inductions are 
 drawn not infrequently from examples that are conspicuous by 
 their fewness. The value of the work is further lessened by its 
 blind, uncritical adherence to the tenets of the Spencerian 
 philosophy and its consequent inclination to polemics. More-
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 261 
 
 over, the author's sympathies are so engrossed with the social 
 conditions from which he conceives literature to have sprung 
 that he turns somewhat grudgingly to literature itself. Notwith- 
 standing these drawbacks, the book may be heartily recom- 
 mended to the student of literature. If it does nothing more, 
 it will at least upset some of his literary superstitions, and lead 
 him to question seriously the validity of conventional ideas 
 about literary periods and classifications. 
 
 The book is sympathetically reviewed by W. D. Howells in 
 Harper, 73 : 318, and more rigorously handled in Nation, 
 43 : 143- 
 
 PUTNAM, GEO. H. Authors and their Public in Ancient Times. 
 N. Y. : 1894. 
 
 Traces the history of literature from the earliest recorded 
 times to the invention of printing, with a view to determining 
 the development of the idea of literary property. A useful 
 bibliography is given at the beginning of the book. 
 
 RENAN, Ernest. Essais de morale et de critique. 2e dd. 
 Paris : 1860. 
 
 Pp. 375456 La poesie des races celtiques. 
 
 RICARDOU, A. La critique litteraire : etude philosophique. Avec 
 
 une preface de M. F. Brunetiere. Paris : 1896. 
 See pp. 32-94 for an outline of the principles of literary evo- 
 lution. Ricardou follows Taine, Brunetiere, and Hennequin. 
 REVUE CELTIQUE. 18 vols. Paris: 1897. Ed. by D'Arbois 
 
 de Jubainville. 
 
 This and Die Keltische Zeitschrift, ed. by Kuno Meyer and 
 Chr. Sterne (Halle and London), should open the field of Irish 
 literary origins to the student. 
 
 SALT, H. S. New Review, 4 : 19 The Socialist Ideal: Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 See U.
 
 262 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 17. 
 
 SCHERER, WM. Poetik. Berlin : 1888. 
 
 Scherer finds a place here because of his part in the con- 
 troversy with Jacob Grimm over the communal origin of poetry. 
 Scherer holds that early poetry is individual in origin. (Cf. his 
 Jacob Grimm, p. 146. 2. Aurl. Berlin : 1885.) 
 
 SCHERR, JOH. Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur. 2 vols. 
 Stuttgart: 1881-82. 
 
 See vol. I, pp. 1-14, for the plan on which this universal 
 history is composed. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, F. VON. Lectures on the History of Literature. 
 Bohn Libr. Lond. : 1876. 
 
 Important as illustrating a conception of literary development 
 that in its time exercised great influence. 
 
 SCHMIDT, ERICH. Charakteristiken. Berlin : 1886. 
 
 Pp. 480-498 Wege und Ziele der deutschen Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 In this spirited and scholarly address the author passes in 
 review the German historians of literature, and expounds at some 
 length his views of the object and methods of literary research. 
 The opinions expressed have had considerable influence among 
 German scholars. 
 
 SPENCER, H. First Principles. Lond. : 1862. 
 See pp. 162-167 on th g evolution of literature. 
 
 As an example which " vividly illustrates the multiplicity and 
 heterogeneity of the products that in course of time may arise 
 by successive differentiations from a common stock," Spencer 
 sketches the evolution of literature, from the exclamations of 
 savages and the picture-writing of the Egyptians and Mexicans, 
 to " the placards inside the omnibus " and " the copy of the 
 Times lying upon the table."
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 263 
 
 STAEL, MME. DE. De la litterature considered dans ses rapports 
 avec les institutions sociales. Paris: 1845. 
 See 14. 
 
 STAFFER, PAUL. Des reputations litteraires : essais de morale 
 et d'histoire. ie Ser. Paris : 1893. 
 
 P. 361 L'avenir de la litterature. 
 
 An interesting discussion of the laws of literary evolution, 
 with critical remarks on the system of Brunetiere. Stapfer 
 believes in what may be called persistence of literary energy. 
 He holds that it is inaccurate to speak of decadence in literature. 
 What seems decline is merely transformation into some other 
 form. 
 
 STEINTHAL, H. Zeitschrift f. Volkerpsychologie, 5 : i Das Epos. 
 Steinthal upholds the theory of a communal origin of litera- 
 ture as the outcome of common feeling and sentiment in the 
 clan. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Essays Speculative and Suggestive. 2 vols. 
 
 Lond. : 1890. 
 
 In his essay on the Application of Evolutionary Principles to 
 Art and Literature, Symonds endeavors to formulate a law that 
 will account for literary growth, culmination, and decay. The 
 results, as might be expected from a writer whose ' science ' 
 exists principally in the form of feeling and imagination, are 
 interesting, but vague. See comments in the London Acad., 
 August 30, 1890, p. 166 ; London Athenaeum, August 30, 1890, 
 p. 279 ; Nation, 51 : 173. 
 
 TAINE,- H. History of English Literature. Trans, by H. Van 
 
 Laun. Lond. : 1883. 
 
 Taine is the most prominent, if not the most important, figure 
 in the history of literary methodology. His celebrated formula of 
 the race, the environment, and the moment, the three constituting
 
 264 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 17. 
 
 the conditions of literary development, is presented in vol. I, 
 pp. 1-36, of this history. The remark has often been made that 
 the author in the body of the work neglects the principles 
 which he enunciates in the preface. For a careful, though 
 unfriendly, criticism, see Robert Flint, Historical Philosophy in 
 France (N. Y. : 1894), pp. 631-636. 
 
 TEN BRINK, B. Ueber die Aufgabe der Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 Strassburg : 1891. 
 
 Of special interest as setting forth theoretically the methods 
 of literary history successfully practiced by the author in his 
 works on English literature. 
 
 TEXTE, Jos. Revue de philologie fran$aise et de litterature, X, 4, 
 
 p. 241 L'histoire comparee des litteratures. 
 A sketchy but suggestive introduction to the bibliography of 
 L. P. Betz, in the same number. 
 
 THOMPSON, ROBT. Treatise on the Progress of Literature and 
 
 its Effects on Society. Edinb. : 1834. 
 
 Literature is characterized as the "mirror of society." Its 
 effects are removal of prejudice, increased security of social 
 rights, education of the manufacturing classes, and the dis- 
 couragement of war. 
 
 UHLAND, LUDW. Schriften zur Geschichte der Dichtung und 
 Sage. Stuttgart: 1866. 
 
 WATTS, THEODORE. Encycl. Brit., gth ed. ' Poetry.' 
 
 In a discussion of the epic and the lyric, pp. 265-272, Watts 
 touches upon the relation between the growth of philosophical 
 conceptions and the growth of literature. 
 
 WETZ, W. Kritischer Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der 
 romanischen Philologie, I, Heft II, 1890, 1894 Litteratur- 
 wissenschaft.
 
 17.] REFERENCES. 265 
 
 WETZ, W. Ueber Litteraturgeschichte. Eine Kritik von ten 
 Brink's Rede ' Ueber die Aufgabe der Litteraturgeschichte.' 
 Worms: 1891. 
 
 See especially pp. 31-65. 
 
 WETZ, W. Shakespeare vom Standpunkte d. vergleichenden 
 Litteraturgeschichte. Bd. I Die Menschen in Shakes- 
 peares Dramen. Worms: 1890. 
 
 Pp. 1-43 Einleitung : Ueber Begriff und Wesen der vergleichen- 
 den Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 The author proclaims himself a follower of Taine, whose 
 theories he endeavors to develop. He believes that a science 
 of literature is possible, which shall attain to the rank of an 
 exact science and ultimately rival the other exact sciences in 
 completeness of method and precision of results. 
 
 WOLFF, EUGEN. Das Wesen wissenschaftlicher Litteratur- 
 betrachtung. Kiel und Leipz. : 1890. 
 
 WOLFF, EUGEN. Prolegomena d. litt.-evolutionistischen Pqetik. 
 Kiel : 1890. 
 
 WOLFF, EUGEN. Hamb. Correspondent, 1891, Nos. 913, 916 
 Litteraturgeschichte ruckwarts. 
 
 The author belongs to a school of German writers who are 
 making strenuous (and at times frantic) efforts to base the 
 history of literature upon natural laws, especially upon the law 
 of evolution. According to Wolff, research should be carried 
 on along three principal lines : historical, psychological, and 
 aesthetic. The method proposed seems to be a mixture of the 
 theories of Taine, Sainte-Beuve, and Wm. Scherer.
 
 266 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18, /-//. 
 
 18. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 /. Collateral Aids. Investigations in the philosophy of 
 history (see Flint's Philosophy of History in France and 
 Germany for references), in the doctrine of biological evolution 
 (consult Darwin, Spencer, Haeckel, Wallace, Romanes), and 
 in the principles of sociology (see De Greef's Introduction a la 
 sociologie and Giddings's Principles of Sociology), are urged 
 upon those who would make original contributions to this 
 subject. On the comparative method in general, see the 
 exhaustive treatise of Ernst Bernheim, Lehrbuch der histori- 
 schen Methode, and Freeman's essay on the Unity of History, 
 in Comparative Politics (N. Y. : 1874). 
 
 For the principles of social evolution necessary to the 
 comparative study of literary origins and development, the 
 reader may examine Spencer's Data of Ethics and Principles 
 of Sociology, Leveleye's Primitive Property, and Sir Henry 
 Maine's Village Communities, Early History of Institutions, 
 and Ancient Law. The various theories of evolution referred to 
 by Brunetiere are explained by Huxley in the article ' Biology ' 
 in the Encycl. Brit., gth ed. 
 
 For assistance from the realm of anthropology, see Tylor's 
 Primitive Culture, Anthropology, etc., and the references con- 
 tained therein. On language, rhythm, religious origins, etc., see 
 references in the next paragraph. 
 
 //. The Origins of Poetry. The inquiry into the origin 
 of the lyric and the epic the methods and materials of the 
 study naturally falls under the special consideration of those 
 subjects. Since, however, some introduction to the subject must 
 be given here, it has seemed wise, in addition to the analysis 
 and references of the preceding sections, to subjoin the follow- 
 ing rbsumt of Prof. F. B. Gummere's article on Ballad and
 
 //.] THE ORIGINS OF POETRY. 267 
 
 Communal Poetry (Child Memorial. Boston : 1897), which is 
 altogether the most lucid and practical presentation of the 
 problem as it now stands. There is at present, according to 
 Professor Gummere, a reaction against the doctrine of Jacob 
 and Wilhelm Grimm to the effect that a song of the people is 
 made by the people as a whole. Grundtvig and ten Brink 
 still held with Grimm, but critics are now of A. W. Schlegel's 
 mind : what we attribute to ages and peoples nearly always 
 resolves itself, on closer inspection, into the characteristics and 
 deeds of individuals ; the method of distribution of popular 
 tales is by borrowing, the cause of their production is the love of 
 amusement. Joseph Jacobs says that " artistry is individual," 
 that Scotch ballads merely "lack the initials at the end," that 
 verse and prose began together ; the cante-fable " is probably 
 the protoplasm out of which both ballad and folk-tale have 
 been differentiated," and Newell insists that "folk-tales are a 
 degenerate form amid a low civilization of something which 
 was composed amid a high civilization." J. F. Campbell 
 concedes that " the older the narrator is, the less educated, and 
 the farther removed from the rest of the world, the more his 
 stories " have of the bardic composition in them ; he concedes 
 " the stamp of originality and the traces of many minds, and 
 the precedence of singing," but is evidently on the artist's 
 side. Gummere, on the other hand, holds to the communal 
 authorship, but not as understood by the Grimms. He does 
 not believe in the " song that sings itself," " Steinthal's dich- 
 tender Volksgeist" ; but, rather, in " a process such as Lachmann 
 implies when he speaks of gemeinsames dichten" He adheres 
 to " the belief in certain spontaneous movements of the human 
 mind, particularly as regards rhythmical expression. But this 
 rhythmical spontaneity furnishes the chief argument for the 
 assumption of early communal song ; and it seems even to 
 make difficulties for those who look upon poetry from the 
 artistic point of view alone " (pp. 47-48). He states the ques-
 
 268 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18. 
 
 tions at issue as follows : " Does a single artist always make 
 poetry, of whatever sort, or may one allow a concert of individuals 
 in the act of composition? Is the folk-song brought to the 
 folk, or is it made by the folk ? Is the chorus, the communal 
 song, essentially one with the composed poem as we now know 
 it, an individual, deliberate, and artistic work ? Is there ... 
 not a dualism in generative poetics ... of chorus and solo, of 
 throng and poet, of community and artist ? " That the com- 
 munal theory is opposed to the drift of modern thought is 
 evident from the writings of modern scholars in widely different 
 fields, of Paul (Principles of the Hist, of Language), who 
 says that "it never happens that several individuals create 
 anything by working together with united forces and divided 
 functions " ; of W. D. Whitney ; of Gerber (Die Sprache als 
 Kunst), " Sprache nimmt ihren Ausgangspunkt von den Indi- 
 viduen," and so poetry ; of M. Tarde, "Language is originally 
 an invention of the single mind, made lasting by imitation on the 
 part of the throng. ... In the beginning some anthropoid 
 (some savage of genius in some famille unique) imagined 
 (invented) the rudiments of a language," and this process is 
 true also of trades and arts, poetry and religion. " Poetry 
 begins always with a book, an epopee . . . the Iliad, the Bible, 
 Dante, some high initial source." So also M. Kawczynski on 
 the Origin and History of Rhythms : " Verse is an art always 
 imitated, borrowed." Ballads are not even a primary imitation ; 
 they are a " secondary invention " on the part of " sacristans 
 of the parish," etc. Whence the primary imitation is derived, 
 says Professor Gummere, M. Kawczynski fails to inform us, 
 save that we are never to look to the people. Kawczynski's pet 
 aversion is the "false principle of spontaneity." Everything is 
 borrowed; the Nibelungen Lay, alliteration, Germanic verse, all 
 may be traced by levels more or less numerous to Latin and 
 Greek sources. Neither rhythm nor dancing springs from instinct 
 or natural impulse ; they were both discoveries, inventions.
 
 //.] THE ORIGINS OF POETRY. 269 
 
 Turning to a criticism of all this, Professor Gummere cites 
 Renan (De 1'Origine du Langage), himself a supporter of the 
 theory of individual authorship, in favor of the principle of 
 spontaneity (" Renan saw spontaneity writ large over the entire 
 life of primitive man "), and proceeds to show that, on any 
 other basis, a logical theory of poetry is impossible. Aristotle's 
 antithesis between the artistic and communal in poetry is a 
 recognition of the " dancing, singing, improvising multitude." 
 Gerber, too, excludes improvisation from poetry, " for he defines 
 poetry as ' deliberation,' added to ' enthusiasm.' " But his 
 theory "breaks down utterly, because he does not recognize 
 this dualism of the artist and the throng. Spontaneous com- 
 position in a dancing multitude all singing, all dancing, and 
 all able on occasion to improvise is a fact of primitive poetry 
 about which we may be as certain as such questions allow us to 
 be certain. Behind individuals stands the human horde. . . . 
 Aristotle saw such a horde or throng. An insistent echo of 
 this throng [the refrain encroaching steadily upon the artist as 
 we retrace the history of the ballad] greets us from the ballads." 
 How, then, was verse " made in, or even by, this mass of 
 ' enthusiastic ' men ?" This question leads to the considera- 
 tion of the folk-soul as opposed to the single soul, and of the 
 rhythmic and emotional expression of a throng. Gummere 
 cites Wundt (Ueber Ziele u. Wege d. Volkerpsychologie) in 
 support of the Gesammtgeist, " die Volksseele " is " an sich ein 
 ebenso berechtigter, ja nothwendiger Gegenstand psychologi- 
 scher Untersuchung wie die individuelle Seele," and, showing 
 that the earliest poetry had the collective and communal con- 
 ditions and attributes which distinguished primitive institu- 
 tions, adds communal poetry to Wundt's three products of the 
 communal mind, speech, myth, and custom. Communal 
 poetry was distinguished " by a maximum of enthusiasm with 
 a minimum of deliberation. . . . Universality of the poetic 
 gift among inferior races, spontaneity or improvisation under
 
 270 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18. 
 
 communal conditions, the history of refrain and chorus, the 
 early relation of narrative songs to the dance ..." are facts 
 so well authenticated that "it is no absurdity to insist upon 
 the origin of poetry under communal and not under artistic 
 conditions." Gummere regards the real difficulty as lying not 
 here, " but with the assertion of simultaneous composition. Yet 
 this difficulty is more apparent than real " when one considers 
 not an artistic ballad, but a primitive choral dance ; and of the 
 choral dance there is here the question. For " the sentence 
 was the unit of speech, just as the verse was and is the unit 
 of poetry," and " repetition was the chief element in primi- 
 tive verse. To repeat a sentence was poetry. . . . Add to 
 these the lack of individuality, the homogeneous mental state, 
 . . . the leap or step of the dance, etc., . . ." and " the com- 
 munal making of verse is no greater mystery than many another 
 undoubted feat of primitive man. . . . Add the great fact of 
 reproduction (ten Brink), as vital in ancient poetry as original 
 production is vital in our own, and the case is yet stronger." 
 According to Donovan (Festal Origin of Human Speech), " the 
 earliest expressions of communal interest were in the play- 
 excitement found in all grades of development, from that of the 
 lowest Australian or American aborigines, up to the choral 
 dance out of which the first glorifying songs of the race and its 
 heroes are found growing." Hence, rhythmic motions, excited 
 cries, out of which come music and speech. " Here, then, was 
 the birth of poetry." With reflection comes individuality, the 
 separation of the singer from the crowd, the addition of thought 
 to emotion. " The sense of individuality . . . and the prevail- 
 ing intellectual bias in emotion are the chief marks of poetry of 
 to-day." 
 
 The authors of this volume look with eager anticipation for 
 the result of Professor Gummere's present investigations into 
 the origins of poetry, and would unhesitatingly commend to the 
 attention of students whatever he may publish upon the subject.
 
 //.] THE ORIGINS OF POETRY. 271 
 
 The following references on ballad and communal poetry are 
 from his article in the Child Memorial (pp. 4156) : A. W. 
 Schlegel, Heidelb. Jahrbiicher, 1815 (repr. in Schlegel's Werke, 
 vol. XII, p. 383 et seq. ; against the communal origin, answered 
 by W. Grimm, Altdeutsche Blatter, 3:370 et seq. ; see works of 
 Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in general) ; Joseph Jacobs, Folk-lore, 
 4 : 2, 233 et seq., June, 1893 (no such thing as the folk behind 
 so-called folk song) ; Proceedings of International Folk Lore 
 Congress, under Newell and Jacobs, 1891 ; Joseph Jacobs, 
 English Fairy Tales ; J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the 
 West Highlands (new ed. The ballad is "a bit of popular 
 history, or a popular tale or romance, turned into verse which 
 will fit some popular air ") ; F. B. Gummere, Introd. to Old 
 English Ballads (Boston: 1894); H. Steinthal, Zeitschrift f. 
 Volkerpsychologie, \ i : 30 Zur Volksdichtung (dichtender Volks- 
 geisf) ; Friedlander, Homerische Kritik von Wolf in Grote 
 (Berlin : 1853. P. viii Lachmann's letter to Lehrs ; speaks of 
 gemeinsames dichten) ; Eugen Wolff, Vorstudien zur Poetik (in 
 Zeitschrift f. vgL Lit. 6 : 423 et seq.. 1893) ; Hermann Paul, 
 The Principles of the Hist, of Language, Strong's trans. (2d ed. 
 pp. xxiv, xxvi, xliii, and the chapter on Original Creation) ; 
 Paul, Grundr. d. germ. Philol. i : 73, 231 ("against the notion 
 of gregarious composition ") ; G. Gerber, Die Sprache als Kunst, 
 2. Aufl. i : 246 ff. (i : 30 ; i : 124 51:131; i : 309 passages 
 used by Gummere) ; G. Tarde, Les lois de 1'imitation (Paris : 
 1890) ; Renan, De 1'origine du langage ; Kawczynski, Essai 
 comparatif sur 1'origine et 1'histoire des rhythmes (Paris : 
 1889) ; see rev. in Am. Journ. Philol., vol. XLI ; Herbert 
 Spencer, Pop. Set. Mo. 47 : 433 Orator and Poet, Actor and 
 Dramatist ; Ernst Meumann, in Wundt's Psychologische Studien, 
 10: 249 et seq., 1894 (an attempt to reorganize the science of 
 rhythms on the basis of psycho-physics) ; Bastian, Masken und 
 Maskereien, in Zeitschrift f. Volkerpsychologie, 14 : 347 ; Aristotle, 
 Poetics, on Imitation and Tragedy ; Bielschowsky, Geschichte
 
 272 LITERARY CRITICISM. [18. 
 
 der deutschen Dorfpoesie im 13100 Jhdt. ; Schopenhauer, Welt 
 als Wille u. Vorstellung, i : 51 On Poetry ; G. Le Bon, 
 L'evolution des peuples (Paris : 1894. Defense of "the historic 
 race "), and his Psychologic des Foules ; Wundt,/V7<w. Studien, 
 4 : i (1888) Ueber Ziele u. Wege d. Volkerpsychologie (in favor 
 of the Gesammtgeist) ; Reclus, Primitive Folk (" at the outset, 
 collectivism was at its maximum, and individualism at its 
 minimum ") ; R. M. Meyer, Zeitschrift f. vgl. Lit. i : 34 et scq. 
 on the Refrain ; Donovan, in Mind, 16 : 498-506 The Festal 
 Origin of Human Speech ; ten Brink's Beowulf (Quellen und 
 Forschungen, 62), p. 105 on the tendency to reproduction in 
 ancient poetry ("On the decrease of individual divergences as one 
 retraces history ") ; Dr. Krejci, Das characteristische Merkmal 
 der Volkspoesie, Zeitschrift f. Volkerpsychologie, 19 : 115 et seq. 
 (1889); Krohn, La Chanson Populaire en Finlande (in Pro- 
 ceedings International Folk Lore Congress, 1891, p. 143 et seq.}. 
 
 Gummere gives also the following references : Andrew Lang, 
 International Folk Lore Congress, 1891, president's address; 
 H. Spencer, Sociology (3d ed.), i : 702 ; 2 : 289,311 ; Giddings, 
 Principles of Sociology, p. 262 ; H. Spencer, Origin and Func- 
 tion of Music (in Illustrations of Universal Progress. N. Y. : 
 1867), p. 223 et seq. 
 
 Most of the following references have also been kindly 
 furnished by Professor Gummere. 
 
 Origins. Karl Biicher, Arbeit u. Rhythmus, XVII. Bd., 
 No. 5. Abh. d. konigl. sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. (Leipz. : 
 1896. Interesting collection of labor songs to illustrate his 
 theory that song was instituted to lighten labor ; reviewed 
 briefly by R. M. Meyer in Haupt's Anzeiger, 1897, also in the 
 Deutsche Literaturzcitung, August 7, 1897 ; the book is stimu- 
 lating ; considered by some to be epoch-making) ; Karl Groos, 
 Die Spiele der Thiere (Jena : 1896. See p. 340 for a scheme 
 of the arts) ; Diimmler, in Haupt's Zeitschrift f. deutsch. Altert. 
 17 : 523 On the Refrain ; Fr. Nietzsche, Die frohliche Wissen-
 
 //.] THE ORIGINS OF POETRY. 273 
 
 schaft (Leipz. : 1887. Interesting theory of the origin of 
 poetry) ; R. Fritzsche, Die Anfange der Poesie (Progr. 
 Chemnitz : 1886) ; F. M. Pagano, Discorso sulla origine e 
 natura della poesia (Milano : 1801) ; J. Darmsteter, Les 
 origines de la poesie persane (Paris : 1888) ; David Heinrich 
 Miiller, Die Propheten in ihrer urspriinglichen Form (Wien : 
 1896. Draws an analogy between the Greek chorus and the 
 rhapsodies of the Hebrew prophets ; attempts thus to deter- 
 mine the sources of Semitic poetry, and concludes that the 
 prophets were successors to a chorus). On the method of 
 poetic composition, improvisation, see Raube, Zur Geschichte d. 
 italien. Poesie. Berlin : 1837. 
 
 In the ' thirties' and 'forties' of this century a number of 
 writers devoted themselves to the musico-medical explanation 
 of poetic origins and effects : for instance, B. P. J. Schneider, 
 Die Musik u. Poesie nach ihren Wirkungen historisch-kritisch 
 dargestellt (Bonn : 1835) ; J. Keble, De poeticae vi medica 
 (2 vols. Oxford : 1844. Praelectiones acad. Oxon. habitae). 
 E. Hanslick, Vom Musikalisch-Schonen, yth ed., p. 119, tells 
 about this school. 
 
 Song and Dance. Hartt, Geology of Brazil (about p. 600, 
 dances of Botocudos) (Boston: 1870); Karl Groos, Die 
 Spiele der Thiere (Jena: 1896). Groos mentions W. H. 
 Hudson, The Naturalists in La Plata (incipient dance of 
 animals), and Ratzel, History of Mankind (trans, by Butler, 
 Lond. : 1896. Anthropological basis of theory). For latest 
 theories, see, of course, Tylor's Primitive Culture, and Anthro- 
 pology, and references given by him to standard works and 
 sources. 
 
 Folk Song. Talvj (Fraulein T. A. L. von Jacob, afterwards 
 Frau Robinson), Characteristik d. Volkslieder germanischer Na- 
 tionen (Leipz.: 1840; a description, with translations and extracts, 
 of folk songs of various nations ; discussion of popular poetry ; 
 one of the first to discard the idea that lyric is subsequent to
 
 274 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18. 
 
 epic; F. B. Gummere, Old English Ballads (Boston: 1894. 
 Introduction for summary of theories and bibliography of the 
 ballad. Rev. in Beibl. to Anglia, May, 1896, by Max Forster. 
 See 17) ; Brugsch, Adonisklage u. Linoslied (see Mannhardt, 
 Mythologische Quellen und Forschungen, 1884) ; J. Bedier, 
 Les Fabliaux (Paris : 1893. Publ. par Bibl. de 1'ecole des 
 hautes etudes. Most energetically combats the generally 
 accepted theory that all the Fabliaux come from the cast) ; 
 Mary Hewitt, Literature and Romance of Northern Europe 
 (translations of ballads) ; Johnson's Scott's Musical Museum, 
 ed. by David Laing (Edinb. : 1853. A mine of material) ; 
 Folk-lore Quarterly Rev. No. i, 1890 Magic Songs of Finns ; 
 Rev. de rhist. de religion (1882), La magie chez les Finnois. 
 Valuable references to this whole subject of folk song and 
 magic among the Finns will be found in Comparetti's Kalevala 
 (1892), p. 22, note; Rosenberg, Nordboernes Aandsliv (valu- 
 able on Danish folk song) ; Fetis, Histoire gffnerale de la 
 musique (collection of ballads in vol. IV) ; L. Hearn, Atlantic, 
 September, 1896 Japanese folk songs ; Gaston Paris, Des 
 origines de la poe'sie lyrique en France au moyen age (Paris : 
 1892) ; L. Jacobowski, Die Physik der Lyrik, ein Beitrag zu 
 einer realistischen Poetik (this is an introduction to Die Anfange 
 der Poesie). 
 
 For other references, see 17 above, and the bibliographies 
 of general histories of literature in the next paragraph, and in 
 21 A 5. On rhythm and metre in this relation see 22-24. 
 
 ///. General Histories of Literature. Among the histories 
 of literature, besides those already mentioned, in which a 
 systematic effort is made to show the dependence of literature 
 on political and social movements, may be mentioned the 
 following : John G. Eichorn, Geschichte der Litteratur, von 
 ihrem Anfang bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (6 vols. Gottingen : 
 1805-12. 2d ed. 1828) ; G. G. Gervinus, Handbuch der
 
 IV.~\ STUDIES IN LITERARY INFLUENCE. 275 
 
 Geschichte der poetischen Nationalliteratur (4th ed. Leipz. : 
 1849), and Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (5th ed. 
 Leipz.: 1871-74); K. Goedecke, Gruhdriss zur Geschichte 
 der deutschen Dichtung (4 vols. Dresden : 1859-81) ; J. G. T. 
 Grasse, Lehrbuch einer allgemeinen Litteraturgeschichte 
 aller bekannten Volker der Welt, von der altesten bis auf die 
 neueste Zeit (4 vols. Leipz. : 1837-59) 5 J u ^- Hart, Geschichte 
 der Weltlitteratur (2 vols. Berlin: 1893-96); K. A. Koberstein, 
 Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationallitteratur 
 (Leipz. : 1827), and Entwickelung der deutschen Poesie 
 (Braunschweig : 1865) ; Wachler, Handbuch der Geschichte der 
 Litteratur (3d ed. 4 vols. Leipz.: 1833); S. Gatschenberger, 
 Geschichte der englischen Literatur, mit besonderer Beriick- 
 sichtigung der politischen und Sittengeschichte Englands (3 vols. 
 Prag u. Wien : 1859-62) ; F. C. Schlosser, Weltgeschichte fur 
 das deutsche Volk (2d ed. 19 vols. in 10. Oberhausen u. Leipz. : 
 1876 ; vols. I-II contain a history of the literature and culture 
 of the eighteenth century). See also 21, A 5, infra. 
 
 IV. Studies in Literary Influence. The following mono- 
 graphs may be examined as illustrations of studies in literary 
 influence, whether the influence of one masterpiece upon another 
 or of one national literature upon another national literature : 
 J. Darmsteter, Point de contact entre le Mahabharata et le Shah- 
 Nameh (Paris : 1887); J. A. Demogeot, Histoire des litteratures 
 e'trangeres (see 17) ; E. Kolbing, Beitrage zur vergleichenden 
 Geschichte der romantischen Poesie und Prosa des Mittelalters 
 unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der englischen und nordi- 
 schen Litteratur (Breslau : 1876) ; Th. Siipfle', Geschichte d. 
 deutsche'n Kultureinflusses auf Frankreich mit besond. Beriick- 
 sichtigung d. litterarischen Einwirkung (Bd. II, Abth. I Von 
 Lessing bis zum Ende der romant. Schule der Franzosen. Gotha : 
 1888); Italo Pizzi, Le somiglianze et le relazioni tra la poesia 
 persiana e la nostra del medioevo (R. Accad. delle Scienze.
 
 276 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18. 
 
 Torino : 1892); G. Zanella, Relazioni poetiche tra 1'ltalia e la 
 Spagna nel secolo XVI (in Nuova Antologia. zd ser. 39 : 5-20) ; 
 Arthur H. Hallam, Remains in Prose and Verse (Boston : 1863) ; 
 J. C. Dunlop, History of Fiction (2 vols. Lond. : 1888) ; 
 F. H. O. Weddigen, Lord Byron's Einfluss auf die europaischen 
 Litteraturen der Neuzeit (Hannover : 1884) ; F. H. O. Weddigen, 
 Geschichte der Einwirkungen der deutschen Litteratur auf die 
 Litteraturen der iibrigen europaischen Kulturvolker der Neuzeit 
 (Leipz. : 1882) ; Philarete Chasles, Orient : voyage d'un critique 
 a travers la vie et les livres (2 e dd. Paris : 1865), pp. 405-416 
 Des rapports du drame grec et du drame hindou; V. Rossel, 
 Histoire des relations litteraires entre la France et 1'Allemagne 
 (Paris : 1897) ; Jos. Texte, Revue de Cours, 15 Mars, 1896 Les 
 relations litteraires de la France avec PAllemagne avant le 
 milieu du xviii 6 siecle ; Chas. Jaret, La litterature allemande 
 au xviii 6 siecle dans ses rapports avec la litterature franchise 
 et avec la litte'rature anglaise (Aix : 1876) ; E. Egger, L'Helle- 
 nisme en France : Lemons sur 1'influence des etudes grecques 
 dans le developpement de la langue et de la litterature franchise 
 (2 vols. Paris : 1869) ; Ed. Zarncke, Der Einfluss der griechi- 
 schen Literatur auf die Entwickelung der romischen Prosa 
 (Leipz. : 1888) ; Albert Lacroix, Histoire de 1'influence de 
 Shakespeare sur le theatre fran^ais jusq'a nos jours ; Jas. B. 
 Angell, No. Am. Rev. 84 : 311 Influence of English Literature 
 on the German, 86 : 412 Influence of English Literature on the 
 French ; J. Burroughs, Critic, 24 : 177 Greek Influence in Litera- 
 ture (see also a reply by M.Thompson in Critic, 24 : 212); Ferd. 
 Loise, De 1'influence de la civilization sur la poesie : le moncle 
 oriental et le monde classical (Bruxelles : 1858), L'ltalie et la 
 France (Bruxelles : 1862) ; Ferd. Loise, Histoire de la poesie 
 en rapport avec la civilization : La poe'sie espagnole (Bruxelles : 
 1868), dans I'antiquite' et chez les peuples modernes de race 
 latine (Bruxelles : 1886), en France depuis les origines jusq'a 
 la fin du xviii e siecle (Tome II, Bruxelles: 1887).
 
 F.] MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES. 277 
 
 Worthy of separate mention is C. H. Herford's Literary 
 Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century, 
 Cambridge: 1886. , 
 
 /. Miscellaneous References. Brother Azarias, Philos- 
 ophy of Literature (6th ed. N. Y. : 1890. See 14) ; 
 A. Biese, Nationalzeitung, 1891, Nos. 587, 589 Ueber die Auf- 
 gabe der Litteraturgeschichte ; A. Graf, Riv. di Fil., Genn. 
 Apr. 1877 Considerazione intorno alia storia letteraria, a' suoi 
 metodi e alle sue appartenenze ; A. Graf, Di un trattazione 
 scientifica della storia letteraria (Torino : 1877) ; Jos. Kohler, 
 Zeitschriftf. vergL Litt. 1:117 Aesthetik, Philologie, und verglei- 
 chende Litteraturgeschichte ; C. Schlottmann, De reipublicae 
 literariae originibus (Bonn: 1861) ; Gottlieb Stall, Introductio 
 in historiam litterariam (Lat. vertit C. H. Langius, Jena : 1728. 
 See remarks on literary history at the beginning) ; Greenough 
 White, The Philosophy of American Literature (Boston : 1891); 
 Lord Lytton, Quarterly Essays (Lond. : 1875), P- 33^ Love in 
 its Influence upon Literature ; C. F. Girard, La Centralization 
 des Lettres en France (Lausanne : 1866) ; G. Lombroso, II 
 commercio e la letteratura (Milano : 1842) ; R. S. Storrs, Jr., 
 Relations of Commerce to Literature (Monson Academy Dis- 
 courses, 1855); Julius Salony, Du progres de I'ide'e chretienne 
 dans la litterature (Paris : 1861) ; R. Treitschke, Die romani- 
 schen Sprachen und ihre Literaturmission : zur Volkerpsy- 
 chologie (in wissensch. Beilage der Leipz. Zeitg. 1878, Nos. 53, 
 54); Puymaigre, La societe et la litterature (Paris: 1881); 
 W. Roscoe, On the Origin and Vicissitudes of Literature, Science, 
 and Art, and their Influence on the Present State of Society 
 (Liverpcfol : 1817. Address at opening of the Liverpool Royal 
 Institute) ; F. Linguiti, Sul nuovo indirizzodegli studi letterari 
 storici e critici, riguardato nelle cause e nei suoi effetti (Salerno : 
 1877) ; E. Elster, Die Aufgaben der Litteraturgeschichte (Halle 
 a. S. : 1894) ; Otto, Ueber die Bestrebung um Begriindung
 
 278 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 18 
 
 einer Universallitteratur (Braunsberg : 1852) ; J. Nehry, Aus 
 der Weltlitteratur (Aschersleben : 1890) ; G. Perfranceschi, La 
 letteratura, la civilta e la scienza (3* ed. Jesi : 1887) ; A. 
 Schroer, Deutsches Wochenblatt, 1891: 118 Ueber die Auf- 
 gabe der Litteraturgeschichte ; F. Lammermayer, Dioskuren, 
 19: 181 Gedanken iiber Litteraturgeschichte; J. J. Ampere, 
 Melanges d'histoire litte'raire et de litterature (2 vols. Paris: 
 1867), vol I De 1'histoire de la poesie.
 
 t 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE THEORY OF POETRY. 
 
 19. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ; METHOD OF STUDY. 
 
 THE student should determine first the relation of poetics 
 to rhetoric, and of these to what the Germans call ' stylistic.' 
 See above, 15 /, and Elze, Grundr. d. Engl. Philol., pp. 343- 
 360 ; Boeckh, Encycl. d. philol. Wissensch., pp. 810-812 ; 
 Wackernagel, Poetik, Rhetorik, u. Stylistik, p. 409 et seq. ; 
 Adolf Calmberg, Die Kunst d. Rede (2. Aufl. Leipz. u. Ziirich : 
 1885) ; and the best English authorities, Bain, Minto, Whately, 
 Spalding. The question as to whether metric should be classed 
 under poetics cannot satisfactorily be decided before the laws 
 of poetic form (/, C 2, below) have been studied ; but an 
 introductory view of the relative positions of metric and poetics 
 may be obtained from the references above, and from Elze, 
 Grundr., pp. 360-363 ; Gummere, Poetics ; Stedman, Nature 
 and Elements of Poetry, pp. 8-27, 60-62 ; Lanier, Science of 
 Verse ; Wordsworth, Prefaces to the Lyrical Ballads, and 
 Appendix ; Coleridge, Poe, and others, as given in 20, 23, 
 below. On the relation of poetics to aesthetics, and therefore 
 of poetry to art in general, Kedney's Hegel's Aesthetics, 
 pp. 263-273 ; von Hartmann's Aesthetik, pp. 524-580 ; Boeckh's 
 Encykl., pp. 464-473, 536-553, and references in 8 and 
 20 may be consulted. 
 
 The critical study of poetry as determined by fundamental 
 principles of art may be conducted as follows :
 
 280 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 19, /. 
 
 /. Elementary Conceptions. Passing the principal theories 
 of poetry in review, the student will observe (A) that many 
 definitions mistake the poetic faculty for the art ; (} that 
 some definitions, limiting themselves to its nature, and others 
 to its aim, fail to distinguish poetry from art in general ; (C) 
 that no definition is adequate which does not characterize 
 (i) the subject of treatment ; (2) the form of expression ; and 
 (3) the process of execution. 
 
 A. In the attempt to discriminate between the poetic faculty 
 and the poetic creation or product, premises not based upon 
 psychological principles will be found to be of little worth. The 
 psychologies of Dewey, Sully, Baldwin, Murray, and James will 
 furnish a working conception of the position of poetry among 
 other modes of expression, and of the nature of the artistic faculty 
 in general. It will then be clear that all such expositions of 
 poetry as the following, " The universal art of the mind, free in 
 its own nature, and not tied to expression in sensuous matter " 
 (Hegel), have reference to the general artistic imagination, and 
 not to the special poetic gift, or the poetic product. They have, 
 therefore, only an indirect bearing upon the definition of poetry. 
 
 B. While distinguishing between the nature and the purpose 
 of poetry, the student will notice that some definitions treat of 
 the one to the exclusion of the other, and are, for that reason, 
 inadequate. . 
 
 i. On the one hand, it is evident that abstract definitions of 
 the nature of poetry, such as Shelley's "something divine," the 
 "centre and circumference of knowledge," "the record of the 
 best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds," 
 fail to show the difference between poetry and the other arts. 
 This criticism applies to Wordsworth's, " Poetry is the breath, 
 the finer spirit of all knowledge . . . the impassioned expres- 
 sion ... in the countenance of all science " ; to Bailey's, " It 
 is itself a thing of God " (Festus) ; and to a host of similar 
 sympathetic but vague evaluations.
 
 B.} ELEMENTARY CONCEPTIONS. 281 
 
 2. An examination, on the other hand, into the aim or func- 
 tion of poetry involves the vexed question of all arts : Is its 
 purpose aesthetic or ethical, or both ? Materials for the answer 
 to this question are furnished above, 7-9 and 13-15. If it 
 be determined that the purpose is purely aesthetic, an array of 
 specific questions confronts the student. What, for instance, 
 is the history of the aesthetic exposition of poetry ? (See 
 Bosanquet, Schasler, or Knight, and other references in 9 
 and 15, for the development of aesthetic interest before Kant.) 
 The statement is made that Hegel is the most pronounced 
 exponent of the purely aesthetic theory of poetry. But Burke 
 and Kaimes in the purgation theory of tragedy, Kant with 
 his demarcation of aesthetic consciousness in the Kritik der 
 Urtheilskraft (1790), Schiller with his doctrine of aesthetic 
 culture and his development of the Kantian theory in the 
 doctrines of aesthetic semblance and the play-impulse, Goethe 
 with his belief in the characteristic as the excellent in art, 
 and Schelling with his treatment of the ideal nature of poetry, 
 had prepared the way for Hegel's definition of the aesthetic 
 purpose of poetry as of all art ; and it will be observed that 
 Wordsworth (" the end of Poetry is to produce excitement in 
 coexistence with an overbalance of pleasure," Preface to Lyri- 
 cal Ballads, 1800), Coleridge in his antithesis between poetry 
 and science, Sir Henry Taylor, Dallas, and Pater, follow in 
 the steps of these masters. 
 
 In the next place, the value of current conceptions of the 
 aesthetic function of poetry may be considered, first, of 
 the more popular, those, for instance, presented by Poe in his 
 Poetic Principle ; by Theodore Watts in his article in the 
 Encycl. -Brit. ; by Shelley in his Defense of Poetry ; by Leigh 
 Hunt ; by Principal Shairp (the aim of poetry is to express the 
 glow of emotion, the thrill of joy) ; by Goldsmith (poetry is 
 " so contrived and executed as to soothe the ear, surprise and 
 delight the fancy, mend and melt the heart, elevate the mind,
 
 282 LITERARY CRITICISM. [19,7. 
 
 and please the understanding "); by Ruskin (it is "the present- 
 ment in musical form, to the imagination, of noble grounds for 
 the noble emotions"); by F. W. Newman (it moves "the affec- 
 tions through the imagination"); and by others whose works 
 are cited in the following section. It will be noted that most of 
 these definitions are as appropriate to the genus art as to the 
 species poetry. Second, the value of the more scientific explana- 
 tions may be considered : for instance, the aesthetic effect of 
 poetry as defined by Dallas ; the theories advanced by Herbert 
 Spencer in his Philosophy of Style ; by Butcher (Aristotle's 
 Art of Poetry), Gurney (Power of Sound and Tertium Quid). 
 Humboldt (Poetic Description of Nature), Grant Allen (Physio- 
 logical Aesthetics), and the luminous exposition by J. S. Mill 
 in his Dissertation on Poetry and its Varieties. 
 
 As with the aesthetic, so with the frequently asserted ethical 
 function of poetry, a systematic inquiry can be prosecuted only 
 when a clear understanding has been reached concerning the 
 ideas and materials with which poetry deals, the manner of its 
 procedure, and the form inherent in it. Careful consideration 
 may show that the supposed ethical function is not a function, 
 but an after-effect contingent upon the training and temper of 
 the reader. Ruskin would appear to lean to the didactic rather 
 than to the aesthetic side of the question, and with varying 
 fitness the same may be said of Plato, Horace (Ars Poetica), 
 Lessing (in his theory of the tragic catharsis), Carlyle (Essay 
 on Goethe), Emerson (Poetry and Imagination), Matthew 
 Arnold, and many others cited in 20. 
 
 C. No definition is adequate which does not characterize 
 (i) the subject of treatment ; (2) the form of expression ; and 
 (3) the process of execution. 
 
 i. The subject of treatment consists, first, of a theme or idea 
 (the glorification of a god, a hero, a country, a mistress ; the 
 discharge of emotion, the portrayal of life or character, the 
 description of nature, the utterance of the meaning of things),
 
 C.] ELEMENTARY CONCEPTIONS. 283 
 
 and secondly, of materials (actual or imaginative). For theories 
 of the idea or theme appropriate to and inspiring poetic expres- 
 sion, see Hegel, Carriere, Schiller, Goethe, Coleridge, J. S. 
 Mill, Watts, and Everett ; on the materials, see Paul, Grundr. d. 
 german. Phil., vol. I, p. 141. Since, however, certain themes and 
 materials respectively seem to be adapted to poetic treatment 
 in one period rather than in another, since, for instance, 
 the phenomena of natural life, the element of the mysterious, 
 romantic incidents, and machinery seem to possess no poetic 
 capability in one age, but are poetically productive in the ages 
 immediately preceding and succeeding, it would appear that the 
 ' poetical ' resides not in the theme and material which consti- 
 tute the subject of treatment, but rather in the poet's conception 
 of that subject. (See Courthope's Liberal Movement, and the 
 Bowles and Byron controversy concerning Pope.) If it be 
 conceded that this is so, the characterization of the subject of 
 poetry implies a theory of poetic conception, and must depend for 
 its success upon a consideration of the third topic of this analy- 
 sis, the process of poetic execution. But if this be not con- 
 ceded, the question is very much, perhaps too much, simplified ; 
 and it will be found that, so far as the theory of poetry turns 
 upon the definition of the subject-matter (without consideration 
 of modification by the poetic process), it does not admit of any 
 great difference of opinion. Hegel, Lessing, Jean Paul, and 
 Carriere, for whom poetry " speaks out the inner thought that 
 lies in things," may be classed not only with Sir Philip Sidney, 
 for whom poetry is a " learning so universal that no learned 
 nation doth despise it nor no barbarous nation is without it," 
 but with Schopenhauer, who makes it the highest objectification 
 of the- idea of man ; and Schopenhauer will agree with Schiller, 
 for whom poetry expresses " humanity as completely as possible." 
 Advancing, then, to recent critics, though Gurney, Austin, 
 and Arnold may quarrel about the poetic process, do they not 
 still agree with reference to its subject-matter ? And does not
 
 284 LITERARY CRITICISM. [19,7. 
 
 this subject-matter life and thought include that " sponta- 
 neous overflow of the feelings," that " imaginative passion,'' 
 which in the opinion of Wordsworth, Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, 
 J. S. Mill, Keble, and Principal Shairp, are the prime stuff of 
 poetry? In fine, if we eliminate all reference to the poetic 
 process, is it absurd to conceive of materialists, associationists, 
 and idealists adopting a common definition ? 
 
 It must be remembered that theories of this kind, treating of 
 the content of poetry, presuppose the aesthetic form appropriate 
 to the content, even when they do not explicitly mention it. 
 Emerson, when he calls poetry " the only verity, the expression 
 of a sound mind speaking after the ideal, not after the apparent,'' 
 Hegel, when he says broadly that it is the art of the mind 
 " expatiating in the inner space and in the inner time of the 
 ideas and feelings," Carlyle, when he weighs it as " musical 
 thought," Rowland Hazard, when he uses the term as " synony- 
 mous with the language of ideality," none of these forget that, 
 while it conveys the ideal, poetry is uttering the beautiful, for 
 in their view the ideal and the beautiful are complements one 
 of the other. Careful discrimination must, therefore, be made 
 between these theories and those which, attempting to sever 
 form from content, make an abstraction of the form and emphasize 
 its beauty. Such expositions would define poetry as mere form, 
 "any composition in verse" (Whately), or as any language 
 capable of producing an illusion on the imagination : "the art of 
 doing by words what the painter does by means of colors " 
 (Macaulay). Are the latter definitions at all ? May we thus 
 ignore the claims of thought to individuality of expression ? 
 Can different artistic, or even poetic, forms convey the same 
 aesthetic idea ? Does form alone constitute poetry ? Do all 
 arts produce an illusion upon the imagination ? or does all 
 poetry ? 
 
 2. The Form of Expression. Though definitions which 
 confine themselves to the form of poetry are one-sided, no
 
 C.] ELEMENTARY CONCEPTIONS. 285 
 
 definition can be complete that does not cover the technique of 
 the art (rhythm ; verse ; diction ; y_p_e lyric, epic, dramatic ; \ 
 species tragedy, comedy, sonnet, hymn). The scientific ' 
 study of poetic form involves, first, an examination of the 
 treatises which discuss it from the physical and physiological 
 side, for example, Grant Allen's Physiological Aesthetics, 
 Spencer's First Principles, Fiske's Cosmic Philosophy, Alexander 
 von Humboldt's Cosmos (Poetic Description of Nature), Gurney's 
 Power of Sound ; second, of more technical works on versifi- 
 cation, such as those by Lanier, Schipper, Mayor, Guest, Paul, 
 Sievers, etc., mentioned and discussed in 22-24 below ; 
 third, of the history of language especially as an instrument of 
 poetry ; fourth, of the history and technique of the various 
 literary types. 
 
 3. The Process of Execution. The consideration of the 
 manner is as important as that of the subject or of the form. 
 It is the question of the how. How are theme and material, on 
 the one hand, literary type or species, language, rhythm, and 
 metre, on the other, so combined and modified as to produce a 
 result which is not the sum, but the fusion of the two ? What is 
 the nature of the faculties exercised by the poet, the nature of 
 the faculties to which he appeals, the nature of the appeal 
 itself ? For the investigation of the nature, stages, and opera- 
 tion of imagination, its relation to the processes of knowledge, 
 to other operations of the intellect and other modes of mental 
 activity, see Dewey's Psychology, chap. VII ; Cohen's Dichte- 
 rische Phantasie ; Sully's Psychology, chap. VIII ; Maudsley's 
 Physiology of Mind, pp. 522-533 ; Lewes's Problems of Life 
 and Mind, 3d series, pt. II, pp. 445-463 ; Frohschammer's Die 
 Phantasie, pp. 73-141 ; Everett's Poetry, Comedy, and Duty, 
 p. 92 ; Shelley's Defense ; Masson ; Courthope, p. 30 ; Austin's 
 Introduction to the Human Tragedy ; Coleridge (on Fancy 
 and Imagination); Ruskin ; J. H. Newman ; Hazlitt, etc., as 
 in 20 below. Note especially the psychological distinction
 
 286 LITERARY CRITICISM. [19,7. 
 
 between fancy and creative imagination. For studies of the 
 quality and function of the aesthetic feelings, the value and 
 meaning of illusion, and the nature of that " indirectness " 
 which Keble, Mill, Gurney, and others consider a prime quality 
 of poetic expression, see Lemcke's Populare Aesthetik ; Kant's 
 Critique of Judgment (transl. by Bernard) ; Grant Allen's Phys. 
 Aesth. ; Sully's Sensation and Intuition, pp. 186-245 5 Bain's 
 Emotions and Will, pp. 247-270 ; Siebeck's Wesen d. aestheti- 
 schen Anschauung ; and other works referred to in 8 and 9 
 above. 
 
 No more lucid essays on the general bearings of the questions 
 involved in this analysis of poetry can be found than Theodore 
 Watts's Poetry (Encycl. Brit, gth ed.), and E. C. Stedman's 
 Nature and Elements of Poetry. 
 
 As was stated under the paragraph on the subject of treat- 
 ment, many critical controversies have turned on the question 
 of the poetic conception, that is, the question whether the poeti- 
 cal lies in the subject itself or in the process by which the 
 subject is worked up. The most famous is the controversy 
 between the so-called Aristotelians and the so-called Baconians. 
 According to the former, poetry is imitative ; according to the 
 latter, creative. For an introduction to the subject, the student 
 is referred to the study of Plato and Aristotle (on Imitation) 
 in 9, //, 8, above ; especially, also, to Butcher's Aristotle's 
 Theory of Poetry and Fine Art. It being determined what 
 Aristotle means by "poetry is imitation," Poetics, i : 2, the inter- 
 pretations suggested by his followers should be passed in 
 review ; for instance, Longinus, Horace, Dryden, Boileau, 
 Dr. Johnson (" Poetry is a mirror of manners and of life "), 
 Wordsworth (poetry is "the image of man and nature. . . . 
 The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings : it takes its origin 
 from emotion remembered in tranquillity ") ; Landor, Hazlitt, 
 Colvin (poetry " represents everything for which verbal signs 
 have been invented "). On the other hand, turning to Bacon,
 
 C.] ELEMENTARY CONCEPTIONS. 287 
 
 who appears to adopt unequivocally Plato's teaching that 
 poetry is the product of inspiration, the student must deter- 
 mine (i) whether -the creative character of poetry as empha- 
 sized by him and his followers may not be gathered from the 
 teachings of Aristotle as well, and (2) whether poetry according 
 to the theory of Plato and Bacon does or can free itself of the 
 element of imitation as emphasized by Aristotle. " Poetry," 
 says Bacon, " is (in respect of matter) nothing else but feigned 
 history." That is to say, it is creative ; but is not "feigned 
 history " at the same time an imaginative imitation ? And 
 when Bacon says, " Poesy feign eth acts and events greater 
 and more heroical (than doth history), ... it doth raise 
 and erect the mind by submitting the shows of things to the 
 desires of the mind," does he uphold the creative character of 
 poetry any more decidedly than Aristotle, who says, " Poetry is 
 superior to, and more philosophic than history," and " It is 
 not a poet's business to relate what occurred, but what might 
 occur " ? Among writers who espouse the creative as opposed 
 to the imitative theory are Plotinus, Emerson, Carlyle, Browning, 
 Goethe (" Art is art because it is not nature "), Shelley, Leigh 
 Hunt, Dallas, and Masson. Sir Philip Sidney's Defense of 
 Poesy combines in one flawless masterpiece the ideality of 
 Plato's theory and the necessity of Aristotle's. 
 
 In connection with this question, the controversy between 
 Bowles and Byron concerning the merits of Pope deserves 
 attention. The points upon which it turned were, first, the 
 relative value of images drawn from nature and images drawn 
 from art ; and second, the relative value of subject and execu- 
 tion. (See the famous papers in the Pamphleteer, 17:73; 
 18 : 33~i, 571 ; and Courthope, p. 6.) 
 
 Of great importance to English poetry was the classic-roman- 
 tic dispute originating with Wordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical 
 Ballads. It can be followed through Jeffrey's articles in the 
 Edinburgh Review, and the contributions to Black-wood's, the
 
 288 LITERARY CRITICISM. [19,77. 
 
 Quarterly, Eraser's, etc., as cited under Wordsworth, 20 below. 
 See also Bagehot's Edinburgh Reviewers and Caine's Cobwebs 
 of Criticism. In these controversies the question at issue de- 
 pended for its solution upon a definition of the imaginative 
 process. The distinctions drawn by Wordsworth and Coleridge 
 between imagination and fancy, and poetry and science, pointed 
 the way to a more profitable discussion of the subject. 
 
 In recent times we come to the triangular contest between 
 Arnold, Austin, and Swinburne, which originated with Arnold's 
 dictum, " Poetry is at bottom a criticism of life," and centered 
 about the respective poetic merits of Wordsworth, Byron, and 
 Shelley. (For references, see under Austin and Swinburne, 
 20.) This discussion has resulted in the formulation of 
 various canons of judgment as a basis of criticism ; for instance, 
 Austin says that poetry must transfigure life ; Bain, that it 
 must assimilate it ; Shairp, that it must penetrate; Masson, that 
 it must produce a new and artificial concrete ; Swinburne, that it 
 must do nothing that can be formulated, it must simply elude ; 
 and with him Gurney may be said to concur. On the course 
 of poetics in England, see 21, 2. For the history of these 
 and similar critical movements in Germany and France, see 
 
 81, B 3, 4. 
 
 For the psychology of imitation and invention, and the 
 relation between the two, see Baldwin's Social and Ethical 
 Interpretations of Mental Development, and Professor Royce's 
 article on the Psychology of Invention, in Psychological Review, 
 5 : II 3 > 
 
 //. Scheme of Investigation. As a foundation for con- 
 structive work the following scheme is submitted : 
 
 A. THE HISTORICAL SIDE OF THE SUBJECT. i . The Evolution 
 of Poetry. (See 16-18, and 21, A, for suggestions.) 2. History 
 of Theories of Poetry. (See 21, , for suggestions.)
 
 .] SCHEME OF INVEST1GA TION. 289 
 
 B. THE THEORETICAL SIDE. i. The Relation of Art to Science, 
 Philosophy, Ethics, and Religion. The distinction between 
 poetry and the other arts ; the boundaries of poetry and paint- 
 ing ; of poetry and music, etc. The distinction between poetry 
 and history. Aristotle, Poetics, 9 ; Sidney, Defense of Poesy 
 (Cook's ed., p. 18) ; Bosanquet, Hist. Aesth., p. 59 ; Butcher, 
 Aristotle's Theory of Poetry, chaps. Ill and XI. Is poetry a 
 term applicable to all the arts ? (Plato, Aristotle, Lessing, 
 Kant, Schiller, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Mill.) Is not the 
 distinction between poetry and other literature of power that 
 of the absolute and the relative, prose and verse being less 
 or more appropriate instruments of poetry, and poetry (or 
 absolute literature) being the emotive expression or suggestion 
 of an aesthetic interpretation of things, by means of the rhyth- 
 mical and imaginative language proper to the subject ? 
 
 2. The Materials of Poetry. (a) Of Idea (Aristotle, Poetics, 
 9; 15; 18:6; 24; 25. Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of 
 Poetry, chapters on Poetic Truth and Universality. Kant's 
 Critique of Judgment, Schiller's Aesthetic Letters, Eckermann's 
 Conversations of Goethe (Bohn), p. 258, Coleridge, Biographia 
 Literaria, 2 : 41). 
 
 (b) Of Form. The word basis, the sentence basis, the rhetori- 
 cal and logical bases ; pitch, stress, quantity, and tone ; rhythm ; 
 speech-tunes ; cadences ; rhythms of nature ; imagery and 
 verse, which the more essential ? The sensuous element in 
 relation to the imaginative. (See 22-24. Lanier, Ellis, 
 Schipper, Gurney, Kawczynski.) 
 
 (<r) Of Organism. Whether the organic structure contains 
 elements not present in the materials either of idea or form. 
 If the organism is not the sum, is it the product of idea and 
 form ? 
 
 3. How the Materials are Manipulated. The question 
 should be looked at from ;^<z) the physical point of view; 
 (b) the psychological ; (c^ the ethical; and the following
 
 290 LITERARY CRITICISM. [19,77. 
 
 subjects will demand consideration : (i) the faculties aroused 
 and employed by the poetic impulse ; (2) the effect of mood 
 and imaginative training upon the appreciation of poetry ; 
 (3) the relation of poetic truth, beauty, and ' accent ' to other 
 truth, beauty, and ' accent ' (Arnold) ; (4) the signification 
 of proportion, harmony, aesthetic economy (Spencer, Dewey), 
 and rhythm ; (5) the relation of rhythm to idea ; (6) the 
 relation of metre and rhythm to each other and to language ; 
 (7) the difference between rhythmical prose and rhythmical 
 verse ; (8) whether verse is a quality of poetry, or an instru- 
 ment ; whether rhythmical prose may be used by poetry, and 
 whether unmetrical or unrhythmical verbal expression could be 
 so used ; (9) the difference of effect between imaginative 
 verse and imaginative prose (Gurney), and whether the charm 
 of rhythm and metre lies in the illusion that they create ; 
 (10) whether poetry is imaginative language plus metrical 
 form ; or whether the effect is the product of the ear pleasure 
 and the mind pleasure (Gurney) ; (n) whether poetry is a 
 " heightened form of prose " ; (12) whether poetry can be turned 
 into prose, still retaining the poetic flavor, or be translated, as 
 poetry, from one language into another ; (13) whether poetry 
 is representative or presentative, imitative or creative, pene- 
 trative, ' magical ' (Gurney), or suggestive. See Plato, Aristotle, 
 Plotinus, etc., on Imitation, 9 above, Kant, Lessing, Goethe, 
 Schiller, Hegel, Wordsworth, Arnold, Austin, Gurney, Everett, 
 and others ; (14) whether all theories of poetry may be 
 reduced to the creative-imitative classification. 
 
 4. The Purpose of Poetry. (a) Aesthetic. Whether the 
 pleasure conveyed by poetry is essential to the purpose, or acci- 
 dental. Does the pleasure of the reader lie in the momentary 
 relief from worldly care, from the sense of actuality ? in the 
 opportunity afforded the emotions to ' discharge ' themselves 
 impersonally ? in the aesthetic contemplation of the signifi- 
 cance of life ? Does the author aim at giving pleasure to others,
 
 B.] SCHEME OF INVESTIGATION. 291 
 
 or, by finding expression in poetry, is he merely fulfilling his own 
 play-impulse, or duty-impulse, or impulse of idealization ? For 
 further suggestions on this point, see 7-9 and 46-48. 
 
 (V) Ethical. Whether the principal aim of poetry is aes- 
 thetic or ethical. Is it the purpose of poetry to teach truth and 
 virtue through the medium of imaginative and rhythmical 
 word form ? to ' transfigure ' life, be a ' guide ' for it, ' criticise ' it, 
 or display the ' seriousness' of it? Compare Matthew Arnold's 
 " high seriousness " with the <iA.oo-o</>o>Tepov /cat cnrovBaiorcpov 
 of Aristotle (Poetics, 9 : 3), with Horace's Os tenerum pueri bal- 
 bumque poeta figurat, etc. (Epist. II, i : 126) ; his Carmine di 
 superi placantur, carmine manes (Epist. II, i : 138) ; his Aut 
 prodesse volunt, aut delectare poetae, Aut simul et jucunda et idonea 
 dicere vitae (Ars Poetica, 333, 334); .his Omne tulit punctum 
 (Ars Poetica, 343) ; with Butcher's Theory of Poetry, chaps. IV 
 and V, and with Wordsworth's " Its object is truth, general and 
 operative." 
 
 5 . The Effect of Poetry upon the Percipient. (a) Physiological. 
 The immediate effect of poetry, read or heard, upon the senses 
 of sight and hearing. 
 
 (b) Psychological, (i) Is the effect unanalyzable ; and if it 
 be, shall we call the unknown quantity non-reasonable (Gurney), 
 or non-reasoned ? It will be necessary to distinguish precisely 
 between the sensuous, the intellectual, and the aesthetic feelings. 
 (2) Consider the effect upon the emotions of the unselfish 
 pleasure awakened by art. (3) What is the effect of poetic 
 illusion ? (4) of the presentation to the mind of ideal values ? 
 and (5) of the universal appeal to the sympathies which is 
 claimed as a prerogative of poetry ? (6) Discriminate between 
 kinds of images as visual, auditory, tactile, etc. summoned 
 to the mind by poetic presentations. See the psychologies of 
 James, Dewey, Spencer, Sully, Titchener ; also Ferrier's Func- 
 tions of Imagination in his Human Mind, Maudsley's Physi- 
 ology of Mind, Azam's Hypnotisme et Double Conscience,
 
 292. LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 19, //. 
 
 Gallon's Inquiries into Human Faculty (also in Fortn. Sept., 
 1880, and Mind,^: 551, and 5 1301); Binet's articles on 'Mental 
 Images' in Rev. Philos. 23 : 473, and 27 : 337 ; Paulhan's 
 Le langage interieur in Rev. Philos. 21:26 articles in the 
 same periodical, 18 : 685, and 22 : i, by Strieker. (7) What 
 effect does the predominance in the poet of a certain kind of 
 imaginative power, as the visual, have upon the character 
 of his poetic imagery ? (8) Does Tennyson, for instance, incline 
 to visual or to auditory imagery? (9) The imagery of the 
 following poets should be examined : Homer, Aeschylus, 
 Dante, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Swinburne, Rossetti, Wm. Blake, 
 Coleridge, Wordsworth. (10) Examine the imagery of poets 
 blind from infancy, as Blacklock; of those who have lost 
 their sight in youth or in mature years, as Milton or Philip 
 Bourke Marston. (11) To what faculties does poetry appeal ? 
 (12) Compare poetic imagination with scientific. (13) What 
 part do the emotions of the reader play in determining his 
 poetic sensitiveness? 
 
 (<-) Ethical. Whether the moral effect is direct, or indirect 
 (by way of emotional and imaginative effect). Whether such 
 expositions as the following do not depend for their appli- 
 cability upon the imaginative and moral condition of the 
 individual who reads or hears the poetry in question : " Poetry 
 was the first philosophy that ever was known, whereby men 
 from their childhood were brought to the reason how to live 
 well, learning thereby not only manners and natural affections, 
 but also the wonderful works of Nature, mixing serious matter 
 with things pleasant " (Sir Thos. Elyot, about 1531) ; " For he 
 (our poet) doth not only show the way, but giveth so sweet a 
 prospect into the way as will entice any man to enter into it " 
 (Sidney, Defense of Poesy) ; cf. 4 b above, references to 
 Horace. 
 
 6. Whether Didactic Verse may be Classed as Poetry. Dis- 
 cuss Pope's Essays on Man and on Criticism, Virgil's Georgics,
 
 C.] SCHEME OF INVESTIGATION. 293 
 
 Hesiod's Works and Days, Horace's Ars Poetica, Boileau's 
 . L'Art poetique, Browning's La Saisiaz, Sordello, Fifine, and 
 Parleyings, the Phenomena of Aratus, Darwin's Botanic Garden, 
 Drayton's Polyolbion, Phineas Fletcher's Purple Island, Words- 
 worth's Excursion, the poems of Langland and Gower, Young's 
 Night Thoughts. 
 
 7 . General Considerations. Discussion of Inadequate Defi- 
 nitions and of the Principles Underlying Them. Is it a reason- 
 able or a profitable business to compare poets in respect 
 of excellence ? Should poets of form, of color, of sound, be 
 classified in the same list? Can we classify the poet's poet 
 with the people's poet ? Is Arnold's theory of poetical touch- 
 stones of practical value ? What is the ultimate test of such 
 ' touchstones ' ? See Gurney's Tertium Quid, and Alfred Austin, 
 as in 20. 
 
 C. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT. On the relation of literature 
 to the other arts, see 7-9; also Boeckh, Encykl. d. philol. 
 Wiss., p. 468. Boeckh, as already shown ( 15, 4, above, and 
 further discussed, 15, 5), divides literature into two principal 
 kinds, poetry and prose, and these respectively into epic, 
 lyric, drama, and historical, philosophical, and rhetorical 
 prose. (See his Encykl., pp. 28, 144, 255, 648, 684, 743, for a 
 learned presentation of the subject.) For other opinions, see 
 Wackernagel, Poetik, Rhetorik, und Stylistik ; Elze, Grundr. 
 d. engl. Philol., pp. 233, 347-348, who discusses Boeckh and 
 Wackernagel ; Korting, Encykl. d. roman. Philol. i : 74, 78 ; 
 2 : 443-454 ; Schmitz, Encykl. d. neueren Sprachen, i : 65-67 ; 
 also, Wordsworth, Hegel, Baumgart, Gottschall, M. Arnold, 
 and T.- Arnold.
 
 294 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 20. REFERENCES. 
 
 ALLEN, GRANT. Physiological Aesthetics. N. Y. : 1877. 
 
 Chap. II Poetry. 
 For Allen's point of view, see 8. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. Poetics. 
 
 For editions, see Appendix. A trustworthy and inexpen- 
 sive translation (with the original) is Wharton's (Parker and 
 Co., Oxford, 1883). Professor Bywater's text has just appeared, 
 and is excellent. The commentary is promised presently 
 (Clarendon Press, Oxford). Altogether the best student's 
 edition is Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art 
 (London : 1895), of which a new and improved edition has 
 recently appeared. In Poetics, 1-5, will be found the state- 
 ments concerning ' imitation ' and ' rhythm ' in poetry which have 
 been cruces from that day to this. The student is referred to 
 the examination of these terms made in 9, where it is attempted 
 to show that Aristotle did not mean by /u'/^o-ts what we ordi- 
 narily mean by copying. It is sometimes forgotten that in 
 Poetics, 4 : 6, Aristotle calls music and measure, as well as 
 imitation, natural to man. It should therefore be considered 
 whether it is not in this association of /AI/A^O-IS with music and 
 rhythm that the meaning of Aristotle's theory of poetry is to 
 be sought. Compare with the passage in 4:6 that in 1:4, 
 which enumerates rhythm, language, and harmony (music) as 
 the means of imitation. 
 
 The following questions concerning the treatment of poetry 
 in general will arise: whether (in 3: i) the division of poetry 
 into dramatic narrative (epic), pure narrative (including lyric), 
 and the drama, is orderly and exhaustive ; whether Aristotle 
 means to include the lyric under " narration where the 
 poet retains his individuality"; where in this classification
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 295 
 
 other literary kinds could fall, such as the idyl, the metrical 
 romance, the modern novel, the elegy, didactic poetry (De 
 Rerum Natura, the Georgics, etc.), philosophical satire (Horace, 
 Juvenal, Swift's Voyage to the Houyhnhnms, etc.), and how 
 this classification bears comparison with others, such as Words- 
 worth's in Preface to Poems (1815), narrative, dramatic, lyri- 
 cal, idyllium, didactic, philosophical satire. (See M. Arnold's 
 Essay on Wordsworth, concerning the Greek classification of 
 poetry.) A difficulty presents itself (in 4 : 15) in the deter- 
 mination of the " two causes " from which poetry is said to 
 spring, whether Wharton's interpretation is correct, (i) the 
 instinct of imitation, (2) the delight in imitation ; or Butcher's, 
 
 (1) the instinct of imitation, (2) the instinct for harmony and 
 rhythm ; or, yet again, this : (i) the instinct of imitation and 
 
 (2) the desire to learn (4: 4). The historical descent of epic 
 and tragedy on the one hand, from the imitation of noble 
 actions by noble poets, and of satire and comedy on the other, 
 from the imitation of the actions of meaner persons by the 
 more trivial poets (4 : 7), is especially noteworthy when con- 
 sidered in connection with the implication (5 : 3) that the latter 
 style approaches the former in poetic value in proportion as 
 it generalizes its themes and plots. The study of poetic truth 
 (chaps. IX and XXV) involves the discussion of the statement, 
 " Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing 
 than history ; for poetry tends to express the universal, history 
 the particular " (9 : 3). It will be necessary to distinguish 
 between probability, possibility, and actuality ; between the 
 world of imagination and the world of experience ; between 
 what looks like chance and what looks like necessity ; and it 
 will be noted that Aristotle agrees with Bacon that the poet 
 must be a maker of that which has either probable or necessary 
 independence and unity (9 : 9, 10). On the subject of poetry 
 and the errors to which the poet is liable, see chap. XXV ; on 
 poetical diction, chaps. XXI, XXII.
 
 296 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 Compare Bacon's theory of poetry in the Advancement of 
 Learning. See note on Masson's Theories of Poetry, and con- 
 sult in general notes and comments in the edition of Pye, 
 Twining, Susemihl ; Butcher (Theory of Poetry, chaps. I-V, XI) 
 and the critical studies of Aristotle's Theory of Art mentioned 
 in 8, especially Doring, Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles (Jena : 
 1870) ; Teichmiiller, Aristotelische Forschungen (Halle : 1869) ; 
 Reinkens, Aristoteles Ueber Kunst (Wien : 1870) ; and E. 
 Miiller's Geschichte der Kunst bei den Alten (Breslau : 1834). 
 Aristotle on the Epic will be discussed in 32, on Tragedy, 
 37, 40-42, 46-48, on Comedy, 49-51, in vol. II of this 
 work. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Essays in Criticism. 2d Series. Lond. : 1888. 
 Pp. 1-55. 
 
 The Essays on Translating Homer, on the Study of Poetry, 
 on Wordsworth, Byron, and Shelley, have stirred up a contro- 
 versy as keen, as entertaining, and so far as inconclusive, as 
 that between Bowles and Campbell on the merits of Pope. 
 Matthew Arnold's position rests upon three assumptions : first, 
 that poetry is at bottom a criticism of life, " The greatness of 
 a poet lies in his powerful and beautiful application of ideas to 
 life to the question : How to live " (On Translating Homer) ; 
 second, that there exist generally recognized laws of poetic 
 beauty and poetic truth ; third, that the relative greatness of 
 a poet depends upon the soundness of his criticism and the 
 completeness of his surrender to the laws of poetic beauty and 
 truth. By references to these canons of criticism, Arnold 
 succeeds in placing Wordsworth above Byron, and Byron above 
 Shelley. It may, however, be questioned whether he has 
 distinguished between the criticism of life and its representa- 
 tion ; whether he has demonstrated the universality of his laws 
 of poetic beauty and truth ; whether, indeed, he has anywhere 
 logically defined the beauty and truth in dispute ; and, in fine,
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 297 
 
 whether he understands criticism always in the same sense. 
 Compare, for instance, the uses of the word in the essay on 
 Wordsworth and in the essay on the Function of Criticism. 
 For the controversy with Austin and Swinburne, see under 
 those names below. 
 
 Arnold defines poetry with reference to its form, as follows : 
 " Poetry is simply the most delightful and perfect form of utter- 
 ance that human words can reach. Its rhythm and measure, 
 elevated to a regularity, certainty, and force very different from 
 that of the rhythm and measure which can pervade prose, are 
 a part of its perfection " (The French Play in London). 
 
 ARNOLD, M. The Touchstones of Poetry. Selected from the 
 writings of Matthew Arnold and John Ruskin ; with Intro- 
 duction by A. S. Cook. San Francisco : 1887. 
 Useful for those who have not access to the originals, namely, 
 Arnold's Last Words on Translating Homer, and Ruskin's 
 Fiction, Fair and Foul. In the Introduction, Professor Cook 
 points out Arnold's indebtedness to Joubert. His main indebt- 
 edness is, however, to Wordsworth and Goethe. The aesthetic 
 principle underlying the touchstones quoted by Arnold is not 
 discussed by Professor Cook. It would appear to be the 
 rhythmical expression of the significant as presented by the 
 synthesis of antithetical manifestations. 
 
 AUSTIN, ALFRED. The Human Tragedy. Rev. ed. Lond. : 
 1889. 
 
 Introduction, pp. i-xlii. 
 AUSTIN, ALFRED. Prince Lucifer. 2d ed. Lond.: 1887. 
 
 Introduction, pp. vii-xxi. 
 
 AUSTIN, ALFRED. Contemp. 40:884; 41: 124 Old and New 
 
 Canons of Criticism of Poetry. 
 
 The article introductory to Prince Lucifer, on the End and 
 Limits of Objective Poetry, is rather a defense of that tragedy
 
 298 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 than a discussion of the subject announced. The author asserts 
 with force the poet's right to use " moral perplexity " as an 
 agent or cause for the ' epic ' drama, although he may desire 
 to solve no moral problem, to settle no spiritual controversy. 
 Such agnosticism cannot pass unchallenged ; for those who 
 have best accomplished the aesthetic purpose of poetry have 
 best understood the ethical relations of the subject that they 
 treat. 
 
 In the articles on the Canons of Poetical Criticism (Contemp. 
 !?&>.), Austin combats Arnold's definition of poetry. The 
 reader cannot but suspect Austin of putting too restricted an 
 interpretation upon Arnold's criticism of life. Can there be, 
 as Austin says, "no consensus about the criticism of life"? 
 And is it true that the more a critic the poet is, the more he 
 injures his poetry ? On the other hand, even if Arnold's defini- 
 tion be inadequate, does it follow that Austin's is satisfac- 
 tory ? See his article on the Position and Prospects of Poetry, 
 Introduction to the Human Tragedy, p. xxii : " Poetry is a 
 transfiguration of life ; in other words, an imaginative repre- 
 sentation of whatever men perceive, feel, think, or do." Or 
 again : " Poetry, which is a glorified representation of all that is 
 seen, felt, thought, or done, by man, perforce includes Religion 
 and 'Philosophy among the materials reflected in its magic 
 mirror. But it has no mission to replace them ; its function 
 being not to supersede, but to transfigure." 
 
 Does this definition find room for subjective presentations 
 such as the Divine Comedy and Rossetti's Blessed Damosel ? 
 Is every imaginative representation, even though in words, 
 poetry ; for instance Gulliver's Travels, Bowles's Spirit of Dis- 
 covery, Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque ? Does the 
 definition indicate the relation of thought to expression ? 
 
 In the Introduction to the Human Tragedy the discussion of 
 the novel and the narrative poem leads the author to an interest- 
 ing forecast of the course of poetry. For the condensed state-
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 299 
 
 ment of Mr. Austin's canons, see Contemp. 41 : 135, 138. As 
 tested by these canons, Byron comes first, Wordsworth second, 
 Shelley third. 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS. Works. Ed. by Spedding and others. 15 
 vols. N. Y. : 1869. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 186-188, 220-226 ; vol. IV, pp. 225-232 ; vol. VI, 
 pp. 182, 183, 202-206, 337, 418,419; vol. VII, pp. 285-287; 
 vol. VIII, pp. 407-409, 439-444; vol. IX, p. 220 ; vol. X, 
 pp. 403-405- 
 
 As in the case of Aristotle, one cannot expect to understand 
 Bacon's exposition of poetry out of relation to his tenets 
 touching art. See Professor Masson's Essays below, and 
 Kuno Fischer's Francis Bacon und seine Nachfolger (2. Aufl. 
 Leipz. : 1875. pp. 269-283 Bacon's Poetik). See also 21, B 2. 
 
 BAGEHOT, W. Literary Studies. 2 vols. Lond. : 1879. 
 
 In his articles on the First Edinburgh Reviewers (vol. I, 
 p. 27), Bagehot places in sharp contrast the analytic under- 
 standing of Jeffrey, and the mysticism, the religious imagination, 
 of Wordsworth. Finding a mythical element in religion as in 
 art, he naturally adopts the Wordsworthian side of the contro- 
 versy. The attack upon the Whig critic is resumed with effect 
 in the paper (vol. II, p. 338) on Wordsworth, Tennyson, and 
 Browning. Here will be found the striking analogy of the 
 picturesque and the ' literatesque.' The assertion that the 
 poet's business is with types, and that those types are mirrored 
 in reality, should be compared with the similar theories of 
 Schopenhauer, Hegel, and Plato. While the division of poetry 
 into the pure, the ornate, and the grotesque, is plausible, it 
 may be questioned whether it cover all stages of the art. The 
 remarks (2 : 351) on rhythm in verse and in prose are of weight. 
 
 BAIN, A. On Teaching English, with ... an Inquiry into'the 
 Definition of Poetry. Lond. : 1887. 
 Pp. 207-256.
 
 300 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 After discussing inadequate methods of defining poetry, the 
 author passes in review the definitions of Aristotle, Bacon, 
 Wordsworth, Arnold, Austin, etc., and advances to moot points 
 of criticism, such as the function of language, the relation of 
 poetry to science, to oratory, to morality, the choice of subjects, 
 and the ideal in poetry. He emphasizes the aesthetic aim 
 and effect of poetry, and would, in that respect, appear to 
 sympathize with Austin rather than with Matthew Arnold. 
 The work is a useful discussion of the question, Is Poetry 
 ' imitative,' or is it ' effusive ? ' According to Bain, poetry 
 neither interprets nor penetrates the natural, but assimilates 
 it with some aspect of humanity. The definition on p. 257, 
 " Poetry is a fine art, operating by means of thought conveyed 
 in language," requires for its interpretation a definition of fine 
 art, and for its validity, a theory of the relation of rhythmical 
 language to aesthetic thought. 
 
 BATTEUX, L'ABB CHARLES. Des quatre poetiques d'Aristote, 
 d' Horace, de Vida, et de Despreaux. 2 vols. Paris : 
 1771. 
 
 See 21, B 4, below for a list of the other French poetics 
 of the century. 
 
 BAUMGART, H. Handbuch der Poetik. Stuttg. : 1887. 
 
 One of the most learned, trustworthy, and exhaustive of the 
 recent contributions to the science. It should have a place in 
 the library of every critic. " 
 
 BAYNE, PETER. Two Great Englishwomen . . . with an Essay 
 on Poetry. Lond.: 1881. 
 
 Pp. i-lxxviii. 
 
 As the author's object is to make a definition of poetry that 
 will give Mrs. Browning the highest claim to consideration, he 
 immediately falls foul of Mr. Arnold's criticism of life. Lyric 
 poetry is for Mr. Bayne " the essential poetry."
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 301 
 
 BENARD, CH. Hegel : La poe'tique, prece'de'e d'une preface et 
 
 suivie d'un examen critique. 2 vols. Paris : 1855. 
 The most important, indeed the only special, edition of 
 Hegel's Die Poesie. In addition to the admirable commentary 
 on Hegel, the author gives a selection of the most important 
 passages on poetry to be found in Schiller, Goethe, Richter, 
 and others. 
 
 BIEDERMANN, WOLDEMAR VON. Zeitschrift f. vcrgl. Littera- 
 turgeschichte, 2 : 415 Zur vergleichenden Geschichte der 
 poetischen Formen. 
 
 An interesting study of primitive forms. The author makes 
 use of the material gathered by the folklorists and the anthro- 
 pologists. 
 
 BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB. Vom Wundcrbaren in der Poesie. 
 Zurich: 1740. 
 See 21, B 3. 
 
 BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB. Betrachtung ueber die poetischen 
 Gemahlde der Dichter. Mit einer Vorrede von J. J. 
 Breitinger. Zurich : 1741. 
 See 21, B 3. 
 
 BOILEAU, DESPR^AUX N. L'Art poetique. (Pp. 91-109 of his 
 Oeuvres Completes. Publ. par P. Cheron. Paris: 1875. 
 Pp. 188-220 of the edition by M. Amar. Paris: 1851.) 
 
 For reprint with translation by Soame, see Cook's Art of 
 Poetry ; see also, Batteux, Les quatres poetiques. Consult 
 below, 21, ^ 4> on Boileau, and read O. Wichmann, L'Art 
 Poe'tique de Boileau dans celui de Gottsched (Berlin : 1879). 
 
 BOSANQUET, B. History of Aesthetic. 
 
 After a discussion of Ruskin's penetrative imagination, the 
 author offers (pp. 460-462) an answer to the question, What is
 
 302 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 the material of poetry ? In its full development, poetry, he 
 decides, unquestionably demands metre. As distinguished 
 from the other arts, its material is metrical or rhythmical 
 language, and always a particular language. Bosanquet thus 
 differs with those who hold imagination to be the mate- 
 rial of poetry, though he looks upon the penetrative imagina- 
 tion, with its attendant depth of ideal feeling, as necessary 
 to complete his definition. Poetical prose, so called, he would 
 regard as rhetoric, " a thing scarcely compatible with poetical 
 quality." 
 
 BOURGET, P. fitudes et portraits. 2 vols. Paris : 1889. 
 
 Vol. I, p. 189 Science et poesie ; p. 329 L'Emploi des vers au 
 theatre. 
 
 BREITINGER, JOHANN JAKOB. Kritische Dichtkunst. 2 vols. 
 Zurich : 1740. 
 
 See 21, B 3. 
 BRIMLEY, GEO. Essays. Lond. : 1882. 
 
 Pp. 184-203 Poetry and Criticism. 
 
 An inquiry into the fundamental properties of poetry. Brimley 
 was one of the earliest to prophesy the future greatness of 
 Tennyson. 
 
 BROWN, JOHN. Spare Hours. New ed. 3 vols. Boston : 
 1892. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 313-352 On Vaughan's Poetry. 
 
 The doctor opens with a witty page-and-a-half recapitulation 
 of great critics, disagrees with all, and develops a genial theory 
 of his own. 
 
 BROWNING, ROBERT. On the Poet Objective and Subjective 
 ... on Shelley as Man and Poet. 2d ed. (Browning 
 Soc. Papers, No. i.) Lond. : 1881. 
 About 1851 certain letters of Shelley afterwards shown to 
 
 be spurious were published by Moxon, with an introductory
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 303 
 
 essay by Browning. This essay is republished with notes and 
 headings by Mr. F. J. Furnivall. As Mr. Furnivall says, it 
 makes no difference whether the Shelley letters were genuine 
 or not we are indebted to them for an admirable formulation 
 of Browning's poetic creed. The distinction made between 
 the objective poet the fashioner and the subjective poet 
 the seer leads (p. 6) to an exposition of the aim of the 
 latter : ' Not what man sees, but what God sees the Ideas of 
 Plato, seeds of creation lying burningly on the Divine Hand, it 
 is toward these that he struggles.' The remarks on the rela- 
 tion of the poet's life (p. 10) and of his moral purpose (p. 9) 
 to his work are direct and sound. The subjective-objective 
 sfyle of poetry forecast by the youthful Browning has found its 
 best illustration in his own dramatic monologues. Carlyle and 
 Landor take the same view as Browning of poetry : the 
 expression of ideas impressed on man's mind by the Creator. 
 
 BRYANT, W. C. Prose Writings. Ed. by Parke Godwin. 
 2 vols. N. Y. : 1884. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 3-44 Lectures on Poetry ; pp. 57-67 On Trisyllabic Feet 
 in Iambic Measure; pp. 147-160 Poets and Poetry of the 
 
 English Language. 
 
 The Romantic conception of poetry. It is a suggestive 
 rather than an imitative art, employing purely arbitrary sym- 
 bols instead of visible or tangible representation. The elements 
 of poetry lie in natural objects and in the experiences, emotions, 
 and relations of human life. 
 
 BUCHANAN, R. A Poet's Sketch-Book : Selections from the 
 prose writings of Robert Buchanan. Lond. : 1883. 
 
 In the essay on the Poet or Seer (pp. 3-31) we find a char- 
 acterization of the poet which is excellent as far as it goes. 
 The poet is he who sees life newly, assimilates it emotionally, 
 and contrives to utter it musically. (See also David Gray and 
 Other Essays on Poetry. Lond. : 1868. Pp. 3-60.)
 
 304 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20- 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful. Lond. : 
 1821. 
 
 Poetry cannot be called an art of imitation, save in so far as 
 it describes the manners and passions of men in the language 
 which directly expresses them. But even descriptive poetry is 
 not strictly imitative, for it operates chiefly by substitution, by 
 means of sounds which through custom have come to produce 
 the effects that result from the reality. 
 
 (See 8 and 21, B 2. A cheap edition of the Essay may 
 be found in Cassell's National Library, N. Y.) 
 
 BUTCHER, S. H. Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art. 
 Lond. : 1895. 
 
 This volume is a revision and an enlargement of the author's 
 Some Aspects of the Greek Genius (see 9). It contains a 
 list of editions, translations, and commentaries on the Poet- 
 ics of Aristotle, an analysis of that treatise, the Greek text 
 with an admirable translation into English, and an essay on 
 the theory of poetry there presented. The author reads the 
 Poetics in the light of Aristotle's other writings, connects the 
 theory of art with the Aristotelian philosophy as a whole, and 
 gives the vital term ' imitation ' its full aesthetic content. He 
 holds, undoubtedly with good reason, that the clue to Aristotle's 
 theory is to be found in the conception that poetry is an expres- 
 sion of the universal element in human life. The chapters 
 on the theory of tragedy contain material not included in the 
 author's earlier work. The chapters on Art, Nature, ' Imita- 
 tion ' as an Aesthetic Term, Poetic Truth, The End of Fine 
 Art, Art and Morality, the Generalizing Power of Comedy, and 
 Poetic Universality in Greek Literature, are of prime importance 
 to the student of the poetic principle. It may unhesitatingly 
 be asserted that this is the best critical edition of Aristotle's 
 Poetics for English workers. It is a hundred years later than
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 305 
 
 Tyrwhitt's, and gathers up all that is best in the Aristotelian 
 criticism of the hundred years. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS. Heroes and Hero-Worship (Lect. 3 The 
 Hero as Poet ; Lect. 5 The Hero as Man of Letters). N. Y. : 
 1846. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS. Critical and Miscellaneous Essays. 4 vols. 
 Lond. : 1857. 
 
 Vol. I Richter, State of German Literature, Goethe, Burns, Vol- 
 taire, and Signs of the Times; Vol. II Novalis, History, 
 Richter, Schiller, Early German Literature, Historic Survey of 
 German Poetry, Biography; Vol. Ill Goethe's Works, Diderot, 
 Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS. Lectures on the History of Literature. 
 Lond. : 1892. 
 
 As a teacher of the philosophical in poetry and criticism, 
 Carlyle is one of the most important figures of the century. 
 His own masters were Kant, Fichte, Jean Paul, and Goethe. 
 For his position in English poetics, see 21, B 2. 
 
 CARRIERE, M. Das Wesen und die Formen der Poesie. 
 
 Leipz. : 1854. 
 
 See 8. 
 COLERIDGE, S. T. Complete Works. Ed. by W. G. T. Shedd. 
 
 7 vols. N. Y. : 1853-54. 
 
 Vol. Ill Biographia Literaria, chaps. Ill, IV, X-XXII ; vol. IV, 
 pp. 19-22 Definition of Poetry, pp. 22-46 Drama, pp. 275-285 
 The Ludicrous, pp. 328-336 Poesy as Art, pp. 337-343 Style, 
 pp. 368-370 Taste, pp. 370-373 Beauty, pp. 387, 388 Wonderful- 
 ness of Prose; vol. VI, p. 433 (Table Talk) Meaning and 
 Music in Poetry. 
 
 COLERIDGE, S. T. Literary Remains. Ed. by H. N. Coleridge. 
 4 vols. Lond. : 1836-39. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 7-12 Definition of Poetry, pp. 12-53 Drama, pp. 372, 
 373 Wonderfulness of Prose ; vol. IV, p. 20 Shakespeare, etc.
 
 306 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 " Poetry, or rather a poem, is a species of composition opposed 
 to science, as having intellectual pleasure for its object and as 
 attaining its end by the use of language natural to us in a state 
 of excitement, but distinguished from other species of compo- 
 sition, not excluded by the former criterion, by permitting a 
 pleasure from the whole consistent with a consciousness of pleas- 
 ure from the component parts; and the perfection of which 
 is to communicate from each part the greatest immediate 
 pleasure compatible with the largest sum of pleasure on the 
 whole." 
 
 The influence of Coleridge upon English poetics of the nine- 
 teenth century is incalculable ; not only because of his attempt 
 to base criticism upon aesthetic principles, but because of his 
 liberal eclecticism, which has taught his countrymen to lay 
 under contribution the critical philosophy of Germany while 
 holding to what is best in mediaeval and ancient thought. For 
 the indebtedness of Coleridge to the German romanticists and 
 philosophers, to Kant, Schelling, Schiller, Richter, Lessing, see 
 Brandl's Coleridge ; for his indebtedness to the Neoplatonists 
 and to Plato, to the Mystics and to Spinoza, see the Biographia 
 Literaria, Table Talks, the Friend, passim. Miss Wylie's 
 Evolution of English Criticism contains a good study of the 
 sources of Coleridge's criticism. The student may look for a 
 valuable discussion of Coleridge's critical principles in Professor 
 J. M. Hart's forthcoming Selections from Coleridge (Athenaeum 
 Press Series, Boston). 
 
 COLVIN, S. 'The Fine Arts.' (In Encycl. Brit., gth ed.) 
 
 A broad and able discussion of poetry which, as an imita- 
 tive art, is said to represent by means of verbal signs, arranged 
 with musical regularity, everything for which verbal signs have 
 been invented. 
 
 COTTERILL, H. B. An Introduction to the Study of Poetry. 
 Lond. : 1882.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 307 
 
 A series of University Extension Lectures, simple in manner 
 and suggestive. Adopting the realistic principles, the author 
 bases his argument upon Plato, but can hardly be said to grasp 
 Plato's conclusions concerning art and poetry. The chapters on 
 Art Creation, The Classical School, and Wordsworth, will be of 
 service to the beginner. 
 
 COURTHOPE, W. J. The Liberal Movement in English Litera- 
 ture. Lond. : 1885. 
 
 Pp. 3-32 Definition of Poetry, pp. 71-108 Wordsworth's Theory 
 of Poetry, pp. 197-240 Prospects of Poetry. 
 
 This work is valuable, even though its judgments are not 
 always trustworthy. Mr. Courthope disavows all intention of 
 prejudicing his argument by the use of political terms, but his 
 treatment of the romantic movement shows that conservatism, 
 whether political or literary, means all that is desirable in civili- 
 zation. Consequently, although he indicates in his Introduc- 
 tory Chapter, pp. 3-32, the weak point in Bowles's axioms of 
 poetry, he fails to appreciate the general soundness of that 
 poet's criticism upon Pope and the Classical School. The 
 poetic theories of Arnold and Swinburne are criticised with 
 apparent candor, but are disposed of in such a way as to show 
 that the author understands neither of them. Macaulay's 
 dictum concerning the decline of poetry is adopted on altogether 
 insufficient historical proof ; and Wordsworth's theory of poetry 
 is deliberately misstated* It is hard to see that Mr. Courthope 
 recognizes any genuine standard of poetic excellence. His 
 apparently simple definition of poetry (pp. 30, 31), 'the art of 
 producing pleasure by the just expression of imaginative thought 
 and feeling in metrical language,' is invalidated by a dualistic 
 conception of the relation of idea to form. (Cf. his essay in 
 Nineteenth Century, 41 =270 Life in Poetry : Poetical Expres- 
 sion.) The chapter on the Prospects of Poetry is, like the rest 
 of the book, eminently readable, but indicative of the author's
 
 308 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 inability to see two sides of a question. The romantic move- 
 ment is in his opinion an aberration an obsession of 
 poetry. 
 
 The author's History of English Poetry, now appearing, will 
 afford him scope for illustration of these peculiarities. 
 
 DALLAS, E. S. Poetics; an Essay on Poetry. Lond. : 1852. 
 DALLAS, E. S. The Gay Science. 2 vols. Lond. : 1866. 
 
 The Gay Science of the Troubadours was poetry ; of Mr. 
 Dallas, it is criticism. For, holding with the Troubadours that 
 the aim of poetry, as of all art, is pleasure, he makes criticism 
 the science of the laws under which pleasure is produced. He 
 discusses skilfully, though sometimes inconclusively, the more 
 notable theories of poetry. His quest for the fundamental 
 unity of art is scientific in intention, but is vitiated by a mis- 
 construction of Aristotle's theory of imitation, and a radical 
 misapprehension of Hegel's theory of manifestation ('Art is 
 the manifestation of the Beautiful '). It may be questioned 
 whether Mr. Dallas does not also confound the aim of poetry 
 with its nature. In vol. I the chapters on the Hidden Soul, 
 The Play of Thought, and The Secrecy of Art, are decidedly 
 suggestive. They anticipate in a popular way a theory of art 
 which is now being worked out scientifically by certain of the 
 physiological psychologists. His theory of the unconscious 
 pleasure evoked by art requires to be tested by a larger selec- 
 tion from poetry than that adduced to confirm the argument. 
 According to him, poetry is the imaginative, harmonious, and 
 unconscious activity of the soul ; the art of giving imaginative 
 pleasure. Vol. II, chaps. XIII and XIV, and passages in the 
 section on the Pursuit of Pleasure and the World of Fiction 
 display to advantage the author's rich and entertaining style. 
 He asserts that in poetry a synthetic reproduction of truth is 
 subsumed under the category of poetic imagination. He holds, 
 therefore, to the Baconian theory.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 309 
 
 Many of these theories will be found in Mr. Dallas's shorter 
 and earlier works on Poetics, Masson's review of which will be 
 found in No. Brit. Rev. 19 : 297 Theories of Poetry, and in his 
 Essays, as below. 
 
 DAVIDSON, JAS. W. The Poetry of the Future. N. Y. : 1888. 
 
 " Aims to show that the one essential characteristic of verse 
 the language of poetry in English is rhythm." 
 
 DE VERE, AUBREY. Essays, chiefly Literary and Ethical. 
 Lond. : 1889. 
 
 P. 10 Definition of Poetry. 
 
 DE VERE, AUBREY. Essays, chiefly on Poetry. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 1887. 
 
 " Poetry has ever recognized these two great offices, distinct 
 though allied, the one, that of representing the actual world ; 
 the other, that of creating an ideal region, into which spirits 
 whom this world has wearied may retire. ... A perfect poet 
 ought to discharge both these great offices of poetry " (Two 
 Schools of Poetry). De Vere is, in creation and criticism, an 
 ardent admirer and follower of Wordsworth. 
 
 DEWEY, JOHN. Andover Ren. 16 : 92 Poetry and Philosophy. 
 
 A comparison of Arnold and Browning. The author's thesis 
 is that the best poetry is that which is informed by the soundest 
 philosophy. 
 
 DIXON, WM. M. English Poetry from Blake to Browning. 
 Lond.: 1894. 
 
 Pp. 1-25 Poetry and its Relation to Life. 
 
 The substance of the author's definition (p. 6) is as follows : 
 Poetry is impassioned language, appropriate to higher moods 
 (" intenser spiritual life than the one in which we hourly 
 move "), ordered or marshaled in a rhythmically effective way.
 
 310 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20. 
 
 DRYDEN, J. Works. Ed. by Sir Walter Scott. 18 vols. 
 Lond. : 1808. (Revised and corrected by Geo. Saints- 
 bury. Edinb. and Lond.: 1882-92.) 
 
 Revised Edition, vol. II, p. 291 Defense of an Essay of Dramatic 
 Poesy; vol. IV, pp. 18-30, pp. 225-247 Defense of the Epilogue, 
 or an Essay on the Dramatic Poetry of the Last Age ; vol. V, 
 pp. 111-124 Preface to the State of Innocence; the Author's 
 Apology for Heroic Poetry and Poetic License ; vol. XV, pp. 283- 
 377 An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (the author's earliest theories, 
 1668; 2d ed. and revision, 1684; 3d ed. 1693); pp. 378-392 
 Heads of an Answer to Rymer's Remarks on the Tragedies of 
 the Last Age ; vol. XVII, pp. 289-335 A Parallel of Poetry 
 and Painting (Preface to Trans, of Du Fresnoy's Art of 
 Painting). 
 
 The critical training of Dryden conspired with his broad 
 literary sympathy and his natural aversion to conventional 
 dogma to make him the most prominent figure in English 
 poetics between Ben Jonson and Coleridge. The articles of 
 his literary belief are simple and easily stated ; and, save for 
 the didactic element natural to his ' milieu,' they will find general 
 acceptance to-day. Poetry, he says, is not a copy, but a lively 
 imitation of nature ; its field is as broad as human life ; the 
 final test of its "excellence is its fidelity to that which is essen- 
 tial in nature and in life. Its end is to teach man by way of 
 pleasing him. In other words, instruction is the final cause ; 
 delight, the efficient. The means available to this end are 
 knowledge of nature, justness of imitation, ' equality ' of thought, 
 propriety of expression, and sweetness of numbers. 
 
 His opinions concerning dramatic theory and construction, 
 prosody, refinement of language, poetic standards, ancient and 
 modern, the comparative excellence of authors and of literary 
 kinds, and the relations of criticism to creation, are discussed 
 in the following prefaces, prologues and epilogues, epistles and 
 dedications: vol. Ill Preface to An Evening's Love (on 
 Comedy) ; vol. II Dedication of the Rival Ladies (on blank
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 311 
 
 verse and rhyme) ; vol. V Dedication of Aurung-Zebe (on 
 heroic characters in tragedy), Preface to All for Love (a justi- 
 fication of Dryden's conception of tragedy as compared with 
 the conceptions entertained by the ancients and by the French 
 School) ; vol. VI Preface to Oedipus (comparison of ancient 
 and modern tragedy), Preface to Troilus and Cressida (criticism 
 of Shakespeare, the imitation of our English dramatists, the 
 grounds of criticism in tragedy), Dedication to the Spanish 
 Friar (on the dovetailing of plots in tragi-comedy and on the 
 dignity of poetic style) ; vol. VII Preface to Albion and Albanius 
 (on the history and theory of the opera), Preface to Don 
 Sebastian (the length of a play, the relation of poetry to history, 
 the three unities) ; vol. VIII Dedication of Love Triumphant 
 (on the undue observance of Ancient canons of the drama) ; vol. 
 X Prologues and Epilogues (touching, in many cases, on literary 
 fashions of the day); vol. XI The Epistles especially those 
 to Lee, Roscommon, Congreve, and Sir Godfrey Kneller ; vol. 
 XII Preface to Trans, of Ovid's Epistles (three ways of trans- 
 lation : metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation ; the second is 
 preferred by Dryden), Dedication prefixed to Trans, from 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses (an attack upon critics in general, upon 
 the critics of Dryden's time, and Rymer in particular : " the 
 corruption of a poet is the generation of a critic," and a 
 defense of modern drama [British] as against the ancient), the 
 Preface on Translation prefixed to Dryden's Second Miscellany 
 (1685, the appreciation of ancient poets, Theocritus, Lucre- 
 tius, Horace, and Homer, and of their translators) ; vol. XIII 
 Essay on Satire, Dedication of the Pastorals, and the Preface 
 to them (the latter contains rules of the pastoral) ; vol. XIV 
 Dedication of the Trans, of the Aeneis (" The heroic poem 
 is the greatest work which the soul of man is capable to 
 perform "). 
 
 For further notice of Dryden, see 21, B 2.
 
 312 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20. 
 
 EMERSON, R. W. Complete Works. 
 
 Vol. Ill Essays, 2d Series, pp. 9-45 The Poet ; vol. VIII Letters 
 and Social Aims, pp. 9-75 Poetry and Imagination. 
 
 In the last of these essays poetry is described as " the only 
 verity the expression of a sound mind speaking after the 
 ideal, and not after the apparent." "It is the perpetual 
 endeavor to express the spirit of the thing, to pass the brute 
 body and search the life and reason which causes it to exist, to 
 see that the object is always flowing away whilst the spirit or 
 necessity which causes it subsists." The essential mark, or, 
 as Matthew Arnold would say, accent of poetry is the activity 
 of mind betrayed in every word, " shown in new uses of every 
 fact and image, in preternatural, quickness or perception of 
 relations." Again, " it is a presence of mind that gives a 
 miraculous command of all means of uttering the thought and 
 feeling of the moment." Still again, " poetry is the piety of 
 intellect." Its value is to educate us to a height which it can 
 itself but rarely attain, the subjugation of mankind to order 
 and virtue. It will be noticed that penetrating as these remarks 
 are, and eminently true of the idealistic character and aim of 
 art, they do not attempt to distinguish poetry from the other 
 arts save by the incidental mention of words and images as its 
 material, and of morality as the test of its value. In Emerson's 
 theory of the imagination the student will detect the continual 
 influence of Plotinus and the symbolists. 
 
 ENGEL, J. J. Anfangsgriinde einer Theorie der Dichtungsarten 
 aus deutschen Meistern entwickelt. 1783. (Schriften. 
 Berlin : 1801-06. Vol. XI, p. 25 ff.) 
 
 EVERETT, C. C. Poetry, Comedy, and Duty. 
 
 An excellent introduction to the analytic study of poetry, and 
 especially to German thought upon the subject, is afforded by 
 the first lecture of this work (pp. 1-155), which treats of the 
 Imagination, the philosophy of poetry, the poetic aspect of
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 313 
 
 nature, and the tragic forces in life and literature. Schopen- 
 hauer's best thought on aesthetics pervades the book in solu- 
 tion with much that comes from Hegel. There is none of 
 Schopenhauer's pessimism ; a good deal of Hegel's healthy 
 hopefulness. Poetry is defined simply by Professor Everett 
 (p. 92) as " a process of imagining in speech." For further 
 criticism, see 8, References on the Theory of Art. 
 
 GERUZEZ, E. Cours de litterature, rhetorique, poe'tique, histoire 
 
 litteraire. Paris. 
 
 The first seventy-three pages of pt. I deal with poetics. The 
 book may be recommended to beginners. 
 
 GILDON, CH. The Complete Art of Poetry. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 1718. 
 
 See 23. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON. Werke. (Hempel ed.) 36 vols. in 23. 
 Berlin : 1879. 
 
 Bd. XXIX Aufsatze zur Literatur. See indexes in Bde. II, 
 XXVIII, XXIX, and index to Bde. I-XXXVI in Bd. XXXVI. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON. Sammtliche Werke. 40 vols. in 20. 
 Stutt. : 1840. 
 
 Bd. XXX Winckelmann, Ueber Laokoon, Wahrheit und Wahr- 
 scheinlichkeit, u. s. w. ; Bd. XXXI Deutsche Baukunst, Verschie- 
 denes iiber Kunst, u. s. w. ; Bd. XXXII Deutsche Literatur; 
 Bd. XXXIII Auswartige Literatur und Volkspoesie ; Bd. XXXV, 
 pp. 333-459 Theater und dramatische Poesie. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON. Correspondence between Schiller and 
 Goethe. Trans, by L. D. Schmitz. 2 vols. Lond.: 1877. 
 (Vols. XIII, XIV of Goethe's Works.) 
 
 'Vol. I, pp. 321,322, 324-327 Aristotle, pp. 398, 399, 428-430,439- 
 460 Epic and Drama; vol. II, pp. 371-375. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON, and ECKERMANN, J. P. Gesprache mit 
 Goethe. 6 te Aufl. 3 vols. Leipz. : 1885. 
 See Register in Bd. III.
 
 314 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20. 
 
 GOETHE, J. W. VON, ECKERMANN, J. P., and M. SORET. Con- 
 versations of Goethe. Trans, by J. Oxenford. Lond. : 
 1875. (Vol. VI of Goethe's works.) 
 
 See index. 
 
 While Goethe in no place systematically develops a theory of 
 poetry, the genesis of his theory and the course of his opinions 
 are not difficult to discover. His aesthetic descent is not, as 
 Mr. Bosanquet thinks, from Lessing, Winckelmann, and Kant, 
 by way of Schiller, but rather from Lessing and Winckelmann by 
 way of Herder. For though Goethe was profoundly influenced 
 by Schiller's interpretation of Kant's doctrine of the harmony of 
 the moral and the natural orders in the realm of the aesthetic, 
 he was rather confirmed in the course of his own development 
 than converted to any alien way of thinking. As to his utter- 
 ances on poetics, while his Deutsche Baukunst, his contribu- 
 tions to Die Horen, and his Der Sammler und die Seinigen are 
 in general restricted to the plastic arts, the conclusions there 
 reached concerning the characteristic (typical or significant) 
 and the individual apply as well to music and to poetry. It is 
 in his Conversations, however, in his Letters, his Wahrheit and 
 Dichtung, his Spriiche, and occasional poems that the course of 
 his theory and its relation to details are especially to be sought. 
 The following outline of his aesthetic growth maybe suggestive 
 to the student : 
 
 (i) In his earliest writings he rejects tradition and insists 
 upon the free utterance of the significant ; the method of utter- 
 ance being left to the genius. (See Deutsche Baukunst, 1773 ; 
 Der Schiffer, 1778.) The content of art is furnished by the 
 artist's interpretation of the harmonies of the universe. " The 
 world lies before the artist as before its Creator, who, at the 
 moment when He enjoys his creation, enjoys also the harmonies 
 by virtue of which he created the world the harmonies which 
 constitute its existence." The art, even of the savage, which
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 315 
 
 acts on what lies around it from inward, single, individual, inde- 
 pendent feeling, is characteristic art and is true (Baukunst). 
 This period of Gothic subjectivity and individualism is suc- 
 ceeded by a revolt to the other extreme. 
 
 (2) The necessity of an objective determination of beauty is 
 recognized, and the poet, influenced by the official routine of 
 his life in Weimar, and to no slight degree by his reading 
 of Spinoza, attains a deeper insight into the significance of 
 reality. "I know God, rebus singularibus, through particular 
 phenomena and through those only" (Letter to Jacobi). Goethe 
 now rejoices in the contemplation of manifold forms as developed 
 from primitive and general types, and looks for the meaning 
 of the individually characteristic in the characteristic of the 
 universal. " Only by bounds self-set is mastery gained. Law 
 alone gives liberty." This period of aesthetic reflection and 
 practice culminates in a Hellenism as severe, formal, and sym- 
 bolical as the romanticism of the former period was capri- 
 cious and unrestrained. Before the essential and the typical 
 of classic art, the arbitrary and the individual fade. In the 
 masterpieces of Greece " is Necessity : God." The poetic 
 genius of Goethe did not, however, suffer him to abide in a 
 passionless atmosphere of Hellenism. While already feeling 
 his way to an aesthetic position which should transcend the 
 dualism of his earlier thought, he was led by his intercourse 
 with Schiller to a more sympathetic understanding of the 
 doctrines of Kant, and so to the last stage of his aesthetic 
 theory. 
 
 (3) This was a conception of beauty as subsuming both the 
 significant attribute and the symbolical form ; thus revealing 
 the purpose of the characteristic in the elaboration of the form, 
 and the individuality of the form in its manifestation of the 
 characteristic. But Goethe does not strive to reduce Beauty to 
 a definite abstract concept : " Beauty is an ultimate principle 
 which itself is never revealed to sense, but which is reflected
 
 316 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 in a thousand different manifestations of the creative mind 
 a reflection as manifold and varied as the universe itself." 
 " Alles vergangliche ist nur ein Gleichniss." " Law which 
 manifests itself in freedom and in harmony with its own condi- 
 tions, produces the objectively beautiful " (Eckermann). For 
 his theory of the beauty of nature, Eckermann maybe consulted 
 ' (Oxenford's trans., pp. 244-246 ; pp. 157, 158). An object of 
 nature is beautiful in so far as it reveals its essential character. 
 This consists in conformity to the type and the laws of develop- 
 ment plus the individualizing environment. Beauty in art, on 
 the one hand, penetrates beneath the actual and the intel- 
 lectually comprehensible ; on the other, it is dependent upon 
 the actual phenomena in whose manifestations of beauty that 
 intangible ultimate must be found. Beauty in art cannot be 
 denned, but " the artist's work is real in as far as it is always 
 true ; ideal in that it is never actual." As to the purpose of 
 art and this applies to poetry " its highest achievement is 
 to give to the rough semblance the illusion of a higher truth " 
 (Wahrheit und Dichtung). "The work of the poet consists 
 in presentations to sense. The highest perfection is reached 
 when the spirit of life informs them, so that they seem to 
 every one to be concretely present." Poetry at its best appears 
 to be altogether external and plastic (Spriiche). As to where 
 the poetical resides, Goethe says to Eckermann, " No material 
 is, strictly speaking, unpoetical as soon as the poet knows 
 what to do with it." The poet does not represent scientific, but 
 artistic concepts. By his imagination the artistic concept of 
 that which is characteristic (or significant) is embodied in style. 
 The end of art is in art just as the end of nature is in nature. 
 Here Goethe agrees with Kant's doctrine of the beautiful, " the 
 form of purposiveness in an object, in as far as this can be per- 
 ceived without our referring it to any end " (Bosanquet, Hist, of 
 Aesth., p. 264). The materials of poetry, as of art, are without 
 limit : morals, religion, and science in so far as they possess
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 317 
 
 general human interest (Eckermann, p. 83). As to the source 
 of poetry, " art requires no ennobling purpose, for art springs 
 from a kind of religious sense, a deep, immutable seriousness " 
 (Spriiche, 690). As to the function of poetry, "true poetry 
 bears this mark, that it is an earthly gospel setting us free, by 
 an inner serenity and an outward soothing effect, from the 
 burdens of life ; ... it lifts us into higher regions and enables 
 us to obtain a bird's-eye view of the confusion and the perplexi- 
 ties of earth '' (Wahrheit und Dichtung). 
 
 The theories of Schiller and Goethe, enriched by reciprocal 
 suggestion and criticism, have a direct bearing not only upon the 
 poetics of the philosophers who succeeded them, Schelling, 
 Fichte, Hegel, but upon the poetry of Germany, and indi- 
 rectly (through Coleridge, Wordsworth, Arnold, and Ruskin) 
 upon the poetics and the poetry of England. Since the appear- 
 ance of Schiller's Ueber naive und sentimentale Dichtung 
 (1795-96) and Goethe's Deutsche Baukunst (1773) the dog- 
 matic strife between ancient and modern poetics has given place 
 to an inquiry into the development of the aesthetic conscious- 
 ness and its relation to the history of artistic creation. 
 
 For other references, see the Goethe-Jahrbuch, 1:17 Goethe 
 und Lessing, 5:298 Zu Goethes Aufsatzen iiber Kunst; 
 Rosenkranz, Goethe und seine Werke (Konigsberg : 1847), 
 pp. 8-1 6 Der jetzige Standpunkt der Kritik, pp. 29-36 Die 
 humanitare Kritik, pp. 65-78 Goethe als Kunstforscher ; 
 Schubarth, Zur Beurtheilung Goethes (2. Aufl. 2 vols. Breslau : 
 1820), Bd. II, pp. 48147 Kunst und Alterthum, pp. 148200 
 Poesie und Kritik, pp. 201-425 Aesthetische Aphorismen ; and 
 Blackie's Wisdom of Goethe (N. Y. : 1884), pp. Ixxvii-lxxxiii, 
 
 109147, 2OI-22I. 
 
 GOTTSCHALL, R. Poetik. Die Dichtkunst und ihre Technik. 
 3. verb. Aufl. 2 vols. in i. Breslau: 1873. 
 See, for notice, 21, B 3.
 
 318 LITERARY CRITICISM. [30. 
 
 GOTTSCHED, J. C. Versuch einer Kritischen Dichtkunst. 1750. 
 
 See 21, B 3. And consult Franz Gervoes, Die Poetik Gott- 
 sched's u. der Schweitzer (Quellen u. Forschungen, vol. LXI) ; 
 and Job. Criiger, J. C. Gottsched und die Schweitzer (Berlin u. 
 Stuttg. : 1884). 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B. A Handbook of Poetics. Boston : 1885. 
 
 A careful outline of the subject adapted to the use of begin- 
 ners, whom it introduces to problems not only of the older but 
 of the more modern, especially the German, criticism. The 
 work presents in classified form suggestion and example which 
 the student may elaborate for himself. The treatment of style 
 and metre is, perhaps, more satisfactory than that of literary 
 forms. The author generally offers a simple but at the same 
 time philosophic solution of difficulties, and his method of 
 division is suggestive. Criticisms of the work, with counter- 
 criticisms by the author, will be found in Mod. Lang. Notes. 
 (See 23.) 
 
 GURNEY, EDMUND. Tertium Quid. 2 vols. Lond. : 1887. 
 
 In the second volume of this readable collection of essays, 
 the author discusses the Arnold-Austin-Swinburne controversy. 
 The essay Poets, Critics, and Class-Lists, enters a complaint 
 against the practice of ranking poets. Gurney points out the 
 fact that rank or grade can be determined only for objects existing 
 under similar conditions ; that these conditions must be clearly 
 defined, and the consideration of them conducted upon accepted 
 principles. But, if we are to hold with him that there is in 
 poetry a ' non-reasonable ' element, then all attempts, such as 
 those of Mr. Arnold and Mr. Austin, to analyze poetry and to 
 rank poets by reasoned discourse must be deemed beside the 
 question. The substitution of ( non-reasoned ' for ' non-reason- 
 able ' would afford a more scientific basis for discussion. 
 The student should compare with Gurney's ' magical element '
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 319 
 
 Swinburne's "something at once perceptible and indefinable." 
 He will note also' that while the principles of harmony and of 
 contrast may promote the pleasurable effects of poetry, they do 
 not in Gurney's opinion account for the charm of " quintessen- 
 tially poetic passages." That the musical element does not 
 account for the charm, and that the poetic whole is the prod- 
 uct rather than the sum of the ' mind-pleasure ' and the ' ear- 
 pleasure,' are thoughts worthy of development. In the chapter 
 on the Appreciation of Poetry the discussion is carried forward 
 on the same lines : Austin's attempted classification of styles 
 of poetry is assailed as confused and inadequate ; Arnold's 
 laws of ' poetic beauty and poetic truth ' are, with justice, 
 pronounced vague. The canon of ' popularity ' is treated with 
 respect, although acknowledged to depend upon incalculable 
 conditions. And the moral of the whole is that " we should be 
 chary of attaching too absolute a value to our own orders of 
 merit, and of measuring poetical achievements by any ' reason- 
 able' considerations." 
 
 GURNEY, EDMUND. The Power of Sound. Lond. : 1880. 
 
 One of the most suggestive works upon the subject. None, 
 perhaps, more scientifically and sympathetically discusses the 
 relation existing between music and poetry. The greater part 
 of the volume will .be of service in the study of versification. 
 (See 23.) For the theory of poetry the opening paragraphs 
 of chap. XIX, The Sound Element in Verse, should be studied. 
 The enjoyment of poetry is roughly divided into two kinds, 
 according as the impressions produced by it could, or could 
 not, be produced by prose. See also the last pages of the 
 chapter, especially pp. 448, 449, upon Lessing's Theory of 
 Poetry. 
 
 GUYAU, M.-J. Les problem es de 1'esthe'tique contemporaine. 
 Paris: 1884.
 
 320 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 GUYAU, M.-J. L'Art au point de vue sociologique. Paris : 
 1889. 
 
 The former volume treats, with continual reference to recent 
 contributions to social and aesthetic problems, of the principle 
 of art and of poetry, the future of art and of poetry, and the 
 abiding quality of the laws of verse. The latter contains a 
 remarkably acute study of the effect produced by philosophical 
 and social ideas upon French poetry in this century, and of 
 the corresponding role of poetry in relation to life. 
 
 HARTMANN, E. VON. Ausgewahlte Werke. Berlin: 1887. 
 
 Bd. IV Zweiter Systemat. Theil, pp. 714-783 Philosophic des 
 Schonen. 
 
 The analysis of poetry, although apparently logical and 
 genetic, is evidently forced into conformity with a preconceived 
 system of aesthetics. Regarding all poetry as spoken or read, 
 the author discovers the following progressive classification of 
 its forms : 
 
 A. Spoken. i. The Epic: (a) the plastic epic, or the pure 
 epical epic ; (b) the picturesque, or lyrical epic ; 2. The Lyric: 
 (a) the epical lyric ; () the pure lyrical lyric ; (c) the dramatic 
 lyric, or the lyric of passion and motivation ; 3. The Drama : 
 (a) the lyrical drama ; (b) the epical drama ; (c) the pure 
 dramatic drama. 
 
 B. Read. i . ' Read ' as related to ' spoken ' poetry ; 
 2. Classification of poetry as read : personal narrative, letter- 
 poetry, diary-lyrics, the romance, short story, etc. 
 
 HASLEWOOD, J. (Ed.) Ancient Critical Essays upon English 
 Poets and Poesy. 2 vols. Lond. : 1811-15. 
 
 Vol. I Puttenham ; vol. II Webbe, James I, Campion, Daniel, 
 Boulton, Letters of Harvey and Spenser. See 21, B 2, and 
 24, B i, 2.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 321 
 
 HAZLITT, W. Lectures on the English Poets and English 
 Comic Writers. Bohn Libr. Lond. : 1876. 
 Vol. I, pp. 1-25 Poetry. 
 
 His keen and sympathetic appreciation of merit distinguishes 
 Hazlitt as an author who, though essentially of the romantic 
 school, could acknowledge the debt owed by English poetry to 
 the school that had preceded. His paper in the London 
 Magazine on the anti-Pope controversy gave both Bowles and 
 his opponents their due and settled the dispute. His admira- 
 tion of Coleridge and the German school of criticism is generally 
 held in check by a judicial conservatism. . The following defini- 
 tions, given in the chapter mentioned above, are rather of the 
 poetic faculty than of the art : " Poetry is the language of the 
 imagination and the passions. Poetry is the universal language 
 which the heart holds with nature and itself" (p. i). " Poetry 
 in its matter and form is natural imagery, or feeling, combined 
 with passion and fancy" (p. 15). 
 
 HEGEL, G. W. F. Werke. 18 vols. Berlin : 1833-48. 
 
 Bd. X, Theile 1-3 Aesthetik, Bd. X, Abthl. 3, pp. 220-581 Die 
 Poesie. (See g ? p. 101, above.) 
 
 See also Bosanquet's Introd. to Hegel's Philos. of Fine Art 
 (Lond. : 1886) and Kedney's Hegel's Aesthetics (Chicago : 
 1885), and Benard, above. No authority can be prescribed 
 the thorough study of which will be more beneficial. Not that 
 Hegel's scheme, classification, and theory of poetry are implicitly 
 to be adopted ; but that they are systematic and profound, and 
 even through piecemeal translations are the basis of much 
 recent English and American poetics. There is no complete 
 rendering into English of the chapters on poetry. Kedney's 
 work, though sympathetic, is inadequate because of its brevity, 
 while because of its exegetical nature it is not unmixed Hegel. 
 Kedney's eighth chapter will, however, be of value to such as
 
 322 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 have not a reading knowledge of German. Bosanquet's close 
 and luminous translation of the Introduction is the best pro- 
 paedeutic to the Aesthetik. It is reprinted as an Appendix to 
 Bosanquet's History of Aesthetic. Pp. 171-173 in Bosanquet 
 furnish a conception of the trend of Hegel's thought, although 
 the footnote to p. 172 may possibly convey the erroneous 
 notion that he underrated the function of sound in -poetry. 
 That such was not the case is evident from the Aesthetik, 
 vol. Ill, pp. 274, 275. A truer statement would be that beauty 
 of sound was not overrated by Hegel. The report that he 
 regarded poetic form as a matter of indifference proceeds from 
 a misinterpretation of an isolated passage on p. 227 of the 
 same volume. What he there says about the translatableness 
 of poetry should be construed in connection with the three 
 remarks (p. 275) that precede the section entitled Die poetische 
 Vorstellung. Another rumor that has got abroad makes Hegel 
 pronounce metre to be the only condition absolutely indispen- 
 sable to poetry. For the correction of this error, see the Aes- 
 thetik, vol. Ill, pp. 234, 235, and 275 The Conditions Demanded 
 by Poetry. The passage so often misconstrued, concerning the 
 value of metre, will be found on p. 289. It should be trans- 
 lated as follows: "Versified prose gives us not poetry, but 
 merely verse just as a purely poetic utterance when sub- 
 jected to prosaic treatment results in poetic prose ; but, for all 
 that, metre or rhyme is undoubtedly indispensable to poetry as 
 the prime and peculiar atmosphere (or fragrance) by which it is 
 made manifest to the senses ; indeed, metre is more necessary 
 than picturesque or so-called elegant diction." On the defi- 
 nition of poetry, see p. 222 et seq. ; for Hegel's scheme of dis- 
 cussion, p. 235 ; for the material of poetry, p. 236. For the place 
 of poetry among the arts, see Schasler, Gesch. d. Aesthetik 
 (Berl. : 1872), pp. 967, 1003, where will be found a reasonable 
 criticism of the classification (on the basis of appeal to eye, ear, 
 or imagination) made by Hegel, Vischer, and Weisse.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 323 
 
 HERDER, J. G. VON. Sammtliche Werke. 31 vols. Hrsg. 
 von B. Suphan. Berlin: 1877-89. 
 
 Vol. VIII, p. 334 Ueber die Wirkung der Dichtkunst auf die 
 Sitten der Volker in alten und neuen Zeiten. 
 
 Herder emphasizes here, as in his Kalligone, the principle, 
 " The play of mankind, like the play of nature, is thoughtful, 
 earnest." It is to be remembered that he ranked among the 
 "free" arts those only that served a purpose; speech was 
 one of these " free " arts, but not music or the plastic arts. 
 Cf. Kant's Kritik d. Urtheilskraft, to which the Kalligone was 
 written as a reply. Herder represented pre-Kantian principles, 
 and was consequently unable to appreciate the organic method 
 of Kant. He defines beauty as the expression of the inner 
 life, but fails to distinguish between the sphere of beauty 
 and those of truth and goodness. Hence sprang the didactic 
 element, which, as shown above, vitiates his classification of 
 the arts. 
 
 HERDER, J. G. VON. Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. Trans, by 
 James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington : 1833. 
 
 Especially forcible in the historical treatment of figures. 
 
 HOLMES, O. W. Ralph Waldo Emerson. (Am. Men of Letters.) 
 Boston : 1885. 
 
 See pp. 312-324 On Emerson's Poems. 
 
 HOWISON, G. H. Overland Mo., N. s., 5 : 523 The Essential 
 Principle in Poetry. (Repr. San Francisco: 1894.) 
 
 A clear and adequate discussion of the theme of poetry, " a 
 rounded whole of vigorous unity, . . . founded on actual 
 experience, but transfigured in the light of the ideal borne 
 within it," of the relation of this ideal to the reality of nature 
 and the Supreme Ideal, of the conditions determining the 
 embodiment of the theme, and of the characteristics of the 
 medium.
 
 324 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON. Cosmos. Trans, from the Ger- 
 man by E. C. Otte and W. S. Dallas. 5 vols. N. Y. : 
 1862. 
 
 See the chapter on Poetic Descriptions of Nature, in vol. II, 
 pp. 1-105. 
 
 HUNT, LEIGH. Selections from the English Poets. N. Y. : 
 
 Pt. I Imagination and Fancy, pp. 1-49 What is Poetry? pt. II, 
 pp. 1-50 Illustrative Essay on Wit and Humor. 
 
 " Poetry ... is the utterance of a passion for truth, beauty, 
 and power, embodying and illustrating its conceptions by imagi- 
 nation and fancy, and modulating its language on the principle 
 of variety in uniformity." Hunt distinguishes, as few critics 
 have done, between the poetic feeling, or faculty, and the 
 poetic operation of art. He discusses in turn, with simplicity 
 and directness, imagination, fancy, versification, the classifica- 
 tion of poets, poetic truth, beauty, and power. A useful 
 edition, with introduction and notes, has been prepared by 
 Prof. A. S. Cook (Boston). 
 
 JAMES I OF ENGLAND. The Essays of a Prentice in the 
 Divine Art of Poesie. . . . Eng. Reprints. . . . Ed. by 
 E. Arber. Lond. : 1869. 
 See, for brief notice, 24, B z. 
 
 JEFFREY, FRANCIS. Contributions to the Edinburgh Review. 
 N. Y. : 1860. 
 
 Containing the famous reviews of Wordsworth and his con- 
 temporaries in poetry. A selection from his Essays, " with a 
 view to illustrating his style and his range and methods as 
 a literary critic," has been recently edited by Lewis E. Gates 
 (Boston : 1894). It contains an excellent introduction on the 
 development of periodical criticism. See also 21, B 2.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 325 
 
 JOHNSON, S. Works, n vols. Oxford: 1825. 
 
 Vol. II Rambler: No. 4 Romance, pp. 36,37 Pastorals, pp. 86, 88, 
 90,92, 94 Versification ; vol. Ill, pp. 139, 140 Samson Agonistes, 
 pp. 156 Tragi-Comedy, p. 168 Poetry; vol. IV Adventurer, 
 p. 58 Criticism and Poetry; Idler: No. 45 Painting, pp. 60, 6 1 
 Criticism, p. 63 Art and Language, pp. 76, 79 Painting, p. 82 
 Beauty ; vol. V, pp. 55-60 Observations of the Tragedy of 
 Macbeth, pp. 118-124 Shakespeare and the Unities, pp. 366- 
 414 Trans, of Brumoy's Dissertations upon the Greek Comedy, 
 pp. 414-430 General Conclusion to Brumoy's Greek Theatre ; 
 vol. VII, pp. 14-16 (Cowley) Wit, pp. 125-142 (Milton) Epic 
 Poetry, pp. 301-307 Dryden as a Critic. 
 
 In vols. V and VI will be found the Lives of the Poets, six 
 of which are republished with Macaulay's Essay on Johnson, 
 in Matthew Arnold's edition (Lond. : 1886). Arnold's words, in 
 the Preface to the Lives, concerning Dr. Johnson's literary judg- 
 ment, hold true for his aesthetic principles at large : " Of poetry 
 he speaks as a man whose sense for that with which he is 
 dealing is in some degree imperfect. Yet even on poetry 
 Johnson's utterances are valuable, because they are the utter- 
 ances of a great and original man." According to Johnson, 
 " Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth by calling 
 imagination to the help of reason " ; an excellent specimen of 
 the eighteenth-century theory of poetry. 
 
 An edition of Selections from Johnson is promised by Pro- 
 fessor H. H. Neill (Athenaeum Press Series, Boston). 
 
 JORDAN, W. Episteln und Vortrage. Frankfurt a. M. : 1891. 
 
 Pp. 76-156 Bild und Wort. 
 
 Reopens the question discussed by Lessing in the Laokoon. 
 Some of the illustrations are new. 
 
 JOUBERT, J. Pensees, pre'cede's . . . d'une notice . . . par P. 
 de Raynal. 2 vols. Paris : 1877-80. 
 Tome II, pp. 263-272 De la Poesie,
 
 326 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 Plato's arraignment, on metaphysical grounds, of art as pre- 
 senting but a third-hand copy of reality, is answered by Joubert. 
 The poet, he says, does not copy a copy. He clarifies ma- 
 terial forms (which are ' impressions ' of the idea) and makes 
 of them a cast from the archetype, which shall retain the 
 properties of the archetype. His inspiration springs from 
 the creative quality of imagination ; the product of which 
 images are his only symbols. He vitalizes them with 
 ideas. The function of poetry is to enchant the hearer with 
 the changing and inexhaustible delight of beauty, freshness, 
 and meaning ; but the poetic appreciation varies with the sensi- 
 tiveness of the hearer himself. Therefore, only to the sensitive 
 soul does the real charm of a poem its invisible and subtle 
 principle make its full appeal. (Cf. Gurney, Tertium Quid, 
 The Appreciation of Poetry.) The poet need not, however, 
 despair of an audience, for to every man capable of producing 
 an imaginative creation there is provided his alter ego, capable 
 of appreciating. 
 
 KANT, IMM. Kritik of Judgment. Trans, by J. H. Bernard. 
 
 Lond. : 1892. 
 
 For the study of modern poetics a knowledge of the Critique 
 of Judgment is indispensable. A list of editions and com- 
 mentaries will be found in 3, B i, and 8. Three streams 
 of theory converge in this Critique : the English and Ger- 
 man aesthetico-critical, Burke, Kaimes, Reynolds, Hogarth, 
 Baumgarten, Lessing, Winckelmann ; the English abstract- 
 sensationalist and individualist, Bacon, Locke, Shaftesbury, 
 Berkeley, Hume ; and the continental abstract-rationalist, 
 Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Wolff. Kant's aesthetic doctrines 
 were made concrete and popularized by Schiller. Bearing the 
 impress of Schiller and Goethe (who also adapted and modified 
 Kant), the Kantian aesthetic has passed not only into popular 
 poetic theory, but into the dialectic of Schelling and Hegel. 
 See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth., and Goethe, above.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 327 
 
 KEBLE, J. Occasional Papers and Reviews. 
 
 See particularly the Reviews on Coplestone's Praelectiones 
 and Lockhart's Life of Scott (from British Critic, 1838). The 
 following exposition of poetry calls for comparison with Aris- 
 totle's view of imitation, and with Mill's associational basis 
 of the poetic art : " Poetry is the indirect expression in words, 
 most appropriately in metrical words, of some overpowering emo- 
 tion, or ruling taste or feeling, the direct indulgence whereof is 
 somehow repressed." Keble looked upon all poetic expres- 
 sion, therefore, as a species of catharsis, by which the over- 
 burdened heart is relieved, imaginatively, of emotions which 
 could not with like decorum find utterance in actual life. See 
 Cardinal Newman's address on Keble, an article in New Eng- 
 lander, 56 : 239, on the Poetry of the Tractarian Movement, 
 and the article ' Keble ' in the Encycl. Brit., gth ed. 
 
 KLEINPAUL, E. Poetik. 9. umg. und verm. Aufl. Leipz. : 
 1892. 
 
 Thl. i Die Dichtungsformen, Thl. 2 Die Dichtungssprache, Thl. 3 
 Die Dichtungsarten. See 21, B 3, and 23. 
 
 KNIGHT, WILLIAM. Studies in Philosophy and Literature. 
 Lond. : 1879. 
 
 Pp. 264282 A Contribution towards a Theory of Poetry. 
 
 A protest, in terms popular but exact, against conventional- 
 ism in the art. It provides a serviceable introduction to the 
 philosophy of the subject. Same article in LittelFs Living 
 Age, 116:759. ' 
 
 KNIGH.T, WILLIAM. The Philosophy of the Beautiful. 2 vols. 
 Lond. : 1891-93. 
 
 Ft. II, chap. VIII Poetry. 
 
 Adapted to the beginner's needs. Two principles are held 
 to govern all intellectual processes : (i) that a thing is known
 
 328 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 by its contrast with something unlike it, e.g., the beautiful by 
 contrast with the ugly ; (2) that the free and unimpeded energy 
 of our faculties is always attended by joyful emotion. 
 
 KRALIK, R. VON. Kunstbiichlein gerechten griindlichen 
 Gebrauchs aller Freunde der Dichtkunst. Wien : 1891. 
 
 A work of considerable merit. The author's views on the 
 relation of poetry and religion excited much comment when 
 the book appeared. 
 
 LANIER, S. The Science of English Verse. N. Y. : 1880. 
 See, for notice, 23. 
 
 LESSING, G. E. Werke. 20 vols. in 12. Berlin. 
 
 Bd. VI Laokoon; Bd. VII Hamburgische Dramaturgic; Bd. XI, 
 Abth. 1-2 Kleinere Schriften zur dramatischen Poesie und zur 
 Fabel; Bd. XIII, Abth. 2, pp. 249-306 Wie die Alten den 
 Tod gebildet, pp. 332347 Anmerkungen zu Winckelmann's 
 Geschichte der Kunst. 
 
 The Laocoon is, perhaps, the most valuable contribution 
 since the day of Winckelmann to a certain part of the field of 
 aesthetics. Lessing came to conclusions concerning the bound- 
 aries of painting and poetry, the dependence of either art on 
 the medium used and the manner of use, the difference between 
 ancient and modern conceptions of beauty, and the relative 
 places of the ugly, the ridiculous, the grotesque in poetry and 
 painting, which, though in great measure a coordination of pre- 
 ceding aesthetic suggestions, exercised a revolutionary influ- 
 ence upon literary criticism, if not upon the criticism of art in 
 general. 
 
 But while the Laocoon deserves the serious attention and 
 admiration of the student, it by no means demands unqualified 
 assent, even to its fundamental doctrines. By applying the 
 term ' Mahlerey ' to the plastic arts without discrimination, 
 Lessing obscures the distinction between painting and sculp-
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 329 
 
 ture, even though his argument has reference to the function 
 of the latter. His services are to poetics rather than to art- 
 criticism but still the premises of his literary theory may be 
 called in question. Are actions the only proper objects of 
 poetry ? Can successive signs express only objects which are 
 successive, or whose parts are successive ? Can poetry avail 
 itself only of a single property of the body presented ? To an- 
 swer the last of these questions in the affirmative is to assert 
 that the imagination has neither the power of retention nor of 
 combination ; that there is no such thing as a resultant of the 
 images presented to the mind by verbal symbols. But the 
 most ordinary visualist can combine the successive properties 
 of an object as rehearsed into a kaleidoscopic image concom- 
 itant with and changing with the description. To answer the 
 two former questions in the affirmative is to exclude lyrical, 
 elegiac, idyllic, and reflective poems from the realm of poetry. 
 If the lyric be retained on the ground that it portrays the action 
 of the emotions, what shall be done with L'Allegro, the Deserted 
 Village, the Seasons, the Task, the De Rerum Natura, the 
 nobler philosophical satire, none of which engages in emotional 
 turmoil. Still, although Lessing attempted to restrict the realm 
 of poetry, he enriched its content by justifying the appeal to 
 all aesthetic emotions of which man is capable. His limitation 
 of the realm should be examined in the light of the best Eng- 
 lish descriptive poetry. The sources of his poetics should be 
 sought in Baumgarten, Burke, Kaimes, Bodmer, Breitinger, 
 Hogarth, Winckelmann, Reynolds, of course in Aristotle, 
 and to no slight degree in the French School which Lessing 
 combated. (See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth., p. 216 et seq. ; and 
 Schasler, p. 431 et seq.) Does Lessing distinguish between 
 poetry and prose? See Gurney's Power of Sound, pp. 148, 
 149. Consult also in connection with the Laocoon the follow- 
 ing works : Jas. Sime, Lessing (2 vols. Lond. : 1877), vol. I, 
 pp. 247-308, vol. II, pp. 1-62, 76-80 ; Helen Zimmern,
 
 330 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 Lessing, His Life and Works (Lond. : 1878), chap. XI; A. 
 Stahr, G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke (3. Aufl. 
 2 vols. Berlin : 1864), Theil I, pp. 168-179, 243-271, 315- 
 361; Theil II, pp. 26-30; The Life and Works of G. E. 
 Lessing (Trans, of Stahr's Lessing by E. P. -Evans. 2 vols. 
 Boston : 1866), vol. I, pp. 183-193, 261-289, 337-383, vol. 
 II, pp. 27-30; E. L. Walter, Lessing on the Boundaries of 
 Poetry and Painting (Ann Arbor : 1888. Univ. of Mich. 
 Philos. Papers, 2d Ser., No. 3) ; H. Bliimner, Laokoon-Studien 
 (Freiburg i. B. : 1881-82. Bears indirectly upon the nature 
 of poetry, discussing (i) the use of allegory in plastic art, and 
 (2) the determination of the significant moment and of the 
 transitory element as propounded by Lessing). 
 
 The Laocoon has been translated by Miss Frothingham 
 (Boston : 1890) and by E. C. Beasley (Bohn Libr.). The 
 edition of Hamann and Upcott (Oxford: 1892) has helpful 
 notes. For other notices of Lessing, see 8, 38, 41, 44, 47- 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Lectures on the English Poets. (Lowell Insti- 
 tute). 
 
 Lecture I Definition of Poetry. 
 
 A statement of the argument for the ' magical ' or ' un defin- 
 able ' factor. Cf. Swinburne and Gurney. 
 
 LOWELL, J. R. Literary and Political Essays and Addresses. 
 6 vols. Boston : 1891. 
 
 The following essays are especially valuable to the student 
 of poetry: Vol. I, p. 218 Keats ; vol. II, p. 120 Swinburne's 
 Tragedies, p. 232 Lessing ; vol. Ill, p. i Shakespeare Once 
 More, p. 95 Dryden, p. 291 Chaucer ; vol. IV Pope, Milton, 
 Dante, Spenser, Wordsworth ; vol. VI, p. 68 Coleridge, p. 99 
 Wordsworth. 
 
 MACAULAY, T. B. Critical, Historical, and Miscellaneous 
 Kssnys. 6 vols. N. Y. : j86j,
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 331 
 
 In the essay on Milton, vol. I, pp. 206-211, will be found 
 the argument that the poetic faculty declines as civilization 
 advances. " By poetry," says Macaulay, " we mean not all 
 writing in verse nor even all good writing in verse. Our defi- 
 nition excludes many metrical compositions which on other 
 grounds deserve the highest praise. By poetry we mean the 
 art of employing words in such a manner as to produce an 
 illusion on the imagination the art of doing by words what 
 the painter does by means of colors." Does Macaulay dis- 
 tinguish clearly between the faculty and the art of poetry ? 
 And does he not underestimate the importance of the poetic 
 conception as determining the treatment of the subject ? See 
 also the essay on Dryden ; and compare Courthope's Liberal 
 Movement, pp. 24-28. 
 
 MASSON, D. Essays, Biographical and Critical English Poets. 
 Cambr. : 1856. 
 
 Pp. 409-446 Theories of Poetry ; pp. 447-475 Prose and Verse 
 De Quincey. 
 
 An excellent compend of theories. The author refers all 
 definitions of poetry to Aristotle (in the Poetics) or to Bacon 
 (in the Advancement of Learning). On the question whether 
 the ' imitative ' and creative ' theories of poetry may be inter- 
 preted as two aspects of the same truth, see 19, /, C 3, above. 
 Masson discriminates between the poetic temperament and the 
 poetic faculty, and defines the latter as the power of 'intellectually 
 producing a new or artificial concrete. Poetry itself he defines 
 as a special mode of intellectual exercise, possible under all 
 degrees of emotional excitement. It is the exercise of the 
 mind "imaginatively or in the figuring forth of concrete cir- 
 cumstances " (On Wordsworth, Shelley, and Keats). An im- 
 portant principle is involved in the proposition that metre 
 holds by original tenure not on poetry but on passion, and 
 that, accordingly, the theories of Wordsworth, etc., are theories
 
 332 LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 
 of verse not in its origin, but in its character as an existing 
 institution in literature. With this discussion may be com- 
 pared Dallas's theory (Poetics. London : 1852), which is here 
 criticised. 
 
 In the article on the distinction between prose and verse 
 (Essays, pp. 447-475), Professor Masson reverts to Coleridge's 
 opinion, that the line must be drawn not between poetry and 
 prose, but between poetry and science. On the relation of 
 poetry to science, see the article by Professor Thomas in Open 
 Court, 3 : 1727. 
 
 MILL, J. S. Dissertations and Discussions. 3 vols. Boston : 
 1865. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 89-120 Thoughts on Poetry and its Varieties. 
 
 Poetry (as acting upon the emotions) is distinguished first 
 from prose, which appeals to the intellect ; then (as portraying 
 the human soul) from fiction, which gives a picture of life ; 
 lastly (as unconscious of a listener) from eloquence, which 
 holds intercourse with the world. Poetry, says Mill (p. 97), is 
 feeling confessing itself to itself in moments of solitude, and 
 embodying itself in symbols which are the nearest possible 
 representations of the feeling in the exact shape in which it 
 exists in the poet's mind. The distinction between poetry and 
 eloquence obtains, according to Mill, in every art. On p. 106 
 will be found the principle underlying Mill's exposition: that in 
 poetry emotions are the links of association by which ideas are 
 connected. "What is poetry but the thought and words in 
 which emotion spontaneously embodies itself ? " The applica- 
 tion of the theory to Wordsworth and Shelley (p. 109 et seq.} is 
 worthy of attention. This article is specially commended to 
 the consideration of the student. 
 
 MILTON, JOHN. Prose Works. Bohn Libr. 
 VoJ. Ill, p. 462 On Education-
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 333 
 
 The following is the passage frequently mistaken for an abso- 
 lute definition of Poetry : " To which [namely, Logic and Rhet- 
 oric] poetry would be made subsequent, or, indeed, rather 
 precedent, as being less subtile and fine, but more simple, 
 sensuous, and passionate. I mean not here the prosody of a 
 verse, which they could not but have hit on before among the 
 rudiments of grammar, but that sublime art which in Aristotle's 
 Poetics, in Horace . . . and others, teaches us what the laws 
 are of a true epic poem, what of a dramatic, what of a lyric, 
 what decorum is, which is the grand masterpiece to observe." 
 For further note, see 21, B 2 Development of Poetics in 
 England. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, M. Works. Trans, by W. Hazlitt. Ed. by O. 
 W. Wight. 4 vols. N. Y. : 1859. 
 Vol. I, pp. 326, 327 Poetry. 
 
 MOON, G. W. What is Poetry ? Trans. Royal Soc. of Lit. 
 2d Ser., 12 : 173. 
 
 A curiosity of literature. The writer illustrates famous defi- 
 nitions of poetry by citations from his own poems. 
 
 MORRIS, G. S. British Thought and Thinkers. Chicago : 
 1880. 
 
 Pp. 80-113 William Shakespeare. 
 
 Professor Morris illustrates by a study of Shakespeare the 
 relation of poetry to philosophy. Philosophy is the theory of 
 life ; poetry, the exposition of life. With regard to insight, 
 philosopher and poet are brothers, the former explicitly con- 
 scious of the meaning of the vision, the latter not, a relative 
 difference. The philosopher demonstrates the truth ; the poet 
 envisages. The poet is nature's instrument, a seer, not a 
 creator of new truth. He is universal because he reports the 
 intrinsically real. He creates only the form of that which he
 
 334 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 tells. He has the substance of the philosopher, but he sings 
 uplifted by his message, not held down by its weight. 
 
 NEWMAN, F. W. Miscellanies. 3 vols. Lond. : 1869-89. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 65-145 Lectures on Poetry. See 23. 
 NEWMAN, J. H. Essays, Critical and Historical. 2d. ed. 2 vols. 
 Lond.: 1872. 
 
 Vol. I Poetry with reference to Aristotle's Poetics. 
 
 NEWMAN, J. H. Essay on Poetry, with reference to Aristotle's 
 Poetics. Ed. by A. S. Cook. Boston : 1891. 
 
 PATER, VV. Appreciations. Lond. : 1889. 
 
 The theory of poetry advanced by Wordsworth is shrewdly 
 and sympathetically discussed. The articles on Aesthetic Poetry, 
 p. 213, and on Rossetti, p. 228, contain a clever determination 
 of the merits of the pre-Raphaelite School ; the Postscript, 
 pp. 243-264, states the differentiae of Classicism and Roman- 
 ticism. 
 
 PEACOCK, T. L. Works. 3 vols. Lond. : 1875. 
 
 Vol. Ill, pp. 324-338 The Four Ages of Poetry. The article 
 may also be found in Cook's edition of Shelley's Defense of 
 Poetry. See ' Shelley ' below. 
 
 PERRY, T. S. English Literature in the Eighteenth Century. 
 N. Y. : 1883. 
 
 Pp. 205, 206 The Definition of Poetry. 
 
 PHELPS, W. L. The Beginnings of the English Romantic 
 Movement. Boston : 1894. 
 
 PLATO. The Dialogues of Plato. 
 
 See Index to the second edition of Jowett's Translation (by E. 
 Abbott. Oxford: 1875), under Poetry and Poets. The follow- 
 ing passages are of especial interest : Rep. 2 : 363, 377 ; 3 : 392, 
 394; 10:595, 605-607; Laws, 2:656-669; 3--39 I -39 8 ' 68 2 > 
 700; 7:801, 811-817; 8:568, 801,829; 9:858; 10:601-605;
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 335 
 
 1 1 : 935 ; 14 : 967 ; Protagoras, pp. 325, 326, 347 ; Ion, pp. 532- 
 534 ; Laches, p. 183; Apology, p. 22; Gorgias, p. 502 ; Lysis, 
 pp. 212, 214; Symposium, p. 205. See also under Plato, 9, 
 on Imitation, Representation, Creation, etc. 
 
 POE, E. A. Works. Ed. by J. H. Ingram. 4 vols. Edinb. : 
 
 Vol. Ill, pp. 197-219 The Poetic Principle, pp. 219-265 The 
 Rationale of Verse, pp. 266-278 The Philosophy of Composition. 
 
 Poe distinguishes between the "poetry of words" and the 
 general poetic faculty whether merely potential, or expressed 
 in the other arts. The poetry of words he defines as the " rhyth- 
 mical creation of beauty." The sole arbiter of poetry is Taste. 
 The dissertation on the poetic principle is apparently luminous, 
 but the lights are shifting and uncertain. On the Rationale of 
 Verse, see below, 23. 
 
 PRICKARD, A. O. Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. N. Y. : 
 
 1891. 
 
 The aim of the writer is to present a clear and popular expo- 
 sition of the contents of the Poetics. The definition of tragedy, 
 the problem of catharsis, and other mooted points in that 
 treatise are taken up and handled in a straightforward and 
 scholarly manner. The notes are of especial value. 
 
 PUTTENHAM, CEO. .The Arte of English Poesie. Engl. Re- 
 prints. . . . Ed. by E. Arber. Lond. : 1869. 
 
 See 21, B 2, and 24, B 2. 
 QUINET, EDGAR. CEuvres completes. 30 vols. Paris. 
 
 Vol. IX De 1'histoire de la poesie. 
 
 RAYMOND, G. L. Poetry as a Representative Art. N. Y. : 
 1886. 
 
 ROSENKRANZ, K. Die Poesie und ihre Geschichte. Konigsb. : 
 1855- 
 
 See for notice, 21,
 
 336 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 RUSKIN, J. Modern Painters. (See 8.) 
 
 For the definition of poetry, see vol. Ill, pp. 10-12, 22; 
 vol. V, pp. 163, 1 66 et seq. Ruskin's peculiar use of the word 
 poetry as common to all the arts is explained in vol. I, p. 8 ; 
 vol. Ill, p. 13. 
 
 SCHERER, EDM. Eludes critiques sur la litte'rature contem- 
 poraine. 5 vols. Paris : 1863-89. 
 Vol. IV, pp. 25-34 L'avenir de la poesie. 
 
 SCHERER, WILHELM. Poetik. Hrsg. von R. M. Meyer. 
 Berlin: 1888. 
 See 21, B 3. 
 
 SCHILLER, J. C. F. The Aesthetical and Philosophical Essays. 
 Trans, from the German. Being vol. VIII of the Cam- 
 bridge Edition of Schiller's Works. Boston : 1884. 
 
 Pp. 5-32 Introduction; pp. 135-148 The Sublime; pp. 149-174 
 
 The Pathetic ; pp. 254-260 The Vulgar in Works of Art ; 
 
 pp. 261-268 Detached Reflections on Aesthetic Questions; 
 
 pp 269-338 On Simple and Sentimental Poetry ; pp. 339367 
 
 On the Stage and on Tragedy. In general, pp. 33-125 On the 
 
 Aesthetic Education of Man; pp. 126-378 Aesthetical Essays. 
 
 The Introduction gives a painstaking and profitable though 
 
 not very lucid outline of Schiller's system of aesthetics and his 
 
 indebtedness to Lessing, Winckelmann, and Kant. From the 
 
 paper entitled Detached Reflections, etc., the student will 
 
 obtain a fundamental notion of Schiller's theory concerning 
 
 the relation of the good, the agreeable, the sublime, and the 
 
 beautiful to Art (adapted from Kant's Kritik der Urtheils- 
 
 kraft). The special uses of terror and grandeur are illustrated 
 
 by reference to Greek tragedy. The essay on the Sublime 
 
 affirms that if it were not for the beautiful the strife between 
 
 sense and reason could not be allayed ; if it were not for the 
 
 sublime, we should be wedded by beauty to the things of this 
 
 world (for the sublime adds dignity to life) ; if it were not for
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 337 
 
 the pathetic, the sublime could not be elicited, nor tested, nor 
 represented. All these aesthetic values are prerequisite to 
 poetry. In the essay on the Pathetic it is shown that the 
 pathetic has aesthetic value only in as far as it is sublime ; 
 that it requires two conditions, suffering and moral freedom, 
 and that without the latter it becomes cheap. Although the 
 poet may present models of morality, it is not his purpose to 
 inculcate patriotism or temperance or industry, but to affect the 
 heart. Thus he accomplishes by indirection what as an imme- 
 diate end he would certainly fail of. The limits and use of the 
 commonplace with respect to plastic art and poetry are discussed 
 in the essay on the Vulgar. The best, however, of these essays 
 is that entitled On Simple and Sentimental Poetry. It points 
 out the contrast between the poetry of the child (simple) and 
 the poetry of reflection (sentimental). The former with its 
 realism is the poetry of the Greeks ; the latter with its impossi- 
 ble but noble idealism belongs to the Moderns ; and the latter 
 would seem to be more truly in sympathy with nature than the 
 former. Passing to the sentimental poet, the author says that 
 he may represent the impression which objects have made upon 
 him by way either of ridiculing the real aspect of them, or of 
 emphasizing the ideal. The former is satirical poetry ; it reveals 
 the chasm separating the real from the ideal ; it includes the 
 satire of pathos or of vengeance (Juvenal, Swift, etc.), and the 
 satire of mirth (Cervantes, Fielding, etc.). The latter is elegiac 
 poetry ; it blends nature and the ideal in the product of imagi- 
 nation ; it -includes the elegy of sadness, nature lost, the ideal 
 unattained (Ovid, Rousseau, von Kleist, etc.), and the idyl, 
 nature and ideal realized. The author invests the literary 
 terms here used with the widest possible significance. 
 
 For the articles especially devoted to Tragedy, see 38, 
 41, 47. For general bibliography the following may be con- 
 sulted : Sammtliche Werke (12 vols. in 6. Stuttgart : 1847), 
 Bd. V, pp. 375-383 Ueber den Gebrauch des Chors in der
 
 338 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 Tragodie, Bd. XI, pp. 383-483, Bd. XII Aesthetische Schriften ; 
 Sammtliche Schriften, Hrsg. von R. Kohler (15 vols. in 17. 
 Stuttgart : 1867-76), Bd. X Aesthetische Schriften, Bd. XIV, 
 pp. 3-12 Ueber den Gebrauchdes Chors in der Tragodie ; The 
 Aesthetic Letters, Essays, and the Philosophical Letters, Trans, 
 with an Introduction by J. Weiss (Boston : 1845), pp. 1-338 
 (see also the Introduction) ; Works : Historical Dramas, etc. 
 (Trans. Lond. : 1854), pp. 439-444 On the Use of the Chorus 
 in Tragedy; Jas. Sime, Schiller (Phila. : 1882), pp. 120-126 ; 
 R. Zimmermann, Versuch einer Schillerschen Aesthetik (Berlin : 
 1889). 
 
 SCHMIDT, J. H. H. Die Kunstformen d. Griechischen Poesie 
 u. ihre Bedeutung. 4 vols. Leipz. : 1868-72. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. World as Will and as Idea. Transl. by 
 R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp. 3 vols. Lond. : 1883. 
 Vol. I, pp. 313-340; vol. II, pp. 200-219 The Aesthetics of Poetry. 
 
 To appreciate Schopenhauer's conception of poetry it is 
 necessary to read his statement of the Object of Art, vol. I, 
 p. 219. Attempting to base his theory of the Idea as realiza- 
 tion of the Will upon Plato and Kant, he proceeds to establish 
 a hierarchy of the arts as more or less perfect manifestations 
 of the Idea. The idea that is objectified in the plastic arts is 
 the human form ; the idea that is manifested in poetry is human 
 action. Poetry is the highest of the arts whose existence 
 depends upon the manifestation of the Idea. But the climax 
 of all art is music, for it presents not ideas but the Will itself 
 (back of ideas). Passing to poetry by way of a discussion of 
 the unsuitableness of allegory in plastic art, and its place in the 
 art of language, Schopenhauer grades the types of poetry 
 according to their objectivity. .Tragedy, in which the writer 
 forgets himself utterly, and, as if " inspired," preaches the " will 
 to die," is the highest type of poetry.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 339 
 
 The remarks on the relation of verse to poetry ; of poetry to 
 history ; of classic to romantic poetry ; and of ancient tragedy 
 to modern, are fresh and suggestive. The reader who picks 
 his way with discrimination through aphorisms and fallacies 
 will find in Schopenhauer no insignificant contribution to 
 poetics. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, A. The Art of Literature. Trans, by B. 
 Saunders. Lond. : 1891. 
 
 SCUDDER, VIDA D. And. Rev. 8: 225, 351 The Effect of 
 the Scientific Temper in Modern Poetry. 
 
 SELKIRK, J. B. Ethics and Aesthetics of Modern Poetry. 
 Lond. : 1878. 
 
 The chapters are principally from Blackwood 's Magazine and 
 Cornhill, They treat somewhat discursively of the position 
 assumed by modern poetry in the face of modern scepticism, 
 modern creeds, modern mysticism, aesthetics, and culture. The 
 poets most carefully considered are Clough, Swinburne, Arnold, 
 Tennyson, and Browning. The author's style is marked by 
 grace and perspicacity. 
 
 SHAIRP, J. C. Studies in Philosophy and Poetry. N. Y. : 
 1872. Lond. : 1878. 
 
 SHAIRP, J. C. The Poetic Interpretation of Nature. Lond. : 
 1877. 
 
 SHAIRP, J. C. Aspects of Poetry. Boston : 1882. 
 
 The Aspects of Poetry is a very important book. In the 
 chapter entitled The Province of Poetry (pp. 1-30) is a discus- 
 sion of the unconsciousness of the poetic impulse, of the part 
 played by imagination, and of the purely aesthetic, and indirect 
 ethical, purpose. The author is not in doubt concerning the 
 theory of moral indifference in art. He correlates high poeti-
 
 340 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20. 
 
 cal effect and high moral ideal. (Cf. Arnold's " criticism of 
 life.") In pp. 56-104, the Spiritual Side of Poetry, and the 
 Poet as a Revealer, the author emphasizes the ethical aspect of 
 the art. Compare Wordsworth's statement of the poetic or 
 prophetic function. The chapter on Style in Modern English 
 poetry must be read as a commentary upon Wordsworth's Pref- 
 aces. Compare with it, Bagehot's article on the Pure, the 
 Ornate, and the Grotesque. In Studies in Poetry, the essay 
 on Wordsworth, The Man and the Poet, throws additional 
 light on the bases and functions of poetry. The volume on 
 the Poetic Interpretation of Nature should be read in connection 
 with Professor Veitch's Nature in Scottish poetry. Together 
 they form an admirable introduction to the literary history of 
 the love of nature. 
 
 SHELLEY, P. B. Works. Ed. by H. B. Forman. 8 vols. 
 Lond. : 1880. 
 
 Vol. VII, pp. 99-144 Defense of Poetry, pp. 145, 146 Three Frag- 
 ments on Beauty. 
 
 SHELLEY, P. B. A Defense of Poetry. Ed. by A. S. Cook. 
 Boston : 1891. (Contains also Peacock's Four Ages of 
 Poetry.) 
 
 A sympathetic and creative rather than a comprehensive or 
 an analytic discussion of the subject. The interest centres 
 upon the educative, legislative, and theological, as well as the 
 artistic function, ascribed to the poet (vide p. 104). Con- 
 sideration should be given to the statement that although 
 poetry has always aimed at a harmonious recurrence of sound, 
 still " the distinction between poets and prose writers is a vulgar 
 error"; also to the explanation (p. 109) of the pleasure which 
 poetry gives to maker as well as auditor ; also to the alleged 
 immorality of poetry, to the poetic quality of Christianity, and 
 to the so-called definition (p. 138), ' Poetry is the record of the 
 best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.'
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 341 
 
 This prose-poem might profitably be read in connection with 
 the Ion, the Philebus, the Phaedrus, and the Symposium of 
 Plato. It should be compared with Peacock's Satirical Four 
 Ages of Poetry, to which, in Shelley's words, it was designed 
 as an antidote. 
 
 SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP. Apologie for Poetrie. Engl. Reprints. 
 ... Ed. by E. Arber. Lond. : 1868. 
 
 SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP. The Defense of Poesy. Ed. by Albert 
 S. Cook. Boston : 1890. 
 
 SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP. The Defense of Poesy. Ed. by Evelyn 
 S. Shuckburgh. (University Press.) Cambr. : 1891. 
 
 As a source for. the history of English Criticism, and one of 
 the earliest English essays characterized by philosophical grasp 
 and scholarly grace, this work is of supreme importance (see 
 21, B 2) ; as an authority on poetry it added little or nothing 
 to what had been said by the critics of Greece and Rome, save 
 where it adapted the theories of contemporary and preceding 
 Italian critics. In connection with the references made to 
 Italian criticism in Professor Cook's edition, see Mod. Lang. 
 Notes, vol. VI, pp. 97-101. While according due homage to 
 Sidney, the poet and chevalier, and due consideration to the 
 idealism of his poetic theory, critics nowadays turn to an 
 aesthetic more scientific than could be known to the Eliza- 
 bethans a system based upon psychology and the compara- 
 tive study of literature and art. For an interesting comparison 
 of Sidney's and Aristotle's poetics, see C. Quossek's Sidney's 
 Defense of Poetry u. d. Poetik d. Arist. (Crefeld : 1880). 
 
 SPIELHAGEN, F. Aus meiner Studienmappe. Beitrage zur litt. 
 Aesthetik und Kritik. 2. Aufl. Berlin : 1891. 
 
 Pp. 63-76 Wahrscheinlichkeit in der Dichtung. 
 Thinks that the poet by the exercise of despotic power should 
 compel improbabilities to work his purpose.
 
 342 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 STEDMAN, EDMUND C. The Nature and Elements of Poetry. 
 Boston : 1892. 
 
 Note especially the part played by " Melancholia " in modern 
 poetry. Careful discrimination is made between poetry which 
 expresses the self-consciousness of the author, and that which 
 represents life and thought apart from his individuality. The 
 noblest poetry is impersonal. Poetry is defined as " rhythmical, 
 imaginative language expressing the invention, taste, thought, 
 passion, and insight of the human soul." 
 
 SUTERMEISTER, O. Leitfadcn der Poetik. 2. verb. Aufl. Zurich: 
 1874. 
 
 See for notice, 21, B 3. 
 
 SWINBURNE, A. C. igth Century, 15 : 583, 764 Wordsworth 
 and Byron. 
 
 A combatant in the Wordsworth-Byron-Shelley controversy, 
 " who desires above all things to preserve in all things the 
 golden mean of scrupulous moderation " ; who mildly charac- 
 terizes the poetic inspiration of Byron as a " drawling, drag- 
 gle-tailed drab of a Muse, moderately censures his " gasping, 
 ranting, wheezing, broken-winded verse," " bristling with 
 every sort and kind of barbarism and solecism, not to speak of 
 its tune which suggests the love-strains of a baboon," and 
 with scrupulous courtesy reproaches Matthew Arnold for cast- 
 ing the shield of his authority over such " unutterable rubbish," 
 instead of letting it " rot." The author deems imagination 
 and harmony the primary elements of poetry ; requires a per- 
 ceptible but indefinable charm ; and exhorts the reader not to be 
 a Wordsworthian, though it is better to be a Wordsworth ian 
 than a Byronite. As for himself, he prefers the " nebulosity of 
 Shelley at his cloudiest to the raggedness of Wordsworth at his 
 raggedest." With Swinburne's indefinable element in poetry 
 may be compared Gurney's theory, in Tertium Quid, and
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 343 
 
 Lowell's definition, in Lecture I of the Lowell Institute Lectures 
 on the English Poets. See also Swinburne's William Blake. 
 
 THOREAU, H. D. Concord and Merrimack Rivers. Boston : 
 1894. 
 
 See the passage beginning p. 494. "A true poem," says 
 Thoreau, " is distinguished not so much by a felicitous expres- 
 sion, or any thought it suggests, as by the atmosphere which 
 surrounds it." A division of poetry is suggested. 
 
 VIEHOFF, H. Die Poetik auf der Grundlage der Erfahrungs- 
 seelenlehre. Hrsg. von Victor Kiy. 2 vols. in i. Trier : 
 1888. 
 
 The value of this work is not yet properly appreciated by 
 English students of aesthetics. Laying a substantial founda- 
 tion in the Psychology of Aesthetics (vol. I, Bk. I), the author 
 constructs a psychological system of poetics. He describes 
 skilfully the manner in which poetry satisfies the impulse for 
 pleasure. Pleasure he defines as attaining its fulfilment in 
 the happiness of the species. Cf. with Viehoff's theory that of 
 Dallas mentioned above. 
 
 While in some respects Viehoff gives his assent to the aes- 
 thetics of Fechner, he differs from him in particulars, as, for 
 instance, on the principle of the aesthetic balancing of oppo- 
 sites (p. 217). 
 
 Book II treats of Aesthetic Laws and the Means of Art. 
 Vol. II, Bk. I, is technical, and treats of the Structure of Verse 
 and Strophe ; Bk. II, on the Theory of Types in Literature, 
 most directly concerns the student of poetry. Especially note- 
 worthy is chap. I, pp. 461-469. 
 
 WACKERNAGEL, W. Poetik, Rhetorik, und Stilistik. Hrsg. von 
 L. Sieber. Halle : 1873. See 21, B j. 
 
 WAGNER, J. J. Dichterschule. 3. Aufl. Ulm : 1850.
 
 344 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 20. 
 
 WARD, T. H. (Ed.) English Poets : Selections, with critical 
 introductions by various authors, and a general introduc- 
 tion by Matthew Arnold. 4 vols. Lond. and N. Y. : 
 1881. 
 
 WARTON, THOMAS. History of English Poetry. Ed. by VV. C. 
 Hazlitt. 4 vols. Lond.: 1871. 
 
 See Courthope's Liberal Movement, p. 121. 
 
 WATTS, THEODORE. Article ' Poetry ' in Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica, gth ed. 
 
 For a general survey of the history of poetry and of the more 
 important problems of aesthetics involved, this article is espe- 
 cially commended to the student. The following questions are 
 suggested : Is the distinction made by Mr. Watts between 
 relative and absolute vision satisfactory ? Does it mean merely 
 that in degree some men are more poetic than others ? Do the 
 examples cited of egoistic imagination and dramatic imagina- 
 tion emphasize the distinction that Mr. Watts would make? 
 Does the fact that the dramatis persona occasionally expresses 
 sentiments which any one else might express diminish the 
 characteristic of the dramatis persona on betoken lack of insight 
 on the part of the dramatist ? Does not one's estimate of the 
 nis ion displayed in a drama or an epic depend upon the relativity 
 or absoluteness of one's own aesthetic vision ? 
 
 Mr. Watts's criticism of Hegel's statement of the destiny of 
 art tends to confuse the general with the absolute. But leav- 
 ing the question of comparative poetic vision on one side, 
 the statement of the nature of poetry, of its relation to music 
 and the other arts, and of the importance of its kinds, can hardly 
 be surpassed for simplicity and clearness. 
 
 WEBBE, WM. A Discourse of English Poetrie. Engl. Reprints. 
 . . . Ed. by E. Arber. Lond. : 1870. 
 See 24, B 2.
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 345 
 
 WOLFF, EUG. Zeitschrift f. vergl. Litteratur, 6 : 423 Vorstudien 
 
 zur Poetik. 
 
 Outlines a scheme for an inductive poetics under the fol- 
 lowing heads: i. Methodik. 2. (a) Theomorphismus ; (<) He- 
 roomorphismus ; (f) Anthropomorphismus, Physiomorphismus 
 und Ergebnis. 3. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Dramas : 
 (a) Tragodie ; (<) Komodie. 4. Wirkung der Poesie. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, W. Prose works. Ed. by A. B. Grosart. 3 vols. 
 Lond. : 1876. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 77-214 Essays, Letters, and Notes, elucidatory and 
 confirmatory of his Poems. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, W. Prefaces and Essays on Poetry (1798- 
 1845). Ed. by A. J. George. Boston : 1892. 
 
 Of these articles the more important are the Prefaces to the 
 Lyrical Ballads (1800, enlarged 1802), Appendix on Poetic 
 Diction (1802), Preface to Poems (1815, Powers requisite for 
 the Poet and the Kinds of Poetry), and the Essay supple- 
 mentary to the Preface of 1815 (Sketch of English Poetry). 
 
 The long-continued controversy concerning the doctrine and 
 practice of Wordsworth in poetry was originated by the preface 
 to the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads. The student of 
 modern English poetics should make a careful examination 
 of Wordsworth's theories in connection (i) with his poetry ; 
 (2) with the criticism passed by others upon both his poetry 
 and his theory ; (3) with the poetics of his English and German 
 contemporaries and successors. Note especially his advocacy 
 of the poetic use of the language which springs from states of 
 vivid emotion, his theory of the choice of commonplace subjects 
 and the way to present them as novel, his remarks concerning 
 the lethargy of the fashionable mind in matters of imagination, 
 the soil from which essential passions best spring, and the 
 poetic necessity of realizing the ideal in nature rather than of 
 idealizing the real.
 
 346 LITERARY CRITICISM. '[20. 
 
 The following is a list of the more important contemporary 
 reviews of Wordsworth's theory of poetry : Edinb. Rev. 2 : 283, 
 6 : i, 7 : 16, ii : 214, 19 : 270, 466, 24 : i, 25 : 355, 27 : 58, 277, 
 28 : 488, 37 : 449 ; Blackw. i : 261, 2 : 201, 5 : 130, 26 : 453 ; 
 Quarterly Rev. 14 : 201, 52 1317 ; Fraser's 6 : 607, 42 : 119 ; 
 Dublin Univ. 5 : 680 ; North Am. Rev. 18 : 356. See also 
 Coleridge, Biographia Literaria. 
 
 See notes on Arnold, Austin, Bagehot, Courthope, Gurney, 
 Pater, Swinburne. See also Brunswick's Wordsworth's Theorie 
 der Poetischen Kunst (Progr. Halle : 1884). 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES. Of magazine articles, not 
 already mentioned, the following deserve attention : Vida D. 
 Scudder, Andover Rev. 8:225, 351 Effect of the Scientific 
 Temper in Modern Poetry ; Blackwood, 6 : 363 Progressive 
 Changes in Poetical Style, n : 153 How far is Poetry an Art ? 
 27 : 706 Art of Poetry, 38 : 829 Philosophy of Poetry, 132 : 158 
 Poetry of the Future ; Wm. Knight, Brit. Q. (Am. ed.) 57 : 92 
 A Theory of Poetry ; E. Dowden, Contenip. 2 : 535 Poetical 
 Feeling for Nature (cf. his Studies in Literature) ; V. Lee, 
 Contemp. 39 : 682 Morality in Poetry (Repr. in Belcaro) ; F. T. 
 Palgrave, Fortn. 12: 163 Scientific Study of Poetry; J. A. 
 Symonds, Fortn. 32 : 686 M. Arnold on Poetry ; P. Bourget, 
 Fortn. 49: 568 Science et Poesie; E. Gosse, Forum, 7:175 
 What is a Great Poet? Herrig's Archiv, 10 : 112 Sprache d. 
 Poesie u. Poesie d. Sprache, 45 : 35 Ueber d. aesthet.-psychol. 
 Beurtheilung e. Dichters, 45 : 58 Ueber Wesen u. Zweck d. 
 Kunst u. d. Poesie ; A. Bettelheim, Nation (Berlin), 1891, p. 746 
 Eine neue Theorie der Dichtkunst ; A. Tilley, Macm. 44: 268 
 Two Theories of Poetry, 53 : 184 The Poetic Imagination ; 
 E. A. Sonnenschein, Macm. 53 : 5 Culture and Science ; F. T. 
 Palgrave, Macm. 53 : 332 Province and Study of Poetry ; F. T. 
 Whittaker, Macm. 53 : 428 Musical and Picturesque Elements 
 in Poetry; M.-J. Guyau, Rev. Philos. 17 : 179, 258 L'Esthe"tique
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 347 
 
 du vers moderne ; D. Tarrozo, Rev. Philos. 18 : 232 A Poesia 
 Philosophica (Rev. by B. Perez) ; Felix Klein, Le Correspon- 
 dant, 1 20 : 641 La poesie et le temps present ; H. Roettiker, 
 Zeitschrift f. vergl. Lift. 4:17 Zur Lehre von den Darstellungs- 
 mitteln in der Poesie ; Veit Valentin, Zeitschrift f. vergl. Litt. 
 5 : 35 Poetische Gattungen ; Walt Whitman, No. Am. Rev. 
 132 : 195 Poetry of the Future ; C. Thomas, Open Court, 
 3:1727 Poetry and Science, Forum, 25:503 Have We Still 
 Need of Poetry? 
 
 Most of the following programmes and dissertations are men- 
 tioned by Hermann Varnhagen in his Systematisches Verzeich- 
 niss (Anhang to Supplement to Schmitz, Encycl. d. philol. 
 Studiums), p. 18 : H. Wiirtzer, De'origine et natura poeseos 
 (Gott. : 1780) ; P. Weierstrass, De poesis natura et partitione 
 (Deutsche Crone Gymn. : 1851) ; H. Schreiber, Allgemeine 
 Grundsatze d. Dichtkunst(nach Horaz) (Freiburg i. Br.: 1823) ; 
 J. J. Dielschneider, Ueber die Poesie (Koln : 1839) ; B. 
 Piringer, Ueber Wesen u. Bedeutung d. Poesie (Kremsmiin- 
 ster : 1851); G. Jauss, Der ideale Gehalt d. Poesie als bilden- 
 der Element (Oberschiitzen : 1868) ; Th. Schonborn, Ueber d. 
 Ursprung d. Naturpoesie (Breslau : 1873); Koster, Kurze 
 Darstellung d. Dichtungsarten (Barmen : 1837) 5 C. N. Sacher, 
 Die Grundformen d. Poesie, u. s. w. (Brtix. : 1862) ; Valentin, 
 Der Rhythmus als Grundlage einer wissensch. Poetik (Frank- 
 furt a. M. : 1870) ; Rud. Eckart, Die didaktische Poesie, ihr 
 Wesen u. ihre Vertreter (Hannover : 1891). 
 
 For a few other definitions of poetry, the following may 
 be consulted : 
 
 W. C. Bryant, Writings (Ed. by Godwin. 2 vols. N. Y. : 
 1884; vol. I, pp. 3-34 Lectures on Poetry, pp. 57-67 Trisyl- 
 labic Feet in Iambic Measure), vol. I, p. 6 (Poetry selects and 
 arranges the symbols of thought in such a way as to excite the 
 mind most powerfully and delightfully) ; Alex. Bain, Engl. 
 Comp. and Rhet, p. 257 (Poetry operates by means of thought
 
 348 LITERARY CRITICISM. [20. 
 
 conveyed in language) ; H. Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric and 
 Belles Lettres (Phil. : 1860), p. 421 (Poetry is the language of 
 passion, of enlivened imagination formed ordinarily into regular 
 numbers) ; J. Bascom, Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 33 (Poetry, in 
 its strictly characteristic form, is emotional conception expressed 
 in metrical language) ; Sir Redmond Barry, Dublin Afternoon 
 Lectures: On Music and Poetry, p. 15 (Poetry creates from 
 intellectual materials by imaginative effort that which arouses 
 aesthetic emotion of any kind, but it adorns the creation so 
 that it captivates the senses, surprises the mind, agitates the 
 passions. It may impersonate the ideal, or endow with life the 
 inanimate) ; Byron, Don Juan (Poetry is but passion) ; G. W. 
 Cook, Poets and Problems, p. 25 (A restatement of the views of 
 Wordsworth and Coleridge) ; T. Carlyle, Essay on Goethe, 
 Heroes and Hero-Worship (in the former essay Carlyle shows 
 that "the true poet is ever, as of old, the Seer," a thought 
 elaborated by Browning in his article on Shelley, in the 
 latter essay Carlyle calls poetry musical thought, and explains 
 music as that which penetrates the harmony of the idea and 
 expresses it in sound) ; Sir K. Digby, Two Treatises on the 
 Nature of Bodies and the Nature of Man's Soul (Lond. : 1658. 
 A quaint and delightful passage on Poetry in the second Trea- 
 tise, p. 35) ; Dublin University Mag. 45 : 471 De Re Poetica 
 (Poetry is a longing for a more excellent beauty than the things 
 which are seen can supply, an upward and outward instinct 
 uttered by gifted persons in musical and modulated words, 
 gently delighting itself and others by its creations); H. Heine, 
 Die Romantische Schule (Trans, as The Romantic School, by 
 S. F. Fleischmann. N. Y. : 1882. According to Heine the 
 poet understands the symbol of religion and the abstract idea 
 of philosophy, but the religions and philosophy do not under- 
 stand the poet. The poet resembles God in creating characters 
 after his own image. See Scintillations, pp. 84, 120 et seq^)\ 
 Geo. Harris, The Theory of the Arts (2 vols. Lond.: 1869),
 
 20.] REFERENCES. 349 
 
 see vol. I, Poetry (It arises by a process of selection from the 
 commonplaces of thought and expression. It excels in sugges- 
 tion; painting in representation. Its object is to inform and to 
 delight) ; "R. G. Hazard, Essays on Language, p. 30 (Poetry is 
 regarded as the ' language of ideality ') ; Sir John Lubbock, 
 Essay on Poetry (Poetry lengthens life by creating for us Time, 
 which is the succession of ideas, not of minutes) ; Longfellow, 
 Essay on the Defense of Poetry, in his Prose Works (Poetry, a 
 longing for the ideal ; the spirit of the age itself embodied in 
 the forms of language and addressing the external as well as 
 the internal sense) ; E. R. Sill, Atlantic, 56 : 665 Principles 
 of Criticism (Poetry is the expression in rhythmic language of 
 some serious thought by the suggestion of that thought through 
 the imagination) ; E. P. Whipple. Essays and Reviews, vol. I, 
 p. 300 et seq. (Poetry is the protest of genius against the 
 unreality of actual life. It perceives what is real and permanent. 
 It actualizes real life for the imagination in forms of grandeur 
 and beauty corresponding to the essential truth of things. It 
 is the record left by the greatest men of any of their aspirations 
 after a truth and reality above their age) ; E. C. Moyse, Poetry 
 as a Fine Art (Lond. : 1883).
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 
 
 21, A. It is the purpose of this chapter to indicate some of 
 the methods and materials that may be useful in the investiga- 
 tion of poetry in its historical development. 1 The suggestions 
 made may, with the proper modifications, be applied to the 
 study of literary history in general. 
 
 No treatise in English covers this subject. On the con- 
 ception of literary history and its boundaries, the student should 
 consult Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, i : 215- 
 217, and Boeckh's Encyklopadie der philologischen Wissen- 
 schaften, p. 648 et seq. The authorities on method are cited in 
 various places in this chapter. 
 
 i. The AIM of the historian is to determine the facts in the 
 division of literature under investigation, and their relation to 
 each other, to discover their characteristics, and record the 
 results obtained (Korting, Encykl. d. roman Philol. 2 : 482). 
 Whatever the historian's conception of poetry, its significance 
 or its boundaries, he must include in his intention the following 
 objects : to determine the literary productions necessary to the 
 complete understanding of the period, type, or movement con- 
 cerned, and to test the genuineness of these productions ; to 
 interpret each in the light of its special purpose, its author's 
 individuality, and its social and cultural antecedents ; to con- 
 sider it in its relation to its environment (epoch and country) ; 
 
 1 For guidance in the study of the Origins of Poetry, the student is referred to the 
 chapter on Comparative Literature, 18, 2, above.
 
 21.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 351 
 
 to ascertain its historical position and its influence upon life and 
 thought, especially its influence upon the literary organism of 
 which it is a factor ; to gauge its originality as a work of art, and, 
 finally, to estimate its relative or absolute aesthetic significance. 
 2. There are three ways of APPROACHING THE SUBJECT : 
 the Chronological (or linear), the Encyclopedic, and the Cyclic. 
 (See Boeckh, Encykl. d. philol. Wiss., pp. 46, 47, for a discus- 
 sion of the first and third.) None of these alone is sufficient ; 
 but in its own place, in connection with and dependence upon 
 the others, each is indispensable. The first is the method of 
 experience, the manner in which the investigator would natu- 
 rally approach an unfamiliar aggregate of materials. When the 
 subject is a section of literary history, the details the produc- 
 tions that constitute it must first, of course, be arranged in 
 chronological order. And in so far as the student confines his 
 examination of the materials to external criticism, remembers 
 that the order determined is necessarily experimental, and resists 
 the temptation of arguing post hoc, ergo propter hoc, the investi- 
 gation is of fundamental importance. Ground has been broken, 
 the first stakes have been driven, the element of sequence in 
 time has been established. But the student will not rest satis- 
 fied with this kind of criticism. If he has noticed the nature and 
 contents of the materials, he detects, or thinks that he detects, 
 resemblances and differences between production and produc- 
 tion, characteristics suggestive of a classification according to 
 kinds. The literature of a nation or of a period appears, for 
 instance, to fall into forms or moulds : epic, lyric, dramatic, etc. 
 The method of approach then becomes encyclopedic : a judicial, 
 not an historical, survey of the field ; and it has in view to 
 discover similarities of characteristic, of aspect, or merely of 
 apparent (a priori} interrelation, and on that basis to form 
 generalizations concerning the kinds possible, and the laws that 
 govern each as distinct from the others. Unless such a survey, 
 whether made at first-hand or not, is systematic, the conclusions
 
 352 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 will be inadequate, superficial, or confused. But if the review, 
 even when dependent upon guides, resumes, and other authorities, 
 is conducted with logical system if the materials and hypotheses 
 thus gleaned are frequently tested by inspection of the originals, 
 the results of the study will be useful. They are tentative, but 
 suggestive so far as they go. A first-hand encyclopedic inves- 
 tigation would be preferable, but life is short. The element 
 of resemblance has been recognized, a provisional cross-section 
 of the subject has been made, a method of logical division 
 established ; and it would seem that the characteristics of lit- 
 erary genera might be formulated. But, since the hypoth- 
 eses of the encyclopedic method are largely a priori, and since 
 the process treats the literature of a country or period as 
 a completed or ' static ' organism, the characteristics evinced 
 by the several 'fixed' kinds of literature, thus regarded, are 
 neither sufficiently precise nor sufficiently representative to yield 
 criteria or models by which specimens in general may be tested. 
 Criteria drawn, for instance, from the practice of three or four 
 standard ancient poems classified as 'epical' should not be 
 applied to the classification of poems apparently similar but 
 produced under different conditions : as, for instance, when 
 period, or country, or the stage of social, political, or aesthetic 
 development is different. In fact, the linear and encyclopedic 
 methods break down because they are only preliminary. The 
 final and scientific method is the cyclic. It does not dispense 
 with the discipline of the two former, nor with the results 
 provided by them, but, proceeding on the principles of rational 
 sequence and organic development, it corrects defective con- 
 clusions based upon temporal sequence and formal resemblance. 
 It is dynamic. Beginning with an integral and definite subject, 
 the cyclic method regards this particular as a living organism, 
 studies first the conditions and laws of its existence, advances 
 to the conditions and laws of its environment, and finally inter- 
 prets the particular in terms of the vital and rational relations
 
 A.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 353 
 
 by which it is characterized as an individual and, at the same 
 time, as a component of a system. The cyclic method provides 
 from the outset for discipline and progress, for it begins with the 
 unit and by a process of radiation widens the field until it has 
 exhausted the organism. 
 
 3. The MATERIALS are twofold : Sources and Guides. The 
 Sources may be classified as absolute and relative. The abso- 
 lute include texts of manuscripts and editions, and original 
 biographical materials pertaining to the subject. The relative 
 are contemporary and subsequent notices, oral tradition, and 
 the histories of culture national or general, whether of art, 
 society, religion, or politics, that may illustrate the significance, 
 position, and value of the work under consideration. 
 
 Guides are also of two kinds, those that indicate materials 
 and those that indicate methods. To the former class belong 
 histories of the subject or of any part of it. These may of 
 course enumerate sources, but they indicate problems as well, 
 and results so far as attained. The latter class provides the 
 instruments applicable to the investigation and the means by 
 which we may determine the value and history of each. Guides 
 of this kind are (a) those that indicate the methods already 
 prescribed for this investigation or found available in subsidiary 
 or kindred lines, as in the theory of aesthetics, of poetry, of 
 criticism ; methods derived from the consideration of principles, 
 from experience, or from the general science of ' methodology '; 
 and (ft) those that indicate models of investigation and arrange- 
 ment : histories of aesthetics, of criticism, of philology. 
 
 Bibliographies may be regarded as guides to both materials 
 and methods. (Korting, Grundr. d. rom. Philol. 2 : 488-499 ; 
 Boeckh, Encykl., pp. 49, 50, 122 et seq., 156, 169-254; Paul, 
 Grundr. d. germ. Philol. i : 188, 217-220.) 
 
 4. The PROCESS adopted by the historian involves the follow- 
 ing Steps : first, the investigation of individual productions ; 
 second, the discovery of the relation existing between each
 
 354 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 production and its environment (historical, racial, social, artistic, 
 and personal) ; third, the arrangement of results in an organic 
 whole. But while from the point of view of method the steps 
 should be considered in this order, it will be evident that the 
 first and second cannot be regarded as mutually exclusive divi- 
 sions, and that the third must be continually present to the 
 mind of the student. 
 
 The process involves also the application of Criteria. For as 
 purporting to constitute the literary stock-in-trade of the nation- 
 ality, period, movement, type, or author in question, the produc- 
 tions .must be tested by such methods as may determine their 
 value intrinsic and relative. These methods are the lower or 
 textual criticism, the higher or literary-historical criticism, and 
 the aesthetic criticism. The lower criticism aims to determine 
 in what relation the transmitted wording of the text stands to 
 the wording of the original ; the higher criticism, to determine 
 by whom, at what time, in what place, and under what circum- 
 stances the literary work was composed ; the aesthetic criticism, 
 to determine in what degree the literary production satisfies 
 the requirements of the beautiful (Korting, Grundr. 2 : 374407). 
 In the examination of individual productions the first and 
 second of these methods prevail ; in the determination of rela- 
 tions between productions and environment the second and 
 third are especially in requisition ; but in each stage of the 
 historical process the critic may more or less avail himself of 
 any one of the three methods of criticism. 
 
 Let us, then, consider the process by its Steps or Stages. 
 
 First: The Investigation of Individual Productions, a. To 
 ascertain the Authentic Form of the literary monument, or the 
 most trustworthy copy or edition of it, the various tests of 
 textual criticism must be applied. (For detailed statement, 
 see Paul, Grundr. d. germ. Philol. i : 176-188 ; Boeckh, Encykl. 
 d. phil. Wiss., pp. 179-210; Korting, Encykl. d. rom. Phil.
 
 A.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 355 
 
 2 : 382-399.) Testimony concerning the life of the author, the 
 origin of the work, the dates of composition and publication, 
 the motive of composition and the materials employed, the 
 contemporary and subsequent notices of it, testimony con- 
 cerning all in fact that may go to determine the authenticity 
 of the text, must be collected and sifted. The conclusions of 
 former historians are to be weighed and the evidence of language 
 and of contemporary culture to be considered ; especially so 
 when direct literary proof of the genuine form of the text is 
 lacking. It will be noticed by the student that textual criti- 
 cism is therefore essential to the later stages of historical work, 
 and that it requires for its proper prosecution accessory and 
 corroborative material derived from the researches conducted 
 in those later stages of the process. (Paul, Grundr. i : 188- 
 192 ; Elze, Grundr. d. engl. Philol., pp. 60-82. Cf. the appli- 
 cations of method by the modern school of Shakespearian 
 scholars, and by the writers of the Early English Text Society 
 Papers.) 
 
 b. The Internal History of the Literary Production. In 
 order to determine the importance of individual productions 
 with reference to a literary growth, it is necessary to ascertain 
 the comparative independence or originality of each. This is 
 done by analyzing the production into its elements ; and here 
 the higher or literary criticism begins. Concerning the absolute 
 originality of the literary specimen there will frequently be 
 room for doubt, but a relative originality, a novelty of thought, 
 form, or treatment, may generally be conceded. According to 
 Korting (2 : 485-487), the productions of least originality are 
 translations ; next higher come those that reconstruct or ' work 
 over' a native or foreign original ; next, those that fuse (con- 
 taminare) two or more existing works into a new whole, such 
 as Moliere's L'Avare, Terence's Adelphoe ; next, those that imi- 
 tate the general thought and plan of an existing original, but 
 are independent in the execution of details ; next, productions
 
 356' LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 that adapt in a general way the form rather than the contents 
 of some existing work ; next, those that revive and incor- 
 porate in modern form materials of national tradition ; next, 
 those that similarly avail themselves of foreign folklore ; next, 
 those that derive their material from real life; and, finally, those 
 that are of independent invention. 
 
 Now it will be observed that the materials here cited must be 
 drawn either from tradition or from an imaginative conception of 
 nature and human life, (i) When, as in the case of translations, 
 reconstructions, fusion, and, to some extent, of imitation and 
 adaptation, the material is indirectly derived from tradition, the 
 historian will subject the poem (or other writing) under examina- 
 tion to a comparison with the production upon which it is based, 
 and a comparison with the " raw " material of tradition. When, 
 however, the poem is directly derived from tradition, the his- 
 torian must fall back upon the original (in its simplest and 
 most naive condition) as the basis of comparison. If there be 
 more than one original, he will try to determine the indebted- 
 ness of the poem to each, and to ascertain the relative aesthetic 
 capability of the materials chosen. If there exist various artistic 
 reproductions of the same oral or written original, the historian 
 has, of course, increased opportunity of determining by com- 
 parison the idealizing power of the poet. This is, generally 
 speaking, a mechanical and "objective method of analysis. But 
 when (2) the materials of the poem are drawn from nature or 
 the life of man, the procedure of the student becomes more 
 subjective. This is the case even when the poet has recorded 
 an actual experience. For although the places, persons, events, 
 and customs described may be identified with some degree of 
 precision, still the difficulty of personal verification, the.untrust- 
 worthiness of report regarding remote localities and person- 
 ages of former times, and the impossibility of reconstructing a 
 by-gone stage of culture are such that the student will be com- 
 pelled to have more or less resort to the imagination. And this
 
 A.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 357 
 
 subjective characteristic of the study is still further emphasized 
 when the work under examination is one of purely creative 
 imagination. For only by limiting his analysis of the poet's 
 material to the data of psychological and ethical science can the 
 student resist the temptation to indulge in intuitive methods ;' as 
 soon as he extends his analysis to the criticism of poetic form 
 and treatment, he finds himself within the realm of aesthetics 
 (see Paul, Grundr. i : 221, 222). 
 
 c. The Exposition of the Work. The historian must charac- 
 terize the work in hand so that the reader, even though not 
 directly acquainted with it, may understand its contents and 
 appreciate its quality. The essential must be distinguished 
 from the non-essential, the peculiar from the ordinary or purely 
 conventional. The masterpiece should therefore be studied 
 in itself, in the light of the motives which produced it, of the 
 author's life and character, and of his other works ; it must be 
 studied in relation to its materials (see b above), its literary 
 antecedents, the genus or type to which it belongs, and its 
 historical and cultural value. Most of these suggestions are 
 self-explanatory. In determining the meaning of a work, while 
 note is made of every revelation, .unconscious or intentional, of 
 the author's personality, one must be careful not to read into 
 the poet of former days, and through him into his works, the 
 views and culture of the present ; while the poet is considered 
 in relation to his age, one must be careful not to make him a 
 mere reflex of that age ; while his characteristics are sought not 
 only in the work under consideration but in his complete works, 
 one must be careful not to give him credit for peculiarities 
 which were common to his generation. To characterize a 
 poetic masterpiece, it is also necessary to determine whether it 
 is the outcome of an established literary movement (using 
 traditional materials or following conventional methods), or is 
 reactionary. If it be reactionary, the question will arise whether 
 the poem reverts to natural and social sources of inspiration,
 
 358 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 revives a former literary tradition, or domesticates some fashion 
 from abroad. This phase of the study implies a knowledge of 
 literary movements (see under Arrangement of Results, below). 
 In addition to a knowledge of the materials of the poem (see 
 under b, p. 355), information must be gathered concerning the 
 poet's preference in respect of types of character, motives, 
 situations, aesthetic values, ethical ideals, and literary forms, 
 and his practice should be compared with that of his contem- 
 poraries. .The exposition of the poem demands also a technical 
 acquaintance with the literary genus or species to which it 
 belongs ; a comparison of the poet's phraseology with contem- 
 porary colloquialisms and with conventional poetic diction. 
 With regard to style and versification similar inquiries must be 
 instituted. (Cf. Elze, Grundr. d. engl. Philol., pp. 343-386 ; 
 Paul, Grundr. i : 222-228. On the extent to which aesthetic 
 considerations should be regarded while characterizing a master- 
 piece, see Paul, Grundr. i : 228, 229.) A knowledge of the 
 poet's relation to his social and national 'environment, of the 
 impulses which moved him to write, and of their influence upon 
 the character of the literary product is likewise essential to the 
 exposition of the poem ; but an understanding of environments 
 and of aesthetic worth implies acquaintance with the stage of 
 the process to be discussed under the next head. (On inter- 
 pretation in general, see Boeckh's Encykl., pp. 79-169 ; Blass's 
 Hermeneutik u. Kritik, pp. 127-232, in Iwan Miiller's Hand- 
 buch, vol. I.) 
 
 Second : The Relation of the Literary Production to the National 
 Life. The work is the outcome of literary antecedents, of 
 national culture, and of the author's individuality as affected by 
 both of them. The aspects of the question may accordingly be 
 considered under these and related heads. 
 
 a. Literary Antecedents. By following the genealogy of 
 a production through the series of its literary predecessors, a
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 359 
 
 critic aims to discover the successive modifications of mate- 
 rial, treatment, and form, through which the phenomenon has 
 passed, and to trace it to its source in the national life ; that is 
 to say, to its ultimate objective impulse. Such literary geneal- 
 ogies of elements, if not of the whole tradition, may frequently 
 be traced beyond the earliest national to a foreign origin. 
 Examine, for instance, Tennyson's Idylls of the King, Spenser's 
 Faery Queene, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, several of Boc- 
 caccio's Tales, Chrestien de Troyes's Le Roman de Cliges, 
 several of Shakespeare's plays and the romantic dramas of 
 his contemporaries, the " Restoration " drama of manners, the 
 Spanish, French, and English novels of the fourteenth, fifteenth, 
 and sixteenth centuries, the drama of the French Classical 
 School, Latin elegiac poetry, etc. In respect of literary fashions 
 of the purely artificial sort such inherited characteristics can 
 still more readily be traced. (Cf. Marinism, the ' conceptism ' 
 of Quevedo, the ' cultism ' of Gongora, the Senecan tragedy in 
 England, the Euphuism of Lyly and the ' preciosity ' of 1'hotel 
 de Rambouillet ; and see Korting, 2 : 450.) 
 
 b. National Culture. Contemporary and foregoing phases 
 of culture may be regarded as pouring themselves into the 
 literary production through the channels of race, environment, 
 art, and the period. The work in question must therefore be 
 studied with reference to the history of the people, both insti- 
 tutional (social, religious, and political) and internal (emotional, 
 theoretical, and ethical). It should, in the second place, be 
 studied as the expression, to a certain extent, of physical and 
 psychical surroundings. In the third place, it should be regarded 
 not simply as the descendant of a line of literary ancestors, but 
 as related to the arts in general, to allied arts, such as music, 
 histrionics, and dancing ; to industries, such as printing ; to the 
 history of national art, and especially to existing states of artis- 
 tic production and of the aesthetic consciousness. The devel- 
 opment of poetry should, indeed, be traced more rigorously
 
 360 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 than it generally is, in connection with or in analogy with the 
 successive stages of the national history of art. In the fourth 
 place, the poem should be considered as the offspring of the 
 moment or period in which it was produced ; and as such it 
 may, vice versa, prove to be an index to some phase or other 
 of national sentiment. (Cf. Paul, Grundr. i : 216-217 '> Hegel, 
 Aesth. i : 20, 45 ; Taine's formula of aesthetic influences; 
 Brunetiere, L'fivolution des genres, 1:22; Korting, Encykl. 
 
 2 : 455-) 
 
 c. The Personality of the Poet. It is through the medium 
 of personality that literary and national antecedents are focused 
 in the poetic production. The investigation of the poet's 
 personality includes, therefore, a study of his relation to the 
 community, his family, his friends, his important contempora- 
 ries, and to the literary, social, religious, and political insti- 
 tutions of his country and of other lands. Of significance, 
 moreover, is the extent to which all these in turn modify, or are 
 modified by, the character of the -man as composed of traits, 
 personal, moral, and spiritual, inherited and acquired dis- 
 played in the body of his imaginative work and in his life. 
 
 On the comparative value of sources of biographical infor- 
 mation, autobiographies, letters, occasional confessions in 
 the author's works, records, the testimony of contempora- 
 ries, oral tradition, subsequent literary reviews, references, allu- 
 sions, citations, etc., see Paul, Grundr. i : 217, 218 ; Boeckh's 
 Encykl., pp. 124-140, 210-240; Korting's Encykl. 2:483, 
 484. 
 
 From this process of investigation the student will have 
 acquired the materials necessary for the more exhaustive expo- 
 sition of the artistic production. He will also have discovered, 
 through the medium of the author's personality, the bearing of 
 the literary work upon national life and culture. It will be 
 evident that producer and product together form a component 
 part of a social organism.
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 361 
 
 d. But if the historian would properly gauge the importance 
 of the production in the history of national culture (see , 
 p. 359), he must determine its Aesthetic Worth as well. For 
 the general consideration of aesthetic values and aesthetic tests, 
 reference may be made to 7-9 of this volume, above ; but 
 for a brief statement of the matter in its literary aspect, see 
 Korting's Encykl. d. roman. Philol. 2 : 399403 ; Paul, Grundr. 
 i : 228, 229 ; Boeckh's Encykl., pp. 240-254 Gattungskritik. 
 Korting, whose sketch of the subject is simple and direct, 
 classifies aesthetic worth as absolute or relative. The absolute 
 aesthetic worth of a literary production is decided on its own 
 merits purely, without reference to the stage of culture which it 
 occupies, its artistic environment, or the value of similar pro- 
 ductions of the past or present. A work of absolute aesthetic 
 worth has universal import ; it belongs to the literature of the 
 world. The relative aesthetic worth of a literary production 
 is determined by comparing it with similar productions of the 
 nation, and especially of the period. A work may stand rela- 
 tively to the narrow or undeveloped literature of the race very 
 high, but absolutely very low. Aesthetic criticism is always 
 liable to personal bias or prejudice, but the investigator can, 
 in some degree, guard himself against unfair decisions by sub- 
 jecting the production under examination to the following 
 questions: (i) Is the tendency of the work worthy? (2) Is 
 the material (the subject) worthy and conformable to the 
 tendency already described ? (3) Is the subject fittingly and 
 artistically handled ? i.e., is the technical composition or treat- 
 ment successful ? (4) Is the style appropriate and artistic ? 
 (5) If the work is a poem, is the rhythmical (metrical) form 
 appropriate and artistic ? (6) If epic or dramatic, does the 
 execution of the story satisfy the requirements of essential 
 probability ? Are the characters psychologically true and con- 
 sistent ? Do the descriptions (epic) satisfy the requirements of 
 probability ? Other tests will suggest themselves to the critic.
 
 362 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 For an elaboration of these, see Korting as above. But all 
 such tests are reducible to three : Does the work possess qual- 
 ities of ideal worth, of universal acceptability, of permanent 
 vitality? Now, when this interrogatory can be unreservedly 
 answered in the affirmative, the production concerned may 
 safely be esteemed as of absolute aesthetic value ; but when, in 
 answer to the interrogatory, reference must be had to the 
 spirit and productions of the people or the period, the work in 
 question is probably of relative, not of absolute, aesthetic value. 
 (Cf. M. Arnold, Lewes, Spenser, Ruskin, Stedman, Watts, 
 Santayana's Sense of Beauty, Gneisse's Schiller's Aesthetische 
 Wahrnehmung, etc., Gosse, Mod. Engl. Lit, Epilogue. See, in 
 general, 21, B 2, below.) 
 
 e. The Dynamic Relation of the Literary Work to Life and 
 Thought. For this consideration the preceding studies have 
 cleared the way. It constitutes the natural transition to the 
 arrangement of results. The student has so far regarded the 
 production under examination as affected by literary, national, 
 and other influences ; he now regards it as reacting upon its 
 environment. (See p. 360, c, above.) He aims to discover 
 its effect upon the literary life of the nation or the world. This 
 effect he may find explicitly estimated by contemporary writers, 
 recognized informally by them and their successors, or uncon- 
 fessed but patent in the modification of literary thought and 
 style. Its wider influence, aesthetic, religious, social, politi- 
 cal, he will find (i) certified by authorities in these fields or 
 (2) proved, though with an ever waning degree of certainty, 
 by its bearing upon the concrete institutions of life, by con- 
 clusions drawn from inference, or by the uncertain vogue of 
 tradition. 
 
 Third : The Arrangement of Results, The results of the pre- 
 vious investigation must be arranged with due regard to ration-. 
 ality, continuity, and the interdependence of parts (uniformity) ;
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 363 
 
 otherwise the growth of the literary period or type will escape 
 observation. Any such organism may be regarded as national 
 or as general (universal). 
 
 a. National Histories of Poetry (i.e., of Literary Arf). The 
 nation, as here understood, is a political and cultural unit, to 
 which identity of race and country, and community of language 
 are more or less contributory. Though the literature of the 
 nation may not be all in one language (cf. the Latin and French 
 literature of the English nation), nor produced by one race (cf. 
 the Irish contributions to English literature), nor even if pro- 
 duced by one race in one language confined to one country 
 (cf. the literature of the English colonies and dependencies), 
 still, a national literature is characterized by common political 
 and cultural relations which unite in an unmistakable whole the 
 results of observation, action, feeling, and imagination within 
 their sphere of influence. One is, therefore, justified in regard- 
 ing a certain body of poetry as national. 
 
 As to the proper arrangement of productions within this unit, 
 there is diversity of opinion. Korting (Encykl. 2 : 442, 443) 
 mentions three kinds of relations which may exist between 
 literary works : the External, grouping by authors or schools of 
 authors, by periods of composition, by the localities in which 
 produced ; the Formal, grouping by actual (artistic or non- 
 artistic), linguistic (ordinary or aesthetic), or rhythmical (verse 
 or prose), correspondence of form, or by the method of address 
 (to the individual, the special audience, or the public) adopted 
 by the author ; the Internal, grouping by (i) the tendency of 
 the writings (impersonal, reflective, critical, scientific, moral, 
 religious, etc.) and (2) their composite character, inclusive of the 
 nature of the material (borrowed or invented, elevated or com- 
 monplace, popular or learned), the arrangement of the material, 
 the relation of the author to the material (objective or subjective, 
 and if subjective sympathetic, ironical, humorous, etc.), 
 and the resulting aesthetic worth. Choosing the internal rela-
 
 364 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 tion as a basis of classification, he arranges productions accord- 
 ing to the literary kinds or types (Litteraturgattungen) and 
 literary currents or movements (Litteraturstromungen). Boeckh 
 (EncykL, p. 648) strongly advocates the arrangement according 
 to types or species (epic, lyric, dramatic), calling it the generic 
 or eidographic method ; but he appreciates the objection 
 brought against this method, namely, that though it preserves 
 the continuity of the type, it ignores or slights the element of 
 synchronism ; and accordingly he later advocates (Encykl., 
 pp. 742-745 Methodologischer Zusatz) a combination of the 
 eidographic and the synchronistic methods : so as to represent 
 the mutual relations of contemporary arrangement by periods, 
 types, movements, and writers. Jn his discussion of the merits 
 of the two methods, he suggests that the general literary devel- 
 opment of the period be sketched as an introduction to the 
 development of individual types within the period. 
 
 According to Elze (Grundr. d. engl. Philol., p. 233), the eido- 
 graphic or generic method, while it may be successfully applied 
 to the less complex literatures of antiquity with which Boeckh, 
 for instance, deals, is not adaptable to modern literatures. And 
 properly so, for the lines of demarcation between literary kinds 
 are not so distinct as they formerly were, and the minor species 
 are in a state of internal modification and mutual flux. . Illus- 
 trating the subject, Elze enumerates, with reference to the 
 history of English literature, the following methods of arrange- 
 ment, and he advocates a combination to suit the purpose of 
 the historian : (i) By countries : histories of Scottish poetry, 
 of Irish, American, Australian poetry, etc., eg., Campbell's 
 Introd. to the History of Poetry in Scotland (Edinb. : 1779). 
 (For bibliography, see Elze, Grundr. d. engl. Philol., pp. 244- 
 246.) (2) By political periods : Anglo-Saxon, Norman, Eliza- 
 bethan, etc., with subdivisions according to literary periods : 
 for instance, under the political period entitled modern England 
 (1688 to the present), literary periods as follows : The Golden
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 365 
 
 Age of Queen Anne, the Decline of French Taste, the Return 
 to distinctive National Poetry, the Lake School, etc.; e.g., Sted- 
 man's Victorian Poets. (3) By kinds or types: histories of 
 prose, of poetry, of lyric, epic, etc. ; e.g., Klein's Geschichte des 
 englischen Dramas (2 vols. Leipz. : 187 6), Collier's or Ward's 
 histories of the drama. (4) By biographies of authors : e.g., 
 English Men of Letters series, Minto's Characteristics of the 
 English Poets (Chaucer to Shirley). For a classified bibliog- 
 raphy with reference to English literature, see Elze, pp. 244- 
 249. 
 
 Still another method of arrangement is mentioned, but not 
 with approbation, by Paul (Grundr. d. germ. Philol. i : 237), 
 viz., (5) by schools : such as the School of Gottsched, the Swiss 
 School, Wieland's School, Klopstock's School, e.g., Gervi- 
 nus's Gesch. d. deutschen Dichtung and Haym's Romantische 
 Schule ; or in England the Lake School (cf. Elze's literary 
 periods), the Classical School, the Romantic School, the Alex- 
 andrine poets, the Art School, the Androtheist School, the Real- 
 istic School, e.g., Devey's Comparative Estimate of Modern 
 Eng. Poets (Lond. : 1873). If we add to these the arrange- 
 ment by movements, we have six methods in all. The sixth deals 
 with such subjects as the pseudo-classical movement in France, 
 the rise of Classical poetry in England, the romantic movement 
 in England, e.g., Heine's Romantic School, Phelps's English 
 Romantic Movement, Gosse's From Shakespeare to Pope, G. 
 Sarrazin's La renaissance de la poesie anglaise (Paris : 1889), 
 Greinz's Die tragischen Motive in d. deutsch. Dichtung seit 
 Goethes Tode (Leipz. : 1889), Tilley's Literature of the French 
 Renaissance (Cambr. : 1885), P. Albert's La litte'rature fran- 
 gaise au XVII e siecle (Paris : 1880), Brandes's Romantische 
 Schule in Frankreich (Leipz. : 1881). 
 
 It will have been noticed that the arrangements by countries, 
 by periods, and by authors that is to say, the topographical, 
 the synchronistic, and the biographical methods deal primarily
 
 366 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 with the external relations existing between literary productions ; 
 they are, on that account, severally insufficient. The arrange- 
 ment by schools the magisterial is frequently based upon 
 formal relations of style, which, like all fashions, are fleeting ; 
 and even when this arrangement is based upon internal relations, 
 such as tendency, or treatment of material, since the school 
 itself depends upon a master, a locality, or a coterie (all external 
 relations), its continuance is uncertain, and its influence limited. 
 There remain, therefore, the arrangements by types \h& generic 
 or eidographic and by movements the dynamic. The advan- 
 tages of the former are adequately set forth by Boeckh, as indi- 
 cated above (see also Korting, 2 : 443-454). It may be added 
 that the generic arrangement is the outcome of a consideration 
 of internal, and therefore abiding, literary relations (for the epic, 
 lyric, and dramatic forms of expression have psychological rea- 
 sons for distinct organic existence), and that a proper atten- 
 tion to the development of types implies the study of formal 
 and external literary conditions. But it must always be con- 
 ceded that implicit adherence to this generic or eidographic 
 method leads to the emphasis of one type at a time, out of rela- 
 tion to others, to a repetition of historical and biographical 
 material, and to neglect of the influence of synchronistic litera- 
 ture. The dynamic method, however, while dealing with the 
 internal relations existent between literary productions, necessi- 
 tates equally the investigation of movements which lie on the 
 surface (and are formal), and of movements which are altogether 
 external. The study of poetry by its movements requires, there- 
 fore, for its instruments the narrower methods already described 
 (by countries^ periods, authors, schools), and the method by 
 literary types as well. Because of its vital and genetic character 
 it is especially adapted to afford " that ideal survey " which, as 
 Paul says (Grundr. i : 237), "cannot be attained if the histo- 
 rian holds mechanically to any given scheme." It is adapted to 
 the historical presentation of national poetry and of poetry in
 
 A.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 367 
 
 general. Poetry being a multiple of subject, form, and treat- 
 ment (see 19, I, C, above), the dynamic method of 
 arrangement may (i) present the development of any one of 
 these factors : the poetic subject, or form, or process of execu- 
 tion; or it may (2) present movements of complexity involving 
 two or all of these factors (and, therefore, cover the development 
 of a type, epic or lyric, or of a species, such as the historical 
 romance) ; or it may (3) present movements of more restricted 
 scope but of no less persistence, so that by this means one of 
 the elements constitutive of the poetic subject may be traced 
 through a life of centuries (a striking theme or popular plot, 
 for instance ; some rich material of history, nature, or imagina- 
 tion ) ; or one of the elements constitutive of poetic form may be 
 followed through its various modifications (in style, for instance, 
 in imagery, or diction, or verse) ; or one of the elements con- 
 stitutive of poetic procedure may be shown in its survival or in its 
 revival as a fashion (didactic or hedonic ; idealistic, realistic, or 
 romantic). 
 
 Korting (Encykl. d. roman. Philol. 2 : 450471) divides liter- 
 ary currents (or movements) into Formal and Material. The 
 former proceed from the manner of literary construction : nai've 
 or reflective (consciously artistic); the latter, from the content of 
 the literary production : mystical or rationalistic. The classical 
 (pseudo-classical) movement is primarily reflective (conven- 
 tional) in form, rationalistic (scientific) in thought ; the roman- 
 tic is naive (capricious at times) in form, and given to the 
 mystical and fantastic in conception. For an excellent antith- 
 esis of the two movements, see Korting, p. 465 et seq. 
 
 b. General Histories of Poetry. Any of the previous meth- 
 ods may be employed in the presentation of subjects wider than 
 the national. But, when biographical, the general or universal 
 histories become dictionaries like Vapereau's ; when ethnographi- 
 cal, the element of international continuity, by means of action 
 and reaction,is neglected, as, to some degree, by Scherr in his
 
 368 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Allgemeine Geschichte d. Literatur (2 vols. Stuttg. : 1875) ; 
 when periodic, the development of types and movements is 
 discontinuous, as in Stern's Geschichte d. neuern Litteratur 
 (6 vols. Leipz. : 1882). The arrangement by schools is open 
 to the same objection as the biographical. The most feasible 
 arrangements are therefore those best suited to national his- 
 tories, the eidographic, as in Klein's Geschichte des Dramas 
 (13 vols. Leipz. : 1865-76), or the dynamic (genetic), as in 
 Brandes's Die Litteratur d. neunzehnten Jahrhunderts in ihren 
 Hauptstromungen (6 vols. Berl. : 1872). Both of these works 
 avail themselves, however, of the other methods as principles of 
 cross-division. 
 
 5. The LITERATURE OF THE STUDY. a. The student will 
 find the best introduction to methods in the following : Boeckh's 
 Encykl. d. philol. VVissenschaften, pp. 128, 144, 255, 648, 743 ff. ; 
 Paul's Grundr. d. germ. Philol., Abschnitt III, Methodenlehre, 
 pp. 215-238 Literaturgeschichte ; Elze, Grundr. d. englischen 
 Philol., pp. 232-250 Literaturgeschichte; Tobler's Methodik 
 d. philol. Forschung (in Grober's Grundr. d. romanisch. Philol.), 
 pp. 251280, especially the portion entitled Litteraturhisto- 
 rische Kritik ; Korting's Encykl. d. romanischen Philol., vol. I, 
 pp. 63-82 Die Litteratur (distinguishes between the " chronistic " 
 and the " pragmatic " history), and vol. II, pp. 482-505 Die 
 Litteraturgeschichte. 
 
 Other works of general importance are G. Gerber, Die Sprache 
 als Kunst (Berl. : 1885), vol. I, pp. 50-70 Poesie u. Sprach- 
 kunst, pp. 107-1 15 Andeutungen iiber die Geschichte d. Sprach- 
 kunst, pp. 235-291 Verhaltniss der Sprachen der Prosa u. der 
 Poesie zu d. menschlichen Entwicklung; vol. II, pp. 501-510 
 Das Grenzgebiet zwischen Sprachkunst u. Dichtkunst (Gerber's 
 book is especially useful as furnishing philological principles of 
 exposition and definition introductory to the historical study 
 of the subject) ; H. Steinthal, Einleitung in d. Psychologic 
 u. Sprachwissenschaft (2. Aufl. Berl.: 1881), pp. 32-35 Die
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 369 
 
 Litteraturgeschichte (of value as providing the psychological 
 basis for exposition) ; and Carriere, Geschichte der Kunst im 
 Zusammenhang d. Culturentwickelung (develops the aesthetic 
 aspect of literary history). 
 
 b. To the method of historical procedure in the field of 
 ancient classical poetry the following are useful guides : F. A. 
 Wolf, Encykl. der Philologie (Leipz. : 1831, 1845); Schaaff, 
 Encykl. der klass. Altertumskunde (Magdeb.: 1806-1808); Ast, 
 Grundr. d. Philologie (Landshut : 1808); Bernhardy, Grund- 
 linien zur Encykl. d. Philologie (Halle : 1832). Especially 
 worthy of note are the following contributors to Iwan Miiller's 
 Handbuch d. klass. Altertumswissenschaften : L. von Urlichs, 
 vol. I, pp. 29-31 Litteraturgeschichte; Fr. Blass, vol. I, 
 pp. 209-212 Verschiedener Umfang bei d. verschied. Littera- 
 turgattungen (also other portions of the Hermeneutik und 
 Kritik) ; W. Christ, vol. VII, pp. i-io Begriff u. Gliederung d. 
 Litteraturgeschichte (follows Boeckh in the classification of 
 methods as synchronistic and eidological, and adopts a com- 
 bination of the two) ; M. Schantz, vol. VIII, pt. I, pp. 1-8 
 Methode u. Entwicklung d. Rom. Litt.-Gesch.; K. Krumbacher, 
 vol. IX, pp. 18-20 on the confusion of literary kinds in Byzan- 
 tine literature, and the lack of genetic development (cf. on a 
 similar phenomenon G. Knaack's article on Alexandrine Liter- 
 ature in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclop. d. class. Altertumsw.). 
 But Boeckh's lectures on critical method are the source of 
 most of the subsequent attempts to systematize literary ' kinds.' 
 For general bibliography, see Hiibner's Grundr. zu Vorle- 
 sungen iiber d. Gesch. und Encykl. d. class. Philol. (Berl. : 
 1879). 
 
 It is unnecessary to append a list of the histories of classical 
 poetry, since an enumeration has already been made by Boeckh, 
 Encykl., pp. 747-751, and by Christ and Schantz in the Hand- 
 buch d. klass. Altertumsw. In the Handbuch the works on 
 Greek literary history which may serve as examples of critical
 
 370 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 method, e.g., those of Fabricius, Bernhardy, O. Miiller, Fr. 
 Scholl, Th. Bergk, Nicolai, Sittl, Mure, Mahaffy, Burnouf, 
 Croiset et Maur, are described in vol. VII, pp. 8, 9 ; the greater 
 works on Latin literary history, of Scholl, Bahr, Bernhardy, Klotz, 
 Teuffel, Munk, Sellar, Patin, Ribbeck, Ebert, Nisard, are noticed 
 in vol. VII, pt. I, pp. 5,6, and vol. VIII, pt. II, p. 3. For histories 
 of Greek and Roman literature conjointly considered, see vol. 
 VIII, pt. I, p. 6. Further bibliography of Latin literature will 
 be found in Korting, Encykl. i : 131-134 Romische Lit., Kir- 
 chenlatein, Volkslatein, Mittelalterliches Latein. An admirable 
 illustration of the eidographic or generic method of treatment is 
 offered by Auguste Couat in his La poesie Alexandrine sous 
 les trois Ptolemees (Paris : 1882). Professor Couat fulfils the 
 chronological requirements in his introductory sketch of the 
 subject ; the body of his work he classifies under elegiac, lyric, 
 epic, pastoral, and didactic poetry. (Cf. the twofold method 
 advocated by Boeckh, Encykl. d. philol. Wissensch., p. 743). 
 Another excellent instance of the eidographic treatment is 
 H. Flach's Geschichte d. griech. Lyrik (Tubingen : 1883). 
 
 c. For the treatment of the subject with reference to modern 
 poetry in general, see B. Schmitz, Encykl. d. philol. Studiums d. 
 neueren Sprachen (2. Aufl. Berl. : 1876), pp. 63-83 Die Litte- 
 ratur, pp. 177-186 Franzosische Litteraturgeschichte, pp. 265- 
 270 Englische Litteraturgeschichte, p. 303 Vergleichende Lit- 
 teraturgeschichte (on the whole a wooden production, but it 
 affords a view of literary methodology, and gives a full but 
 uncritical bibliography) ; B. Schmitz, Encykl. d. philol. Stu- 
 diums, i. Suppl. 1879, 2. Suppl. 1881,3. Suppl. 1881 ; Anhang: 
 Verzeichniss d. auf. d. neueren Sprachen (franz. u. engl.)be- 
 ziiglichen Programmabhandlungen, u. s. w. (by H. Varnhagen. 
 Leipz. : 1877). 
 
 d. A later and much more comprehensive edition of the 
 Verzeichniss, prepared by Johannes Martin (Leipz. : 1893), 
 covers the field of romance philology (as well as of English) and
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 371 
 
 of philological and pedagogical method. In Korting's Encykl. 
 d. roman. Philol., mention is made of the principal works pro- 
 duced on the history of romance poetry. For the masters of 
 method in Germany, Diez (Leben u. Werke d. Troubadours, 
 etc.), Tobler (see Grober's Grundriss), Gaspary, Forster, Neu- 
 mann, Lemcke, Vollmoller, Suchier, Bartsch, Ebert, Stengel, 
 Hofmann, Breymann, Grober, Holland, Mahn, Matzner, Lucking, 
 and others, see Korting, i : 169-178. For the contributions to 
 method by French scholars, such as G. Raynouard, Gaston 
 Paris, Paul Meyer, Aubertin, L. Gautier, see Korting, i : 180 
 182. 
 
 On literary history, its periods, materials, and methods from 
 the point of view of the Romance languages, Korting dwells at 
 length in his Encykl. d. roman. Philol. 2 : 482-505. No com- 
 prehensive scientific history of Romance literature has yet been 
 written. For Italy the work has been done best by Tiraboschi 
 (Modena : 1772-81), for Spain by Ticknor (Boston: 1849), 
 for Portugal by Braga (Porto : 1875), for tne Rhaeto-romanic 
 race by Rausch (Frankfurt a. M. : 1870). 
 
 e. For a general survey of the history of French poetry, and 
 an explanation of the difficulties attending the methodical study 
 of the subject, the student is referred to Korting, Encykl. d. 
 roman. Philol. (3 Thle. Heilbronn : 1884) 3 : 367-421. Works 
 which treat of the general history of French literature are 
 enumerated on pp. 305, 306 ; works on the origins of French 
 literature, pp. 307, 308 ; histories of special periods, pp. 308- 
 310; an exhaustive bibliography of materials, pp. 310336; 
 histories of modern French literature, pp. 336-339 ; materials 
 for middle and modern French literature, pp. 339-367. A 
 fair bibliography of the principal histories of French literature, 
 published between 1830 and 1886, is given in J. Demogeot's 
 Hist, de la litt. franchise (22*= ed. Paris : 1886), pp. 675- 
 678; of materials in poetry, pp. 678-681; in drama, pp. 68 1, 
 682 ; of sources and works to consult in the study of French
 
 372 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 literature, pp. 687-700; origins and sources, p. 690; Middle 
 Ages, Trouveres and Troubadours, pp. 691-693; history of 
 letters, pp. 695-697 ; poetry, p. 697 ; drama, p. 698. 
 
 For comparative study of method the student may examine 
 the following histories (devoted to poetry exclusively) : Cre'pet, 
 Les poetes frangais (collection of masterpieces with biograph- 
 ical and critical notices. 4 vols. Paris: 1861); L. Gautier, 
 Les epopees franaises (4 vols. Paris: 1878); A. Jeanroy, 
 Les origines de la poesie lyrique en France au Moyen Age 
 (Paris: 1889); G. Paris, La poe'sie du Moyen Age (Paris: 
 1887); Ste.-Beuve, Tableau de la poe'sie franchise (in the 
 1 6th century historical and critical. 2 vols. Paris: 1828); 
 Ch. Aubertin, Les origines de la langue et de la poesie franchise 
 (Paris: 1875); Jullien, Hist, de la poesie fr. a 1'e'poque impe- 
 riale (2 vols. Paris: 1844); Fauriel, Hist, de la poesie pro- 
 vengale (3 vols. Paris: 1846); Benoiston de Chateauneuf, 
 Essai sur la poesie et les poetes fr. aux i2 e , i3 e , et i4 e siecles 
 (Paris: 1815); Roquef-ort-Flame'ricourt, De 1'etat de la poesie 
 fr. dans les i2 e et i3 e siecles (Paris: 1815); Massieu, La 
 poe'sie fr. du n e au is e siecle (Paris : 1739). 
 
 Continuing the comparative study of method, histories of French 
 literature in general may now more carefully be considered. 
 Some of these are enumerated under the names of the authors 
 (Villemain, D. Nisard, GeVuzez, Talbot, de Laharpe, Buron, 
 Demogeot, Roche, Mager, F. Kreyssig, H. Breitinger, Engel, 
 Kressner, W. Konig) in Korting's Encykl. 3 : 305, 306. See 
 Demogeot, pp. 675 and 695, for other authorities, e.g., the 
 Hist. lit. de la France (by Dom. Rivet, Dom. Taillandier, etc. 
 24 vols. Paris: 1733-1862); Sismondi, Moke, Thery, Des 
 Essarts. Dowden's, Van Laun's, and Saintsbury's histories in 
 English will supply useful outlines. The literary studies of 
 G. Merlet, Sainte-Beuve, Brunetiere, Lenient, Paul Albert, de 
 Lome'nie, E. Deschanel, H. Prat, Vinet, Godefroy, Desnoires- 
 terres, Taine, E. ScheVer, Jos. Texte, and the numerous critics
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 373 
 
 whose articles appear in Rev. de Deux Mondes, Nouvelle Revue, 
 etc., are excellent examples of historical method as applied to 
 literary biography and literary periods (Korting, Encykl. 3 : 
 306, 336-339). Descriptions of the studies on periods, authors, 
 and movements, published by Ampere, Ch. Aubertin, Brunetiere, 
 Feugere, Genin, A. Houssaye, Littre, Ch. Nisard, Paris, Patin, 
 Pellissier, Planche, St. Marc Girardin, Sayous, are given by 
 Demogeot (Hist. lit. fr.), pp. 675-677 ; and a still further list 
 of special studies by Duquesnel, J. Schmidt, Dannon, Le Clerc, 
 Jolly, Gidel, Fournel, Vinet, Maron, M.-J. Chenier, Nettement, 
 Callieres. Michiels, etc., is given by Demogeot (Hist. lit. fr.), 
 pp. 695-697. 
 
 The history of literary types has been cultivated by French- 
 men more than by the English or the Germans. Lists of studies 
 in the history of the drama are given by Demogeot (pp. 68 1, 
 682, 698), and by Korting (3 : 306, 307). On the epos and other 
 types, see Korting, 3 : 310-336. See also the Bibliography at 
 the end of Professor Dowden's History of French Literature ; 
 Brunetiere, Jeanroy, Lenient, Petit de Julleville, Faguet, Chasles, 
 le Breton, Morillot, Fournel, etc. 
 
 /. The materials for the history of poetry in the other 
 Romance languages, and the bibliography for periods, themes, 
 authors, and movements, will be found in Korting as follows : 
 3: 422-479 Das Provenzalische, 479-501 Das Catalanische, 
 501-563 Das Spanische, 564-598 Das Portugiesische, 599-751 
 Das Italienische, 752-783 Das Rato-Romanische, 784-837 Das 
 Riimanische. 
 
 g. Paul's Grundriss, i : 129-142, furnishes the necessary 
 references to methods, advocated or adopted, in the historical 
 treatment of German and North European poetry. The more 
 important German authorities are the brothers Schlegel, the 
 brothers Grimm, Lachmann, Uhland (Geschichte d. altdeut- 
 schen Poesie), Lessing, Schiller, Goethe (Dichtung u. Wahrheit), 
 Schlosser (Geschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts : 1823); Gervinus
 
 374 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 21. 
 
 (Gesch. d. poetisch. Nationallitteratur d. Deutschen, 1835-42 ; 
 5th ed., under the title Gesch. d. deutschen Dichtung, Leipz. : 
 1871-74) ; Koberstein (Entwicklung der deutschen Poesie, 
 Braunschw. : 1865 ; Vermischte Aufsatze zur Litteraturgesch. 
 u. Aesthetik, Leipz. : 1858 ; and Grundriss zur Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 Nationallitteratur., 6th ed., 5 vols., 1884 ff.) ; Vilmar (Gesch. 
 d. deutsch. Nationallitteratur, 1845) ; Wackernagel (Gesch. d. 
 deutsch. Litteratur, 1848-55. 26. ed. 2 vols. 1879) ; Goedeke 
 (Grundriss zur Gesch. d. deutsch. Dichtung aus d. Quellen. 
 2d ed. 2 vols. Dresden : 1886). 
 
 Histories specially devoted to German poetry which may be 
 used as material for criticism by the student of method are 
 Bohtz (Gesch. d. neuern deutsch. Poesie. Gottingen : 1832); 
 Cholevius (Gesch. d. deutsch. Poesie. 2 vols. Leipz.: 1854); 
 Eichendorff (Gesch. d. poetisch. Lit. Deutschl. Paderborn : 
 1866); Hahn (Gesch. d. poetisch. Litt. d. Deutschen. fieri.: 
 1888); Loebell (Entwickelung d. deutsch. Poesie, Klopstock 
 bis zu Goethe. 3 vols. Braunschw.: 1856); Men zel (Deutsche 
 Dichtung. 3 vols. Stuttg.: 1858); Rapp (Das goldene Alter d. 
 deutsch. Poesie. Tubingen: 1861); Roquette (Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 Dichtung. Stuttg. : 1879) ; Waldberg (Deutsche Renaissance 
 Lyrik. Berl. : 1888). 
 
 Of course many of the best known histories, such as Kober- 
 stein's and Vilmar's, treat of German literature in general. It 
 will suffice to mention a few others worthy of examination : 
 Brugier (Nat.-Litteratur) ; Gotzinger (Deutsche Litteratur, 
 1844); Hirsch (Gesch. d. deutsch. Litt. 3 vols. 1883); Hofer 
 (Deutsche Lit.-Gesch., 1885); Kluge (Nat.-Litteratur, 1886); 
 Koenig (Deutsche Litt.-Geschichte, 1885); Vogt u. Koch, 
 Gesch. d. deutsch. Lit. (Leipz. : 1897); Kurz (Literatur-Gesch. 
 4 vols. 1876); Kurz u. Paldamus (Dichter u. Prosaisten. 4 vols. 
 Leipz.: 1867); Menzel (Germ. Lit., trans, by C. C. Felton. 
 3 vols. Boston : 1840 ; also trans, by Mrs. G. Horrocks in 
 Bohn Libr.); Scherer (Gesch. d. deutsch. Litteratur. Berl.:
 
 A.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 375 
 
 1885 ; trans, by Mrs. F. C. Conybeare. 2 vols. N. Y. : 
 1886) ; Julian Schmidt (Gesch. d. deutsch. Litt. seit Lessing. 
 
 3 vols. Leipz. : 1866) ; Sehrwald (Deutsche Dichter und Den- 
 ker. 2. Aufl. 2 vols. Altenburg : 1883) ; Barthel (Die deutsche 
 Nat.-Litt. Gutersloh : 1879); R. von Gottschall (Deutsch. Nat.- 
 Lit. d. 19. Jahrhs. 4 vols. Bresl. : 1881); Heine (Romantic 
 School; trans, by S. L. Fleishmann. N. Y. : 1882) ; Hettner 
 (Gesch. d. deutsch. Lit. im 18. Jahrh. 4 vols. Braunschw. : 
 1879) ; Hillebrand (Deutsch. Nat.-Litt. im 18. u. 19. Jahrh. 3 vols. 
 Gotha: 1875); Horn (Poesie u. Beredsamkeit d. Deutschen von 
 Luther bis zur Gegenwart. 3 vols. Berl. : 1822). For mono- 
 graphs on earlier periods, see Paul, Grundriss, i : 132-138. 
 
 For histories and monographs on Dutch and Scandinavian 
 poetry, see Paul, Grundriss, pp. 139-142. 
 
 h. In the history of English poetry little that is methodical 
 has been done by English-speaking writers, and nothing that 
 is both methodical and exhaustive by the scholars of the Conti- 
 nent. For a full and classified bibliography, see Elze, Grundr. 
 d. engl. Philol., pp. 243-249. Thomas Warton's History of 
 English Poetry (3 vols. Lond. : 1774-81. Ed. by W. C. Hazlitt. 
 
 4 vols. Lond.: 1871), though a storehouse of learning (to 
 which the editors, Price and Hazlitt, have materially added), 
 has no philological basis, begins loosely with the twelfth cen- 
 tury and closes with the end of the sixteenth. W. J. Court- 
 hope's History of English Poetry (vol. I. Lond. : 1895) is 
 announced for completion in five volumes by 1900. The first 
 volume, which discusses the Middle Ages, the influence of the 
 Roman Empire, the encyclopaedic education of the Church, and 
 the feudal system, leads us to hope for a valuable and last- 
 ing contribution to English literary history, although the philo- 
 logical quality of the work has been adversely criticised by 
 some excellent scholars. Vol. II (Lond. : 1897) treats of the 
 Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Influence of the Court 
 and the Universities.
 
 376 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Of foreign histories of English poetry, Elze mentions Al. 
 Biichner (Gesch. d. englisch. Poesie von der Mitte d. 14. bis 
 zur Mitte d. 19. Jahrhunderts. 2 vols. Darmstadt : 1855) 
 and S. Gatschenberger (Gesch. d. englisch. Dichtkunst. Lond. : 
 1874), the latter of which he condemns. Histories of special 
 types, such as Collier's, Ward's, and Klein's of the drama, 
 will be mentioned elsewhere in this work under the appropriate 
 heads. Biographical surveys of English poetry, such as Phillips's 
 Theatrum Poetarum (Geneva : 1824); Samuel Johnson's Lives 
 of the most eminent English poets ; Gibber's Lives of the 
 Poets of Great Britain and Ireland to the Time of Dean Swift 
 (3 vols. Lond.: 1753. On Robert Shiels's share in the author- 
 ship, see references given in Elze, Grundr., p. 248) ; Austin 
 and Ralph's Lives of the Poets Laureate (Lond. : 1853) ; 
 Walter Hamilton's Poets Laureate of England (Lond. : 1878) ; 
 Minto's Characteristics of English Poets from Chaucer to 
 Shirley (Lond. : 1874) ; Gostwick's English Poets (Lond. : 
 1875); Masson's Essays, Biographical and Critical, chiefly 
 on the English poets (Cambr. : 1856) ; and W. M. Rossetti's 
 Lives of Famous Poets (Lond.: 1878) display in no instance 
 that combination of continuity and comprehensiveness which is 
 requisite to a history. The biographical histories of Collier, 
 Morell, Pryde, Thomas Wright (Biographia Britannica Literaria. 
 2 vols. Lond. : 1842-46), and the English Men of Letters 
 series, edited by John Morley, do not treat poetry as a separate 
 subject. The biographical treatment of literary periods has 
 proved decidedly successful in the hands of such writers as 
 Gosse (Jacobean Poets, N. Y. : 1894 ; Seventeenth Century 
 Studies, Lond. : 1885), and E. C. Stedman (Victorian Poets. 
 Lond.: 1875). 
 
 The more important general histories of English literature 
 may be studied as experiments (none entirely successful) in 
 method, or as indexes to the materials of a history of poetry. 
 Henry Morley's English Writers (n vols., beginning 1887;
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 377 
 
 vol. XI entitled Shakespeare and his Time under James I) is 
 the most ambitious attempt in this field, replete with informa- 
 tion and suggestion, but loose-jointed in style and method. 
 His First Sketch of English Literature deserves examination, 
 as do the histories (some of them described in Elze, Grundr., 
 pp. 243-244) by Chambers, Craik, Welsh, Shaw, Spalding, 
 Thos. Arnold, Tuckerman, Pancoast. Of more importance 
 are ten Brink (Gesch. d. englischen Literatur. 2 vols. Berl. : 
 1877. The Beginnings to the Renaissance, vol. I, trans, by 
 H. M. Kennedy, N. Y. : 1889 ; vol. II, trans, by W. C. Rob- 
 inson, N. Y. : 1893); Taine (5 vols. Paris: 1885; trans, 
 by H. van Laun ; new ed. 4 vols., 1883) ; Korting (Grundr. 
 zur Gesch. d. engl. Lit. Miinster : 1887. Unfortunately the 
 treatment of recent authors lacks discrimination); Scherr (His- 
 tory of Engl. Lit. ; trans, from the German by M. V. Lond. : 
 1882), and Stopford Brooke (Primer of Engl. Literature). 
 
 Of histories of special periods no extended list need be 
 given. The following are the most commendable illustra- 
 tions of method : Stopford Brooke, Early English Literature 
 (N. Y. : 1892) ; R. Wiilker, Grundriss zur Gesch. d. ags. Lit. 
 (Leipz.: 1885); G. Saintsbury, Hist. Elizab. Lit. (Lond.: 1888); 
 Whipple, Lit. of Age of Elizabeth (Boston: 1871); Hazlitt, 
 Lit. of the Age of Elizabeth, etc. (Lond. : 1852) ; H. Hettner, 
 Gesch. d. engl. Lit., 1660-1770 (Braunschw. : 188-1) ; A. Bel- 
 jame, Le public et les hommes de lettres en Anglet. au i8 e 
 siecle (Paris : 1883) ; E. Gosse, Hist, of Eighteenth Century 
 Literature (Lond. : 1889); Mrs. Oliphant, Lit. Hist. Engl. in the 
 end of the i8th and beginning of the igth century (3 vols. 
 Lond. : 1889) ; Mrs. Oliphant and F. R. Oliphant, The Vic- 
 torian Age of Engl. Literature (2 vols. Lond. : 1892) ; Saints- 
 bury, History of Nineteenth Century Literature (Lond. : 1896). 
 
 /'. Of histories of American literature, the more important 
 are Moses Coit Tyler's History of American Colonial Literature 
 (4 volumes published) ; C. F. Richardson's American Litera-
 
 378 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 ture, and E. C. Stedman's Poets of America. Less pretentious, 
 but useful works are H. A. Beers' Outline Sketch of American 
 Literature ; Brander Matthews' Introduction to American Liter- 
 ature ; White's Philosophy of American Literature ; Nichol's 
 American Literature ; Pattee's History of American Literature ; 
 Pancoast's and Painter's Introductions to American Literature, 
 and Katharine Lee Bates' American Literature. For various 
 studies of authors and phases, see the notes to the histories by 
 Matthews and Pattee. The most important contribution to 
 biography is the American Men of Letters series. Materials 
 are indicated in Whitcomb's Chronological Outlines, in Tyler, 
 in Stedman and Hutchinson's Library of American Literature, 
 in Beers' Century of American Literature, and in the Handbook 
 by Adams and Cleveland. 
 
 j. The following are a few of the histories of poetry in gen- 
 eral : F. A. Hoffmann, Poetry, its Origin, Nature, and History 
 (2 vols. Lond. : 1884); L. Jacobowski, Die Anfange der Poesie 
 (Dresden : 1891 ; see 17) ; E. Quinet, De 1'histoire de la 
 poesie, in CEuvres completes, vol. IX (a study of national 
 traditions in poetry. The author treats, in turn, of the Greek 
 epos, the Rhapsodists, the influence of the Greek epics on 
 Greek religion and political unity ; of the romance epics, the 
 French epics, Celtic traditions, the Arthuriad, Carlovingian 
 epics, etc. ; of the German epics, the Scandinavian and Slavic. 
 Quinet pays especial attention to Niebuhr's theory of primitive 
 Roman poetry, which he undertakes to confute) ; Bouterwek, 
 Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit seit dem Ende des 
 13. Jahrhs. (12 vols. Gottingen : 180119 ; brought to the 
 present by Brinckmeyer) ; Fritzsche, Ueber die Anfange der 
 Poesie (Chemnitz : 1855) ; J. D. Hartmann, Versuch einer 
 allgemeinen Geschichte der Poesie von den altesten Zeiten an 
 (2 vols. Leipz. : 1797-98 ; comprehensive in intent, but handi- 
 capped by limited material and the lack of more modern philo- 
 logical apparatus) ; K. Rosenkranz, Handbuch einer allgemeinen
 
 A.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETRY. 379 
 
 Geschichte der Poesie (3 vols. Halle : 1832), and his Die 
 Poesie und ihre Geschichte (Konigsberg : 1855) ; C. Fortlage, 
 Vorlesungen iiber die Geschichte der Poesie (Stuttgart und 
 Tubingen : 1839). For other authorities reference may be made 
 to 17 above, and to Boeckh's Encykl. d. philol. Wissensch., 
 p. 751, where will be found most of the titles given above, and 
 to the histories of literature in general of Hallam, Demogeot, 
 Laharpe, Sismondi, Villemain, Bougine (Handbuch d. allgem. 
 Litt.-Gesch. " nach Hermann's Grundriss." 5 vols. Zurich : 
 1789-92), Eichhorn, Friedr. Schlegel, Wachler (Handbuch d. 
 Gesch. d. Litteratur. 4 vols. Leipz. : 1833), Grasse (Lehr- 
 buch d. allgem. Litt.-Gesch. aller bekannten Volker d. Welt. 
 3 vols. Dresden u. Leipz. : 1837-54), Theodor Mundt 
 (Gesch. d. Litt. d. Gegenwart, von 1789 an. 2. Aufl. Leipz. : 
 1853), Fr. von Raumer (Allg. Litt.-Gesch.). Full titles of 
 many of these also will be found in 17, and in Boeckh, 
 Encykl., pp. 746, 747, and above. For further bibliography, 
 see B. Schmitz, Encyclopadie d. philol. Studiums d. neueren 
 Sprachen (2. Aufl. Leipz.: 1876), pp. 76-78. 
 See also 18, II, III, above.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 
 
 21, B. The student should first familiarize himself with 
 the poetics of Plato and Aristotle (see 8, 9, and 20, above, 
 and, for texts and translations of Aristotle's Poetics, the Ap- 
 pendix to this volume), and especially with such treatises as 
 Butcher's Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts and Bywater's Com- 
 mentary on Aristotle's Poetics, which, soon to be issued from 
 the Clarendon Press, promises to be of decided worth. The 
 theories of Plotinus, Longinus, Quintilian, and Horace should 
 also find a place in this preliminary study. The influence 
 of Longinus, for instance, is obvious in productions as recent 
 as Shaftesbury's Characteristics and Addison's Pleasures of 
 the Imagination ; of Horace's Ars Poetica, the long-continued 
 vitality is in a general way known to every student. The spe- 
 cial investigator will naturally desire to follow the course of 
 poetic theory through the Latin treatises (particularly mediaeval 
 and renaissance) devoted to that subject ; and for him the fol- 
 lowing list is inserted. Other students may prefer to turn to the 
 sections dealing with English, French, and German poetics. 
 
 i. An exhaustive list of LATIN TREATISES in modern times 
 will be found in Friedrich von Blankenburg's Litterarische 
 Zusatze zu Sulzer's Allgemeine Theorie der schonen Kiinste 
 (3 vols. Leipz. : 1796-98, article ' Dichtkunst ' passim, from 
 which much of the following enumeration is taken). Some 
 of the more important authors are as follows : Johannes Gar- 
 landia, whose treatise, written in 1260, is of merely antiquarian 
 interest ; Dante, the second book of whose De Vulgari Elo-
 
 21, B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 381 
 
 quio contains observations on Italian verse (concerning their 
 authenticity, see Blankenburg, i : 386) ; Antonio da Tempo, 
 whose Sumina Artis Ritmici Vulgaris (about 1332 ; publ. Venet. : 
 1509) describes contemporary forms of poetry; Raf. Reggius, 
 Horatii Opera, with the commentaries of the scholiasts ; Hele- 
 nius Acron and Pomponius Porphyrion (Pad. : 1481); Marco 
 Girolamo Vida, whose De Arte Poetica (Poeticorum Libri Tres. 
 Cremona : 1520) emphasized the Horatian tradition and exer- 
 cised an influence on the French classical school (see Bat- 
 teux, Les quatres poe'tiques, Paris : 1771 ; and Cook's reprint 
 of Horace, Vida, and Boileau, with translations by Howes, 
 Pitt, and Soame, " The Art of Poetry," Boston : 1892) ; N. B. 
 Campiano, In Artem Poeticam Primordia (Venet. : 1522) ; 
 Janus Parrhasius, whose commentary on the Ars Poetica of 
 Horace appeared in 1531 (Naples; in Paris, 1533); Alex. 
 Paccius, edition of Aristotle's Poetics with notes (Venet. : 
 1536, Greek and Latin); Franc. Robortelli, Poetics of Aristotle 
 with commentary on Horace's Ars Poetica, and articles on 
 various forms of Poetry (Flor. : 1548; Bas. : 1555); Girol. 
 Fracastor, Naugerius (Ven.: 1555) ; A. S. Minturno, De Poetica 
 Libri Sex (Venet. : 1559) ; Vine. Madius and Bart. Lombardus, 
 an edition of Aristotle's Poetics with explanations and com- 
 mentary on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace (Venet. : 1550) ; 
 Georg. Fabricius, whose edition of Horace (Bas. : 1555) con- 
 tains commentaries by several moderns ; J. A. Viperani, De 
 Poetica Libri Tres (Antv. : 1558 and 1579), whose commen- 
 tary, following minutely the divisions of the Epistle to the 
 Pisos, treats but scantily the nature and kinds of poetry in 
 general (Blankenburg, i': 387) ; Petr. Victorius, the poetics of 
 Aristotle" with a commentary (Flor.: 1560 and 1573, Greek 
 and Latin) ; Julius Caesar Scaliger, whose Poetices Libri 
 Septem is indispensable for the comprehension of classical 
 forms of verse (Gen. : 1561). The third and fifth books 
 (Idea and Criticus) abound in conventional classifications of
 
 382 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 21. 
 
 figures and poetic values, but the sixth, Hypercriticus, dis- 
 plays a genuine appreciation of Horace and Ovid, and will 
 furnish the student with numerous details necessary to the 
 history of poetics. Though Scaliger did not possess the high 
 poetic sense, he was, as regards scholarship and method, the 
 founder of the early modern school of criticism. In 1565 
 Fabricius produced his De Re Poetica, a somewhat independent 
 and original treatise (Libri Quattuor. Antv. : 1565). Aldus 
 Manutius produced a commentary on Horace's Ars Poetica 
 (Venet. : 1576); Joh. Sturm, a similar commentary (Strasb. : 
 1576) ; Lor. Gutnbara, De Perfecta Poeseos Ratione, etc. (Rom.: 
 1576); Heinr. Stephanus (Paris : 1577 and 1588), editions of 
 Horace with treatise on the Ars Poetica ; Ant. Riccoboni, Aris- 
 totle's Poetics and Rhetoric with notes (Venet.: 1579. Note 
 also his Poetic. Aristotel. per paraphrasin explicans et non- 
 nullas L. Castelvetry captiones refellens, Vic. : 1584; and his 
 Praecepta Aristotelis cum praeceptis Horatii collata, Pad. : 
 1592). He is followed by Th. Correa, commentary on the Ars 
 Poetica, and De Antiquit., etc., Poesis (Rom.: 1586); Frd. 
 Ceruto, De Re Poetica (Ver. : 1588); Jac. Pontanus, whose 
 Poeticarum Institutionum Libri Tres (Ingolst. : 1594 and 
 1597) treats of the nature of poetry and poetic imitation, the 
 relation of poetry to art, of the grades and kinds of poetry, 
 and of the material and the purpose of the art ; Ant. Possevin, 
 Tractatio de Poesi ethica, humana et fabulosa, collata cum 
 vera, honesta et sacra (Lugd. : 1595) ; Macarius Mutius, De 
 Ratione scribendi Poemata (published with the preceding) ; 
 Dan. Heinsius, edition of Aristotle's Poetics, published with 
 Heinsius's treatise De Constitutione Tragoediae (Lugd. : 1611 
 and 1643, Greek and Latin); Paol. Beni, edition of Aristotle's 
 Poetics with a Commentary (Pad. : 1613) and his Platonis 
 Poetica (Ven. : 1622); Aelius Donatus, De Arte Poetica Libri 
 Tres (Rom. : 1631); Gerard. Joh. Vossius, De Artis Poeticae 
 natura et constitutione Liber (Amst. : 1647), an d his Poeticarum
 
 B.-] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 383 
 
 Institutionum Libri Tres (Amst. : 1647), both of them influ- 
 ential in the history of classical criticism, though heavy and 
 conventional in the treatment of poetic kinds and forms ; Vit. 
 Bering, De Arte . Poetica Natura, etc. (Hafn. : 1650) ; Fdr. 
 Rappolt, Poetica Aristotelica, seu Veteris Tragoediae expositio 
 (Lips. : 1679) ; Carlo Renaldini, the third part of the first vol- 
 ume of whose Philosophia Rationalis (Pad.: 1681) contains, 
 according to Blankenburg (i : 388), a tolerable poetics ; Joh. 
 Jac. Mescolius, Artis Poeticae Institutiones (Flor. : 1692) ; 
 J. G. Muller, De Natura Media Poes. inter Philos. et Histor. 
 (Jena : 1707) ; Jos. Trapp, whose Praelectiones Poeticae (Oxon. : 
 1716) were the first lectures delivered from the chair of poetry 
 at Oxford afterwards occupied by Thos. Warton, Spence, Lowth, 
 Arnold, etc. 
 
 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF POETICS IN ENGLAND. 1 Since 
 there is no history of English poetics, the student may, per- 
 haps, best approach the subject by glancing through general 
 histories of the literature ; histories of literary periods, like 
 Gosse's Modern English Literature and Saintsbury's Nine- 
 teenth Century Literature ; histories of periods of criticism, 
 like F. E. Schelling's Poetic and Verse Criticism of the Reign 
 of Elizabeth, P. Hamelius' Die Kritik in der englischen Lit- 
 teratur des 17. u. 18. Jahrhs. (Leipz. : 1897), and Wylie's Evo- 
 lution of English Criticism from Dryden to Coleridge ; general 
 literary discussions of a period, such as C. H. Herford's Age of 
 Wordsworth (Lond. : 1897) ; and sketches, such as Professor 
 Vaughan's Introduction to a volume of selections entitled English 
 Literary Criticism (Lond. : 1896). J. M. Bray's History of Eng- 
 lish Critical Terms (Boston: 1898), just issued, will be useful. 
 The Materials and Methods of this investigation are as follows : 
 (a) Materials. Of two kinds : those that yield direct, and 
 those that yield inferential or circumstantial information. The 
 
 l The author of this chapter has in preparation, and hopes within a few years to 
 complete, a history of the subject.
 
 384 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 former class includes Theories of Poetry and Histories. The 
 Theories take the form of general treatises on the principles : 
 philosophical, such as Hume's Dissertation on Tragedy, or 
 literary, such as Sidney's Defense of Poesy, or Stedman's 
 Nature and Elements of Poetry ; and of special treatises, which 
 may in their turn be formal criticisms of individual poets or 
 poems, such as Macaulay's Essay on Montgomery, or Addison's 
 papers on Paradise Lost, or occasional appreciations, such as the 
 numerous ' commendatory verses,' ' recommendatory poems,' 
 prologues, epilogues, eulogia, dedications, and prefaces, and 
 the replies thereto, that are to be found in any of the standard 
 collections of English poetry. In like manner the Histories of 
 Poetry are general, like Warton's, or special dealing with 
 types, movements, periods, schools, or the biographies of poets. 
 Under the head of biographies would fall, for instance, the 
 works of our first modern antiquaries, Leland and Bale. 1 
 
 The materials from which we may obtain inferential infor-. 
 mation are (i) early treatises on the sister art of Rhetoric ; 
 (2) collections of poetry, as representative of the critical taste 
 of successive periods, for instance, Tottel's Miscellany (1557) ; 
 the Paradise of Dainty Devices (1576); A Gorgious Gallery of 
 Gallant Inventions (1578) ; A Handefull of Pleasant Delites 
 (1584) ; the Phoenix Nest (1593) ; England's Helicon (1600) ; 
 A Poetical Rhapsody (1602) ; or books of ' quotations digested 
 under a commonplace,' like the Belvidere or the Garden of the 
 
 1 Of these, the former (1506-52) left behind him in manuscript five volumes of 
 Collectanea, the fourth of which (completed about 1545) contains his Commentarii de 
 Scriptoribus Britannicis, presented in 1632 to the Bodleian Library. His judg- 
 ments lack discrimination and historical perspective ; but the facts upon which they 
 are based were conscientiously and industriously collected and have proved of great 
 value to succeeding historians. To this manuscript John Bale (Bishop of Ossory) 
 was very largely indebted in the preparation of his Illustrium Majoris Britanniae 
 Scriptorum Summarium in quinque centurias divisum, 1548 (later editions, 1557 and 
 1559). The Summary is of historical rather than critical consequence, for, although 
 based upon the originals consulted by Leland or by Bale himself, it abounds in error 
 and prejudice.
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 385 
 
 Muses (1600), to which reference is made in the Return from 
 Parnassus, and so on to the amusing anthology prepared by 
 Goldsmith, and the collections of Campbell, Chalmers, and men of 
 later day ; (3) poetical contributions found available by periodi- 
 cals of successive ages : the Annuals, the Friendship's Offerings, 
 Forget-me-nots, Literary Souvenirs, Amulets, Keepsakes and 
 Gems of the third decade of this century, and the magazines that 
 have taken their place ; (4) the chronicles of literary clubs, 
 the Areopagus, the Mermaid, Scribblerus, Turk's Head, so far 
 as accessible, their rolls of members, their records, and the 
 various evidences of the influence exerted by them upon poetic 
 and critical taste ; (5) catalogues of libraries, such as the 
 Edinburgh catalogue of the books bequeathed by Drummond 
 of Hawthorn den ; (6) evidence from any source regarding the 
 demand for poetry a reflex of the poetic consciousness of 
 the day. For instance, the history of editions of the standard 
 poets. The editorial history of Chaucer's works helps in this 
 particular to form a background for the history of poetics. 1 
 
 In addition to these subdivisions of material must be cited 
 another, inferential in general character, but of a negative qual- 
 ity. This is (7) the literary satire, as we find it in the poems 
 of Bishop Hall, Churchill, and Byron, in satiric comedy, such 
 as the Return from Parnassus, the Rehearsal, the Knight of 
 the Burning Pestle, and in the literary lampoon. 
 
 Such are the more evident classes of material. The order 
 of investigation should be chronological in respect of individual 
 productions of all these kinds, not in respect of the complete 
 
 1 Although there had been printed some half-dozen editions of Chaucer's poems 
 between 1475 (Caxton's) and 1526 (Pynson's), the first collection of his works was not 
 made till 1532, by Thynne. That the interest in Chaucer did not entirely abate 
 during the i6th century, second half, is proved by the fact that two other editors, 
 Stowe and Speght, published editions in 1561 and 1598, respectively. Speght's edi- 
 tion held its own through the i ;th century. For the history of poetic appreciation as 
 indicated by the demand for Chaucer's works, see J. W. Hales's article, Chaucer, Diet. 
 Nat. Biog., Skeat's Chaucer, Lounsbury's Studies in Chaucer, ten Brink's Chaucer, etc.
 
 386 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 contribution of one author at a time, or of one class of material. 
 But in the presentation of results as a logical whole it will be 
 necessary at times to deviate from chronological arrangement. 
 The following sketch of English poetics aims merely to outline 
 the principal periods and movements of theory and practice ; 
 but it does not pretend to exhaust the bibliography of any one 
 period, nor, so far as secondary materials go, to do more than 
 mention a few. 
 
 With regard to the first class of secondary material mentioned 
 above, it will be for the convenience of the student that its 
 earliest specimens should be listed at once. The rhetorics of 
 the 1 5th and i6th centuries have their specific importance for 
 the rhetorician, but for the student of poetics they are useful 
 merely as evidence of a critical movement that was collateral 
 but not intimately related. The following enumeration is pre- 
 pared from notes principally furnished by Dr. F. I. Carpenter 
 of the University of Chicago. 
 
 Early English Rhetorics. Doubtless the first rhetoric 
 printed in England was that of Traversanus (Fratris laurencii 
 guilelmi de Saona prohemium in novam rhetoricam. Apud 
 villam sancti Albani. 1480. "The first book printed at St. 
 Albans," Brit. Mus. Cat.). Next followed the section on Rheto- 
 ric in Hawes's Pastime of Pleasure (written, 1506 ; published 
 1517). But the first complete rhetoric in the English language 
 was the Arte or Crafte of Rhetoryke, by Leonard Cox, a school- 
 master at Reading, and a friend of Erasmus, Melancthon, 
 Leland, etc. There were two editions, one without date (circa 
 1524 in early bibliographies and in the British Museum cata- 
 logue, but more probably circa 1530), and one dated 1532. It 
 covers the subject of Invention only, and is mainly a para- 
 phrase of the Institutiones Rhetoricae of Melancthon, 1523, 
 with additions from the De Rhetorica, libri tres, 1519, of the 
 same author, and others by Cox himself. (Result of an in- 
 vestigation made by Dr. F. I. Carpenter, 1897.) This was
 
 /?.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 387 
 
 followed, but not until 1550, by Richard Sherry's Treatise of 
 Schemes and Tropes (London). 
 
 The next rhetoric in English was that of Thomas Wilson, 
 The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), ordinarily cited as the earli- 
 est English treatise in criticism. It is a sequel to the same 
 author's Arte of Logique (1551), in the third edition of which 
 (1553) appears the famous "example of doubtful writing" 
 taken from Roister Doister. In the Rhetorique the author 
 does battle for simple, native English as opposed to the corrupt 
 words and phrases imported by the learned, the travelled, 
 and the affected. But the work does not vitally affect the 
 history of poetics. Still less influence in that direction was 
 exercised by Richard Rainolde's Foundacions of Rhetorike, 
 " imprinted by Jhon Kingston " ten years later (1563), although 
 it makes a meagre reference or two to the nature of poetry, 
 e.g., " that poetes first invented fables," and cites the practice 
 of Ovid and other classical writers. As a text-book it is signifi- 
 cant of the widening literary interests of the period. 
 
 After Wilson's Arte several other rhetorics followed in the 
 second half of the century, all having popular and practical 
 rather than scientific or critical aims. Such were Richard 
 Sherry's Treatise of the Figures of Grammar and Rhetoric 
 (Lond. : 1555 ; English and Latin. A revision of his treatise 
 of 1550) ; William Fulwood's The Enimie of Idleness: Teach- 
 ing the maner and stile how to indite, compose, and write 
 all sorts of Epistles and Letters (Lond.: 1568; and later 
 editions : the illustrations chiefly borrowed from Cicero and 
 Latin literature on the one hand, and from Politian, Ficino, 
 and other Italian scholars of the Renaissance on the other) ; 
 the Arc-adian Rhetorike pf Abraham Fraunce (Lond., n. d., 
 entered 1588 : restricted to " Eloqution," [style, diction, etc.,] 
 and "Pronuntiation" [elocution]; short precepts and definitions, 
 illustrated by examples drawn from Sidney, Spenser, the Greek 
 and Latin poets, Tasso, Du Bartas, Boscan, and Garcilasso, all
 
 388 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 21. 
 
 given in the original. Indicative of the interest in foreign 
 literatures at this period). 
 
 Next appeared Henry Peacham's Garden of Eloquence, con- 
 teyning the Figures of Grammer and Rhetorick (Lond. : 1577, 
 and 1593, revised: a description of figures and tropes, with 
 illustrations from the Bible and the ancient classics ; perfunc- 
 tory). Of these rhetorics the most interesting, however, was 
 Richard Mulcaster's First Part of the Elementarie which en- 
 treateth cheflie of the writing of our English tung (Lond. : 
 1582 a treatise on education, an elementary text-book of 
 language-teaching, and a practical rhetoric, all in one). In 
 parts this is valuable and important to the history of poetics. 
 It contains a strong defense of the qualities and possibilities of 
 the English language. See also the same author's Positions 
 wherein those Primitive Circumstances, etc., of earlier date 
 in the century, but intended as the second part of the work 
 of which that above forms the first. (Reprinted, ed. Quick. 
 Lond.: 1888.) Mulcaster's work was followed by an inade- 
 quate treatise, Dudley Fenner's (?) The Artes of Logike and 
 Rhetorike (1584, 1588? 1592, etc.): a translation on elocu- 
 tion, style, and pronunciation, dwelling chiefly on figures. 
 
 (b} Methods. The history of poetics covers the provenience 
 both of principles of judgment and principles of method in the 
 criticism of poetry : the former being the formulation of poetic 
 theory whether by poet or critic ; the latter being the rationale of 
 the critical attitude and habit of procedure, whether formulated 
 by the critic or only to be inferred from his practice (see 4, //, 
 above). In what follows, the development of method, even 
 though only in principle, has been regarded as a contribution 
 to practical poetics, and the general term criticism has been 
 frequently used for the particular, poetic criticism. The 
 historical schools and movements are best differentiated by 
 reference to their theoretical or practical nature : if theoreti- 
 cal, according to the peculiar criteria of judgment adopted
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 389 
 
 (moral, aesthetic, or metaphysical) ; if practical, according to 
 the methods preferred (personal, impartial ; analytic, synthetic ; 
 static, genetic ; historical, comparative ; interpretative, recon- 
 structive). The periods of poetics in England vary according 
 to the basis of division. Symonds calls them Classic, Romantic, 
 and Scientific on the basis of literary influence, and with refer- 
 ence to the source of theory. Vaughan, judging principally by 
 development of method, divides into the period of the Eliza- 
 bethans and Milton, of which the typical critic is Sidney ; the 
 period from the Restoration to the French Revolution, which 
 begins with Dryden and ends with Johnson ; and the period 
 from the Revolution to the present day, beginning with Words- 
 worth and Coleridge and represented in its earlier phases by 
 Lamb, Hazlitt, and Carlyle. The student would, however, do 
 well to inquire whether more scientific divisions might not 
 result from considering the successive stages of method and 
 theory taken each in relation to the other (the plan adopted in 
 the following outline); or the development of the vehicle of 
 criticism (pamphlet, dedication, essay paper, review, daily 
 newspaper, etc.); or the extension, by social progress, of the 
 audience addressed (academic, histrionic, the " town," the 
 court, the patron, the tea-table, the club, the publisher, and, 
 finally, the country as well as the circle of the 'cultivated'). It 
 may, indeed, be questioned whether anything but convenience 
 is gained from the division into periods always more or less 
 arbitrary. 
 
 (c) The Outline. During the First Period, if we may call 
 it so, poetics is chiefly Theoretical and largely Academic. The 
 first important movement is that in favor of classical versifica- 
 tion started by Ascham (The Scholemaster. Bk. II, 1570) and 
 kept in motion by Gabriel Harvey and Spenser (Three Proper 
 and Wittie Familiar Letters, 1579, 1580) and by the Society of 
 the Areopagus to which they belonged. Spenser soon aban- 
 doned the attempt at quantitative versification, but the move-
 
 390 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 ment was forwarded by the practice of Sidney (in the Arcadia), 
 by the advocacy of William Webbe (Discourse of English 
 Poetrie, 1586), and by Campion's Observations on the Art of 
 English Poesie, 1602. (For most of these earlier treatises, see 
 Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays, 1815 ; Arber's Reprints; 
 and Egerton Brydges's Censura Literaria.) 
 
 But meanwhile a counter-movement, dating from Gascoigne's 
 Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the Making of Verse 
 or Rhyme in English, 1575, had been steadily gaining head. 
 In this early protest against traditional conventionality a 
 protest in itself the forerunner of romantic poetics the leaders 
 are James VI (Tfeatise of the Airt of Scottis Poesie : Essays 
 of a Prentise, 1584), and Puttenham (Arte of English Poesie, 
 1589), who did for the vernacular that in the way of sensible 
 criticism which Nashe (Epistle Prefatory to Greene's Mena- 
 phon, 1589, and Pierce Penilesse, 1592) did for the academic 
 affectations of the day. The influence of these men and of 
 Samuel Daniel (Defense of Rhime, 1602) in confirming the 
 native possibilities of our language, style, and prosody cannot 
 be overestimated. 
 
 The question of poetic criticism had, however, been ap- 
 proached in these earlier times from the side of morals as well 
 as from that of form. There had been early sermons against 
 Miracle Plays ; and in Northbrooke's Treatise against Dicing, 
 Dancing, Plays, and Interludes (entered for publication, 1577), 
 the question is not whether poetry should wear this or that 
 form, but whether it should exist at all. In 1579 Gosson had 
 published his School of Abuse, a virulent attack upon " poets, 
 pipers, players, jesters," etc., in which he condemned the 
 drama on the ground of its immoral effect. He was answered 
 by Lodge in the Defense of Poetry, Music, and Stage Plays, 
 privately circulated in 1579. But Lodge makes the mistake of 
 accepting his opponent's premise and trying to justify poetry 
 on the ground of its disciplinary value. Not so, Sir Philip 

 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 391 
 
 Sidney, who, while insisting upon the moral value of poetry 
 and the drama, transfers the justification of their existence 
 to broader and more philosophical premises. He holds that 
 art is the highest manifestation of nature ; and that to awaken 
 pleasure is an essential of art an end, not a means to moral 
 instruction. He adjudicates in like manner the strife between 
 the advocates of classical quantitative verse and the dramatic 
 unities on the one hand, and the apostles of the natural move- 
 ment on the other, by designating the advantages of either 
 practice in its appropriate place. (For a good critique of 
 Sidney's Defense of Poesie, see Vaughan's Lit. Crit. See 
 also editions by Evelyn Shuckbrugh, Cambridge, 1891, and 
 by A. S. Cook, Boston, 1890.) The Defense of Poesie was 
 written between 1581 and 1585, was read in manuscript by 
 many, but not published till 1595. Gosson, to whom answer 
 is made in the Defense, had meanwhile returned to the attack. 
 In 1581 he produced Plays Confuted in Five Actions, and 
 was again met by Lodge in the Address prefixed to the Alarum 
 Against Usurers (1584). Webbe, too, and Puttenham took 
 notice of the moralistic controversy the latter, however, with 
 the better presentation of the dramatic case. Sir John Haring- 
 ton (Brief Apology for Poetrie, prefixed to the translation of 
 Orlando Furioso. Lond. : 1591) adopts much the same ground 
 as Sidney and Puttenham. From the former, whom he greatly 
 admires, he borrows largely (see Nation, 48 : 224) ; of the latter 
 he expresses a qualified commendation. Nash, in his Pierce 
 Penilesse, turns the flank of the anti-dramatic critics by an attack 
 upon the " dunstical sermons " that they would set up as 
 counter-stimulants, and he tries to prove "plays to be no 
 extreme but a rare exercise of virtue." William Vaughan's 
 Golden Grove (completed in 1599, published 1600) has one or 
 two chapters on art and poetry which feebly argue their inferi- 
 ority to nature, and conclude the immorality of the drama ; but 
 this conclusion is reversed in his Golden Fleece, written a
 
 392 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 quarter of a century later. No attack of the sixteenth century 
 upon the drama is more bitter than John Rainolde's Overthrow 
 of Stage Playes, which, published in 1599, arose from a contro- 
 versy with Dr. Gager and gave birth to one with Dr. Gentiles 
 concerning the same matter. 
 
 Worthy to be mentioned in the same category with Sidney 
 and Puttenham, because of his noble and catholic conception 
 of poetry, is Dr. Joseph Hall, Bishop of Exeter, whose satires 
 demand careful examination. Books I-III were published in 
 1597, the remaining books in 1598. He gives us one of the 
 earliest descriptions, satirical of course, of a Critic's* Club, and 
 refutes contemporary extravagances in language, versification, 
 and style. Ben, Jonson appears in 1598 with the defense of 
 poetry spoken by Lorenzo in Every Man in His Humour; and 
 even here he sounds a truer note than all but the best before 
 him. For the next few years he is engaged in the controversy 
 with Marston and Dekker, a purely personal affair. But in 
 the play just mentioned, as well as in Every Man out of His 
 Humour, 1599, and The Poetaster, 1601, he takes a more 
 general view. He is already an advocate of the classical uni- 
 ties and of the didactic office of poetry ; and he has formed 
 opinions concerning the nature of idealization and the progres- 
 sive continuity of dramatic form. Francis Meres's Comparative 
 Discourse of our English Poets with Greek, Latin, and Italian 
 Poets in the Palladis Tamia, 1598, is an attempt at an histori- 
 cal survey somewhat after the manner of Webbe and Puttenham. 
 The comparative criticism is, of course, crude, but it is of value 
 in fixing dates and facts. The author is indebted to Webbe, 
 Puttenham, Ascham, and Sidney. 
 
 The most important contribution to poetics between Sidney's 
 Defense and Jonson's Discoveries is to be found in the Second 
 Book of the Advancement of Learning, 1605. Looking at 
 poetry from both the ethical and aesthetic sides, Bacon anti- 
 cipates Wordsworth and Carlyle ; emphasizing the difference
 
 ff.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 393 
 
 between idealization and actuality, he foreshadows Cowley/ 
 Dryden, and Addison ; indicating the religious force of poetic 
 thought, he strikes a chord to which Dennis, Wordsworth, 
 Coleridge, and Arnold respond. His ideas of poetic justice 
 are in advance of contemporary theory, and his insistence upon 
 the imaginative appeal as the prime poetic characteristic is in 
 anticipation of Addison. It looks, indeed, as if Addison might 
 have obtained his classification of the qualities productive of 
 imaginative pleasure from Bacon's " more ample greatness, 
 more perfect order, and more beautiful variety." Bacon is also 
 the founder of literary history ; he calls for the genetic method 
 of critical study, by cause and effect, movement, influence, rela- 
 tion, change, decay, and revival ; and he suggests the elasticity 
 of literary forms or types ; ideas all essential to the under- 
 standing of literature as an historical growth. Just about 
 the same time, 1605, the other great critic of the later Eliza- 
 bethan Age, Ben Jonson, was pursuing his study of classical 
 criticism and promising a translation of Horace's Ars Poetica 
 (see preface to Sejanus, 1605). That he was busied at .this 
 early period with a commentary on the Ars Poetica is a signifi- 
 cant fact. For it furnishes a clue to the real beginnings of that 
 Latin-classical conventionalism which exercised so decided an 
 influence on the poetics of the next one hundred and fifty 
 years. The Horatian influence proceeded from Ben Jonson 
 rather than from any other English writer ; not only as regards 
 form, but as regards the didactic motive. On these points con- 
 sult the prefaces, prologues, epilogues, to his various plays ; 
 and his Timber, of which presently. 
 
 Minor contributions to poetics before the year 1625 were 
 Edmund Bolton's Hypercritica, parts of which were written, 
 probably, between 1600 and 1603 (Arber dates the work 1620; 
 it contains a comparative estimate of poets by a man who 
 expressly disclaims any of the qualifications of a critic of poetry ; 
 but it is historically useful) ; Thomas Hey wood's Apology for
 
 394 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Actors, 1612 (advances somewhat beyond the moralistic defense 
 of the drama, advocating art for pleasure's sake ; acknowledges 
 the critical services of Puttenham and Meres); J. G.'s (John 
 Green's) Refutation of the Apologia for Actors, 1615 ; Michael 
 Drayton's Epistle of Poets and Poesy, 1619 ; and Henry Peach- 
 am's the Compleat Gentleman, purloined in large part from 
 Puttenham (the Bodleian copy is dated 1622). 
 
 So far criticism is principally a matter of theory, not yet of 
 method in application. But to form a just idea even of the 
 theory, it is not sufficient to read only such treatises as are 
 mentioned above. The student should correct and broaden 
 the conceptions thus derived by careful comparative study of 
 the popular taste, as shown by the style of poetry most sought 
 in that day. Not only should the works of the greater authors 
 be studied, but the various poetical collections, such as Tot- 
 tel's Miscellany, 1557 ; the Paradise of Dainty Devices, 1576 ; 
 England's Helicon, 1600, etc. And consideration should be 
 given to the aesthetic opinions of the poets themselves, so far 
 as they may be determined from their practice or their informal 
 utterances. 
 
 During the Second Period in the history of English poetics, 
 there is a Movement toward Practical Criticism. The idea of 
 literary history had been enunciated by Bacon in 1605, and 
 crude attempts at the practice of it had been made by Webbe, 
 Puttenham, and others ; but nothing had been accomplished in 
 the statement of critical method, of the "true office of the 
 critic," his qualifications, limitations, and aim, before Ben Jon- 
 son wrote his Timber, or Discoyeries. Though not printed 
 till 1641, this work was certainly in course of composition as 
 early as 1626. Jonson insists that the critic shall have poetic 
 potentialities and shall judge of the work as a whole. His 
 observations on the essentials of poetry are distinguished by 
 insight. His judgments were sometimes prejudiced, but his 
 doctrines are those of a great critic. He is the founder of the
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 395 
 
 English classical school of criticism, but he is by no means 
 responsible for the narrower rules of the latter part of the 
 1 7th century, misinterpreted from Rapin's Reflections sur la 
 poetique d' Aristotle, and Le Bossu's Traite du poeme epique, 
 nor for the fixed canons of the i8th, crystallized from Andre 
 Dacier's commentary on Bossu, and from Boileau's L'Art poe- 
 tique, 1674. As Rapin and Boileau were much more liberal 
 and constructive than their disciples, so was Ben Jonson. The 
 dignity of his poe'tic ideal is proved by such poems as the first 
 Ode to Himself ; the didactic quality of his criticism by his 
 defense of comedy in the same ode ; his freedom from formal 
 conventionality by his estimates of contemporary poetry. 
 
 During the latter portion of Jonson's life the moralistic attack 
 upon the stage was persistently maintained ; in a less impor- 
 tant degree by such pamphlets as A Short Treatise against 
 Stage Plays, 1623, and Lenton's Young Gallant's Whirligig, 
 1629 ; but with infinitely greater force and ultimate result by 
 Prynne's Histriomastix, 1632, which, at first failing of its object, 
 afterwards produced a progeny of anti-dramatic literature, and 
 was finally efficient in closing the theatres, 1642. Still later, 
 the spirit of Prynne was revived in the Prince de Conti and 
 Jeremy Collier (see below, remarks on the Immorality of the 
 Stage). 
 
 We return to legitimate criticism with the Earl of Stirling's 
 (Sir William Alexander) Anacrisis, written 1634, published 
 with Drummond's Works, 1711, which, although ordinarily 
 overlooked, contains a statement of theory and methods con- 
 siderably in advance of the age. This important work is to 
 be found in none of the quartos of Drummond in the Bodleian, 
 but appears in Dr. Charles Rogers's Memorials of the Earl of 
 Stirling (2 vols. Edinb. : 1877), vol. II, pp. 205-210. Stirling 
 is followed by Milton, whose position in poetics, like that of 
 Sidney and of Bacon, is above strife. The poet Clothes the 
 spirit of freedom which characterizes our first admirers of
 
 396 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 the classics, Greene, Marlowe, Peele, and the rest, with the 
 form of restraint, of which Ben Jonson had been the advocate. 
 Although a. Puritan, he cuts the ground from under the puri- 
 tanical objection, by consecrating poetry to the glorification of 
 God and the justification of God's ways toward man ; while, at 
 the same time, he maintains that the vision divine can come 
 only to him who is purified of passion. The purification of 
 the passion of the spectator or reader is asserted in the Intro- 
 duction to Samson Agonistes, 1671 ; the high ideal and func- 
 tion of poetry, in the third contribution to the Smectymnuus 
 controversy, the Reason of Church Government urged against 
 Prelatry, 1642 ; the relation of poetry to rhetoric and logic as 
 means of education, in the Tractate on Education, 1644. 
 
 For the parts played by Waller, Denham, and Cowley in 
 the " refinement of English verse " and the promotion of the 
 so-called classical movement, which, originating in its larger 
 features with Ben Jonson, was furthered by Dryden and reached 
 its climax in Pope and Dr. Johnson, reference may be made to 
 Edmund Gosse's From Shakespeare to Pope, his Seventeenth 
 Century Studies, and his Modern English Literature. Waller's 
 rehabilitation of English style and the heroic couplet was begun 
 in 1621. And as late as 1690, in the Preface to the Second 
 Part of his Poems, probably written by Bishop Atterbury, we 
 find his poetic principles acknowledged as they were in the 
 heyday of their youth. The relative significance of Waller 
 and Denham (Cooper's Hill, 1640) in the history of verse is 
 stated by Dryden in the Preface to the Rival Ladies, 1664. 
 For Waller's enunciation of principles the student should study 
 the Verses upon Ben Jonson, On Mr. John Fletcher's Plays, To 
 Mr. George Sands on his translation of some part of the Bible, 
 and In Answer of Sir John Sucklin's Verses. Another herald 
 of coming fashions was Denham's Preface to Sir Richard 
 Fanshaw's Translation of Guarini's Pastor Fido, 1647. Some 
 thirty years later the convictions there expressed were accepted
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 397 
 
 by the Earl of Roscommon and restated in his more famous 
 Essay on Translation. Meanwhile Sir William Davenant's 
 Gondibert, in 1650, furthered by precept and example the mode 
 of verse adopted by Waller and Denham and the affectation 
 of Christian themes suggested by the former. The Preface to 
 Hobbes is a moralistic plea for poetry ; but it has germs of 
 that poetic estimate of religious subject-matter which Dennis 
 afterwards emphasized in his Advancement of Poetry. The 
 Reply to Davenant by Hobbes is even better worth study, for 
 it contains an attempt at classifying poetry on a new principle, 
 as well as a philosophical aperfit of fancy, imagination, and 
 imitation, and a study of the relation of poetry to philosophy. 
 For the aesthetic judgment of Davenant's contemporaries the 
 student should read the commendatory verses attached to Gondi- 
 bert and to other poems of , the day. Denham's Preface of 
 1656 to his own Essay on Translation (written much earlier, 
 1636) states in prose the plea for liberal rendering that he had 
 already advanced in the verses to Sir Richard Fanshaw, 1647. 
 With the exception of Milton, Cowley was the writer of 
 keenest poetic insight between Ben Jonson and Dryden. In 
 his notes on the Davideis and his Preface to his Works, 1656, 
 he reverts to the critical principles enunciated by Bacon, and 
 takes his stand as an advocate of the analytic and historical 
 methods. While recognizing the poetic possibilities of morals 
 and religion, he is capable also of a larger view, not utilitarian 
 nor didactic. Still more striking is the philosophical sympathy 
 with Bacon which Cowley displays in his Address to the Royal 
 Society a species of English Academy to the establishment 
 of which the poet's Proposition for the Advancement of Learn- 
 ing (1661) had contributed. The Ode or Address, written 
 between 1662 and 1667, states clearly the relation of philos- 
 ophy to authority and to reason, the function of philosophy 
 in respect* of nature, and the difference between the poetry of 
 wit and the poetry of the philosophic imagination. In his
 
 398 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 appreciation of nature, her beauty and her significance, the 
 poet distinctly anticipates Wordsworth (see Grosart, Cowley, 
 vol. I, p. civ). Contemporary verses on Cowley's death, 1667, 
 and on Milton's Paradise Lost, which was published in the 
 same year, afford an insight into the literary opinion of the day. 
 On that epic the earliest laudatory criticism was uttered in 1669 
 by Milton's nephew, Edward Phillips ; and the next by Marvel, 
 in verses written about 1672. 
 
 During the interval between Ben Jortson's first attempts in 
 critical method and Cowley's Proposition for the Advancement 
 of Learning, there had been a certain development of practical 
 poetics, but it was marked rather by the greater frequency of 
 applied criticism than by any improvement of the method. 
 With the foundation of the Royal Society, however, which 
 (although its object was the advancement of science) pledged 
 itself to the cultivation of a lucid, forcible, and easy English 
 style, the vehicle of criticism was assured ; and on the ordering 
 and simplification of the style there naturally followed a system- 
 atization of principles. Cowley is indirectly the promoter of 
 the refined manner and liberal method which characterize the 
 poetics of Dryden, and he is directly the forerunner of the 
 return to nature and philosophy which characterizes Wordsworth 
 and Coleridge. 
 
 The Third Period of English poetics, then, beginning with 
 the Foundation of the Royal Society, 1662, and continuing 
 until the publication of the Tatler, 1709, accomplished the 
 Refinement of Theory and Method. Its principal representa- 
 tives are Cowley, Dryden, Mulgrave, Roscommon, Bentley, and 
 Dennis. 
 
 To give a complete account of Dryden's contributions to 
 poetics would be impossible in this place. A list of his writ- 
 ings will be found in 20 above. The first of his " famous 
 prolegomena" was the Dedication to Lord Orrery, prefixed 
 to the Rival Ladies, 1664. Here his desire to improve style
 
 &.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 399 
 
 and versification found expression in a plea for a literary 
 tribunal like the French Academy. But the preference for 
 rhyme announced in this Dedication being, in 1665, challenged 
 by Howard (Preface to Four New Plays), there was precipitated 
 the discussion which produced Dryden's first great effort in 
 poetics, the Essay of Dramatic Poesy, 1668. This essay, which 
 strives to show that modern drama excels the ancient, displays 
 advance both in method and poetic judgment. In method the 
 discussion proceeds from an accepted definition to the histori- 
 cal application of the same and the analysis of representative 
 examples. In the realm of theory or judgment the emphasis, 
 meanwhile, is laid upon typical idealization, consistency between 
 dramatic content and poetic garb, and the importance of the 
 criterion of imaginative appeal. There is also evident a con- 
 sciousness of the interpretative function of poetry, and of the 
 value of a wider aesthetic appeal (to many emotions rather than 
 one or two). Even at this stage of his career Dryden displays 
 a catholicity of taste not merely classical nor romantic, not 
 all didactic, nor hedonistic that savors of and recalls Bacon, 
 Milton, and Cowley. 
 
 In the Defense of the Essay of Dramatic Poesy, 1668, 
 Dryden strengthens his plea for rational idealization by attack- 
 ing the false principles of personal criticism and unregulated 
 taste advanced by Sir Robert Howard. In the Preface to the 
 Conquest of Granada, 1669-72, the romantic spirit prevails a 
 sense of the relation between poetry and the age, and a tendency 
 to look at literary productions from the comparative point of 
 view. In the Preface to the State of Innocence, 1674, Dryden 
 expresses his admiration of Paradise Lost, thus early record- 
 ing the catholicity of his poetic taste. This Preface is of 
 the utmost importance in his career as a critic. It discusses 
 the essence of poetry, the qualifications of the critic, and the 
 methods of criticism. The canons of judgment are considered 
 with reference to nature, imitation, and imagination. The critic
 
 400 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 must be of poetic temperament, must judge of poetry according 
 to its species, must make organic judgments, and must know 
 when to rely upon authority, when on reason. This essay 
 marks the opening of the second stage of Dryden's criticism. 
 He now abandons the advocacy of rhyme, and begins to feel 
 his way among more difficult problems. In the Preface to All 
 for Love, 1678, he adds to the principles of method already 
 enunciated that of the milieu, a revolt against the authority 
 of foreign criticism (French or classical) in English poetics. 
 In the matter of the milieu, he anticipates Hegel, Taine, Bru- 
 netiere ( 9, I, B 3). Equally revolutionary and equally scien- 
 tific are not a few of the theoretical principles advanced in this 
 Preface. 
 
 Omitting for the present the Preface to Oedipus, 1678, the 
 student may pass to the Heads of an Answer to Rymer 
 (written 1678, but not published till 1711), which displays 
 another change of front and another advance in poetic 
 judgment. 
 
 Rymer had in 1678 brought out a work entitled the Trage- 
 dies of the Last Age, Considered and Examined by the Practice 
 of the Ancients, and by the Common Sense of all Ages. This 
 essay was a natural sequence of his own translation, made in 
 1674, of Rapin's Reflections on Aristotle's Treatise of Poesie. 
 In the Tragedies of the Last Age, Rymer, insisting that the 
 Aristotelian laws should be observed by modern tragedy, tests 
 three of Fletcher's plays accordingly, and condemns them for 
 their nonconformity. It happens that on the fly-leaf of a copy 
 of the Tragedies of the Last Age Dryden wrote his Heads of 
 an Answer to Rymer's Remarks. Since these Heads were not 
 intended for publication, we here have Dryden as he was in him- 
 self. We find him objecting to the rigor of the ancient classical 
 tradition and formulating his own ideas as to the procedure 
 of criticism. This, indeed, is the beginning of Dryden's third 
 stage of development, a period of widening and deepening in
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 401 
 
 natural and scientific criticism. He insists upon a standard of 
 judgment at once logical and historical, upon the recognition 
 of development in literary types, upon the principles of milieu 
 and national variety, and upon the adoption accordingly of 
 criteria which shall make allowance for the modificatkm of 
 literary conditions. The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy, pub- 
 lished by him the next year, is much more conservative, but at 
 bottom maintains the breach with the school of the ancients. 
 This breach is also evident in the Preface to Oedipus, 1678, and 
 still more noticeable in the Epistle Dedicatory of the Spanish 
 Fryar, 1681. But while Dryden more steadily advocates the 
 natural development of tragedy, he by no means sanctions lack 
 of restraint or of propriety. The advance in historical method 
 and in analysis of principles is continued until with the Preface 
 to Don Sebastian the critic may be regarded as entering upon 
 his last and most profitable period of development. Before 
 examining the productions of that period, however, it is neces- 
 sary to review the course of contemporary criticism. 
 
 In 1669 had appeared Edward Phillips's Compendious 
 Enumeration of the Poets (with praise of Milton's Paradise 
 Lost), and in 1675 his Theatrum Poetarum. To 1680 belongs 
 Roscommon's Translation of Horace's Art of Poetry, which 
 realized what Ben Jonson had in 1641 attempted, and there- 
 fore crowned the movement toward which the glorification of 
 Horace had since 1605 steadily contributed. So far as the 
 style of translation is concerned, Roscommon followed in the 
 footsteps of Denham (1647, l ^S^) an d Waller. It must be 
 remembered, too, that Roscommon had especially at heart 
 the improvement of the English language and of style ; and 
 that, during the ' seventies ' he had prosecuted, though without 
 formal success, a plan for the foundation of an Academy like 
 that of- France, a scheme in which he was seconded by Dryden 
 and others. (The history of attempted literary academies in 
 England is worthy of careful study.)
 
 402 LITERARY CRITIC ISM. [21. 
 
 In 1682 was published the Earl of Mulgrave's (afterward 
 Duke of Buckinghamshire) Essay upon Poetry. This had a 
 decided effect in confirming the " correct taste " ; but the 
 author was not, by any means, a mere advocate of Horace and 
 the French models. Roscommon's Essay on Translated Verse 
 followed in 1684, characterized by independence of judgment, 
 observation, and a respect for the English language, and ' wit ' 
 as contrasted with the French. The advocacy of free transla- 
 tion was, however, not new ; nor was the encomium on Paradise 
 Lost the first of its kind. 1 
 
 The publication of the Athenian Gazette in 1690, and of La 
 Croze's Works of the Learned, the same year, is significant of 
 the widening interest in critical literature ; also the appear- 
 ance of the Athenae Oxonienses (2 vols. 1691, 1692) by Antony 
 a Wood, who may be considered to be the founder of modern 
 biography in England. His Fasti, or Annals, followed later. 
 Subsequent authorities on literary and scholastic biography 
 were Hearne, Anthony Hall, and Bishop Tanner, for whom see 
 the Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 Dryden's last and ripest season of critical production dates 
 from the . publication of the Preface to Don Sebastian, 1690. 
 This preface marks a growing confidence in an aesthetic large 
 enough to subsume the hitherto mechanical and inflexible law 
 of tradition ; and it reaffirms the best of his conclusions con- 
 cerning practical and theoretical poetics. The Discourse on 
 the Original and Progress of Satire, 1692, 1693, illustrates his 
 method of literary comparison ; while the Dedication of the 
 Third Miscellany, 1693, reiterates the necessity of regarding 
 literature as a historical growth and of applying criteria suit- 
 
 l Talking of encomia, the flood of verses that deluged the merits of Waller in 
 1688 is of interest ; it bears upon its bosom many a relic of contemporary criticism. 
 The student, indeed, should make a point of examining all such verses with a view to 
 collating the criteria of poetry as applied in successive ages. As far as Waller is 
 concerned, the literary estimate of his more thoughtful contemporaries is furnished by 
 the Preface to the Second Part of his Poems, 1690.
 
 B.-\ THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 403 
 
 able to the literary period and habit concerned. The last of 
 these utterances was provoked by the appearance in 1692 or 
 1693 of A Short View of Tragedy, etc., in which the indefati- 
 gable Rymer poured contempt upon the irregularities (from the 
 point of view of ancient dramatic criticism) of Shakespeare, 
 Corneille, and others of a modern cut. A field of criticism 
 still somewhat broader is entered by Dryden in his Parallel of 
 Poetry and Painting, 1695, prefixed to the translation of Du 
 Fresnoy's Art of Painting. Here he looks upon poetry from 
 outside as well as from within, and draws, though in a naive 
 and speculative fashion, one or two distinctions between 
 literary and plastic arts. This is one of the first attempts, 
 if not the first, at comparative aesthetics, that England had 
 produced. 
 
 Meanwhile the moralistic objection to the stage, the last 
 manifestation of which had taken form in Histriomastix some 
 sixty years before, the moralistic objection was again pre- 
 paring for expression. It made itself mildly obvious in 
 Richard Blackmore's Preface to Prince Arthur, 1695. This, 
 however, although it attacked Dryden, was not, for some two 
 years, deemed worthy of his notice. But in 1696 John Dennis, 
 who had already proved his ability in the Impartial Critic, of 
 1693, an answer to Rymer's Short View of Tragedy, and in his 
 Miscellanies in Verse and Prose of the same year, made a 
 vigorous reply to Blackmore, entitled Remarks upon Prince 
 Arthur. This is one of our earliest reviews in the modern 
 critical sense. Dennis was an ardent and judicious admirer of 
 Dryden, perhaps better equipped to espouse his cause than 
 was any other of his generation. But Dennis's reply has left 
 no mark upon history. For the irritation of the religious- 
 minded was soon to find expression in such condemnation of 
 the Restoration Drama as should render Blackmore's assist- 
 ance and Dennis's defense equally trivial. In 1698, Jeremy 
 Collier spoke out ; and his " Short View of the Immorality and
 
 404 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Prof aneness of the English Stage, etc.," prejudiced, unhistorical, 
 uncritical, and unfair, as in many respects it was, put an end to 
 the vices and to some of the virtues, too of English drama 
 at one and the same time. It is interesting to note that Collier 
 undoubtedly made use, in the preparation of this work, not only 
 of the manifest English source, Prynne, but of a French adap- 
 tation of Prynne, called Traite de la comedie et des spectacles 
 selon la tradition de 1'figlise, written by Armand de Bourbon, 
 Prince de Conti, and published in 1667. Accordingly, odd as 
 it may appear, the English stage owes something of its reforma- 
 tion to the quarter whence one would least expect reform to 
 proceed. This fact seems not to have been hitherto noticed by 
 the historians. No synopsis of the Short View need be given 
 here, as it is familiar to every student, and, though not reprinted, 
 may be picked up at any secondhand bookseller's in England. 
 For a list of the numerous ' Replies ' to this work the student 
 should consult Beljame's Le public et les hommes de lettres en 
 Angleterre au XVIII 6 siecle, 1660-1744 (Paris : 1884) ; and for 
 a full enumeration of Collier's rejoinders, the article ' Collier,' 
 Diet. Nat. Biog. Dryden's part in the controversy was all the 
 more dignified, because he acknowledged the justice, in one 
 respect at least, of the attack. (See the Epistle to Motteux, 
 1698.) His Preface to the Fables, 1700, apropos of a fresh 
 provocation from Blackmore, made further reference to the 
 affair. But that is the matter of least interest in the Preface, 
 which, as a whole, sums up what is best in Dryden's poetics 
 and exemplifies what is best in his method. In the same year 
 the poet-critic died. He had outlined the course that criticism 
 was to pursue. Where his own practice failed, the failure is due 
 to the age, the writer's lack of information, the ignorance of the 
 scientific methods necessary for the prosecution of the aesthetic 
 and comparative principles that he had enunciated. 
 
 During the last years of the century two movements had 
 gained strength which were to set their mark upon the criticism
 
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 405 
 
 of the next century, the philosophical and the scientific-classical. 
 The former is represented by two names : that of Locke, to 
 whose doctrine of the association of ideas (Essay concerning 
 the Human Understanding, 1690) Addison refers in his papers 
 on the Pleasures of the Imagination, and whose inquiry into 
 the nature of the mental faculties has influenced subsequent 
 aesthetic speculation ; and that of Shaftesbury, whose rhap- 
 sodical teaching of the relation between the good and the 
 beautiful was to color the numerous i8th century treatises on 
 taste, Addison's included, while his advocacy of criticism as 
 an educative agency was to produce the Virtuosi, and with them 
 a class of readers able to appreciate the efforts of aesthetic 
 criticism. Shaftesbury's Characteristics was not published till 
 1711-14 ; but the papers of which it is composed had appeared 
 at various dates from 1699 on. 
 
 The other movement, the scientific-classical, underlies the 
 controversy between modern and ancient learning, and although 
 in appearance it was a mere battle of the books, it in fact 
 laid the foundations of the critical literary scholarship of the 
 present century. The principal contestants on the side of 
 the moderns were, in France, Fontenelle and Charles Perrault, 
 1688, as opposed to Boileau for the ancients. In England, 
 Wotton, 1694, espoused the cause of modern literature, while 
 Sir William Temple, 1692, and later, Swift (Battle of the Books, 
 begun 1699, published 1704), took the other side. But it was 
 not until the question arose concerning the authenticity of the 
 Letters of Phalaris, which Temple had cited in confirmation 
 of his views, that the quarrel assumed a scientific charac- 
 ter. Boyle, in 1697, made a frivolous attack upon Bentley, 
 who could see nothing classical or even genuine in ' Phalaris.' 
 Bentley's reply, A Dissertation upon the Letters of Phalaris; 
 1698, is " the earliest model of a new criticism, which by a scien- 
 tific method was to bring accurate philological knowledge into 
 relation with historical research " (Processor Jebb, ' Bentley,'
 
 406 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Eng. Men of Letters series). In literary criticism Bentley's work 
 is the forerunner of the antiquarian, mediaeval, and Old English 
 researches which have helped to develop historical method dur- 
 ing the last one hundred and fifty years. 
 
 In 1701 an effort to bring about an understanding between 
 the combatants was made by Dennis, in his Advancement and 
 Reformation of Modern Poetry. He attempts with consider- 
 able skill and some success to show that both sides have over- 
 looked the real basis of difference between ancient and modern 
 poetry. He maintains that the excellence of ancient poetry 
 lies in its religious quality, and that it is superior to the modern 
 only when the modern fails to avail itself of the poetic advan- 
 tages afforded by the superior emotional and moral qualities of 
 Christianity. In this treatise, in his Large Account of the Taste 
 in Poetry and the Causes of the Degeneracy of it, 1702, and in 
 his Grounds of Criticism in Poetry, 1704, Dennis variously 
 anticipates principles of theory and method for the advocacy 
 of which credit is ordinarily given to Addison, Goldsmith, and 
 Wordsworth. 
 
 ' The Fourth Period in the history of English poetics begins 
 with the popularization of criticism by the essay-papers, and 
 extends to the foundation of the Reviews, from the Tatler, 
 1709, to the Edinburgh, 1802. It is distinguished by the crystal- 
 lization of the older theories and methods, and the preparation 
 for a reaction against their authority. The general features of 
 criticism after the death of Dryden are known to the student, 
 and the details become too numerous to be comprehended 
 within the limits at our command. What follows is conse- 
 quently but a summary. For some of the particulars refer- 
 ence may be made to Miss Wylie's work and the more recent 
 treatises of Vaughan and Hamelius. 
 
 The history of periodical literature should first occupy the 
 student. Resumes will be found in Andrews's History of 
 British Journalism, Grant's History of the Newspaper Press,
 
 .] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 407 
 
 Courthope's Addison (Eng. Men of Letters series), and in Miss 
 Bateson's contributions to Traill's Social England. Not only 
 the spread of reading but the development of social life (through 
 coffee-houses, clubs, etc.) tended to alter the relation between 
 critic and public, and so to modify the style of criticism. With 
 the foundation of the Taller and the Spectator, for instance, the 
 style became more conversational, and gradually more timely 
 and more direct. 
 
 The schools of poetic theory are during this period well 
 defined. That with which the century opened, and which, in 
 spite of growing opposition, maintained its authority till almost 
 the close of the century, was characterized by 'correctness,' 
 classical authority, mechanical and personal method, and fixed 
 canons of judgment. As the contemporaries of Dryden, though 
 not Dryden himself, had followed the system of Rapin, which 
 they themselves had made illiberal, so the contemporaries of 
 Pope and Johnson followed in the path of Boileau, which they 
 themselves made arid and strait. The other school was the 
 romantic, led by Young, Gray, the Wartons, Hurd, and others. 
 It acquired greater strength during the latter half of the cen- 
 tury than the historians ordinarily have noticed ; such force, 
 indeed, that it is altogether a mistake to regard Wordsworth's 
 Preface to the Lyrical Ballads as the beginning of the romantic 
 movement. It was rather the climax of the romantic revolt 
 which had sprung into significance some sixty years before. 
 
 During the earlier years of the period, Steele, in the Tatter, 
 started the fashion which Addison followed and confirmed. The 
 papers on Paradise Lost, in the Spectator (Dec. 31, 1711 
 May 3, 1712), were one of the earliest instances of criticism 
 applied to a single poem ; but it is not to be assumed that 
 they were the first, or that no one had appreciated Milton 
 before Addison wrote these papers. Addison's method com- 
 bines a certain liberality of view with the application of classical 
 canons, but Dryden's had displayed the same characteristic.
 
 408 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 The papers on the Pleasures of the Imagination discuss the 
 nature of our delight in peetry more exhaustively than had 
 been done since Dryden's time, but the criterion of Appeal to 
 the Imagination, which Worsfold (Principles of Criticism) con- 
 siders to be a discovery of Addison's, had been recognized by 
 Bacon, Dryden, Shaftesbury, and Dennis; and the analysis of 
 the qualities productive of pleasure into Grandeur, Beauty, 
 and Novelty may with ease have been derived from Bacon 
 and Shaftesbury. It is not the novelty of Addison's poetics, 
 but the sanity and impartiality of his judgment, together with 
 the facility of his style and the felicity of his method, that 
 makes him one of the greatest of our critics. To the earlier 
 productions of this school of ' correctness ' belong also Pope's 
 Discourse on Pastoral Poetry, 1709, the Essay on Criticism, 
 1711, and various papers in the Guardian, 1713. Of the 
 Essay the external stimulus may be found in the revolt against 
 the so-called Gothic and apparently unregulated taste that had 
 for many years obtained on the Continent. 
 
 In 1709 appeared Rowe's edition of Shakespeare, the fore- 
 runner of a series of editions most important in the history of 
 applied poetics ; and in 1710-1 1 Dennis's Three Letters on the 
 Genius and Writings of Shakespeare, worthy of appreciative 
 examination. These were succeeded by Pope's Essay on Criti- 
 cism, already mentioned, and that by the quarrel between Pope 
 and Addison on the one hand and Dennis on the other. Swift's 
 Proposal for Correcting the English Tongue, following in the 
 wake of Cowley, Dryden, and Roscommon, strengthened the 
 classical movement. In 1718 appeared Gildon's Complete 
 Art of Poetry, and in 1720 his Laws of Poetry; neither of 
 which was of more than formal quality. In 1719 Addison died. 
 He had without doubt recalled art to a natural basis (as he 
 understood nature), and had " drawn the principles of invention 
 from dispositions inherent in the mind of man " (Johnson, Lives 
 of the Poets). He had done much " to produce a habit of
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 409 
 
 reasoning rightly on matters of taste and criticism " (Courthope), 
 and it must not be supposed that his influence was merely in 
 the direction of formal correctness. He had helped to cultivate 
 the judgment of the public ; so that the generation succeeding 
 him might address its poetry and its criticism to the people 
 and not to the patron. In 1725 appeared Pope's Edition of 
 Shakespeare, with an introductory essay that is not by any 
 means devoid of sound critical judgment. In 1726 Spence 
 wrote his classical essay on Pope's Homer; and in 1727 ap- 
 peared the treatise on Bathos, by Pope, Swift, and Arbuthnot. 
 The former work displayed true taste, the latter developed a 
 code of negative poetics. 
 
 Colley Gibber's Apology for My Life, an excellent review of 
 theatrical performances, was produced in 1740 ; and in 1742-43 
 he became hero of the Fourth Dunciad. In 1743 Pope died. 
 His malignities in criticism are introductory to the magisterial 
 method of Johnson and the literary personalities of Southey 
 and Gifford. The canons of his school made " poetry prosaic " 
 and undermined the scientific comparative method of criticism 
 in process of construction during the previous century. But 
 his power shows also in his contribution to literary ethics: the 
 establishment of independent authorship and the consequent 
 destruction of the habit of dedications. After him the influ- 
 ence of patronage waned steadily, till with Johnson it expired. 
 Thereafter, the public and the publisher became arbiters of 
 fate in matters both creative and critical. 
 
 The philosophers who during Pope's life exercised an influ- 
 ence upon aesthetic theory were Hutcheson and Hume ; the 
 former by his Enquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty 
 and Virtue, 1725, and his Essay on the Passions and Affections, 
 1728 (a development of Shaftesbury); and the latter by his 
 Treatise of Human Nature, 1739. (On Hume's aesthetics, see 
 Bosanquet, Hist. Aesth., p. 261.) Hume's analytic method was 
 the complement to the aesthetics of Burke, Hogarth, Kames,
 
 410 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 and Reynolds. Out of the synthesis proceeded several of the 
 cardinal ideas of subsequent critical theory. The later disser- 
 tations of Hume are sometimes a working over of the Treatise ; 
 but they should all be studied. See 8. 
 
 With Thomson's poem, Edward and Leonora, 1 739, and Joseph 
 Warton's Enthusiast, or The Love of Nature, 1740, the Romantic 
 movement began to gather strength. Warton called for a 
 return to sincerity of observation and sanity of description. 
 Dodsley's Collection of Old Plays was published in 1744, and 
 in 1746 Joseph Warton's Preface to Odes on Several Subjects. 
 Poetry was now fairly embarked on the romantic stream. In 
 criticism, too, the Wartons, Goldsmith, Young, Gray, Collins, 
 Cowper, and Hurd were all in the line of transition from the 
 romanticism of Sidney and Bacon to that of Wordsworth. But 
 it must be remembered that not only in these writers, but in 
 Dryden and Dennis, and differently in Addison, are to be found 
 germs of our present critical principles and methods. 
 
 Before rehearsing the productions of the Wartons and their 
 followers, we turn again to the older line of thought. Akenside's 
 Pleasures of the Imagination, frigidly constructed upon the 
 basis of Addison and Hutcheson, came out in 1743. In 1744 
 Samuel Johnson made his appearance with Observations on 
 Macbeth ; and in 1747 Warburton produced his unfortunate edi- 
 tion of Shakespeare. In 1755 Johnson's Dictionary saw the light 
 (note the Preface) ; and from this time the lexicographer was 
 Dictator. His Lives of the Poets did not appear till 1779-81, 
 but his Shakespeare, his articles in the Rambler, etc., and the 
 concreteness of his personality enabled him to set his mark upon 
 criticism even before he had substantially exemplified his theo- 
 ries. There is much sound sense in the Lives, and there is 
 the 'grand style ' ; but they are dominated by the fixed pseudo- 
 Aristotelian principles and the dictatorial method. They are 
 significant in the history of criticism because they summarize 
 not only the approved literary opinion of the day, but the
 
 B.~] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 411 
 
 accumulated wisdom of those whose authority as critics had 
 been recognized during a century. 
 
 The principal contributions to the Romantic movement in 
 criticism during the ascendency of Dr. Johnson in the Classical 
 school were the following : Spence's Polymetis, 1747 ; the intro- 
 ductory chapters in Fielding's Tom Jones (directed against the 
 belief in the fixity of literary types) ; Joseph Warton's Prefatory 
 Essay to the Edition of the Georgics and Eclogues, 1753 ; 
 Kurd's dissertations on the Provinces of the Several Species 
 of Dramatic Poetry and on Poetical Imitation, in his edition 
 of Horace's Epistles to the Pisos and to Augustus (2 vols. 
 Lond.), 1753; Thomas Warton's Observations on the Faerie 
 Queene, 1754, and in 1757 Joseph Warton's Essay on the Life 
 and Genius of Pope (where for the first time that poet is criti- 
 cally handled); in 1759 some of Goldsmith's suggestions in the 
 Polite Learning and in the Bee (where he more than once calls 
 for direct study of the people, for interpretative idealization, 
 and for a historical appreciation of literary and social charac- 
 teristics); Young's Letter to Samuel Richardson on Original 
 Composition, 1759; Gray's Metrum, 1760-61; Macpherson's 
 Fragments of Ancient Poetry, 1760, and the Poems of Ossian, 
 1762 (which aroused a controversy of great import to roman- 
 ticism); Kurd's Letters on Chivalry and Romance, 1762; Blair's 
 Critical Dissertation on Ossian, 1763; Thomas Warton's History 
 of English Poetry, 1774-81 (in which he acknowledges the 
 receipt of Gray's outline for the history); in 1781 the second 
 volume of Joseph Warton's Life and Genius of Pope, and in 
 1797 his edition of that poet's works. These last-mentioned 
 works completed the preliminaries of the attack upon the 
 school of 'correctness.' In 1798 followed the brief and tell- 
 ing preface to the first edition of the Lyrical Ballads, and 
 in 1800 the famous Preface to the second edition, in which 
 Wordsworth, in so far as he does not exploit untenable theo- 
 ries of his own, sets clearly before the world the strength and
 
 412 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 the claims of the romantic return to imagination and nature ; 
 a return that affected the principles and methods of poetics 
 as emphatically as it affected those of poetry. 
 
 The student must not fail to estimate the influence mean- 
 while exercised by the writers of treatises upon aesthetics. Of 
 these the first was Burke, whose Sublime and Beautiful, 1756, 
 told directly upon aesthetic speculation in England, and later 
 indirectly through the influence of Lessing and Kant. For 
 to Burke both of these men were indebted : Lessing in the 
 Laocoon, 1766, and Kant in the Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790. 
 Other English aestheticians were Kames (Elements of Criti- 
 cism, 1762), Hogarth (Analysis of Beauty, 1753), Hume (later 
 Dissertations, 1757), and Reynolds (Papers on the Idler, Dis- 
 courses on Beauty, 1758-59); for whom see 8 above. Also 
 to be considered is the effect of the impetus given to histor- 
 ical and comparative research by Winckelmann's Geschichte 
 der Kunst des Altertums, 1764, by Stuart's Antiquities of 
 Athens (two years earlier), and by other works on the archae- 
 ology, literature, and art of the northern as well as the 
 southern nationalities of Europe. Nor should the return wave 
 of romantic interest from Germany be ignored. The outward 
 movement proceeded from the early work of the Wartons, 
 1740-60, from the revival of Shakespearian scholarship, Gray's 
 interest in Northern Literature, Macpherson's Ossian, 1762, 
 Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, 1765. The move- 
 ment returned from Germany in Burger's Lenore, in the works 
 of Herder, Jean Paul, Wieland, and, later, of the Schlegels, 
 Tieck, and the Romantiker. That the English romantic revival 
 owes anything to Bodmer (1721) and the German critics of 
 the Swiss school is not probable, for they had no disciples 
 in England ; indeed, they themselves drew their inspiration 
 largely from English poetry. | Nor did it begin with Rousseau 
 (whose influence shows itself as early as with Goldsmith), for 
 Rousseau's Nouvelle He'loisedid not appear till 176.0. It would
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 413 
 
 appear not unlikely that most of this romantic inspiration later 
 carried by France and Germany into sentimentalism issued 
 in England from Thomson, 1739, Samuel Richardson, 1740, 
 and Lillo (George Barnwell, 1731); in France from Marivaux 
 and Pre'vost, 1731, but that both schools had in turn derived 
 it from the Sentimental Comedy of Sir Richard Steele (The 
 Funeral, 1702, The Lying Lover, 1703, The Conscious Lovers, 
 1722), and of Addison (The Drummer, 1715). The creative 
 literature of the century must, evidently, be studied as a back- 
 ground to poetic theory. The numerous editions of older 
 authors, collections of early poetry and drama, histories of 
 types and periods of art, biographies of authors, translations 
 of and commentaries upon the ancients, as Tyrwhitt's and 
 Pye's editions of Aristotle's Poetics, the effect of all such 
 upon critical theory and practice must be considered. 
 
 This fourth period comprises the tyranny of conventional 
 poetics and the preliminaries of the reaction. By Johnson 
 and his school, on the one side, principles were conventionalized, 
 while method was made systematic and style improved. To 
 be sure, the manner was ponderous and the method personal, 
 dictatorial, and mechanical ; but criticism had learned to set 
 itself an object and to move toward it. The followers of the 
 Wartons had, on the other side, attempted to deepen the study 
 of theory and to widen the courses of method. They had 
 revived the poetic tests of nature, passion, and imagination, 
 and had put into practice the elementary principles of historical 
 method, genetic and comparative. 
 
 The present, the Fifth, Period in the development of English 
 poetics opens with the present century. So far as theory is 
 concerned, the dominant movement of this period had been 
 gaining momentum ever since 1739 ; it had reached its culmi- 
 nation as a movement of revolt in 1798 ; as a movement of posi- 
 tive and practical influence it still continues. Divisions into 
 periods are arbitrary. The classical and the romantic move-
 
 414 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 ments in one form or another are perennial ; they flow through 
 periods. But, viewed synthetically, the igth century may be 
 called the Period of Reconstruction. Its beginning is marked 
 by the organization of criticism which attended the establish- 
 ment of the Reviews, in 1802 the Edinburgh, and in 1809 
 the Quarterly, soon to be followed by Blackwood and the 
 London Magazine. Hitherto criticism had carried the author 
 ity of the writer only ; and the labor of criticism was gen- 
 erally an avocation, or, at best, secondary to some regular 
 profession. But the judgments of the Edinburgh and the 
 Quarterly were known to proceed from one or other of a 
 coterie of acknowledged scholars and men of letters ; to repre- 
 sent the opinions and policy of the coterie and the best ability 
 of the writer. Criticism, accordingly, was, at the beginning 
 of the century, organized as a profession by the Edinburgh, 
 under the editorship of Jeffrey, with the collaboration of Sydney 
 Smith, Brougham, Scott, Leslie, etc. ; by the Quarterly, under 
 the editorship of Gifford, with the collaboration of Scott, 
 Southey, Lockhart, etc. ; by Blackwood's Magazine, under Wil- 
 son, Lockhart, Hogg, and Maginn ; and by the London, under 
 Lamb, Hazlitt, and De Quincey. (See Traill's Social England, 
 and Saintsbury's Nineteenth Century Literature.) 
 
 The history of criticism in the early part of this century 
 may be considered systematically as follows : (i) The Enun- 
 ciation of the Romantic Principle : Wordsworth, Coleridge's 
 earlier writings, Scott in the Edinburgh, etc. (2) The Classical 
 Reaction : the Reviews Jeffrey, Gifford, Lockhart, Southey, 
 Wilson, etc. But here the student should discriminate between 
 the impressionism and narrow prejudice of Gifford (the nadir 
 of personal criticism) and the reactionary but altogether more 
 catholic and philosophical traditionalism which, in spite of 
 occasional spleen and error, characterizes Jeffrey. Blackwood 
 follows, to some extent, the lead of the older reviews, but Wil- 
 son's temper frequently prompts to liberal appreciation ; while
 
 
 .] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 415 
 
 Lockhart (even if he did commit the diatribe against Keats) 
 deserves credit as a master of critical biography, and displays 
 neither the caprice of Wilson nor the malignity and retrogressive 
 bigotry of Gifford. 
 
 (3) The Establishment of Romantic Criticism. First, Bowles, 
 whose criticism of Pope's poetry, prefixed to his edition of that 
 poet's works, 1806, gave rise to the controversy with Campbell 
 and Byron (Campbell's Essay on Poetry, 1819; Byron's Letter 
 to John Murray, and Observations upon Observations, 1821 ; 
 Bowles's Invariable Principles of Poetry, 1819, and Letters to 
 Byron and Campbell, 1822). Second, Coleridge (Lectures on 
 English Poets, 1808, 1812; Biographia Literaria, 1817). On 
 Coleridge's relation to Wordsworth's theories, see Traill's Social 
 England ; for the source of his criticism, German and English, 
 see Brandl's Coleridge and Miss Wylie's Evolution of Criticism. 
 Third, Campbell (Lectures on Poetry, 1810; Specimens of the 
 British Poets, 1819-1848). Fourth, Leigh Hunt, in criticism 
 a direct descendant of the Wartons and Spence, in temperament, 
 of Goldsmith ; he in turn influenced his contemporaries Hazlitt 
 and Lamb, and probably both Carlyle and Macaulay, the 
 leaders of criticism in the next generation (Critical Essays, 
 1805; What is Poetry? 1844; Wit and Humor, etc.). Fifth, 
 Charles Lamb, unique in sympathetic insight, a forerunner 
 of Pater. Sixth, William Hazlitt, the ally of Coleridge in the 
 contention that poetry should be judged not by some stand- 
 ard of the critics, but by the criterion of poetry poetry uni- 
 versal and in the abstract (Round Table, 1817 ; Characters 
 of Shakespeare's Plays, 1817 ; English Poets, 1818 ; Eng- 
 lish Comic Writers, 1819 ; Dramatic Literature of the Reign 
 of Elizabeth, 1821 ; Table Talk, 1821-22). Seventh, Shelley, 
 whose Defense of Poetry, 1821, provoked by T. L. Peacock's 
 Four Ages of Poetry, recalls the best of Sidney, Bacon, Words- 
 worth, and Coleridge, and anticipates Carlyle's gospel of poetic 
 significance and Pater's of rational aesthetic delight.
 
 416 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Minor writers during these years were Sir Egerton Brydges 
 (Censura Literaria, etc., 1805-1809), John Nichols (Literary 
 Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century. 9 vols. 1812-15; anc * 
 Illustrations of Literary History. 8 vols. 181758), Hartley 
 Coleridge (Marginalia, etc.), John Sterling, Baker, Reed, and 
 Jones (Biographia Dramatica. 3 vols. 1812), Genest (Account 
 of the English Stage. 10 vols. 1830). 
 
 (4) Attempts at an Historical Method. These began with 
 Henry Hallam, and were continued by Carlyle, De Quincey, 
 and Macaulay. Of Carlyle it may be said that his services are 
 rather in the theory of criticism than the practice; but both .in 
 theory and practice his keynote is ' historical': poetry is history 
 vitalized; the poet is the outcome of his own history and the 
 history of the nation. Carlyle taught the significance of poetry, 
 the interpretative function of criticism, and advocated a method 
 of research at once genetic and comparative. His influence in 
 the systematization and limitation of modern criticism has been 
 immense, and has by no means begun to exhaust itself. It 
 affects rather the matter than the manner, and is more a philoso- 
 phy than an aesthetic of poetry (see Miscellanies, Goethe, etc., 
 Lectures on Heroes, History of Literature, and 20 above). 
 In their recognition of national literary development and in 
 their familiarity with German literature Carlyle and De Quincey 
 were sympathetic ; but as regards the appreciation of German 
 literature De Quincey is more insular than Carlyle, and as 
 regards literary history, while Carlyle would discover the bearing 
 of the poet's ethical significance, De Quincey is concerned with 
 that of his literary characteristic. Macaulay, who knew not 
 Germany, and with all his biographical industry never learned the 
 comparative method, represents the " personal " wing of the his- 
 torical school. He is judge and advocate combined. He derives 
 from Samuel Johnson, Gibbon, Jeffrey, Hallam, and Hazlitt. 
 
 In the latter half of this century a movement is manifest 
 which has for its purpose the Investigation of Principles and
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 417 
 
 the Establishment of a Scientific Basis for poetic and artistic 
 appreciation. The leaders in this movement are John Stuart 
 Mill (System of Logic, 1843, etc -; Thoughts on Poetry and its 
 Varieties, etc.), Herbert Spencer (Social Statics, 1851; Psychol- 
 ogy, 1855, etc. ; Philosophy of Style, 1852; On Gracefulness, 
 1854), and G. H. Lewes (Problems of Life and Mind, 187479, 
 etc.; Principles of Success in Literature). 
 
 By the teachings of these men Morris, Ruskin, and Arnold 
 have been more or less affected. But Morris and Ruskin have 
 confined themselves principally to the aesthetics and economics 
 of the plastic arts, while the aesthetics and didactics of poetry 
 are the immediate concern of Matthew Arnold. For the com- 
 parative method of literary criticism Arnold has done what 
 Ruskin is doing for that of art-criticism (see Collingwood's 
 Art-Teaching of Ruskin). A combination and modification of 
 the qualities of Ruskin and Arnold (by the omission of the 
 economics of the first and the didactics of the second) appear 
 in the essays of Walter Pater, who, with Symonds, is regarded 
 as the leader of the hedonistic school. But Pater's chief char- 
 acteristic is his desire to interpret and reproduce the author ; 
 Symond's, to show the historical relations of poetry and art. 
 For Ruskin, Arnold, Pater, etc., see 2, 5, 8, 14, 20. 
 
 Most of the other writers on poetry who should be considered 
 in connection with the tendencies that have affected the latter 
 half of the century have been already mentioned in the sections 
 indicated above. The more important may be classified by 
 the student. They are such as Spedding (Bacon, and Essays 
 and Reviews) ; William Edmondston Aytoun, whose Firmilian 
 (a verse satire) upset the spasmodic school ; Sir Francis Doyle 
 (Lectures on Poetry. Lond.: 1869. Extremely good reading 
 especially the Inaugural, in which certain so-called tests, 
 definitions, and laws of poetry are deftly handled ; but Doyle 
 does not accept the distinction between fancy and imagina- 
 tion enunciated in various ways by Wordsworth, Coleridge, and
 
 418 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Ruskin) ; Dallas, Palgrave, Brimley, Robert Buchanan (David 
 Gray and other Essays, chiefly on Poetry. Lond.: 1868. See 
 pp. 3-60); Masson ; Minto (Characteristics of the English Poets 
 from Chaucer to Shirley. Edinb. : 1874); Browning (the lumi- 
 nous Essay on Poetry, referred to in 20) ; Courthope, Austin, 
 Stopford Brooke (Primer ; History of Early English Literature ; 
 Theology in the English Poets, N. Y. : 1875 ; anc ^ his Tenny- 
 son); Bagehot; Gurney; Myers; Dowden (especially his con- 
 structive and poetic Shakespearian criticism ; his Shelley ; and 
 his Transcendentalism in Poetry, etc., in his Studies in Litera- 
 ture, 1789-1877, Lond.: 1887); Wm. Knight (Studies in Phi- 
 losophy and Literature); Leslie Stephen (numerous articles in 
 the Dictionary of National Biography and elsewhere); John 
 Morley; Saintsbury (especially in his History of Nineteenth 
 Century Literature, and his contributions to Train's Social 
 England); Swinburne; Gosse (in addition to works already cited, 
 his recent History of Modern English Literature, with its admi- 
 rable Epilogue, in which he calls for the abandonment of 'indi- 
 vidualistic ' criticism, and the adoption of methods borrowed 
 from the field of science. He would apply but two criteria to 
 the poem : (i) Does the poet perform with distinguished skill 
 what he sets out to perform ? (2) What is his place in literary 
 evolution, and his relation to those of his own kith and kin ? 
 This is the best word that has been said for many years in regard 
 to criticism); Robert Bridges (who, in addition to verses which 
 have placed him among our foremost living poets, has produced 
 a Prosody of Milton, and an interpretative Essay on Keats, 
 which entitle him to be regarded as one of our keenest and 
 most scholarly critics) ; Patmore (Principles in Art, etc. Lond.: 
 1890. Sentimental Essays); Roden Noel; Cotterill; W. M. Dixon 
 (Poetry and its Relation to Life, in his treatise From Blake to 
 Browning. Lond.: 1894. Attempts to restore the discussion 
 to the philosophical basis established by Plato and Aristotle); 
 Worsfold (Principles of Criticism, Lond. : 1897; a fair statement
 
 .] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 419 
 
 of the aesthetics of Plato, Aristotle, and Spencer, with an inter- 
 esting but disproportioned and unhistorical history of poetic 
 theory as traced through Bacon, Addison, Lessing, Cousin, and 
 Arnold) ; J. M. Robertson (Essays, and New Essays, toward 
 a Critical Method); Alfred Miles (and his coadjutors in the 
 unique and excellent volumes of the Poets and Poetry of the 
 Century). 
 
 (//) Present Condition of English Criticism. Few English 
 critics, if any, have fulfilled the requirements of both theory and 
 method. Many excel in some particular sphere of criticism, 
 but even the broadest is one-sided. By some the comparative 
 method has been impartially handled, by some the light of art- 
 criticism has been brought to bear, by some the philosophical 
 elements of poetry have been studied, by some the school and 
 age and movement have been considered ; with still others the 
 individuality of the poet is the problem of prime importance, or 
 his conformity to traditional consensus, or his relation to national 
 history. Some analyze and pigeon-hole ; some praise, some 
 condemn, some appreciate; some neither pass judgment nor 
 appreciate, they register, record, or interpret. Some judge with 
 regard to truth, some with regard to conduct, some with regard 
 to emotion. For one, poetry is the breath of science, for an- 
 other the criticism of life, for another an art for its own sake. 
 There is neither system nor consensus. Criticism is still largely 
 personal, capricious, traditional, sometimes mechanical, some- 
 times ignorant, and too frequently unregulated by control of 
 any kind. But the signs of the times indicate a growth of 
 inquiry into the principles of judgment and of method, and a 
 discrimination of the one kind from the other : an inclination 
 to decide the canons of theory with reference to philosophical, 
 comparative, scientific, and aesthetic considerations, not apart 
 but in organic relation, regarded as genetic, not as static, 
 and to develop canons of method by adapting methods of 
 scientific research to the old problems and the new mate-
 
 420 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 rials. The period of reconstruction is, however, still in its 
 infancy. 
 
 In estimating the present condition of English criticism, it 
 may perhaps be of service to consider what has been elsewhere 
 said by the author of this chapter on the condition of literary 
 science in our universities (The Dial, Chicago, July 24, 1894). 
 Adapted to our present purpose, those remarks would have been 
 as follows : The present anarchy, sometimes tyranny of critical 
 practice is due generally to a deficient analysis of theory and 
 method, and an incomprehensive view of the function of criti- 
 cism and the extent of the field. Hence the uncertainty of aim 
 with which criticism is frequently reproached. This lack of 
 system is, however, indicative only of the fact that literary 
 science is in a transitional stage ; no longer static, nor yet 
 organic, but genetic. The criticism of literature in the senti- 
 mental, the formally stylistic, or the secondhand-historical 
 fashion is out of date. Scholars in philology have set the new 
 pace by making of their branch a genetic study ; a study of 
 sources, causes, relations, movements, and effects. Students 
 of literature and criticism are now, as rapidly as may be, adapt- 
 ing progressive methods, whether historical or aesthetic, to 
 their lines of research. But each is naturally liable to urge the 
 method that he favors, or thinks that he has invented. One, 
 therefore, advocates ethical and religious exegesis, another aes- 
 thetic interpretation, another comparative criticism, another 
 the placing of the masterpiece in the evolution of the type. 
 This is to be expected ; and our genetic and frequently sporadic 
 stage of literary science cannot fulfil its promise until, by elim- 
 ination, attrition, and adjustment of results, the way has been 
 prepared for something organic. Hospitality to ideas and con- 
 servative liberality of method will hasten the advent of system- 
 atic investigation. Even now there are those who study the 
 masterpiece, not only in dynamic relation to author and type, 
 but also in organic relation to the social and artistic movements
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 421 
 
 of which author and type are integral factors. The sum of the 
 methods of any literary inquiry should be exhaustive, so far as 
 circumstances permit. The exigencies of leisure, space, and 
 purpose are, however, such that due regard in turn for historical 
 criticism (linguistic, textual ; relative to the history of the move- 
 ment, national, social, literary, and artistic), technical criticism 
 (distinctive of the type ; its evolution, characteristic, construc- 
 tion, and function), interpretative criticism (the ethical and 
 intellectual conception, the psychological condition), and aes- 
 thetic criticism (in its narrow acceptation referring to the 
 effect of the masterpiece upon imagination and emotion, but 
 in its broader including with this all previous kinds of criticism), 
 due regard for each kind can rarely be observed in the study 
 of any one specimen of literature. But it should be the aim of 
 the critic, availing himself of these instruments of research, to 
 present an impartial interpretation, reproduction, and estimate 
 of the author to the reading public. With these considerations 
 in mind, it is evident that the attempt to limit the practice or 
 the theory of criticism to one method or one school would end 
 in formalism ; would remand literary science to its static stage. 
 Such limitation, however, is, fortunately, impossible. For we 
 now understand that criticism cannot be restricted to form 
 alone, or thought alone, or to one kind of form or one kind 
 of thought. It is of both, and of all kinds of each. Form 
 and thought are as inseparable in literature as in life ; the 
 expression is inherent in the idea ; and to understand literary 
 expression one must be capable of appreciating all sides of 
 the literary idea. Social, metaphysical, and ethical themes are 
 within the function of the bellelettrist as soon as, emotional- 
 ized and clad in aesthetic form, they enter the field of letters. 
 Nay, further, the methods of science, historical, chemical, geo- 
 logical, anthropological, or biological, are within his function 
 as soon as their adaptation may assist him to weigh- aesthetic 
 values or to trace the development of literary organisms. It is.
 
 422 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 consequently unwise to contemn efforts at scientific method, 
 even though in the hands of enthusiasts they may appear to 
 countervail aesthetic interpretation and discipline. In periods 
 of transition, monomaniacs are forces. It is for those of far 
 gaze and patient temper to compute results and perform the 
 synthesis. 
 
 Among later critics there has been evident a right tendency 
 in theoretic criticism to regard poetry both as absolute and 
 relative ; to test the absolute aesthetic worth by reference to 
 the laws of nature and thought, the poet's own conception of 
 these and of his poetic function in interpreting them, the 
 poet's aim ; to test the relative worth of a poem by reference 
 not to the standard of some preferred, so-called classical, or 
 romantic school, but with reference to the particular movement 
 of which it was part, and to the social, the inherited, the artistic, 
 and the individual conditions of the age that have contributed 
 to that movement and have affected the individual. And in 
 method the tendency has fortunately been, with the best writers, 
 more impartial, comparative, genetic, psychological, sometimes 
 with a view to recording, sometimes to interpreting, sometimes 
 to teaching. As a result, something like artistic criticism has 
 occasionally been produced. Credit in this regard is especially 
 due to Ruskin, Arnold, Pater, Symonds, Gurney, Stephen, 
 Gosse, and Dowden. In France such men as Sainte-Beuve 
 and his successors are worthy of mention ; in Germany, the 
 followers of Lessing and the recent writers of the great his- 
 tories of literature ; and in Denmark, Brandes, with his Haupt- 
 stromungen and the admirable Study of Shakespeare (2 vols. 
 Lond.: 1897). 
 
 3. IN GERMANY. First Period. If we turn to the history 
 of poetics in Germany, we shall find between the births of 
 Gerhard Voss, 1577, and of Baumgarten, 1714, no writers 
 worthy of more than passing mention. The Prosodia Germania 
 (Frankf. : 1634) of Martin Opitz is representative of this interval
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 423 
 
 purely formalistic. But a Second Period opened when, in 
 1721, by his Diskurse der Mahler, Johann Jakob Bodmer, of 
 Zurich, pointed out the vanity of the existing French school 
 of German poets and critics, and attacked the accepted authori- 
 ties on German Art. The tenets of the Swiss writer were 
 adopted by J. J. Breitinger and other gifted young scholars in 
 Germany. It was not till 1740, when Bodmer's Vom Wun- 
 derbaren in der Poesie (Zurich) and Breitinger's Kritische 
 Dichtkunst (2 vols. Zurich) appeared, that the Swiss school 
 encountered any organized opposition. In Bodmer's anxiety 
 to revive the worship of classic models and of the older German 
 masters, and to create an appreciation of English poetry, he 
 had found it necessary to censure the teaching of Gottsched 
 and the Saxon school. Critics took sides. Gottsched's heavy 
 artillery was brought to bear in 1750, but without much effect, 
 for his Versuch einer Kritischen Dichtkunst was as old-fashioned 
 and ponderous as the Prosodia of Opitz. See for full bibliog- 
 raphy, and an excellent history of poetics in the i8th century, O. 
 Neboliczka's Schaferdichtung und Poetik im 18. Jahrh. (Vier- 
 teljahrsch. f. Litteraturgesch. 2 : 22 : i. Die deutsche Schafer- 
 dichtung von Gottsched bis auf die Bremer Beitrage ; 2. J. A. 
 Schlegel's Satire : Vom Natiirlichen in Schaferdichten ; 3. Der 
 eigentliche Gegenstand der Schaferpoesie ; 4. Der Fortgang 
 der dichterischen Production bis 1756 ; 5. Gessner u. der 
 Umschwung der Theorie. Beilage : J. A. Schlegel u. Liscow). 
 On Bodmer, Gottsched, etc., see also references under their 
 names in 20 above. 
 
 But while on either side the adherents of Bodmer and Gott- 
 sched were exalting for imitation antagonistic models of poetic 
 perfection, it appeared to another critic that both parties mis- 
 understood the nature of the subject. This was Baumgarten, 
 who, by his De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus (1735) and 
 his Aesthetica (2 Bde., 1750-58), exhibited the relation of poet- 
 ics to aesthetics and established the position of the latter as
 
 424 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 an independent science. Baumgarten was followed by Sulzer 
 and Eberhard (see F. Braitmaier, Gesch. d. poetisch. Theorie 
 u. Kritik von d. Diskursen d. Mahler bis auf Lessing. Frauen- 
 feld: 1888-89), and b y Gellert, whose article, Wie weit sich 
 der Nutzen der Regeln in d. Beredsamkeit und Poesie erstrecke, 
 thrashes the ancient straw with fine poetic vigor (Sa'mmtliche 
 Schriften. 10 vols. in 5. Bern: 1774-75 ; Bd. VII, pp. 117- 
 154). These were, in turn, followed by the critics of the 
 Third, the Classical Period : Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Herder, 
 and Richter. The critical tenets of these writers were to 
 no slight extent influenced by the attitude toward aesthetics 
 adopted by Kant and Fichte. For references to the poetics of 
 Lessing (especially the Laocoon and the Hamburgische Drama- 
 turgic), Schiller, Goethe, Herder, and Richter, see 8, and for 
 a review of Herder, Th. Wagener's Herder's Forschungen iiber 
 Sprache und Poesie (Progr. der Realschule I. O. zu Potsdam : 
 1875). J. J. Engel's Anfangsgriinde einer Theorie der Dich- 
 tungsarten aus deutschen Mustern entwickelt, which appeared 
 in 1783, could not have exercised any particular influence upon 
 the course of poetics, for although its conception was sound, no 
 induction worthy of the effort could be made from German 
 literature before the greatest works of Goethe and Schiller were 
 produced. 
 
 The movement which succeeded the classical owed its origin 
 to Solger (Vorlesungen iiber Aesthetik, 1829), who took as his 
 theme Fichte's principle of Artistic Irony : " The mood of the 
 artist, that impels him to represent things eternal in terms of 
 the phenomenal and evanescent." Construing this principle 
 of Irony as dependent upon the caprice of the artist, A. W. 
 von Schlegel [Kritische Schriften. 2 vols. Berl. : 1828. Es- 
 pecially Lectures on Dramatic Literature (Bohn) and Briefe 
 iiber Poesie, Silbenmass und Sprache, 1795] and F. von Schle- 
 gel (Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works. Trans, by Millington. 
 Lond. : 1860), Tieck, and others established in Germany the
 
 B.~] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 425 
 
 Romantic School of Poetics. This dominates the fourth Period. 
 The aesthetic teachings of the Romantiker inspired Germany 
 with a taste for Spanish and English drama as opposed to the 
 formal and so-called classical productions of France and Italy. 
 Hence the admirable Shakespearian criticism of the earlier 
 part of the century. (See Heine's Die romantische Schule : 
 a brilliant essay on the romantic revival and its character- 
 istics.) 
 
 The one-sidedness, however, of the romantic school became 
 evident under the flood of light poured upon aesthetics by 
 Hegel. And round Hegel's Die Poesie most subsequent 
 German writers on poetry, accordant or divergent, revolve. 
 This is true even of such anti-Hegelians as Schopenhauer 
 (chapters on object of art, aesthetics of poetry, and of music), 
 who either borrow their ideas from Hegel or owe their virility 
 to the intensity of their antagonism. With Hegel's poetics as 
 presenting the view-point of absolute idealism should be read 
 F. T. Vischer's chapters on poetry in his Aesthetik, and C. H. 
 Weisse's statement of theory in his System d. Aesthetik als 
 Wissenschaft von d. Idee d. Schonheit (Leipz.: 1830). This, 
 the fifth Period of German poetics, may be called the historic- 
 aesthetic ; it has its philological side, as well as its philosophical, 
 the former represented by Boeckh, Paul, Elze, etc., the latter by 
 Brandl, Vischer, etc. See 21, A 5. Lotze writes on poetry 
 as well as on philosophy ; but, unfortunately, his chapter on 
 poetry in the Geschichte d. Aesthetik in Deutschland is inade- 
 quate even for an historical sketch. The sections on poetry 
 in his Outlines of Aesthetics are likewise inconclusive, though 
 suggestive. Much more valuable from the historical point of 
 view is J. J. Wagner's Dichterschule (3. Aufl. Ulm : 1850). 
 The writings of Moritz Carriere are always refreshing and 
 enthusiastic in matter as in style. Not only his earlier volume, 
 Das Wesen u. d. Formen d. Poesie (Leipz. : 1854), but Die 
 Kunst im Zusammenhang d. Culturentwickelung, and Die Acs-
 
 426 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 thetik are valuable for the liberal literary material with which 
 the author's theories, generally Hegelian, are illustrated. 
 
 During this period other German writers of more or less impor- 
 tance are Wackernagel, Wilh. Scherer, Rosenkranz, Sutermeis- 
 ter, Kleinpaul, Gottschall, Meyer, and Cohen. Wackernagel's 
 Poetik, Rhetorik, u. Stilistik (Halle : 1873) indicates the com- 
 mon basis of the three departments mentioned in the title. 
 The treatment of poetry is historico-philosophical, and happily 
 avoids the futility of rule-making. It is an honest effort toward 
 the discovery of fundamental laws. The chapter, pp. 16-35, 
 Das Wesen d. Poesie im Ganzen u. Allgemeinen is a cogent 
 argument against the imitation theory. The lectures on poet- 
 ics (Poetik. Hrsg. von R. M. Meyer. Berl. : 1888) by Wilh. 
 Scherer, delivered shortly before his death, though rambling 
 and fragmentary, may be called his best piece of work. In his 
 discussion of the material of poetry, pp. 205-226, it will be 
 noticed that he has adopted the classification into the worlds 
 physical, moral, and imaginative used by Goethe and Schiller 
 in their correspondence. Chapter I, Das Ziel, follows the lines 
 laid down by Hegel. Pp. 118-147, Ueber den Werth d. Poesie, 
 are a lucid, if not technically philosophical, exposition of the 
 subject. A decidedly less important volume is Otto Suter- 
 meister's Leitfaden d. Poetik (Zurich : 1874) ; but, in spite 
 of its pedagogical character, it displays within the compass 
 of a hundred pages a fruitful application of the theories of 
 Carriere and Vischer. Perhaps the most spirited of popular 
 German monographs on poetry is R. von Gottschall's Poetik : 
 Die Dichtkunst u. ihre Technik (5. Aufl. Breslau : 1882). 
 Von Gottschall is a special pleader ; he writes poetics from a 
 ' modern point of view,' and would have poetry, in Germany at 
 least, written in the same spirit : " It shall be the utterance of 
 the Zeitgeist." But, in spite of von Gottschall's prepossessions, 
 his work is forcibly and philosophically performed ; and, per- 
 haps because of his nationalism, it has had a remarkable run.
 
 B.-] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 427 
 
 The sketch of the history of poetics, pp. 1-16, is valuable, 
 especially from the point of view of aesthetics in Germany. 
 Pp. 19-134, Die Poesie im System d. Kiinste, and Der Geist d. 
 Dichtkunst, are an excellent resumk of much of the thought 
 of Hegel, Rosen kranz, and Carriere. The Poesie u. ihre 
 Geschichte of K. Rosenkranz (Konigsb. : 1855) is compre- 
 hensive in method and subject-matter. It has the merit of 
 proceeding on a systematic induction from national literatures. 
 The groups are sub-classified under the following heads : 
 (i) the Ethnic Peoples and the Ideal of Beauty ; (2) the 
 Theistic Peoples and the Ideal of Wisdom; (3) the Christian 
 Peoples and the Ideal of Freedom, a division suggestive, 
 indeed, but easily liable to forced interpretation, since it as- 
 sumes that the evolution of poetry has proceeded upon lines 
 determined for the evolution of religion. Pp. 3-31, Einlei- 
 tung, will especially interest the student of the comparative 
 method. 
 
 Other historical studies of poetry are K. T. Schroer's Die 
 Deutsche Dichtungdes 14. Jahrhunderts (Leipz. : 1875), and K. 
 Goedeke's Deutsche Dichtung im Mittelalter (Dresden : 1871). 
 Lange's Deutsche Poetik, Formenlehre d. deutschen Dicht- 
 kunst, neu bearb. von R. Jonas, is a useful outline of the subject. 
 Meyer's little volume (Leitfaden d. deutsch. Poetik. Leipz. : 
 1869) is noteworthy merely as a compendious German school- 
 book. It has no critical value. The same may be said of F. 
 Bachmann's Schusters Lehrbuch der Poetik (3. Aufl. Halle : 
 1890), of J. Methner's Poesie und Prosa (Halle, A. S. : 1889), and 
 of R. von Zeynek's Lehrbuch d. deutschen Stilistik und Poetik 
 (6. Aufl. Graz : 1891). In connection with the theories of 
 Bacon, Buckle, Vischer, and Schelling, might be read H. Cohen's 
 clever plea for a psychological study of the conditions of poetry, 
 Die Dichterische Phantasie u. d. Mechanismus des Bewusst- 
 seins (Berl.: 1869. Abdr. aus d. Zeitschrift f. Volkerpsych^). 
 Kleinpaul's Poetik will be referred to under 23. It is an
 
 428 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 admirable text-book, and may well be studied in connection 
 with the Populare Vortrage iiber Dichter und Dichtkunst of 
 Ernst Grad (Triest : 1870). In Deutsche Poetik, Umriss d. 
 Lehre vom Wesen u. von d. Formen d. Dichtkunst, mit einer 
 Einfuhrung in das Gebiet d. Kunstlehre (Dresden-Striesen : 
 1891), P. Heinze and R. Goette make pretense to scientific 
 treatment, but are not very successful. See on recent German 
 treatises E. Wolff's article in Archiv f. Gesch, d. Philos. 4 : 251 
 Ueber Neuere Beitrage z. Gesch. d. Poetik. A novel but by 
 no means convincing recent German investigation into the 
 nature of Poetry is Jacobowski's Die Anfange der Poesie 
 (Dresden : 1891), which attempts a physiological as well as 
 psychical explanation of its origin. See for notice 17. For 
 Werner and other authorities on the lyric, and for criticism of 
 other special types, see the second volume of this book. 
 
 In general on the history of German criticism, see the numer- 
 ous references in 2, 5, 8, 21 A, etc., above ; and on the 
 movements of nineteenth century poetics, see Brandes's Haupt- 
 stromungen. 
 
 4. IN FRANCE. In the following brief outline the subject 
 is divided into periods according to development in theory 
 (principles of judgment). Development in method is inciden- 
 tally noticed, and the history of dramatic criticism is held apart 
 from that of poetics in general. It will, however, be under- 
 stood that details of poetic and dramatic theory such as the 
 principle and history of the unities, the function of the drama, 
 the discussion of literary movements are here as elsewhere 
 reserved for the chapters devoted to these subjects. 
 
 The First Period may be called the Primitive ; it extends 
 from the origins of verse-elaboration to the renaissance, from 
 Thibaut de Champagne to Du Bellay. The first writer of 
 importance in French poetics was Eustache Deschamps (1328- 
 1415), who, about 1400, wrote an Art poe'tique, "a treatise," as 
 Saintsbury says, " rendered at once necessary and popular by
 
 B.~] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 429 
 
 the fashion of artificial rhyming." The characteristic of poet- 
 ics in the hands of Deschamps and de Croy is formality. 
 It deals with the artificial forms of verse, rondeau, ballade, 
 virelai, etc., which had supplanted the earlier romances, pas- 
 tourelles, chansons d'amour and fabliaux of the trouveres and 
 troubadours. The tendency is, therefore, didactic. Henri de 
 Croy's L'Art et science de rhetorique pour faire rimes et bal- 
 lades was published in 1493, and is of the same rhetorical and 
 artificial character as Deschamps's treatise. 1 
 
 During this period, the drama evolved no theories of impor- 
 tance. The art was still confined to miracle-plays, mysteries, 
 and farce. 
 
 In the Second Period we pass to the literary ' humanism ' of 
 Du Bellay and the Pleiade. This is the period of the Renais- 
 sance. It extends in poetry from Villon and Marot to Regnier. 
 In poetics it opens with the Defense et illustration de la langue 
 franchise of Joachim du Bellay, 1549, which is the announce- 
 ment of intended reforms. Beside Du Bellay, this school, the 
 Ple'iade, counted among its members Ronsard, Daurat, Bai'f. 
 As opposed to the rhetorical and formal characteristic of the 
 previous period, the purpose of the school is to reform and 
 enrich the language, the prosody, and the inspiration of poetry, 
 by assimilation of such elements as were possible from the 
 classics especially from the Greek. Du Bellay and Ronsard 
 (Art poetique, and Preface to the Franciade) advocate and 
 illustrate in practice the substitution of Latin and Greek metres 
 for popular artificial forms of verse, and the introduction of a 
 literary diction largely composed of classical importations and 
 technical expressions, the improvement, in short, of the French 
 tongue for the purpose of literary expression. But while, as 
 
 1 An attempt has been made by Ernest Langlois in his De artibus rhetoricae 
 rhythmicae (Paris: 1890), pp. 51-61, to show that de Croy was a plagiarist, having 
 claimed for himself a book written by Molinet. See also A. Sarradin, Eustache 
 Deschamps (Paris : 1879).
 
 430 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 children of the Renaissance, these critics retained, with all their 
 scholastic acquisition, the spirit of mediaeval romance, they did 
 not see deep into the meaning of things. Their inspiration is 
 not from nature itself, but from nature hellenized, by the 
 instrumentality of imperfect antiquarian scholarship, it is an 
 imitation of a conception that never existed. The attempt at 
 the introduction of classical metres is interesting to the student 
 of English poetics, for it anticipated by some forty years the 
 efforts of Harvey and the Areopagus. Other writers of this 
 period are Scaliger, whose Poetics, in Latin, appeared in 1561 
 (for notice, see 21, B i), and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (Art 
 poetique frangaise, 1604), the former of whom was the greatest 
 critic of his age, the latter a mere rhetorician. 
 
 On the history of French poetics in the i6th century, see 
 Th. Riicktaschl : Einige Arts poetiques aus der Zeit Ronsards 
 und Malherbes (Leipz. : 1889); Georges Pellissier, De sexti 
 decimi saeculi in Francia artibus poeticis (Paris : 1883) ; 
 Sainte-Beuve, Tableau historique et critique de la poesie 
 frangaise au XVI e Siecle ; and E. Egger, L'Hellenisme en 
 France (Paris : 1869). 
 
 The Recueil de 1'origine de la langue et poesie frangoise, 
 ryme et romans, plus les nommes et sommaires des ceuvres de 
 CXXVII poetes frangoises vivans avant 1'an MCCC. by Claude 
 Fauchet, is one of the earliest, if not the earliest of attempts in 
 France to indicate the growth of the literature. It appeared in 
 1581. A much less conventional and less classical conception 
 of poetry was presented by fitienne Pasquier in his treatise on 
 the Ple'iade, " De le grande flotte de poetes que produisit le 
 regne du roi Henri Deuxieme," which forms part of his 
 Recherches de la France. Pasquier lived from 1529 to 1615. 
 He wrote also on the earlier history of French poetry the 
 Provengal. Certain philologists and rhetoricians, whose influ- 
 ence was in general thrown against the Latinizing tendency 
 of the time, are mentioned by Saintsbury (Hist. French Lit.,
 
 Z?.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 431 
 
 p. 237). The linguistic treatises of Henri Estienne, on the rela- 
 tion of French and Greek, on the excellence of French, and on 
 the Italianized French, indicate the reaction against the Ron- 
 sardizing of the tongue. A similar protest was uttered by 
 Geoffrey Tory, also of the i6th century ; and studies in prosody 
 were conducted by Pelletier and Fontaine, grammarians. 
 Pierre Fabri, whose Le grand et vrai art de pleine rhetorique 
 has recently been reedited by A. Heron (Paris : 1889), must 
 be added to this list of scholars. 
 
 In the drama, meanwhile, the form is scholastic, classical : 
 and the manner is by rhetorical declamations ; but, even so, 
 there is evidence that the spirit of mediaevalism still lingers. 
 With Scaliger appears the principle of the so-called classical 
 unities of time, place, and action. 
 
 The Third Period is the Classical. It receives its impress 
 from Malherbe, who led the reaction against the uncritical 
 innovations of the Pleiade. But in eliminating what was 
 excessive he managed to eliminate also the genuine romantic 
 inspiration that was the true life of their poetry. He ejects 
 the larger number of their classical importations of diction and 
 prosody ; he ejects as well the Gascon, Provencal, and Italian 
 forms in style. He devotes himself to the elaboration of the 
 alexandrine among metres, and of the lyric among species. 
 The impersonal, the allegorical, the declamatory, and the ele- 
 gant take the place of the inspiration and feeling that had 
 colored the verses of Ronsard and the earlier poets of the 
 Renaissance. This may be called the first division of the 
 Classical Period. The poetics is mainly concerned with forms 
 of the lyric especially the ode. 
 
 (i) To this earlier part of the Classical Period belongs the 
 Foundation of the Academy, an event by which was thwarted 
 whatever tendency there had been to revive the older freedom 
 of poetry and drama. Such a tendency was manifested in 
 Hardy's pastoral plays, in Daniel d'Ancheres's drama, Tyr et
 
 432 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Sidon, and in Francois Ogier's preface to the second edition of 
 the play, 1628. But the counter-movement toward restraint 
 of passion and imagination, and in favor of obedience to the 
 classical unities, had asserted its strength in the Sophonisbe of 
 Mairet, and in the same author's preface to Sylvan ire, 1631. 
 In 1634 this movement secured the active cooperation of 
 Richelieu; in that year the Academic Franchise held its first 
 informal meeting, and in 1837 ^ was officially established. 
 The avowed purpose of the institution was to ascertain the 
 vocabulary of the language, fix its grammar, and reform its 
 style. Two of the earliest academicians to gain distinction 
 were Vaugelas in lexicography, and Chapelain in criticism. In 
 1636 there appeared a play which, had it not been condemned 
 by the new Academy, might have altered the course of French 
 dramatic literature. This was Corneille's Cid romantic in 
 incident and conception, vital in characterization, and natural 
 in expression. But with Richelieu it did not find favor ; nor 
 with Chapelain, who condemned it in the well-known Sentiments 
 de 1'academie, especially for its violation of the Aristotelian 
 rules. From that time forth, for two centuries, the dramatic 
 theory of France was classical. In the Examens to his plays, 
 Corneille acquiesces in the supremacy of the Unities, but not 
 with a very sincere heart. Ultimately he stretches them almost 
 to breaking. On this division and the next of the Classical 
 Period, see Le Due de Broglie, 'Malherbe' (Paris: 1897); 
 Rucktaschl, as above ; Demogeot, Tabl. de la litt. fr. au XVII 6 
 siecle avant Corneille, etc. (Paris: 1859); Pellisson et D'Olivet, 
 Hist. de. 1'academie fr. (2 vols. Paris: 1858); Bourgoin, Les 
 maitres de la critique au XVII 6 siecle (1889); E. Deschanel, Le 
 romantisme des classiques (Paris: 1883); Rigault, Hist, de Ja 
 querelle des anciens et des modernes (Paris : 1856); G. Lanson, 
 ' Boileau ' (1892), and other references in Professor Dowden's 
 Bibliography, Hist. Fr. Lit. 
 
 (2) A second division of the Classical Period begins with
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 433 
 
 Rapin and Boileau. Rene de Rapin's chief work was the 
 Re'flexions sur la poe'tique et sur les ouvrages des Poetes 
 anciens et modernes (Paris : 1674 ; with many alterations, in the 
 edition of Paris: 1684, and in vol. II of his CEuvres, Haye: 
 1725. Translated into English by Rymer, as Reflections on 
 Aristotle's Treatise of Poesie, etc., 1674, printed for H. Her- 
 ringman). For the influence of the Reflexions on English 
 criticism, see Gosse, Modern English Literature, pp. 199-200. 
 " Rapin has been strangely forgotten ; when he died in 1687, 
 he was the leading critic of Europe ; and he is the writer to 
 whom, more than to any other, is due the line taken by English 
 poetry during the next hundred years. The peculiarity of the 
 Reflections, which were promptly translated into English, was 
 that they aimed at adapting the laws and theories of Aristotle 
 to modern practice. As is often the case, Rapin was less rigid 
 than his disciples , he frequently develops a surprisingly just 
 conception of what the qualities of the highest literature 
 should be." Mr. Gosse calls Rapin the father of :8th century 
 criticism. Indeed, Rapin stands in somewhat the same rela- 
 tion to the English criticism of Dryden's time as Boileau to 
 that of Pope's. We find Dryden, as early as 1674, in the 
 preface to the State of Innocence, citing both Rapin and 
 Boileau in company with the Italians (Piccolomini, Castelvetro) 
 as revivers of the classical doctrines of Aristotle, Horace, and 
 Longinus ; but until Addison and Pope fell under the spell of 
 Boileau the critical influence in England was that of Rapin. 
 In France the Reflexions provoked a controversy in which 
 Vavassor and L'Enfant participated, the former with his 
 Remarques (Paris: 1675) ar) d his Reponse to Rapin of the 
 same year ; and the latter (L'Enfant) with a Critique des 
 Remarques (in the Nouv. de la Republ, des Lettres, Mars, 
 1710). Another French contemporary of Dryden, and a critic 
 of the same school with Rapin, was Saint fivremond (1610- 
 1703). He deserves mention here because, like Rapin, he
 
 434 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 exercised, though rather by word of mouth than by published 
 theory, a considerable influence over English criticism in the 
 end of the iyth and the beginning of the i8th centuries. Dur- 
 ing his residence in England he not only cultivated English 
 literature but criticised it ; and one in reading his remarks on 
 Ben Jonson's comedy of humors can readily appreciate the 
 salutary effect that his critical opinions must have had upon 
 Dryden. Saint vremond understood the scientific importance 
 of literary history, and the advantages of the comparative 
 method in criticism (CEuvres publ. par Maizeaux. Amst. and 
 Leipz.: 1739). 
 
 But the second division of this period finds its most distin- 
 guished representative in N. Boileau-Despre'aux, who, adopting 
 Malherbe's reforms in general, reacted against the extrava- 
 gances of the contemporary Italian influence, and introduced 
 a conception of poetry much more rationalistic and moral than 
 that of Malherbe. The sphere of poetics, which had been prac- 
 tically restricted to lyrical theory by Malherbe, Boileau broad- 
 ened so as to include that of epic and drama as well. The 
 characteristic of Boileau's poetics is a conventional rationalism, 
 which displays itself in the rejection of modern sentiments and 
 forms, and the adoption of technique and ideals supposed to 
 have been formulated by the ancients. He insisted upon the 
 imitation of nature, just as afterwards his disciples in England, 
 Pope and Akenside, insisted. But his Nature had for its 
 synonym Reason, and his Reason was bounded by the genius 
 of the ancients. The Art poe'tique of Boileau appeared in 1674. 
 See pp. 91-109 of his (Euvres completes, publ. Cheron, Paris : 
 1875, reprinted by Cook. See also Boileau ' in 20. With 
 regard to his influence on English criticism : " He had insisted 
 on inspiration," says Mr. Gosse (Mod. Engl. Lit., p. 206), "on 
 the value of ceaseless variety, on obedience to the laws of lan- 
 guage. The preface to the 1701 edition of his works is one 
 of the landmarks of European criticism, and we can scarcely
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 435 
 
 doubt that it wakened a high spirit of emulation in the youthful 
 Pope. In it Boileau had urged that none should ever be pre- 
 sented to the public in verse but true thoughts and just expres- 
 sions. He had declaimed against frigidity of conceit and 
 tawdry extravagance, and had proclaimed the virtues of sim- 
 plicity without carelessness, sublimity without presumption, a 
 pleasing air without farce. He had boldly convicted his prede- 
 cessors of bad taste, and had called his lax contemporaries 
 to account. He had blamed the sterile abundance of an 
 earlier period and the uniformity of dull writers. Such prin- 
 ciples were more than all others likely to commend themselves 
 to Pope, and his practice shows us that they did." His 
 influence upon French poetry and criticism was supreme until 
 the days of Madame de Stael, Chateaubriand, and Victor 
 Hugo. 
 
 But even during the early dictatorship of Boileau, the suprem- 
 acy of the ancients was not altogether undisputed. "As early," 
 says Professor Dowden (Hist. French Lit., p. 241), "as 1657 
 Desmarets de Saint Sorlin had maintained that Christian 
 heroism and Christian faith afforded material for imaginative 
 handling more suitable to a Christian poet than the history and 
 fables of antiquity." To this Boileau had replied in his Art 
 poetique. 1 In 1687 Charles Perrault read a poem before the 
 Academy entitled Le siecle de Louis le Grand, in which he 
 exalted modern poetic genius and performance above that of 
 the ancients. The contention of Perrault was supported by 
 Fontenelle in his Discours sur I'e'glogue and the Digression sur 
 les anciens et les modernes. (For a review of Fontenelle's Re- 
 flexions sur la poesie, see E. Egger's La critique chez les Grecs, 
 p. 271.) From 1688 to 1697 Perrault continued to maintain 
 his thesis in a series of dialogues called Parallele des anciens 
 
 1 The parallelism between movements in English and in French Literature is 
 here, again, of especial interest. This idea of Desmarets, for instance, had been 
 expressed by Davenant in the Preface to Gondibert, just seven years earlier.
 
 436 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 et des modernes. The cause of the ancients was meanwhile 
 espoused by Boileau (Reflexions sur Longin), La Fontaine 
 (Epitre a Huet), La Bruyere (Les caracteres), and Andr. 
 Dacier, who in the Preface to his Poetique d'Aristote (1692) 
 goes so far as to say of poetry, not merely that the art is unal- 
 terably established, but that " ses regies sont si certainement 
 celles qu'Aristote nous donne, qu'il est impossible d'y reussir 
 par un autre chemin." The issue was somewhat modified by 
 Lamotte, who advocated the claim of cultivated (that is, modern) 
 prose as the best literary form. Against him Mme. Dacier 
 entered the lists. Finally, Fenelon, toward the close of his 
 life (1715), "stated the case of the ancients against the mod- 
 erns, and of the moderns against the ancients, with an attempt 
 at impartiality ; but it is evident that the writer's love was 
 chiefly given to his favorite classical authors." (See Dowden 
 for the materials of this account. Hist. French Lit. London: 
 1897.) 
 
 Since the appearance of Boileau's Art poetique, the stream 
 of similar treatises had steadily been flowing. In 1709 was 
 issued Le Bossu's Traite du poeme e'pique. In England it 
 shared the popularity of Rapin. In 1719 the Abbe J. B. Dubos 
 produced his Reflexions critiques sur la poe'sie et la peinture 
 (3 vols. Paris : 1740), which, according to Professor Dowden, 
 " anticipates the views of Montesquieu on the influence of 
 climate, and studies the action of environment on the products 
 of the imagination." Dubos had a just conception even if 
 crude of the aesthetic catharsis, and a decidedly modern way 
 of looking at the relation of drama to life. Batteux, who follows 
 him, in 1746, with Les beaux arts reduits a un meme principe, 
 had a much more liberal conception of the idealizing function of 
 art than either Boileau or Rapin. 
 
 (3) Indeed, Dubos and Batteux might, perhaps, better be 
 regarded, with Voltaire and Diderot, as representatives of the 
 third, or philosophical, division of the Classical Period. Beside
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 437 
 
 the Quatre Poetiques, two other productions of Batteux go to 
 prove the originality of his view : the Analyse de la poetique 
 d'Aristote, in vol. XLI, p. 409 et- seq., of the Memoires de 
 1'Acade'mie des inscriptions, and the Quatre Memoires (on 
 the nature and aims of Tragedy and of Comedy ; and on the 
 Epic compared with Tragedy and History), in vol. XXXIX, 
 p. 54 et seq., of the same series (also printed together, Gen. : 
 1781). The character of Voltaire's earlier theories is suffi- 
 ciently indicated in his youthful Essai sur la poesie epique, and 
 his Temple du gout (1733). He adopts Christian symbolism, 
 advocates the introduction of both national and exotic ele- 
 ments, and admires Shakespeare. But with the development of 
 the scientific spirit and of philosophical criticism he becomes 
 more conservative, and, though still preferring modern to 
 ancient poetry, eschews the " savagery " of Shakespeare. A 
 sample of the formal quality of his later literary opinion is 
 afforded by his Commentary on Corneille. Another philosophi- 
 cal treatise, Rousseau's Discours sur les sciences et les arts, of 
 1750, condemning, as it did, civilization on the ground that it 
 corrupted morals and natural freedom, must have awakened 
 critics to the advisability of studying art and poetry in their 
 social relations. Louis Racine's Reflexions sur la poesie is, 
 on the other hand, a formal treatise, though it appeared two 
 years later than Rousseau's. But Buffon's Discours de recep- 
 tion, of 1753, develops an essentially modern and philosophical 
 argument for the intrinsic individuality of style. Style proceeds 
 from within, is the expression of the idea, not a mould imposed 
 upon the idea from without. 
 
 The criticism of the encyclopaedists, who constitute the 
 really philosophical school of the century, is both of drama 
 and poetry, in the narrower acceptation of the latter term. 
 D'Alembert's filoges (D'Alembert, 1717-83. CEuvres. 5 vols. 
 Paris: 1821-22) are distinguished by impartiality of method. 
 Diderot, much of whose critical work first appeared in Les
 
 438 LITERARY CRITICISM. [ 21. 
 
 Feuilles de Grimm, makes there, and in the prefaces to his 
 plays (Pere de famille and Le fils naturel), an effort toward 
 emancipation from the classical conventionalities. " Every- 
 where," says Saintsbury (Hist. French Lit., p. 462), "there is 
 to be perceived the cardinal principle of sound criticism ; that 
 a book is to be judged, not according to arbitrary rules laid 
 down ex cathedra for the class of books to which it is supposed 
 to belong, but according to the scheme of its author in the first 
 place, and in the second to the general laws of aesthetics ; a 
 science which, if the Germans named it, Diderot, by their own 
 confession, did much to create." He made the return to nature 
 in his poetics, and attempted to do so in his dramas giving 
 us not mere types, but actual characters. For the strictly 
 defined tragedy and comedy of the former epoch he substituted 
 the play of the bourgeoisie the drame or melodrama. This 
 movement was, of course, assisted by the vogue of Marivaux's 
 comedie larmoyante, and by sentimental novels, such as his Mari- 
 anne. And the same movement was further advanced by J. J. 
 Rousseau's advocacy, in his Lettre k D'Alembert, in 1758, Sur 
 les spectacles, in which he censures the theatre of the day, with 
 its sentimental and imaginative adventures, and insists upon the 
 cessation of spectacles based upon the afflictions of noble and 
 royal characters, upon the introduction of popular interests and 
 individualities, and the manifestation of a desire to teach, to 
 moralize. 
 
 In 1786 the historical method in criticism is illustrated by 
 the practice of La Harpe (Lycee lectures Cours de littera- 
 ture), but, unfortunately, not by the contemporary essays for the 
 Encyclopaedia written by Marmontel, and collected in 1787, 
 under the title Elements de la litterature. These adopt an atti- 
 tude of unreasoning admiration for Boileau, and judge all poetry 
 by the productions and laws of the classical school. As an 
 instance of the contemporary antagonism to the encyclopae- 
 dists and philosophers should be read the effusions of Freron
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS 439 
 
 in LAnnee litteraire (see Villemain, Tabl. de la litt. au XVIII e 
 siecle. 4 vols., Paris: 1841; Lebasteur, 'Buffon.' Paris: 1888; 
 Desnoiresterres, 'Voltaire,' etc. 8 vols., Paris: 1871-76; Saint- 
 Marc Girardin, 'J. J. Rousseau.' 2 vols., Paris: 1875; Rei- 
 nach, 'Diderot.' Paris : 1894 ; Bertrand, 'D'Alembert.' Paris: 
 1889; and other references in Dowden's Bibliography). 
 
 (4) An entirely different movement from these characterizes 
 the poetics of the fourth division of the Classical School. Andre 
 Chenier (1762-1794) has been called a precursor of the Ro- 
 mantic School ; but this, says Saintsbury, is a mistake. His 
 aesthetic was at once imaginative and traditional. Though 
 possessed of a natural idealism, this did not lead him to dis- 
 regard the models of antiquity. He revived indeed the reforms 
 of Ronsard, but not from any artificial or childish fondness for 
 the ancient rather from a genuine love of nature and of 
 classical paganism. " A Greek by birthplace, and half a Greek 
 by blood, his tastes and standards were wholly classical. But 
 the fire and force of his poetic genius made the blood circulate 
 afresh in the veins of the old French classical traditions, without, 
 however, permanently strengthening or renovating it " (Saints- 
 bury, Hist. Fr. Lit., p. 402). He knew Greek literature and 
 the Greek language much better than Ronsard, Malherbe, and 
 Boileau had known it. His verse has the Grecian purity. 
 His " humanism " may be called natural as opposed to the 
 literary " humanism " of Ronsard. Chenier's principal con- 
 tribution to poetics proper was the Poeme de 1'invention. 
 It would appear that, all things considered, the Romantic 
 movement was not without obligation to Chenier but that 
 perhaps his influence is most evident in the practice and 
 theory of the Parnassiens of the present century. 
 
 The Fourth Period of French poetics is the Romantic ; and 
 to it the Transition was made by Madame de Stael and Cha- 
 teaubriand. 
 
 (i) Madame de StaeTs De la litterature considered dans
 
 440 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 ses rapports avec les institutions sociales (1800) reminds one 
 of Gibbon's Essay on the History of Literature and of Shaftes- 
 bury's doctrine of cosmopolitan culture. Like the former, the 
 authoress attempts to show that literature is an affair of the 
 spirit and can proceed only from conditions of freedom and 
 progress ; and, like the latter, to encourage her fellow country- 
 men to assimilate the best that is offered by other nations and 
 literatures. By her De 1'Allemagne (1813) she introduced 
 German literature to France as De Quincey and Carlyle were 
 soon to introduce it to England. Her influence over Wilhelm 
 von Schlegel, who "became the interpreter of Germany to her 
 eager and apprehensive mind," is noticed by Dowden. Italy 
 and England also were conquered by her ; and she prepared 
 the way in no slight degree "for the Romantic movement. . . . 
 She advanced criticism by her sense that art and literature 
 are relative to ages, races, governments, environments. She 
 dreamed of an European or cosmopolitan literature in which 
 each nation, while retaining its special characteristics, should 
 be in fruitful communication with its fellows." With Chateau- 
 briand we enter upon a revival of mediaeval religious and 
 aesthetic sentiment, his most important critical work being the 
 Genie du christianisme (1802). He calls for a sentimental, 
 romantic, but spontaneous and modern, treatment of life. And 
 it may, indeed, be said that Madame de Stael and Chateau- 
 briand effected the overthrow of the sceptical, atheistic, and 
 unscientific interpretation of literature and art ; they did away 
 with classical models and abstract rules ; they introduced the 
 appeal to the imagination and the senses; they revived the 
 spontaneous and artistic characteristics of mediaeval lyricism, 
 and Christianized nature and man for the purposes of litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Various other forces had been working during this season 
 of transition to hasten the advent of a romantic conception 
 of the poetic and a comparative method of criticism. In
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 441 
 
 1801 Baour-Lotmian gave his countrymen the flavor of 
 Macpherson in the Poe'sies Ossianiques ; and later (1812) 
 Creuze de Lesser produced his Table ronde. In 1799 Senan- 
 cour had produced his melancholy Reveries ; and after the 
 death of Joubert, 1825, appeared a collection of that author's 
 prose poems, the Pensees. In 1811 Ginguene published the 
 beginnings of his Histoire litte'raire de 1'Italie. Historical 
 and philological studies were meanwhile prosecuted by Fauriel 
 and Raynouard, and minor critics were feeling their way toward 
 a comparative and psychological method. " Foreign life and 
 literature," says Dowden, who mentions, in various places, the 
 preceding facts, "lent their aid to the Romantic movement in 
 France the passion and mystery of the East ; the struggle 
 for freedom in Greece ; the old ballads of Spain ; the mists, the 
 solitudes, the young heroes, the pallid female forms of Ossian ; 
 the feudal splendors of Scott ; the melancholy Harold ; the 
 mysterious Manfred ; Goethe's champion of freedom, his victim 
 of sensibility, his seeker for the fountain of living knowledge ; 
 Schiller's revolters against social law, and his adventures of 
 court and camp " (Hist." French Lit., p. 364). There were 
 also changes in language and form, "of which Hugo and 
 Sainte-Beuve were the chief initiators." 
 
 The way for the poetics of Hugo was still further prepared 
 by Henri Beyle (Stendhal, 1 783-1842), whose chief contributions 
 to criticism were his Histoire de la peinture en Italic and the 
 Racine et Shakespeare. His method was comparative and 
 psychological, and in his habit of characterizing the poet by 
 his milieu he was the precursor of Taine and Brunetiere. " In 
 temperament," says Saintsbury, " religious views and social 
 ideas, he was a belated philosopher of the Diderot school. But 
 in literature he had improved even on Diderot, and very nearly 
 anticipated the full results of the Romantic movement. ... In 
 his De 1'amour and in his novels he made himself the ancestor 
 of what has been called successively realism and naturalism in
 
 442 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 France." Stendhal merits the serious attention of the literary 
 investigator. 
 
 The history of criticism during the rest of the Romantic 
 period may be conveniently treated under the following heads, 
 of which the first two refer to theory, the other to method : 
 
 (2) The Romantic Revolution in the Drama. This was 
 effected by Victor Hugo's Preface to Cromwell, 1828, and his 
 Hernani, 1830. Hugo definitely discards the 'unities,' declines 
 all artificial limitations, and asserts that art should represent 
 the whole truth, no matter what kind of aesthetic emotion 
 may result. 
 
 (3) The Philosophical and Comparative Studies of Cousin 
 (1792-1868), whose Du vrai, du beau, et du bien is one of the 
 ablest treatises in aesthetics produced in France ; of Michelet 
 (1798-1874), whose philosophy, like that of Cousin, shows the 
 influence of Herder and Hegel ; and of Edgar Quinet, the 
 bosom friend of Michelet and a sympathizer in his aesthetic 
 views. 
 
 (4) The Scientific-Historical Movement, headed by Villemain, 
 who, in his Tableau de la litte'rature au moyen age, in the Tab- 
 leau de la litterature au XVIII 6 siecle, and in his lectures, 
 applied a method inclusive of the social, biographical, genetic, 
 and comparative aspects of the subject under discussion. 
 The resulting criticism was characterized by impartiality, san- 
 ity, and scientific decisiveness that placed it far in advance of 
 that produced by preceding critics. Villemain was seconded 
 by Saint-Marc Girardin and Sainte-Beuve, the latter of whom 
 was probably the greatest critic of the century. Sainte-Beuve 
 incorporates the romantic, historical, social, and psychological 
 attempts of his predecessors and contemporaries under a new 
 method, at once more logical, more scientific, and more imagi- 
 native than theirs a method which has been justly called 
 the naturalistic. Of his work an admirable estimate will be 
 found in Pellissier's Le mouvement litte'raire au XIX e siecle
 
 B.} THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 443 
 
 (Paris: 1891), and in Dowden. The latter says that, "wander- 
 ing endlessly from author to author in his Portraits litteraires 
 and Portraits contemporaires, Sainte-Beuve studied in all its 
 details what we may term the physiology of each." His long 
 research in " his most sustained work, ' Port- Royal,' led him to 
 recognize certain types or families under which the various 
 minds of men can be grouped and classified." So, also, in his 
 Causeries du Lundi and the Nouveaux Lundis. " They formed, 
 as it were, a natural history of intellects and temperaments. 
 He did not pretend to reduce criticism to a science ; he hoped 
 that at length, as a result of numberless observations, some- 
 thing like a science might come into existence. Meanwhile 
 he would cultivate the relative and distrust the absolute." 
 To estimate a work, he studies the personality of the author, 
 his conditions, his inherited qualities, his education, life 
 everything that can be ascertained concerning him. Thus he 
 aims to discover the key to the secret of his literary utterances. 
 This is the method, according to Professor Dowden, " which 
 has best served the study of literature in the igth century." 
 It is largely the method of Matthew Arnold, whose success, 
 however, hardly equaled that of his master, Sainte-Beuve. (For 
 further remarks on Sainte-Beuve, see 2 above.) 
 
 (5) The Reaction against Liberal Methods on the part of 
 Nisard and his followers, who reverted to an abstract, authori- 
 tative, and individual standard, and attempted to test the author 
 in question by that. On all these methods, see the concluding 
 chapter of Professor Dowden's excellent History, and refer to 
 the annotations on the several authors in 2, 5, 8, etc., above. 
 
 The Fifth Period of Criticism includes the movement of art 
 for art's sake, whose representatives, de Vigny, Thdophile Gau- 
 tier, Theod. de Banville, Leconte de Lisle, Sully-Prudhomme, 
 etc., are called the Parnassiens. This movement is character- 
 ized by a revolt against the excesses of the Romantic school, 
 and a revival of a more philosophical and rationalistic theory
 
 444 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 of inspiration. It cultivates accuracy in form, and aims in 
 an aesthetic fashion at sculptural and picturesque effects of 
 style. Its doctrines may, in fact, be compared with the much 
 more refined aestheticism or hedonism of Walter Pater. 
 
 The period includes, also, important developments in scien- 
 tific criticism ; the esthopsychological of Hennequin, the natu- 
 ralistic (historically objective) of Taine, the national and 
 eidographic of Brunetiere, etc. ; for which see above, 2 and 
 5. At the present moment especial attention is directed to 
 Jos. Texte's revival of the comparative or cosmopolitan ideal 
 advocated by Rousseau, and adopted by Mme. de Stae'l, 
 Villemain, and Sainte-Beuve (see Texte's fitudes de lit. 
 europeenne, Paris : 1898). Other writers of theoretical and 
 applied criticism during the century have been frequently men- 
 tioned in these pages, or will demand mention in the next 
 volume of this work. Some of the more important are Paul 
 Albert, E\ Faguet, Nettement, J. J. Ampere, Jules Lemaitre, 
 Gaston Paris, Edm. Scherer, Anatole France, Petit de Julle- 
 ville, Bernard Thales (Hist, de la poe'sie : 1864), Pellissier, 
 Aubertin, Leon Gautier, J. Bedier, Lenient, Langlois, Jeanroy, 
 A. Darmesteter, E\ Egger, Vinet, A. Dupuy, Demogeot, Guizot, 
 Deschanel, Rigault, Lanson, P. Janet, Pellisson, Caro, Sorel, 
 Desnoiresterres, G. Larroumet, Geruzez. 
 
 In dramatic theory and practice, meanwhile, fimile Augierand 
 Alexandre Dumas have instituted a reaction against romanticism 
 that is as realistic as that of the Parriassiens is aesthetic. (See 
 Brandes, Hauptstromungen, etc. ; Pellissier, Le mouvement 
 litt. au XIX e siecle, 1891; Th. Gautier, Hist, du romantisme, 
 1874; Brunetiere, L'volution de la poe'sie lyrique en France 
 au XIX e siecle, 2 vols., 1894, and other referencesjn Dowden, 
 p. 436.) On the minor French schools of poetry and their the- 
 ories, les decadents, les symbolistes, etc., see Rev. Bleue, 47 : 
 442, 721 ; Harper, 87 : 858 The Decadent Movement in Litera- 
 ture; J. H. Leuba in the Am.Journ. PsychoL, July, 1893.
 
 .] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 445 
 
 In the study of the history of French poetics, Saintsbury and 
 Dowden, to whom reference has been frequently made in this 
 chapter, will be found very useful ; also Petit de Julleville (Hist, 
 de la langue et de la litterature frang., and his shorter Hist, 
 de la litt. frang.) ; Lanson (Hist, de la litt. frang.) ; Korting 
 (Encykl. d. roman. philol.), and other references as in 21, 
 A 5, and 24, B 6. 
 
 Of the periodicals the most important to the student are : 
 Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der romanischen 
 Philologie, veroffentlicht von E. Stengel (Marburg : 1882-89); 
 Franzosische Studien, herausg. von G. Korting und E. Koschnitz 
 (Heilbronn : 1881) ; Romanische Studien, herausg. von Edward 
 Bohmer, Halle; Revue des langues romanes, Montpellier et 
 Paris ; Revue critique d'histoire et de litterature, Paris ; Biblio- 
 theque de T Ecole des Chartes, Paris ; Bibliotheque de r Ecole des 
 Hautes Etudes, Paris ; Journal des Savants, Paris ; Revue de 
 philologie fran$ aise et proven$ale. 
 
 5. IN OTHER ROMANCE LITERATURES. It is especially a 
 matter of regret that space does not permit an historical outline 
 of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese poetics. Some of the more 
 important among Italian writers are, however, mentioned in 
 paragraph (i), Latin treatises, above ; in 24, B 8, and in the 
 appendix to this volume (on Aristotle's Poetics). The following 
 enumeration is principally derived from Blankenburg, and may 
 be supplemented from him (Literarische Zusatze, i 1381-411), 
 or from any of the histories of Italian literature. 
 
 (a) Italian. Giov. Gior. Trissino, La Poetica, Divisione 
 IV (Vicenze : 1529) ; Divis. V e VI (Ven/: 1563) ; Tutte le 
 Opere (2 vols. in i. Verona : 1729. The Poetica, although 
 not responsible, as has been frequently supposed, for the intro- 
 duction of the laws of the three unities into France, is still 
 historically of greater importance than most of the formal 
 'poetics ' produced in Italy during the i6th and iyth centuries); 
 Lud. Dolce, whose translation of Horace's Epistle to the Pisos
 
 446 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 (Ven. : 1535 and 1559) is accompanied by a commentary; 
 Bern. Danielo, La Poetica (Ven. : 1536); Bernardo Segni, who 
 published a translation into the Italian of the Poetics and the 
 Rhetoric of Aristotle (Flor. : 1549); Ben. Varchi, Lezioni 
 della Poetica e della Poesia (in Lezioni lette publicamente nell' 
 Acad. Florentina. Flor.: 1549); Const. Landi, Libro primo 
 della Poetica (Piac. : 1549); Girol. Muzio, Dell' Arte poetica, 
 Libri Tre (in Rime diverse. Ven.: 1551); Giamb. Giraldi 
 Cintio, Discorsi intorno all comporre de' Romanzi, delle Gome- 
 die e delle Tragedie, e di altre maniere de Poesie (Vineg. : 
 1554) ; Giov. P. Capriano, Della vera Poetica, Libro Uno 
 (Vin. : 1555) ; Bernardo Tasso, Ragionamento della Poesia 
 (Vin. : 1562, and in his Lettere, vol. 2. Pad. : 1733) ; Ant. 
 Minturno, L' Arte poetica (Ven.: 1564); Lud. Castelvetro, 
 the Poetics of Aristotle, text, translation, and commentary 
 (Vienna: 1570. Most important); Al. Piccolomini, a trans- 
 lation of Aristotle's Poetics, with notes (Sienna: 1572. Also 
 scholarly and luminous) ; Giov. Andr. Gilio da Fabriano, La 
 Topica poetica (Vineg. : 1580); Agnolo Segni, Ragionamento 
 sopra le Cose pertinente alia Poetica (Flor. : 1581) ; Franc. 
 Patrici, Della Poetica la Deca disputata (Ferr. : 1586. Sug- 
 gestive of novel points of view); Torquato Tasso. Discorsi dell' 
 Arte poetica, e in particolare del Poema eroico (Ven. : 1587. 
 Three discourses on the choice, the arrangement, and the 
 handling of material); Gias. de Nores, Discorso intorno a quej 
 principj, cagione e accrescimenti, che la Comedia, la Tragedia, 
 e '1 Poema eroico ricevano dalla Filosofia morale e civile, e da' 
 Governatori delle" Republiche (Pad. : 1587), and a continua- 
 tion of the same, Poetica . . . nella quale per Via di Diffinizione 
 e de Divisione si tratta, secondo 1' Opinione d' Aristotile, della 
 Tragedia, del Poema eroico, e della Comedia (Pad. : 1588. 
 The judgments passed upon tragi-comedy and the Pastor Fido 
 of Guarini led to a literary controversy) ; Giov. Fabbrini da 
 Fighine, the Ars Poetica of Horace, translation in blank verse,
 
 B.-] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 447 
 
 and notes (in the Opere. Ven. : 1587) ; Giul. Ces. Cortese, 
 Avvertimenti nel poetare (Nap.: 1591); Franc. Buonamici, 
 Discorsi poetici in difesa d' Aristotile (Flor. : 1597. Directed 
 against the position assumed by Castelvetro) ; Faustino Summo, 
 Discorsi poetici ne' quali si discorrono le piu principali quis- 
 tioni di Poesia, e si dichiarono molti luoghi dubbj e difficili 
 intorno all' Arte del poetare, secondo la Mente d' Aristotile, di 
 Platone, e di altri buoni Autori (Pad. : 1600) ; Giov. Bern. 
 Brandi, Trattato dell' Arte poetica (in his Rosario di Maria 
 Vergine. Rom. : 1601); Chiodino da Monte Melone, Specul. 
 Poet. Aristot. (in his Rhetoric. Ven. : 1613) ; Orat. Marta, 
 Sposizione della Poetica d' Aristotile (in his Rime e Prose. 
 Nap. : 1616) ; Cam. Pellegrino, Discorso della Poetica (Ven. : 
 1618) ; Udeno Nisieli (pseud, for Ben. Fioretti), Proginnasmi 
 poetici (Flor. : 1620-39) 5 Giov. Colle Bellunese, Ragiona- 
 menti poetici e risposte sopra la Poetica d' Aristotile (in his 
 Acad. Colle Bellunese. Ven.: 1621); Celso Zani, Poetica 
 ecclesiastica e civile . . . nella quale si pone in chiaro la Diffi- 
 nizione della Poesia commune alia Tragedia e all' Epopeja 
 (Rom. : 1643) ; Flav. Querengo, Trattato della Poesia (Pad. : 
 1644) ; Loretto Mattei, translation of Horace's Ars Poetica 
 (Bol. : 1686) ; and Ces. Grazzini, translation of the same 
 (Ferr. : 1698) ; Bened. Menzini, Arte poetica (Rom. : 1690); 
 Nic. Cicognari, Discorso di nuova Invenzione disegnato sul' Idee 
 d' amico e celebre Poeta (Parma: 1696); Giov. Mar. Crescim- 
 beni, La Bellezza della volgar Poesia (Rom.: 1700. Enlarged 
 in the sixth volume of his Istoria della volgar Poesia. Ven. : 
 1730); Vine. Gravina, Della Ragione poetica, Libri Due (Rom. : 
 1704); Lud. Ant. Muratori, Della perfetta Poesia italiana, 
 spiegata e dimostrata (Moden. : 1706. Crescimbeni, Gravina, 
 and Muratori are of prime importance to the historian); Pietro 
 Jac. Martelli, Della Poetica, Sermoni (in his Versi e Prose. 
 Rom.: 1710); F. Palesi, Delia Poetica, Libri Tre (Palerm. : 
 1734); Scip. Maffei, Discours sur 1' Histoire et le Ge'nie des
 
 448 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 Poetes Italians (in the Bibl. italique, i : 223-278; 2 : 176- 
 324, Gen. : 1728); Giov. Salio, Esame critico intorno a varie 
 Sentenze d' alcuni Scrittori di Cose poetiche (Pad. : 1738) ; Frc. 
 Quadrio, Delia Storia e della Ragione d' ogni Poesia (7 vols. 
 Bol. e Milan. : 1739-1752. One of the standard treatises- 
 historical and theoretical) ; Carlo Denina, Saggio sopra la 
 Letteratura italiana (Tor.: 1762); Frc. Maria Zanotti, Dell' 
 Arte poetica, Ragionamenti cinque (Bologna: 1768); Girol. 
 Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura italiana (Mod.: 1772-1782; 
 10 vols. in 13 parts, Fir. : 1780). Of later writers on poetics 
 mention is made in 24, B 8, below. 
 
 (If) Spanish. The following list may serve to direct the 
 student to some of the earlier authorities ; it may be supple- 
 mented from Blankenburg (Literarische Zusatze), whence it is 
 principally derived, and from the histories of Spanish literature. 
 
 Enrico de Villena, Libro del arte de trovar, o gaya ciencia 
 (of which Blankenburg, Lit. Zusatze, 1 : 394, says that an extract 
 is to-be found in the Origines de la lengua Espanola of Gregorio 
 de Mayans y Siscar, vol. II, 321, and mention of it in Warton's 
 History of English Poetry, vol. Ill, 349, note x); Juan de la 
 Enzina, Arte de Poesia Castellana (in his Cancionero. Sev. : 
 1501; Zarag. : 1516); Ped. Seraphi, De poesia vulgar en lengua 
 Catalana (Bare.: 1565); Mig. Sanchez de Viana, Arte poetica 
 Castellana (Ale. : 1580) ; Juan de la Cueva, Egemplar poetico, 
 o arte poet. Espanola (a didactic poem, circa 1582 ; in the Par- 
 nasso Espanol. Mad.: 1774, vol. VIII, p. i et seg.); Vine, 
 da Espinel, a translation of Horace's Epistle to the Pisos (in 
 blank verse, in Espinel's Rimas. Mad.: 1591, and in the 
 Parnasso Espanol, vol. I, p. i et seq?); Luis de Zapata, a trans- 
 lation of the same Epistle (Lisb. : 1592) ; Juan Garcio Rengifo, 
 Arte poetica Espanola (Salam.: 1592); Hier. de Mondragon, 
 Arte para componer en metro Castellano dividida en dos partes 
 (pt. I, on verse ; pt. II, the composition of the various kinds of 
 poetry. Zarag. : 1593) ; Al. Lopez Pinciano, Philosophia anti-
 
 B.] THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF POETICS. 449 
 
 gua poetica (Mad. : 1596) ; Villen de Biedma, translation of the 
 Epistle to the Pisos (Gran. : 1599) ; Luis Alonzo de Carvallo, 
 Cisne de Apolo de las Excelencias y dignidad y todo lo que al 
 arte poetica y versificatoria pertenece (Med. : 1602) ; Lope da 
 Vega Carpio, Nueva Arte de hazer comedias en este tiempo 
 (in his Rimas humanas. Mad.: 1602); Andr. Rey de Artieda, 
 a Satire on Spanish Comedy (in an Epistle in his Discursos, 
 Epist. e Epigr. Zarag., 1605, and in Parnasso Espanol, vol. I, 
 p. 352); Chr. de Mesa, Compendio de la poetica en versos 
 (in his Rimas. Mad. : 1607 and 1611); Franc. Cascales, 
 Tablas poeticas (Mure. : 1617; new edition, containing Cascales' 
 Poetics of Horace by Franc. Cerda y Rico. Mad. : 1779); 
 Fed. Soto de Roxas, Discurso sobra la poetica (in his poem 
 Desengano de Amor en Rimas. Mad. : 1623); Al. Ordonez, 
 translation and text of Aristotle's Poetics (Mad. : 1626; new 
 ed. by Cas. Florez, with the notes of Heinsius and Batteux. 
 Mad.: 1778); Diego de Colmenares, Censura de Lope da 
 Vega Carpio, o discurso de la nueva poesia, con una respuesta, 
 (1630); Jos. Ant. Gonzalez de Salas, Nueva idea de la Tragedia 
 antigua, o ilustracion ultima al libro singular de poetica de 
 Aristotiles prima parte ; Tragedia practica y observacion, que 
 deben preceder a la Tragedia Espanola intitul. las Troyanas, 
 parte seg. (Mad. : 1633 ; new ed. by Cerdo y Rico. 2 vols. 
 Mad.: 1778); Jos. Pellicer.de Salas de Tovar, Idea de la 
 Comedia de Castilla (Mad. : 1639) '> Diego Vich, Breve dis- 
 curso de las Comedias y de su representacion (Valenc. : 1650); 
 Ignacio de Luzan Claramunt de Suelves y Guerra, La Poetica, 
 o reglas de la poesia en general y de sus principales especies 
 (Zarag. : 1737 ; new ed. enlarged by Eug. Llaguno. 2 vols. 
 Mad.: 1779); Ant. Nasarre y Ferriz, Dissertacion, o prologo 
 sobre las Comedias de Espana (before the Comedias di Mig. 
 de Cervantes Saavedra. 2 vols. Mad. : 1749). For some of 
 the later authorities, see below, 24, B 9. Also for references 
 to Portuguese versification.
 
 450 LITERARY CRITICISM. [21. 
 
 6. For the poetics of NORTHERN EUROPEAN LITERATURES, 
 see brief notice in 24, B 11-13. 
 
 7. For some references on poetics in the ORIENT, see 24, 
 B 14-20.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF VERSIFICATION. 
 
 22. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS; ANALYSIS. 
 
 THE student will find it necessary at the outset to determine 
 the relation between 'primary' and 'secondary' rhythm, 
 or, to use the more common parlance, between rhythm and 
 metre, and to discover what common basis, if any, rhythm 
 and metre have. 
 
 /. He should then proceed to the consideration of Rhythm 
 as inherent, or manifest, in 
 
 A. THOUGHT. See Dewey, Baldwin, Sully, and other writers 
 on the psychology of aesthetics, pp. 166, 167, above. 
 
 B. NATURE. See, for instance, Spencer's First Principles, 
 pp. 256, 257; John Fiske's Cosmic Philosophy, vol. I, pp. 297- 
 314; Helmholtz's Sensations of Tone ; Ch. Henry's Rapporteur 
 esthe'tique ; Lanier's Science of Verse, and the references on 
 pp. 138, 139, above. 
 
 C. ART (exclusive of music and literature). See Hegel's 
 Aesthetik (or Kedney's exposition, Hastie's, Bosanquet's, Bry- 
 ant's translations), and 7-9 above. 
 
 D. Music. See Lanier in his Science of Verse, Ruskin in 
 his Prosody, Gurney in his Power of Sound, Schmidt in his 
 Introduction to Rhythmic and Metric, for various theories of 
 the relation between musical and poetical rhythm. More spe- 
 
 45'
 
 452 LITER AR Y CRITICISM. [ 22. 
 
 cial reference on rhythm in music may be made to physiological 
 treatises such as Helmholtz's Sensations of Tone, or to aesthetic 
 theory as elaborated by Weber, Schubart, Hauptmann, Bahr, 
 et aL, for whom see Gayley and Scott's Guide to the Literature 
 of Aesthetics, pp. 70-72. 
 
 E. LANGUAGE. See Lanier and Poe for the basis of speech- 
 rhythm. For more exhaustive treatment of the subject, see 
 references as given in 23 to Ellis (Quantitative Pronunciation 
 of Latin), Guest, Schmidt, Mayor, Abbott and Seeley, West- 
 phal, Gurney, Schipper, and others. For the rhythm of prose, 
 see 25-27. 
 
 //. The field is now clear for the consideration of Metre, 
 or Secondary Rhythm. The student is confronted, first, with 
 numerous conflicting definitions of the well-known terms : foot, 
 section, pause, caesura, etc. As to the kinds of feet, classical 
 and modern, he may with profit consult Abbott and Seeley, 
 Gummere, Schmidt, Ruskin, Lanier, Poe ; as to ratios within 
 the foot, Hadley, Schmidt, and Gildersleeve. On the section 
 he will derive enlightenment from Mayor and Ellis, still more 
 from Fleeming Jenkin. Let him approach Guest with caution, 
 lest he be mystified. In regard to the various theories of the 
 pause, compensating or rhythmical, the end-pause, run-on 
 lines, or enjambement, the general relation of verse to sentence, 
 the caesura, etc., Thomas Arnold, Gummere, Abbott and 
 Seeley, Lanier, and Mayor are trustworthy guides. Attention 
 may next be turned to the following details : 
 
 A. THE ELEMENTS OF THE VERSE AND FOOT. (i) Quantity, 
 ancient and modern. It will be wise to distinguish at once 
 between the quantity of a syllable and its emphasis, see 
 Mayor ; and to inquire into the relative value of syllables in 
 classical and in modern feet. See Ellis, Gummere, Guest, 
 Sylvester, Schipper, Jenkin.
 
 //.] METRE, OR SECONDARY RHYTHM. 453 
 
 (2) Accent. In Guest will be found a discussion of the 
 verbal, logical, and rhetorical qualities of accent. (See Skeat's 
 edition.) On the hovering and the wrenched accent, see 
 Schmidt and Gummere ; also Mayor, Ellis, Jenkin, Symonds, 
 and Schipper. Questions touching emphatic and unemphatic 
 accents will rise for decision, and others concerning the adjust- 
 ment of foot-sequence and section in modern verse. 
 
 (3) Pitch, Lanier, Ellis, Schipper, Schmidt. 
 
 (4) Stress in word and in metre, Mayor, Lecky, and 
 Ellis. 
 
 (5) Force and weight, Mayor, Ellis. 
 
 (6) Tone and color, for instance, the colors of vowels and 
 of consonants in assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia, 
 see Bacon, Guest, Lanier, Ruskin, Tolman, Gummere, M.-J. 
 Guyau, Schipper, Stevenson in his essay on style, etc. Symonds 
 treats poetically, though not always critically, of the relation 
 that thought and emotion bear to word-color. 
 
 B. THE HISTORICAL INQUIRY INTO METRE. The student should 
 study first the genesis of metre, its evolution and differentiation 
 in any one literature (Kawczynski, Posnett, Gummere, Jaco- 
 bowski) ; then the dependence of metrical forms upon linguistic 
 conditions and the modifications of metre that have attended 
 the development of a language. This most interesting investi- 
 gation will lead to a comparison of the distinctive metres of 
 various nations and a consequent induction may establish cer- 
 tain affinities between national metres and national character- 
 istics. Here also may be studied the connection between 
 special moods or emotions and the metres most frequently 
 used to express them. As a source and at the same time an 
 example of this method, consult Kawczynski's Essai compara- 
 tif sur 1'origine et 1'histoire de rhythme, and Wilh. Meyer's 
 Anfang u. Ursprung d. lateinischen u. griechischen rhyth- 
 mischen Dichtung.
 
 454 LITERARY CRITICISM. [22. 
 
 C. But that consideration leads one, of course, to the thresh- 
 old of the THEORETIC INQUIRY. Whence, psychologically con- 
 sidered, does the demand for metre spring? From the desire for 
 regularity? From a mechanical impulse to stereotype the rela- 
 tion between unity and variety? From a passion for 'aesthetic 
 economy ' ? From consideration of the frailty of man's mem- 
 ory? And the delight in metre, does it consist in the con- 
 sciousness of technical difficulty overcome ; or in the sense of 
 expectancy satisfied? What effect, if any, upon the eye, as 
 well as upon, the ear or upon the imagination, does metrical 
 arrangement in lines produce? Compare with this the metri- 
 cal arrangement of bars, and consider the relation of metre 
 to music. 
 
 ///. The Kinds of Metre. Mayor, Schipper, Abbott and 
 Seeley, and Schmidt provide the material necessary for a gen- 
 eral introduction. Questions concerning metrical license, extra 
 syllables, anacrusis, the 'catch,' truncated metres, 'metrical 
 metamorphoses,' merit especial attention. 
 
 A. Selected references for the study of CLASSICAL METRE 
 will be found in 23 below ; courses of reading for more exhaust- 
 ive investigation are indicated in 24. The beginner cannot 
 choose a better guide than the Rhythmic and Metric of J. H. 
 H. Schmidt (trans, by J. Williams White). The advanced 
 student is referred especially to Schmidt's Kunstformen d. gr. 
 Poesie, and to Rossbach and Westphal. (See 23.) 
 
 B. Concerning MODERN METRES, especially those used in 
 Cnglish, Guest, Schipper, Mayor, Abbott and Seeley, Lanier, 
 Gummere, Hood, and Goold Brown may for most aspects of 
 the study be consulted. As to French, German, Italian, and 
 other modern European systems of versification, see 24. 
 
 Of strictly modern forms none deserves attention more than 
 English Blank Verse, in its history and its theory. Mayor,
 
 ///.] THE KINDS OF METRE. 455 
 
 Schipper, Guest, and Masson present the various difficulties 
 attendant upon the determination of the origin and develop- 
 ment of this form. They also discuss, as do Symonds, Ellis, 
 Abbott and Seeley, Keightley, and a host of others, the phenom- 
 ena of pause, section, elision, slurring, substituted foot, hendec- 
 asyllable, and show by illustration what changing tones of 
 quantity and accent this organ of many stops has been made 
 to produce. The qualities of English blank verse cannot be 
 better determined than by an induction based upon the usage 
 of Sackville and Norton, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Fletcher, Mil- 
 ton, Wordsworth, Landor, Tennyson, Browning, and Matthew 
 Arnold. The following are a few of the questions suggested by 
 this study : What adaptability has blank verse to the expres- 
 sion of varying moods, and of conception more or less profound? 
 How does its style change with the development of national 
 thought and taste? In what fashion does the ' interweaving ' of 
 section and foot reconcile the technique of ancient and of mod- 
 ern verse? What similarity exists between the pause of blank 
 verse and the caesura of hexameter? What special adaptabil- 
 ity has blank verse as a vehicle for English characteristic and 
 mental attitude, rather than for those of other nationalities? 
 What, by comparison, is the characteristic of French prose 
 mesurie, and of Italian versi sciolti? Is blank verse better 
 adapted than rhyme to such a poem as Goethe's Faust ? Com- 
 pare with it the metrical style of Marlowe's Faustus. 
 
 The student of modern metre may with profit undertake an 
 investigation into the revival in modified form of certain classical 
 metres, such as the Alcaic, the Sapphic and Adonic, the Hen- 
 decasyllabic, the Hexameter, and the Elegiac. On the most 
 important experiment, the renovation of the hexameter, let 
 him consult the practice of Goethe, Arthur Hugh Clough, Kings- 
 ley, Longfellow, and others as suggested in Schipper ; and the 
 theories of Arnold, Blackie, Cayley, and others mentioned below, 
 ' 24, B 5 (ft). Munby's ' Dorothy' is an excellent example of
 
 456 LITERARY CRITICISM. [22. 
 
 English elegiacs not often noticed. The Elizabethans and other 
 metrists and poets down to the present time have variously 
 illustrated the enormities, as well as the possibilities, of English 
 imitations of classic verse. 
 
 //. Rhyme ; the Refrain, etc. Under this division of the 
 subject the following questions will demand consideration : 
 
 A. HISTORICAL. What is the origin, and what the evolution, 
 of rhyme ? Why does it prevail in modern verse and not in 
 the classics ? Did it obtain in ancient literatures outside of 
 the Greek and Latin ? Does it obtain in all modern litera- 
 tures ? What is the custom in the Japanese, the Hebrew, the 
 Basque, the Lappish and Finnish, and other eastern and 
 western literatures not shaped by Graeco-Latin, Teutonic, or 
 Romance influence ? See 24, Disraeli's Amenities of Litera- 
 ture, pp. 272, 273 ; and, as in 23, 24, Schipper, W. Grimm, 
 C. F. Meyer, Gleditsch, Blass. 
 
 B. THEORETICAL. What purpose is served by rhyme ? 
 What are its advantages, what its aesthetic value, and how are 
 its effects limited ? Under this head see, in addition to the 
 more exhaustive treatises cited below, 23, 24, Schopen- 
 hauer's World as Will and Idea, vol. Ill The Aesthetics of 
 Poetry ; Spencer's Philosophy of Style ; G. P. Marsh's Lec- 
 tures on the English Language, pp. xxiii-xxv, and Gummere. 
 Is the best effect of the rhyme produced by one recurrence of 
 the salient sound ? Is it weakened by more frequent repeti- 
 tion ? What of the recurrence in the terza rima, the ottara 
 rima, the sonnet ? Does the virtue of rhyme lie in the expect- 
 ancy on the part of the hearer which it arouses and allays? 
 Does it lie in a heightening of tone, pitch, quality of sound, or 
 in the element of duration and sequence imparted to the verses? 
 Does it serve to emphasize the ideas expressed ? What is the 
 effect of ' deferred ' rhymes ? See Gottschall's Poetik ; Blass,
 
 F.j THE STROPHE. 457 
 
 p. 210. On the effect of false rhymes, eye-rhymes, 'allowable ' 
 rhymes, and the like, consult the entertaining article An Inquiry 
 as to Rhyme, by Brander Matthews, in The Bookman, Septem- 
 ber, 1898. 
 
 C. THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE OF 
 ANY GIVEN TONGUE AND THE EXTENT TO WHICH IT AVAILS ITSELF 
 OF RHYME. See Marsh, Disraeli, Mac-Carthy's Translation of 
 Calderon (Introd.), and others, as below, 24. 
 
 Z>. THE ELEMENTS AND THE KINDS OF RHYME. Distinguish 
 between beginning, middle, and end rhymes, or alliteration, 
 assonance, and rhyme in the modern English sense of the 
 term. In what languages is alliteration availed of ? what are 
 the respective merits of obvious and concealed alliteration ? 
 examples ? Discuss the manner of middle rhyme in Spanish 
 and Portuguese ; of tautophony in French. See Blass (p. 209), 
 Marsh, Gummere, Abbott and Seeley, Skeat, Vetter (Zum Mus- 
 pilli), Bellanger, Mac-Carthy, Gramont, Ticknor. 
 
 E. THE HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND LAWS OF THE REFRAIN. 
 
 Consult works on modern fixed forms of verse, as in 24 ; and 
 see R. M. Meyer, Zeitschrift f. vergl. Litteraturgesch. i : 34-47 
 Ueber den Refrain. 
 
 /. The Strophe. Under this head the student might con- 
 sider, first, forms distinctively English ; secondly, forms derived 
 from foreign literatures ; thirdly, foreign forms not domesti- 
 cated in English. For English forms he will find Hood, 
 Schipper, and Abbott and Seeley a helpful introduction. Of 
 'derived' forms the most important are the ode, the sonnet, 
 and the lately revived French forms of verse, the rondeau, 
 ballade, villanelle, etc. To the nature, the objects, and the 
 history of the sonnet, he will find Sharp's Sonnets of the Cen- 
 tury an especially good introduction ; but a bibliography of
 
 458 LITERARY CRITICISM. [22. 
 
 the subject is indicated, 24. The following questions may 
 point out the line of examination : Of what kind of burden is 
 the sonnet the best vehicle ? What are the technical condi- 
 tions of excellence? What is the historical connection with 
 the Greek epigram, or with the stornello ? What forms has it 
 assumed in the hands of Guittone, Petrarch, Dante, Tasso, 
 Camoens, Bellay, and the English poets from Wyatt to Mrs. 
 Browning and Rossetti ? 
 
 On French forms of verse, see references, 24. 
 
 In general should be considered the evolution of stanzaic 
 and fixed forms of verse, national preferences in fixed forms, 
 and the comparative excellence of fixed and free forms. See 
 Kawczynski and Gottschall. 
 
 //. The History of Metre in Any One Literature. 
 
 VII. The Study of Comparative Versification. These sub- 
 jects should be attempted only after extensive special research. 
 See T. H. Key, A Partial Attempt to Reconcile the Laws of 
 Latin Rhythm with those of Modern Languages (Trans. Eng. 
 Philol. Soc., 1868-69, pp. 311-351); Harbois de Jubainville, 
 Romania, 8 : 145 Des rapports de la versification du vieil 
 irlandais avec la versification romane ; and a similar title in 
 Romania, 9:177. Other references will be found in 24. 
 Metric as a comparative study is still in its infancy. 
 
 ////. Metric from the Phonetic Point of View is also a com- 
 paratively unworked mine. An abundance of raw material will 
 be found in Sweet's History of English Sounds, Ellis's various 
 writings on phonetics, and Siever's Grundziige der Phonetik. 
 See especially Lecky's paper in Proc. of the Eng. Philol. Soc. 
 for Dec. 19, 1884, on the Phonetic Theory of English Prosody.
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 459 
 
 23. REFERENCES. 
 
 ABBOTT, E. A., and SEELEV, J. R. English Lessons for Eng- 
 lish People. Boston : 1880. 
 
 ABBOTT, E. A. Shakespearian Grammar. 
 
 In English Lessons, Part III, on Metre, is clearly and inter- 
 estingly written. 91151 should be studied. In treating 
 of Blank Verse the author (Dr. Abbott) clings somewhat too 
 tenaciously to traditional prejudice, but attempts to justify his 
 rules by induction. Taking the foot and the accent as the 
 bases of metre, he draws a distinction between word-accent and 
 metrical accent. But does an examination of blank verse con- 
 firm his conclusions? While emphasizing metrical accent, does 
 he not distort the verbal accent, lay abnormal stress upon 
 unemphatic monosyllables, or split them inexcusably in two, 
 in order to avoid trochees, dactyls, anapaests, spondees, and 
 pyrrhics that may not conform to his theory ? Is it not with a 
 similar bias that he sanctions ( 114) slurred syllables ? Is he 
 justified in ruling out ( 101) the 'hovering' accent, by so 
 many deemed a valuable mediator between the emphasis of 
 verse and that of prose ? In 138, under the License of 
 Trochee, he would do well to recognize the ' double trochee ' 
 in any part of the line, or else the monosyllabic foot with com- 
 pensating dactyl. The sections 115-122 on the Pause, based 
 upon interesting inductions from Pope, Dryden, Shakespeare, 
 etc., will be still more useful to the student if he will compare 
 with Dr. Abbott's results those of Professor Mayor, English 
 Metre, pp. 135196. For an admirable review of Abbott's 
 'rules' (English Lessons, 98), see Mayor, chap. III. 
 
 With the English Lessons should be studied Abbott's Shakes- 
 pearian Grammar, 452-515, especially 453 The 'Pause- 
 Accent '; 454-458 on ' Pause-Extra ' Syllables and Monosyl-
 
 460 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 lables ; 459 et seq. on Contractions; 477 et seq. on the 
 Lengthening of Words, and 513 on the ' Amphibious ' Section. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. Poetics (Wharton's trans.). 
 Chap. 1 : 4. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Three Lectures on Translating Homer. Lond. : 
 1861. 
 
 ARNOLD, M. Last Words on Translating Homer. Lond.: 
 
 1862. 
 
 After considering, in the first and second lectures on Trans- 
 lating Homer, the inadequacy to that end of ballad-verse, 
 rhymed verse in general, and of slow, artificial, obscure, or 
 ignoble style, Arnold passes (p. 67) to the discussion of the 
 measures best suited to Epic composition. These are the 
 heroic, the blank verse, and the hexameter. The heroic, as 
 rhyming, is eliminated from the consideration. In Lecture 3 
 blank verse likewise, after a careful estimate, is deemed unfit 
 for the needs of Homeric translation. Hexameter (p. 76 et 
 seq.) is recommetided. As to the difficulty of naturalizing 
 the hexameter, Arnold's Solvitur ambulando is comforting, but 
 scarcely conclusive. The Last Words are devoted to a " sweet 
 and illuminated " excoriation of Professor Newman ; but with 
 page 36 the discussion of hexameter is again resumed. Useful 
 information is imparted concerning the nature of the caesura, 
 the pause, accent, quantity. 
 
 ARNOLD, THOMAS. Manual of English Literature. Boston : 
 1889. Appendix on English Metres. 
 
 AUBERTIN, CH. La versification franchise et ses nouveaux 
 
 thdoriciens. Paris : 1898. 
 A good introduction to recent theories. 
 
 BANVILLE, T. DE. Petit traitd de poe'sie franchise. Paris : 
 1881.
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 461 
 
 BARHAM, THOS. FOSTER. Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., 1860-61, 
 p. 45 On Metrical Time, or the Rhythm of Verse, Ancient 
 and Modern. 
 
 BECQ DE FOUQUIERES. Traite ge'ne'ral de versification fran- 
 
 gaise. Paris : 1879. 
 
 This book, and that of De Banville cited above, may be 
 unhesitatingly recommended. 
 
 BENLOEW, L. Precis d'une theorie des rhythmes. Paris and 
 
 Leipz. : 1862-63. 
 
 Part I treats of French and Latin metres ; Part II of Greek 
 metres. 
 
 BINET, A. Introduction a la psychologic experimentale. 
 Paris : 1894. 
 
 BIRT, TH. Ad historiam hexametri latini symbola. Bonn : 
 1877. 
 
 BLASS, F. Hermeneutik und Kritik. (In Iwan Miiller's Hand- 
 buch der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. Bd. I. Nord- 
 lingen: 1886.) 
 
 Pt. I, pp. 206-209 Technik d. Zusammenfiigung d. Worte ; pt. II, 
 pp. 209, 210 Figuren d. Gleichklangs u. d. Wiederholung ; pp. 
 210-212 Alliteration u. Reim; pp. 212, 213 Melodic u. Accent; 
 pp. 213-215 Versmass d. Poesie ; pp. 222-225 Die Uebersetz- 
 ungen. 
 
 Of exceeding value to the metrist. Intended as an introduc- 
 tion to classical antiquities. 
 
 BOHM, H- Zur deutschen Metrik. (Progr.) Bed. : 1890. 
 
 The author maintains that the trochee and the amphibrach 
 are the principal feet in German poetry. Iambs, he thinks, 
 can always be read as trochees. 
 
 BOLTON, T. L. Am. Jour. Psychology, 6 : 2 Rhythm.
 
 462 LITERARY CRITICISM [23. 
 
 BORINSKI, K. Deutsche Poetik. Stuttgart: 1895. 
 
 An extremely useful little book, supplying a good bibliog- 
 raphy, and handling the subject in accordance with modern 
 scientific method. Metric is treated in Part III, pp. 50-92. 
 
 BORINSKY, F. Das Enjambement. (Studien zur Literaturgesch. 
 M. Bernays gewidmet. Hamb. und Leipz. : 1893.) 
 
 BOUVY, P. Poetes et me'lodes. Paris : 1886. 
 BREWER, R. F. Orthometry. N. Y. : 1893. 
 
 Pp. 827-903 Versification. 
 
 A large and pretentious but crude work on versification and 
 the technique of poetry. 
 
 BRIDGES, ROBERT. Milton's Prosody. Oxford: 1890. 
 
 This is " an examination of the rules of the blank verse in 
 Milton's later poems, with an account of the versification of 
 Samson Agonistes." It is one of the best studies of blank 
 verse in English, written by one who has the qualifications of a 
 poet as well as a critic. For a review, see Athenaeum, No. 
 3465. 
 BROWN, GOOLD. Grammar of English Grammars. N. Y. : 
 
 BROWNE, W. H. Mod. Lang. Notes, 4 : 97 Certain Considera- 
 
 tions Touching the Structure of English Verse. 
 The writer recognizes but three fundamental genera or 
 'patterns' of accentual verse-structure: (i) one strong sylla- 
 ble to one weak ; (2) one strong to two weak; (3) one strong 
 to three weak. 
 
 BRUCKE, ERNST. Die physiologischen Grundlagen der neu- 
 
 hochdeutschen Verskunst. Vienna: 1871. 
 See Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., 1875-76, p. 469, for description 
 of Briicke's method, which was to utter the syllables, ' pap,' 
 'bim,' 'bam,' while a wooden lever rested on his lower lip.
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 463 
 
 CARRIERS, M. Das Wesen und die Formen der Poesie. 
 
 Leipz. : 1834. 
 
 A thoughtful and well-arranged discussion of the historical 
 and aesthetic bases of poetic theory. The distinctions between 
 literary types are not far different from Hegel's, but they are 
 clearly presented, and with a wealth of illustration. 
 
 CAYLEY, C. B. Trans. Eng. PhiloL Soc., 1867, p. 43 Pedigree 
 of English Heroic Verse. 
 
 CAYLEY, C. B. 2'rans, Eng. PhiloL Sot., 1862-63, p. 67 
 Remarks on English Hexameters. 
 
 CHAIGNET, A.-d. Essai de me'trique grecque. Paris : 1887. 
 CORSON, HIRAM. A Primer of English Verse. Boston : 1893. 
 The treatise illustrates sympathetically and forcefully the 
 principle of inherent form. 
 
 Due, LUCIEN. tude raisonne'e de la versification franchise. 
 Paris : 1889. 
 
 DUHR, A. Ueber Metrik und Rhythmik. Friedland i. M. : 
 
 1885. (Prog.) 
 
 A resume of the contrasting phases of the development of 
 accent and quantity in verse displayed by the classical languages 
 on the one hand and by the modern on the other. The disser- 
 tation furnishes a rapid survey of Greek and Latin metric and 
 metrists. 
 
 EICHTAL, E. d'. Du rhythme dans la versification franchise. 
 
 Paris : 1892. 
 
 Clear, simple, and trustworthy. 
 
 ELLIS, A. J. Essentials of Phonetics. Lond. : 1848. 
 ELLIS, A. J. Early English Pronunciation. 1869. 
 
 ELLIS, A. J. Trans. Eng. PhiloL Soc., 1873-74, p. 113 On the 
 Physical Constituents of Accent and Emphasis.
 
 464 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 ELLIS, A. J. Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., 1875-76, p. 435 Re- 
 marks on Professor Mayor's Two Papers on Rhythm. 
 
 ELLIS, A. J. The Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin. Lond. : 
 1874. 
 
 On accent, quantity, verse, and prose rhythm, passim. 
 
 In his Essentials of Phonetics (1848) Ellis first laid down 
 his laws of English heroic verse. His method was inductive, 
 and his conclusion was, in general, that the normal form of iam- 
 bic pentameter is rarely to be found, that the number of syllables 
 is frequently greater than ten, while the number of accents is 
 generally less than five. In his Early English Pronunciation, 
 pt. I. pp. 333-335, he pointed out the difference between Chau- 
 cerian and modern rhythms, and laid down rules for the dis- 
 tribution of stress in modern pentameter. In the article in 
 Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., 1873-74, on Accent and Emphasis, 
 he pursued still further his inductive inquiry, and in the article 
 of June, 1876, Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., he elaborated a nomen- 
 clature for degrees of force, length, pitch, weight, and silence. 
 This system distinguishes forty-five gradations of stress, ready 
 to the caprice of the poet, the delight of the metrist, and the 
 confusion of the profane vulgar. Ellis's researches (barring the 
 over-minuteness of the system that they have led him to elab- 
 orate) are characterized by common sense. But do they throw 
 much light upon the palpable variations of intensity within the 
 foot, or upon the limits of metrical substitution ? Mayor (Eng- 
 lish Metre) criticises the value of Ellis's 'principle of weight'; 
 and with some justice, for the principle must remain at the 
 best "a very complex phenomenon." Shuddering at the Teu- 
 tonic analysis elaborated by Ellis, Mayor discards all stress 
 distinctions save those of force. (See Mayor, English Metre, 
 pp. 57-74.) Ellis is the chief representative of what Mayor 
 calls the natural, or a posteriori system. For a review of Early
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 465 
 
 English Pronunciation, see Hadley (Essays, Philological and 
 Critical, pp. 240-262). 
 
 ELZE, K. Grundriss der englischen Philologie, Halle: 1889* 
 Pp. 361-386 Metrik. 
 
 EVERETT, ERASJWS. A System of English Versification. 1st. Y. : 
 
 1848. 
 
 A treatise of the old-fashioned, formal kind, with "pieces," 
 marked " original," by the author of the treatise. 
 
 GHIL, RENE. Le traite du verbe. Avec avant-dire de Stephane 
 
 Mallarme'. Paris: 1886. 
 
 Presents in a curious and almost unintelligible jargon the 
 poetical creed of the French decadents. According to Ghil, two 
 main principles should guide in the making of verse : (i) sym- 
 bolism, or the use of words to convey not ideas but merely 
 sensuous impressions ; (2) verbal instrumentation or tone-color. 
 The author's ideas on the latter point are a crude and fanciful 
 anticipation of late psychological research into the phenomenon 
 of ' colored hearing,' so called. Ghil associates o, oi, with red, 
 ofi with black, etc. See Am. Jour. Psych. 5:503, 504. 
 
 GILDON, C. The Complete Art of Poetry. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 
 1718. 
 
 Vol. I deals in six parts with the nature and use of poetry, 
 the use of rules, the manner and rules of epigrams, pastorals, 
 and odes, the plot and characters of tragedy and comedy, the 
 rules of the epic, and the rules of English numbers, followed 
 by various examples from Shakespeare. Vol. II is devoted to 
 an anthology of poetry, of merely antiquarian interest. Gildon 
 stands in direct opposition to Bysshe, the latter making the 
 Art of Poetry depend upon beauty of coloring, the former on 
 excellence of design. 
 
 GILDON, C. The Laws of Poetry. Lond.: 1720.
 
 466 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 GLEDITSCH, HUGO. Metrik der Griechen und Romer. (Vol. 
 II, pp. 677-852 of Iwan Miiller's Handb. der Klassischen 
 Altertumswissenschaft. 2. Aufl.) 
 
 GOTTSCHALL, R. Poetik : Die Dichtkunst und ihre Technik. 
 2 vols. in one. Bresl. : 1882. 
 
 Vol. I, pp. 208-223 Vers und Reim ; pp. 223-249 Die vorziiglich- 
 sten Versmasse ; pp. 249-262 Altdeutsche, an tike, orientalische 
 Strophen. See 24 for further note. 
 
 GRAMONT, F. DE. Le vers franc,ais. Paris : 1876. 
 
 GRIMM, W. Zur Geschichte des Reims. Berlin: 1852. (Ori- 
 ginally published in Abhg. d, Akad. zu Berlin, 1851.) 
 
 GUEST, E. A History of English Rhythms. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 1838. 
 
 GUEST, E. A History of English Rhythms. A new edition, 
 by W. W. Skeat. Lond. : 1882. 
 
 In Bk. I the parts most necessary to be read are : chap. I, on 
 the definition of rhythm, on quantity and accent ; chap. IV, 
 on accent, pause accents, slurring, and emphasis; chap. V, 
 on quantity; and chap. VII, with its famous dicta on sections 
 and pauses. In Bk. II the account of the origin of English 
 rhythms and the discussion of their poetical characteristics 
 (chap. I) will complete what is needful to know of Guest's 
 system. Chaps. II-VII are valuable as a garner of apt illus- 
 trations, of curiosities in verse, and metric cruces, but Dr. 
 Guest's classification of the last is wearisome. In vol. II 
 the history of English metres is learnedly done, but is by 
 no means trustworthy. It is, for instance, doubtful whether 
 he understands either the nature or the function of Chaucer's 
 heroics. Milton (p. 244) is scored for violating the Doc- 
 tor's rule about 'middle 'and 'final' pauses. "Versification," 
 says the Doctor, " ceases to be a science if its laws may be
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 467 
 
 thus lightly broken ! " The special insufficiencies of Guest's 
 work are that his principle of the section and his laws con- 
 cerning pauses are drawn from the meagre material of Anglo- 
 Saxon poetry, and that most, if not all, of the rules that he 
 formulates are disregarded by the greatest English poets. The 
 most valuable parts of his work are Bk. Ill, on Anglo-Saxon 
 literature, and Bk. IV, on various kinds of stanzas or ' staves,' 
 as he calls them. The new edition of Guest, edited by W. W. 
 Skeat, is a thorough revision of the original, with an index and 
 some notes. 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B. A Handbook of Poetics. Boston : 1888. 
 
 Pt. Ill of this work is an admirable short treatise on Metric. 
 The work of Child, Ellis, Sweet, and of the Shakespearian 
 verse-scholars, as well as of Schipper, ten Brink, and West- 
 phal, has been carefully studied and assimilated. The chap- 
 ters on Metres of English Verse (pp. 166-234) evince careful 
 research and discrimination. Gummere does not follow Guest 
 in assigning aesthetic influence to Anglo-Saxon verse. The 
 sixth chapter (pp. 133-166) will give the student an adequate 
 survey of the leading difficulties as to rhythm, accent, quan- 
 tity. It is probably oversight that a misconstruction of Hegel's 
 statement about metre is allowed to stand (pp. i and 133). For 
 Hegel's language see 20 above, Hegel. For a discussion of 
 the principles on which the treatise is based, see the articles by 
 the author and Prof. J. M. Hart in Mod. Lang. Notes, vol. I, 
 pp. 17, 18, 35, 36, 83, 84, 102, 103. Professor Gummere (p. 36) 
 gives the following outline of his position : English metres are 
 (i) based on regular time intervals', (2) marked off and deter- 
 mined by accent ; (3) regulated but not determined by quan- 
 tity (Schipper) ; (4) neither determined nor regulated by 
 pitch; (5) influenced by pauses and slurring; (6) beautified 
 by tone-color ; (7) still pervaded to a large extent by rhyme. 
 The test of the individual verse is its movement.
 
 468 LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 
 GURNEY, E. The Power of Sound. Lond.: 1880. 
 
 See, also, Gurney's Tertium Quid, vol. I, pp. 191-251 The Ap- 
 preciation of Poetry. 
 
 This work is a valuable as well as a delightful contribution 
 to the aesthetics of music. From the point of view of metric 
 it is of much importance. Gurney bases his conclusions upon 
 induction. With Ellis and Mayor he adopts accent (or the 
 noticed regularity of stimuli^) as the essential of metre, and 
 metre as the fundamental principle of verse. He holds 
 (p. 429) that there is no necessary connection between the ac- 
 centuation and the duration of syllables, and would consequently 
 be declared " time deaf " by Professor Sylvester. Especially 
 noticeable is the assertion that there is nothing to prevent the 
 accented syllable from occupying the smaller portion of the 
 space between ictus and ictus, though generally the long sylla- 
 ble is that which bears the accent. The student should con- 
 sider critically the value of p. 109 et seq. on rhythm and the 
 pleasure arising from a series of muscular sensations, and of 
 pp. 127-149 on rhythm (stimulation at fixed degrees of time) 
 and pitch (which deals with differences of distance and direc- 
 tion). Gurney holds (p. 361 et seq.) that poetry and music 
 are not differentiated developments of a common germ, but 
 that music is the older type. On poetry as a representative 
 art, see p. 393. Chap. XIX, on the sound-element in verse, 
 attempts to prove that metrical rhythm is imposed on, not 
 latent in speech, and that verse arises from the regularity of 
 accents, not from their presence. See p. 428 for the marking 
 off of lines and stanzas; p. 430 et seq. for deviations from the 
 norm in metre, and for distinction between the "pause" and 
 the "foot of silence." Chap. XX is on song. In chap. XXI 
 Gurney attacks Spencer's theory concerning the derivation of 
 music from the cadence of emotional speech. 
 
 GUVAU, M.-J. L'esthe'tique contemporaine. 
 Pp. 171-257 L'Avenir et les lois du vers.
 
 23.] REFERENCES, 469 
 
 According to this able thinker and delightful writer the 
 science of verse, since verse is at the same time a system 
 of vocal sounds or physiological movements and a system of 
 thoughts or emotions, should be based upon the two sciences, 
 physiology and psychology. From this double point of view 
 the author discusses the following topics : Chap. I, Rhythm of 
 language and its origin formation of modern verse; chap. II, 
 Romantic theories of verse office of the caesura; chap. Ill, 
 The new metres the hiatus ; Chap. IV, La rime riche ; 
 chap. V, Thought and verse. 
 
 HADLEY, J. Essays, Philological and Critical. N. Y. : 1873. 
 
 Pp. 81-109 Greek Rhythm and Metre. 
 
 This admirable article is especially a resume and criticism of 
 the conclusions on Greek rhythm and metre arrived at by 
 Rossbach, Westphal, Weil, Caesar, and Susemihl. A sketch 
 is given of the more important ancient writers on verse, and 
 elementary facts and principles, as set forth in their systems, 
 are discussed. The elucidation of the terms " arsis " and " thesis," 
 to the original significance of which Hadley reverts, and the 
 rehearsal of the doctrine of compound feet are a contribution 
 to the science of ancient verse well worthy the attention of the 
 student. 
 
 HELMHOLTZ, H. L. F. Sensations of Tone as a Physiological 
 Basis for a Theory of Music. Trans, and ed. by A. J. 
 Ellis. Lond. : 1875. 
 
 HELMHOLTZ, H. L. F. On the Physiological Causes of Har- 
 mony in Music. (In Popular Lectures on Scientific Sub- 
 jects. Trans, by E. Atkinson. Lond. : 1873.) 
 
 HENRY, CHARLES. Rapporteur esthetique. Paris : 1888. 
 
 HOHLFELD, A. R. Studies in French Versification. De- 
 printed from Mod. Lang. Notes, vol. VIII, Nos. i and 5. 
 Baltimore : 1893.
 
 470 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 HOLMES, O. W. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, Jan. 7, 
 1875 Physiology of Versification and the Harmonies of 
 Organic and Animal Life. 
 
 HOOD, TOM. Practical Guide to English Versification. 3d 
 edition. With an appendix on versification ; and Bysshe's 
 rules for making English verse. Lond. : 1888. 
 
 HOOD, TOM. The same, entitled the Rhymester, edited with 
 additions by Arthur Penn [Brander Matthews]. N. Y. : 
 1882. 
 
 Of Hood's work not more need be said than that it is a 
 practical elementary handbook. It treats in no philosophic, 
 but in lucid, although frequently dogmatic and a priori style, 
 of classic and modern principles of versification, of feet and 
 caesuras, of metre, rhythm, and rhymes, of figures, comic verse, 
 vers de societe, and of song writing. The author aims rather at 
 showing the versifier the ' how ' than the ' why ' of versification. 
 He clings to classical terminology and tries (p. 25) to establish 
 a relation between accent and quantity. For a light and gen- 
 eral survey of versification the work may be recommended to 
 the beginner. 
 
 Arthur Penn's Rhymester adds three useful chapters, on the 
 Sonnet, the Rondeau, Ballade, and other Fixed Forms of Verse, 
 with Ben Jonson's Fit of Rhyme against Rhyme. 
 
 HUMBERT, C. Die Gesetze des franzosischen Verses. Ein 
 Versuch, sie aus dem Geiste des Volkes zu erklaren, mit 
 besonderer Riicksicht auf den Alexandriner und Moliere's 
 Misanthrope. Leipz.-. 1888. 
 
 HUNT, LEIGH. What is Poetry ? (In Selections from the Eng- 
 lish Poets. N. Y. : 1857.) 
 
 Note the remarks on versification which succeed the discus- 
 sion of imagination and fancy. 

 
 23.] REFERENCES. 471 
 
 JACOBOWSKI, L. Die Anfange der Poesie. Grundlegung zu 
 einer realistischen Entwickelungsgeschichte der Poesie. 
 Dresden : 1891. 
 
 JENKIN, FLEEMING. Papers, Literary, Scientific, etc. Ed. by 
 
 S. Colvin and J. A. Ewing. Lond. : 1887. 
 A new edition of Guest's Rhythms was issued, under the su- 
 pervision of the Rev. W. W. Skeat, in 1883. Three admirable 
 articles, suggested by the reprint of this work, appeared in the 
 Saturday Review of February and March, 1883, and are pub- 
 lished in abridged form among the Papers, Literary, Scientific, 
 etc., of Fleeming Jenkin, vol. I, pp. 149-170. Professor Jenkin 
 accepts neither the ancient method of scanning English verse 
 nor the accentual and sectional method of Guest, Goold 
 Brown, and others. He traces in English metre the blending 
 (p. 154) of two independent systems of rhythm, the Anglo- 
 Saxon and the classical ; and he elucidates (pp. 155-170) a 
 method of verse-analysis based upon the combination of classic 
 foot, sectional rhythm, pause, and accent. The article is cor- 
 dially commended to the student. 
 
 KAWCZINSKI, MAX. Essai comparatif sur 1'origine et 1'histoire 
 
 des rhythmes. Paris : 1889. 
 
 This important contribution to the long and involved discus- 
 sion of the origin of Romance versification contains also by 
 the way many profound and original remarks upon metrical 
 questions of a general character. Of especial interest is his 
 view that modern metres are inheritances from Greece, not 
 autochthonous, in their origin. Reviewed by F. M, Warren, 
 Am. Jour. Philol. 40: 358-371. 
 
 KLEINPAUL, E. Poetik. 8. umg. und verm. Aufl. Leipz. : 
 
 1879. 
 A methodical and fairly scientific introduction to the subject.
 
 472 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 KLUGE, F. Zur Geschichte des Reimes im Altgermanischen 
 (in Paul und Braune's Beitrage, vol. IX, p. 422). 
 
 LA GRASSERIE, R. DE. fitudes de grammaire comparee. 
 Analyses metriques et rhythmiques. Vannes : 1893. 
 
 LA GRASSERIE, R. DE. tude de rhythmique. Essais de 
 me'trique vedique et sanscrite. Paris: 1893. 
 
 LA GRASSERIE, R. DE. Le museon, 10 : 299, 419, 589; n: 
 
 38, 191, 307, 389 Essai de rhythmique comparee. 
 Examines in succession : (i) the phonic or rhythmic ele- 
 ment ; (2) the psychic element; (3) the union of the two in 
 the morphology of verse, forming the poetic whole. The 
 author holds that the essence of poetry is creation. 
 
 LA GRASSERIE, R. DE. Bulletin histor. et philol. du comite des 
 trav&ux hist, et scientifiques, 1893, p. 181 De la strophe 
 et du poeme dans la versification fran9aise, specialement 
 en vieux franc.ais. 
 
 According to the ingenious theory of La Grasserie the strophe 
 arose in a somewhat mechanical way through the efforts of ver- 
 sifiers to do away with the monorhyme of the epic and to give 
 to this type of poetry a lyric movement. 
 
 LANIER, S. The Science of English Verse. N. Y. : 1880. 
 
 The student will thank Lanier for the suggestive history of 
 English metric supplied by the preface. He will find, on turn- 
 ing to p. 98, Experimental Test of Accent, that Lanier, with 
 Sylvester and Poe, posits time-relation as the basis of modern 
 rhythms. In this respect, therefore, his system is opposed to 
 those of Ellis, Abbott, Hale, and Mayor. He attributes the 
 theory of the accentualists to their confusion of ' primary 
 rhythm ' (quantity) with ' secondary rhythm ' (the arrangement 
 of pitch and stress). From such premises naturally follow
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 473 
 
 Lanier's elaborate classification of rhythms and the musical 
 notation of them. The elements duration, pitch, and tone- 
 color suggest the order of treatment adopted : rhythms, 
 tunes, and colors of verse. 
 
 Under rhythms, pp. 6265, 98-109, 119, 120, discriminate 
 between quantity and stress, and between the various kinds of 
 stress. Pp. 89-94, 182-224 treat of blank verse, 'run-on' 
 lines, the ' pause,' the ' rest,' etc. The main division of rhythm 
 into its so-called six orders (p. 95) is lucid and ingenious ; but 
 as dependent upon the time-theory of verse, is it scientific or 
 trustworthy? The chapter on the tunes of English verse should 
 be compared with the scientific treatises of Weil (Order of 
 Words), V. Egget (La parole interieure), and Gurney. Part III, 
 which takes up without discrimination what Sylvester would call 
 the chromatic and synectic of verse (color, vowel-distribution, 
 rhyme, etc.), is valuable. In chap. XIII Lanier elaborates 
 Sylvester's Phonetic Syzygy, first admiring the aptness of the 
 term. May we not suggest the superior simplicity of some 
 such nomenclature as ' vowel and consonant coordination,' or 
 'vocal sequences '? 
 
 LECKY, J. Proc. Eng. PhiloL Sac., Dec. 19, 1884 (Monthly 
 Abstract) Phonetic Theory of English Prosody. 
 
 Abstract of a paper read by Mr. James Lecky, in which is 
 proposed a phonetic notation for the scansion of English verse. 
 Provision is made for^ndicating three degrees of stress and five 
 of length. By beginning each foot with a strong syllable, as 
 proposed by Ellis and Pierson, Mr. Lecky identifies the foot 
 with the " stress-group." 
 
 LE GOFFIC, C., and THIEULIN, E. Nouveau traite de versifi- 
 cation franchise. Paris : 1890. 
 
 For higher classes in the lycees and normal schools. Treats 
 of origins, value of syllables, elision, hiatus, rhyme, caesura, en-
 
 474 LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 
 jambement, alliteration, assonance, strophes, and fixed forms. 
 A good introduction. 
 
 LUBARSCH, E. O. Franzosische Verslehre mit neuen Ent- 
 wickelungen fur d. theoret. Begriindung d. franzosischen 
 Rhythmik. Berlin: 1879. 
 
 Pronounced by Korting the best handbook of French versi- 
 fication. 
 
 MASSON, D. Poetical works of John Milton. 3 vols. Lond. : 
 1874. Vol. I, pp. cvii-cxxxii Essay on Versification. 
 
 A thorough and liberal inductive examination into Milton's 
 blank verse. Masson scouts the so-called norm of blank verse. 
 " Whatever combinations of accented and unaccented syllables," 
 he holds, " can produce a blank verse which shall be good to 
 the ear, is not a matter for arithmetical computation, but for 
 experience." He approves the use of trochee, spondee, ana- 
 paest, dactyl, and even of tribrach, amphibrach, and antibac- 
 chius. Mayor's criticism (Eng. Metre, pp. 74-79) shows that 
 by the recognition of elision and slurring many of Masson's tri- 
 brachs, amphibrachs, etc., may be reduced to ordinary English 
 feet. With Masson's views Mayor compares those of Keightley 
 (Life, Opinions, Writings of Milton), who also belongs to the 
 inductive school. (See in addition Masson's Essays, Biograph- 
 ical and Critical, pp. 447-475 Prose and Verse, De Quincey.) 
 
 MAYOR, J. B. Chapters on English Metre. Lond. : 1886. 
 
 Professor Mayor pleads for a scientific treatment of English 
 metre. He defends the principle of routine scansion, believes 
 that, whether poets have respected it or not, there are scientific 
 uses to which it must be put ; and as to the classical nomen- 
 clature of prosody, does not see any advantage in giving it up. 
 He states (p. 10) the more important questions demanding con- 
 sideration, and advances to a consideration of the best-known
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 475 
 
 English metrists. In chap. II he attacks Dr. Guest's system. 
 He objects decidedly to the assumption that our verse is to be 
 judged by the laws of Anglo-Saxon metre and the principle of 
 the 'section,' and esteems Dr. Guest's approbation of a poet a 
 dubious compliment. He is more in accord (chap. Ill) with the 
 logical a-priorism of Dr. Abbott, but, in chap. VI, especially 
 applauds the a posteriori method of Mr. Ellis. Symonds, who 
 argues for an aesthetic disregard of scientific scansion, is not 
 commended. The more original and constructive part of Pro- 
 fessor Mayor's work is contained in chaps. VI-XII. The 
 chapters (pp. 81-123) on metrical metamorphoses and substi- 
 tutions cover the interesting questions of truncated lines, 
 catches, pauses, mixed metres, allowable conversions of feet, 
 etc. In these chapters the author's judgments are remarkably 
 clear and sound. His examination of the metres of Marlowe, 
 Surrey, Shakespeare, Milton, Tennyson, and Browning are a 
 genuine contribution to the science of the subject. All in all, 
 this is perhaps the best short English treatise on versifica- 
 tion. Ellis's remarks on Mayor's Two Papers on Rhythm are 
 to be found in Trans. Eng. PhiloL Soc., 1875-76, pp. 435-449. 
 " Single lines cannot be scanned by themselves. Rhythm 
 must be taken by paragraphs." 
 
 MEYER, W. Anfang und Ursprung der lateinischen u. griechi- 
 schen rythmischen Dichtung. (Abhandlg. d. phil.-hist. 
 Classe d. bayerischen Akademie d. Wissenschaften, xvii, ii.) 
 
 MEYER, W. Numerous articles on Versification, especially on 
 the origin of Romance Versification. (See 24 and, in 
 general, Kawczynski, chaps. VII and VIII.) 
 
 MINCKWITZ, J. Lehrbuch der deutschen Verskunst. 3. Aufl. 
 Leipz. : 1854. 
 
 While this handbook deals professedly with German metric 
 and prosody, it covers, in a manner too formal indeed, but
 
 476 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 scholarly, a large part of the field common to modern versifica- 
 tion. According to Minckwitz, syllables in German prosody 
 are valued in terms of accent, significance of thought, and 
 sound-relation or vowel-weight. German verse has, then, short, 
 long, and medium syllables, as well as accent, to deal with ; 
 and the German tongue has, in so far as comports with its 
 nature, united the claims of quantity and accent, as was the 
 case in Greek and Latin verse. 
 
 NEWMAN, F. W. Miscellanies. Lond. : 1869. Pp. 65-145 
 
 Four Lectures on Poetry. 
 
 Of these lectures, the second (pp. 32-103), on Forms of Poetry, 
 opens with a distinction between the modern oratorical metre, 
 which depends on the prose accent, and the ancient musical 
 metre, which depended on ' equable times.' There is also a 
 remark to the effect that certain words may be accentually 
 of one metre and quantitatively of another e.g. female, accen- 
 tually a trochee, quantitatively a spondee. This is probably 
 (p. 83) the passage which Professor Sylvester, Laws of Verse, 
 p. 65, misconstrues into an assertion of the abbreviating effect 
 of the accent, and elaborately condemns. 
 
 PARIS, G. Le vers frangais. Paris: 1885. 
 
 PARSONS, JAMES C. English Versification for the Use of Stu- 
 dents. Boston: 1891. 
 
 A well-ordered, respectable compilation. Hardly to be called 
 a contribution to the science. 
 
 PAUL, H. Grundriss der germanischen Philologie. Strass- 
 
 burg : 1889. 
 
 Students who desire to master Germanic versification, and 
 who are willing to give to the subject the attention it requires, 
 will do well to become familiar with this important work. The 
 treatment of metres occupies pp. 861-1072, and is from the
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 477 
 
 hands of four eminent specialists. Pp. 861-898, by Sievers, 
 are taken up with a discussion of Old German metric. At 
 the beginning the author makes an interesting comparison of 
 the theories of Lachmann, Schmeller, Wackernagel, and him- 
 self, regarding alliterative poetry. The general structure of the 
 normal verse in Old German, as well as of the ' Schwellvers,' 
 is set forth briefly but comprehensively. A second division 
 deals with old northern metres, such as those of the Edda, the 
 Skalds, etc.; a third with Anglo-Saxon metres, and a fourth 
 with the old Saxon metre, that is, the metre of the Heliand. 
 The essay closes with a few paragraphs on Old High German 
 Metres. The chapter by Paul, on German versification, which 
 follows (pp. 898993), is better adapted to the needs of the 
 beginner. The author first defines the various terms used in 
 the discussion, such as quantity, accent, verse, etc., then passes 
 (p. 903) to a consideration of rhythm in general, which in Ger- 
 man he finds to rest upon expiratory accent and quantity. In 
 the treatment of accent Paul recognizes four degrees of stress : 
 (i) primary accent, (2) strong secondary accent, (3) weak sec- 
 ondary accent, (4) no accent. A certain minimum of stress is 
 necessary to characterize the principal accent ; the other degrees 
 have a relative value and are determined, as suggested by Moriz, 
 by the neighboring syllables. Thus a syllable is unaccented 
 when its stress is less than that of the preceding and following 
 syllable ; it has the strong secondary accent when (without 
 being primary) it (a) rises in stress above the preceding and is 
 followed either by a weaker stress or by a pause, or () begins 
 a sentence ; it has the weak secondary accent when it follows 
 a primary accent and rises in point of stress above the following 
 syllable. This idea is applied with considerable detail (pp. 905- 
 907), after which comes a brief discussion of quantity (pp. 907- 
 910). In the following sections the various periods of German 
 poetry are passed in review with reference to their methods of 
 versification, Paul's treatment of the Volkslied (pp. 941-944)
 
 478 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 and of modern verse (Kunstdichtung, pp. 947-962) being of 
 especial interest. The chapter closes with sections on rhyme, 
 assonance, alliteration, the refrain, and kinds of verse and 
 strophe. In the next chapter Karl Luick and Schipper write 
 upon English metres, the first treating historically of native 
 English metres; the second, of the introduction of foreign 
 metres into English verse. 
 
 PELLISSIER, GEORGES. Essais de litterature contemporaine. 
 Paris : 1893. 
 
 Le vers alexandrin et son evolution rhythmique. 
 
 PIERSON, P. Metrique naturelle de langage. Avec une notice 
 pre'liminaire par Gaston Paris. Paris : 1884. 
 
 PLATO. Dialogues. 
 
 For Plato's observations on rhythm and metre, see Symposium 
 187, Cratylus 424, Republic III, 400, Philebus 17, Laws II, 
 665, Gorgias 502. 
 
 POE, EDGAR ALLAN. Works. 4 vols. N. Y. : 1880. Vol. I, 
 
 pp. 214-258 The Rationale of Verse. 
 
 A virulent but virile article. The poets of whom Poe hap- 
 pened to be jealous, the scholiasts of antiquity, and the " Frog- 
 pondians " of his own day come in for the abuse of a peevish 
 author. But the theories advanced concerning metre (Poe 
 does not here treat of the whole range of rhythm ; not at all 
 of thought in poetry, nor of expression as poetic) deserve 
 painstaking attention ; they were new to many of Poe's con- 
 temporaries, and they are in many particulars sound. His 
 most notable assertions are that with spondee, dactyl, anapaest, 
 iamb, and trochee, all modern verse may be scanned ; that mod- 
 ern feet are of the same length; that the accented syllable is 
 long ; that the basis for the measure is time. His system of 
 scansion by units, halves, quarters, etc., is simple and gen-
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 479 
 
 erally sane ; his suggestion of ' run-on ' feet, stepping from one 
 line into the next, may be new to the student, and should be 
 considered. Is it not because Poe failed to give its full value 
 to the 'rest,' or 'silent syllable,' that he falls into difficulty 
 with his monosyllabic feet, spondees, so-called bastard trochees, 
 bastard iambs, etc. ? For the opposing view of the value of the 
 accented syllable see F. W. Newman's Second Lecture on 
 Poetry (Miscellanies, p. 83). Poe's system of quantification 
 (p. 246) will be better understood if instead of the words "ac- 
 cented" and "unaccented" be read "noted" and "unnoted," 
 or " designated " and "undesignated." His criticism (p. 223) 
 of Leigh Hunt's Principle of Variety in Uniformity is a piece 
 of invidious quibbling. 
 
 QUICHERAT, L. Traite de versification franchise. 2 e ed. 
 Paris: 1850. 
 
 RAYMOND, G. L. Poetry as a Representative Art. N. Y. and 
 
 Lond. : 1886. 
 
 Both argument and preface might inspire more confidence if 
 they were less pretentious. There is nothing novel in the chap- 
 ters on psychological and speculative aesthetics. The devel- 
 opment of the relation between elocution and prosody may, 
 however, be worth something to the general student. The 
 nomenclature initial, median, and terminal measures is 
 happy, but the ' median ' measure is, per se, still as much a 
 matter of question as is the existence of the amphibrach in 
 English verse. 
 
 RUSKIN, JOHN. Elements of English Prosody. Orpington : 
 
 1880. 
 
 While asserting in his usual omniscient manner that ' meas- 
 ured times of utterance are the basis of verse,' the author, as 
 an afterthought, also informs us (Preface, p. vii) that ' stress- 
 accent and quantity are identical.' The volume has, therefore,
 
 480 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 no value in the argument beyond what attaches to the author's 
 name. English metres (feet) are enumerated as ten. The 
 classical terminology is preserved. Six metric lines (from 
 monometer to hexameter) are discussed ; stanzas also, but 
 meagrely. The usefulness of the book lies in Ruskin's semi- 
 poetic dicta concerning the relative significance of metres. 
 
 SANDERS, D. Abriss der deutschen Silbenmessung und Vers- 
 
 kunst. Berlin: 1891. 
 
 Distinguishes three movements in German poetry: (i) Old 
 German ; (2) the versification of Opitz on the basis of Romance 
 languages; (3) the versification of Klopstock and J. H. Voss 
 on the basis of Latin and Greek quantity. 
 
 SCHERER, W. Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. 2d ed. 
 Contains a suggestive chapter on the Origin of Metre. 
 
 SCHIPPER, J. Englische Metrik (in Paul's Grundriss d. ger- 
 
 manischen Philologie, Abschn. IX). 
 
 See H. Paul above. 
 SCHIPPER, J. Englische Metrik in historischer. . . . Entwicke- 
 
 lung. ... 2 vols. Bonn: 1881-88. 
 
 This is the most scientific and exhaustive treatise to be 
 found on English versification. Vol. I traces English metres 
 from the Anglo-Saxon period to the reign of Henry VIII. 
 The second volume, which is of more immediate importance 
 for the student of classic English versification, traces the 
 growth of metres from the beginning of the Renaissance to the 
 present day. The Einleitung (pp. 1-14) supplies the reader 
 with a very useful list of early English metrists ; it also (p. 9) 
 describes briefly the movement on the part of some writers of 
 the second half of the sixteenth century toward imitating, /;/ 
 toto, classical metres. In chap. II (pp. 15-75) Schipper discusses 
 the rhythm of verse, decides upon the normal line in blank verse, 
 condemns the ' hovering ' accent and Shakespeare's ' feminine
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 481 
 
 endings,' and considers the pause, enjambement, and alliteration 
 in Later English Poetry. His division of the caesura (pp. 24- 
 32) into stumpfe, lyrische, and epische, is excellent, though some- 
 what formal. In the Second Part (pp. 164-464) are considered : 
 
 (1) the kinds of verse handed down from Old English, and 
 
 (2) (pp. 256-464) the kinds of verse introduced or suggested 
 by the influence of the Renaissance. The chapter on blank 
 verse (pp. 256-374) considers the style of the predecessors of 
 Shakespeare, of Shakespeare (pp. 287-315), of his Elizabe- 
 than successors, of Milton (340-347), and of other poets down 
 to the present time. This is a masterly handling of blank 
 verse ; and as an historical treatment it is the best avail- 
 able. Pp. 439-448 furnish a resume of the discussion on 
 hexameters, not so satisfactory as the author's presentation of 
 blank verse, or of the sonnet. Schipper does not do justice 
 to Arthur Hugh Clough ; if he has read, he has not under- 
 stood, the ' Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich,' which he describes 
 as a " burlesque sentimental epos." A discussion of the hexam- 
 eters both of that poem and of Kingsley's Andromeda would 
 have been in place. Schipper's view of the quantity and accent 
 question is substantially that of Abbott, not of Ellis. Vol. II 
 treats of the strophe : (i) of strophes derived from Old Eng- 
 lish poetry ; (2) of forms imported under the Renaissance in- 
 fluence or later. Pp. 766-835, on the Spenserian stanza and 
 on ode-forms, should be noted. The chapter on the sonnet 
 (pp. 835-886) covers the historical and aesthetic sides admi- 
 rably. In a footnote to pp. 836-837 will be found a 'fair 
 bibliography of literature upon the sonnet. Pp. 886-936 are 
 on other fixed forms of verse. There is as yet, unfortu- 
 nately, no English translation of this monumental treatise. 
 In his Grundriss der englischen Metrik (Wien u. Leipz. : 
 1895) Schipper revises his chapters on the development of 
 the national metre, and condenses the whole of his former 
 work.
 
 482 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 SCHMIDT, J. H. H. Introduction to the Rhythmic and Metric 
 of the Classical Languages. Trans, by J. W. White. 
 Boston: 1878. 
 
 The student of classical versification is especially referred to 
 this treatise. Bk. I opens with a general discussion of tone ; 
 its duration or quantity ; its strength or intonation ; its eleva- 
 tion or accent. These introductory considerations are all- 
 important, for, as Schmidt says, the understanding of the 
 poetic forms of the classics depends upon the correct articula- 
 tion of the vowels. The author considers (Bk. II) the metrical, 
 rhythmical, and musical factors of song. He then passes to 
 the special treatment of classical metres, giving under some six 
 heads a clear outline of the main principles of ictus, length, 
 and substitution. The fundamental forms of the measure, 
 equal, unequal, and quinquepartite, are arranged according to 
 numerical and musical equivalents. Bk. II closes with a use- 
 ful study of Doric measures (Pindaric Odes and Choruses) 
 and of Logaoedics. Bks. III-Vare occupied with a treatment 
 of the rhythmical sentence, of typology and eurythmy. The 
 common basis of poetic and prosaic rhythm is discussed in a 
 manner both instructive and interesting. In the appendix 
 (pp. 154-193) are valuable schemes of the lyric parts of the 
 Medea, of the Antigone, and an index to the metres of 
 Horace. 
 
 This work is a clear and practical presentation of a subject 
 covered in more scientific fashion by the same writer in Die 
 Kunstformen der griechischen Poesie und ihre Bedeutung. 
 4 vols. Leipz. : 1868-72. The larger work agrees in the 
 main with the conclusions of Rossbach and Westphal, but 
 depends for its value upon painstaking and independent re- 
 search into the practice of the Greek poets. 
 
 SIEVERS, E. Grundziige der Phonetik. 3d ed. Leipz. : 1885. 
 2 9~35 ^ n Quantity and Accent.
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 483 
 
 See also under Paul (Grundriss d. germanischen Philologie) 
 as above; and on Old English Versification Sievers's articles in 
 Paul and Braune's Beitrage, vols. X and XII. 
 
 SKEAT, W. W. Essay on Alliterative Poetry. 
 
 See Furnivall and Hales, Bishop Percy's Folio MS., Lond. : 
 1867, vol. Ill, pp. xxvi-xxviii. 
 
 SKEAT, W. W. The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. 
 
 7 vols. Oxford : 189497. 
 
 In the Introduction to vol. VI (1895) will be found the most 
 recent authoritative discussion of Chaucer's versification. For 
 criticism of Professor Skeat's position on various matters see 
 Professor T. R. Lounsbury in the N. Y. Tribune, February 24 
 and March 3, 1895, and compare Lounsbury's treatment of 
 versification in his Studies in Chaucer. 
 
 SOUZA, ROB. DE. Questions de metrique. Le rhythme poe'- 
 tique. Paris: 1892. 
 
 SPEEDING, J. Reviews and Discussions: Literary, Political, 
 and Historical, not relating to Bacon. Lond.: 1879. 
 
 Pp. 316-343 On English Hexameters. (A review of Matthew 
 Arnold's Three Lectures on Translating Homer.) Reprinted 
 from frazer, June, 1861, with corrections and explanations con- 
 taining a criticism of a paper read by Mr. Munro before the- 
 Camb. Philos. Soc., Feb. 13, 1860. 
 
 SPEDDING, J. Blackw. 7 : 641 Sweetness of Versification. 
 SPENCER, HERBERT. Philosophy of Style. Boston : 1892. 
 
 SPENCER, HERBERT. Illustrations of Universal Progress: A 
 Series of Discussions. N. Y. : 1865. 
 
 Pp. 210-238 The Origin and Function of Music. 
 The essay on the Origin and Function of Music discusses 
 the relations between emotional speech, music, poetry, recita- 
 tion, and song. Note that according to Spencer the cadences
 
 484 LITERARY CRITICISM. 
 
 of emotional speech precede the development of music, while 
 by Darwin, Descent of Man, 2 : 320, the opposite order is 
 maintained. A later utterance of Spencer is to be found in 
 Mind, October, 1890. See also his Philosophy of Style for 
 remarks on metre and rhyme. 
 
 STENGEL, EDM. Romanische Verslehre. (In Grober's Grund- 
 
 riss d. romanischen Philologie. Strassburg: 1893.) 
 This work, written in 1887 and revised for publication in 
 1893, is in many respects the best treatment of Romance 
 versification as a whole. The author holds to the theory that 
 Romance verse originated in the Latin popular poetry, and 
 asserts, somewhat dogmatically, that a fixed number of syllables 
 and not word-accent is the underlying principle. Of especial 
 value is his discussion of the caesura (for which he substitutes 
 the term Reihensfhluss) and of the development of the strophe. 
 
 STRAMWITZ, E. Strophen- und Vers-Enjambement im Altfran- 
 zosischen. Greifswald : 1886, and Leipz.: 1887. 
 
 SYLVESTER, J. J. The Laws of Verse ; or Principles of Versi- 
 fication, etc. Lond. : 1870. 
 
 The ostensible purpose of this very queer book is to prove 
 that " the technical part of versification is capable of being 
 reduced to rules and referred to fixed principles." The actual 
 purpose of the author seems to be twofold : first, to print his 
 rhymed translation of Horace, Od. Ill, 29 ; and, second, to ex- 
 press at one and the same time his appreciation of the esteemed 
 friends who " recite his verses," and his contempt of the " ver- 
 sifiers highly cried up, betitled, and decorated ones, too 
 of the present day, who have no notion, explicit or implicit, of 
 the law of syzygy ! " Professor Sylvester's translation of the 
 Tyrrhena regum is a neat specimen of scientific versification ; 
 but his other metres, appended for no satisfactory reason to the 
 Tyrrhena^ are, as he appears to apprehend, worth very little.
 
 23.] REFERENCES. 485 
 
 His methodology of the science of verse, however, if one has 
 the patience to disentangle it from a web of footnotes and 
 divagations, and unravel the snarls of its nomenclature, has 
 the merit of system and practicability. When the student has 
 conquered the needless pedantry of Syzygies, Synectics, and 
 Anastomoses, he will admit that the division of poetry into 
 idealistic, linguistic, and rhythmic, and of rhythmic into metric, 
 chromatic, and synectic, and each of these, by further trichot- 
 omy, into an unending procession of trinities or triplets, 
 should, at any rate, exhaust the subject. Attention is called 
 to pp. 10-17, 45~49 specially to the footnotes on method and 
 the text on the Alcaic; and to pp. 63-71, Sylvester's approval 
 of Poe's theory of measure. For a review (of no great value), 
 see Fortn. 14: 448, by C. M. Ingleby. 
 
 SYMONDS, J. A. Sketches and Studies in Southern Europe. 
 2 vols. N. Y. : 1880. 
 
 Vol. II, pp. 325-382 Appendix : Blank Verse. 
 
 This entertaining article consists of (i) a prefatory note on 
 accent and quantity, licenses, pause, and elision, which should 
 be read in connection with Mayor's critique upon the author's 
 aesthetic theory of verse ; (2) a pleasant history of blank verse ; 
 and (3) a treatise on Milton's verse. Symonds derides the 
 a priori criticism of Milton's prosody indulged in by Dr. John- 
 son, and approves of the more liberal metrical theories of Sir 
 Edgerton Brydges and Keightley. But he lays himself open, 
 by vague and idealistic speculation concerning matters scientific, 
 to numerous forms of attack. For an elaboration of " aesthetic 
 intuitivism " see Symonds's Predecessors of Shakespeare, pp. 
 590603. The article by Symonds with which Mayor disagrees 
 is The Blank Verse of Milton, in Fortn., December, 1874. 
 
 TISSEUR, CLAIR. Modestes observations sur 1'art de versifier. 
 Lyon : 1893. 
 
 See Rev. d. rHist. Lilt., 15 Avr. 1894 (Souriau).
 
 486 LITERARY CRITICISM. [23. 
 
 TOLMAN, A. H. Andover Review, 7: 326 The Laws of Tone- 
 Color in the English Language. 
 
 An attempt to derive the laws of tone-color from the prac- 
 tice of English writers. A simple and useful statement of the 
 subject. 
 
 VALENTIN, V. Der Rhythmus als Grundlage einer wissen- 
 schaftlichen Poetik. Prg. der Handelschule zu Frankfurt 
 a. M. 1870. 
 
 VERGALO, BELLA ROCCA DE. Poetique nouvelle. Paris : 
 
 1880. 
 
 The author puts in a plea for verse without caesura or 
 elision, in which hiatus and alliteration shall be recognized as 
 essential features. According to Rodenbach (Rev. Bleue, 47 : 
 422), "Vergalo est, si non 1'inventeur, du moins le restaurateur 
 du vers libre." 
 
 VIEHOFF, H. Die Poetik. (See 20.) 
 
 Hd. 2, chap. I, pp. 241-280 Der Vers ; chap. II, pp. 280-304 Der 
 Reim ; chap. Ill, pp. 321-461 Theorie d. Strophe; p. 357 Von 
 den neuern entlehnten Strophenformen; p. 382 Antike Formen. 
 
 WESTPHAL, R. [ed.] Scriptores Metrici Graeci. 2 vols. 
 
 Leipz. : 1866. 
 
 Westphal's Scriptores Metrici Graeci, which furnishes us with 
 the text of Hephaestion's Enchiridion, of Proclus's Chresto- 
 mathia, and of other Greek works on prosody, is the outcome 
 of a series of critical treatises inspired by Boeckh's famous 
 essay on the metres of Pindar. Of these treatises the first 
 (giving the results of the work of both Westphal and Rossbach 
 of Tubingen) appeared in 1854, as Griechische Rhythmik, by 
 A. Rossbach. In 1856 followed Griechische Metrik, by West- 
 phal and Rossbach. The authors were laboring in an almost
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 487 
 
 unknown field, and their work attracted attention. In 1861 
 was published Westphal's Die Fragmente und Lehrsatze der 
 griechischen Rhythmiker, the most important volume of the 
 series ; and in 1863 came the same author's Harmonik und 
 Melopoie der Griechen. For a lucid statement of Westphal's 
 contributions to the history and science of Greek prosody see 
 Hadley's Greek Rhythm and Metre (Essays, Philol. and Crit., 
 pp. 81-102). Of Westphal's conclusions the following are 
 most noteworthy : (i) that the relation of music to poetry was 
 entirely different in the ages of Greek classical poetry from 
 what it now is ; (2) that Aristophanes and other ancient 
 rhythmists worked not theoretically but inductively ; (3) that 
 these rhythmists based their inductions upon the poetry of the 
 Golden Age, not of the Age of Decline ; (4) that ancient 
 rhythmic proves the existence and use of compound feet ; 
 (5) that the practice of pause and prolongation obtained in 
 Greek verse. See also Westphal's Metrik d. indogerman. 
 Volker, in Kukris Zts. 9 : 437 ; Tradition of Anc. Metre, 
 P/iilologus, 20:76. On non-classical metres, see Westphal's 
 Theorie d. neuhochdeutschen Metrik (Jena: 1877), and his 
 important work entitled Allgemeine Metrik d. indogerman. u. 
 semit. Volker auf Grundlage d. vergleich. Sprachwissenschaft, 
 mit einem Excursus : Der griech. Hexameter in d. deutschen 
 Nachbildung, von H. Kruse (Berlin: 1892). 
 
 24. GENERAL NOTE. 
 
 A. CLASSICAL METRES. 1 i. It is not our purpose to furnish 
 an exhaustive bibliography of versification. The literature of 
 Greek and Latin metres would itself fill a volume. For the 
 
 i Additional material will be found in Sulzer's Allgemeine Theorie der schonen 
 Kiinste, and in Blankenburg's Lit. Zusatze, under the titles: Accent, Dichtkunst 
 (Poetik), Proi'dJie, Sylbenmaas, and Vers.
 
 488 LITER AR Y CRITICISM. [ 24. 
 
 general outline of the subject the student should consult the 
 standard Greek and Latin grammars and such works as Boeckh's 
 Encyklopadie, Corssen's Aussprache, Vokalismus u. Betonung 
 d. lateinischen Sprache (2 vols. 2d ed. Leipzig: 1888); 
 WestphaFs Metrik d. Griechen (2 vols. 2d ed. 1867); Iwan 
 Muller's Handbuch d. klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, espe- 
 cially Blass's chapter on Hermeneutik u. Kritik (see 23), 
 and Blass's essay Metrik ; Klotz's Ueber die neueren Erschei- 
 nungen auf d. Gebiete d. gr. u. rom. Metrik, in Muller's Jahres- 
 bericht u. d. Fortschr. d. class. Altertunisw., 1886, pp. 26-160 ; W. 
 Christ's Metrik d. Griechen u. Romer ; and J. H. H. Schmidt's 
 Introduction to the Rhythmic and Metric of the Classical Lan- 
 guages (trans, by J. W. White. Boston : 1878). Somewhat 
 antiquated but still griindlich eingehende are Munck's Die Metrik 
 d. Griech. u. Rom., 1834, and Freese's Die griech.-rom. Metrik, 
 1842. While Bentley was the father of modern metrical criti- 
 cism, Boeckh, by his great work De metris Pindari, gave that 
 decisive impulse to inductive study of ancient metric and met- 
 rists which has resulted in the treatises of Rossbach, Westphal, 
 and J. H. H. Schmidt ; in the Grundziige d. griech. Rhythmik 
 im Anschluss an Aristides Quintilianus, of Julius Caesar, 1861 ; 
 and in the articles apropos of the subject by Weil, Susemihl, 
 and others, in Jahn's Jahrb'iicher, 1856-63. What light the 
 scholarly investigation into the metres of Pindar has thrown 
 upon Greek prosody will be appreciated by the student fa- 
 miliar with Professor Gildersleeve's edition of the Olympian 
 and Pythian Odes (N. Y. : 1885). The Preface to this work 
 calls attention to Engelbrecht's contributions to Greek metric ; 
 M. Schmidt's Ueber d. Bau d. Pindarischen Strophen (Leipz. : 
 1882) ; Mezger, Thiersch, Cronet, Dissen, Fiirtwangler, and 
 others. Professor Gildersleeve, in his chapter on the metres 
 of Pindar (pp. Ixiii-lxxvi) gives a valuable summary of the 
 more complicated metrical schemes of J. H. H. Schmidt and 
 Westphal. Dissen's article, De ratione poetica carminum Pin-
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 489 
 
 claricorum et de interpretationis genere iis adhibendo, will be 
 found in his edition of Pindar (1830), pp. xi-xciv. Boeckh's 
 Kritik d. Ausg. d. Pindar von Dissen is especially valuable ; 
 it is contained in his Kleinere Schriften, 7 : 369. See also 
 Alf. Croiset's La poesie de Pindare et les lois du lyrisme grec 
 (Paris: 1880), and O. Riemann and M. Dufour's Traite de 
 rhythmique et de metrique grecque (Paris: 1894). 
 
 As a result of the impulse to metrical research given by 
 Boeckh and Westphal, treatises have been multiplied on the 
 metres of the Greek tragedies, epics, and lyrics. For a bibliog- 
 raphy of them the student is referred to standard editions of 
 the various Greek poets. 
 
 2. GREEK METRISTS. To a study of Greek writers on ver- 
 sification Hadley's Essay, recommended 23 above, Usener's 
 Altgriech. Versbau (Bonn: 1887), and Diihr's Ueber Metrik 
 u. Rhythmik will be a good introduction. The student must 
 turn to J. H. H. Schmidt, to Boeckh's De metr. Find, and his 
 Encykl. d. klass. Wissenschaften, p. 547, to Westphal's Frag- 
 mente u. Lehrsatze and his Scriptores metrici graeci, as well 
 as to the commentaries on Greek music, for more intimate and 
 immediate acquaintance with the rhythmic elements of Aris- 
 toxenus, pupil of Aristotle, and, according to Boeckh, summus 
 auctor in the matter of Greek rhythm (the best translation 
 is Westphal's, Leipz. : 1883 ; see Preface for exhaustive his- 
 tory of the discussion), with the De composit. verborum of 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus (ist cent. B.C.), ed. Schafer, with 
 Plutarch's De musica (ist cent. B.C.), and with the treatise on 
 the same subject by Aristides Quintilianus (2d cent. A.D.). 
 The Studien zur alten griech. Musik, by Joh. Papastamatopulos 
 (Bonn : 1878), furnishes other valuable material. Proceeding 
 to the more formal treatises on metre, there should be noticed, 
 among the grammarians, Aristophanes of Byzantium (264 B.C.) ; 
 Dracon of Stratonicea (A.D. 130), whose -n-epl /x-eVptov is edited 
 by G. Hermann (Leipz. : 1812)'; Hephaestion (circa A.D. 150),
 
 490 LITERARY CRITICISM. [_ 24 - 
 
 author of the Enchiridion of Metres (ed. by Gaisford. Oxford : 
 1810 ; and by Westphal, Scriptores metr. grace., vol. I, trans, 
 by Barham. Cantab.: 1843); Longinus (b. A.D. 213), whose 
 Prolegomena to Hephaestion's Enchiridion will be found in 
 Westphal's Scriptores metr. grace.; Proclus (5th cent. A.D.); 
 and others. See Westphal, Scriptores metr. graec., vols. I and 
 II. In general, on Greek metres, see Boeckh, Encykl. d. klass. 
 Wiss., pp. 813, 818, 844. 
 
 3. LATIN METRES. Beside the sections on Metric in 
 Boeckh, Encykl., pp. 818, 846, 848, and in the standard Latin 
 grammars, should be consulted the chapters relative to the 
 subject in the best-known histories of Latin literature. The 
 student's attention is called especially to Bahr's Geschichte d. 
 rom. Litt. (3 vols. Carlsruhe : 186870) ; Barnhardy's Grund- 
 riss d. rom. Litt. (Braunschw. : 1869-72) ; TeuffePs Geschichte 
 d. rom. Litt., Leipzig (trans, by W. Wagner. 2 vols. Lond. : 
 1873); Munck's Geschichte d. rom. Litt. (3 vols. Berlin : 1858- 
 61) ; and to the chapters on literature in Mommsen's History 
 of Rome. The works on Latin literature of the Frenchmen 
 Boissier, Champagny, Diderot, and Nisard may be consulted 
 ad loc. For commentaries on the verse of special Latin poets 
 or of periods of Latin literature see John Wordsworth's Frag- 
 ments and Specimens of Early Latin (Oxford: 1874); West- 
 phal's Ueber d. Form d. altesten romischen Poesie ; R. Klotz's 
 Grundziige d. altromischen Metrik (Leipz. : 1890) ; Ribbeck's 
 Frag. lat. relliquiae (Berlin : 1835) and his Comic, lat. relli- 
 quiae ; Ritschl's or Fleckeisen's Plautus ; Vahlen's Ennianae 
 poeseos relliquiae ; C. F. W. Miiller's Plautinische Prosodie ; 
 W. Wagner's Terence (Cantab. : 1869); L. Miiller's Lucilius ; 
 C. O. Miiller's Varro's De lingua latina (Leipz. : 1833) ; 
 Munro's Lucretius (Cantab. : 1866); Ellis's Catullus (Oxford : 
 1876) or Simpson's Catullus; Ribbeck's or Conington's Vergil ; 
 Orelli's Horace (2 vols. 1850) or Macleane's ed. ; Lachmann's 
 Tibullus and Propertius (Berlin : 1829) ; Paley's or Postgate's
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 491 
 
 Propertius ; Merkel's Ovid (3 vols. Leipz. : 1851); Haase's 
 Seneca (3 vols. Leipz.: 1862-71). For commentaries upon 
 poets of the period of decline see CruttwelFs Hist. Rom. Lit., 
 pp. 487-489, from which several of the titles here cited are 
 taken. 
 
 The bibliography of Latin versification arranged according 
 to the periods of Latin literature may be directly and exactly 
 obtained by the student who will turn over, page by page, the 
 admirably executed, but poorly indexed, Bibliographical Clue to 
 Latin Literature, ed., after Hiibner, by Prof. John E. B. Mayor 
 (Lond. : 1875). On pp. 7-10 will be found most of the au- 
 thorities on the earliest Latin verse : Schneidewin, Hermann, 
 Diintzer, Corssen, Westphal, Ribbeck, Bartsch, etc. For Livius, 
 Ennius, Naevius, and Plautus, see pp. 12-18 under general 
 list, or sub-title Language and Metres; on Terence, see p. 19 ; 
 and so, in chronological order, through this valuable little 
 volume. 
 
 4. LATIN METRISTS. The bibliography of Cornificius 
 (Rhetorica ad Herennium) will be found in Mayor's Clue, 
 p. 43. Quintilian should be consulted (De orat. inst. i: 10; 
 ix : 4). Caesius Bassus's (before A.D. 90) Fragmentum de 
 metris will be found in Keil's Scriptores artis metricae, p. 243 
 et seq. (vol. VI of Grammatici latini. Leipz. : 1874. Bibliog- 
 raphy of Bassus, Mayor's Clue, p. 91). Aulus Gellius, Noctes 
 atticae, xvi:i8, should be consulted. The De litteris, de 
 syllabis, de metris, of Terentianus Maurus (end of 3d cent. 
 A.D.), is given in Keil as above, p. 313 et seq.; bibliography in 
 Mayor's Clue, p. 99. For the Fragment, formerly attributed to 
 Censorinus, on Music and Metres, see Keil, pp. 605-616, and 
 Mayor's Clue, pp. 161-162. For the Ars Atiliae Fortunatiani 
 (about A.D. 350), see 'Keil, p. 278 et seq.; for Marii Victorini 
 artis grammaticae, libri IV (about A.D. 350), see Keil, p. i 
 et seq.; for Marii Plotii Sacerdotis artium grammaticarum, 
 libri tres, see Keil, p. 417 et seq.; for Aelius Donatus, see
 
 492 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 Keil, Gram, lat, vol. VI, and references in the works of 
 Marius Victorinus, Max. Victorinus, Rufinus, and others in 
 Keil, vol. VI ; and for bibliography of the foregoing and for the 
 commentators of. Donatus, Flavius Mallius Theodorus, Marius 
 Servius Honoratus, and Sergius (about A.D. 355), see Mayor's 
 Clue, pp. 172, 173. The De metris of Theodorus is given by 
 Keil, vol. VI, pp. 599-601. Of the metrists of , the 5th century 
 Rufinus (De metris comicorum et de numeris oratorum) figures 
 in Keil, pp. 547-578, and in Mayor's Clue, pp. 173, 174. Keil 
 (pp. 617-646) appends Fragmenta et excerpta metrica, includ- 
 ing the De pedibus and De caesuris of Julius Severus. As 
 to the metrists of the 6th and 7th centuries, a bibliography of 
 Aldhelm will be found in Mayor, p. 211, and of Bede, on p. 213. 
 Bede's De arte rnetrica will be found in vol. VI, pp. 40-79, 
 of Bede's Miscellaneous Works, ed. by Giles (12 vols. Lond. : 
 1843-44). For passages from St. Augustine (De musica), Dio- 
 medes (Gram, lat.), Charisius (Gram, lat.), see Kawczynski, 
 pp. 50-52. Consult also Cicero, De oratore, III: 48, and 
 Orator, 58. 
 
 5. ON CLASSICAL ALLITERATION, RHYME, RHYTHM, AND 
 ACCENT, see Blass (Hermeneutik u. Kritik, pp. 211, 212). 
 GREEK : Beer, Dearte Aeschyli (Leipz. : 1877); Gustafsson, De 
 vocum in poemat. gr. consonantia, Acta Soc. Fennicae, xi (1879), 
 p. 297 et seq, ; Jacobi, Fr., De usu alliterationis apud Sophoclem 
 (Gottingen : 1872); Jacob, G., De aequali stroph. et antistroph. 
 in trag. gr. confirmatione (Berlin : 1866); Holzapfel, Zeitschrift 
 fur Gymnasialwiss. 1851, page i Ueber den Gleichklang bei 
 Homer ; Isid. Hilberg, Die Princip. d. Silbenwagung u. d. daraus 
 entspringenden Gesetze d. Endsylben in d. gr. Poesie (Wien : 
 1879) ; Kiehl, Mnemosyne, 1852, p. 202 Correspondierender 
 Reim bei Aesch. LATIN : Luc. Milller,' De re metrica lat., 
 p. 455 ; A. F. Nacke, Rhein. Mus. 1829, p. 324 Reime b. d. klass. 
 Dichtern ; H. Usener, Jahrb. f. Phil. 1873, p. 174 Reim in 
 altlat. Poesie ; E. Wofflin, Berichte d. Eayr. Acad. 1881, 2 : i
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 493 
 
 Bei den Dichtern ; Landgraf and Wolfflin, Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. 
 Miinchen, Ueber d. alliterirenden Verbindungen d. lat. Sprache, 
 1887 ; Weil and Benloew, Theorie de 1'accentuation latine, 
 in the Philolog. Versamml. in Gottingen, 1852, pp. 66, 240 ; 
 also H. Weil, ibid.-, p. 85 et seq. ; Seelmann, Die Aussprache 
 des Latein ; W. Meyer in Abhg. d. k. Bayr. Acad., tome 59 : 
 371. To these references should be added J. B. Greenough's 
 Accentual Rhythm in Latin, in Harvard Studies in Class. 
 Philol. IV: 105-115; and Early Latin Prosody, Harvard 
 Studies, 157-71; O. Dingeldein's Gleichklang u. Reim in 
 antiker Poesie (Biidingen : 1888), and Der Reim bei den Grie- 
 chen und Romern (Leipz. : 1892) ; and W. Grimm's article on 
 rhyme in classical Latin verse in the Proceedings of the Berlin 
 Academy, 1851. 
 
 On classical rhythms, see G. Amsel, De vi atque indole 
 rhythmorum quid veteres judicaverint (Vratislaw : 1887), in 
 Bresl. philol. Abhandlg. 1:3; K. Deutschmann, De poesis 
 grace, rhythmicae primordiis (Malmedy : 1883. Progr.) and 
 De poesis grace, rhythm, usu et origine (Koblentz : 1889. 
 Progr.) ; J. A. Hartung, Geschichte der Rhythmenschopfung 
 in griech. Lyriker (5 vols. Leipz. : 1858) ; W. Meyer, Anfang 
 und Ursprung d. lat. u. griech. rhythm. Dichtung (Miinchen : 
 1885. Akad. Abhandlg:}. 
 
 On classical alliteration, see C. Botticker, De alliter. apud 
 Rom. vi et usu (Berlin : 1884) ; W. Ebrard, Die Alliteration in 
 d. lat. Sprache (Bayr. : 1882. Progr.) ; H. Habenicht, Allitera- 
 tion bei Horaz (Eger : 1885. Progr.); E. Loch, Rhein. Museum, 
 3 (1829): 324 De alliteratione serm. lat. 
 
 On classical accent, see T. H. Key, Trans. Eng. Philol. Soc., 
 1873-74, p. 35 Accent a Guiding Principle, not merely of the 
 Old Comic Metres, but generally of Latin Poetry ; and first of 
 Virgil's Latin Hexameters ; W. Meyer, Ueber die Beobachtung 
 des Wortaccents in d. altlat. Poesie (Miinchen : 1884, Akad. 
 Abhandlg.}.
 
 494 LTTERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 6. TRANSITION TO ACCENT. On the transition from the prin- 
 ciple of quantity in the Latin poetry to that of accent (as in 
 Latin hymns), see Huemer's Untersuchungen iiber die a'lte- 
 sten lat. christ. Rythmen (Wien : 1879) an ^ his Untersuch- 
 ungen iiber d. jambisch. Dimeter bei d. . . . Hymnendichtern 
 d. vorkarolingischen Zeit (Wien : 1879. Progr.) ; Zarncke's 
 Zwei mittelalterliche Abhandlg. iiber d. Bau rhythm. Verse, 
 Berichte d. k. sacks. Ges. der Wissensch. 1871, p. 34; Du Meril, 
 Poesie populaire lat. du moyen age. See also Kawczynski, 
 chap. VII et seq., for a history of the transition ; J. A. Symonds, 
 Wine, Women, and Song, pp. 814, 181 for materials of Goli- 
 ardic Literature (rhymed Latin). A standard treatise is Ferd. 
 Wolf's Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen u. Leiche, . . . Ein Beitrag 
 zur Gesch. d. rhythm. Formen d. Volkslieder, . . . Kirchen u. 
 Kunstlieder im Mittelalter (Heidelb. : 1841). See also Ritschl, 
 Opusc. phi!., vol. I, p. 289 Accentuirte Verse, for the treatment 
 of the same transition in Greek poetry. 
 
 7. OF MAGAZINE ARTICLES ON GREEK AND LATIN PROSODY 
 the name is legion ; the painstaking investigator will find specially 
 useful matter among the following : Trans. Amer. PhiloL Assoc. 
 16 : 30 Feminine Caesura in Homer (Seymour) ; 16 : 78 Quan- 
 tity (Goodell); Am. School at Athens, Papers, vol. IV Greek 
 Versification in Inscriptions (Allen) ; Archiv.f. PhiloL u. Paed. 
 2 : 268307 Ueber Hermann's Lehre vom Vortrage d. griech. 
 u. lat. Vers (Gotthold) ; Jahrb.f. PhiloL u. Paed. 122: 65 The- 
 orie d. Versmasses (Hermann); 123: 753 De Saturnio Versu 
 (Schweizer-Sidler) ; 124: 599; 126: 121, 144 Begriff d. Metr. 
 (Minckwitz) ; 133: 451 Kleine Beitrage (Blass) \Journ. PhiloL 
 4: 223 Latin Metres in English (Munro) ; 12: 136 Tragic 
 Metres (Verrall) ; 18 : 161 Iambic Trimeter (Platt) ; Kuhifs 
 Zeitsehrift, 24: 556 Origin of Homeric Metre (Allen) ; Pliilolo- 
 gtts, i : 395 Dithyrambos (Hartung) 55:85 Zur Metrik (Meiss- 
 ner); 10: i Choriambus (Meissner) ; 250 Latein. Hexam. 
 (Grain) ; n : 328 Namen d. Fiisse (Leutsch) ; 533 De hexam.
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 495 
 
 lat. (Froehde) ; 12 : 12 Entstehung d. ep. Hexam.'s (Leutsch); 
 23 : 8 1 Vom Saturnischen Verse (Spengel) ; 24: 407 ; 25 : 54 
 Auflosungen im Trimeter (Rumpel) ; 25: 471 ; 26: 241 Griech. 
 Trag. Metr. (Rumpel) ; 28 : 230 Vom Saturnischen Verse 
 (Diintzer) ; 425 Griech. Troch. Tetram. (Rumpel); 31 : 98 
 Latein. Ictus, etc. (Langen); 193 Griech. Takte (M. Schmidt); 
 33: 461 Griech. Pausen (Buchholtz) ; 46: 27 Pseudo-Plutar- 
 chus de metro heroico; Rhein. Museum 8: 529 Iamb. Tetram. 
 Terent. (Krauss) ; 25 : 232 Metrik u. Musik (Brambach) ; 33 : 
 509 Varro's Beurtheilung d. rdmisch. Versmasses (Buchholtz) ; 
 45 : 236, 385 Latein. Hexam. (Eskuche) ; 41: 427 Iamb. 
 Trim. (Kopp). See also file of Transactions Philol. Society, 
 of Herrig's Archiv, and of the Zeitschrift f. deutsch. Philol. 
 Note also a dissertation by Johansson on Latin ictus and 
 accent in the writers of comedy (Upsala, Univ. Dissert., vol. 
 III). 
 
 B. MODERN METRES. i . To the historical position and 
 theoretic value of English treatises on versification the best 
 guides are Schipper, Luick and Schipper in Paul's Grundr. d. 
 germ. Phil., Guest, and, for a brief historical sketch of English 
 metric accompanied by an annotated bibliography, Karl Elze's 
 Grundriss d. englischen Philologie, Halle : 1889, pp. 361-386 
 Metrik. (See 23.) 
 
 Nathan Drake's Shakespeare and his Times (2 vols. Lond. : 
 1817), vol. I, pp. 461-470, has been freely used by Schipper. 
 Joseph Haslewood's edition of ancient critical essays on Eng- 
 lish Poets and Poesy (2 vols. Lond.: 181115) supplies not 
 only the texts of the more important Elizabethan works on 
 poetics, but also, in prefaces and footnotes, most of the informa- 
 tion at his time procurable concerning the lives of the authors. 
 (Arber's reprints of these essays furnish, of course, the results 
 of later research.) Haslewood himself draws his details largely 
 from Strype's Annals, Warton's History of English Poetry,
 
 496 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 Seward's Anecdotes of Distinguished Persons, Nichols's Queen 
 Elizabeth's Progresses, and the Censura Literaria. Dr. Schip- 
 per in his Neuenglische Metrik, vol. I, pp. 7-12, runs over the 
 principal features of Elizabethan criticism, basing many of his 
 judgments upon Haslewood, and upon Haslewood's citations 
 from Gilchrist in the Censura Literaria. See also F. E. Schel- 
 ling's Poetic and Verse Criticism of the Reign of Elizabeth 
 (Publications of Univ. of Penn., vol. I). 
 
 2. EARLIER ATTEMPTS AT ENGLISH METRIC. Of incidental 
 criticism of English verse before 1570, the most noteworthy 
 appears in Roger Ascham's Scholemaster, published in that 
 year, but written probably between 1563 and 1568. Ascham 
 is distressed that his countrymen will " follow the Goths in 
 rhyming " rather than " the Greeks in true versifying." To be 
 sure, " the English tongue does not well receive the Carmen 
 Heroicum, and the Carmen Hexametrum does rather trot and 
 hobble than run smoothly," but the Carmen lambicum is as 
 well adapted to English as to Greek or Latin. The author 
 praises Surrey for his unrhymed translation of Virgil. He 
 rises to real poetic criticism in the condemnation of contem- 
 porary English tragedy. (See Arber's Reprint, pp. 145-147.) 
 The earliest theoretic examination of English verse known to 
 us is George Gascoigne's Certayne Notes of Instruction con- 
 cerning the making of Verse or Rhyme in English (Lond. : 
 1575). It will be found in Haslewood, vol. II, pp. 3-12, is in 
 the form of a letter thrown off for the benefit of one Master 
 Edouardo Donati, and treats in an eminently sensible way the 
 errors that an unskilled versifier is liable to fall into. In 4 
 the wrenching of accents is condemned ; in 6 the use of 
 " rime without reason." In 14 and 16 the Rithme Royal, 
 the Ballade, the Sonnet, the Verlay, the Poulter's Measure, and 
 the Ryding Rime are touched upon and tossed to one side in a 
 right "preposterous order" but with "brevitie." Next on the 
 list comes the pleasant correspondence of Spenser and Gabriel 

 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 497 
 
 Harvey, which appears in Haslewood (vol. II, pp. 255-303) 
 under the headings, Three Proper and Wittie Familiar Letters, 
 lately passed between two Universitie men : touching the Earth- 
 quake in Aprill last, and our English refourmed Versifying; 
 and Two Other very Commendable Letters, of the same men's 
 writing : both touching the foresaid Artificial! Versifying, and 
 certain Other Particulars. These are of the years 1579 and 
 1580; the two latter being prior in composition. They are, 
 as Chalmers says in his apology, instructive for their criticism 
 and dignified for their sense. Harvey was an enthusiast for 
 the introduction of classic metres into English ; and Spenser, 
 though he found that the forced union of quantity and accent 
 made many a word, like a lame gosling, draw one " legge after 
 hir," still did not see " why a God's name we may not, as else 
 the Greekes, have the Kingdom of our owne Language, and 
 measure our Accentes by the sounde, reserving the Quantitie 
 to the Verse." The criticism in Harvey's letter of Oct. 23, 
 1579, on Spenser's iambic trimeters is an amusing piece of 
 pedantry. The letters throw light on the eminent but still ob- 
 scure society of the Areopagus. It is probably to these let- 
 ters and to Gascoigne's Notes of Instruction that King James 
 refers in his " Schort Treatise conteining some Reulis and Cau- 
 telis to be observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie," 1584. For 
 he prefaces that part of his " Essayes of a Prentise " with 
 the statement that " mony learnit men, baith of auld and of 
 late hes already written thairof [of Poetry] in divers and sindry 
 languages." There is little imaginative force in King James's 
 treatment of rymitig, of fete, of flowing, of wordis, of sentences, 
 and of phrasis in verse ; but there is a quantum of hard Scots 
 in his caution concerning Ryming in Termis, and the use of 
 Tumbling Verse ; and in the advice to " put in verse . . . ne 
 wordis, other than metri causa, or zit for filling furth the nom- 
 ber of fete, bot that they be all sa necessaire ... as in case ze 
 were speiking the same purpose in prose. .. . .. " And that " ze
 
 498 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 waie zour wordis according to this purpose." The royal author 
 uses the word "fute" consistently for verse-syllable. He does 
 not show any acquaintance with Sidney's Defense of Poesie 
 (1581-95, see 21, B 2). For Sidney's attitude toward the 
 revival of classic versification, see Cook's edition, pp. 55-57. 
 E. Fliigel's edition of the Ponsonby text (Halle: 1889) must 
 not be overlooked. The Preface to William Webbe's Discourse 
 of English Poetrie, 1586, says that the " Laureat Masters of 
 England might winne credit to their native speeche ... if 
 English Poetrie were truly reformed, and some perfect plat- 
 forme or Prosodia of versifying were by them ratifyed and sette 
 downe . . . "after the fashion of the Greeks and Latins. A 
 large part of the Discourse is occupied with a resume of opin- 
 ions touching poets, Greek, Latin, and English. Imitators and 
 translators of the Latin are commended. From p. 54 on 
 (Haslewood's edition) will be found Webbe's remarks on pros- 
 ody. The work closes with certain not very commendable 
 experiments in hexameters, Sapphics, and other classical 
 metres. In the appendix are " Englished " Horace's " Can- 
 ons of Poetry " from the scheme of Fabricius Cremnicensis. 
 Webbe was succeeded by an equally ardent advocate of Eng- 
 lish hexameters, Abraham Fraunce, whose Arcadian Rhetoricke, 
 or the Precepts of Rhetoricke made plain by example, Greeke, 
 Latyne, English, Italyan, and Spanish, appeared in 1588. It 
 is written in prose and .verse, and abounds with metrical experi- 
 ments by the author. Hake's Touchstone of Wittes, of the 
 same year, is based upon the Arcadian Rhetoricke. A far abler 
 critic than Webbe or Fraunce was George Puttenham, concern- 
 ing whose Arte of English Poetrie, published in 1589, Sir John 
 Harrington says: "A whole receit of Poetrie is [here] prescribed, 
 with so manie new-named figures as would put me in great 
 hope in this age to come would breed manie excellent Poets, 
 save for one observation that I gather out of the verie same 
 book; ... he doth prove nothing more plainly than that
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 499 
 
 poetry is a gift and not an art." Puttenham's work is on a 
 large scale ; it discusses in three books Poets and Poesie, Pro- 
 portion Poetical, and Ornament. His history of poets and his 
 judgments are valuable. His arrangement of verse in lozenges, 
 rhomboids, pilasters and eggs, is a whimsical and curious van- 
 ity. It is indeed not incredible that 'when he wrote of these 
 devices he smiled with himself.' But as a treatise on prosody 
 and on rhetorical figures, the Arte of English Poetrie is of greater 
 historical and practical importance than any contemporary essay 
 on criticism. On the cesure, accent, time, stir, cadence, etc., 
 see Haslewood, vol. I, p. 61 et seq.; on Greek and Latin metres, 
 p. 85 et seq, Puttenham is not an advocate of English versifi- 
 cation by quantity. On the subject of versification Sir John 
 Harrington's Apologie for Poetrie (1591) profits the student 
 but little. There is, also, little on prosody to be found in the 
 well-known Comparative Discourse of our English Poets, with 
 the Greeke, Latine, and Italian Poets (an excerpt from the Pal- 
 ladis Tamia), written in 1598 by Francis Meres. A very impor- 
 tant attempt at reforming English verse on the classical basis 
 was Thomas Campion's Observations on the Art of English 
 Poesie (1602). "Old customes," says the poet-critic, "if they 
 be better, why should they not be recald? as the yet florishing 
 custome of numerous poesy used among the Romans and Gre- 
 cians." Since then (Haslewood, vol. II, p. 164) "the facilitie 
 and popularitie of Rime creates as many poets, as a hot summer 
 flies," ... "I have studyed to induce a true forme of versefy- 
 ing into our language: for the vulgar and unartificiall custome 
 of riming hath I know deter'd many excellent wits from the 
 exercise of English Poesy." Campion not only declares the 
 unaptness of rhyme, but shows how the English tongue may 
 receive eight several kinds of classical numbers. His rules for 
 quantity in English verse, set down in his tenth chapter, are, if 
 we should imitate classical metres, truly of great reasonableness 
 and practicality. But his assault upon rhyme was not to go.
 
 500 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 unchallenged. A more easy writer of prose than he, and a 
 more able controversialist, at once took up the cudgels in de- 
 fense of the numbers and measures proper to the English 
 tongue. This was Samuel Daniel, whose Defence of Rime 
 appeared in 1603. In this work, as the author with justice 
 announces, "is demonstratively proved that Ryme is the fittest 
 harmonic of wordes that comports with our Language." The 
 essay has acquired a merited fame. It applies itself to the 
 vindication not only of "symphonious endings," but of the 
 idiosyncrasy of modern verse: "For as Greeke and Latine 
 verse consists of the number and quantitie of sillables, so 
 doth the English verse of measure and accent." It is as 
 smoothly and sweetly written a bit of prose as any of the time. 
 Edmund Bolton's Hypercritica, which followed, longo inten>allo 
 (1610-17), is of interest to the prosodist only in the Fourth 
 Addresse, and there for its curious and critical synopsis of 
 English poets rather than for information concerning the rules 
 or history of verse. Ben Jonson's Fit of Rhyme against Rhyme 
 (see Penn's Hood's Rhymester) is merely a jeu d' esprit. Dave- 
 nant's Preface to Gondibert (1650) is of historical worth for its 
 advocacy of the " interwoven stanza of four " for the purposes 
 of heroic verse. Milton's Preface to Paradise Lost is the last 
 of the famous protests against rhyme in English verse. The 
 list of historical productions might, of course, be prolonged ; 
 suffice it, however, merely to call attention to Henry Peacham's 
 Article on Poetry in the Compleat Gentleman (1634), to cer- 
 tain of Dryden's essays as mentioned in 21, B 2, to the 
 Tragedies of the Last Age by Thomas Rymer (1692-93), to 
 the Duke of Buckingham's Essay on Poetry, to Pope's Essay 
 on Criticism, to John Dennis's Remarks on Pope's Rape of the 
 Lock (Lond.: 1728), to Dennis's select works (1718), to the 
 works of Bysshe and Gildon discussed above ( 23), and to 
 Warton's History of English Poetry from the twelfth to the close 
 of the sixteenth century (ed. Hazlitt. 4 vols. Lond.: 1871).
 
 24.1 GENERAL .VOTE. 501 
 
 In this list it has not been deemed advisable to introduce 
 in their chronological order certain works of merely historical 
 interest. Some such are cited by Lanier (Preface to Science of 
 Verse): the Epistola ad Acircium of Aldhelm (700); the De 
 arte metrica of the Venerable Bede ; or, coming down to the 
 last two centuries, Goldsmith's Essay on Poetry, Complete 
 Works (ed. by Prior. 4 vols. Lond. : 1837), vol. I, pp. 250- 
 322 ; pp. 557-566 Preface to the Beauties of English Poetry; 
 vol. IV, pp. 345498 Criticism relating to Poetry and the Belles 
 Lettres ; Sheridan's Art of Reading ; Steele's Prosodia Ratio- 
 nalis ; Chapman's Music of Language ; and Harris's Discourse. 
 Mitford's Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Language, 
 1804, is of more value than other treatises of that time. (For 
 criticism, see Lanier, Preface, pp. xii, xiii.) For later author- 
 ities, see 23, and for writers on English poetics, see 21, 
 B 2, above. 
 
 3. ON EARLY ENGLISH VERSIFICATION, see J. H. Schipper, 
 Altenglische Metrik, as above, 23; also the bibliography 
 given by him, p. 40 et seq. of that work. Schipper makes spe- 
 cial reference to Schubert's De Anglo-Saxonum arte metrica ; 
 Vetter's Zum Muspilli und zurgermanischen Alliterationspoesie ; 
 K. Hildebrand's Verstheilung d. Edda (Hopfner's u. Zacher's 
 Zeitschrift, Ergzbd., pp. 74-139); Max Rieger's Alt- und angel- 
 sachsische Verskunst (Halle : 1876) ; C. F. Koch's Historische 
 Grammatik d. engl. Sprache (Weimar : 1863), Bd. I, pp. 149- 
 170 ; and to the best English editions of Old English poetry. 
 An essay which has marked an epoch in the history of metrical 
 research is Sievers's Zur Rhythmik d. german. Alliterations- 
 verses, Paul and Braune's Beitrage, Bd. X, pp. 209-314, 451- 
 545 (see also Bd. XII). See also Kluge's Geschichte des 
 Reimes im Altgermanischen in Paul and Braune's Beitrage, 
 Bd. IX ; W. W. Skeat's Essay on Alliterative Poetry (Percy 
 Folio MS., vol. Ill, ed. Hales and Furnivall); Guest, as in 
 23 ; K. Luick, Zur altengl. u. altsachs. Metrik (Schwell-
 
 502 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 vers u. Normalvers, Allit. u. Versrhythmus) in Paul and 
 Braune's Beitrage, Bd. XV, p. 441 ; John Lawrence, chapters on 
 Alliterative Verse (Lond. : 1893. i. Metrical Pointing in Cod. 
 Junius XI : its Relations to Theories of Old English Verse- 
 Structure ; 2. Crossed Alliteration ; 3. Vowel Alliteration in the 
 1 4th cent, compared with that of Beowulf); F. B. Gummere, The 
 Translation of Beowulf and the Relation of Ancient and Modern 
 English Verse, Am. Jour. Philol., vol. VII, p. 46. 
 
 Beginners are referred to Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, 
 Appendix II (N. Y. : 1891) ; Cook's First Book in Old English, 
 pp. 108120 Prosody (Boston: 1894); O. L. Triggs in Mac- 
 Lean's Old and Middle English Reader, pp. Ixv-lxxiv (Lond. 
 and N. Y. : 1893). 
 
 4. ON THE VERSE OF MIDDLE AND MODERN ENGLISH 
 POETRY the following authorities may be consulted : Guest, 
 Sievers, Skeat, Schipper, as in 23 ; ten Brink's Chaucer's 
 Sprache u. Verskunst ; T. R. Lounsbury's Studies in Chaucer, 
 His Life and Writings (3 vols. N. Y. : 1892. vol. Ill, 
 pp. 296-316 Chaucer's Versification) ; R. Alscher's Sir Thomas 
 Wyatt in der Entwickelungsgeschichte d. engl. Lit. u. Vers- 
 kunst (Wien : 1886. Wiener Beitrage zitr deutsch. u. engl. 
 Philol.} ; C. Knaut's Ueber die Metrik Robert Greene's (Dis- 
 sert. Halle : 1891); H. M. Regel's article Ueber Chapman's 
 Homer-Uebersetzung in Eng. Studien, 5 : 349, 350 ; G. Konig's 
 Zu Shakespeare's Metrik (Diss.), 1888 ; W. von Schotten's 
 dissertation, Metrische Untersuchungen zu John Marston's 
 Trauerspielen (Halle: 1886) ; Karl Elze's Notes on the Eliza- 
 bethan Dramatists, 2d Series, pp. 132-140 (Halle: 1884); 
 Schroer's article Ueber die Anfange d. Blankverses in Engl., 
 Anglia, 4:1; Em. Penner, Herrig's Archiv, 85 : 269 Metrische 
 Untersuchungen zu George Peele ; Cornh. 15 : 620 Blank Verse ; 
 C. B. Cayley's Pedigree of English Heroic Verse, Trans. Philol. 
 Soc., p. 43 (Lond. : 1862-63) ; Hazlitt's Essay on Milton's 
 Versification, in The Round Table ; E. Kennedy's Lecture on
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 503 
 
 the Principles and Uses of Alliteration in Poetry, Dublin After- 
 noon Lectures on Literature and Art (3 vols. Lond. : 1866), 
 vol. Ill, pp. 89-128 ; W. E. Mead's Versification of Pope in its 
 Relations to the Eighteenth Century (Dissert. Leipz. : 1889); 
 and other references as under the next head, and in 23. 
 
 5. SPECIAL ENGLISH FORMS. (a) Blank forse. In addi- 
 tion to the discussions under Mayor, Abbott, Guest, and others, 
 referred to in 23, the following may be consulted : Wagner, 
 The English Dramatic Blank Verse before Marlowe ; O. F. 
 Emerson, The Development of Blank Verse : A Study of 
 Surrey, in Mod. Lang. Notes, vol. IV, No. 8 ; W. S. Walker, 
 Shakespeare's Versification (Lond. : 1854) ; Furnivall, Intro- 
 duction to the Leopold Shakespeare, 7 ; G. Koenig, Der Vers 
 in Shakespeare's Dramen, in Quellen und Forschungen zur 
 Sprach- und Culturgesch. d. germ. Volker, Bd. LXI ; Schroer, 
 Ang/ia, 4 : i Die Anfange des Blankverses in England ; Hil- 
 gers, Der dramatische Vers Shakespeare's (1868); Thos. R. 
 Price, The Construction and Types of Shakespeare's Verse as 
 seen in Othello (N. Y. : 1888. Papers of the N. Y. Shakespeare 
 Soc., No. 8) ; H. C. Beeching, On the Prosody of Paradise 
 Regained and Samson Agonistes, being a Supplement to the 
 Paper on the Elements of Blank Verse, which is printed in 
 the Rev. H. C. Beeching's edition of Paradise Lost, Book I 
 (Oxford : 1890). 
 
 (/>) Hexameters. Matthew Arnold's On Translating Homer, 
 see 23; J. S. Blackie, Horae Hellenicae (Lond.: 1874. 
 pp. 278-296) ; Cayley's Remarks on English Hexameters, 
 Trans. Philol. Soc., pp. 67-85 (Lond. : 1862-63) ; Herrigs 
 Archiv, 2 :37o; Preface to Derby's translation of the Iliad; 
 prefaces to Crane's and Cranch's translations of the Aeneid. 
 One of the most exhaustive treatises on the subject is Karl 
 Elze's Geschichte des englischen Hexameters (Dessau : 1867. 
 Progr.), upon which Schipper's treatment of the subject 
 (Neuengl. Metrik, i. Halfte, pp. 439-450) is essentially based.
 
 504 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 See Schipper, p. 445, for some of the best writers of English 
 hexameter verse, and Elze, Grundr. d. engl. Phil., p. 375. Also 
 worthy of notice are Robinson Ellis's Poems and Fragments of 
 Catullus, translated in the metres of the original (Lond. : 1871), 
 and C. M. Gayley's Peleus and Thetis of Catullus, translated 
 in equivalent hexameters (Classic Myths in Engl. Lit. Boston : 
 1893. pp. 261-266 and 278-281). See also Mod. Lang. Notes, 
 5:212 The Inventor of the English Hexameter (Gabriel Har- 
 vey), by F. E. Schelling; Dublin Review, N. s., 54 : 414 ; William 
 Taylor in the Monthly Magazine, June, 1796; Lord Lindsay's 
 Theory of English Hexameters (Lond. : 1862) ; Fitzgerald 
 Tisdall, A Theory of the Origin and Development of the Heroic 
 Hexameter (N. Y. : 1889) ; and J. Spedding, whose opinion on 
 hexameters is noticed by Arnold in his Last Words on Trans- 
 lating Homer. On elegiac verse, see Blackwood, 59 : 496. On 
 other English experiments with classic metres, consult again 
 Schipper, Neuengl. Metrik, i. Halfte, pp. 450-464; and on 
 quantitative verse, Elze, Grundr. der engl. Philol., p. 376. 
 
 (c) The Heroic Couplet. See, in particular, Gosse's From 
 Shakespeare to Pope, in which Waller's part in the fashion- 
 ing of this form of verse is, perhaps, unduly magnified. A 
 criticism of Gosse's theory is made by Henry Wood in Am. 
 Jour, of Philol. 11:55 Beginnings of the Classical Heroic 
 Couplet in England. Consult also W. E. Mead's Versification 
 of Pope (Leipz. : 1889) ; G. L. Larkin's Scansion of the 
 Heroic Verse (abstract in Lond. Academy, December 27, 1890, 
 p. 617). 
 
 (d} For The Sonnet, see Schipper, Neuengl. Metr., pp. 835- 
 886 : a most thorough and critical treatment. On pp. 836, 
 837 will be found Schipper's bibliography of the subject. He 
 goes carefully into the origin and history of this form of verse, 
 and (p. 878) classifies it as Italian, specifically English, Spen- 
 serian, Miltonian,and Wordsworthian, pp. 879-885. References 
 will be found in the Guide to the Literature of Aesthetics, pp.
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 505 
 
 99, 100, to Hunt and Lee's Book of the Sonnet ; David Main's 
 Treasury of English Sonnets ; M. Pattison's Essay on the Son- 
 net in his edition of Milton ; W. Sharp's Sonnets of this Cen- 
 tury ; C. Tomlinson's Sonnet : its Origin, etc. ; S. Waddington's 
 English Sonnets by English Writers ; and to Rosenkranz's 
 Poetik, Viehoff's Poetik, etc. Other standard works on poet- 
 ics, such as Wackernagel's, Gottschall's, etc., should be con- 
 sulted ad loc. A monograph by Lentzner, Ueber d. Sonett u. s. 
 Gestaltung (Halle: 1886), will be useful. To this list we 
 append from Schipper, Capel Lofft's Laura, an Anthology of 
 Sonnets (5 vols. Lond. : 1814); French's History of the 
 English Sonnet, in the Dublin Afternoon Lectures, 4th Series 
 (Lond. : 1867) ; Dublin Review, N. s., vols. XXVII, XXVIII 
 Critical History of the Sonnet ; also 55 : 174 by E. Elliot ; L. 
 de Veyrieres, Monographic des sonnets (2 vols. Paris : 1869) ; 
 Quart. Rev. 134:186 The Sonnet; T. Hall Caine's Sonnets 
 of Three Centuries (Lond. : 1882). For a comparative study 
 of the sonnet, see L. Biadene's Morfologia del sonetto nei 
 secoli xiii e xiv, reviewed by F. M. Warren in Mod. Lang. Notes, 
 4:151: Welti's Geschichte des Sonnetts in der deutschen 
 Dichtung (Leipz. : 1884) ; and R. Bunge's Zur Geschichte des 
 italienischen Sonetts, in Magazinf. d. Litt. d. In- und Auslandes, 
 1884: 537, 554, 566, 582. 
 
 .(e) For Other Fixed Forms of Verse, see Guide to Lit. Aesth.,* 
 pp. 99, 100 ; and consult especially Theodore de Banville's 
 Traite de poesie franchise (Paris : 1881) ; Hood's Rhymester, 
 ed. by Arthur Penn ; Austin Dobson's Foreign Forms of Verse 
 (in W. D. Adams's Latter-Day Lyrics. Lond. : 1878) ; Edmund 
 Gosse's Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse (Cornh., July, 
 1877) ; F. de Gramont's Les vers franc.ais (Paris) ; and Gleeson 
 White's Ballades and Rondeaux, etc. (Lond. : 1887). See 
 also Schipper's Neuengl. Metrik, p. 886 et seq. ; and Franz 
 Hueffer's Troubadours, Ancient and Modern (Macmillan, No- 
 vember, 1880).
 
 506 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 6. Ox FRENCH VERSIFICATION some of the leading authori- 
 ties are L. Bellanger's fitudes historiques et philologiques sur 
 la rime frangaise (Paris et Anjou : 1876. See 23) ; Becq de 
 Fouquiere's Traite general ; F. de Gramont's Les vers fran- 
 gais and the works of de Banville, Benloew, Bouvy, Lubarsch, 
 Quicherat, and others cited 23 above. A discussion of 
 the old French decasyllabic metre, cited by Mayor (English 
 Metre, pp. 47-49), will be found in Gaston Paris's edition of 
 La vie de Saint Alexis (Paris : 1890). See also G. Paris, 
 tude sur le role de 1'accent latin dans la langue franchise 
 (Paris : 1862) ; his Lettre a M. Le'on Gautier sur la versifica- 
 tion rhythmique and his Le vers frangais ; and L. Gautier, Les 
 epopees franchises, vol. I, pt. II, p. 310 et seq. In Curme's edi- 
 tion of the selected poems of Alphonse de Lamartine, pp. 139- 
 146 (Boston : 1888), will be found a brief but lucid dissertation 
 on French versification. Voltaire, CEuvres completes (50 vols. 
 Paris : 1877-83), has dropped various formal but really un- 
 illumined remarks concerning metres and rhyme, some of 
 which will be found, vol. II, pp. 313-325 ; vol. XX, pp. 371- 
 374, 561-571. Schipper's reference (Altengl. Metrik, p. 88) 
 to Diez's article Ueber d. epischen Vers opens to the student 
 the bibliography of theories regarding the origin of the French 
 Alexandrine. See also on the Alexandrine, Ernst Traeger's 
 Gesch. d. Alexandriners (Leipz.: 1889, i. Theil, bis Ronsard. 
 Diss.); F. Diez, Altromanische Sprachdenkmaler berichtigt 
 u. erklart (Bonn: 1846); Bartsch's Altfranzosische Chresto- 
 mathie (Leipz.: 1875); and Maurice Souriau, L'fivolution du 
 vers frangais au XVII 6 siecle. In G. Korting's Encyklopadie 
 und Methodologie der romanischen Philologie, III. Teil, pp. 
 278301, will be found a concise statement of the principles of 
 French versification, according to Korting, and a bibliography. 
 As a general treatise and as suggestive of further bibliographical 
 material, Adolph Tobler's Voin franz. Versbau (Leipz. : 1883) 
 is recommended.
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 507 
 
 A commendably systematic and complete history of French 
 metric prefixed to Bellanger's fitude historique, etc., pp. v-xiv 
 (see also Additions, pp. 2-4), precludes the necessity of fur- 
 ther specification on that subject. Beginning with L'Art de 
 Dictier of Eustache Deschamps, 1392, and passing by way 
 of the metrists of the sixteenth century (Du Bellay, the two 
 Estiennes, Fabri, Dubois, Pelletier, Des Autels, Baif, Meigret, 
 Fontaine, Fouquelin de Chauny), then of Bouhours, Corneille, 
 Marmontel, Malherbe, Voltaire, etc., to Gaston Paris, Pellissier, 
 and other writers of this century, Bellanger provides abundant 
 material for research in the history of French versification. 
 In poetics a similar course has already been outlined above, 
 pp. 428-445. 
 
 Since, however, these books may not be accessible to all, the 
 following modern treatises are recommended: A. Kressner's 
 Leitfaden d. franzosischen Metrik nebst einem Anhange iiberd. 
 altfranzosischen epischen Styl (Leipz. : 1880); H. Anderson's 
 Ueber den Einfluss von Metrum, Assonanz, und Reim, auf die 
 Sprache d. altfranzosischen Dichter (Bonn: 1874) ; H. Schu- 
 chardt's Reim u.Rhythmus im Deutschen u. Romanischen (1873) ; 
 Benloew's Precis d'une thdorie des rhythmes, pt. I Rhythmes 
 lat. et franc.. (Paris : 1862); E. d'Eichthal's Du rhythme dans 
 la versification franc,. (Paris: 1892) ; F. Diez's Grammaire des 
 langues romanes, 3 e ed. trad, par G. Paris (5 fasc. Paris : 
 1873-75) 5 Fauriel, Hist, de la poe'sie provenc.ale (3 vols. 
 Paris : 1847) ; J. Bedier, Les fabliaux ; Lamartine, Premieres 
 me'ditations poetiques (prefaces and commentaries. Paris : 
 1860) ; Me'moires de la soc. de linguistique de Paris, tome I 
 (1869) ; Gotthold Naetibus, Die nichtlyrischen Strophen- 
 formen des Altfranzosischen (Leipz.: 1891); Pellissier, La 
 langue franchise, etc. (Paris : 1866) ; R. Sonnenburg, Wie sind 
 die franzosischen Verse zu lesen? (Berlin: 1885); K. E. Miil- 
 ler, Ueber accentuirend-metrische Verse in der franzosischen 
 Sprache d. 16. bis 19. Jahrhunderts (Rostock: 1882); H.
 
 SOS LITERARY CRITICISM. [24 
 
 Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes 
 (Paris : 1859) ; Sainte-Beuve, Tableau hist, et crit. de la Litf 
 franc., et du the'at. frang. au xvi e siecle (Paris : 1869) ; J. de 
 Boisjoslin, Esquisse d'une histoire de la versification franchise 
 (Amiens : 1885. Extrait de la Revue de la societe des etudes 
 kistoriques, Nov. Dec., 1884). The more general works on 
 French literature and language by Brachet, L. Gautier, Ge'nin, 
 Littre, Livet, Marmontel, J. Palsgrave, and Wey, as also the 
 Histoire litte'raire de la France par des bene'dictins . . . de St. 
 Maur et . . . des membres de 1'Institut (24 vols. Paris : 
 1733-1804), and the files of the Rev. d. D, Mondes, the Zeit- 
 schriftf. romanische Philol. (ed. by G. Grober), and of Romania 
 (ed. by Meyer and Paris), should be consulted. 
 
 On the burning question of the origin of Romance versifica- 
 tion, the following are the leading disputants : Gaston Paris, 
 Le'on Gautier, W. Meyer (Proceedings of the Munich Academy, 
 1882-86), Ch. Aubertin (La langue et la litterature franchise 
 au moyen age, vol. I, p. 169. Paris : 1883), V. Henry (Des 
 origines du decasyllabe. Paris : 1886), R. Thurneysen (Zeit- 
 schrift f. romanische Philol. 11:306), P. A. Becker (Ueber 
 den Ursprung der romanischen Versmasse. Strassburg: 1890), 
 and Kawczynski. The article of E. Stengel, on Metrik der 
 romanischen Sprachen, in Grober's Grundriss, Bd. II., is an 
 able review of the discussion. 
 
 The origin and development of the vers libre are ably treated 
 by P. A. Becker in his Zur Geschichte der Vers libres in der 
 neufranzosischen Poesie (Halle : 1888. Originally appeared 
 in Zeitschrift f. romanische Philol. 12 : 89-125). Becker defines 
 ' free verse ' as a non-strophic metrical form, with rhyming 
 lines of unequal length, both lines and rhymes being arranged 
 to suit the pleasure of the poet. He traces the history of 
 the verse from the Greek chorus to the poems of Alfred de 
 Musset. See also Ch. Comte, Les stances libres dans 
 Moliere.
 
 21] GENERAL NOTE. 509 
 
 For further material upon recent phases of French metric, 
 see H. P. Thieme's indispensable bibliography, La litterature 
 franchise du dix-neuvieme siecle (Paris: 1897), and the same 
 author's doctoral thesis, The Technique of the French Alex- 
 andrine (Ann Arbor: 1899). 
 
 7. ON GERMAN VERSIFICATION. In addition to the many 
 authorities mentioned in 23 the following are of importance : 
 E. Belling's Beitrage zur Metrik Goethes ; S. Mehring's Deutsche 
 Verslehre (Leipz. : 1891); R. Gottschall's Poetik, discussed 
 already, 21 (see especially his chapters on Technik) ; A. 
 Grabow's Ueber Musik in d. deutschen Sprache (Progr. 
 Lemgo : 1876); T. Vernakken, Herrig's Archiv, 4:52 Der 
 deutsche Vers ; H. Viehoff's Poetik, above referred to (Buch 
 I, pp. 3-45 1 Vers u. Strophenbau) ; F. W. Riickert's Antike u. 
 deutsche Metrik (1847) ; J. H. Voss's Die deutsche Zeitmessung 
 (2te Ausg. : 1831); K. Luick's Zur Entstehung der Theorie 
 der Schwellverse (1887) ; R. Gene'e's Ueber Rhythmik d. 
 Sprache u. Vortrag (Dissert. Dresden). Of works on the 
 German iambic pentameter, one of the most readable and 
 learned is Zarncke's Der fiinffiissige Iambus, which, as being 
 difficult to obtain in the original, has been wisely appended in 
 translation by Professor Mayor to his work on English Metre, 
 pp. 197202. Zarncke "laments the indifference shown by 
 German scholars in regard to the metres employed by their 
 greatest poets," and indicates Koberstein and Diez (Altrom. 
 Sprachdenkmaler. Bonn : 1846) as the only Germans who have 
 notably treated of the five-foot iambus. He traces the metre 
 to the Provencal, from which also was, in his opinion, developed 
 the Italian hendecasyllabic. He cites (Mayor, p. 200) the 
 theories of the practice touching metrical substitutions, and 
 the caesura, of Opitz (d. 1639), Gottsched (1737), J. A. Schle- 
 gel (i757), Wieland (1762), of Klopstock, of Herder (1768), 
 and of Lessing (in his Nathan der Weise, 1778). To this 
 bibliography of German metrical criticism may be added a list
 
 510 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 of authors rehearsed by Minckwitz in his Verskunst (see above, 
 23), p. vii. Dr. Ernst Briicke throws light from the scien- 
 tific side upon the questions of accent and rhythm in his Die 
 physiologischen Grundlagen der neuhochdeutschen Verskunst 
 (Wien : 1871), a work which was reviewed by W. Scherer in 
 his Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (Berlin : 1878). On this 
 subject of Neuhochd. Metrik, see Westphal's work, 23 above ; 
 W. Scherer's Ueber den Hiatus in d. neueren deutschen Metrik ; 
 Phillips's Zur Theorie des neuhochdeutschen Rhythmus (Dissert. 
 Leipz. : 1879) ; Assmuss's Die aussere Form neuhochdeutscher 
 Dichtung (Leipz. : 1882); Goldbeck-Loewe's Zur Geschichte 
 der freien Verse in d. deutschen Dichtung (Dissert. Kiel : 
 1891) ; P. Remer's Die freien Rhythmen in H. Heine's Nord- 
 seebildern (Heidelberg : 1889) ; O. Schmeckebier's Deutsche 
 Verslehre (Berlin : 1886) ; Krauter's Ueber neuhochdeutsche 
 und antike Verse (Saargemund : 1873); and the series of stud- 
 ies by Belling, entitled Die Metrik Schillers (Breslau : 1883), 
 Beitrage zur Metrik Goethes (Progr. Bromberg : 1884-87), 
 Die Metrik Lessings (Berlin : 1887). 
 
 See also, for tone and accent, Schneider's Darstellung d. 
 deutsch. Verskunst (Tubingen : 1861) ; Jessen's Grundziige d. 
 altgermanisch. Metrik (Hopfner u. Zacher's Zeitschrift, II, 138); 
 Reichel's Von der deutschen Betonung (Dissert. Jena: 1888); 
 Huss's Lehre vom Accent der deutschen Sprache ; and the arti- 
 cles by Paul, Sievers, Behaghel, and others, of which mention 
 is made in 23, 25, 26. 
 
 On the opinions of Lachmann, Holtzmann, Zarncke, Bartsch, 
 and Fr. Pfeiffer, concerning the origin of the Nibelungenlied 
 and the nature of its strophe, see Werner Hahn's Das Nibe- 
 lungenlied (Berl.-Stuttg. Collection Speeman). Pages 47-71 
 are devoted to an elaborate review of the theories of conflict- 
 ing metrists, and will set upon the road any who desire to pur- 
 sue investigation in this quarter. On the Minnesinger, etc., 
 the student must be referred to Weissenfels's Der daktylische
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 511 
 
 Rhythmus bei den Minnesangern, and in general to the histories 
 of German literature. 
 
 For the literature of German Alliterationspoesie, see Ferd. 
 Vetter's Zum Muspilli u. s. w. (Wien : 1872), pp. ix x (Wacker- 
 nagel, W. Miiller, Feussner, J. Grimm, Feifalik, Bartsch, Miillen- 
 hoff, Miillenhoff u. Scherer, Zarncke, Hofmann), and also pp. 
 1-3, where special reference is made to Schubert's excellent De 
 anglosaxonum arte metrica (Berlin : 1870), and to Vilmar- 
 Grein's Deutsche Grammatik. On the same subject, see K. G. 
 Hogelsberger, Alliteration u. Alliterationspoesie (Progr. 1857) ; 
 Loch, De alliteratione (Halle : 1876. Dissert.) ; also Huemer's 
 Untersuchungen iiber die altesten lat.-christ. Rhythm. (Wien : 
 1879), and Paul's Grundriss d. germ. Philol., Absch. IX, 
 p. 975, whence a full bibliography of the subject may be 
 extracted. 
 
 On rhyme, special reference should be made to Ferd. Wolf's 
 Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen u. Leiche, u. s. w. (Heidelberg : 
 1841), p. 161 et seq., where further bibliography will be found ; 
 also to C. F. Meyer's Historische Studien (Mitau u. Leipz. : 
 1851) ; to W. Grimm's Geschichte d. Reims, p. 177 et seq. 
 (Berlin : 1852) ; to Mehring's Der Reim in seiner Entwickelung 
 und Fortbildung (Berlin: 1889); and to Kluge's article Zur 
 Geschichte des Reimes im Altgermanischen, in Paul u. Braune's 
 Beitrage, Bd. IX, p. 422. 
 
 On the German vers libre see A. Goldbeck-Loewe's Zur Ge- 
 schichte d. freien Verse in d. deutschen Dichtung von Klopstock 
 bis Goethe (Diss. Kiel : 1891). 
 
 8. ITALIAN VERSIFICATION. The older treatises upon this 
 subject have been indicated above, pp. 445-448. The follow- 
 ing belong to the present century : J. u. M. Wiggers's Gram- 
 matik d. ital. Sprache, nebst Abriss d. ital. Metrik (Hamburg : 
 1859) ; G. Barengo's Delia versificazione italiana (Venezia : 
 1854) ; E. Kurzweil's Traite de la prosodie de la langue ital. 
 (Paris : 1864) ; Zambaldi's II ritmo dei versi ital. (Torino :
 
 512 . LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 1875) ; A. Solerti's Manuale di metrica classica italiana ed 
 accento ritmico (Torino : 1886) ; R. Murari's Ritmica e me- 
 trica razionale italiana (Milano : 1891); Gius. Fracarroli, 
 D'una teoria razionale di metrica italiana (Torino: 1887); 
 Gius. Finzi, Principii .di stilistica, versificazione e metrica 
 italiana, con un dizionarietto di modi errati (Torino : 1887). 
 For a concise scientific treatment of the subject, see G. 
 Korting's Encyklopaedie u. Method, d. rom. Philol., Theil 3, 
 pp. 663-675, or C. von Reinhardstottner's Theoretisch-prak- 
 tische Grammatik d. ital. Sprache (2. Aufl. Miinchen : 1880). 
 An interesting chapter on the origin of rhyme may be found in 
 Tiraboschi's Storia della lett. ital., vol. Ill, p. 354 et seq. See 
 also Rob. Benzoni, Metrica e psicologia : frammento d' estetica 
 (Firenze : 1889); D. Guoli, Nuova Antol., December, 1876 La 
 rima e la poesia italiana. 
 
 9. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE VERSIFICATION. (a) On Span- 
 ish metres the student may consult the Gramatica castellana of 
 Don Vincente Salva (Paris: 1872), pp. 390-434 Prosodia y 
 me'trica. Salva's history and rules of metric are drawn from 
 many sources, the most important of which will be found in- 
 cluded in the following list : Marquis de Villena, El arte de 
 trobar (1433. See Ticknor's History of Spanish Lit., vol. I); 
 Rengifo, Arte poetica espanola (1592) ; Carillo, Libro de 
 erudicion poetica (1611); Cascales, Tablas podticas (1616), 
 Tabla V a ; Gomez Hermosilla, Arte de hablar en prosa y 
 verso, pt. II, lib. i, cap. i, 2 ; Luzan, Poetica (1737), lib. 2, 
 cap. 22 ; Maury, Versificacion y elocucion (Paris: 1835), and 
 Espagne poe'tique, Prolog, to Tome I ; Masden, Arte poe'tica, 
 dialogo 3; A. L. Pinciano, Philosofia antigua poetica (1596), 
 Epist. 6, 7 ; Martinez de la Rosa, Poe'tica, Canto III, notas 
 i a , 2 a ; Sicilia, Lecciones elementales de ortologia y prosodia 
 (Madrid), Tomo 2 ; A. Tracia (Agustin Aicart), Diccionario de 
 la rima (Barcelona: 1858; Prolog. Elementos de poetica, Sec. 
 II, cap. 3, 1-3)- The articles in Romania and other journals of
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 513 
 
 Romance philology are in the main of value only to specialists. 
 Two articles of more general interest are Oservaciones sobre 
 versificacion, by Cortoza, in Rev. de Esp., vol. XCIII, p. 100; 
 and Historia literaria del decasilabo y endecasilabo anapesti- 
 cos, by Mila y Fontanals, in Revista histbrica-latina, No. 7. For 
 a treatise at once concise and comprehensive, see Korting's 
 Encykl. u. Method, d. rom. Philol., Theil 3, pp. 527-553. 
 
 (b) For the principles of Portuguese versification reference 
 may be made to Reinhardstottner's Gramm. d. portug. Sprache 
 (Strassb. : 1879), P- 3745 to Korting's Encykl. u. Methode d. 
 rom. Philol., Theil 3, pp. 583, 584 ; to Jose de Fonseca's Tra- 
 tado de versificac.ao port. ; to A. F. de Castilho's Tratado de 
 metrificac.ao port. (Lisbon: 1851); and to F. Diez's Die erste 
 Kunst- und Hofpoesie (Bonn : 1863). 
 
 10. RUSSIAN VERSIFICATION. A clear and simple presenta- 
 tion of Russian metric may be found in M. Brodovski's Manual 
 of Versification (in Russian. St. Petersburg : 1887). 
 
 11. The peculiarities that obtain in the VERSIFICATION OF 
 NORTHERN EUROPE should not be overlooked in an attempt at 
 inductive study. For the broadest statement of the charac- 
 teristics of Old Northern metric, see Vigfusson and Powell's 
 Corpus Poeticum Boreale (2 vols. Oxford: 1883). Vol. II, 
 pp. 687, 688, gives a complete index to all that the two volumes 
 contain on metre. Perhaps the most important reference in 
 the Corpus Poeticum Boreale is to be found in vol. I, Excursus 
 1 1, where are discussed the history, classification, and notation 
 of Old Norse, German, and English metres. (See also vol. I, 
 p. 458.) A valuable passage upon the subject will be found 
 in Du Meril's Histoire de la poe'sie scandinave (Paris: 1839), 
 pp. 63-72 De la versification scandinave. It is followed by an 
 equally interesting chapter, De la traduction des poesies scan- 
 dinaves. The footnotes in this volume will profit the bibli- 
 ographer. For further information touching the history of 
 Scandinavian forms in literature the student is referred to
 
 514 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 Frederik Winkel Horn's Geschichte d. Lit. d. skandinavischen 
 Nordens, von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipz. : 
 1880), pp. 11-89 LM e altnord. Lit., pp. 89-288 Danemark und 
 Norwegen, pp. 289-378 Schweden. Nearly all important au- 
 thorities on Scandinavian poetry and versification are cited in 
 the admirable Bibliographischer Anhang, pp. 378-399, which 
 treats (i) of Die altnord.-islandisch. Lit., (2) of Danemark u. 
 Norwegen, (3) of Schweden, furnishing references not only to 
 critical material but to the masterpieces themselves. The chap- 
 ter on Altnordische Metrik in Paul's Grundriss d. germ. Philol., 
 VIII. Abschnitt, pp. 876-888, by Sievers, gives in condensed 
 form the researches of one of the highest authorities on the 
 subject, and brings the bibliography up to date. 
 
 12. On the metrical systems of the LAPLANDERS, see the 
 excellent and concise chapter Das Metrum, in O. Donner's 
 Lieder d. Lappen (Uebers. aus d. fin. Zeitschrift Suomi 2. 
 jakso xi osa. Helsingfors : 1876), pp. 29-36. See also G. von 
 Diiben's Lappland och Lapparne (Stockholm : 1873), where a 
 chapter, pp. 318347, is devoted to the much-neglected study 
 of Lappish music and poetry. Much of von Diiben's informa- 
 tion is derived from the mouth of the famous Lapland scholar 
 and pastor, A. Fjellner. Other authorities suggested by Donner 
 are: J. A. Friis, Lappiske Sprogproever (Christiania : 1856); 
 Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankf. : 1673), p. 282 ; J. A. Sjogren, Die 
 Gemeinden in Kemi-Lappmark, vol. I, pp. 189, 440, 441 ; J. A. 
 Friis, Lappisk Mythologi . . . (Christiania: 1871), p. ibqetseg. ; 
 Weatherby's transl. in Colburn's New Monthly of Bertram's 
 arrangement of the Peivash Parneh, or Sons of the Sun-God 
 (see also London Aead., Jan. 17, 1874). Numerous other refer- 
 ences, as well as original criticism, will be found in Donner's 
 Lieder d. Lappen, passim. 
 
 13. ON FINNISH PROSODY, see also Donner, pp. 29-31, who 
 refers with respect to Porthan's De Poesi Fennica (Abo : 1766- 
 68) ; to Lonnrot's Introd. to his first edition of the Kalevala
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 515 
 
 (1835); and to Aug. E. Ahlqvist's exhaustive treatment of 
 Finnish Metrik in his Suomalainen runous-oppi kielelliselta kan- 
 nalta (Helsingissa : 1863), pp. 1-32. We have found of direct 
 service toward the history of this subject the An den Leser, 
 pp. v x, of Hermann Paul's interesting verse-translation of 
 Finnish lyrics and ballads, entitled Kanteletar (Helsingf. : 
 1882). One of the most important authorities on Finnish 
 prosody is Comparetti, who in his Kalevala, German edition, 
 1892, p. 31, gives an account of parallelism in Finnish poetry. 
 
 14. The student of comparative versification will not stop 
 short with the metric of European tongues; he will examine 
 also such works on ORIENTAL POETICS as maybe accessible and 
 within his comprehension. 
 
 15. ON INDIAN LITERATURE it is feasible here only to sug- 
 gest consultation of the series, Sacred Books of the East, ed. 
 by Max Miiller ; prefaces to the various volumes (see espe- 
 cially Miiller's Sacred Hymns of the Brahmans, and Hymns of 
 the Rig- Veda, Introd. to vol. I); Albrecht Weber's Indische 
 Studien, Indische Streifen, and the History of Indian Litera- 
 ture, transl. by Mann and Zachariae, pp. 182, 183, 232, 233 et 
 passim (Triibner's Orient. Series. Leipz. : 1878). In this work 
 of Weber's will be found many valuable references to bibliog- 
 raphy. Also may be consulted J. Muir's Sanskrit Texts (5 vols. 
 2d ed. Lond. : 1868) ; his Metrical Translations from San- 
 skrit Writers (Triibner's) ; Monier Williams's Indian Epic Poetry 
 (1863) ; his Indian Wisdom (1875) 5 ano ^ tne preface to his 
 translation of the Nalopakhyanam ; R. W. Gust's Linguistic and 
 Oriental Studies, pp. 60, 61 ; and his other works on Indian 
 literature and languages ; and E\ Lacereau's Groulabodha, 
 Traite de prosodie sanscrite, comp. par Kaledasa (Paris : 1854). 
 In general, much is made accessible to the English reader by 
 Triibner's Oriental Series. More advanced students will of 
 course turn to the studies of Haug, Lassen, Burnouf, Roth, 
 Reinaud, Stenzler, Holtzmann, H. H. Wilson, Burnell, Buhler,
 
 516 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 Colebrooke, Aufrecht, etc. H. H. Wilson's volumes on Hindoo 
 Dramatic Literature, while valuable in other respects, fail to 
 discuss the versification of the drama. His Essays, Analytical, 
 Critical, etc., may be consulted. See also W. D. Whitney, 
 Oriental and Linguistic Studies, p. 6 et passim; and Max 
 Miiller, Chips from a German Workshop, vol. I, pp. 79-82. 
 There is an excellent treatise in the Asiatic Journal, N. s., 1837, 
 pp. 23-153, on the forms of Sanskrit metre. See also West- 
 phal's Metrik der indogermanischen Volker (Kiihn's Zeitschrift, 
 9 1437); n ' s Allgemeine Metrik ( 23); and A. L. Chezy's 
 Theorie du Sloka ou metre heroi'que Sanscrit (Paris : 1827). 
 
 1 6. A few of the most readily obtainable references on 
 HEBREW POETRY are Rob. Lowth's Lectures on Sacred Poetry of 
 the Hebrews (1770), transl. from the Latin by Greg, ed. by 
 C. E. Stone, Andover, 1829 (see chap. I) ;' Jebb's Sacred Litera- 
 ture, p. 20 ; Philip Schaff's Introd. to Poetry of the Old Testa- 
 ment in the transl. of Lange's Commentary on Job (furnishes 
 an elaborate metrical scheme with illustrations) ; J. G. Herder's 
 Spirit of Hebrew Poetry (1782, transl. by J. Marsh, 1833), 
 vol. I, chap. XXVII; vol. II, chap. VIII; H. Ewald's Die 
 Dichter des alten Bundes, transl. by Kitto (1835-39), vol. I, 
 p. 83 (this is altogether the best article on the subject). The 
 most complete compendium of the various theories of Hebrew 
 verse with which we are acquainted is Saalschutz's Von der 
 Form der hebr. Poesie (Konigsberg : 1825). See also the few 
 pages, 415-421, of Stevenson MacGill's Lectures on Rhetoric 
 and Criticism, introductory to study of Scriptures ; Gesenius's 
 Lehrgebaude d. hebr. Sprache (ed. Rodiger, transl. Davies, 
 1869-76); and the works of Olshausen and Davidson. Schlott- 
 mann's Zur semitischen Epigraphie, V, VI, should not be over- 
 looked. 
 
 17. ON EGYPTIAN VERSIFICATION, see the article by G. Ebers 
 on Rhyme and Alliteration in Zeitschrift f. dgyptische Sprache 
 u. Alterthumsk. 15 : 43.
 
 24.] GENERAL NOTE. 517 
 
 18. ON CHINESE VERSIKICATION the student is especially re- 
 ferred to Stanislas Julien's Hoei'-Lan-Ki, ou 1'Histoire du cercle 
 de craie (Lond. : 1832), Preface, pp. xiii-xxix. The discussion 
 turns, however, rather upon Chinese imagery than upon metric. 
 For examples of balanced form in Chinese verse, see Julien's 
 L'Orphelin de la Chine (Paris : 1844), PP- 3 2 S-35 2 - M. Bazin 
 (aine'), in the Introduction to his Theatre chinoise (Paris : 1838), 
 traces the history of Chinese poetry, but devotes only pp. 37, 38 
 to the form of verse. Professor Douglas treats but meagerly of 
 the subject in his article on ' China' (Encycl. Brit.).- Basil H. 
 Chamberlain, in his Classical Poetry of Japan (Triibner. Lond. : 
 1880), Introd., pp. 2-4, gives some definite information concern- 
 ing rhyme, tone, and parallelism in Chinese verse. See also Dr. 
 James Legge's The Chinese Classics (Sacred Books of the East). 
 To these references may be added the following, kindly furnished 
 by Prof. John Fryer of the University of California : 
 
 Zottoli's Cursus Litteraturae Sinicae, vol. IV, pars Oratoria et 
 poetica (Shanghai : 1882) ; The T'u-shu-chi-ch'ing, or large Chi- 
 nese Encyclopaedia in 1639 volumes (Division V on poetry) ; 
 A. Wylie's Notes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai, Division IV, 
 Belles-lettres); Sir J. F. Davis's The Poetry of the Chinese; 
 Sir W. Medhurst, The China Review, 4 : 46 Chinese Poetry ; 
 Meadows's Desultory Notes on China (Lond. : 1847) ; C. 
 Gooderich, Chinese Recorder, vol. VIII, Chinese Hymnology; 
 The Shi-yiin, or Dictionary of Rhymes (a Chinese native work) ; 
 J. Edkins, China Review, 17 : 35 Poetry of Li-tai-po. 
 
 19. JAPANESE METRES. Basil Hall Chamberlain's Japanese 
 Classical Poetry (Lond. : 1880), Introd., pp. 2-6, furnishes a 
 succinct account of the pillow-words, prefaces, and pivots of 
 Japanese verse ; also of the principal stanzaic form, the uta. 
 There is nothing new in the Encycl. Brit, article. A. Pfizmaier's 
 Die poetischen Ausdriicke der japanischen Sprache (Denk- 
 schrift d. Akad. d. Wiss., Philos.-Hist. Cl., Wien : 1873, p, 229; 
 1874, p. 341) may be mentioned at this point, though it does
 
 518 LITERARY CRITICISM. [24. 
 
 not bear directly on the subject of metre. Professor Fryer 
 gives us the following : 
 
 Leon de Rosny's Anthologie Japonaise ; R. Lange's Alt- 
 japanische Friihlingslieder ; W. Aston's Grammar of the Japa- 
 nese Written Language, p. 167 et seq.; Basil H. Chamberlain's 
 Handbook of Colloquial Japanese ; and the article in The 
 Chinese Repository, vol. X, p. 214 Poetry of the Japanese. 
 
 20. ARABIAN METRES are ably handled in H. Coupry's Traite 
 de la versification arabe (Leipz. : 1875) ; in Guyard's Theorie 
 nouvelle de la metrique arabe, precedee de considerations 
 generates sur le rhythme naturel du langage ; and in M. Hart- 
 mann's Metrum und Rhythmus : Die Entstehung der arab. 
 Versmasse (Giessen: 1897). Those who read Arabic may 
 acquaint themselves with the extensive work on Arabian litera- 
 ture by L. Cheikhos, published at Beyrout in 1886. The first 
 volume contains the treatise on versification. The Beitrage 
 zur Kentniss d. Poesie d. alten Araber, by Theodor Noldeke 
 (Hannover : 1864), is suggested as a key to further bibliog- 
 raphy and criticism in this direction. 
 
 21. TURKISH METRES. See the article by W. J. Redhouse, 
 on the History, System, and Varieties of Turkish Poetry, in 
 Trans, of the Royal Soc. of Lit., 2d Ser., 12 : 99. It contains 
 much translation.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARISTOTLE'S POETICS. 1 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 Rhetores Graeci. Ven. : 1508. Aldus. 
 
 De rhetorica L. III. . . . De poetica liber unus. Graece. Ven.: 
 
 1536. In aed. Zanetti et dilig. Trincavelli. 
 Poetica, graece. Parisiis : 1541. Per Conr. Neobarium. 
 Rhetorica et poetica. Venet. : 1 546. Jo. Gryphius. 
 Poetica cum Vine. Madii et Earth. Lombardii comm. explan. Ven. : 
 
 1550. 
 
 De arte poetica liber graece, cum var. lect. Parisiis: 1555. Morel. 
 Poetica. Graece, cum P. Victorii comm. in librum primum. Floren- 
 
 tiae : 1560. In off. Juntarum. 
 De arte poetica, graece, ad exemplar libri a P. Victorio correcti. 
 
 Florentiae: 1564. Apud Juntas. 
 Greek text, ed. by I. Casaubon. Leyden : 1590. 
 Poetica. Heinsius recensuit. Lugd. Bat. : 1610. 
 Poetica cum animadv. Paccii et Riccoboni ac comm. P. Benii. Ven. : 
 
 1624. 
 
 'Apto-rorcAovs Trcpi 77-0177x1*075 fti/3\iov. Parisiis: 1630. 
 De poetica liber, ex vers. Th. Goulstoni perp. not. ill. ace. integrae 
 
 notae Fr. Sylburg. et D. Heinsii, necnon selectae aliorum, quibus 
 
 suas etiam immiscuit (J. Uptonus) editor. Cantabr. : 1696. 
 'A/3i0-TOTeA.ous TTtpi 7rot^TiKi/s (Lectiones variantes . . . et notae, 
 
 etc.). Oxford : 1 760. 
 
 1 For the literature of the Aristotelian controversy concerning poetry, 
 see vol. II of this work, especially under the Epic and Tragedy.
 
 520 APPENDIX. 
 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber, textu goulstoniano ; cum praelectione, 
 versione et notis editoris Guilielmi Cooke : accedit elegia gray- 
 iana, graece. Cantabr. : 1785. Typ. Acad. 
 
 De poetica. Rec. F. W. Reiz. Lipsiae : 1786. 
 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber, graece lectionem constituit, versionem 
 refinxit, animadversionibus illustravit Th. Tyrwhitt. Oxonii : 
 1794. Typ. Clarend. (Other editions in 1806, 1818, 1827.) 
 
 De poetica graece. Rec. J. Gl. Buhle. Gott. : 1 794. 
 
 Aristotelis de poetica graece, cum notis . . . edidit L. Sahl. Hauniae : 
 1802. (With the Ars Poetica of Horace.) 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica librum denuo recensitum commentariis 
 illustratum, recognitio Valettii, Hermann!, Tyrwhitti, Buhlii, 
 Harlesii, Castelvetri, Robortelli, aliorum editionibus edidit cum 
 prolegominis, notitiis et indicibus Aug.-Guil. Graefenham. Lip- 
 siae : 1821. 
 
 Rhetorica et poetica ex rec. I. Bekkeri. Berol. : 1831. 
 
 Aristotelis rhetorica et poetica ab Immanuele Bekkero tertium editae. 
 Berol.: 1859. 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica liber. Recensuit J. Vahlen. Berol. : 1867. 
 
 Aristotelis ars poetica . . . edidit F. Ueberweg. Berol.: 1870. 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica liber : iterum recens. et adnot. crit. auxit 
 J. Vahlen. Berol. : 1874. 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica (Vahlen's text) : with notes by E. Moore. 
 Oxford: 1875. 
 
 Aristotelis ars poetica . . . edidit F. Ueberweg. Lipsiae: 1875. 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica liber. Recensuit G. Christ. Lipsiae : 
 1878 : 1893. 
 
 De arte poetica liber. Recognovit brevique adnotatione critica in- 
 struxit I. Bywater. Oxford: 1898. Clarendon Press. 
 
 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 Poetica per Alex Paccium in latinum conversa ; eadem graece. 
 Venet. : 1536. In aedibus haeredum Aldi. (Reprinted with 
 slight changes at Basle: 1537; Paris: 1538; Leyden : 1549; 
 Venice: 1572, 1600.) 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica, gr. et lat., cum Fr. Robortelli explica-
 
 APPENDIX. 521 
 
 tionihus, accessere ejusd. Robortelli in Horatii artem poet. 
 
 paraphrasis, et explicationes de satyra, epigrammate, comoedia, 
 
 etc. (2 parts in i vol.) Florentiae : 1548. L. Torrentinus. 
 V. Madii et Bartholomaei in Aristotelis librum de poetica communes 
 
 explicationes. (Text and Latin version by A. Paccius.) Venet. : 
 
 1550. 
 P. Victorii commentarii in primum librum Aristotelis de arte poetarum. 
 
 In off. Juntarum. - Florentiae: 1560. (2d ed., 1573.) 
 An edition by F. Sylburg, Frankfort : 1 584, is noted by Blankenburg 
 
 and others, but the exact title is wanting in these authorities. 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber ; D. Heinsius recensuit . . . Latine vertit, 
 
 notas addidit. Accedit ejusdem de tragica constitutione liber, 
 
 pt. 2. Lugd. Bat. : 1610-1 1. Ap. Balduinum, prostat in bibliop. 
 
 Elzevirii. (Republished in 1643.) 
 P. Benii in Aristotelis poeticam commentarii, etc. (Text, and Latin 
 
 versions of Paccius and Riccobonus.) Patavii : 1613. 
 De poetica liber, gr. et lat., analytica methodo illustratus, a Theod. 
 
 Goulston. Lond. : 1623. (Reedited by J. Upton, Cambridge : 
 
 1696.) 
 De poetica, graece, cum versione Theod. Goulstoni et variantibus 
 
 lectionibus. Glasguae : 1745. Rob. Foulis. 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber . . . cum notis. (Ed. by W. Parsons.) 
 
 Oxonii : 1760. 
 Poetica, gr. et lat., ex versione Theod. Goulstoni : lectionis varietatem 
 
 et observationes suas adjunxit Th. Winstanley. Oxonii: 1780. 
 
 Typ. Clarend. 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber ... ex recens. . . . T. C. Harles. Ace. 
 
 not. F. Sylburgii. Lipsiae : 1780. 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber. Textu Goulstoniano ; cum . . . notis ed. 
 
 G. Cooke. Cantabr. : 1785. (Lond.: 1788.) 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber. Textum recens T. Tyrwhitt. 
 
 Oxonii : 1 794. (Also another edition, ed. by T. Burgess. 3d 
 
 ed., 1806; 4th, 1817; 5th, 1827.) 
 De poetica liber, gr. et lat., cum commentar. Godofr. Hermanni. 
 
 Lipsiae: 1802. 
 Poeticae Aristotelis nova versio, cum textu graeco haud paucis in 
 
 locis emendato, auctore de Haus. Ace. app. duae de trag.
 
 522 ATPENDIX. 
 
 officio et de dram, poeseos apud Graecos origine. Panormi : 
 1815. Typ. reg. 
 De poetica gr. et lat. rec. et comm. ill. F. Ritter. Coloniae : 1839. 
 
 GREEK AND ENGLISH. 
 
 Aristotelis de arte poetica (Vahlen's Text) : with translation by 
 
 E. R. Wharton. Oxford : 1885. Parker. 
 The Poetics of Aristotle. Translated, with a critical Text, by S. H. 
 
 Butcher. Lond. : 1895. Macrnillan. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Rhetorica, ex arabico lat. reddita, interprete Alemanno, praemissa 
 Alpharabii declaratione super eadem rhetorica. Excerptum ex 
 Aristotelis poetica, ex recens. Lancilloti de Zerlis. Venet. : 1481. 
 Per Philip. Venet. 
 
 Latin translation by G. Valla. Ven. : 1498. 
 
 Latin translation, with the summary of Averroes. Ven.: 1515. 
 (This edition and the preceding are noted by Prickard.) 
 
 Aristotelis rhetorica ex arabico latine reddita, interprete Hermanno 
 Alemanno. . . . Excerptum ex Aristotelis poetica per eundem 
 Hermannum de Averrois textu arabico latine redditum. Basil : 
 
 I534- 
 
 Aristotelis poetica per A. Paccium in lat. conversa. Parisiis : 1542. 
 Ars rhet. gr. ab Ant. Riccobono Rhodigino lat. conv. . . . Ars 
 
 poetica ab eodem in lat. ling, versa. Ven.: 1579. 
 Poet. Arist. ab A. Riccobono lat. conversa. Ven. : 1 579; Patavii : 1 587. 
 Aristotelis de poetica liber, latine conversus et . . . illustratus. (By 
 
 T. Goulston.) Lond. : 1623. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Aristotle's Art of Poetry, trans, from the original Greek, with Dacier's 
 notes. Lond.: 1705. (Republished 1709, 1714.) 
 
 Aristotle's Poetics, trans, from the Greek into English [by J. Willis]. 
 Lond.: 1775. 

 
 APPENDIX. 523 
 
 Aristotle's Poetics, trans, from the Greek, with notes by H. J. Pye. 
 Lond. : 1788. (2d ed., with commentary, 1792.) 
 
 Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry, trans. : with notes . . . and two dis- 
 sertations ... by T. Twining. Lond.: 1789. (zd ed. 1812. 
 Another ed. with preface and notes by H. Hamilton, Dublin : 
 1851.) 
 
 Works of Aristotle, trans, from the Greek and ill. with copious eluci- 
 dations from the commentators, by Thomas Taylor. 10 vols. 
 Lond. : 1812. Vol. VII The Rhetoric and Poetic. 
 
 Rhetoric, Poetic and Nicomachaean Ethics, trans, by Thos. Taylor. 
 Lond.: 1818. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 La podtique d'Aristote, trad, par Fr. Cassandre. Paris: 1654. 
 
 (Republished 1675, 1685; Amst. : 1698, 1717; The Hague: 
 
 1718.) 
 La poe*tique d'Aristote, trad, du Grec par le Sieur de Norville. Paris : 
 
 1671. 
 La poe"tique d'Aristote, trad, du grec, avec des remarques, par And. 
 
 Dacier. Paris: 1692. (Republished, Amst. : 1692, 1733.) 
 Les quatre poe'tiques d'Aristote, d'Horace, de Vida, de Desprdaux, 
 
 avec traductions et des remarques. Paris : 1771. 
 Chdnier, M. J. de. CEuvres posthumes. Notice par Daunon. 3 vols. 
 
 Paris: 1824-27. Vol. II La poe*tique d'Aristote, trad, en prose. 
 Racine, J. CEuvres completes. $e e d. par Aimd-Martin. 6 vols. 
 
 Paris : 1 844. Vol. V Fragments du premier livre de la podtique 
 
 d'Aristote. 
 Egger, E. Essai sur 1'histoire de la critique chez les Grecs, suivi de 
 
 la poe"tique d'Aristote et d'extraits de ses problemes, avec traduc- 
 
 tion franchise et commentaire. Paris: 1849. 
 Poe'tique d'Aristote, trad, en frangais et accompagne"e de notes per- 
 
 pe"tuelles, par J. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire. Paris: 1854.
 
 524 APPENDIX. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 A German translation by Mich. Curtius (with commentary principally 
 
 taken from Dacier), Hanover: 1753, is noted by Blankenburg, 
 
 Zusatze I : 382. 
 Aristoteles iiber die Kunst der Poesie, aus d. Griech. iibersetzt u. erlaut. 
 
 nebst Th. Twining's Abh. iib. d. poet. u. musikal. Nachahmung. 
 
 Aus d. Engl. hrsg. von J. G. Buhle. Berlin: 1798. 
 Aristoteles von der Dichtkunst. Text mit Uebersetzung u. Anm. von 
 
 C. H. Weise. Merseb. : 1824. 
 Ausgewahlte Schriften des Aristoteles. Bd. I Die Poetik iibersetzt 
 
 von Chr. Walz. 2. Aufl. besorgt von Dr. K. Zell. Stuttgart: 
 
 1859. 
 Aristoteles Poetik iibersetzt und erklartvon Adolf Stahr. Stuttgart: 
 
 1860. 
 Aristoteles iiber die Dichtkunst. Ins Deutsche iibersetzt und mit . . . 
 
 Anmerkungen . . . versehen von F. Ueberweg. Berlin: 1870. 
 Aristoteles iiber die Dichtkunst. Griechisch und Deutsch von M. 
 
 Schmidt. Jena: 1875. 
 Aristoteles iiber die Dichtkunst. ... Ins Deutsche iibersetzt, mit 
 
 kritischen Anmerkungen und . . . Commentare . . . von F. 
 
 Brandscheid. Wiesbaden: 1882. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 Rettorica e poetica d'Arjstotile, tradotte di greco in lingua volgare 
 
 da Bern. Segni. Firenze : 1 549. Torrentino. 
 Poetica d'Aristotile vulgarizzata e sposta, per Lod. Castelvetro. 
 
 Vienna d'Austria : 1570. Stainhofer. (Republished at Basil 
 
 1576, 1582 ; and, minus the commentary, Milan 1827 and 1831.) 
 11 libro della Poetica di Aristotile, tradotto di greca lingua in volgare, 
 
 da M. Al. Piccolomini con una sua epistola a i lettori del modo 
 
 del tradurre. Siena: 1572. Bonetti. 
 Annotationi di M. Al. Piccolomini nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile, 
 
 con la traduttione del medesimo libro, in lingua volgare. Vin. : 
 
 1575. Guarisco e comp.
 
 APPENDIX. 525 
 
 La politica, la rettorica, la poetica ed i libri dell' anima, trad, dal 
 
 Segni. Firenze: 1583. Marescotti. 
 Poetica d'Arist. tradotta dal Greco nell' Italiano da Ottav. Castelli 
 
 Spoletino. Roma: 1642. 
 
 La Poetica d'Arist. trad, da Ann. Caro. Yen. : 1732. 
 Metastasio, P. Opere. i6vols. Firenze: 1819. Vol. 13 Estratto 
 
 dell' arte poetica d'Aristotile. 
 L' arte poetica, . . . tradotta sul testo di G. Vahlen da G. Barco. 
 
 Torino: 1876. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 A translation of the Poetics into Spanish was made about the middle 
 of the sixteenth century by Juan Paez de Castro. Other infor- 
 mation concerning it is lacking. 
 
 Poetica dada a nuestra lengua castellana por Alonzo Ordofiez de 
 Seijas y Tobar : afiadese nuevamente el texto griego, la vers. 
 lat. y notas de D. Heinsius y las de Batteux. Madrid: 1778. 
 Sancha. (First ed., without the Greek, 1620.) 
 
 El arte poe'tica de Aristoteles en castellano, por . . . Jos. Goya y 
 Muniain. Madrid : 1798. Cano. 
 
 A poetica d'Arist. trag. em portugueza lengoa. Lisboa : 1779. 
 
 Aristoteles Verhandeling over de Dichtkunst, waar agter eenige Ver- 
 handeling over de Dichtkunst en het Toneel . . . door M. C. 
 Curtis. Amsterdam : 1780. 
 
 Aristoteles om Digtekunsten, overs, af Busch. Copenhagen: 1780.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 [The reference is to pages. Italic numerals indicate a reference in which the 
 bibliographical details are fairly complete. Bold-face figures indicate that the 
 work in question is found in one of the sections headed "References."] 
 
 Abbott, E. A., 452, 454, 503 ; Shakes- 
 pearian Grammar, 459. 
 
 Abbott, E. A., and J. R. Seeley, Eng- 
 lish Lessons for English People, 
 452, 454, 455, 457, 459. 
 
 Abbott, Evelyn, Hellenica, 132. 
 
 Abelard, 159. 
 
 Academy, French, 432. 
 
 Accent, 453. 
 
 Acron, Helenius, 381. 
 
 Adams and Cleveland, Handbook 
 of Am. Lit., 378. 
 
 Adams, C., history of aesthetics, in 
 Grande Encyclopedic, 169. 
 
 Adams, C. K., The Study of His- 
 tory, 48. 
 
 Adams, J. C., Literary Log-Rolling, 
 50- 
 
 Adams, J. Q., Lectures on Rhetoric 
 and Oratory, 235. 
 
 Adams, W. D., Latter-Day Lyrics, 
 
 505- 
 
 Addison, Jos., 232, 393, 410, 419, 
 433; The Drummer, 413; papers 
 on Paradise Lost, 384; Pleasures 
 of the Imagination, 380, 405; Spec- 
 tator, 407, 408. 
 
 Aesthetic pleasure, Definition of, 88. 
 
 Aesthetic value, 85. 
 
 Aesthetic worth of literature, 361, 
 362. 
 
 Aesthetics, Danish, 107 ; Dutch, 
 107; English, 130, 131; French, 
 134; German, 127-129, 132-134; 
 Greek, 126, 127, 131, 132; prin- 
 ciples of, 80-171. 
 
 Aesthetics, Problems of, 81-87; 
 physiological problems, 81-83; 
 psychological problems, 83, 84; 
 social problems, 84-86 ; specu- 
 lative problems, 86, 87. 
 
 Aesthetics, Russian, 107. 
 
 Ahlqvist, Aug. E., Suomalainen 
 runous-oppi kielelliselta kanaka, 
 
 5'5- 
 
 Ainger, A., Charles Lamb, g. 
 Akenside, M., 434; Pleasures of 
 
 the Imagination, 410. 
 Albert, Paul, 372, 444; La littera- 
 
 ture fran9aise au XVIIe siecle, 
 
 365- 
 Aldhelm, 492; Epistola ad Acir- 
 
 cium, 501. 
 
 Alembert, J. L. d', Eloges, 437. 
 Alexander, Concerning Figures, 235. 
 Alexander, Sir Wm., Anacrisis, 395. 
 
 527
 
 528 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alison, A., 130, 135; Essays on the 
 Nature and Principles of Taste, 87. 
 
 Allen, F. D., Greek Versification 
 in Inscriptions, 494; Origin of 
 Homeric Metre, 494. 
 
 Allen, G., 173; The Color Sense, 
 88; Decay of Criticism, 10, 61 ; 
 Aesthetic Evolution in Man, 88; 
 Falling in Love (The Recipe for 
 Genius), 138 ; Origin of the Sense 
 of Symmetry, 88; Origin of the 
 Sublime, 88, 137; Physiological 
 Aesthetics, 88, 131, 180, 181, 294. 
 
 Allen, J. L., Caterpillar Criticism, 
 
 Allingham, Varieties in Prose (Curi- 
 osities of criticism), 49. 
 Alscher, R., Sir Thomas Wyatt in 
 
 der Entwickelungsgeschichte d. 
 
 engl. Lit. u. Verskunst, 502. 
 Altmuller, C., Der Zweck d. schonen 
 
 Kunst, 97, /j/. 
 American Literature, History of, 
 
 377-378. 
 
 Amiel, H. F., Journal intime, 51. 
 Ampere, J. J., 373, 444; Melanges 
 
 d'histoire litteraire et de littera- 
 
 ture, 278. 
 Amsel, G., De vi atque indole rhyth- 
 
 morum quid veteres judicaverint, 
 
 493- 
 
 Analytic criticism, 75. 
 Ancheres, Daniel d', Tyr et Sidon, 
 
 431- 
 
 Ancona, A. d', Studi di critica, 46. 
 Anderson, H., Ueber den Einfluss 
 
 von Metrum, Assonanz, und Reim, 
 
 57- 
 
 Andre, P., Traite sur le beau, 129. 
 Andrews, E. B., Brief Institutes of 
 
 General History, 48. 
 
 Andrews, History of British Jour- 
 nalism, 406. 
 
 Angell, Jas. B., Influence of English 
 Literature on the French, 276; 
 Influence of English Literature on 
 the German, 276. 
 
 Aquila Romanus, 235. 
 
 Arber, Reprints, 390. 
 
 Archer, \V., About the Theatre (Eng- 
 lish of Critics), j/; on Moulton's 
 theories, 29. 
 
 Arendt, H., Die Metaphern in den 
 dramatischen Werken Corneilles, 
 
 235- 
 
 Areopagus, 385, 430, 497. 
 
 Arges, Henri d', on the plastic arts 
 and literature, in the Grande En- 
 cyclopedic, 169. 
 
 Aristides, treatise on music, 489. 
 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, 489. 
 
 Aristotle, 232, 418, 419, 433; The 
 Metaphysics, 89, 127; The Nico- 
 machean Ethics, 89 ; Poetics, 89, 
 127, 235, 271, 294, 460 (see also 
 Appendix); on communal aspect 
 of poetry, 269 ; on poetry, 287 ; 
 Psychology, 127; on relation of 
 nature and art, 145-1 57 ; Rhetoric, 
 89, 127, 235. 
 
 Aristoxenus, 157, 489. 
 
 Arminius, H., Die Tropen und Figu- 
 ren, 233. 
 
 Arnold M., 2, 44, 56, 232, 383, 393, 
 417, 419, 422, 443, 455; his defi- 
 nition of literature, 200 ; his defi- 
 nition of poetry, 288 ; Discourses 
 in America, 203, 211; on Eng- 
 lish criticism, 33 ; Essays in Criti- 
 cism, 10, 212 ; Essays in Criticism, 
 2d series, 296 ; on the function 
 of critics, 58 ; Introduction to
 
 INDEX. 
 
 529 
 
 Ward's English Poets, 212, 344 ; 
 Last Words on Translating 
 Homer, 460, 504 ; Mixed Essays, 
 212, 239 ; On Translating Homer, 
 207, 460, 503; Sainte-Beuve, n, 36; 
 The Touchstones of Poetry, 297. 
 
 Arnold, Thos., 377, 452 ; Manual 
 of English Literature, 201, 212; 
 Manual of English Literature (Ap- 
 pendix on English Metres), 460. 
 
 Arre'at, L., 130; on Hennequin's La 
 crit. scientifique, 21 ; Psychologie 
 du Peintre, 166. 
 
 Art Criticism, 49. 
 
 Art, Decay of, 181, 182 ; Develop- 
 ment of, 172-199; Fundamental 
 Problems of, 81 ; Origin of, 173- 
 176; Relation of Literature to, 
 202 ; Relation of, to Nature, 139- 
 163; Theory of, 80-171 ; Theory 
 of, Courses of study in, 121-135; 
 Works of, 85, 86. 
 
 Art-germ, The, 182. 
 
 Artieda, A ndr. Rey de,Discursos, 449. 
 
 Artists and Art Criticism, 49. 
 
 Artists as Critics, 49. 
 
 Arts, Origin of the Several, 180. 
 
 Ascham, 392 ; The Scholemaster, 
 389, 496. 
 
 Assmuss, Die aussere Form neu- 
 hochdeutscher Dichtung, 510. 
 
 Ast, Grundriss der Philologie, 369. 
 
 Aston, W., Grammar of the Japa- 
 nese Written Language, 518. 
 
 Atterbury, Bishop, 396. 
 
 Aubertin, Ch., 371, 373, 444; La 
 langue et la litterature fran9aise 
 au moyen age, 508 ; Les origines de 
 la langue et de la poesie franfaise, 
 372; La versification fran9aise et 
 ses nouveaux theoriciens, 460. 
 
 Aufrecht, 516. 
 
 Augier, fimile, 444. 
 
 Aurevilly, J. Barbey d', Les ridicules 
 du temps (criticism),^. 
 
 Austin, A., 44, 418 ; Old and New 
 Canons of Criticism in Poetry, 
 297; his view of poetry, 288 ; 
 Prince Lucifer (on the End and 
 Limits of Objective Poetry), 297 ; 
 The Human Tragedy (Position 
 and Prospects of Poetry), 297; 
 on Sainte-Beuve, 36. 
 
 Austin and Ralph, Lives of the 
 Poets Laureate of England, j/6. 
 
 Authenticity of literary monuments, 
 
 354, 355- 
 
 Author, The, 210. 
 
 Aytoun, W. E., Firmilian, 417. 
 
 Azam, Hypnotisme et double con- 
 science, 291. 
 
 Azarias, Brother, The Philosophy of 
 Literature, 201, 212, 277. 
 
 Bachmann, F., Schusters Lehrbuch 
 der Poetik, 427. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 130, 232, 393, 394, 
 395, 410, 415, 419, 427, 453; Ad- 
 vancement of Learning, 392; On 
 Poetry, 286, 287; Works (on 
 poetry), 299. 
 
 Bagehot, W., 44, 418; Edinburgh 
 Reviewers, 288 ; Literary Studies 
 (The First Edinburgh Reviewers), 
 61, 204, 213, 299. 
 
 Bahr, 370, 452 ; Geschichte d. rom. 
 Litt, 490. 
 
 Ba'if, 429, 507. 
 
 Bailey, J. C., A Plea for Critics, j-/. 
 
 Bailey, P. J., his characterization of 
 poetry, 280. 
 
 Bain, A., 166; Emotions and the
 
 530 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Will, 91, (imitation) 162 ; English 
 Composition and Rhetoric, 236, 
 347; on figures, 235; Mental 
 Science, 91, 131 ; On Poetry, 288 ; 
 The Senses and the Intellect, 91 ; 
 On Teaching English, 211, 213, 
 299- 
 
 Bainton, Art of Authorship, 210. 
 
 Baker, 416. 
 
 Baldwin, J. M., 451 ; Appendix to 
 Raymond's Art in Theory (on the 
 sense of beauty), 169 ; Internal 
 Speech and Song, 233 ; Psychol- 
 ogy* l &7 i Social and Ethical 
 Interpretations, 173, 288. 
 
 Bale, John, 384; Illustrium majoris 
 britanniae scriptorum summari- 
 um, 384, note. 
 
 Ballad, Origin of the, 267. 
 
 Ballet, G., Le langage interieur, 206, 
 213. 
 
 Banville, T. de, 506 ; Petit traite de 
 poesie franpaise, 460, 505. 
 
 Baour-Lormian, Poesies ossiani- 
 ques, 441. 
 
 Barengo, G., Delia versificazione 
 italiana, jn. 
 
 Barham, Thos. Foster, On Metrical 
 Time, or the Rhythm of Verse, 
 Ancient and Modern, 461. 
 
 Barnhardy, Grundriss d. rom. Litt., 
 490. 
 
 Barni, J., Translation of Kant's 
 Critique of Judgment, 104. 
 
 Barry, Sir Redmond, On Music and 
 Poetry, 348. 
 
 Barta, F., Ueber die auf d. Dicht- 
 kunst beziiglichen Ausdriicke bei 
 d. romischen Dichtern, 159. 
 
 Barthel, Die deutsche Nat.-Litt., 
 375- 
 
 Bartoli, A., I migliori libri italiani, 
 46. 
 
 Bartsch, 371, 491, 511, 513; Alt- 
 franzosische Chrestomathie, 506. 
 
 Barzellatti, G., Francesco De Sanc- 
 tis, 53. 
 
 Bascom, J., Aesthetics, 126, 213 ; 
 Philosophy of English Literature, 
 61, 201, 204, 250; Philosophy of 
 Rhetoric, 236, 348. 
 
 Bastian, Masken und Maskereien, 
 271. 
 
 Bates, Arlo, Talks on Literature, 
 213; Talks on Writing English, 
 236. 
 
 Bates, Katherine Lee, American 
 Literature, 378. 
 
 Bateson, Miss, contributions to 
 Traill's Social England, 407. 
 
 Batteux, L'Abbe Charles, 449; Ana- 
 lyse de la poetique d'Aristote, 
 437 ; Les beaux arts reduits a un 
 meme principe, 129, 436; Quatre 
 memoires, 437 ; Les quatre poe- 
 tiques d'Aristote, d'Horace, de 
 Vida, et de Despreaux, 300, 381, 
 437 Traite des beaux arts (imi- 
 tation), 1 60. 
 
 Bauer, J., Das Bild in der Sprache, 
 236. 
 
 Baumgart, IL, Handbuch der Poetik, 
 300. 
 
 Baumgarten, A. G., 422 ; Aesthe- 
 tica, 127, 160, 423; De nonnullis 
 ad poema pertinentibus, 423. 
 
 Bayle, 65. 
 
 Bayne, P., Essays in Biography and 
 Criticism, 115; Lessons from my 
 Masters, 115; Two Great Eng- 
 lishwomen, 300. 
 
 Bazin, M., Theatre chinoise, j/7-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 531 
 
 Beard, W. H., Action in Art, 168. 
 
 Beautiful, The, 135. 
 
 Beauty, 85. 
 
 Beckenstedt, Die Nachahmung d. 
 
 Natur in d. Kunst, 162. 
 Becker, K. F., Der deutsche Stil, 
 
 34- 
 
 Becker, P. A., Zur Geschichte der 
 Vers libres in der neufranzosi- 
 schen Poesie, 508 ; Ueber den 
 Ursprung der romanischen Vers- 
 masse, 508. 
 
 Becq de Fouquieres, Traite general 
 de versification franaise, 461, 
 506. 
 
 Bede, De arte metrica,.^?, 501 ; De 
 schematis et tropis, 236. 
 
 Bedier, J., 444 ; Les fabliaux, 274, 
 
 507- 
 Beeching, H. C., Edition of Paradise 
 
 Lost, 503 ; On the Prosody of 
 
 Paradise Regained and Samson 
 
 Agonistes, 503. 
 Beer, De arte Aeschyli, 492. 
 Beers, H. A., Century of American 
 
 Literature, 378; Outline Sketch 
 
 of American Literature, 378. 
 Begg, W. P., Development of Taste, 
 
 n, 92, 182. 
 Behaghel, 510. 
 Belinski, 46. 
 Beljame, A., Le public et les hommes 
 
 de lettres en Anglet. au i8e siecle, 
 
 210, 377, 404. 
 Bell, Sir Charles, The Anatomy and 
 
 Philosophy of Expression, 92. 
 Bellanger, L., 457 ; fitudes his- 
 
 toriques et philologiques sur la 
 
 rime f ran9aise, 306, 507. 
 Belling, E., Beitrage zur Metrik 
 
 Goethes, 509, 510; Die Metrik 
 
 Lessings, 510 ; Die Metrik Schil- 
 lers, 510. 
 
 Bellunese, G. C., Ragionamenti 
 poetici e risposte sopra la poetica 
 d'Aristotile, 447. 
 
 Belvidtjre, 384. 
 
 Benard, Ch., 130; Exposition of 
 Hegel, 102; L'esthetique d'Aris- 
 tote, go, fj2, fjf, 157 ; L'esthe- 
 tique contemporaine : Lamimique, 
 162; Hegel : La poetique, 301. 
 
 Beni, Paol., Edition of Aristotle's 
 Poetics, 382 ; Platonis poetica, 
 38* 
 
 Benloew, L., 506; Precis d'une 
 theorie des rhythmes, 461, 507. 
 
 Benoiston de Chateauneuf, Essai 
 sur la poesie et les poetes fr. aux 
 126, ije, et 146 siecles, 372. 
 
 Bentley, R., 398, 488 ; A Dissertation 
 upon the Letters of Phalaris, 405. 
 
 Bentzon, Therese, 46. 
 
 Benzoni, Rob., Metrica e psicologia : 
 f rammento d'estetica, 512. 
 
 Beowulf, 502. 
 
 Berger, K., Die Entwickelung von 
 Schillers Aesthetik, fjj. 
 
 Bergk, Th., 370. 
 
 Bering, Vit., De arte poetica natura, 
 
 383- 
 
 Bernays, J., Zur Arist. Katharsis- 
 Frage, 97 ; Brief an L. Spengel 
 iiber d. trag. Katharsis bei Arist., 
 9/5 Erganzung zu Arist. Poetik, 
 97 ; Grundziige d. verlornen 
 Abhandlung d. Arist. iiber d. 
 Wirkung d. Tragodie, 9/5 Zwei 
 Abhandlungen iiber d. Arist. 
 Theorie d. Dramas, 97. 
 
 Bernhardy, G., 370 ; Grundlinien zur 
 Encycl. d. Philologie, 47,369-
 
 532 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bernheim, E., Lehrbuch d. hist. 
 Methode, n, 48, 266. 
 
 Bertram, 514. 
 
 Bertrand, D'Alembert, 439; on 
 Pascal's aesthetics, 135. 
 
 Bettelheim, A., Eine neue Theorie 
 der Dichtkunst,j./6; Neuere fran- 
 zosische Kritiker, 77. 
 
 Betz, L. P., Essai de bibliographic 
 des questions de litterature com- 
 paree, 251 ; Kritische Betrachtung 
 iiber Wesen, Aufgabe, und Bedeu- 
 tung d. vergl. Litteraturgeschichte, 
 251. 
 
 Beyle, H., De 1'amour, 441 ; Histoire 
 de la peinture en Italie, 441 ; 
 Racine et Shakespeare, 441. 
 
 Biadene, L., Morfologia del sonetto 
 nei secoli XIII e XIV, 505. 
 
 Biblical Criticism, 48. 
 
 Biederman, K., Die Natur als 
 Gegenstand poetischer Empfin- 
 dungen u. Darstellungen, 163. 
 
 Biedermann, W. von, Zur vergl. 
 Geschichte der poetischen For- 
 men, 250, 301. 
 
 Biedma, V. de, Translation of Hor- 
 ace's Epistle to the Pisos, 441). 
 
 Bielchowsky, Geschichte der deut- 
 schen Dorfpoesie im i3ten Jahrh., 
 2.71- 
 
 Biese, A., Ueber die Aufgabe der 
 Litteraturgeschichte, .277; Die 
 Entwickelung d. Naturgefiihls bei 
 d. Griechen, 164 ; Die Entwicke- 
 lung d. Naturgefiihls bei d. R6- 
 mern, 164 ; Die Entwickelung d. 
 Naturgefiihls im Mittelalter u. in 
 d. Neuzeit, 164; Das Metaphori- 
 sche in d. dichterischen Phantasie, 
 164, 236; Die Naturlyrik Uhland's 
 
 u. Mbrike's, 164 ; Die Philosophic 
 des Metaphorischen, 236; Die 
 poetische Naturbeseelung bei d. 
 Griechen, 164 ; Zur Litteratur d. 
 Geschichte des Naturgefiihls, 164. 
 Biese, F., Die Philos. d. Aristoteles, 
 
 151- 
 
 Binet, A., Introduction a la psychol- 
 ogic experimentale, 461 ; on men- 
 tal images, 292 ; La psychologic 
 experimentale, 767. 
 
 Binet, A., and Passy, J., Psychol. des 
 auteurs dramatiques, j. 
 
 Bintz, J., Der Einfluss d. Ars Poetica 
 d. Horaz auf d. deutsche Lit. d. 
 XVIII. Jahrh., 62. 
 
 Biological principles of art-evolution, 
 178. 
 
 Birrell, A., 44 ; Critics and Authors, 
 52; on Sainte-Beuve, 36. 
 
 Birt, Th., Ad historiam hexametri 
 latini symbola, 461. 
 
 Blackie, J. S., 87, 455; Horae Hel- 
 lenicae, joj; Philosophy of the 
 Beautiful, /jj; Wisdom of Goethe, 
 
 3'7- 
 
 Blackmore, R., 403, 404 ; Preface to 
 Prince Arthur, 403. 
 
 Blair, Critical Dissertation on 
 Ossian, 411 ; Lectures on Rheto- 
 ric, 12, 236, 348. 
 
 Blake, R., Anonymous Criticism, j/. 
 
 Blank verse, 454-456. ' 
 
 Blankenburg, Friedrich von, Littera- 
 rische Zusatze zu Sulzers Allge- 
 meine Theorie der schbnen 
 Kiinste, 380, 445, 448, 487, 
 note. 
 
 Blass, F., 456, 457 ; Hermeneutik u. 
 Kritik, 12, 461, 488, 492 ; Kleine 
 Beitrage, 494 ; Metrik, 488 ; Ver-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 533 
 
 schiedener Umfang bei d. ver- 
 schied. Litteraturgattungen, 369. 
 
 Bleibtreu, K., Letzte Wahrheiten 
 (Das Genie), 138. 
 
 lilemont, E., Esthetique de la tradi- 
 tion, 169. 
 
 Blencke, 137; Die Trennung d. 
 Schonen vom Angenehmen, 133. 
 
 Bliimner, H., Laokoon-Studien, 108. 
 
 Bodmer, J. J., 412; Diskurse der 
 Mahler, 423 ; Vom Wunderbaren 
 in der Poesie, 301, 423. 
 
 Boeckh, A., 204, 425; on classifica- 
 tion of literature, 239 ; Encykl. u. 
 Methodologie d. philol. Wissen- 
 schaften, 13, 201, 213, 350, 351, 
 489, 490 ; on hermeneutics, 4 ; Kri- 
 tik d. Ausg. d. Pindar von Dissen, 
 489 ; De metris Pindari, 488, 489. 
 
 Bohm, H., Zur deutschen Metrik, 
 461. 
 
 Bohtz, Gesch. d. neuern deutsch. 
 Poesie, 374. 
 
 Boileau, 65, 381, 405, 433, 435, 439; 
 Aesthetics of, 135 ; L'art poetique, 
 301, 395, 434, 436; Reflexions sur 
 Longin, 436. 
 
 Boisjoslin, J. de, Esquisse d'une 
 histoire de la versification fran- 
 9aise, joS. 
 
 Boissier, 490. 
 
 Boissonade, J. F., Critique litteraire 
 sous le premier empire, 78. 
 
 Bolton, Edmund, Hypercritica, 393, 
 500. 
 
 Bolton, T. L., on rhythm, 138, 461. 
 
 Borinski, K., Deutsche Poetik, 462 ; 
 Die Poetik d. Renaissance u. d. 
 litt. Kritik in Deutschland, 62. 
 
 Borinsky, F., Das Enjambement, 
 462. 
 
 Borman, W., Kunst u. Nachahmung, 
 162. 
 
 Bosanquet, B., 88, 133, 144, 451 ; 
 The Aesthetic Theory of Ugli- 
 ness, pj, /j6; History of Aes- 
 thetic, 62, 90, 93, 131, 113, 122, 
 151, 157, 162, 164, 172, 173, 177, 
 189, 203, 211, 301, 409; on Ho- 
 garth, 103 ; on the nature of 
 aesthetic emotion, 93 ; on ori- 
 gin of criticism, 55; Part Played 
 by Aesthetic in the Growth of 
 Modern Philosophy, gj, 133,162, 
 164; The Relation of the Fine 
 Arts to One Another, 169'; on 
 self-expression, 1^3 ; on Shaftes- 
 bury, 118; Translation of Hegel, 
 128. 
 
 Boscan, 387. 
 
 Boswell, J., Life of Johnson, 
 208. 
 
 Botticker, C., De alliter. apud Rom. 
 vi et usu, 493. 
 
 Bougine, Handbuch der allgemeinen 
 Litteraturgeschichte "nach Her- 
 mann's Grundriss," 379. 
 
 Bougot, A., Essai sur la critique 
 d'art, 49. 
 
 Bouhours, 507. 
 
 Bouillet, Translation of Plotinus, 
 
 "3- 
 
 Bourbon, Armand de, Prince de 
 Conti, Traite de la comedie et 
 des spectacles selon la tradition 
 de 1'eglise, 404. 
 
 Bourdon, B., L'expression des emo- 
 tions et des tendances dans le 
 langage, 233. 
 
 Bourget, P., Essais de psychologic 
 contemporaine, 208, 214; fitudes 
 et portraits, 13, 302; Nouveaux
 
 534 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 essais de psychologic contempo- 
 raine, 214; Science et poesie, 
 
 346- 
 Bourgoin, Les maitres de la critique 
 
 au XVIIe siecle, 62, 432. 
 Bouterwek, Fr., Geschichte der 
 
 Poesie und Beredsamkeit, 251, 
 
 3/8. 
 Bouvy, P., 506; Poetes et melodes, 
 
 462. 
 Bowles, W. L., criticism of Pope, 
 
 415; Invariable Principles of 
 
 Poetry, 415; Letters to Byron 
 
 and Campbell, 415; Bowles-Byron 
 
 controversy, 287. 
 Boyesen, H. H., American Literary 
 
 Criticism, jo. 
 Boyle, 405. 
 Brachet, 508. 
 Brackett, W., Relation of Modern 
 
 Science to Literature, 203, 214. 
 Bradley, C. B., The Classification 
 
 of Rhetorical Figures, 236. 
 Braga, 371. 
 Braitmaier, F., Geschichte d. poet. 
 
 Theorie und Kritik, 63, 424. 
 Brambach, Metrik u. Musik, 495. 
 Brandes, G., Die Litt. d. igten 
 
 Jahrh. in ihren Hauptstromun- 
 
 gen, 14, 63, 368, 422, 428, 444; 
 
 Romantische Schule in Frank- 
 
 reich, 365 ; on Sainte-Beuve, 36 ; 
 
 Study of Shakespeare, 422. 
 Brandi, G. B., Trattato dell' Arte 
 
 poetica, 447. 
 
 Brandi, A., 425; Coleridge, 415. 
 Braun, A., Versuch iiber die Tropen, 
 
 236. 
 Bray, J. M., History of English 
 
 Critical Terms, 383. 
 Breitinger, H., 372. 
 
 Breitinger, J. J., Kritische Dicht- 
 kunst, 302, 422. 
 
 Brenning, E., Die Lehre vom Scho- 
 nen bei Plotin im Zusammenhang 
 seines Systems dargestellt, //j. 
 
 Brewer, R. F., Orthometry, 426. 
 
 Breymann, 371. 
 
 Bridges, Robt., Essay on Keats, 
 418; Prosody of Milton, 418, 
 462. 
 
 Bright, Anglo-Saxon Reader, 502. 
 
 Brimley, G., 44, 418; Essays, 14, 
 302. 
 
 Brinckmeyer, 378. 
 
 Brink, B. ten, 204 ; Ueber die Auf- 
 gabe der Litteraturgeschichte, 230, 
 264 ; on the ballad, 267 ; Beo- 
 wulf, 272 ; on Chaucer, 385, note ; 
 Chaucers Sprache u. Verskunst, 
 502 ; Geschichte d. englischen 
 Litteratur, 377. 
 
 Brinkmann, F., Die Metaphern, 236. 
 
 Bristed, C. A., American Criticism, 
 50; Pieces of a Broken-down 
 Critic, 14. 
 
 Brodovski, M., Manual of Versifica- 
 tion, j/j. 
 
 Broglie, Le Due de, Malherbe, 432. 
 
 Brooke, Stopford A., his definition 
 of literature, 200 ; Early English 
 Literature, ^77, 418; English 
 Literature, 214; Primer of English 
 Literature, 377, 418; Tennyson, 
 418; Theology in the English 
 Poets, 418. 
 
 Brougham, 414. 
 
 Brown, Baldwin, 198 ; on origin of 
 art, 174; The Fine Arts, 44, 122, 
 123, 162, 174-176, 180, 182, 183. 
 
 Brown, Goold, 454 ; Grammar of 
 English Grammars, 462.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 Brown, John, Spare Hours (On 
 Vaughan's Poetry), 302. 
 
 Browne, W. H., Certain Considera- 
 tions Touching the Structure of 
 English Verse, 462. 
 
 Brownell, Characteristics of the 
 French, 234. 
 
 Browning, R., 455 ; On the Poet 
 Objective and Subjective, 302, 
 418. 
 
 Browning, Mrs., 458. 
 
 Bruchmann, R., Psychologische Stu- 
 dien zur Sprachgeschichte, 206. 
 
 Briicke, Ernst W., Die physiologi- 
 schen Gnindlagen der neuhoch- 
 deutschen Verskunst, 462, 310. 
 Principes scientifiques des beaux- 
 arts, 167. 
 
 Brugier, National-Litteratur, 374. 
 
 Brugsch, Adonisklage und Linos- 
 lied, 274. 
 
 Brunetiere, F., 129, note, 372, 441, 
 444 ; on the aesthetics of Boileau, 
 135; La critique litteraire, 14, 
 63 ; fitudes critiques sur 1'histoire 
 de la litterature fran9aise, 65 ; 
 L'evolution des genres dans 
 1'histoire de la litterature, 15, 
 64, 178, 182,251; L'evolution de 
 la poesie lyrique en France au 
 dix-neuvieme siecle, 252, 444 ; on 
 Hennequin's La crit. scientifique, 
 21 : Histoire et litterature, ^9, 
 jj8, 204, 215 ; Les metaphores de 
 Victor Hugo, 236 ; Questions de 
 critique, 16 ; on Sainte-Beuve, 
 36; on Taine, 119, 120. 
 
 Brunnhofer, H., Die Aesthetik der 
 Sprachen, 233. 
 
 Bruyere, La, Les caracteres, 436. 
 
 Bryant, W. C., 45 ; Prose Writings, 
 
 303 ; Writings (Lectures on Po- 
 etry). 347- 
 
 Bryant, W r . M., 102. 
 
 Brydges, Sir E., Anti-Critic, 53,54; 
 Censura-literaria, j-j, 390, 416. 
 
 Buchanan, R., The Coming Terror 
 (The Modern Young Man as 
 Critic), jv ; David Gray and Other 
 Essays on Poetry, 303, 418 ; Mas- 
 ter-Spirits, 16; A Poet's Sketch- 
 Book, 303. 
 
 Biicheler, Philologische Kritik, 47. 
 
 Biicher, K., Arbeit und Rhythmus, 
 272. 
 
 Buchholtz, Griech. Pausen, 495 ; 
 Varro's Beurtheilung d. romisch. 
 Versmasses, 495. 
 
 Biichner, Al., Gesch. d. englisch. 
 Poesie, 376. 
 
 Buck, Gertrude, Figures of Rhetoric, 
 235- 
 
 Buckham, J., Human Element in 
 Criticism, 51. 
 
 Buckingham, Duke of, Essay on 
 Poetry, 500. 
 
 Buckle, H. T., 427 ; History of Civ- 
 ilization in England, 252. 
 
 Buffier, Sur la nature du gout, 
 
 12 9 . 
 
 Buffon, G. L. L., Comte de, Dis- 
 
 cours sur le style, 207, 215, 437. 
 Biihler, 515. 
 Bunge, R., Zur Geschichte des 
 
 italienischen Sonetts, 505. 
 Bunnett, F. E., Translation of 
 
 Liibke, 197. 
 Buonamici, Franc., Discorsi poetici 
 
 in difesa d'Aristotile, 447. 
 Burger, Lenore, 412. 
 Burke, E., 130, 409; Philosophical 
 
 Inquiry into the Origin of our
 
 536 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ideas of the Sublime and Beauti- 
 ful, 94, 304, 412. 
 
 Burnell, 515. 
 
 Burnouf, 370, 515. 
 
 Buron, 372. 
 
 Burroughs, J., M. Arnold's Criti- 
 cism, 16 ; Greek Influence in Lit- 
 erature, 276 ; Indoor Studies, 203, 
 214. 
 
 Bursian, Archaol. Kritik u. Herme- 
 neutik, 47. 
 
 Burt, B. C., Some Relations between 
 Philosophy and Literature, 204, 
 215. 
 
 Butcher, S. H., 147, 150, 158; Aris- 
 totle's Theory of Poetry and Fine 
 Art, 90, 1 44, 152, 304, 380 ; Some 
 Aspects of the Greek Genius, 
 144, i$t ; The Evolution of 
 Humor, 137 ; Translation of Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, 127, note. 
 
 Byk, Physiologie d. Schonen, /jj. 
 
 Byron, Lord, 385 ; Don Juan (On 
 Poetry), 348; Letter to John 
 Murray, 415; Observations upon 
 Observations, 415. 
 
 Byron-Bowles controversy, 287. 
 
 Bysshe, 470, 500. 
 
 Bywater, Commentary on Aristotle's 
 Poetics, 380. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, Grundziige d. griech. 
 Rhythmik, 488. 
 
 Caesius Bassus, Fragmentum de- 
 metris, 491. 
 
 Caine, T. Hall, Cobwebs of Criti- 
 cism, 16, 49, 65 ; Sonnets of Three 
 Centuries, 505. 
 
 Caird, E., The Critical Philosophy 
 of Kant, 17, 47, 66, /<y, 132. 
 
 Callieres, 373. 
 
 Calmberg, A., Die Kunst d. Rede, 
 279. 
 
 Camoens, 458. 
 
 Campbell, Alex., Introd. to the His- 
 tory of Poetry in Scotland, 364. 
 
 Campbell, Geo., Philosophy of 
 Rhetoric, 236. 
 
 Campbell, J. F., on origin of poetry, 
 267 ; Popular Tales of the West 
 Highlands, 271. 
 
 Campbell, T., Essay on Poetry, 415; 
 Lectures on Poetry, 415; Speci- 
 mens of the British Poets, 385, 
 
 4i5- 
 
 Campiano, N. B., In artem poeticam 
 primordia, 381. 
 
 Campion, T., Observations on the 
 Art of English Poesie, 390, 499. 
 
 Capriano, G. P., Delia vera poetica, 
 446. 
 
 Carducci, G., Poliziano, 46. 
 
 Carillo, Libro de erudicion poetica, 
 512. 
 
 Carlyle, T., 392, 415, 440; Critical 
 and Miscellaneous Essays, 305 ; 
 Goethe, 416; On Heroes and 
 Hero-Worship, 201, 215, 305, 348, 
 416; Lectures on the History of 
 Literature, 252, 305, 416; Miscel- 
 lanies, 416; on poetry, 284. 
 
 Caro, E., TO, 444; La critique con- 
 temporaine, 17, 66; Melanges et 
 portraits, /j<?. 
 
 Carpenter, F. I., 386 ; on Worsfold's 
 Principles of Criticism, 232. 
 
 Carpenter, G. R., Exercises in 
 Rhetoric, 236. 
 
 Carriere, M., 128, 136, 426; Aes- 
 thetik, 94, 425; Die Kunst im 
 Zusammenhang d. Kulturent- 
 wickelung, 94, 172, 183, 253,425;
 
 INDEX. 
 
 537 
 
 Poesie, ihr Wesen u. ihre Formen, 
 
 253 ; on poetry, 283 ; Die sittliche 
 
 Weltordnung, 95, 183 ; DasWesen 
 
 und die Formen der Poesie, 95, 
 
 305, 423, 463. 
 Carton, H., Histoire de la critique 
 
 litteraire en France, 66. 
 Carvallo, L. A. de, Cisne de Apolo 
 
 de las excelencias, etc., 449. 
 Cascales, Franc., Tablas poeticas, 
 
 449> S'2- 
 Caspers, W., Ueber die Tropen und 
 
 Figuren, 236. 
 Castelvetro, Lud., 433 ; the Poetics 
 
 of Aristotle, 446. 
 Castilho, A. F. de, Tratado de 
 
 metrifica9ao Port., jij. 
 Caumont, A., La critique litteraire 
 
 de Sainte-Beuve, 77. 
 Cayley, C. B., 455; Pedigree of 
 
 English Heroic Verse, 463, 502 ; 
 
 Remarks on English Hexameters, 
 
 463. 53- 
 
 Ceci, L., Un' occhiata allo svolgi- 
 mento storico della critica lette- 
 raria e politica del seicento, 79. 
 
 Censorinus, on music and metres, 
 491. 
 
 Ceremonial origin of art, 175. 
 
 Ceruto, F., De re poetica, 382. 
 
 Chaignet, A.-d., 134; Essai de 
 metrique grecque, 463; Essai 
 sur la psychologic d'Aristote, 
 132; Histoire de la psychologic 
 des Grecs, 131 ; La rhetorique et 
 son histoire, 215 ; Principes de la 
 science du beau, 7.29. 
 
 Chalmers, 497 ; collection of poems, 
 
 385- 
 
 Chamberlain, Basil H., Classical 
 Poetry of Japan, 5/7 ; Handbook 
 
 of Colloquial Japanese, 518 ; Jap 
 
 anese Classical Poetry, 5/7. 
 Chambers, 377. 
 Chambrun, A. de, Une etude d'es- 
 
 thetique, 169. 
 Champagny, 490. 
 Chapelain, 65, 432. 
 Chapman, Music of Language, 501. 
 Charisius, Gram, lat., 492. 
 Charpentier, J. P., La litterature 
 
 franfaise au roe siecle, 66. 
 Chasles, P., Orient (Des rapports 
 
 du drame grec et du drame 
 
 hindou), 276. 
 Chateaubriand, 435, 439, 440; 
 
 Genie du christianisme, 440. 
 Chaucer, 385. 
 Chauyin, R. P., et Bidois, G. Le, La 
 
 litterature fran9aise par les cri- 
 tiques contemporains, 78. 
 Checchia, G., Del methodo-evolu- 
 
 tivo nella critica letteraria, 253. 
 Cheikhos, L., on Arabian literature, 
 
 S/9. 
 Chenier, Andre, Poe'me de 1'inven- 
 
 tion, 439. 
 
 Chenier, M.-J., 373. 
 Cherbuliez, V., L'art et la nature, 
 
 163, 169. 
 Cheyne, T. K., Founders of Old 
 
 Testament Criticism, 48. 
 Chezy, A. L., Theorie du Sloka ou 
 
 metre hero'ique Sanscrit, jv6. 
 Cholevius, Gesch. d. deutsch. Poesie, 
 
 374- 
 Christ, W., Begriff u. Gliederung d. 
 
 Litteraturgeschichte, 369 ; Ge- 
 
 schichte d. griechischen Litte- 
 
 ratur, 215; Metrik d. Griechen 
 
 u. Rbmer, 488. 
 Chrysippus, 157.
 
 538 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Church, A. J., Criticism as a Trade, 
 
 Churchill, 385. 
 
 Gibber, Colley, Apology for my 
 
 Life, 409 ; Lives of the Poets of 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 376. 
 Cicero, 157, 158, 387; De oratore, 
 
 235, 492 ; Orator, 235, 429. 
 Cicognari, Nic., Discorso di nuova 
 
 invenzione, etc., 447. 
 Cintio, G. G., Discorsi intorno all 
 
 comporre de' romanzi, etc., 446. 
 Clarke, 192. 
 
 Classic-romantic dispute, 287. 
 Clough, A. H., 455. 
 Coan, T. M., Critic and Artist, 17, 
 
 66. 
 Cocondrius, Concerning Tropes, 
 
 235- 
 
 Cohen, H., 426; Die dichterische 
 Phantasie, 166, 427 ; Kant's Be- 
 griindung der Aesthetik, 133- 
 
 Colebrooke, 516. 
 
 Coleridge, Hartley, Marginalia, 416. 
 
 Coleridge, S. T., 393, 414, 415, 417 ; 
 Biographia literaria, 415; Com- 
 plete Works, 216, 305 ; Lectures 
 on English Poets, 415; Literary 
 Remains (on poetry), 305. 
 
 Collier, Jeremy, 376, 395 ; Short 
 View of the Immorality and Pro- 
 faneness of the English Stage,4O4. 
 
 Collingwood, Art-Teaching of Rus- 
 kin, 417. 
 
 Collins, 410. 
 
 Colmenares, Diego de, Censura de 
 Lope da Vega Carpio, etc., 449. 
 
 Colvin, S., 49, 197 ; Art, 95 ; Fine 
 Arts, 95, 120, 172, 182, 183, 306; 
 on poetry, 286. 
 
 Comic, Aesthetics of the, 137. 
 
 Communal poetry, 267-274. 
 
 Communication, Instinct for, 175. 
 
 Comparative Literature, 248-278 ; 
 Society of, 255. 
 
 Comparative method, 266. 
 
 Comparative study of method in 
 literary history, 372. 
 
 Comparative versification, 458. 
 
 Comparetti, D., Kalevala, 274, 515 ; 
 Vergilio nel medioevo, 46. 
 
 Comte, A., The Positive Philosophy, 
 168, 183, 253. 
 
 Comte, Ch., Les stances libres dans 
 Moliere, 508. 
 
 Condillac, E. B., CEuvres (Du carac- 
 tere du style, Dissertation sur 
 1'harmonie du style), 234. 
 
 Conington, Vergil, 490. 
 
 Conti, Prince de, 395. 
 
 Convention in the arts, 182. 
 
 Cook, A. S., Art of Poetry, 301, 
 381 ; First Book in Old English, 
 502 ; The Province of English 
 Philology, 204; edition of Sid- 
 ney's Defense of Poesie, J9/; 
 Touchstones of Poetry, 207, 212, 
 297. 
 
 Cook, E. W., The Relation of the 
 Fine Arts to One Another, 769. 
 
 Cook, G. W., Poets and Problems, 
 348. 
 
 Corneille, 507 ; Le Cid, 432. 
 
 Cornificius, Rhetorica ad Heren 
 nium, 491. 
 
 Correa, Th., commentary on the 
 Ars Poetica, 382; De antiquit. 
 poesis, 382. 
 
 Corson, H., The Aims of Literary 
 Study, 216 ; his definition of litera- 
 ture, 201 ; A Primer of English 
 Verse, 463.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Corssen, 491 ; Aussprache, Voka- 
 lismus und Betonung d. latei- 
 nischen Sprache, 488. 
 Cortese, G. C., Avvertimenti nel 
 
 poetare, 447. 
 
 Cortoza, Observaciones sobre versi- 
 ficacion, 513. 
 
 Costelloe, Mrs. M. W., The New 
 and the Old Art Criticism, 49. 
 
 Cotterill, H. B., 418; An Introduc- 
 tion to the Study of Poetry, 306. 
 
 Couat, Auguste, La poesie Alexan- 
 drine sous les trois Ptolemees, 370. 
 
 Coupry, H., Traite de la versifica- 
 tion arabe, 518. 
 
 Courthope, W. J., 409, 418 ; Addi- 
 son, 407 ; History of English 
 Poetry, j?j ; The Liberal Move- 
 ment in English Literature, 307 ; 
 Life in Poetry, 307. 
 
 Cousin, V., 129, 134, 232, 419; 
 Cours de 1'histoire de la philoso- 
 phic moderne, 95; Du vrai, du 
 beau, et du bien, 95, 442 ; Lec- 
 tures on the True, the Beautiful, 
 and the Good, 95, 124. 
 
 Cowley, A., 393, 396, 398 ; Address 
 to the Royal Society, 397 ; Davi- 
 deis, 397 ; Ode or Address, 397 ; 
 Preface to his works, 397 ; Propo- 
 sition for the Advancement of 
 Learning, 397, 398. 
 
 Cowper, 410. 
 
 Cox, Leonard, Arte or Crafte of 
 Rhetoryke, 386. 
 
 Craik, 377. 
 
 Grain, Latein. Hexam., 494. 
 
 Cranch, Preface to trans, of Aeneid, 
 
 SOS- 
 Crane, Preface to trans, of Aeneid, 
 
 53- 
 
 Crane, Lucy, Lectures on Art, 126. 
 
 Crawshaw, Interpretation of Litera- 
 ture, 202, 204, 211, 216. 
 
 Crepet, Les poe'tes franais, 372. 
 
 Crescimbeni, G. M., La bellezza 
 della volgar poesia, 447 ; Istoria 
 della volgar poesia, 447. 
 
 Creuze de Lesser, Table ronde, 441. 
 
 Critic, Qualifications of, 8, 9. 
 
 Critical activity, Periods of, 58. 
 
 Critical theories, First appearance 
 of, 60 ; prominence of, 60. 
 
 Critical theory, Relation of to criti- 
 cal practice, 61. 
 
 Criticism, Analytic, 75 ; art, 49 ; 
 biblical, 48 ; curiosities of, 49 ; 
 Danish, 79; definitions of, 1-4; 
 development of, 56, 60; Dutch, 
 79 ; English, history of, 79 ; 
 French, history of, 77, 78 ; Ger- 
 man, history of, 79; higher, 
 355; historical, 4, 5, 48; history 
 of, 55-79 ; Italian, history of, 
 79 ; and kindred sciences, 4 ; 
 kinds of, 4, 5. 
 
 Criticism, Literary, Types of, 5, 6; 
 purpose of, 6, 7 ; judicial method 
 of, 5 ; inductive, 5 ; and creation, 
 7,8; canons of, 9. 
 
 Criticism, Masterpieces of, 43-46; 
 moralizing, 75; musical, 48; na- 
 tional types of, 49, 50 ; origin of, 
 55, 56, 60; philological, 47; phil- 
 osophical, 46, 47 ; Russian, 79 ; 
 scientific, 4, 5 ; Spanish, history 
 of, 79 ; species of, 57 ; stages of 
 growth of, 57, 60; textual, 354, 
 
 355- 
 
 Critiques, Examination of, 43. 
 Croiset, Alf., La poesie de Pindare 
 
 et les lois du lyrisme grec, 489.
 
 540 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Croiset et Maur, 370. 
 
 Cronet, 488. 
 
 Crousle, L., La critique au icp 
 siecle, Revue de 1'histoire de la 
 critique avant le ige siecle, 67. 
 
 Crowe, J. A., and Cavalcaselle, G. 
 B., A New History of Painting 
 in Italy, 184 ; A History of Paint- 
 ing in North Italy, 184. 
 
 Croy, Henri de, L'art et science de 
 rhetorique pour faire rimes et 
 ballades, 429. 
 
 Criiger, J., Gottsched u. d. Schwei- 
 zer, 67. 
 
 Cruttwell, Hist. Rom. Lit., 491. 
 
 Cueva, Juan de la, Egemplar po- 
 etico, o arte poet, espanol., 448. 
 
 Curme, (ed.) poems of Alphonse de 
 Lamartine, 506. 
 
 Cust, R. W., on Indian literature 
 and languages, 515; Linguistic 
 and Oriental Studies, 515. 
 
 Cyclic method in literary history, 
 352, 353- 
 
 Dacier, Andre, commentary on Le 
 Bossu, 395 ; Poetique d'Aristote, 
 436. 
 
 Dacier, Mme., 436. 
 
 Dallas, E. S., 418; The Gay Sci- 
 ence, 162, 308; Poetics, 308. 
 
 Daniel, S-, Defense of Rhime, 390, 
 500. 
 
 Danielo, B., La poetica, 446. 
 
 Danish criticism, 79. 
 
 Dannon, 373. 
 
 Dante, 458; De vulgari eloquio, 
 380. 
 
 Darmesteter, A., 444 ; La vie des 
 mots, 236 ; Les origines de la 
 poesie persane, 273 ; Point de 
 
 contact entre le Mahabharata et 
 le Shah-Nameh, 275. 
 
 Darwin, C., Descent of Man, 135, 
 181 ; Expression of the Emo- 
 tions, /j>7 ; Origin of Species, 
 135- 
 
 Dathi, A., Libellus de variis lo- 
 quendi figuris, 236. 
 
 Daurat, 429. 
 
 Davenant, Sir W., Gondibert, 397, 
 500 ; Preface to Gondibert, 435, 
 note, 500. 
 
 Davidson, 516. 
 
 Davidson, Jas. W., The Poetry of 
 the Future, 309. 
 
 Davidson, Thos., Translation of 
 Plotinus, 113. 
 
 Davis, Sir J. F., The Poetry of the 
 Chinese, 517. 
 
 Day, H. N., Art of Discourse, 236; 
 Science of Aesthetics, 125. 
 
 Decadent Movement in Literature, 
 444- 
 
 Degenhardt, E., Die Metapher bei 
 den Vorlaufern Molieres, 236. 
 
 Dehlen, A., Die Theorie d. Arist. 
 u. d. Tragodie d. antiken christl. 
 naturwissenschaftl. Weltanschau- 
 ung, 90. 
 
 Dekker, 392. 
 
 De Mille, Jas., Elements of Rhet- 
 oric, 236. 
 
 Demogeot, J.C., 372, 379, 444; La 
 critique et les critiques en France 
 au ige siecle, 67; Histoire des 
 litteratures etrangeres, 253, 275 ; 
 Hist, de la litt. fran9aise, J7/; 
 Tabl. de la litt. fr. au XVIIe 
 siecle avant Corneille, 432. 
 
 Denham, J., 396, 397 ; Cooper's 
 Hill, 396; Preface to Essay on
 
 INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 Translation, 397 ; Preface to Sir 
 Richard Fanshaw's Translation 
 of Guarini's Pastor Fido, 396. 
 
 Denina, Carlo, Saggio sopra la Lette- 
 ratura italiana, 448. 
 
 Dennis, J., 393, 398, 410; Advance- 
 ment and Reformation of Modern 
 Poetry, 397, 406; Grounds of 
 Criticism in Poetry, 406; Impar- 
 tial Critic, 403 ; Large Account of 
 the Taste in Poetry, etc., 406; 
 Miscellanies in Verse and Prose, 
 403 ; Remarks on Pope's Rape of 
 the Lock, 500; Remarks upon 
 Prince Arthur, 403 ; Three Letters 
 on the Genius and Writings of 
 Shakespeare, 408. ' 
 
 De Quincey, T., 414, 416, 440; 
 Brevia (Posthumous Works), 
 201 ; The Collected Writings, 
 216; his division of literature, 
 21 1; Essay on Pope, 211; 
 Essay on Style, 210; Essays on 
 Style, Rhetoric, and Language, 
 204, 216; Letters to a Young 
 Man, 21 1 ; Translation of Kant, 
 
 ! 37- 
 
 Derby, Preface to trans, of Iliad, 503. 
 
 Des Autels, 507. 
 
 Descartes, Aesthetics of, 135. 
 
 Deschamps, Eustache, L'art de die- 
 ter, 507 ; Art poetique, 428. 
 
 Deschanel, E., 372, 444; Physiol. 
 des ecrivains, 18 ; Le romantisme 
 des classiques, 432. 
 
 Deschanel, P., on Sainte-Beuve, 36. 
 
 Des Essarts, E., Boileau devant la 
 critique moderne, 77, 372. 
 
 Desmarets, 435 and note. 
 
 Desnoiresterres, 372, 444; Voltaire, 
 439- 
 
 Deutinger, on imitation, 161. 
 
 Deutschmann, K., De poesis grace, 
 rhythmicae primordiis, 493 ; De 
 poesis grace, rhythm, usu et 
 origine, 493. 
 
 DeVere, A., Essays Literary and 
 Ethical, 253, 309 ; Essays, chiefly 
 on Poetry, 309. 
 
 Devey, J., Comparative Estimate of 
 Modern English Poets, 365. 
 
 Dewey, J., 451 ; on the aesthetics of 
 laughter, 137; Outlines of Ethics, 
 96; Poetry and Philosophy, 204, 
 309; Psychology, 96, 122, 166, 
 206, 217. 
 
 Dial, The, 420. 
 
 Diderot, 1 29,^ 436, 490 ; Essais sur 
 la peinture (imitation), 160; (Les 
 feuilles de Grimm), 437 ; Le fils 
 naturel, 438; CEuvres completes 
 (aesthetics), 96 ; The Paradox of 
 Acting, 162, 210; Pere de famille, 
 438. 
 
 Dielschneider, J. J., Ueber die Poe- 
 sie, 347. 
 
 Diez, F., Altromanische Sprach- 
 denkmaler berichtigt u. erklart, 
 306; Ueber d. epischen Vers, 
 506 ; Die erste Kunst- und Hof- 
 poesie, j/j ; Grammaire des 
 langues romanes, 507; Leben u. 
 Werke d. Troubadours, 371. 
 
 Digby, Sir K., Two Treatises on 
 the Nature of Bodies and the 
 Nature of Man's Soul, 348. 
 
 Dilthey, W., Zu Goethes Philoso- 
 phie d. Natur, 163. 
 
 Dimetresco, C. D., Der Schonheits- 
 begriff, fj6, 1 66. 
 
 Dingeldein, O., Gleichklang u. Reim 
 in antiker Poesie, 493 ; Der Reim
 
 542 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 bei den Griechen und Rbmern, 
 
 493- 
 Dio Chrysostom, De del cognitione, 
 
 158. 
 
 Diomedes, Gram, lat, 492. 
 Dionysius, 157, 158; De composit. 
 
 verborum, 489. 
 Disraeli, I., 457 ; Amenities of 
 
 Literature, 456; Calamities and 
 
 Quarrels of Authors (criticism), 
 
 52 \ Curiosities of Literature, 49. 
 Dissen, 488 ; De ratione poetica 
 
 carminum Pindaricorum, 488. 
 Dixon, W. M., English Poetry from 
 
 Blake to Browning, 309, 418; 
 
 Poetry and its Relation to Life, 
 
 418. 
 Dobson, Austin, Foreign Forms of 
 
 Verse, 505. 
 Dodge, M. A., Skirmishes and 
 
 Sketches (critics), 51. 
 Dodsley, Robt., Collection of Old 
 
 Plays, 410 ; Rhetoric and Poetry, 
 
 236. 
 Dolce, Lud., Horace's Epistle to the 
 
 Pisos, 445. 
 
 Donati, Eduardo, 496. 
 Donatus, Aelius, 491, 492; De arte 
 
 poetica libri tres, 382. 
 Donner, O., Lieder d. Lappen, 514. 
 Donovan, Festal Origin of Human 
 
 Speech, 270, 272. 
 Doring, Die Kunstlehre des Aris- 
 
 toteles, 132, 148, 152, 154, 296. 
 Dottain, E., Nouveau systeme de 
 
 critique historique, 48. 
 Douglas, Professor, on China, 517. 
 D'Ovidio, F., Saggi critici, 46. 
 Dowden, E., 44, 372, 422, 440, 443. 
 
 444 ; on French aesthetics, 1 34 ; on 
 
 Hennequin's La crit. scientifique, 
 
 21 ; History of French Literature, 
 432, 435, 436, 441 ; Literary Criti- 
 cism in France, 18, 67, 227 ; Poet- 
 ical Feeling for Nature, 163,346 ; 
 on Sainte-Beuve, j6 ; Shakes- 
 pearian criticism, 418 ; Shelley, 
 418; Studies in Literature, /6?, 
 418; Transcendentalism in Po- 
 etry, 418; Transcripts and Stud- 
 ies, 20 1. 
 
 Doyle, F. C., Introduction to the 
 Study of Rhetoric, 236 ; Lectures 
 on Poetry, 417. 
 
 Dracon of Stratonicea, irepl ^rpuv, 
 489. 
 
 Drake, N., Essays, Biographical, 
 Critical, arid Historical, 217; 
 Shakespeare and his Times, 
 
 495- 
 Drayton, Michael, Epistle of Poets 
 
 and Poesy, 394. 
 Drees, H., Die poetische Naturbe- 
 
 trachtung in d. Liedern d. deut- 
 
 schen Minnesanger, 165. 
 Dreher, E., Kunst in ihrer Bezie- 
 
 hung zur Psychologic, 166. 
 Droz, Ed., La critique litteraire, 18. 
 Drummond, Jas., Philo Judaeus, 
 
 '59- 
 Drummond, W., of Hawthornden, 
 
 3 8 S. 395- 
 
 Dryden, J., 393, 396, 398, 410, 434; 
 Dedication to Lord Orrery, 398 , 
 Dedication of the Third Miscel- 
 lany, 402 ; Defense of the Essay 
 of Dramatic Poesy, 399 ; Dis- 
 course on the Original and Prog- 
 ress of Satire, 402 ; Epistle Dedi- 
 catory of the Spanish Fryar, 401 ; 
 Epistle to Motteux, 404; Essay 
 of Dramatic Poesy, 399; Essays.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 543 
 
 500; Grounds of Criticism in 
 Tragedy, 401 ; Heads of an An- 
 swer to Rymer, 400; Preface to 
 All for Love, 400 ; Preface to the 
 Conquest of Granada, 399; Pref- 
 ace to Don Sebastian, 401, 402; 
 Preface to the Fables, 404 ; Pref- 
 ace to Oedipus, 400, 401;- Par- 
 allel of Poetry and Painting, 403 ; 
 Preface to Rival Ladies, 396; 
 Preface to the State of Inno- 
 cence, 399, 433 ; Translation of 
 Du Fresnoy's Art of Painting, 
 403 ; Works, 18, 310. 
 
 Du Bartas, 387. 
 
 Du Bellay, J., 64, 428, 458, 507; 
 Defense et illustration de la 
 langue fran9aise, 429. 
 
 Diiben, G. von, Lappland och Lap- 
 parne, 314. 
 
 Dubois, 507. 
 
 Du Bois-Reymond, E., Relation of 
 Natural Science to Art, /6j. 
 
 Dubos, Abbe J. B., Reflexions cri- 
 tiques sur la poesie et la peinture, 
 
 43(>- 
 
 Due, Lucien, fitude raisonnee de la 
 versification fran9aise, 463. 
 
 Diihr, A., Ueber Metrik und Rhyth- 
 mik, 463, 489. 
 
 Du Marsais, C. C., Des Tropes, 
 236; on the naturalness of fig- 
 ures, 235. 
 
 Dumas, A., 444. 
 
 Du Meril, Histoire de la poesie 
 scandinave, 513; Poesie popu- 
 laire lat. du moyen age, 494. 
 
 Dummler, on the refrain, 272. 
 
 Dumont, L., Des causes du rire, 777. 
 
 Dunlop, J. C., History of Fiction, 
 276. 
 
 Diintzer, 491 ; Vom Saturnischen 
 
 Verse, 495. 
 Dupuy, A., 444. 
 Dupuy, T., Melanges litteraire et 
 
 historique (criticism), j-j. 
 Duquesnel, 373. 
 Dutch criticism, 79. 
 Dutch poetry, 375. 
 Dyer, L., Studies of the Gods in X 
 
 Greece, 254. 
 Dynamic method in literary history, 
 
 366, 367- 
 Dynamic relation of literature to 
 
 life and thought, 362. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir C. L., (ed.) Handbook 
 
 of Painting, 185. 
 Eaton, Modern French Aesthetics, 
 
 134- 
 
 Eberhard, 424. 
 
 Ebers, G., on Rhyme and Allitera- 
 tion, 516. 
 
 Ebert, 370, 371. 
 
 Ebrard, \V., Kritik, 48 ; Die Allite- 
 ration in d. lat. Sprache, 493. 
 
 Eckart, Rud.,.Die didaktische Poe- 
 sie, ihr Wesen u. ihre Vertreter, 
 
 347- 
 
 Edkins, J., Poetry of Li-tai-po, 517. 
 Egger, ., 144, 157, 444; Essai sur 
 
 1'histoire de la critique chez les 
 
 Grecs, 67, 90, 131, 153, 435; 
 
 L'Hellenisme en France, 276, 
 
 43- 
 Egger, V., La parole interieure, 206, 
 
 217. 
 Eichendorff, Gesch. d. poetisch. Lit. 
 
 Deutschlds., 374. 
 Eichorn, J. G., 379; Geschichte der 
 
 Litteratur, 274. 
 Eichthal, E. d', Du rhythme dans
 
 544 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 la versification francaise, .507, 
 
 463- 
 
 Eliot, Geo., Essays, 19. 
 
 Elliot, E., on the Sonnet, 505. 
 
 Ellis, A. J., 453, 455, 458; Early 
 English Pronunciation, 463 ; Es- 
 sentials of Phonetics, 463 ; On 
 the Physical Constituents of Ac- 
 cent and Emphasis, 463 ; Quanti- 
 tative Pronunciation of Latin, 
 452, 464; Relations of Thought 
 to Sound as the Pivot of Philo- 
 logical Research, 2oj, 217; Re- 
 marks on Mayor's Two Papers 
 on Rhythm, 464. 
 
 Ellis, Havelock, 254. 
 
 Ellis, Robinson, Poems and Frag- 
 ments of Catullus, 490, 504. 
 
 Elster, E., Die Aufgaben d. Littera- 
 turgeschichte, 254, ^77 ; Prinzi- 
 pien d. Litteraturwissenschaft, 
 217, 236. 
 
 Elyot, Sir Thos., on effect of poetry, 
 292. 
 
 Elze, Karl, 425; Geschichte des 
 englischen Hexameters, 503 ; 
 Grundriss d. Engl. Philol., 19, 
 242-247, 375, 465, 495, 504 ; Notes 
 on the Elizabethan Dramatists, 
 502. 
 
 Emerson, O. F., The Development 
 of Blank Verse, 503. 
 
 Emerson, R. W., Complete Works, 
 20, 96, 218, 312; his definition of 
 literature, 201 ; on poetry, 284. 
 
 Engel, J. J., 372; Anfangsgriinde 
 einer Theorie der Dichtungsarten 
 aus deutschen Mustern entwickelt, 
 312,424. 
 
 Engelbrecht, on Greek metric, 488. 
 
 England's Helicon, 384, 394. 
 
 English aesthetics, 130. 
 
 English criticism, History of, 78. 
 
 English poetry, History of, 375- 
 378- 
 
 Ennius, 491. 
 
 Enzina, Juan de la, Arte de Poesia 
 Castellana, 448. 
 
 Epos,,373- 
 
 Erasmus, D., De parabolis sine simi- 
 libus, 236. 
 
 Erdmann, E., History of Philoso- 
 phy, 90, 131, 132. 
 
 Ernst, A., on the aesthetics of liter- 
 ature, /j ; on music, in the Grande 
 encyclopedic, 169. 
 
 Ernst, O. D., Gedankenwerkstatt d. 
 Dichters, 166. 
 
 Eskuche, Latein. Hexam., 495. 
 
 Espinel, V. da, Rimas, 448. 
 
 Essen, Ernst, Bemerkungen zu 
 Aristoteles' Poetik, gi, 157. 
 
 Estienne, 431, 507. 
 
 Everett, A., Tone of British Criti- 
 cism, jo. 
 
 ^Everett, C. C., Philosophy of the 
 Sublime, 136; Poetry, Comedy, 
 and Duty, 97, 122, 162, 312; on 
 Ruskin, ffj, 127 ; The Science of 
 Thought, 97; The Sublime, 97. 
 
 Everett, Erastus, A System of Eng- 
 lish Versification, 465. 
 
 Evremond, Saint, 433. 
 
 Ewald, H., Die Dichter des alten 
 Bundes, 516. 
 
 Eye, A. von, Das Reich des Schonen, 
 98, 132. 
 
 Fabbrini da Fighine, G., the Ars 
 Poetica of Horace, ././(> 
 
 Fabri, P., 507 ; Le grand et vrai art 
 de pleine rhetorique, 431.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 545 
 
 Fabriano, Gllio da, G. A., La topi- 
 
 ca poetica, 446. 
 Fabricius, 370. 
 
 Fabricius, Cremnicensis, 498. 
 Fabricius, G., De re poetica, 382 ; 
 
 edition of Horace, 381. 
 Faguet, ., 444 ; Ferdinand Brune- 
 
 tiere, 78. 
 Falckenberg, R., Kunstler u. 
 
 Mensch, sj8. 
 Falkenheim, H., Die Entstehung d. 
 
 Kantischen Aesthetik, /jj ; Kuno 
 
 Fischer und d. litterar-historische 
 
 Methode, 254. 
 Fauchet, C., Recueil de 1'origine de 
 
 la langue et poesie fran9oise, etc., 
 
 43- 
 
 Fauriel, P., 441 ; Dante e le origin! 
 della lingua e della letteratura, 
 46 ; Hist, de la poesie proven9ale, 
 372, 57- 
 
 Fawcett, E., Should Critics be Gen- 
 tlemen ? jo. 
 
 Fechner, G. T., 129, 130; aesthetics 
 of, 134 ; Vorschule der Aesthetik, 
 98 ; Zur experimentalen Aesthe- 
 tik, 98. 
 
 Feifalik, 511. 
 
 Fellner, R., Die neuere franzbsische 
 Kritik (on Tissot), 68. 
 
 Felton, C. C., British Criticism,^. 
 
 Fenelon, 436. 
 
 Fenner, D., Die Aesthetik Kants, 
 
 r j2- 
 
 Fenner, Dudley (?), The Artes of. 
 Logike and Rhetorike, 388. 
 
 Fergusson, J., History of Architec- 
 ture, 180, 185. 
 
 Ferrari, G. S., Sul bello, 170. 
 
 Ferri, E., Les criminels dans 1'art et 
 la litterature, 218. 
 
 Ferri, L., Essai sur 1'histoire de la 
 philosophic en Italie au XIXe 
 siecle, 171. 
 
 Ferrier, Human Mind (Function of 
 Imagination), 291. 
 
 Ferrieri, P., Francesco De Sanctis 
 e la critica letteraria, jo, 79. 
 
 Fetis, Histoire generate de la mu- 
 sique, 274. 
 
 Feugere, 373. 
 
 Feussner, 511. 
 
 Fichte, 424. 
 
 Ficino, 387. 
 
 Fielding, Tom Jones, 411. 
 
 Figures, 208, 209, 235-238. 
 
 Finzi, Gius., Principii di stilistica, 
 versificazione e metrica italiana, 
 512. 
 
 Fioretti, Ben., 447. 
 
 Fischer, K., Francis Bacon und 
 seine Nachfolger, .299. 
 
 Fiske, John, Cosmic Philosophy, 
 451 ; The Unseen World and 
 other Essays, 120. 
 
 Fjellner, A., 514. 
 
 Flach, H., Geschichte d. griech. 
 Lyrik, 370. 
 
 Flaubert, G., Correspondence, 223. 
 
 Fleckeisen, Plautus, 490. 
 
 Fleischer, H., Ueber d. Moglichkeit 
 e. normativen Aesthetik, 769. 
 
 Fletcher, 455. 
 
 Flint, R., Historical Philosophy in 
 France, 264; Philosophy of His- 
 tory in France, 266; on Sainte- 
 Beuve, 36. 
 
 Florez, C., (ed.) A. Ordonez's Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, 449. 
 
 Floto, Ueber historische Kritik, 48. 
 
 Folk-Song, Origin of the, 267-274. 
 
 Folk-tales, 267.
 
 546 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fonseca, Jose de, Tratado de versi- 
 ficasao port., 513. 
 
 Fontaine, La, 431, 507 : Epitre a 
 Huet, 436. 
 
 Fontanals, Mila y, Historia literaria 
 del decasilabo y endecasilabo an- 
 apesticos, 513. 
 
 Fontenelle, 405 ; Digression sur les 
 anciens et les modernes, 435 ; Dis- 
 cours sur 1'eglogue, 435 ; Reflex- 
 ions sur la poesie, 435. 
 
 Form, Literary, 205. 
 
 Forster, F., 371. 
 
 Forster, M., review of Gummere's 
 Old English Ballads, 274. 
 
 Forsyth, W., Essays Critical and 
 Narrative, 234. 
 
 Fortlage, C., Vorlesungen iiber die 
 Geschichte der Poesie, 379. 
 
 Fortunatianus, Ars, 491- 
 
 Fouillee, A., Education from a Na- 
 tional Standpoint, 218 ; La 
 morale, 1'art et la religion d'apres 
 M. Guyau, 100. 
 
 Fouquelin de Chauny, 507. 
 
 Fournel, 373. 
 
 Fracarroli, Gius.. D'una teoria 
 razionale di metrica italiana, 512. 
 
 Fracastor, Girol., Naugerius, 381. 
 
 France, Anatole, 444. 
 
 Fraunce, Abraham, Arcadian Rheto- 
 rike, 387, 498. 
 
 Freeman, E. A., Comparative Poli- 
 tics (The Unity of History), 266. 
 
 Freese, Die griech.-rom. Metrik, 488. 
 
 French aesthetics, 134. 
 
 French criticism, History of, 77, 78. 
 
 French, History of the English 
 Sonnet, 505. 
 
 French poetry, History of, 371, 372. 
 
 Freron, 438. 
 
 Freudenthal, J., Ueber d. Begriff d. 
 
 Wortes <f>avra<ria bei Aristoteles, 
 
 149. 
 Friedlander, L., Homerische Kritik, 
 
 271 ; Kant in seinem Verhaltnis 
 
 zur Kunst und schonen Natur, 
 
 132; Sittengeschichte Roms (Das 
 
 Interesse fur Natur u. s. w.), /6j. 
 Friis. J. A.. Lappisk Mythologi.jv^ ; 
 
 Lappiske Sprogproever, 514. 
 Fritzsche, R., Die Anfange der 
 
 Poesie, 273, 378. 
 Froehde, O., Begriff u. Aufgabe d. 
 
 Litteraturwissenschaft, 47, 218; 
 
 De hexam. lat., 494. 
 Frohschammer, J., Ueber die Prin- 
 
 cipien d. Aristotelischen Philos., 
 
 '53- 
 
 Frost, H. W., Figures of Speech, 
 236. 
 
 Frothingham, A. I,., The Philoso- 
 phy of Art, 168. 
 
 Fruit, J. P., Evolution of Figures 
 of Speech, 236. 
 
 Fuller, S. Margaret, Papers on Lit- 
 erature and Art, 20. 
 
 Fulwood, Wm., The Enimie of Idle- 
 ness, 387. 
 
 Furnivall, Introduction to the Leo- 
 pold Shakespeare, 503. 
 
 Furtwangler, 488. 
 
 Gager, Dr., 392. 
 
 Galton, F., Hereditary Genius, 138 ; 
 
 Inquiries into Human Faculty, 
 
 292. 
 
 Ganderax, 46. 
 Garcilasso, 387. 
 Garlandia, Johannes, 380. 
 Gascoigne, George, Certayne Notes 
 
 of Instruction Concerning the
 
 INDEX. 
 
 547 
 
 Making of Verse or Rhyme, 390, 
 
 496, 497. 
 Gaspary, 371. 
 Gates, Lewis E., Selections from 
 
 the essays of Francis Jeffrey, 
 
 68. 
 Gatschenberger, S., Geschichte der 
 
 englischen Litteratur, .275, 376; 
 
 Gesch. d. englischen Dichtkunst, 
 
 37(>- 
 
 Gauckler, Ph., Le beau et son his- 
 toire, 98, 126, 1 86, 218- 
 
 Gautier. L., 371, 508, 444; Les 
 epopees fran9aises, 372, 506. 
 
 Gautier, Th., 443 ; Hist, du roman- 
 tisme, 444. 
 
 Gayley, C. M., A Society of Com- 
 parative Literature, 255 ; Peleus 
 and Thetis of Catullus, 504. 
 
 Gayley, C. M., and Scott, F. N., 
 Guide to the Literature of Aes- 
 thetics, 54, 98, 122. 
 
 Gellert, Wie weit sich der Nutzen 
 der Regeln in d. Beredsamkeit 
 und Poesie erstrecke, 424. 
 
 Gellius, Aulus, Noctes atticae, 491. 
 
 Genee, R., Ueber Rhythmik d. 
 Sprache u. Vortrag, 509. 
 
 Genest, Account of the English 
 Stage, 416. 
 
 Genin, 373, 508. 
 
 Genius, 138. 
 
 Gentiles, Dr., 392. 
 
 Genung, J. F., Practical Elements 
 of Rhetoric, 52, 236. 
 
 Georgius Choeroboscus, Concern- 
 ing Tropes, 235. 
 
 Gerard, Essay on Taste, 106. 
 
 Gerber, Ad., Naturpersonification 
 in Poesie u. Kunst d. Alten, /6j. 
 
 Gerber, G., Die Sprache als Kunst, 
 
 201, 207, 218, 236, 271, 368; on 
 
 the origin of language, 268. 
 German aesthetics, 127-129. 
 German criticism, History of, 79. 
 Geruzez, E., 372, 444; Cours de 
 
 litterature, 218, 313. 
 Gervinus, G. G., Handbuch der 
 
 Geschichte der poetischen Na- 
 
 tionallitteratur, 275 ; Geschichte 
 
 der deutschen Dichtung, 275 ; 
 
 Gesch. d. poetisch. Nationallit- 
 
 teratur d. Deutschen (Geschichte 
 
 d. deutsch. Dichtung), 373. 
 Gesenius, Lehrgebaude d. hebr. 
 
 Sprache, 516. 
 
 Ghil, Rene, l traite du verbe, 465. 
 Gibbon, E., 416; Essai sur Petude 
 
 de la litterature, 219 ; Essay on 
 
 the History of Literature, 440. 
 Giddings, F. H., on origin of art, 
 
 175 ; Principles of Sociology, 775, 
 
 799, 272. 
 Gidel, 373. 
 
 Gifford, Wm., 44, 409, 414, 415. 
 Gilchrist, Censura literaria, 496. 
 Gildersleeve, 452, 488. 
 Gildon, C., 500; The Complete Art 
 
 of Poetry, 313, 408, 465; Laws 
 
 of Poetry, 408, 465. 
 Gilman, B. L, Syllabus of Lectures 
 
 on the Psychology of Pain and 
 
 Pleasure, 767, 219. 
 Ginguene, Histoire litteraire de 
 
 1'Italie, 441. 
 Girard, C. F., La centralization des 
 
 lettres en France, .277. 
 Girardin, St. Marc, 373, 442 ; Essais 
 
 de litterature et de morale, 219 ; 
 
 J. J. Rousseau, 439. 
 Gleditsch, H., 456; Metrik der 
 
 Griechen und Romer, 466.
 
 548 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gneisse, Schillers aesthetische 
 Wahrnehmung, 362. 
 
 Godefroy, 372. 
 
 Godkin, E. L., his definition of criti- 
 cism, 2. 
 
 Goedeke, K., Deutsche Dichtung im 
 Mittelalter, 42? ; Grundriss zur 
 Geschichte der deutschen Dich- 
 tung, 275, 374. 
 
 Goethe, 16, 112, 113, 129, 424, 426, 
 455; aesthetics of, 127; on art, 
 29 ; Conversations with Ecker- 
 mann, 123; Correspondence be- 
 tween Schiller and Goethe, 313 ; 
 Deutsche Baukunst, 127; Dich- 
 tung u. Wahrheit, 373 ; on dis- 
 interested criticism, u ; Faust, 
 455 ; on relation of art to nature, 
 163; Sammtliche Werke (on po- 
 etry), 313 ; Werke (aesthetics), 98, 
 99> 3 ! 3 > Goethe and Eckermann, 
 Gesprache mit Goethe, 99, 313 ; 
 Goethe, Eckermann, and Soret, 
 Conversations of Goethe, 99, 
 3i4- 
 
 Goldbeck-Loewe, A., Zur Geschichte 
 d. freien Verse in d. deutschen 
 Dichtung von Klopstock bis 
 Goethe, 510, j//. 
 
 Goldsmith, O., 410, 412, 415; on 
 the aim of poetry, 281 ; anthol- 
 ogy, 385 ; The Bee, 41 1 ; Essay 
 on Poetry, 501 ; Essays (On the 
 Use of Metaphors), 236; Present 
 State of Polite Learning, 68, 41 1. 
 
 Gonzalez, F. F., Historia de la critica 
 literaria en Espana, 79. 
 
 Gonzalez de Salas, J. A., Nueva 
 idea de la tragedia antigua, 
 
 449- 
 Goodell, Quantity, 494. 
 
 Gooderich, C., Chinese Hymnology, 
 
 51* 
 
 Gorgious Gallery of Gallant Inven- 
 tions, 384. 
 
 Gosse, E., 44, 422 ; Hist, of Eigh- 
 teenth Century Literature, ^77; 
 Jacobean Poets, 376; Modern 
 English Literature, 383, 396, 418, 
 433' 434 ! P' ea f r Certain Exotic 
 Forms of Verse, joj ; The Science 
 of Criticism, 22 ; Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury Studies, 376, 396; From 
 Shakespeare to Pope, 396, 504; 
 What is a great poet ? 346. 
 
 Gosson, Plays Confuted in Five Ac- 
 tions, 391 ; School of Abuse, 390. 
 
 Gostwick, English Poets, 376. 
 
 Gotthold, Ueber Hermann's Lehre 
 vom Vortrage d. griech. u. lat. 
 Vers, 494. 
 
 Gottschall, R. von, 426, 505, 458 ; 
 Deutsch. Nat.-Lit. d. 19. Jahrhs., 
 J7j; Poetik, 317, 426, 456, 466, 
 509. 
 
 Gottsched, J. C., 509; Versuch einer 
 kritischen Dichtkunst, 318, 423. 
 
 Gotzinger, Deutsche Litteratur, 374. 
 
 Grabow, A., Ueber Musik in d. 
 deutschen Sprache.jo?. 
 
 Grad, Ernst, Populare Vortrage iiber 
 Dichter und Dichtkunst, 428. 
 
 Graf, A., Considerazione intorno 
 alia storia letteraria, .277; Di un 
 trattazione scientifica della storia 
 letteraria, .277. 
 
 Gramont, F. de, 457 ; Le vers fran- 
 9ais, 466, 505, 506. 
 
 Grant, History of the Newspaper 
 Press, 406. 
 
 Grasse, J. G. T., Lehrbuch d. allgem. 
 Litt.-Gesch. aller bekannten Vol-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 549 
 
 ker d. Welt, 379 ; Lehrbuch einer 
 allgemeinen Litteraturgeschichte, 
 
 275- 
 Gravina, Vine., Delia razione poe- 
 
 tica, 447. 
 Gray, T., 407, 410 ; his interest in 
 
 Northern literature, 412 ; Metrum, 
 
 411. 
 Grazzini, Ces., Horace's Ars poe- 
 
 tica, 447. 
 Greef, G. de, Introd. a la sociologie, 
 
 f68, 174, 186, 219. 
 Greek aesthetics, 126, 127. 
 Green, John, Refutation of the 
 
 Apologie for Actors, 394. 
 Greene, H. E., A Grouping of 
 
 Figures of Speech, 236. 
 Greene, Robt., 396 ; Menaphon, 390. 
 Greenough, J. B., Accentual Rhythm 
 
 in Latin, 493 ; Early Latin Pros- 
 ody, 493 . 
 Gregorius Corinthius, Concerning 
 
 Tropes, 235. 
 Gregory the Great, 159. 
 Greinz, Die tragischen Motive in der 
 
 deutschen Dichtung seit Goethes 
 
 Tod, 365. 
 Grimm, H., Bemerkungen iiber 
 
 Werth u. Wirkung d. Kunst- 
 
 kritik, 49. 
 Grimm, J., 262, 511; on the ballad, 
 
 267- 
 Grimm, W., 456; on the ballad, 
 
 267, 271; on communal poetry, 
 
 271; Zur Geschichte des Reims, 
 
 466, 5/7 ; on rhyme in classical 
 
 Latin verse, 493. 
 Griveau, M., Les elements du beau, 
 
 769. 
 Grober, 371; Grundriss d. romani- 
 
 schen Philologie, 484, 508. 
 
 Groos, K., Die Spiele der Thiere 
 
 272, 273. 
 Grosart, 398. 
 Gross, P., Die Tropen und Figuren, 
 
 236- - 
 
 Grosse, E., Die Anfange d. Kunst, 
 170 ; The Beginnings of Art, 779, 
 1 86, 254; Der erste Baustein zu 
 einer ethnologischen Aesthetik, 
 770 ; Die Litteraturwissenschaft, 
 219, 254. 
 
 Grosse, Ueber Naturanschauung d. 
 alten griech. u. rom. Dichter, 
 /6J. 
 
 Groth, E., Die Aufgabe d. Litte- 
 raturgeschichte, 255; Kulturge- 
 schichte und Litteraturgeschichte, 
 
 254- 
 
 Grucker, ., Histoire des doctrines 
 litteraires et esthetiques en Alle- 
 magne, 68. 
 
 Grundtvig on the ballad, 267. 
 
 Guarini, Pastor Fido, 446. 
 
 Gudeman, A., Outlines of the His- 
 tory of Classical Philology, 54. 
 
 Guest, E., 452, 453, 454, 455, 495, 
 501, 502, 503; A History of Eng- 
 lish Rhythms, 466. 
 
 Guittone, 458. 
 
 Guizot, 444. 
 
 Gumbara, Lor., De perfecta poe- 
 seos ratione, 382. 
 
 Gummere, F. B., 134, note, 452, 
 453. 454 457 ; The Anglo-Saxon 
 Metaphor, 236; The Ballad and 
 Communal Literature, 256, 267; 
 A Handbook of Poetics, 237,318, 
 467 ; Metaphor and Poetry, 237 ; 
 Old English Ballads, 256, 271, 
 274 ; on the origin of folk-poetry, 
 267-270 ; The Translation of Beo-
 
 550 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 wulf and the Relation of Ancient 
 and Modern English Verse, 502. 
 
 Guoli, D., La rima e la poesia itali- 
 ana, j/^. 
 
 Gurney, E., 418, 422, 452 ; Power of 
 Sound, 48, loo, 125, 181, 319, 451, 
 468 ; Tertium Quid, 48, 123, 318, 
 468. 
 
 Gustafsson, De vocum in poemat. 
 graec. consonantia, 492. 
 
 Guyard, Theorie nouvelle de la me- 
 trique arabe, 518. 
 
 Guyau, M.-J., 130, 453; L'art au 
 point de vue sociologique, 100, 
 168, 187, 320; L'esthetique du 
 vers moderne, 346 ; Le plaisir du 
 beau et le plaisir du jeu, 166; 
 Les problemes de 1'esthetique con- 
 temporaine, 88, 100, 320, 468. 
 
 Guyet, J. A., L'elegance, 237. 
 
 Ilaase, Seneca, 491. 
 
 Habenicht, II., Alliteration bei 
 Horaz, 493. 
 
 Iladley, J., 452, 489; Essays, Philo- 
 logical and Critical, 465, 469 ; 
 Greek Rhythm and Metre, 487. 
 
 Ilahn, W., Gesch. d. poetisch. Litt. 
 d. Deutschen, 374 ; Das Nibelun- 
 genlied, 510. 
 
 Hake, Touchstone of Wittes, 498. 
 
 Hale, E. E., Jr., Constructive Rhet- 
 oric, 237. 
 
 Hales, J. W., on Chaucer, 385, note. 
 
 Hall, Anthony, 402. 
 
 Hall, Joseph, 385, 392. 
 
 Hallam, A. H., Remains in Prose 
 and Verse, 2-76. 
 
 Hallam, H., 379, 416; Introd. to 
 the Literature of Europe, 256. 
 
 Hallier, E., Aesthetik d. Natur, /6j. 
 
 Halm, Rhetores latini minores, 235. 
 
 Ilamann, A., 109. 
 
 Hamelius, P., 406; Die Kritik in 
 der englischen Literatur des 17. u. 
 1 8. Jahrhs., 383. 
 
 Hamerton, P. G., Drawing and En- 
 graving, 181, 199; French and 
 English, 234; Portfolio Papers, 
 122, 163. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir Wm., 130. 
 
 Hamilton, Walter, Poets Laureate 
 of England, 376. 
 
 Handefull of Pleasant Delites, 384. 
 
 Hannigan, D. F., The Literary Evo- 
 lution of Man, 258. 
 
 Hanslick, E., Vom Musikalisch- 
 Schonen, 273. 
 
 Harbois de Jubainville, Des rapports 
 de la versification du vieil irlan- 
 dais avec la versification romane, 
 45 S. 
 
 Hardie, R. P., on Aristotle's Poetics, 
 91, 156. 
 
 Hardy, A. S., Letters and Life, 20. 
 
 Hardy, Alex., Pastoral Plays, 431. 
 
 Harisse, H., French Criticism, jo. 
 
 Harrington, Sir John, 498; Brief 
 Apology for Poetrie, 391, 499; 
 Translation of Orlando Furioso, 
 
 39i- 
 Harris, Geo., Theory of the Arts, 
 
 126, 348. 
 Harris, Jas., Philological Inquiries, 
 
 20, 69. 
 Harrison, F., on Style in English 
 
 Prose, 23 j. 
 Hart, J. M., Handbook of English 
 
 Composition, 237. 
 Hart, Jul., Geschichte der Welt- 
 
 litteratur, 273. 
 Hartmann, E. von, 115; Aesthetics
 
 INDEX. 
 
 of, 129; Aesthetik, 133, 168, 177,, 
 219; Ausgewahlte Werke, 320; 
 Deutsche Aesthetik seit Kant, 
 Philosophic des Schonen, 100 ; 
 Deutsche Aesthetik, 116; on imi- 
 tation, 161, 162; on the pathetic, 
 137; on Trahndorff, 128; on the 
 ugly, 136- 
 
 Hartmann, J. D., Versuch einer all- 
 gemeinen Geschichte der Poesie 
 von den altesten Zeiten an, 378. 
 
 Hartmann, M., Metrum und Rhyth- 
 mus : Die Entstehung der arab. 
 Versmasse, 518. 
 
 Hartt, Geology of Brazil, 273. 
 
 Hartung, J. A., Dithyrambos, 494; 
 Geschichte der Rhythmenschop- 
 fung in griech. Lyriker, 493; 
 Lehren d. Alten iiber die Dicht- 
 kunst, 757. 
 
 Harvey, Gabriel, 389, 430, 504. 
 
 Haslewood, J. (ed.), Ancient Criti- 
 cal Essays upon English Poets 
 and P^esy, 320, 390, 495, 496. 
 
 Hastie, W., 102, 133,451; Transla- 
 tion of Hegel, 128. 
 
 Hatzfield, A., et Meunier, G., Les crit- 
 iques litteraries du 19^ siecle, 69. 
 
 Hauck, G., Ueber d. Stellung d. 
 Mathematik zur Kunst u. Wissen- 
 schaft, 770. 
 
 Haug, 515. 
 
 Hauptmann, 452. 
 
 Havell, H. L., 109; Translation of 
 Longinus, 159, 222. 
 
 Hawes, Pastime of Pleasure, 386. 
 
 Haym, R., De pulchri atque artis 
 notione, 144, 157. 
 
 Hazard, R. G., Essays on Language, 
 349 ; on poetry, 284. 
 
 Hazlitt, W., 414, 415, 416; Charac- 
 
 ters of Shakespeare's Plays, 415; 
 Lectures on the Dramatic Litera- 
 ture of the Reign of Elizabeth, 
 377, 415 ; Lectures on the English 
 Comic Writers, 321, 415; Lec- 
 tures on the English Poets, 321, 
 415; Round Table, jv, 415; 
 Table-Talk, j/, 415. 
 
 Hazlitt, \V. C., Essay on Milton's 
 Versification, 502 ; Offspring of 
 Thought, j7, 203, 237 ; Sketches 
 and Essays (on Taste), jv. 
 
 Hearn, L., Japanese folk songs, 
 274. 
 
 Hecker, Physiol. u. Psychol. d. 
 Lachens, 137. 
 
 Hedge, F. H., Atheism in Philoso- 
 phy. 237. 
 
 Hegel, 116, 117, 129, note, 189, 191, 
 198, 442 ; Aesthetik, 101, 127, 128, 
 133, 187, 207, 219, 237, 256, 321, 
 451; Classical Art, 102 Colvin 
 on, 183; on imitation, 161 ; In- 
 troduction to the Philosophy of + 
 Fine Art (Bosanquet's trans.), 
 102, 123, 172 ; Kedney's exposi- 
 tion of, 106 ; on law of art-evolu- 
 tion, 177; on metre, 134, note; 
 Philosophy of Art : Chivalry, 102 ; 
 on poetry, 281, 284; Die Poesie, 
 425; Romantic Art, 103 ; on the 
 stages of growth in art, 179; on 
 the sublime, 137 ; Symbolic Art, 
 102; Symbolism of the Sublime, 
 70j; on Winckelmann, 196. 
 
 Hegel and Michelet, The Philoso- 
 phy of Art, 102. 
 
 Hehn, V., Gedanken iiber Goethe 
 (Naturphantasie), i6j. 
 
 Heidemann, F., De doctrinae arti- 
 um Aristotelicae principiis, 153.
 
 552 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hein, Die bildenden Kiinste bei d. 
 Dayaks auf Borneo, 170. 
 
 Heine, H., Die romantische Schule, 
 3fS, 375, 425- 
 
 Heinsius, D., 449 ; De constitutione 
 tragoediae, 382; edition of Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, 382. 
 
 Heinze, P., and Goette, R., Deutsche 
 Poetik, u. s. w., 428. 
 
 Helferich, H., Kiinstler u. Kunst- 
 kritiker, 49. 
 
 Helmholtz, H. L. F. von, Optique 
 physiologique, 129 ; L'optique et 
 les arts, 767 ; On the Physiolog- 
 ical Causes of Harmony in Music, 
 469 ; Sensations of Tone, 103, 
 451, 452, 469. 
 
 Helps, A., Brevia (Critics, etc.), j/; 
 Friends in Council (on Giving and 
 Taking Criticism, etc.), 51. 
 
 Henkel, H., Das Goethesche Gleich- 
 nis, 237. 
 
 Hennequin, fi., 6, 444 ; La critique 
 scientifique, 21. 
 
 Henry, Ch., 130; La loi devolution 
 de la sensation musicale, 187 ; 
 Rapporteur esthetique, 451, 469. 
 
 Henry, V., Des origines du deca- 
 syllabe, 508. 
 
 Hense, K. K., Ueber d. Naturgefiihl 
 in alter u. neuer Poesie, 164 ; Poe- 
 tische Personification in griech. 
 Dichtung, 237. 
 
 Hephaestion, Enchiridion of Metres, 
 486, 489. 
 
 Herbart, Aesthetics of, 128, 134. 
 
 Herder, J. G. von, 129, 412, 424, 
 442, 509; Kalligone, 161 ; Kriti- 
 sche Walder, 161 ; Plastik, 161; 
 Sammtliche Werke (Aesthetics), 
 103; Sammtliche Werke (iiber 
 
 die Wirkung d. Dichtkunst auf 
 d. Sitten der Vblker), 256, 323 ; 
 Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 323, 
 516; Ursprung der Kunstrichter, 
 
 49- 
 
 Herford, C. H., Age of Wordsworth, 
 383; Literary Relations of Eng- 
 land and Germany in the Six- 
 teenth Century, 277. 
 
 Hermann, C., Aesthetische Farben- 
 lehre, 166. 
 
 Hermann, G., 491 ; Theorie d. Vers- 
 masses, 494. 
 
 Hermeneutics, 4, 47. 
 
 Hermosilla, Gomez, Arte de hablar 
 en prosa y verso, 512. 
 
 Herodianus, Concerning Figures, 
 
 235- 
 
 Herrmann, Die Aesthetik in ihrer 
 Geschichte, 131. 
 
 Hettner, H., Gesch. d. deutsch. Lit. 
 im 18. Jahrh., 375; Geschichte d. 
 englischen Literatur, 78, 377. 
 
 Hewitt, Mary, Literature a/id Ro- 
 mance of Northern Europe, 274. 
 
 Hexameter, Renovation of the, 455. 
 
 Hey wood, Thos., Apology for Actors, 
 
 393- 
 Higginson, Atlantic Essays, 203, 
 
 220. 
 
 Higher criticism, 355. 
 Hilberg, Isid., Die Princip. d. Sil- 
 
 benwagung u. d. daraus entsprin- 
 
 genden Gesetze d. Endsilben in d. 
 
 griech. Poesie, 492. 
 Hildebrand, K., Verstheilung d. 
 
 Edda, 501. 
 Hilgers, Der dramatische Vers 
 
 Shakespeare's, 503. 
 Hill, A. S., Foundations of Rhetoric, 
 
 237-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 553 
 
 Hill, D. J., Science of Rhetoric, 237. 
 Hillebrand, Deutsch. Nat.-Litt. im 
 
 18. u. 19. Jahrh., 375. 
 Hirsch, Gesch. d. deutsch. Litt., 374. 
 Hirt, 129. 
 Hirth, G., Aufgaben d. Kunstphysi- 
 
 ologie, 767; Physiologic de 1'art, 
 
 767. 
 Ilirzel, A., Gleichnisse und Meta- 
 
 phern im Rigveda, 237. 
 Historical Criticism, 48. 
 Hobbes, his definition of laughter, 
 
 137 ; Reply to Davenant, 397. 
 Hofer, Deutsche Lit.-Gesch., 374. 
 Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology, 
 
 122, 1 66, 237. , 
 Hoffmann, F. A., Poetry, its Origin, 
 
 Nature, and History, 378. 
 Hofmann, 371, 511. 
 Hogarth, W., 409; Analysis of 
 
 Beauty, 103, 412. 
 Hdgelsberger, K. G., Alliteration u. 
 
 Alliterationspoesie, 511. 
 Hogg, 414. 
 Hohlfeld, A. R., Studies in French 
 
 Versification, 469. 
 Holland, 371. 
 Holland, J. G., Every-Day Topics 
 
 (Criticism), 51. 
 
 Holmes, O. W., Physiology of Ver- 
 sification and the Harmonies of 
 
 Organic and Animal Life, 470 ; 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 323. 
 Holmes- Forbes, A. W., The Science 
 
 of Beauty, 769. 
 Holtzmann, 510, 515. 
 Holz, Anna, Die Kunst, 770. 
 Holzapfel, Ueber den Gleichklang 
 
 bei Homer, 492. 
 Home, Henry. See Kames. 
 Honoratus, Marius Servius, 492. 
 
 Hood, T., 454, 457. 
 
 Hood, Tom, Practical Guide to 
 
 English Versification, 470; The 
 
 Rhymester, 470, 505. 
 Horace, 380, 381, 411, 433; Ars 
 
 poetica, 159, 210, 380. 
 Horn, Fredrik Winkel, Geschichte 
 
 d. Lit. d. skandinavischen Nor- 
 
 dens, 314. 
 Horn, Poesie u. Beredsamkeit d. 
 
 Deutschen von Luther bis zur 
 
 Gegenwart, 375. 
 Horwicz, Grundl. eines Systems d. 
 
 Aesthetik, 128. 
 Hostinsky, O., Herbart's Aesthetik, 
 
 W- 
 
 Houssaye, A., 373. 
 
 Howard, Sir Robt., Preface to Four 
 New Plays, 399. 
 
 Howells, W. D., 8, 44 ; Criticism 
 and Fiction, 21 ; Editor's Study, 
 21 ; Review of Perry's English 
 Literature, 260 ; Review of Pos- 
 nett's Comparative Literature,^67. 
 
 Howison, G. H., The Essential 
 Principle in Poetry, 323. 
 
 Huber, J. P., Zu den Platonischen 
 Gleichnissen, 237. 
 
 Hiibner, Grundr. zu Vorlesungen 
 iiber d. Gesch. und Encykl. d. 
 class. Philol., 369. 
 
 Hudson, W. H., The Naturalists in 
 La Plata, 273. 
 
 Hueffer, F., Italian Studies, 48; 
 Troubadours, Ancient and Mod- 
 ern, 305. 
 
 Huemer, Untersuchungen iiber die 
 altesten lat. christ. Rythmen, 
 494, 511; Untersuchungen iiber 
 d. jambisch. Dimeter bei d. . . . 
 Hymnendichtern, 494.
 
 554 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Huet, 79. 
 
 Hugo, Victor, 435, 441 ; Her- 
 
 nani, 442 ; Preface to Cromwell, 
 
 442. 
 Humbert, C., Die Gesetze der fran- 
 
 zosischen Verse, 470. 
 Humboldt, Alex, von, Cosmos, 257, 
 
 324- 
 
 Humboldt, W. von, 161. 
 Hume, D., 130; Dissertations, 412; 
 
 Dissertation on Tragedy, 384 ; 
 
 Essays, 22 ; Philosophical Works, 
 
 104 ; Treatise of Human Nature 
 
 (Aesthetics), 104, 409. 
 Hunt and Lee, Book of the Sonnet, 
 
 SOS- 
 Hunt, Leigh, 415; Selections from 
 the English Poets, 324 ; What is 
 Poetry? 470. 
 
 Hunt, T. W., Literary Criticism, 22; 
 Studies in Literature and Style, 
 220. 
 
 Hunt, W. Holman, The Ideals of 
 Art, 169. 
 
 Hiird, Bishop, 407, 410; Letters 
 on Chivalry and Romance, 411 ; 
 Notes on Horace, 159; The Prov- 
 inces of the Several Species of 
 Dramatic Poetry, etc., 411. 
 
 Huss, Lehre vom Accent der deut- 
 schen Sprache, 510. 
 
 Hutcheson, F., 130, 410; Enquiry 
 into the Original of our Ideas of 
 Beauty and Virtue, 409 ; Essay 
 on the Passions and Affections, 
 409. 
 
 Hutton, R. H. (ed.), 213. 
 
 Huxley, T. H., Art and Science, 57 ; 
 Biology, 799, 266 ; Literature and 
 Science, 203, 211; Liverpool Lec- 
 ture, 203, 212. 
 
 Imitation, Aristotle on, 145-157, 
 294; Plato's theory of, 140, 144; 
 Imitative instinct, 173. 
 
 Improvisation, 273. 
 
 Individual vs. communal origin of 
 poetry, 267-270. 
 
 Inductive criticism, 5 ; Moulton on, 
 28. 
 
 Interpretation, 13. 
 
 Irving, W., Biography and Miscel- 
 lanies (Thoughts on Criticism), jf. 
 
 Italian Criticism, History of, 79. 
 
 Jacob, G., De aequali stroph. et 
 antistroph. in trag. graec. con- 
 firmatione, 492. 
 
 Jacob, T. A. L. von. See Talvj. 
 
 Jacobi, Fr., De usu alliterationis 
 apud Sophoclem, 492. 
 
 Jacobowski, L., 453 ; Die Anfange 
 der Poesie, 257, 378; 428, 471; 
 Die Physik der Lyrik, 274. 
 
 Jacobs, Jos., English Fairy Tales, 
 271 ; on folk-poetry, 267, 271. 
 
 Jahn, M., Psychologie als Grund- 
 wissenschaft d. Padagogik, 166. 
 
 James, Henry, 6; Literary Criticism, 
 32; The Science of Criticism, 22. 
 
 James I of England, The Essays 
 of a Prentice in the Divine Art 
 of Poesie, 324, 390, 497; Schorl 
 Treatise conteining some Reulis 
 and Cautelis, etc., 497. 
 
 James, W., Lectures on the Figura- 
 tive Language of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, 237. 
 
 James, W., Principles of Psychology, 
 j2, 1 66, 206, 220. 
 
 Jan, C. von, Die Tonarten bei 
 Plato, 112. 
 
 Janet, P., 444.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 555 
 
 Japp, A. H., Three Great Teachers, 
 
 MS- 
 
 Jardine, R., Elements of the Psy- 
 chology of Cognition, 166. 
 
 Jaret, Chas., La litterature alle- 
 mande au xviiie siecle dans ses 
 rapports avec la litterature fran- 
 9aise et avec la litterature anglaise, 
 276. 
 
 Jauss, G., Der ideale Gehalt d. 
 Poesie als bildendes Element, 
 
 347- 
 Jeanroy, A., 444; Les origines de 
 
 la poesie lyrique en France au 
 
 moyen age, 372. 
 Jebb, R. J., Bentley, 405; Sacred 
 
 Literature, 516. 
 Jeffrey, F., 5, 44, 130, 414, 416; 
 
 Contributions to the Edinburgh 
 
 Review, 324. 
 Jenkin, Fleeming, 452, 453; Papers, 
 
 Literary, Scientific, etc., 49, 471. 
 Jennings, Curiosities of Criticism, 
 
 49- 
 Jerusalem, E., Ueber d. Arist. Ein- 
 
 heiten im Drama, go. 
 Jespersen, O., Progress in Language, 
 
 2 33- 
 
 Jessen, Grundziige d. altgermanisch. 
 Metrik, 510. 
 
 Johansson, on Latin ictus and ac- 
 cent, 495. 
 
 Johnson, S., 45, 396, 409, 413, 416; 
 Dictionary, 410; Lives of the Most 
 Eminent English Poets, 376, 408, 
 410; Observations on Macbeth, 
 410; on poetry, 286; Rambler, 
 410; Shakespeare, 410; Works 
 (on the theory of poetry), 325. 
 
 Jolly, 373- 
 
 Jones, Biographia dramatica, 416. 
 
 Jonson, Ben, 395, 396, 434; Every 
 Man in His Humour, 392 ; Fit of 
 Rhyme against Rhyme, 500 ; The 
 Poetaster, 392 ; Preface to Se- 
 janus, 393 ; Timber, 220, 394. 
 
 Jordan, A., Literature in Relation 
 to Science, 220. 
 
 Jordan, W., Episteln und Vortrage, 
 
 325- 
 Joubert, J., Pensees, 23, 208, 221, 
 
 325 44 1 - 
 Jouffroy, Th., 129, 134; Cours d'es- 
 
 thetique, 104. 
 Jowett, B., 132 ; on relations of 
 
 thought and language, 205. 
 Judicial criticism, 5 ; Moulton on, 
 
 28. 
 Julien, Stanislas, Hoei-Lan-Ki, ou 
 
 1'histoire du cercle de craie, jv/; 
 
 L'orphelin de la Chine, 5/7. 
 Julleville, Petit de, Hist, de la langue 
 
 et de la litterature fran9-, 445. 
 Jullien, Hist, de la poesie fran9- i 
 
 1'epoque imperiale, 372. 
 Justi, K., 144; Die aesth. Elemente 
 
 in d. Platon. Philos., 112. 
 
 Kaemmerer, L., Die Landschaft in 
 d. deutschen Kunst, /6f. 
 
 Kaimes. See Kames. 
 
 Kames, Lord, 130, 409; The Ele- 
 ments of Criticism, 23, 105, 221, 
 237, 412; on natural beauty, 160. 
 
 Kant, I., 56, 116, 129, 161, 424; on 
 the beautiful, 135; Critique du 
 jugernent (Barni's trans.), 104, 105; 
 Critique of Judgment, 116; his 
 definition of criticism, 3, 46, 47 ; 
 Kritik d. aesthetischen Urtheils- 
 kraft, 127; Kritik of Judgment 
 (Bernard's trans.), 105 ; Kritik of
 
 556 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Judgment, 326; Kritik der Urteils- 
 kraft, 412; Sammtliche Werke 
 (aesthetics), 104 ; on the Sublime, 
 137- 
 
 Kawczynski, Max, 458, 492, 494, 
 508 ; Essai comparatif sur 1'ori- 
 gine et 1'histoire des rhythmes, 
 257, 268, 271, 453.471- 
 
 Keats, 415. 
 
 Keble, J., De poeticae vi medica, 
 273 ; Occasional Papers and Re- 
 views, 327. 
 
 Kedney, J. S., 451 ; The Beautiful 
 and the Sublime, 106, 136; Hegel's 
 Aesthetics, 106, 128, 133. 
 
 Keightley, 455. 
 
 Keil, Scriptores artis metricae, 491. 
 
 Keltische Zeitschrift, 261. 
 
 Kennedy, E., Lecture on the Princi- 
 ples and Uses of Alliteration in 
 Poetry, 302. 
 
 Ker, W. P., The Philosophy of Art, 
 107, 123. 
 
 Key, T. H., Accent a Guiding Prin- 
 ciple, 49j ; A Partial Attempt to 
 reconcile the Laws of Latin 
 Rhythm with those of Modern 
 Languages, 438. 
 
 Kiehl, Correspondierender Reim bei 
 Aeschylus, 492. 
 
 Kimball.W. H.,on the beautiful, 135. 
 
 Kingdon, S. S., Rules of Criticism, 
 52- 
 
 Kirchmann, Von, 136; Aesthetik 
 auf realistischer Grundlage, 128; 
 on imitation, 161. 
 
 Klee, H., GrundzUge einer Aesthetik 
 nach Schopenhauer, 134. 
 
 Klein, Geschichte des Dramas, j6S. 
 
 Klein, Felix, La poesie et le temps 
 present, 347. 
 
 Kleinpaul, E., 426; Poetik, 327, 
 427. 
 
 Klopstock, 509. 
 
 Klotz, R., 370; Grundziige d. altro- 
 mischen Metrik, 490; Ueber die 
 neueren Erscheinungen auf d. 
 Gebiete d. gr. u. rom. Metrik, 488. 
 
 Kluge, F., Zur Geschichte des 
 Reimes im Altgermanischen, 472, 
 501, 511 ; Nat.-Litteratur, 374. 
 
 Knaack, G., on Alexandrine litera- 
 ture, 369. 
 
 Knaut, C., Ueber die Metrik Robert 
 Greene's, 502. 
 
 Knight, \Vm., Criticism as a Trade, 
 jo; Philosophy of the Beautiful, 
 79, 107, 122, 131, 162, 171, 172, 
 181, 327; Poetry and Science, 
 204; Studies in Philosophy and 
 Literature, 327, 418; A Theory 
 of Poetry, 346. 
 
 Knox, V., Essays (Modem Criti- 
 cism), 52. 
 
 Koberstein, K. A., Entwickelung 
 der deutschen Poesie, 275, 374 ; 
 Grundriss der Geschichte der 
 deutschen Nationallitteratur, 275, 
 374 ; Vermischte Aufsatze zur 
 Litteraturgesch. u. Aesthetik, 374. 
 
 Koberstein und Diez, Altrom. 
 Sprachdenkmaler, 3-09. 
 
 Koch, C. F., Figuren und Tropen, 
 237; Historische Grammatik d. 
 engl. Sprache, jOf. 
 
 Koch, Max, Einleitung to Zeitschrift 
 f. vergl. Litteraturgeschichte, 257. 
 
 Koenig, G., Deutsche Litt.-Ge- 
 schichte, 374; Zu Shakespeare's 
 Metrik, 502 ; Der Vers in Shakes- 
 peare's Dramen, 503. 
 
 Koerner, O., Ueber d. Naturbeob-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 557 
 
 achtungen im homerischen Zeit- 
 
 alter, 165. 
 
 Kogel, T., Lotze's Aesthetik, 134. 
 Kohfeldt, G., zur Aesthetik der 
 
 Metapher, 237. 
 Kohler, J., Aesthetik, Philologie, 
 
 und vergleichende Litteraturge- 
 
 schichte, .277. 
 Kblbing, E., Beitrage zur verglei- 
 
 chenden Geschichte der roman- 
 
 tischen Poesie und Prosa des 
 
 Mittelalters, 275. 
 Konig, W., 372. 
 Kopp, Iamb. Trim., 495. 
 Korting, 204, 37 1 ; on the classifi- 
 cation of Literature, 239242 ; 
 
 Encyklopadie u. Methodologie d. 
 
 romanischen Philologie. 201, 221, 
 
 258. 35' 370. 445. 56, 512, 513; 
 
 Grundr. zur Gesch. d. engl. Lit., 
 
 377- 
 Koster, Kurze Darstellung d. Dich- 
 
 tungsarten, 347. 
 Kostlin, K., 128; Aesthetik, 107; 
 
 Prolegomena zur Aesthetik, 108 ; 
 
 Ueber d. Schonheitsbegriff, 108, 
 
 135- 
 Kralik, R. von, Kunstbiichlein ge- 
 
 rechten griindlichen Gebrauchs 
 
 aller Freunde der Dichtkunst, 
 
 328. 
 Krantz, E., Essai sur 1'esthetique de 
 
 Descartes, 23, 69, 135, 221. 
 Kratz, H., Aesthetik, 770. 
 Krause, System d. Aesthetik, 128. 
 Krauss, Iamb, tetram. Terent, 
 
 495- 
 Krauter, Ueber neuhochdeutsche 
 
 und antike Verse, 510. 
 Krejci, Das characteristische Merk- 
 
 mal der Volkspoesie, 272. 
 
 Kressner, A., 372; Leitfaden d. 
 f ranzosischen Metrik, 507. 
 
 Kreyssig, F., 372. 
 
 Krohn, La chanson populaire en 
 Finlande, 272. 
 
 Krumbacher, K., on the confusion 
 of literary kinds in Byzantine lit- 
 erature, 369. 
 
 Krupp, D., Homerische Gleichnisse, 
 
 237- 
 Kruse, H., Der griech. Hexameter 
 
 in d. deutschen Nachbildung, 487. 
 Kiihnemann, E., Bericht iiber neuere 
 
 Erscheinungen aus d. Gebiete d. 
 
 Geschichte d. Aesthetik, 770. 
 Kurtzweil, E., Traite de la prosodie 
 
 de la langue ital., 577. 
 Kurz, Literatur-Geschichte, 374. 
 Kurz u. Paldamus, Dichter u. Pro- 
 
 saisten, 374. 
 
 Kiisel, E., Ueber Schillers Gleich- 
 nisse, 237. 
 Kussmaul, A., Storungen der 
 
 Sprache, 206. 
 Kuttner, M., Das Naturgefiihl d. 
 
 Altfranzosen, i6j. 
 
 Lacereau, E., Groulabodha, Traite 
 de prosodie sanscrite, J-TJ. 
 
 Lachmann, 373, 510 ; on the origin 
 of poetry, 267 ; Tibullus and Pro- 
 pertius, 490. 
 
 Lacroix, Albert, Histoire de 1'influ- 
 ence de Shakespeare sur le theatre 
 fran?ais, 276. 
 
 La Croze, Works of the Learned, 
 402. 
 
 La Grasserie, R. de, Essai de rhyth- 
 mique comparee, 472 ; fitudes de 
 grammaire comparee, 472 ; litude 
 de rhythmique, 472 ; De la strophe
 
 558 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 et du poeme dans la versification 
 francaise, 472. 
 
 Laharpe, F. C. de, 372, 379; Cours 
 de litterature, 438. 
 
 I^amartine, Premieres meditations 
 poetiques, 507. 
 
 Lamb, Chas., 414, 415. 
 
 Lamennais, 134. 
 
 Lammermayer, F., Gedanken iiber 
 Litteraturgeschichte, 278. 
 
 La Monte, Catherine B., Brief De- 
 fense of Criticism,^. 
 
 Lamotte, 436. 
 
 Landerer, Hermeneutik, 48. 
 
 Landgraf und Wolfflin, Ueber d. 
 alliterirenden Verbindungen d. 
 lat. Sprache, 493. 
 
 Landi, Const., Libro primo della 
 Poetica, 446. 
 
 Landor, 455. 
 
 Lang, A., 159, 272 ; A Critical 
 Taboo, 52; Introd. to Havell's 
 Longinus, 109; Manners of Critics, 
 jo; The Science of Criticism, 22. 
 
 Lang, H. R., On Spanish Metaphors, 
 
 237- 
 
 Lange, Commentary on Job, 516. 
 Lange, Deutsche Poetik, 427. 
 Lange, R., Altjapanische Fruhlings- 
 
 lieder, 518. 
 Langen, Latein. Ictus, etc., 495; 
 
 Metapher von Plautus bis Teren- 
 
 tius, 237. 
 Langlois, E., 444; De artibus rhe- 
 
 toricae rhythmicae, 429, note. 
 Language, Literature and, 233 ; na- 
 ture of, 205-207 ; origin of, 205. 
 Lanier, S., 452, 453 ; The Science of 
 
 English Verse, 328, 451, 472, 501. 
 Lanson, G., 444 ; Boileau, 432 ; 
 
 Critiques d'aujourd'hui : hmile 
 
 Faguet, 77 ; Hist, de la litt. fran9-, 
 
 445- 
 
 Lanzi, L., The History of Painting 
 in Italy, 188. 
 
 Laprade, V. de, Essais de critique 
 idealiste, 177, 188; Histoire du 
 sentiment de la nature, 164. 
 
 Larkin, G. L., Scansion of the 
 Heroic Verse, 504. 
 
 Larroumet, G., 444 ; fitudes de lit- 
 terature et d'art (Brunetiere, Le 
 i8e siecle et la critique contempo- 
 raine), 77. 
 
 Lassen, 515. 
 
 Laurie, S. S., Lectures on Language, 
 
 221. 
 
 Lawrence, John, On Alliterative 
 
 Verse, 502. 
 
 Lazarus, Das Leben d. Seele, 166. 
 Lebasteur, Buffon, 439. 
 Le Bon, G., L'evolution des peuples, 
 
 272; Psychologic des foules, 
 
 272. 
 Le Bossu, Traite du poeme epique, 
 
 395. 436- 
 Lechalas, 130. 
 Lecky, 453; Phonetic Theory of 
 
 English Prosody, 458, 473. 
 Le Clerc, 373. 
 
 Leclerq, L'art est rationnel, 221. 
 Ledereq, E., Philos. de 1'enseigne- 
 
 ment des beaux-arts, ibq. 
 Lee, Vernon. See Violet Paget. 
 Legge, Dr. James, The Chinese 
 
 Classics, 517. 
 Le Goffic, C., and Thieulin, E., 
 
 Nouveau traite de versification 
 
 fran9aise, 473. 
 Leland, 384 ; Collectanea, 384, note; 
 
 Commentarii de scriptoribus 13ri- 
 
 tannicis. 384, note.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 559 
 
 Lemaitre, Jules, 444 ; Corneille et la 
 
 poetique d'Aristote, 157. 
 Lemcke, 371; Populare Aesthetik, 
 
 126, 136. 
 L'Enfant, Critiques des remarques, 
 
 433- 
 
 Lenient, 372, 444. 
 Lenton, Young Gallant's Whirligig, 
 
 395- 
 
 Lentzner, Ueber d. Sonett u. s. Ge- 
 staltung, 505. 
 
 Leslie, 414. 
 
 Lessing, G. E., 45, 105, 203, 232, 
 419, 422, 424; Dramatic Notes, 
 23; Hamburgische Dramaturgie, 
 424; on imitation, 161; The Lao- 
 coon, 108, 118, 124, 127, 412, 424; 
 Nathan der Weise, 509; Werke 
 (Aesthetics), 108 ; Werke (on the 
 theory of poetry), 328. 
 
 Letourneau, C., L'evolution litteraire 
 dans les diverses races humaines, 
 258 ; The Origin of Literary 
 Forms, 258. 
 
 Leuba, J. H., j, 444. 
 
 Leutsch, Entstehung d. ep. Hexam. 
 495 5 Namen d. Fiisse, 494. 
 
 Levallois, J., Critique litteraire en 
 France, 50. 
 
 Leveleye, Primitive Property, 266. 
 
 Leveque, C., 129, 134, 144; Le sens 
 du beau chez les betes, 166; 
 Platon, fondateur de 1'esthetique, 
 112 ; Science du beau, 109, 131. 
 
 Levezon, Ueber archaol. Kritik u. 
 Ilermeneutik, 47. 
 
 Lewes, G. II., 133; English Errors f 
 and Abuses of Criticism, jo; 
 German Philosophical Criticism 
 of Literature, jo; Life of Goethe, 
 208 ; Principles of Success in 
 
 Literature, 23, /jS, 201, 210, 221, 
 
 237, 417; Problems of Life and 
 
 Mind, 206, 222, 417. 
 Leynardi, L., La psicologia dell' arte 
 
 nella Divina commedia, 777. 
 Lieber, F., Legal and Political Her- 
 
 meneutics, 24. 
 Liepert, Aristoteles u. d. Zweck d. 
 
 Kunst, gi. 
 Liers, H., Zur Geschichte d. Stilarten, 
 
 234- 
 
 Lillo, George Barn well, 413. 
 
 Limayrac, P., De 1'esprit critique en 
 France, 78. 
 
 Lindsay, Lord, Theory of English 
 Hexameters, 304. 
 
 Lingenberg, Platonische Bilder und 
 Sprichworter, 237. 
 
 Linquiti, F., Sul nuovo indirizzo 
 degli studi letterari, storici e cri- 
 tici, 277. 
 
 Lipps, Th., Aesthetische Factoren 
 d. Raumanschauung, 167; Aes- 
 thetischer Litteraturbericht, 133; 
 Tragik, Tragbdie und wissen- 
 schaftliche Kritik, jj. 
 
 Lisle, Leconte de, 443. 
 
 Literary fashions, 359. 
 
 Literary movements, 366, 367. 
 
 Literary theory, Classification of, 
 242-247. 
 
 Literatesque, 213. 
 
 Literature, American, 377-378; 
 classification of, 210, 211, 239; 
 comparative, 248-278 ; elements 
 of, 204 ; growth of, 58, 59 ; nature 
 and scope of, 200-202 ; relation 
 of critical theory to, 60, 61 ; re- 
 lation of, to art, 202, 203; rela- 
 tion of, to national life, 358-362 ; 
 relation of, to science and p'..i-
 
 560 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 losophy, 203, 204 ; theory of, 200- 
 
 247 ; and language, 233. 
 Littre, 373, 508. 
 Livet, 508. 
 Livius, 491. 
 Llaguno, E. (ed.), Ignacio de Luzan's 
 
 La poetica, 449. 
 Loch, E., Ue alliteratione serm. lat, 
 
 493, 5"- 
 
 Locke, J., Essay concerning the 
 Human Understanding, 405. 
 
 Lockhart, 414, 415. 
 
 Lodge, T., Alarum against Usurers, 
 391 ; Defense of Poetry, Music, 
 etc., 390. 
 
 Loebell, Entwicklung d. deutsch. 
 Poesie, 374. 
 
 Lofft, Capel, Laura, An Anthology 
 of Sonnets, 305. 
 
 Loise, Ferd., De 1'influence de la 
 civilization sur la poesie, 276; 
 Histoire de la poesie en rapport 
 avec la civilization, 276; Traite 
 de litterature, 235. 
 
 Lombroso, C., The Man of Genius, 
 138. 
 
 Lombroso, G., II commercio e la 
 letteratura, 2-jj. 
 
 Lomenie, L. de, 372 ; Esquisses his- 
 toriques de litterature (Chateau- 
 briand et la critique), 77. 
 
 Long, G., An Old Man's Thoughts, 
 222. 
 
 Longfellow, H. W., 455 ; Essay on 
 the Defense of Poetry, 349. 
 
 Longinus, 127, 159, 380, 433; On 
 the Sublime, 109, 222 ; Prole- 
 gomena to Hephaestion's Enchi- 
 ridion, 490; Quae supersunt 
 graece et latine, 109. 
 
 Longwell, S. A., 102. 
 
 Lonnrot, Introd. to first edition of 
 the Kalevala, 514. 
 
 Lord, D. N., Laws of Figurative 
 Language, 237. 
 
 Lotze, H., 115, 137, 162; Aesthetics 
 of, 128, 134; Geschichte d. Aes- 
 thetik in Deutschland, 109, 132, 
 136, 425; Microcosmus, 109, 188, 
 222; Outlines of Aesthetics, no, 
 425- 
 
 Lounsbury, T. R., on Chaucer's 
 versification, 480 ; Studies in 
 Chaucer, 385, note, 502. 
 
 Lowell, J. R., 45 ; Criticism and 
 Culture, 24; Lectures on the 
 English Poets, 330 ; Letters, 25 ; 
 'Literary and Political Essays and 
 Addresses, 330 ; Literary Criti- 
 cism, 24 ; Prose Works (criti- 
 cism), 24. 
 
 Lowth, R., 383 ; Lectures on Sacred 
 Poetry of the Hebrews, 5 1 6. 
 
 Lubarsch, E. O., 506; Franzosische 
 Verslehre mit neuen Entwicke- 
 lungen fur d. theoret. Begriindung 
 d. franzosischen Rhythmik, 474. 
 
 Liibben, A., Die Kritik, 53 ; Ueber 
 d. aesthet.-psychol. Beurtheilung 
 d. Poesie, 53. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, Essay on Poetry, 
 
 349- 
 Lubke, W.,'i99; Ecclesiastical Art 
 
 in Germany, 197 ; Geschichte d. 
 
 Architectur, 197 ; History of Art, 
 
 180, 181 ; History of Sculpture, 
 
 180, 197. 
 Lucking, 371. 
 Luick and Schipper, 495. 
 Luick, K., Zur altengl. u. altsachs. 
 
 Metrik, 501 ; Zur Entstehung der 
 
 Theorie der Schwellverse, 509.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 561 
 
 Liming, O., Die Natur, 166. 
 
 Lunt, W. P., Figurative Language, 
 
 237- 
 
 Lu'tzow, C. von, 192. 
 Luzan, Ignacio de, La poetica, 449, 
 
 512. 
 Lytton, Sir E. B., Caxtoniana, 222, 
 
 2j4\ Quarterly Essays (Love in 
 
 its Influence on Literature), ^77. 
 
 Maass, K., Ueber Metapher und 
 Allegorie im deutschen Sprich- 
 wort, 237. 
 
 Mabie, H. W., Essays in Literary 
 Interpretation, 25 ; Short Studies 
 in Literature, 25, 201, 203, 223; 
 Significance of Modern Criticism, 
 25, 69. 
 
 Macaulay, T. B., 45, 415, 416; Es- 
 says, 25, 69, 189, 258, 330; Essay 
 on Montgomery, 384 ; on poetry, 
 284 ; on relation of criticism and 
 creation, 8. 
 
 Mac-Carthy, Trans, of Calderon (In- 
 trod.), 457- 
 
 MacGill, Stevenson, Lectures on 
 Rhetoric and Criticism, 516. 
 
 MacLean, G. E., Old and Middle 
 English Reader, 502. 
 
 Macleane, Horace, 490. 
 
 Macpherson, 441 ; Fragments of 
 Ancient Poetry, 411; Poems of 
 Ossian, 411, 412. 
 
 McCormick, W. S., Three Lectures 
 on English Literature, 223. 
 
 McDermot, Critical Dissertation, 
 126. 
 
 McElroy, J. G. R., Structure of 
 English Prose, 237. 
 
 McLaughlin, E. T., Literary Criti- 
 cism for Students, 26. 
 
 Madius, Vine, and Bart. Lombardus, 
 
 edition of Aristotle's Poetics with 
 
 commentary on the poetics of 
 
 Horace, 381. 
 Maffei, Scip., Discours sur 1'his- 
 
 toire et le genie des poetes itali- 
 
 ens, 447. 
 Magdeburg, Ueber Bilder und 
 
 Gleichnisse bei Euripides, 237. 
 Mager, 372. 
 Maginn, 414. 
 Magisterial arrangement of literary 
 
 history, 366. 
 Maguard, A., La synthese des arts, 
 
 769- 
 
 Mahaffy, 370. 
 Mahn, 371. 
 Main, David, Treasury of English 
 
 Sonnets, 505. 
 Main, Wm., Expression in Nature, 
 
 163. 
 Maine, Sir H., Ancient Law, 266; 
 
 Early History of Institutions, 266 ; 
 
 Village Communities, 266. 
 Mairet, Preface to Sylvanire, 432 ; 
 
 Sophonisbe, 432. 
 Malherbe, 64, 431, 434, 439, 507. 
 Mallet, L'Abbe, Le critique, 27. 
 Mallock, W. H., The Individualist 
 
 Ideal, ///. 
 
 Manner and Style, 243, 244. 
 Mannhardt, Mythologische Quellen 
 
 und Forschungen, 274. 
 Manutius, Aldus, commentary on 
 
 Horace's Ars poetica, 382. 
 Marbach, H., Das Mysterium d. 
 
 Kunst, 770. 
 Marheineke, Ueber die Shakespeare- 
 
 schen Gleichnisse, 237. 
 Marivaux, 413, 438. 
 Marlowe, 396, 455 ; Faustus, 455.
 
 562 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Marmontel, J. F., 507, 508; La cri- 
 tique, 27 ; Elements de la littera- 
 ture, 163, 223, 237. 
 
 Marold, K., Ueber d. poetische Ver- 
 wertung d. Natur, 166. 
 
 Maron, 373. 
 
 Marot, 429. 
 
 Marsh, G. P., Lectures on the Eng- 
 lish Language, 456, 457. 
 
 Marsh, James, Translator of Herder, 
 
 323- 
 
 Marshall, H. R., 88 ; Aesthetic Prin- 
 ciples, 43, no; Pain, Pleasure, 
 and Aesthetics, no, 137, 166, 174. 
 
 Marston, 392. 
 
 Marta, Oral., Sposizione della Poe- 
 tica d' Aristotile, 447. 
 
 Martelli, P. J., Versi e prose (Della 
 poetica, Sermoni), 447. 
 
 Martin, H., Analyse critique de la 
 poetique d'Aristote, 90, 157. 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, Translation of 
 Comte, 183. 
 
 Martinez de la Rosa, Poetica, 512. 
 
 Martling, J. A., 102. 
 
 Marvel, on Milton, 398. 
 
 Masci, Psicologia del comico, 137. 
 
 Masden, Arte poetica, 512. 
 
 Massieu, La poesie fr. du lie au 15^ 
 siecle, 372. 
 
 Masson, D., 45, 418, 455; Essays 
 Biographical and Critical, 163, 
 331, 376 ; Poetical Works of John 
 Milton, 474 ; Theories of Poetry, 
 153, 309; on poetry, 288. 
 
 Mathews, W., Great Conversers 
 (Curiosities of Criticism), 49; 
 Literary Style (Sensitiveness to 
 Criticism), 52. 
 
 Mattei, L., Horace's Ars poetica, 
 447- 
 
 Matthews, Brander, 470 ; Ameri- 
 canisms, 32; An Inquiry as to 
 Rhyme, 457 ; Introduction to 
 American Literature, 378 ; Re- 
 cent Essays in Criticism, 32; 
 Whole Duty of Critics, 32. 
 
 Matzner, 371. 
 
 Maur, 370. 
 
 Maurice, F. D., Friendship of Books, 
 27. 
 
 Maurus, Terentianus, De litteris, de 
 syllabis, de metris, 491. 
 
 Maury, Espagne poetique, 512; 
 Versificacion y elocucion, 512. 
 
 Mayans y Siscar, G. de, Origines 
 de la lengua Espanola, 448. 
 
 Mayer, 426. 
 
 Mayor, John E. B., Bibliographical 
 Clue to Latin Literature, 491. 
 
 Mayor, Jos. B., 452, 453, 454, 503, 
 509 ; Chapters on English Metre, 
 474, 506. 
 
 Mazade, C. de, 120; Le realisme 
 dans la critique, jj. 
 
 Mazzarella, B., Della critica, jj, 69. 
 
 Mazzini, Jos., 45. 
 
 Mead, W. E., Elementary Composi- 
 tion and Rhetoric, 237 ; Versifica- 
 tion of Pope, joj, 504. 
 
 Meadows, Desultory Notes on China, 
 5!7- 
 
 Medhurst, Sir W., Chinese Poetry, 
 
 5*7- 
 Mehring, S., Deutsche Verslehre, 
 
 509 ; Der Reim in seiner Ent- 
 
 wickelung und Fortbildung, 511. 
 Meigret, 507. 
 Meissner, Choriambus, 494 ; Zur 
 
 Metrik, 494. 
 Melancthon, De rhetorica, 386; In- 
 
 stitutiones rhetoricae, 386.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 563 
 
 Menendez y Pelayo, M., Historia de 
 
 las ideas esteticas en Espana, 79, 
 
 no. 
 Menzel, Deutsche Dichtung, 374; 
 
 Germ. Lit., trans., 374. 
 Meres, Francis, 394 ; Comparative 
 
 Discourse of our English Poets, 
 
 392, 499- 
 
 Merkel, Ovid, 491. 
 Merlet, G., 372 ; La critique sous le 
 
 premier empire, 70. 
 Mesa, Chr. de, Compendio de la 
 
 poetica en versos, .(./<) 
 Mescolius, Joh. Jac., Artis poeticae 
 
 institutiones, jSj. 
 Methner, J., Poesie und Prosa, 223, 
 
 427, 
 
 Methods of research, 166-168. 
 Metre, 452 ; Kinds of, 454-456. 
 Metres, Classical, 487-495. 
 Metric, 245-247, 279. 
 Meumann, E., Untersuchungen zur 
 
 Psychologie u. Aesthetik d. Rhyth- 
 
 mus, /J9, 271. 
 Meyer, Begriindung d. Redefiguren, 
 
 237- 
 
 Meyer, C. F., 456; Historische Stu- 
 dien, jv/. 
 
 Meyer, Leitfaden d. deutsch. Poetik, 
 427. 
 
 Meyer, Paul, 371. 
 
 Meyer, R. M., Ueber den Refrain, 
 272, 457; review of Bucher's 
 Arbeit u. Rhythmus, 272. 
 
 Meyer, Vergleichung und Metapher 
 bei Moliere, 327. 
 
 Meyer, W., 493, 508 ; Anfang u. 
 Ursprung d. lateinischen u. grie- 
 chischen rhythmischen Dichtung, 
 453, 475, ^9j ; Ueber die Beobach- 
 tung des Wortaccents in d. altlat. 
 
 Poesie, 4.93 ; on the origin of Ro- 
 mance Versification, 475. 
 
 Mezger, 488. 
 
 Michelet, 133, 134, 442. 
 
 Michiels, 373. 
 
 Middleton, J. H. H., Schools of 
 Painting, 181, 182, 189. 
 
 Miles, Alfred (ed.), Poets and Poetry 
 of the Century, 419. 
 
 Mill, J. S., Dissertations and Dis- 
 cussions, 332 ; System of Logic, 
 417 ; Thoughts on Poetry and its 
 Varieties, 417. 
 
 Milsand, J., 130; L'esthetique an- 
 glaise, 115. 
 
 Milton, 395, 455 ; Introduction to 
 Samson Agonistes, 396; on 
 poetry, 1 62 ; Preface to Para- 
 dise Lost, 500 ; Prose Works (on 
 theory of poetry), 332 ; Reason 
 of Church Government urged 
 against Prelatry, 396 ; Tractate 
 on Education, 396. 
 
 Minckwitz, J., Begriff d. Metr., 494 ; 
 Lehrbuch der deutschen Vers- 
 kunst, 475, 510. 
 
 Minto, W., Characteristics of the 
 English Poets, 223, 376, 418 ; 
 Manual of English Prose Litera- 
 ture, 223, 237. 
 
 Minturno, A. S., De poetica libri 
 sex, 381, 446. 
 
 Mitford, Inquiry into the Principles 
 of Harmony in Language, 501. 
 
 Moberly, Geo., Is a rude or a refined 
 age more favorable to the produc- 
 tion of works of fiction ? 258. 
 
 Moir, Geo., on Poetry, 211 ; Poetry, 
 Romance, and Rhetoric, 211,224. 
 
 Moke, 372. 
 
 Molinet, 429, note.
 
 564 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Mommsen, History of Rome, 490. 
 
 Mondragon, H. de, Arte para com- 
 poner en metro Castellano, etc., 
 448. 
 
 Montaigne, M., Works (on poetry), 
 333- 
 
 Montargis, F., L'esthetique de 
 Schiller, 133. 
 
 Montegazza, P., Epikurische Physi- 
 ologic d. Schonen, 167. 
 
 Montesquieu, 436. 
 
 Moon, G. W., What is Poetry? 
 
 333- 
 
 Moralizing Criticism, 75. 
 
 Morandi, L., Antologia della nostra 
 
 critica letteraria moderna, 79. 
 Morell, 376. 
 Moritz, K. P., Ueber d. bildende 
 
 Nachahmung des Schonen, 160. 
 Morley, H., English Writers, 258, 
 
 376; and Tyler, M. C., A Manual 
 
 of English Literature) 224. 
 Morley, John, 418 ; his definition of 
 
 literature, 200 ; (ed.) English Men 
 
 of Letters Series, 376; On the 
 \ Study of Literature, 224, 227 ; 
 
 Voltaire, 201, 224. 
 Morris, G. S., British Thought and 
 
 Thinkers, 333; Philosophy of 
 
 Art, in, 123, 163. 
 Morris, Wm., 131, 417; Hopes and 
 
 Fears for Art, in; Lectures on 
 
 Art, in; The Socialist Ideal 
 
 Art, in. 
 Moulton, R. G., 5, 57 ; Shakespeare 
 
 as a Dramatic Artist, 27, 70. 
 Moyse, E. C., Poetry as a Fine Art, 
 
 349- 
 
 Muir, J., Metrical Translations from 
 Sanskrit Writers, 515; Sanskrit 
 Texts, jfj. 
 
 Mulcaster, Richard, First Part of 
 the Elementarie, etc., 388; Posi- 
 tions wherein, etc., 388. 
 
 Mulgrave, Earl of, 398 ; Essay upon 
 Poetry, 402. 
 
 Mtillenhoff, 51 1. 
 
 Miillenhoff u. Scherer, 511. 
 
 Miiller, A., 161. 
 
 Miiller, C. F. W., Plautinische Pros- 
 odie, 490. 
 
 Miiller, C. O., 191 ; Ancient Art 
 and its Remains, 189 ; Varro's 
 De lingua latina, 490. 
 
 Miiller, D. H., Die Propheten, 273. 
 
 Miiller, Ed., Geschichte d. Theorie 
 d. Kunst bei den Alien, 113, /j/, 
 144,75^,296; Ueber d. Nachah- 
 mende in d. Kunst nach Plato, 
 
 ***, 153- 
 
 Miiller, Iwan, Handb. d. klassischen 
 Alterthumswissenschaft, 466. 
 
 Miiller, J. G., De natura media poes. 
 inter philos. et histor., 383. 
 
 Miiller, K. E., Ueber accentuirend- 
 metrische Verse in der franzosi- 
 schen Sprache, 507. 
 
 Miiller, Luc., De re metrica lat., 
 492 ; Lucilius, 490. 
 
 Miiller, Max, Chips from a German 
 Workshop, 516; Lectures on the 
 Science of Language, 205; Lec- 
 tures on the Science of Language, 
 2d series, 238 ; (ed.) Sacred Books 
 of the East, 515; Science of 
 Thought, 206, 224, 238; Three 
 Introductory Lectures on the 
 Science of Thought, 206. 
 
 Miiller, O., 370. 
 
 Miiller, W., 511. 
 
 Munby, Dorothy, 455. 
 
 Munck, Geschichte d. rom. Litt.,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 565 
 
 490; Die Metrik d. Griech. u. 
 
 Rom., 488. 
 Mundt, Theodor, Gesch. d. Litt. d. 
 
 Gegenwart, von 1789 an, 379. 
 Munk, 370. 
 Munro, Latin Metres in English, 
 
 494 ; Lucretius, 490. 
 Murari, R., Ritmica e metrica razio- 
 
 nale Italian a, 512. 
 Muratori, L. A., Delia perfetta 
 
 poesia italiana, spiegata e dimo- 
 
 strata, 447. 
 Mure, 370. 
 
 Murray, J. C., .Handbook of Psy- 
 chology, iib. 
 Musical criticism, 48. 
 Musico-medical explanation of 
 
 poetry, 273. 
 Mutius, Macarius, De ratio tie scri- 
 
 bendi poemata, 382. 
 Muzio, G., Dell' arte poetica, 446. 
 Myers, 418. 
 
 Nacke, A. F., Reime b. d. klass. 
 
 Dichtern, 492. 
 Nadal, E. S., Essays (Newspaper 
 
 Literary Criticism), 52. 
 Naetibus, Gotthold, Die nichtlyri- 
 
 schen Strophenformen des Alt- 
 
 franzosischen, 507. 
 Naevius, 491. 
 Nash, T., Epistle Prefatory to 
 
 Greene's Menaphon, 390 ; Pierce 
 
 Penilesse, 390, 391. 
 Nasarre y Ferriz, A., Dissertacion, 
 
 449- 
 National life, Relation of literary 
 
 production to, 358-362. 
 Nature, Growth of the Feeling for, 
 
 i63"-i66; Relation of, to Art, 
 
 139-163- 
 
 Neboliczka, O., Schaferdichtung 
 und Poetik im 18. Jahrh., 423. 
 
 Necker, Werth d. Kritik, 53. 
 
 Nehry, J., Aus der Weltlitteratur, 
 278. 
 
 Nettement, 373, 444. 
 
 Nettleship, H., 132; Literary criti- 
 cism in Latin Antiquity, 70, fj8, 
 759 ; The Moral Influence of 
 Literature, 201, 224. 
 
 Neudecker, Studien zur Geschichte 
 der deutschen Aesthetik seit 
 Kant, 133. 
 
 Neugraf, A., Kritik u. Rasonnement, 
 
 53- 
 
 Neumann, 371 ; Die Bedeutung 
 Home's fiir d. Aesthetik, 106. 
 
 Newell on folk-tales, 267. 
 
 Newman, F. W., on the aim of 
 poetry, 282; Miscellanies, 334, 
 476 ; Second Lecture on Poetry, 
 478. 
 
 Newman, J. H., his definition of 
 literature, 200; Essays, Critical 
 and Historical, 334; Essay on 
 Poetry, with reference to Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, 334; Idea of a 
 Univ., 208,224; Lecture on Liter- 
 ature, 202. 
 
 Nichol, American Literature, 378. 
 
 Nichols, John, Queen Elizabeth's 
 Progresses, 496; Illustrations of 
 English History, 416; Literary 
 Anecdotes of the Eighteenth 
 Century, 416. 
 
 Nicolai, 370. 
 
 Nicolai, 1st d. Begriff d. Schonen 
 bei Kant consequent entwickelt ? 
 
 *3$- 
 
 Nietzsche, Fr., Die frohliche \\is- 
 senschaft, 272.
 
 566 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Niggli, F., Ueber die Redefiguren 
 
 und deren Behandlung in der 
 
 Schule, 238. 
 Nisard, D., 370, 372, 373, 443, 490; 
 
 fitudes de critique litteraire, 29 ; 
 
 Histoire de la litt. frar^aise, 29, 
 
 7i- 
 
 Nisieli, U. (Fioretti, Ben.), Progin- 
 nasmi poetici, 447. 
 
 Nodier, C., Romans, 259. 
 
 Noel, Roden, 45, 418 ; Use of Meta- 
 phor and Pathetic Fallacy, 238. 
 
 Nb'ldeke, Theodor, Beitrage zur 
 Kentniss d. Poesie d. alten Ara- 
 ber, j/5. 
 
 Nordau, M., Entartung (Degenera- 
 tion), 138; Paradoxes, 138. 
 
 Nores, G. de, Discorso, 446; Poe- 
 tica, etc., 446. 
 
 Northbrooke, Treatise against Dic- 
 ing, etc., 390. 
 
 Odell, G. C. D., Development of 
 
 Simile and Metaphor, 238. 
 Ogier, F., 432. 
 Oliphant, F. R., The Victorian Age 
 
 of Engl. Literature, 377. 
 Oliphant, Mrs. M. O. W., English 
 
 Critics, jo ; Literary Hist, of 
 
 England, ^77, 259. 
 Olshausen, 516. 
 Opitz, M., 509; Prosodia germania, 
 
 422, 423. 
 
 Order, Instinct for, 174. 
 Ordonez, A., Aristotle's Poetics, 449. 
 Orelli, Horace, 490. 
 Originality, 194; Tests of, 355-357- 
 Otto, Ueber die Bestrebung um Be- 
 
 griindung einer Universallittera- 
 
 tur, ^77. 
 Overbeck, J., Geschichte d. griechi- 
 
 schen Plastik, 190; Schriftquel- 
 len zur Geschichte d. bildenden 
 Kiinste, 159. 
 
 Paccius, Alex, edition of Aristotle's 
 
 Poetics, 381. 
 Pagano, F. M., Discorso sulla ori- 
 
 gine e natura della poesia, 273. 
 Page, G. H., Personality in Art, 30. 
 Paget, Violet, Baldwin (Value of the 
 
 Ideal), 124 ; Belcaro (Ruskinism), 
 
 124; Comparative Aesthetics, 124, 
 
 172, 178, 179, 190; Juvenilia./^; 
 
 Literary Construction, 203 ; Mo- 
 rality in Poetry, 346. 
 Painter, Introduction to American 
 
 Literature, 378. 
 Palesi, F., Della poetica, 447. 
 Paley, Propertius, 490. 
 Palgrave, F. T., 418; Province and 
 
 Study of Poetry, 346; Scientific 
 
 Study of Poetry, 346. 
 Pallen, C. B., The Philosophy of 
 
 Literature, 224. 
 Palsgrave, J., 508. 
 Pancoast, 377; Introduction to 
 
 American Literature, 378. 
 Panizza, O., Genie u. Wahnsinn, 
 
 138. 
 Papastamatopulos, Joh., Studien zur 
 
 alten griech. Musik, 489. 
 Paradise of Dainty Devices, 384, 
 
 394- 
 
 Paris, G., 371, 444, 478, 507, 508; 
 fitude sur le role de 1'accent latin 
 dans la langue fran9aise, 506; 
 Lettre h. M. Leon Gautier sur la 
 versification rhythmique, 506 ; Des 
 origines de la poesie lyrique en 
 France au moyen age, 274; La 
 poesie du moyen age, 372; Le
 
 INDEX. 
 
 567 
 
 vers frar^ais, 496, 506; (ed.) La 
 vie de Saint Alexis, 506. 
 
 Park, E. A., 48. 
 
 Parnassiens, The, 439, 443, 444. 
 
 Parrhasius, Janus, commentary on 
 the Ars poetica of Horace, 381. 
 
 Parsons, James C., English Versifica- 
 tion for the Use of Students, 476. 
 
 Pascal, aesthetics of, 135. 
 
 Pasquier, E., on the Proven9al, 430; 
 Recherches de la France, 430. 
 
 Passy, J. See Binet, A. 
 
 Pater, Walter, 45, 415, 417, 422, 
 444 ; Appreciations, with an Es- 
 say on Style, 125, 225, 334 ; his 
 definition of literature, 200 ; Essay 
 on Style, 124, 125, 208, 211 ; Es- 
 say on Winckelmann, 125; on 
 divisions of literature, 239 ; Plato 
 and Platonism, 132, 144; Studies 
 in the History of the Renaissance, 
 30, in, 125. 
 
 Pathetic, Aesthetics of the, 137. 
 
 Patin, H. J. G., 370, 373 ; fitudes 
 sur les tragiques grecs, 30, 71. 
 
 Patmore, Principles in Art, 418; 
 Sentimental Essays, 418. 
 
 Patrici, Franc., Delia poetica la 
 deca disputata, 446. 
 
 Pattee, History of American Litera- 
 ture, 378. 
 
 Pattison, M., Essay on the Sonnet, 
 
 SOS- 
 Paul, H., 204, 425, 510 ; Grundriss 
 d. german. Philologie, 30, 201, 
 225, 259, 271, 350, 476, 511, 514; 
 Kanteletar,j-/j; Nibelungenfrage 
 u. philol. Methode, 47 ; on the 
 origin of the folk-song, 268 ; Prin- 
 ciples of the History of Language, 
 206, 225, 238, 271. 
 
 Paulhan, F., 130; Le langage in- 
 
 terieur, 292; Sur 1'emotion esthe- 
 
 tique, 166. 
 Peabody, Eliza P., Aesthetic Papers, 
 
 41. 
 Peacham, Henry, The Compleat 
 
 Gentleman, 394, 500; Garden of 
 
 Eloquence, jSS. 
 Peacock, T. L., Works (Four Ages 
 
 of Poetry), 334, 415. 
 Peele, 396. 
 Pekar, Chas., Astigmatisme et es- 
 
 thetique, /6/ ; Esthetique physio- 
 
 logique et psychologique, 767. 
 Pellegrino, Cam., Discorso della 
 
 poetica, 447. 
 Pelletier, 431, 507. 
 Pellicer de Salas de Tovar, J., Idea 
 
 de la Comedia de Castilla, 449. 
 Pellissier, G., 373, 444 ; Essais de 
 
 litterature contemporaine, 77, 259; 
 
 Le vers alexandrin et son evolution 
 
 rhythmique, 478 ; La langue fran- 
 
 9aise, 507 ; Le mouvement litter- 
 
 aire au ige siecle, 71, 442, 444 ; 
 
 De sexti decimi saeculi in Francia 
 
 artibus poeticis, 430. 
 Pellisson, 444. 
 Pellisson et D'Olivet, Hist, de 1'aca- 
 
 demie fr., 432. 
 Penn, Arthur (Brander Matthews), 
 
 The Rhymester, 470, 500, 505. 
 Penner, Em., Metrische Untersu- 
 
 chungen zu George Peele, 502. 
 Percy, Reliques of Ancient English 
 
 Poetry, 412. 
 Perfranceschi, G., La letteratura, la 
 
 civiltk e la scienza, 2*78. 
 Perrault, C., 65, 405 ; Parallele des 
 
 anciens et des modernes, 435 ; Le 
 
 siecle de Louis le Grand, 435-
 
 568 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Perrot, G., and Chipiez, C., History 
 
 of Art, 1 80, 190, 19 1, 199 ; Introd. 
 
 to History of Ancient Egyptian 
 
 Art, 182. 
 Perry, T. S., English Literature in 
 
 the i8th Century, 31, 71, 259, 
 
 334- 
 
 Personality of the Poet, 360. 
 Peschier, Des phases de la critique 
 
 en France, jo, 71. 
 Petersen, F. C., Om den Aristoteliske 
 
 Poetik, 97, 757. 
 Petit de Julie ville, 444. 
 Petrarch, 458. 
 Pfeiffer, Fr., 510. 
 Pfizmaier, A., Die poetischen Aus- 
 
 driicke der japanischen Sprache, 
 
 5'7- 
 
 Phalaris, Letters of, 405. 
 Phelps, W. L., The Beginnings of the 
 
 English Romantic Movement, 334. 
 Phillips, Edwafd, Compendious 
 
 Enumeration of the Poets, 401 ; 
 
 on Milton, 398 ; Theatrum poe- 
 
 tarum, 376, 401. 
 Phillips, Zur Theorie des neuhoch- 
 
 deutschen Rhythmus, 510. 
 Philo Judaeus, 159. 
 Philodemus, 157. 
 Philological Criticism, 47. 
 Philosophy, Relation of, to Litera- 
 ture, 203. 
 
 Philostratus the Elder, 158. 
 Phoebammon, Concerning Figures, 
 
 235- 
 
 Phoenix Nest, 384. 
 Phonetics and metre, 458. 
 Physiological methods of research, 
 
 167. 
 Piccolomini, Al., 433; Aristotle's 
 
 Poetics, 446. 
 
 Pichtos, N. M., Die Aesthetik A. W. 
 von Schlegels, 770. 
 
 Pici, J. F., De imitatione libellus, 
 163. 
 
 Pictet, Du beau dans la nature, 129. 
 
 Pierson, P., Metrique naturelle de 
 langage, 478. 
 
 Pietro, Salvatore di, Sul bello, 770. 
 
 Pilo, M., Estetica, 770. 
 
 Pinciano, A. L., Philosophia antigua 
 poetica, 448, 512. 
 
 Piringer, B., Ueber Wesen u. Bedeu- 
 tung d. Poesie, 347. 
 
 Pitch, 453. 
 
 Pizzi, I., Le somiglianze et le relazi- 
 oni tra la poesia persiana e la 
 nostra del mediaevo, 275. 
 
 Planche, G., 373; De la critique 
 fran9aise en 1835, 77> 7^; Moeurs 
 et devoirs de la critique, jj. 
 
 Planck, H., Die Entwickelung d. 
 Naturgefiihls im Alterthum, 765. 
 
 Plato, 117, 135, 232, 418, 419; Aes- 
 thetics of, 120; The Dialogues, 
 in, 126, 127, 334, 478; on rela- 
 tion of art to nature, 139-144. 
 
 Platt, Iambic Trimeter, 494. 
 
 Plautus, 491. 
 
 Play-impulse, 173. 
 
 Pleiade, The, 429, 430, 431. 
 
 Plotinus, 127, 380. 
 
 Plotinus on imitation, 158; Liber 
 de Pulchritudine (Ennead i. 6), 
 112 ; Opera omnia, 112. 
 
 Plotius, on the grammatical arts, 
 491. 
 
 Plutarch, 157, 158; De musica, 489. 
 
 Pniower, O., Die neue Litteraturge- 
 schichte, 260. 
 
 Poe, 45 2 ; Works (on poetry), 335 ; 
 Works (Rationale of Verse), 478.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 569 
 
 Poetic faculty, The, 280. 
 
 Poetics, English, 383-422; French, 
 Development of, 428-445; Ger- 
 man, Development of, 422-428 ; 
 Historical Study of, 380-450 ; 
 Italian, Development of, 445-448; 
 Latin treatises on, 380-383; 
 Spanish, Development of, 448, 
 
 449- 
 
 Poetry, Aesthetic aim of, 290 ; defi- 
 nitions of, 280-288; Dutch, 375; 
 effect of, 291-293; English, His- 
 tory of, 375-378; ethical aim of, 
 
 * 291 ; form of expression in, 284- 
 285 ; French, history of, 371, 372; 
 general histories of, 367, 368 ; 
 German, history of, 373-375 ; 
 histories of, 378-379; history of 
 modern, 370 ; materials of, 283 ; 
 national, histories of, 363-367 ; 
 of Northern Europe, 373, 374; 
 origins of, 266274 ; process of 
 execution in, 285288 ; purpose 
 of, 281-282; subject of treatment 
 of, 282-283 > theory of, 279-349 ; 
 and prose, 244; Scandinavian, 
 
 375- 
 
 Politian, 387. 
 
 Polybius Sardianus, Concerning 
 Schematism, 235. 
 
 Pontanus, Jac., Poeticarum institu- 
 tionum libri tres, 382. 
 
 Pontmartin, A. A., J. M. F. de, La 
 critique en 1871, 77; Derniers 
 Samedis (Brunetiere), 78. 
 
 Pope, A., 396, 433, 434, 435 ; Bowles, 
 Byron controversy about, 287 ; 
 Discourse on Pastoral Poetry, 
 408; Dunciad, 409; edition of 
 Shakespeare, 409 ; Essay on Criti- 
 cism, 31, 72, 408, 500; papers in 
 
 the Guardian, 408 ; Swift and 
 
 Arbuthnot, Bathos, 409. 
 Porphyrion, Pomponius, 381. 
 Porter, Noah, Books and Reading, 
 
 32, 72- 
 
 Porthan, De Poesi Fennica, 514. 
 Poseidonius, 157. 
 Posnett, H. M., 453 ; Comparative 
 
 Literature, 32, 164, 201, 203, 208, 
 
 249, 250, 260. 
 Possevin, Ant., Tractatio de poesi 
 
 ethica, 382. 
 
 Post-Aristotelians, The, on Imita- 
 tion, 157-160. 
 Postgate, Propertius, 490. 
 Potgieter, 79. 
 Prantl, C. von, Verstehen und Beur- 
 
 teilen, 48. 
 Prat, H., 372. 
 Preller, L., Grundziige d. archaol. 
 
 Kritik u. Hermeneutik, 47. 
 Prescott,W. H., British Criticism.j-o. 
 Prevost, 413. 
 Price, Thos. R., The Construction 
 
 and Types of Shakespeare's Verse 
 
 as seen in Othello, joj. 
 Prickard, A. O., Aristotle on the 
 
 Art of Poetry, 153, 335. 
 Proclus, 490; Chrestomathia, 486. 
 Prolss, Katechismus d. Aesthetik, 
 
 126. 
 
 Prosaics, 245. 
 Prose and poetry, 244. 
 Prose mesuree, 455. 
 Pryde, 376. 
 Prynne, W., 395, 404; Histriomas- 
 
 tix, 395. 
 Psychological methods of research, 
 
 1 66. 
 Psycho-physical methods of research, 
 
 167.
 
 570 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Public, The, 210. 
 
 Purnell, T., Literature and its Pro- 
 fessors (Weight of Criticism), 
 
 5*- 
 
 Putnam, G. H., Authors and their 
 Public in Ancient Times, 261. 
 
 Puttenham, G., 391, 392, 394; The 
 Arte of English Poesie, 335, 390, 
 498. 
 
 Puymaigre, La societe et la littera- 
 ture, 277. 
 
 Pye, 154; Commentary illustrating 
 the Poetic (of Aristotle), 90; Edi- 
 tion of Aristotle's Poetics, 413. 
 
 Quadrio, Frc., Delia storia e della 
 ragione d' ogni poesia, 448. 
 
 Querengo, F., Trattato della poesia, 
 447- 
 
 Quicherat, L., 506; Traite de versi- 
 fication fransaise, 479. 
 
 Quincy, Quatremere de, Essay on 
 Imitation, 163. 
 
 Quinet, Edgar, 442; De 1'histoire de 
 la poesie, 378 ; CEuvres completes 
 (on poetry), 335. 
 
 Quintilian, 491 ; Institutes, 235, 380. 
 
 Raabe, A. H., 144; De poetica 
 
 Plat., 112. 
 Rabier, fi., Le9ons de philosophic, 
 
 i6 9 . 
 Raciborski, Alex., Die naturwissen- 
 
 schaftlichen Grundlagen unserer 
 
 aesthetischen Urtheile, 170. 
 Racine, L., Reflexions sur la poesie, 
 
 437- 
 Rainolde, John, Overthrow of Stage 
 
 Plays, 392. 
 Rainolde, Richard, Foundacions of 
 
 Rhetorike, 387. 
 
 Rajna, P., Le fonti dell' Orlando 
 Furioso, 46. 
 
 Raleigh, Walter, Style, 225. 
 
 Rapin, Rene de, 436 ; Reflexions 
 sur la poetique d'Aristote, et sur 
 les ouvrages des poe'tes anciens et 
 modernes, 395 ; 433 ; Reflections 
 on Aristotle's Treatise of Poesie, 
 400. 
 
 Rapp, Das goldene Alter d. deutsch. 
 Poesie, 374. 
 
 Rappold, J., Beitrage zur Kentniss 
 der Gleichnisse, 238 ; Die Gleich- 
 nisse bei Aeschylus, Sophokles 
 u. Euripides, 238. 
 
 Rappolt, Fdr., Poetica Aristotelica, 
 
 383- 
 
 Ratzel, History of Mankind, 273. 
 
 Raube, Zur Geschichte der italieni- 
 schen Poesie, 273. 
 
 Raumer, Fr. von, Allg. Litt.-Gesch., 
 379; Ueber d. Poetik, 90; Ueber 
 d. Poetik d. Aristoteles, 757. 
 
 Rausch, 371. 
 
 Raymond, G. L., Poetry as a Rep- 
 resentative Art, 479 ; Art in The- 
 ory, 769 ; Poetry as a Representa- 
 tive Art, 335. 
 
 Raynouard, G., 371, 441. 
 
 Reber, F. von, 144; History of 
 Ancient Art, 191. 
 
 Reber, Jos., Plato und die Poesie, 
 112. 
 
 Reclus, E., Primitive Folk, 272. 
 
 Recy, R. de, La critique musicale, 
 48. 
 
 Redhouse, W. J., on the History, 
 System, and Varieties of Turkish 
 Poetry, 318. 
 
 Reed, 416. 
 
 Refrain, The, 457, 458.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 571 
 
 Regel, H. M., Ueber Chapman's 
 Homer-Uebersetzung, 502. 
 
 Reggiiis, Raf., Horatii opera, 381. 
 
 Regnard, CEuvres completes (bibli- 
 ography of the comic), 137. 
 
 Regnier, 429. 
 
 Reich, E., Schopenhauer als Phi- 
 losoph d. Tragodie, 134. 
 
 Reichel, Von der deutschen Beto- 
 nung, 510. 
 
 Reid, 130. 
 
 Reinach, Diderot, 439. 
 
 Reinaud, 515. 
 
 Reinhardstottner, C. von, Theo- 
 retisch-praktische Grammatik d. 
 ital. Sprache, 512; Gramm. d. 
 portug. Sprache, 513. 
 
 Reinkens, Aristoteles liber d. Kunst, 
 besonders iiber d. Tragodie, 90, 
 154, 296. 
 
 Rells, W., Die psych ologische 
 Kritik in Frankreich, j-0. 
 
 Remer, P., Die freien Rhythmen in 
 H. Heine's Nordseebildern, 510. 
 
 Remusat, Chas. de, L'art par la 
 critique, 53. 
 
 Remy, M., 144 ; Plat. doct. de artibus 
 liberalibus, 112. 
 
 Renaldini, Carlo, Philosophia ratio- 
 nalis, 383. 
 
 Renan, Jos. Ernest, De 1'origine du 
 langage, 269, 271 ; Essais de 
 morale et de critique, 261 ; The 
 Future of Science, 225 ; on spon- 
 taneity, 269 ; Studies of Religious 
 History and Criticism, 33. 
 
 Renard, G., Brunetiere, 77; Les 
 princes de la jeune critique, 72. 
 
 Rengifo, Juan G., Arte poetica 
 espafiola, 448 ; Arte poetica espa- 
 nola, 512. 
 
 Renton, W., The Logic of Style, 
 226. 
 
 Repplier, A., Books and Men (curi- 
 osities of criticism), 49. 
 
 Research, Methods of, in aesthetics, 
 1 66. 
 
 Return from Parnassus, 385. 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J., 410; Discourses 
 on Beauty, 412; Literary Works 
 (aesthetics), 113; Papers on the 
 Idler, 412. 
 
 Rhetoric, 245. 
 
 Rhetorics, Early English, 386-388. 
 
 Rhomberg, A., Die Erhebung d. 
 Geschichte zum Range einer 
 Wissenschaft, 48. 
 
 Rhyme, 456, 457. 
 
 Rhythm, 138, 139, 451, 452 ; Sec- 
 ondary, 452. 
 
 Ribbeck, O., 370, 491 ; Ueber ' unab- 
 hangige' Kritik, 47; Comic, lat. 
 relliquiae, 490; Frag. lat. relli- 
 quiae, 490; Vergil, 490. 
 
 Ribot, Th., English Psychology, 
 166. 
 
 Ricardou, A., La critique litteraire, 
 226, 261. 
 
 Riccius, B., De imitatione, 163. 
 
 Riccoboni, Ant., Aristotle's Poetics 
 and Rhetoric, 382 ; Praecepta 
 Aristotelis cum praeceptis Horatii 
 collata, 382. 
 
 Richardson, C. F., American Litera- 
 ture, 377. 
 
 Richardson, J., Essay on the Art of 
 Criticism, 49. 
 
 Richardson, S., 413. 
 
 Richelieu, 432. 
 
 Richter, A., Die Ethik d. Plotin, 
 113 ; Neu-Platonische Studien,
 
 572 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Richter, Jean Paul, 128, 161, 412, 
 424; Vorschule der Aesthetik, 
 113, 208. 
 
 Rickett, A., Modern Criticism, 52. 
 
 Rieger, Max, Alt- und angelsach- 
 sische Verskunst, jof. 
 
 Riemann, O., and Dufour, M., Traite 
 de rhythmique et de metrique 
 grecque, 489. 
 
 Rigault, H., 444; Histoire de la 
 querelle des anciens et des mo- 
 dernes, 72, 432, 508. 
 
 Ritchie, D. G., 133; The Relation 
 of the Fine Arts to One Another, 
 769. 
 
 Ritschl, A., Erlauterungen, 48; 
 Accentuirte Verse, 494 ; Plautus, 
 490. 
 
 Ritter, F., Analyse u. Kritik d. von 
 Plato in seiner Schrift vom 
 Staate aufgestellten Erziehungs- 
 lehre, 144; Arist. poet., 757. 
 
 Rivet, Dom., Hist. litt. de la France, 
 372. 
 
 Robertson, J. M., 56, 59 ; definition 
 of criticism, 2 ; Essays towards a 
 Critical Method, 33, 73, 419; on 
 Moulton's theories, 29 ; New 
 Essays towards a Critical Method, 
 225, 419 ; on Sainte-Beuve, 36. 
 
 Robinson, Frau. See Talvj. 
 
 Robinson, W. C., Forensic Oratory, 
 238- 
 
 Robortelli, Franc., Poetics of Aris- 
 totle and commentary on Horace's 
 Ars poetica, j8i. 
 
 Roche, 372. 
 
 Rodenbach, 486. 
 
 Roettiker, H., Zur Lehre von den 
 Darstellungsmitteln in der Poesie, 
 347- 
 
 Rofsler, Beitrag zur Lehre von den 
 
 Tropen, 238. 
 Rogers, Dr. Chas., Memorials of 
 
 the Earl of Stirling, J9J. 
 Rbhr, Kritische Untersuchungen 
 
 iiber Lotze's Aesthetik, 134. 
 Romance philology, 370, 37 1 . 
 Romanes, G. J., Thought and Lan- 
 guage, 206. 
 Romantiker, 412, 425. 
 Ronsard, 431, 439; Art poetique, 
 
 429 ; Preface to the Franciade, 
 
 429. 
 Roquefort-Flamericourt, De 1'etat 
 
 de lapoesie fran9- dans les I2 et 
 
 136 siecles, 372. 
 Roquette, Gesch. d. deutsch. Dich- 
 
 tung, 374. 
 Roscoe, W., On the Origin and 
 
 Vicissitudes of Literature, Science, 
 
 and Art, 277. 
 Roscommon, Earl of, 398 ; Essay 
 
 on Translated Verse, 397, 402 ; 
 
 Translation of Horace's Art of 
 
 Poetry, 401. 
 Rosenberg, Nordboernes Aandsliv, 
 
 274. 
 Rosenkranz, K., 426 ; Die Aesthetik 
 
 d. Hasslichen, fj6 ; Die Poesie 
 
 und ihre Geschichte, 335, 379, 427', 
 
 Goethe und seine Werke, j/7 ; 
 
 Handbuch einer allgemeinen Ge- 
 schichte der Poesie, 378 ; Poetik, 
 
 505. 
 Rosny, Leon de, Anthologie Japo- 
 
 naise, 518. 
 Rossbach, 454 ; Griechische Rhyth- 
 
 mik, 486. 
 Rossel, Histoire des relations litte- 
 
 raires entre la France et 1'Alle- 
 
 magne, 276.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 573 
 
 Rossetti, D. G., 458. 
 
 Rossetti, W. M., Lives of Famous 
 Poets, 376. 
 
 Roth, 515. 
 
 Rousseau, 444; Discours sur les 
 sciences et les arts, 437 ; De 
 1'imitation theatrale, 163; Lettre 
 a D'Alembert, 438; Nouvelle 
 Heloise, 412. 
 
 Rowbotham, J. F., History of Music, 
 181 ; Origin of Music, 181. 
 
 Rowe, edition of Shakespeare, 408. 
 
 Royce, J., Case of John Bunyan,j; 
 Psychology of Invention, 288. 
 
 Rubinstein, S., Psychologisch-aes- 
 thetische Essays, 767. 
 
 Riickert, F. W., Antike u. deutsche 
 Metrik, 509. 
 
 Rucktaschl, Th., 432 ; Einige Arts 
 poetiques aus der Zeit Ronsards 
 und Malherbes, 430. 
 
 Ruelle, M. E., Translation of Aris- 
 toxenus, 757. 
 
 Rufinianus, 235. 
 
 Rufinus, De metris comicorum et 
 de numeris oratorum, 492. 
 
 Ruge, A., 136; Neue Vorschule d. 
 Aesthetik, 128; Die Platonische 
 Aesthetik, 112, 144. 
 
 Rumpel, Auflosungen im Trimeter, 
 495 ; Griech. trag. Metr., 495 ; 
 Griech. troch. Tetram., 495. 
 
 Runciman, J. F., Musical Criticism, 
 ^9; Side Lights (criticism), 52. 
 
 Ruskin, 112, 113, 124, 417, 418, 422, 
 452, 453; on the aim of poetry, 
 282 ; Arrows of the Chace, 52, 
 114; Aratra Pentelici, 114; The 
 Eagle's Nest, 114; Elements of 
 English Prosody, 479; on imita- 
 tion, 154; A Joy forever, 114; 
 
 Lectures on Architecture and 
 Painting, 114; Modern Painters, 
 131, 114, 207, 226, 336; On the 
 Old Road, 114, 226; Prosody, 
 451 ; Seven Lamps of Architec- 
 ture, 114; Stones of Venice, 114, 
 192 ; The Touchstones of Poetry, 
 297; The Two Paths, 114. 
 
 Russian criticism, 79. 
 
 Rutilius Lupus, 235. 
 
 Rymer, Reflections on Aristotle's 
 Treatise of Poesie, 433 ; Short 
 View of Tragedy, 403 ; Tragedies 
 of the Last Age, etc., 400, 500. 
 
 Saalschutz, Von der Form der hebr. 
 Poesie, 516. 
 
 Sacher, C. N., Die Grundformen d. 
 Poesie, u. s. w., 347. 
 
 Sacher-Masoch, L. von, Ueber den 
 Werth d. Kritik, 34. 
 
 Sackville and Norton, 455. 
 
 St. Augustine, 159; De musica, 492. 
 
 St. Francis, 160. 
 
 St. Hilaire, B., Poet. Arist., 757. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve, C. A., 6, 45, 372, 422, 
 441, 442, 444; Bayle et le genie 
 critique, j8 ; Causeries du Lundi, 
 226, 443 ; Chateaubriand, 35 ; 
 Essays (trans.), 120; M. de Feletz 
 et de la critique litteraire sous 
 1'empire, 35, 73; Nouveaux Lundis, 
 443; Port-Royal, 443; Tableau 
 historique et critique de la poesie 
 francaise au XVIe siecle, 372, 
 
 43. 5 8 - 
 
 Saintsbury, G., 439, 445 ; Contribu- 
 tions to Traill's Social England, 
 418 ; Essays in English Litera- 
 ture, 36, 73 ; History of Eliza- 
 bethan Literature, 73, J77; His-
 
 574 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 tory of French Literature, 207, 
 
 430, 438, 439; History of Nine- 
 teenth Century Literature, 377, 
 
 383, 4x4, 418. 
 Saisset, E., L'ame et la vie, 13*4 ; on 
 
 Leveque's aesthetics, 134. 
 Salio, G., Esame critico intorno a 
 
 varie sentenze, etc., 448. 
 Salony, J., Du progres de 1'idee 
 
 chretienne dans la litterature, .277. 
 Salt, H. S., The Socialist Ideal: 
 
 Literature, 227, 261. 
 Salva, Don Vincente, Gramatica 
 
 castellana, 512. 
 Samson, Elements of Art Criticism, 
 
 126. 
 Sanchez de Viana, Mig., Arte poetica 
 
 Castellana, 448. 
 Sanctis, F. de, Nuovi saggi critici, 
 
 46 ; Saggi critici, 46 ; Storia della 
 
 letteratura italiana, 46. 
 Sanders, D., Abriss der deutschen 
 
 Silbenmessung und Verskunst, 
 
 480. 
 Santayana, The sense of Beauty, 
 
 207. 
 Sarradin, A., Eustache Deschamps, 
 
 429, note. 
 Sarrazin, La renaissance de la poesie 
 
 anglaise, 363. 
 Sayous, 373. 
 Scaliger, 64, 431. 
 Scaliger, Julius Caesar, Poetices libri 
 
 septem, 381, 430. 
 Scandinavian poetry, 375. 
 Schaaff, Encykl. der klass. Alter- 
 
 tumskunde, 369. 
 Schaff, Philip, Introd. to Poetry of 
 
 the Old Testament, 516. 
 Schafrle, A. E. F., Bau u. Leben d. 
 
 socialen Kbrpers, 168, 192, 227. 
 
 Schantz, M., Methode u. Entwick- 
 lung d. rom. Litt.-Gesch., 369. 
 
 Schasler, M., 121, 128, 136, 144, 157 ; 
 Aesthetik, 115; Grundztige d. 
 Wissenschaft d. Schonen und d. 
 Kunst, 115; Krit. Geschichte d. 
 Aesthetik, 90, 115, 131, 155, 322; 
 Das System d. Kiinste, 1 1 5. 
 
 Scheffer, Lapponia, 514. 
 
 Schelling, F. E., The Inventor of 
 the English Hexameter, 504; 
 Poetic and Verse Criticism of 
 the Reign of Elizabeth, 74, 383, 
 496. 
 
 Schelling, F. W. J. von, 162, 427 ; 
 on relation of art and nature, 
 161 ; Philosophie d. Kunst, 127 ; 
 Sammtliche Werke (Aesthetics), 
 116; Ueber d. Wesen d. philos. 
 Kritik, 47. 
 
 Scherer, E., 45, 372, 444 ; Eludes 
 critiques sur la litterature contem- 
 poraine, 36, 48, 74. 
 
 Scherer, W., 169; Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 Litteratur, 374 ; Zur Geschichte 
 der deutschen Sprache, 480, 510; 
 Jacob Grimm, 262; Ueber den 
 Hiatus in d. neueren deutschen 
 Metrik, 510; Poetik, 262, 336, 
 426. 
 
 Scherr, Joh., Allgemeine Geschichte 
 d. Litteratur, 201, 227, 262, 368; 
 History of Engl. Lit., 377. 
 
 Shiels, R., 376. 
 
 Schiller, J. C. F., 161, 173, 424, 426: 
 The Aesthetical and Philosophical 
 Essays, 336; aesthetics of, 127; 
 Aesthetic Letters, 1 23 ; his doc- 
 trine of the Spieltrieb used by 
 Spencer, 118; on the pathetic, 
 137 ; Sammtliche Werke (aesthet-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 575 
 
 ics), 116; The Aesthetic Letters, 
 Essays, and the Philosophical 
 Letters (Trans, by Weiss), 116; 
 Works (Trans.), 116; on poetry, 
 283. 
 
 Schipper, J. H., 452, 453, 454, 455, 
 456, 457, 495, 502, 505 ; Alteng- 
 lische Metrik, 501, 506; Englische 
 Metrik in historischer . . . Ent- 
 wickelung, 480 ; Englische Metrik 
 (in Paul's Grundriss d. germa- 
 nischen Philologie), 480; Neueng- 
 lische Metrik, 496, 503, 504, 505. 
 
 Schlegel, A. W. von, 412, 440; on 
 the ballad, 267, 271 ; Briefe iiber 
 Poesie, Silbenmass und Sprache, 
 424; on communal poetry, 271 ; 
 Kritische Schriften, 117 ; Lectures 
 on Dramatic Literature, 424. 
 
 Schlegel, F. von, 136, 161, 379, 412; 
 The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous 
 Works, 117, 424 ; Lectures on the 
 History of Literature, 262. 
 
 Schlegel, J. A., 423, 509. 
 
 Schleiermacher, F. E. D., Ueber d. 
 Eegriff d. Hermeneutik, 47; Vor- 
 lesungen iiber Aesthetik, 128. 
 
 Schlosser, F. C., Geschichte des iB. 
 Jahrhs., 373. 
 
 Schlosser, F. C., Weltgeschichte fiir 
 das deutsche Volk, 275. 
 
 Schlottman, C., De reipublicae lite- 
 rariae originibus, 2jj ; Zur semi- 
 tischen Epigraphie, 516. 
 
 Schmeckebier, O., Deutsche Vers- 
 lehre, 510. 
 
 Schmidt, Erich, Charakteristiken, 
 262. 
 
 Schmidt, Julian, 373 ; Gesch. d. 
 deutsch. Litt. seit Lessing, J7J-. 
 
 Schmidt, J. H. H., 452, 453, 454, 
 
 489 ; Introduction to the Rhyth- 
 mic and Metric of the Classical 
 Languages, 451, 454, 482, 488 ; 
 Die Kunstformen d. griechischen 
 Poesie u. ihre Bedeutung, 338, 
 454- 
 
 Schmidt, L., Die Ethik d. alten 
 Griechen (Der Mensch im Ver- 
 haltn. zur Naturumgebung), 165. 
 
 Schmidt, M., Ueber d. Bau d. Pin- 
 darischen Strophen, 488 \ Griech. 
 Takte, 495. 
 
 Schmitz, B., Encykl. d. philol. Stu- 
 diums d. neueren Sprachen, 293, 
 370, 379- 
 
 Schnaase, K. J. F., Geschichte d. 
 bildenden Kiinste, 192. . 
 
 Schneider, B. P. J., Die Musik und 
 Poesie nach ihren Wirkungen his- 
 torisch-kritisch dargestellt, 273. 
 
 Schneider, J. I., Darstellung d. 
 deutsch. Verskunst, 510. 
 
 Schneidewin, 491. 
 
 Scholl, Fr., 370. 
 
 Schonborn, Th., Ueber d. Ursprung 
 d. Naturpoesie, 347. 
 
 Schopenhauer, A., 112, 124, 425; 
 aesthetics of, 128, 134; The Aes- 
 thetics of Poetry, 456; The Art 
 of Literature, 37, 227, 339; on 
 poetry, 283; Sammtliche Werke 
 (criticism), 36 ; Sammtliche Werke 
 (aesthetics), 117; Sammtliche 
 Werke (Ueber Schriftstellerei 
 und Stil), 227; Welt als Wille 
 und Vorstellung, 272 ; The World 
 as Will and Idea, 117, 161, 238, 
 338, 456. 
 
 Schotten, W. von, Metrische Unter- 
 suchungen zu John Marston's 
 Trauerspielen, 502.
 
 576 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Schrader, W., De artis apud Arist. ; 
 
 notione ac vi, go, 157. 
 Schreiber, H., Allgemeine Gnind- 
 
 satze d. Dichtkunst, 347. 
 Schroer, A., Ueber die Anfange d. 
 
 Blankverses in England, 502, 503; 
 
 Ueber die Aufgabe der Litteratur- 
 
 geschichte, 278. 
 Schroer, K. T., Die deutsche Dich- 
 
 tung des 14. Jahrhs., 427. 
 Schubart, 452. 
 Schubarth, Zur Beurtheilung Goe- 
 
 thes, 317. 
 Schubert, De Anglo-Saxonum arte 
 
 metrica, 501, 511. 
 Schuchardt, H., Reim u. Rhythmus 
 
 im Deutschen u. Romanischen, 
 
 507. 
 Schultz, R., De poetices Aristoteleae 
 
 principiis, 97. 
 Schweizer-Sidler, De Saturnio versu, 
 
 494- 
 
 Science, Influence of, upon critical 
 theory, 61 ; Relation of, to litera- 
 ture, 203. 
 
 Scott, F. N., Aesthetics, its Prob- 
 lems and Literature, 777, note. 
 
 Scott, F. N., and Denney, J. V., 
 Composition-Rhetoric, 238. 
 
 Scott, Johnson, Musical Museum, 
 274. 
 
 Scott, Sir W., 414. 
 
 Scotus Erigena, 160. 
 
 Scribblerus, 385. 
 
 Scmkler-, Vida D., The Effect of 
 the. Scientific Temper in Modern 
 Poetry, 339, 346. 
 
 Seailles, G., 1 30 ; Essai sur le genie 
 dans 1'art, 138. 
 
 Seeley, J. R., 452, 454 ; Elementary 
 Principles of Art, 123. 
 
 Seelmann, Die Aussprache des 
 
 Latein, 493. 
 Segni, A., Ragionamento sopra le 
 
 cose pertinente alia poetica, 446. 
 Segni, B., Aristotle's Poetics and 
 
 Rhetoric, 446. 
 Sehnvald, Deutsche Dichter und 
 
 Denker, 375. 
 Seibel, M., Zu Arist. irepl TTO^TIKIJS, 
 
 91. 
 Seidl, A., Zur Geschichte d. Er- 
 
 habenheitsbegriffes seit Kant, 
 
 136- 
 
 Self-expression, Instinct for, 173. 
 
 Selkirk, J. B., Ethics and Aesthetics 
 of Modern Poetry, 339. 
 
 Sellar, 370. 
 
 Semler, Chr., Die Gleichnisse Ho- 
 mers aus der Xatur u. ihre Bedeu- 
 tung, 765. 
 
 Semper, G., Der Stil, 174- 
 
 Senancour, Reveries, 441. 
 
 Seneca, 157. 
 
 Seraphi, Ped., De poesia vulgar en 
 lengua Catalana, 448. 
 
 Sergius, 492. 
 
 Seth and Haldane, Essays in Philo- 
 sophical Criticism, 123. 
 
 Severus, Julius, De caesuris, 492 ; 
 De pedibus, 492. 
 
 Seward, Anecdotes of Distinguished 
 Persons, 496. 
 
 Seymour, Feminine Caesura in 
 Homer, 494. 
 
 Shaftesbury, 130, 409; Character- 
 isticks, 117, 380, 405; his doc- 
 trine of cosmopolitan culture, 
 440 ; on imitation, 160. 
 
 Shairp, J. C., on the aim of poetry, 
 281, 288; Aspects of Poetry, 37, 
 339 ; The Poetic Interpretation
 
 IND^.X. 
 
 577 
 
 of Nature, 339; Studies in Phi- 
 losophy and Poetry, 339. 
 
 Shakespeare, 121,455. 
 
 Sharp, W., Sonnets of this Century, 
 
 457, 55- 
 
 Shaw, 377. 
 
 Shelley, P. B., A Defense of Poetry, 
 340, 415; his definition of poetry, 
 280; Works (on poetry), 340. 
 
 Shenstone, W., on criticism and 
 creation, 8. 
 
 Sheridan, Art of Reading, 501. 
 
 Sherman, L. A., Analytics of Litera- 
 ture, 201, 211, 228, 238; Litera- 
 ture and the Scientific Spirit, 203. 
 
 Sherry, Richard, Treatise of the 
 Figures of Grammar and Rhetoric, 
 j<?7 ; Treatise of Schemes and 
 Tropes, 387. 
 
 Shuckburgh, Evelyn (ed.), Sidney's 
 Defense of Poesie, 391. 
 
 Sicilia, Lecciones elementales de 
 ortologia y prosodia, 512. 
 
 Sidgwick, II., The Historical 
 Method, 48. 
 
 Sidney, Sir Philip, 387, 391, 392, 
 395, 410, 415; Arcadia, 390; 
 Apologie for Poetrie, 341 ; The 
 Defense of Poesy, 341, 384, 498 ; 
 on poetry, 283, 292. 
 
 Siebeck, Das Wesen d. aesth. An- 
 schauung, 128. 
 
 Sievers, E., 502, 510, 514; Grund- 
 ziige der Phonetik, 458, 482 ; Zur 
 Rhythmik d. german. Allitera- 
 tionsverses, 501. 
 
 Sill, E. R., Principles of Criticism, 
 202, 228, 349. 
 
 Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, 180. 
 
 Simpson, Catullus, 490. 
 
 Sismondi, 372, 379. 
 
 Sittl, 370. 
 
 Sjogren, J. A., Die Gemeinden in 
 
 Kemi-Lappmark, 514. 
 Skeat, W. W., 453, 457, 502; on 
 
 Chaucer, 385, note ; on Chaucer's 
 
 Versification, 483 ; Essay on Al- 
 literative Poetry, 483, 301. 
 Smith, Adam, Of the Imitative Arts, 
 
 163. 
 
 Smith, Sidney, 414. 
 Snider, D. J., Goethe's Faust, 37. 
 Soame, Translation of Boileau's Art 
 
 poetique, 301. 
 Social principles of art-evolution, 
 
 178, 179. 
 Sociological methods of research, 
 
 1 68. 
 
 Socrates, Aesthetics of, 121, 126. 
 Solerti, A., Manuale di metrica 
 
 classica italiana ed accento rit- 
 
 mico, 512. 
 Solger, K. W. F., 128, 136, 161 ; 
 
 Vorlesungen iiber d. Aesthetik, 
 
 118, 424. 
 
 Song and dance, 273. 
 Sonnenburg, R., Wie sind die fran- 
 
 zosischen Verse zu lesen ? 507. 
 Sonnenschein, E. A., Culture and 
 
 Science, 346. 
 Sorel, 130, 444 ; on psycho-physical 
 
 contributions to aesthetics, 168. 
 Soto de Roxas, Ped., Discurso sobra 
 
 la poetica, 449. 
 Soupe, A. P., Precurseurs de la 
 
 critique moderne Grimm, 77. 
 Souriau, Maurice, L'evolution du 
 
 vers fran9ais au XVIIe siecle, 
 
 506. 
 Souriau, P., 130; L'esthetique du 
 
 mouvement, 767 ; L'esthetique, 
 
 la suggestion dans 1'art, 767.
 
 578 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Southey, 409, 414. 
 
 Souza, Rob. de, Questions de me- 
 trique, 483. 
 
 Spalding, 377. 
 
 Spanish criticism, History of, 79. 
 
 Spedding, J., Bacon, 417 ; Essays 
 and Reviews, 417 ; on hexameters, 
 504 ; Reviews and Discussions, 
 483 ; Sweetness of Versification, 
 
 483- 
 
 Speght, edition of Chaucer, 385, 
 note. 
 
 Spence, J., 383, 415; essay on Pope's 
 Homer, 409 ; Polymetis, 411. 
 
 Spencer, H., 116, 173, 419; on aes- 
 thetic emotions, 130; Colvin on, 
 183; Data of Ethics, 266; Edu- 
 cation (aesthetics), 118; Essays: 
 Moral, Political, and Aesthetic 
 (aesthetics), 118; Essays: Scien- 
 tific, Political, and Speculative 
 (aesthetics), 118; on figures, 235 ; 
 First Principles, 168, 193, 262, 
 451; On Gracefulness, 417; Illus- 
 trations of Universal Progress 
 (aesthetics), 118; On the Origin 
 and Function of Music, 181, 272, 
 483 ; Orator and Poet, Actor and 
 Dramatist, 229, 271 ; Philosophy 
 of Style, 228, 238, 417, 456, 483 ; 
 Physiology of Laughter, 118, 137 ; 
 The Principles of Psychology 
 (aesthetics), 119,417; Principles 
 of Sociology, 1 68, 193, 266, 272 ; 
 Social Statics, 417 ; his theory of 
 art-evolution, 178. 
 
 Spengel, L., 156; Ueber /cdflaptm 
 TUV wa.6rjij.dTwv bei Arist., 90; 
 Vom Saturnischen Verse, 495 ; 
 Zur " tragischen Katharsis " d. 
 Arist., 97. 
 
 Spenser, 387, 389. 
 
 Spenser, and Harvey, Gabriel, Three 
 
 Proper, Wittie, and Familiar 
 
 Letters, etc., 389, 496. 
 Spielhagen, F., Aus meiner Studien- 
 
 mappe, jj, 341 ; Produktion, 
 
 Kritik u. Publikum, 138. 
 Spitteler, C., Fleiss und Eingebung, 
 
 ,38. 
 
 Spontaneity, 269. 
 Stael, Mme. de, 435, 444 ; De 1'Alle- 
 
 magne, 440 ; De la litterature, 
 
 229, 263, 439. 
 Stahr, A., Aristoteles u. d. Wirkung 
 
 d. Tragodie, go. 
 Stall, G., Introductio in historiam 
 
 litterariam, .277. 
 Stanford, V., Musical Criticism in 
 
 England, 49. 
 
 Stanley, H. M., Studies in the Evo- 
 lutionary Psychology of Feeling 
 
 (The Psychology of Literary 
 
 Style), 228, 229. 
 Stapfer, P., Les artistes juges et 
 
 parties, 38 ; Petite comedie de la 
 
 critique litteraire, 37, 163 ; Poetes 
 
 et critiques du 192 siecle, 77; Des 
 
 reputations litteraires, 263. 
 Stedman and Hutchinson, Library 
 
 of American Literature, 378. 
 ^Stedman, E. C., 45; The Nature of 
 
 Poetry, 39, 74, 286, 342, 384; 
 
 Poets of America, 378 ; Victorian 
 
 Poets, 39, J76. 
 
 Steele, J., Prosodia rationalis, 501. 
 Steele, Sir Richard, The Conscious 
 
 Lovers, 413; The Funeral, 413; 
 
 The Lying Lover, 413; Tatler, 
 
 407. 
 Stein, H., von, Die Entstehung d. 
 
 neueren Aesthetik, 770.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 579 
 
 Steinthal, H., Einleitung in die 
 Psychologic und Sprachwissen- 
 schaft, 368 ; Das Epos, 263 ; on 
 the origin of poetry, 267 ; Poesie 
 und Prosa, 229 ; Ueber d. Arten 
 u. Formen d. Interpretation, 47 ; 
 Zur Stylistik, 204, 208, 229 ; Zur 
 Volksdichtung, 271 . 
 
 Stendhal, 441. 
 
 Stengel, E., 371 ; Metrik der roma- 
 nischen Sprachen, 508 ; Romani- 
 sche Verslehre, 484. 
 
 Stenzler, 515. 
 
 Stephanus, Heinr., editions of 
 Horace, 382. 
 
 Stephen, I,., 45, 418, 422 ; History 
 of English Thought in the i8th 
 Century, 47, 74; on Ruskin, 115. 
 
 Sterling, John, 416. 
 
 Stern, Geschichte d. neueren Littera- 
 tur, 368. 
 
 Stevenson, E., Early Reviews of 
 Great Writers, 78. 
 
 Stevenson, R. L., On Style in Liter- 
 ature, 230, 453. 
 
 Stewart, 130. 
 
 Stiernet, J. B., L'evolution de la 
 critique, 77. 
 
 Stirling, Earl of, Anacrisis, 395. 
 
 Stirling, Jas. H., 103. 
 
 Stirling, John, System of Rhetoric, 
 238. 
 
 Stockel, Allg. Lehrbuch d. Aes- 
 thetik, 126. 
 
 Stoessel, Das Bild d. altprovenz. 
 Lyrik, 238. 
 
 Stone, C. E., 516. 
 
 Storrs, R. S., Relations of Com- 
 merce to Literature, .277. 
 
 Stout, G. F., Thought and Language, 
 206. 
 
 Stowe, edition of Chaucer, 385, 
 
 note. 
 Stramwitz, E., Strophen- und Vers- 
 
 Enjambementim Altfranzosischen, 
 484- 
 Stransky, S., Versuch. d. Entwick- 
 
 elung einer allg. Aesthetik, 134. 
 Strater, Th., 90; Studien zur Ge- 
 schichte d. Aesthetik (Die Idee 
 
 d. Schonen in d. Platonischen 
 
 Philos.), 133. 
 Straub, W., Der Natursinn d. alten 
 
 Griechen, 165. 
 Stress, 453. 
 Strieker, S., De la parole et des sons 
 
 interieurs, 233 ; Du langage et de 
 . la musique, 203; Ueber die Sprach- 
 
 vorstellungen, 233. 
 Strype, Annals, 495. 
 Stuart, Antiquities of Athens, 412. 
 Sturgis and Krehbiel, Bibliography 
 
 of Fine Art, /99- 
 Sturm, Joh., Commentary on 
 
 Horace's Ars poetica, 382. 
 Style, 207, 208, 233-235, 242-247 ; 
 
 unities of, 243. 
 Stylistic, 242-247. 
 
 Sublime, Aesthetics of the, 136, 137. 
 Suchier, 371. 
 Sully, J., 92, 101, 451 ; Aesthetics, 
 
 118, 131 ; Art and Psychology, 
 
 119; Harmony of Colors, 119; 
 
 origin of art, 775; Outlines of 
 
 Psychology, 119, 122, 167, 206; 
 
 Sensation and Intuition, 119, 125. 
 Sully-Prudhomme, R. F. A., 443; 
 
 L'expression dans les beaux-arts, 
 
 129. ' 
 Sul/er, 424 ; Allgemeine Theorie 
 
 der schonen Kiinste, 487, note. 
 Summo, F., Discorsi poetici, etc., 44?.
 
 580 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Siipfle, Th., Geschichte d. deutschen 
 Kultureinflusses auf Frankreich, 
 275- 
 
 Surrey, translation of Virgil, 496. 
 
 Susemihl, F., 488; Studien zur 
 Arist. Poetik, 90, 157. 
 
 Sutermeister, O., Leitfaden der Poe- 
 tik, 342, 426. 
 
 Sweet, History of English Sounds, 
 458. 
 
 Swift, J., Battle of the Books, 405 ; 
 Letter to a Young Clergyman, 
 234 ; Proposal for Correcting the 
 English Tongue, 408. 
 
 Swinburne, A. C., 418; his view of 
 poetry, 288; Wordsworth and 
 Byron, 342. 
 
 Sylvester, J. J., 452 ; The Laws of 
 Verse, or Principles of Versifi- 
 cation, 484. 
 
 ^ymonds, J. A., 389, 417, 422, 453, 
 455; Essays Speculative and 
 Suggestive, 3-9, 75, /^j, 163, 164, 
 /7<?, 193, 230; on Hennequin's La 
 crit. scientifique, 21; M. Arnold 
 on Poetry, 346 ; The Renaissance 
 in Italy, 39, 75, 125, 193; Sketches 
 and Studies in Southern Europe 
 (Appendix on Blank Verse), 485 ; 
 Studies of the Greek Poets, 75, 
 193 ; Wine, Women, and Song, 
 494- 
 
 Symonds, J. A. (M.D.), Principles 
 of Beauty, 123. 
 
 Taillandier, Dom., Hist. lit. de la 
 France, 372. 
 
 Taine, H., 6, 113, 372, 377, 441, 
 444 ; aesthetics of, 129, 134 ; 
 Colvin on, 183; Essais de cri- 
 tique et d'histoire, 40 ; formula 
 
 of, 178 ; History of English Litera- 
 ture, 39, 194, 263, 377 ; The 
 Ideal in Art, 119, 194; his in- 
 debtedness to Hegel, 129, note; 
 Italy, Florence, and Venice, 119; 
 Italy, Naples, and Rome, 119; 
 Lectures on Art, 119; The Phi- 
 losophy of Art, 119, 194. 
 
 Talbot, 372. 
 
 Talvj, Characteristik d. Volkslieder 
 germanischer Nationen, 273. 
 
 Tanner, Bishop, 402. 
 
 Tarde, G., La logique sociale, 173 ; 
 Les lois de 1'imitation, 271. 
 
 Tarrozo, D., A poesia philosophica, 
 
 347- 
 Tasso, B., 387, 458; Lettere, 446; 
 
 Ragionamento della poesia, 446. 
 Tasso, T., Discorsi dell' Arte poetica, 
 
 446. 
 
 Tatler, 398. 
 Taylor, Thos., Translation of Plo- 
 
 tinus, 113- 
 Taylor, Wm., 504. 
 Technics, 247. 
 Technique, 247. 
 Teichmiiller, Aristotelische For- 
 
 schungen, 132, 150, 151, 154, 
 
 2 9 b. 
 
 Temple, Sir Wm., 405. 
 
 Tempo, Antonio da, Summa artis 
 
 ritmici vulgaris, 381. 
 Ten Brink. See Brink, ten. 
 Tennyson, 405. 
 Terence, 491. 
 Teuffel, 370; Geschichte d. rbm. 
 
 Litt, 490. 
 Texte, Jos., 372, 444 ; fitudes de la 
 
 lit. europeenne, 444; L'histoire 
 
 comparee des litteratures, 264 ; 
 
 Les relations litteraires de la
 
 INDEX. 
 
 581 
 
 France avec 1'Allemagne avant le 
 
 milieu du xviiie siecle, 276. 
 Textual criticism, Tests of, 354, 355. 
 Thales, Bernard, Hist, de la poesie, 
 
 444. 
 Theodorus, Flavius Mallius, De 
 
 metris, 492. 
 Theophrastus, 157. 
 Thery, A., 372; Histoire des 
 
 opinions litteraires chez les an- 
 
 ciens et chez les modernes, 75. 
 Thibaut de Champagne, 428. 
 Thieme, H. P., La litterature fran- 
 
 aise du dix-neuvieme siecle, 5og; 
 
 The Technique of the French 
 
 Alexandrine, joy. 
 Thiersch, 488. 
 Thirlwall, Bishop, Essays, Speeches, 
 
 and Sermons, 203. 
 Tholuck, Lectures on Biblical criti- 
 cism, 48. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, 160. 
 Thomas, C., Ethics of Criticism, jo ; 
 
 Have we still Need of Poetry? 
 
 347 ; Poetry and Science, 347. 
 Thompson, D. G., A System of 
 
 Psychology, 767. 
 Thompson, Maurice, 276; Ethics of 
 
 Literary Art, 238. 
 Thompson, Robt, Treatise on the 
 
 Progress of Literature and its 
 
 Effects on Society, 264. 
 Thomson, J., 413; Edward and 
 
 Leonora, 410. 
 Thoreau, H. D., Concord and Mer- 
 
 rimack Rivers, 343 ; Early Spring 
 
 in Massachusetts, 230. 
 Thought and language, Relations of, 
 
 205. 
 
 Thurneysen, R., 508. 
 Thynne, edition of Chaucer, 385, note. 
 
 Tiberius, Concerning Figures, 235. 
 
 Ticknor, 371, 457 ; History of Span- 
 ish Lit., 512. 
 
 Tieck, 412, 424. 
 
 Tilley, A., Literature of the French 
 Renaissance, 365; The Poetic 
 Imagination, 346 ; Two Theories 
 of Poetry, 346. 
 
 Tiraboschi, 37 1 ; Storia della lettera- 
 tura italiana, 448, 512. 
 
 Tisdall, Fitzgerald, A Theory of the 
 Origin and Development of the 
 Heroic Hexameter, 304. 
 
 Tisseur, Clair, Modestes observa- 
 tions sur 1'art de versifier, 485. 
 
 Tissot, E., Les evolutions de la 
 critique frai^aise, 75. 
 
 Tobler, A., 371; Vom franz. Vers- 
 bau, jo6 ; Methodik d. philol. 
 Forschung, 40, 368. 
 
 Tolman, A. H., 453 ; The Laws of 
 Tone-Color in the English Lan- 
 guage, 486. 
 
 Tomlinson, C., The Sonnet : its ori- 
 gin, etc., 505. 
 
 Tompkins, A., Science of Discourse, 
 238. 
 
 Tone-color, 453, 486. 
 
 Tory, G., 431. 
 
 Tottel's Miscellany, 384, 394. 
 
 Tracia, A., Diccionario de la rima, 
 512. 
 
 Traeger, Ernst, Gesch. d. Alexan- 
 driners, 506. 
 
 Trahndorff, Aesthetik, 128. 
 
 Traill, H. D., Social England, 407, 
 414, 415. 
 
 Translation, Style in, 208. 
 
 Trapp, Jos., Praelectiones poeticae, 
 
 3^3- 
 Traversanus, Fratris laurencii gui-
 
 582 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 lelmi de Saona prohemium in 
 
 novam rhetoricam, 386. 
 Treitschke, R., Die romanischen 
 
 Sprachen und ihre Literaturmis- 
 
 sion, 2-j-j. 
 Trezza, G., La critica moderna, jo, 
 
 79- 
 
 Triggs, O. L., 502 ; Literature and 
 the Scientific Spirit, 203. 
 
 Trissino, G. G., La poetica, 445. 
 
 Tryphon, Concerning Figures, 235. 
 
 Tuckerman, H. T., 377 ; Character- 
 istics of Literature, 78. 
 
 Tumlirz, K., Tropen und Figuren, 
 
 238- 
 
 Twining, 154; Aristotle's Treatise 
 
 on Poetry, go. 
 Tylor, E. B., Anthropology, 266, 
 
 273 ; Primitive Culture, 266, 273. 
 Tyler, M. C., 378 ; History of 
 
 American Colonial Literature, 
 
 377- 
 
 Tyrwhitt, R. St. J., 49. 
 Tyrwhitt, T., edition of Aristotle's 
 
 Poetics, 413 ; De poetica liber, 
 
 90. 
 
 Ueberweg, F., Aristotelis ars poe- 
 tica, 155; Die Lehre d. Arist. von 
 d. Wesen u. d. Wirkung d. Kunst, 
 90, /jj; History of Philosophy, 
 
 90, IS'. '55- 
 
 Ugly, Aesthetics of the, 136. 
 Uhland, L., Geschichte d. altdeut- 
 
 schen Poesie, 373; Schriften zur 
 
 Geschichte der Dichtung und 
 
 Sage, 264. 
 Ulrici, Ueber Princip u. Methode 
 
 der Hegelischen Philosophic, 101, 
 
 134- 
 Unities of Style, 243. 
 
 Urbach, Th., Zur Geschichte d. 
 
 Naturgefiihls bei d. Deutschen, 
 
 166. 
 Urlichs, L. von, Begriffsbestimmung 
 
 u. Einteilung d. Philologie, 40 ; 
 
 Litteraturgeschichte, 369. 
 Usener, H., Altgriech. Versbau, 
 
 489 ; Reim in altlat. Poesie, 492. 
 
 Vahlen, Beitrage zu Arist. Poet., 
 
 /j6 ; Ennianae poeseos relliquiae, 
 
 490- 
 Valentin, Veit, Der Rhythmus als 
 
 Grundlage einer wissensch. Poe- 
 
 tik, 347, 486; Poetische Gattun- 
 
 gen, 347- 
 Valera, Juan, 46. 
 Van Dyke, J. C., Principles of Art, 
 
 120, 126, 156, 194. 
 Van Laun, 372. 
 Vapereau's Dictionnaire universel 
 
 des litteratures, 54. 
 Varchi, Ben., Lezioni della poetica 
 
 e della poesia, 446. 
 Varnhagen, H., Verzeichniss d. auf 
 
 d. neueren Sprachen beziiglichen 
 
 Programmabhandlungen, j/o. 
 Vaugelas, 432. 
 Vaughan, C. E., 389, 406 ; English 
 
 Literary Criticism, 383, 391. 
 Vaughan, Wm., Golden Fleece, 391. 
 Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, Art poe- 
 
 tique fran^aise, 430. 
 Vavassor, Remarques, 433; Re- 
 
 ponse, 433. 
 Vega, Lope da, Nueva arte de hazer 
 
 comedias, 449. 
 Veitch, J., The Feeling for Nature 
 
 in Scottish Poetry, 163. 
 Vergalo, Delia Rocca de, Poetique 
 
 nouvelle, 486.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 583 
 
 Vernakken, T., Der deutsche Vers, 
 
 509- 
 Veron, E., Aesthetics, 120, 126, 129, 
 
 132, 156. 
 
 Verrall, Tragic Metres, 494. 
 Versi sciolti, 455. 
 
 Versification, Principles of, 451-518. 
 Vetter, Germ, allit. Poes., 457; Zum 
 
 Muspilli und zur germanischen 
 
 Alliterationspoesie, 501,5/7. 
 Veyrieres, L. de, Monographic des 
 
 sonnets, 305. 
 Vich, Diego, Breve discurso de las 
 
 comedias y de su representacion, 
 
 449- 
 
 Victorinus, 491, 492. 
 Victorius, Petr., Poetics of Aristotle, 
 
 -381. 
 Vida, M. G., 381; De Arte poetica, 
 
 poeticorum libri tres, 381. 
 Viehoff, H., Die Poetik auf der 
 
 Grundlage der Erfahrungsseelen- 
 
 lehre, 343, 486 ; Poetik, 505, 509. 
 Vigfusson and Powell, Corpus poe- 
 
 ticum Boreale, 513. 
 Vigny, de, 443. 
 Villari, P., Francesco De Sanctis e 
 
 la critica in Italia, 76 ; Machia- 
 
 velli e i suoi tempi, 46. 
 Villemain, A. F., 372, 379, 444; 
 
 Cours de litterature frai^aise, 41; 
 
 Discours et melanges litteraires 
 
 (Discours sur la critique), 41, 76 ; 
 
 Tabl. de la litt. au XVI lie siecle, 
 
 439, 442 ; Tableau de la litterature 
 
 au moyen age, 442. 
 Villena, Enrico, Marquis de, El arte 
 
 de trobar, 448, 512. 
 Villon, 429. 
 Vilmar, Gesch. d. deutsch. National- 
 
 litteratur, 374. 
 
 Vilmar-Grein, Deutsche Grammatik, 
 
 511. 
 
 Vincent, G., The Social Mind, igg. 
 Vinet, A., 373, 444; Outlines of 
 
 Philosophy and Literature, 230. 
 Viperani, J. A., De Poetica libri tres, 
 
 3 8f. 
 Vischer, F. T., 426, 427; Aesthetik, 
 
 106, 121, 128, 136, 161, 195, 425. 
 Vischer, R., Ueber aesthetische 
 
 Naturbetrachtung, 163. 
 Vitringa, A. J., De egregio, quod in 
 
 rebus corporeis constituit Ploti- 
 
 nus, pulcri principio, nj. 
 Vogt u. Koch, Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 
 Lit.,j7* 
 Voigt, O., Das Ideal d. Schonheit u. 
 
 Hasslichkeit in d. altfranzosischen 
 
 Chansons de geste, 770. 
 Volkmann, R., Die Hohe d. antiken 
 
 Aesthetik oder Plotin's Abhand- 
 
 lung vom Schonen, 113. 
 Vollmoller, 371. 
 Voltaire, 436, 507; Commentary on 
 
 Corneille, 437 ; Essai sur la poesie 
 
 epique, 437 ; on metres and rhyme, 
 
 506; Temple du gout, 437. 
 Voss, Ed., Die Natur in d. Dichtung 
 
 d. Horaz, 163. 
 
 Voss, Gerard. See Vossius. 
 Voss, J. H., Die deutsche Zeitmes- 
 
 sung, 509. 
 Vossius, Gerard. Joh., 422 ; De artis 
 
 poeticae natura et constitutione 
 
 liber, 382 ; Poeticarum institutio- 
 
 num libri tres, 382. 
 
 Wachler, Handbuch der Geschichte 
 
 der Litteratur, 275, 379. 
 Wackernagel, W., 505, 511; Gesch. 
 
 d. deutsch. Litteratur, 374; Poe-
 
 584 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 tik, Rhetorik und Stilistik, 234, 
 
 238, 243, 426. 
 Waddington, S., English Sonnets by 
 
 English Writers, 505. 
 Wagener, Th., Herder's Forschun- 
 
 gen iiber Sprache und Poesie, 424. 
 Waggett, P. N., Beauty, ibg. 
 Wagner, J. J., Dichterschule, 343, 
 
 425- 
 
 Wagner, M., The English Blank 
 Verse before Marlowe, 503. 
 
 Wagner, W., Terence, 490. 
 
 Wahle, R., Das Ganze d. Philoso- 
 phie u. ihr Ende (Das Schone), 
 170. 
 
 Waitz, G., Zur Wu'rdigung von 
 Ranke's historischer Kritik, 48. 
 
 Waldberg, Deutsche Renaissance 
 Lyrik, 374. 
 
 Waldstein, Chas., Essays on the 
 Art of Pheidias, 195. 
 
 Walker, W. S., Shakespeare's Ver- 
 sification, JOJ. 
 
 Wallace, E., Introd. to Aristotle's 
 Psychology, 150, /j-j; Outlines 
 of the Philosophy of Aristotle, 
 90, 155 ; Kant, 47. 
 
 Wallaschek, R., Primitive Music, 
 181. 
 
 Waller, 396, 397, 504; Preface to 
 the Second Part of his poems, 
 ^02, note. 
 
 Walsh, W. S., Paradoxes of Philos- 
 ophy (Curiosities of Criticism), 49. 
 
 Walter, E. L., Lessing on the Bound- 
 aries of Poetry and Painting, 108. 
 
 Walter, J., Geschichte d. Aesthetik 
 5m Altertum, ij6. 
 
 Walz, Rhetores Graeci, 235. 
 
 Warburton, edition of Shakespeare, 
 410. 
 
 Ward, L. F., Dynamic Sociology, 
 
 168, 195, s 9 6, 799. 
 Ward, S. G., Criticism, 41. 
 Ward, T. H. (ed.), English Poets, 
 
 344- 
 Warner, Chas. D., Literature and 
 
 Life, 231. 
 
 Warren, F. M., 471, 505. 
 Wartenburg, Von, Die Katharsis 
 
 des Arist. u. d. Oedipus Coloneus 
 
 d. Sophokles, 90. 
 Warton, Joseph, edition of Pope, 
 
 411; Enthusiast, 410; Essay on 
 
 the Life and Genius of Pope, 
 
 411 ; Preface to Odes on Several 
 
 Subjects, 410; Prefatory Essay 
 
 to the Edition of the Georgics 
 
 and Eclogues, 411. 
 Warton, Thos., 383 ; History of 
 
 English Poetry, 344, 373, 411, 
 
 448, 495, 500; Observations on 
 
 the Faerie Queen, 411. 
 Wartoris, The, 407, 412, 413, 415. 
 Watson, J., Schelling, 133; Schel- 
 
 ling's Transcendental Idealism, 
 
 1/6. 
 Watson, W., Excursions in Criticism 
 
 (Critics and their Craft), j/. 
 "/Watts, Th., on Hegel's idea of 
 . metre, 134; Poetry, 203, 211, 264, 
 
 344- 
 
 Weatherby, 514. 
 
 Webbe, Wm., 391, 392, 394 ; A Dis- 
 course of English Poetrie, 344, 
 390; Preface to Discourse of 
 English Poetrie, 498. 
 
 Weber, Albrecht, History of Indian 
 Literature, 3-75- ; Indische Studien, 
 
 5I5- 
 
 Weber, G., 452. 
 Weddigen, F. H. O., Geschichte der
 
 INDEX. 
 
 585 
 
 Einwirkungen der deutschen Lit- 
 teratur auf die Litteraturen der 
 iibrigen europaischen Kulturvol- 
 ker der Neuzeit, 276; Lord By- 
 ron's Einfluss auf die europaischen 
 Litteraturen de Neuzeit, 276. 
 
 Weierstrass, P., De poesis natura 
 et partitione, 347. 
 
 Weil and Benloew, Theorie de 1'ac- 
 centuation latine, 493. 
 
 Weil, H., 488, 493; The Order of 
 Words, 231. 
 
 Weiland, L., Quellenedition u. 
 Schriftstellerkritik, 48. 
 
 Weisse, C. H., 136; System d. Aes- 
 thetik als Wissenschaft von d. 
 Idee d. Schonheit, 128, 423. 
 
 Weissenfels, Der daktylische Rhyth- 
 mus bei den Minnesangern, 510. 
 
 Weitbrecht, R., Kritiker und Dich- 
 ter, 79. 
 
 Welby, V., Meaning and Metaphor, 
 238. 
 
 Welcker, F. G., 189. 
 
 Welsh, 377. 
 
 Welti, Geschichte des Sonetts in 
 der deutschen Dichtung, 505. 
 
 Wendell, B., English Composition, 
 238; Stelligeri, 201. 
 
 Werner, K., Idealistische Theorien 
 d. Schonen in d. italienischen 
 Philosophie des XIX. Jahrhun- 
 derts, 777 ; Zur Metaphysik d. 
 Schonen, 770. 
 
 Werner, R. M., on the Lyric, 428. 
 
 Westphal and Rossbach, Grie- 
 chische Metrik, 486. 
 
 Westphal, R., 452, 454, 489, 491, 
 500 ; Allgemeine Metrik d. indo- 
 german. u. semit. Volker, 487, 
 516; Ueber d. Form d. altesten 
 
 romischen Poesie, 490; Die Frag- 
 mente und Lehrsatze der grie- 
 chischen Rhythmiker, 487, 489; 
 Harmonik und Melopoie der Grie- 
 chen, 487 ; Metrik d. Griechen, -488; 
 Metrik d. indogerman. Volker, 
 487,516; Scriptores metrici, 486, 
 489, 490 ; Theorie d. neuhoch- 
 deutschen Metrik, 487; Tradition 
 of Anc. Metre, 487. 
 
 Wetz, W., Litteraturwissenschaft, 
 264 ; Shakespeare vom Stand- 
 punkte d. vergleichenden Littera- 
 turgeschichte, 265 ; Ueber Litte- 
 raturgeschichte, 265. 
 
 Wey, 508. 
 
 Weyman, K., Studien iiber die 
 Figur der Litotes, 238. 
 
 Wharton, Translation of Aristotle, 
 127. 
 
 Whately, Elements of Rhetoric, 
 238 ; on poetry, 284. 
 
 Wheeler, E. F., Critic on the 
 Hearth, 52. 
 
 Whipple, E. P., British Critics, jo; 
 Essays and Reviews, 42, 349; 
 Lit. of Age of Elizabeth, 377. 
 
 Whitcomb, Chronological Outlines, 
 378. 
 
 White, Andrew D., The New Ger- 
 many, 234. 
 
 White, Gleeson, Ballades and Ron- 
 deaux, etc., 503-. 
 
 W 7 hite, Greenough, The Philosophy 
 of American Literature, 277, 378. 
 
 Whitman, Walt, Poetry of the Fu- 
 ture, 347. 
 
 Whitney, W. D., Language and the 
 Study of Language, 206, 231 ; 
 Life and Growth of Language, 
 206, 207, 231, 238 ; Oriental and
 
 586 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Linguistic Studies, 516; Philology, 
 205, 206, 231. 
 
 Whittaker, F. T., Musical and Pic- 
 turesque Elements in Poetry, 346. 
 
 Wichmann, O., L'art poetique de 
 Boileau dans celui de Gottsched, 
 79> 301. 
 
 Wieland, 412, 509. 
 
 Wiggers, J. u. M., Grammatik d. 
 ital. Sprache, nebst Abriss d. ital. 
 Metrik, jv/. 
 
 Wilde, O., 131 ; Intentions, 42 ; The 
 True Function and Value of Criti- 
 cism, 42. 
 
 Wilhelmi, H. F., Von den Figuren 
 der Wortwiederholung, 238; Von 
 den Tropen, 238. 
 
 Wilkinson, W. C., A Free Lance, 
 42. 
 
 Wille, B., Tendenz in d. Poesie, 
 170. 
 
 Williams, Monier, Indian Epic 
 Poetry, 515; Indian Wisdom, 
 515; Preface to trans, of Nalo- 
 pakhyanam, 515. 
 
 Wilson, H. H., 515; Essays, Ana- 
 lytical, Critical, etc., 516; on 
 Hindoo Dramatic Literature, 516. 
 
 Wilson, J., 46, 414, 415. 
 
 Wilson, Thomas, Arte of Logique, 
 387; The Arte of Rhetorique, 387. 
 
 Wilson, Woodrow, Mere Literature, 
 204, 231. 
 
 Winckelmann, 116; on development 
 of art, 177 ; Geschichte der Kunst 
 des Alterthums, 412; History of 
 Greek Art, 127, 178, 196; on imi- 
 tation, 160, 161 ; Monument! ine- 
 diti, 196. 
 
 VVindelband, History of Philosophy, 
 '3 1 - 
 
 Winter, Beitrage zur Geschichte d. 
 
 Naturgefiihls, 164. 
 Witmer, L., Zur experimentalen 
 
 Aesthetik einfacher raumlichen 
 
 Formverhaltnisse, 167. 
 Wohlgemuth, J., Henry Home's 
 
 Aesthetik, 770. 
 Wolf, A., The Truth about Beauty, 
 
 169. 
 Wolf, F. A., Encycl. der Philologie, 
 
 3<>9- 
 
 Wolf, Ferd., Ueber die Lais, Sequen- 
 zen u. Leiche, 494,511. 
 
 Wolff, Eugen, Prolegomena d. litt.- 
 evolutionistischen Poetik, 265 ; 
 Litteraturgeschichte riickwarts, 
 265 ; Ueber Neuere Beitrage z. 
 Gesch. d. Poetik, 428; Vorstudien 
 zur Poetik, 271, 345 ; Das Wesen 
 wissenschaftlicher Litteraturbe- 
 trachtung, 265. 
 
 Wolfrlin, E., Bei den Dichtern, 492. 
 
 Woltmann, A., and Woermann, K., 
 History of Painting, 197, 199. 
 
 Wood, Antony a, Athenae Oxoni- 
 enses, 402 ; Fasti or Annals, 402. 
 
 Wood, Henry, Beginnings of the 
 Classical Heroic Couplet in Eng- 
 land, 304. 
 
 Woodberry, G. E., on Moulton's 
 theories, 29. 
 
 Wordsworth, John, Fragments and 
 Specimens of Early Latin, 490. 
 
 Wordsworth, W., on poetry, 280, 
 281, 286, 392, 393, 410, 414, 415, 
 4 I 7> 455 ! Prefaces and Essays on 
 Poetry, 345 ; Preface to the Lyr- 
 ical Ballads, 287, 407, 411 ; Prose 
 Works (on poetry), 345. 
 
 Worsfold, W. B., The Principles of 
 Criticism, 231, 408, 418.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 587 
 
 Wotton, 405. 
 
 Wright, T. H., Essay on Style, 228. 
 
 Wright, Thos., 376. 
 
 Wulker, R., Grundriss zur Gesch. d. 
 ags. Lit.,j 77 . 
 
 Wundt, on the folk-soul, 269; 
 Logik, 42, 47 ; Ueber Ziele u. 
 Weg'e d. Vblkerpsychologie, 269, 
 272. 
 
 Wiirtzer, H., De origine et natura 
 poeseos, 347. 
 
 Wyatt, 458. 
 
 Wylie, A., Notes on Chinese Litera- 
 ture, 517. 
 
 Wylie, L. J., Evolution of English 
 Criticism, 76, 306, 383, 406, 415. 
 
 Wyzewa, T. de, Du role de la cri- 
 tique, 43. 
 
 Xenophon, Banquet, 121, 126; Me- 
 morabilia, 121, 126. 
 
 Young, E., 407, 410; Letter to Sam'l 
 Richardson on Original Composi 
 tion, 411. 
 
 Zambaldi, II ritmo dei versi ital., 511. 
 Zanella, Em., Lingua e stile, 234. 
 Zanella, G., Relazioni poetiche tra 
 
 1'Italia e la Spagna nel secolo xvi, 
 
 276. 
 Zani, Celso, Poetica ecclesiastica e 
 
 civile, etc., 447. 
 Zanotti, Frc. Maria, Dell' arte poe- 
 
 tica, 448. 
 Zapata, L. de, Horace's Ars poetica, 
 
 448. 
 
 Zarncke, Ed., 510, 511 ; Der Einfluss 
 der griechischen Literatur auf die 
 Entwickelung der romischen 
 Pros a, 276; Der fiinffiissige 
 Iambus, 509 ; Zwei mittelalteri- 
 sche Abhandlg. iiber d. Bau 
 rhythm. Verse, 494. 
 
 Zeising, Aesthetische Forschungen, 
 taS. 
 
 Zeller, Ed., 144, 157; Die historische 
 Kritik u. das Wunder, 48; Philo- 
 sophic d. Griechen, 90, 132, fjj; 
 Plato and the Older Academy, 
 JJ2; Summary of Hegel's Phi- 
 losophy of Art, 102; Zur Wiirdi- 
 gung d. Ritschl'schen Erlauterun- 
 gen, 48. 
 
 Zeynek, R. von, Lehrbuch d. deut- 
 schen Stilistik und Poetik, 427. 
 
 Ziegler, T., Zur Genesis eines aes- 
 thetischen Begriffs, 770. 
 
 Zillgenz.G., Aristoteles u. d. deutsche 
 Drama, 97. 
 
 Zimmermann, G., Versuch einer 
 Schillerschen Aesthetik, /jj. 
 
 Zimmermann, R., 144; Allgemeine 
 Aesthetik, 128 ; Geschichte der 
 Aesthetik, 131; on imitation, 162. 
 
 Zimmern, H., Arthur Schopenhauer, 
 His Life and Philosophy, 134. 
 
 Zola, fi., as a critic, 30; Documents 
 litteraires (La critique contempo- 
 raine), 77. 
 
 Zonaeus, Concerning Figures, 235. 
 
 Zottoli, Cursus litteraturae Sinicae,
 
 A 000 028 566 8 
 
 STRATFORD & GRP1KN 
 
 42-644 So. Main St. Lo* Anuelcs. O'