%l^'^(^:^p'-'^'m*^-i',
 
 >-i~<A -Ca/v.,,^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 v-<<U^~V 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 ( 
 
 \ I.
 
 ON THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF PAINTTNO
 
 LONDON; 
 
 riiiili'.l by r.roR';F. I'laiii LAV, CasHc St. I.ciioostor Si].
 
 A. 
 
 ON THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF PAINTING: 
 
 9 Cfteorrttcal anli practical Citatisft ; 
 
 r-OMPMSING 
 
 ESTHETICS IN REFERENCE TO ART, 
 
 THE APPLICATION OF RULES TO PAINTING, 
 
 AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 HENRY TWINING, Esq. 
 
 LONDON: 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 
 l'.\TERNC)STER ROW. 
 
 1849.
 
 Art 
 
 Library 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 No apology is perhaps expected, on the part 
 of an amateur, for offering considerations on the 
 philosophy or eesthetic tendency of art ; for ge- 
 neral principles concerning the polite arts are, or 
 ought to be, included in those branches of study 
 which constitute a liberal education: but any 
 practical rules and advice which do not emanate 
 from a professor, are expected to be withheld, 
 unless there be strong motives for making them 
 public. And although an acquaintance with the 
 principal galleries in Europe may be greatly de- 
 sirable for an amateur, and render more valued 
 his oi)inions in matters of art, the office of pre- 
 scribing rules and principles is nevertheless con- 
 
 15728G2
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 siderecl to belong to professional writers, who have 
 indeed already, hi a great measure, supplied every 
 demand. However, the only justifiable grounds 
 for the manifestation of any kind of ill feeling on 
 the part of artists, in this respect, would be, the 
 apprehension of a professional injury ; and there 
 may certainly be some reason why amateurs who 
 handle the brush, or wield the pen on subjects 
 connected with the fine arts, should abstain from 
 pursuing any course which might be detrimental 
 to this branch of instruction. The unprofessed 
 writer can, perhaps, scarcely expect to escape 
 censure, unless he keep strictly to those theo- 
 retical and general principles which artists have 
 seldom the opportunity and leisure to investigate ; 
 or unless, when dilating on particulars of more 
 limited influence, he place them in such a light, 
 and consider them in such a manner, as wdll 
 solicit more precise or more comprehensive ex- 
 planation, — making it his constant aim to spread 
 a desire for further inquiry. 
 
 The inducements w^hich have led me, on this 
 occasion, to outstep the usual limits of disserta- 
 tions or criticisms on art, are not so much to be 
 traced to a decided predilection and unwearied
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 zeal for this pursuit, as to circumstances of a 
 very different nature. Wealcness of sight, which 
 compelled my submitting to a considerable degree 
 of restraint in the absorbing practice of art, pre- 
 vented a free and spontaneous realization of the 
 impressions which had been formed on the mas- 
 ter-works of Nature, and on the choicest pro- 
 ductions of eminent men : but this circumstance 
 led me the more to investigate the nature of the 
 principles Avhose pervading and insinuating in- 
 fluence indirectly supplies these inexhaustible 
 stores of intellectual enjoyment ; and I was led 
 to consider, Avith immediate reference to the pro- 
 cess of painting, in what manner any particular 
 schemes might be carried out most efl'ectually, 
 with the least fatigue to the organ whose delicate 
 condition required so much attention. In this 
 manner, I became the more conversajit with the 
 theory of art, in proportion as its practice was 
 denied me ; and w^iat has been to myself a 
 source of privation, may, perhaps, not be without 
 its benefit to others, if I have been able to express 
 sufficiently clearly and imjjressively, the truths 
 which have been gathered with the help of ex- 
 perience and reflection.
 
 Vni PREFACE. 
 
 There are ample reasons why it is desirable 
 that the formation and guidance of a national 
 taste, should not be left exclusively to those whose 
 position and circumstances are such that their 
 judgment cannot remain entii-ely unbiassed. The 
 universal prevalence and applicability of art, com- 
 bined with the powerful influence which it ex- 
 ercises on the mind and sentiments, render its 
 effects decidedly beneficial or pernicious, accord- 
 ing to the direction which is given to the cul- 
 tivation of it in society. If one of its frequent 
 callings be to amuse our volatile fancy, it must be 
 remembered that, in its right and proper sphere, 
 art becomes more or less directly the solace of 
 the sick and of the infirm, for whom the conso- 
 lations of the most charitable condolence would 
 at length cease to avail, without the cheering and 
 truly enlivening influence which art, in its various 
 forms and characters, so extensively diffuses. If 
 to this substantial good be added, the advantages 
 of delicacy and refinement, which the cultivation 
 of the arts extends to every subject on Avhich the 
 intellect is exercised, we must admit that it is 
 raised high above all ephemeral and frivolous 
 pursuits : and if desirable that it should not
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 practically l)e entrusted to uiiskillod hands, how 
 much the more essential it is that its direction 
 be kept entirely free from vulgar influence, and 
 that, as of late years has been the case, the 
 voice of men who stand eminent in art itself, 
 and of those zealous followers who are not exactly 
 included in it:s circle, be frequently and distinctly 
 heard ! Thus may art be preserved from falling, 
 abject and degraded, in the midst of its lofty 
 mission. 
 
 Writers on art, who do not confine their views 
 to one particular school or country, but admit its 
 influence as cultivated by difi'erent nations, may 
 sometimes contribute eff^ectually to dispel pre- 
 judiced, exclusive, and one-sided ideas ; for the 
 more art is generalized, the less likely is it to fall 
 into a condition of self-sufficiency which discovers 
 beauties in that method only of interpreting na- 
 ture, to which the eye has been long accustomed, 
 and the mind gradually trained. Its influence 
 will ever become the more beneficial, in proportion 
 to the extent to ^\hich it diffuses kindred tastes 
 and feelings amongst various nations. 
 
 Doubts have been continually raised as to the
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 expediency of rules and priiicii)les as applied to 
 art. But have those who entertain such doubts 
 well considered if there be any cases at all to 
 which rules may be applied ; and, if so, to what 
 extent they may be made available "^ Let the 
 question be entered into, and precise limits as- 
 signed to the use or withholding of rule, and 1 
 believe that few minds, at all conversant with art, 
 would maintain any further doubts as to the 
 utility, and indeed as to the occasional necessity, 
 of guiding principles. Even in science, practice 
 is sometimes placed, by the ignorant, above 
 theory, because it is practice which realizes the 
 immediate and visible result ; but without theory 
 — without the first application of the princi- 
 ples of force and motion, — what would practical 
 skill have to act upon, or what results could the 
 greatest manual dexterity produce "i Very dif- 
 ferent, however, are the limits assignable to 
 theory, in mechanical sciences, and in art. Rules, 
 as it has been generally admitted, are no substitute 
 for genius. They w-ould never have produced 
 the Galatea, the Transfiguration, or the School 
 of Athens. But if instances have been afforded.
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 of genius combined with a judgment so true, and 
 a taste so pure, that rules became impotent and 
 useless, it is not its characteristic to afford secure 
 and unfailing guidance, either in the planning or 
 in the execution of a work. Theory would in- 
 deed be worse than useless in the art of painting, 
 were it to claim, as its special office, to rule the 
 inspired thought, and to assert principles of grace 
 in the lively creations of the fancy. Its advan- 
 tages are chiefly shown in correcting the errors, 
 and in chastening the productions, of those who 
 want the penetration and experience necessary 
 to proceed unguided. A more extended know- 
 ledge of the principles on which art is founded, 
 might not add many to the best of the yearly 
 productions of our artists, although it might 
 diminish immensely the number of the inferior 
 ones ; and l)y thus rendering the attainment of 
 that which is at least genuine and good, more easy 
 and certain, it doubtless confers a benefit on art 
 in general, which ascends less obstructed, and, 
 it may be, to a loftier position, when seated on 
 the foundation of truth, than when based on 
 inconsistency, chance, or extravagance. Tlu' 
 baneful iutlueiiec which Mr. Paxiu' Knight iu
 
 Xll PREFACE. 
 
 particular ascribes to the application of theory 
 ill art, is chiefly limited to those lyceums and 
 academies which he sets forth as examples of 
 its pernicious effects. When rules are imposed 
 with authority, and precepts set forth with an 
 assurance not to be controverted, their tendency 
 is to curb genius, and to arrest the onward 
 movements of persevering industry ; but a plain 
 enunciation of the principles which govern alike 
 external nature and the various modes of imita- 
 tion which art adopts, can have no injurious 
 influence, when received willingly and without 
 bias. If any danger may arise from this kind 
 of inquiry, it is encountered entirely by the 
 inquirer himself. He, indeed, tests theories, 
 engages in the thankless Avork of probation, 
 sows, and reaps perhaps that which is unprofit- 
 able ; but the failures of such attempts fall upon 
 himself. No stranger to these researches — no 
 harmless patient, (can as much be said in favour 
 of another very necessary art ?) suffers in the 
 acquirement of that experience which can often 
 be gained but by experiment. The inquirer after 
 theory, may lose, in the perplexing solution of 
 a problem, that fire and energy which are neces-
 
 PREFACE. XllI 
 
 sary for carrying out a great design — perhaps, 
 indeed, part of the feeling with which he hoped 
 to embelUsh and elevate his aim; but he who 
 finds the problem already solved, and who pro- 
 ceeds on principles which his reason admits, 
 without having striven to unravel them, has no 
 incumbrance in the pursuit of his object; and, 
 whilst his judgment has been enlightened, all the 
 enthusiasm and sentiment which accompany him 
 in the pursuit of art still remain. 
 
 Owing to the remote and indirect nature of 
 the influence which is exercised by theory, it is 
 impossible to say what may be its extent, or, 
 what art might have been if sound principles of 
 taste had not, from time to time, been proclaimed 
 by such men as Winckelmann, Raphael Mengs, 
 and Reynolds. Far enough from the true path, 
 has the spirit of innovation, vanity, and man- 
 nerism, already led the art of painting, in the 
 very countries in which it shone with the purest 
 lustre. Still more wild and eccentric might have 
 been its course, had not a firm and experienced 
 hand now and then assisted in leading the way, 
 and in pointing out a great and useful end. 
 
 What do we perceive if we examine the usual
 
 XIV PREFACE. 
 
 Cl: course of the progress made by tmy individual 
 
 in art ? From the earliest, I might say infantine, 
 attempts at drawing, we may trace a change 
 in the ideas entertained with regard to imitation, 
 which is commensurate with the progress of the 
 performer, and which certainly cannot be due 
 Jix^t b^M c to the exercise of the hand alone. The child, 
 
 ^3^.^>(t,tt DoivvtfecvMt 
 
 and the uninstructejd in art, alike seem to con- 
 sider it of the gi'eatest importance to omit no- 
 thing which they are able to see. Continuity of 
 form appears to them a point of first necessity. 
 A boundary line, studiously even and unbroken, 
 of an object so situated as to afford the fullest 
 view, is deemed the best and most natural ex- 
 pression of it. This impression is but conform- 
 able to the first notions entertained concemins: the 
 appearance of objects ; such notions being entii'ely 
 referable to the most familiar and habitual asso- 
 ciations. The feeblest apprehension is aware, that 
 every creature, whether destined for the air, the 
 water, the meadow, or the road, has a calling 
 different from that of its neighbour : and to such 
 gross and evident distinctions as these, are the 
 earliest attempts at drawing directed. 
 
 The step above this, which is not attained
 
 PKEFACK. XV 
 
 without instruction in art, is that in which ett'ect ,,,r,.^. . 
 
 takes the place of servile delineation. Expression 
 becomes, here, substituted for the dullest asser- .^I'ijvtUic&n^ oy 
 tions of form. Some parts are made prominent, t'\X<k,cX'» 
 
 whilst others are kept in retirement, or entirely (uJ^w-- - 
 out of sight. The horse, or the ox, appears 
 before you in a liA^ly and distinct ima^re : but 
 count its members, and you will perhaps find 
 that all are not indicated. Some are concealed ; 
 others are ke})t in obscure shadow. Yet the 
 horse thus painted Avith effect, may appear to 
 stand quite as firmly on three legs, as did a 
 first attempt at one on four ; and the compara- 
 tively few parts which are made distinct and 
 conspicuous in this second stage of the art, give 
 a mor^ lively impression of the whole animal, 
 than did the delineation of its entire form, scru- 
 pulously but spiritlessly completed. Thus, as 
 the knowledge of art increases, the attention is 
 gradually withdrawn from the most conspicuous 
 appearances of nature, to be directed to those 
 effects, less obvious to the understanding, which 
 c hiefly constitute the ease and gracefulness of 
 every scene. 
 
 " Draw objects as you see them " cannot be
 
 XVI I'ltKFACi:. 
 
 urged, even witli refeicnce to nature, without 
 explanation; for many things there are, which are 
 not perceived though present, and many others 
 which, though almost absent, become, wuth re- 
 gard to their influence, strikingly prominent. 
 The reflection of trees in water, is put in by 
 the earliest beginner; because reflection, though 
 not a primary fact, is one so generally and im- 
 mediately connected with our enjoyments, that 
 it is not easily forgotten : but to the query, — is 
 the reflection to be of the green colour of the 
 trees, or of the muddy colour of the water ? 
 the answer, or the course to be pursued, might 
 not so readily suggest itself; although, if the 
 water were muddy at all, there could hardly be 
 any doubt that the reflection w^ould be of the 
 colour of the water ; and if there w^ere a slight 
 but sharp ripple, the reflection of the tree would 
 in some cases be sw^ept away altogether. With 
 regard to the tree itself, as it is composed alike 
 of branches and foliage, the beginner is induced 
 to put in circumstantially both ; although, per- 
 haps, the leaves, and a portion of the trunk, 
 are alone distinctly visible. Many such examples 
 might be adduced, to show that a general and
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 XVll 
 
 most superficial obsei*vatiou of nature, chiefly 
 influences the ideas Avhich are first entertained 
 with regard to imitation. The inexperienced gives 
 undue importance to those things which are con- 
 nected with definite and usefid puq^oses, and dis- 
 regards those of which we are not reminded by 
 our necessities, and whose nature is indeterminate 
 and variable : Avhereas, the experienced in the art 
 of painting, frequently substitutes effects which 
 are indirect and remote, for those which are 
 conspicuous and evident; knowing this to be 
 one of the most efticient means for obtaining 
 softness , ease , and all those qualities which are 
 opposed to formality. 
 
 The third stage in art, is that in which sen- 
 timent and feeling are the predominating prin- 
 ciples. An ingenuous love for the beautiful in 
 nature, here supersedes the happiest results of 
 tuition : and the work of art (which so_ overflows 
 with the sentiment infused into it, that the spec- 
 tator becomes a necessary sharer in those emo- 
 tions,] is raised to the most honourable station. 
 But it is in this most delicate period of the art, 
 that those resources which are the result of long 
 experience and practice are most required. Their 
 
 ■ — r
 
 XVIU PREFACE. 
 
 deficiency causes the language of inspiration to 
 be intelligible to the performer oiily; and their 
 neglect converts the brightest images of the fancy 
 into wild and disconnected abortions. 
 
 The present volume is intended to form the 
 complement of the " Elements of the Pic- 
 ^^ turesque," hitherto printed for privat e distribu- 
 - tion only, and which is of a more descriptive 
 
 and less theoretical character. One work is, 
 in some degree, dependent on the other ; and 
 the entire subject will become complete, only 
 with the intended publication of the volume on 
 the Picturesque, 
 ^^vw 0' ''^'^^'■^ "VN-^T-lt. In the plan of this Avork, the materials na- 
 turally divide themselves into three parts. I 
 have appropriated the first to general and the- 
 oretical information, including an exposition of 
 the views entertained by various authors on 
 subjects more or less immediately connected 
 with the fine arts. I believe such preparatory 
 training to exercise a beneficial influence in the 
 cultivation of art ; but should it not have these 
 advantageous results, it may be not the less 
 essential that the reader be made acquainted 
 with the leading theories entertained concerning
 
 PREFACE. XIX 
 
 the influence of the external world on the 
 impulses of man, — that his mind be set at rest 
 Avith regard to such controvertible points as most 
 readily suggest themselves, and that he be spared 
 the many useless speculations which he might 
 be induced to make, did he not find the ground 
 already surveyed before venturing upon it. A 
 second division comprises those subjects which 
 are more practically connected with imitation 
 and composition in the art of painting : whereas, 
 I have resented for the third part, remarks on 
 Perspective, including projected shadows and 
 reflection. The plan which I have chiefly aimed 
 at, with reference to these last subjects, has been 
 that of assembling, and bringing to bear upon 
 each other, distant points of connection; endea- 
 vouring, by a collective and generalizing sur\^ey 
 of the principles which have the most extensive 
 influence in these branches of science, to afford 
 a view of the broad and massive groundwork 
 whereon is raised the fair superstructure which 
 is usually exhibited to our view. At the same 
 time, aware that I have but opened this phasis 
 of the subject, and but partially withdrawn the 
 veil which intercepts our glance, I anticipate,
 
 XX PREFACE. 
 
 from the endeavours of others, the entire removal 
 of that dinniess which seems to obstruct our 
 searching inquiries into the problems of per- 
 spective, whenever our investigation extends to 
 the foundation of its principles. 
 
 Conformably to the nature of the subjects 
 treated of in the present work, it may be ex- 
 pected to afford that kind of satisfaction which 
 generally succeeds to the acquirement of inform- 
 ation, rather than that fleeting amusement which 
 is the result of temporary excitement. It may 
 be therefore suggested, that the perusal of the 
 book should not be left to those moments of 
 lassitude and ennui when the mind feels the want 
 of an exhilarating principle, but rather that it 
 should be taken up when there is the vigour 
 necessary for sedulous application, and a desire 
 to master some new inquiry with regard to 
 art. It may be further suggested, that the part 
 on Perspective, which requires most attention, 
 be read simultaneously, that is in connection, 
 with the first and second parts ; but reading 
 combined with the exercise of the art of painting, 
 may be deemed here, as indeed in all similar 
 cases, especially advisable. The validity of the
 
 PREFACE. XXI 
 
 remarks is thus at once tested: besides, nothing 
 impresses more any acquired information, than 
 the carrying of it into practice. Such hints 
 as these may look something hke the doctor's 
 prescription, where the manner of using is, or 
 ought to be, always forwarded with the drug ; 
 but if books are to be in any degree useful, as 
 well as entertaining, there can be no reason, 
 adducible either from logic or from good sense, 
 why the manner of using them most calculated 
 to prove beneficial, should not be plainly stated. 
 
 As the practical remarks which are contained 
 in the following pages are in no wise founded 
 on materials borrowed from other works, I have 
 rarely had occasion to allude to the excellent 
 modern treatises which have been published 
 by some of our most experienced artists ; the 
 many references which wall meet the eye of the 
 reader bearing chiefly on those works of more 
 ancient date, which have treated of art philo- 
 so})hically ; an insight into Avhich seemed best 
 calculated to afford the general information ne- 
 cessary to prepare the mind. 
 
 The course which I have pursued in the 
 theoretical dissertations of the first^ part, has
 
 XXll PREFACE. 
 
 1,^-^ !p.u'.!:,Cv, seldom led across the path Avhich the Graduate 
 of Oxford has hitherto chosen. His important 
 work, entitled " Modem Painters," admirably 
 calculated to stir up men's feelings, to inspire 
 them with a lively relish for the scenery of 
 nature, and to give to modern art a new and 
 vigorous impulse, seems less especially^ intended 
 to point out means and ways. What may still 
 come forth from this able and eloquent writer, 
 is yet unknown ; and it is not impossible that 
 the similarity of our respective aims may produce 
 some slight clashing either of facts or of im- 
 pressions. This would not lessen the value of 
 any new position gained on either side. Exer- 
 tions applied from different quarters on a similar 
 object, not unfrequently lead to the same result. 
 However this may be, competition always en- 
 genders progress, and useful truths are seldom 
 elicited without extensive and various research. 
 ^x«»i.tA'0 \otccU.!) It may perhaps in general be found pre- 
 ferable to exclude illustrative plates from works 
 on art, unless the author, by executing them 
 himself, is able fully to carry out the principles 
 and effects which it is his object to explain. 
 The impossibility for any individual to enter fully 
 
 irr.
 
 PREFACE. XXIU 
 
 into feelings and impressions which are not his 
 own, and to represent certain characteristic 
 appearances of nature which he has not wit- 
 nessed, necessarily renders very uncertain the 
 success of any illustrations which are not planned 
 and carried out by the same mind. On the 
 other hand, a work on art, without illustrations, 
 appears incomplete. The rejection of the very 
 means and resources which art supplies, seems 
 an injustice done to her, and tends to engender 
 feelings of doubt as to whether the principles 
 advanced are susceptible of realization by the 
 means which she places at our command. These 
 last considerations have determined my inter- 
 mingling a few plates with the letter-press ; 
 although the limited care and attention Avhich I 
 have been enabled to bestow on them, have pre- 
 vented their being "executed with the usual 
 advantages. An impartial reader will, however, 
 bear in mind two facts : firstly that the plates 
 are not intended to illustrate the effects of nature 
 Avhich are most beautiful, but those which are 
 important, as being the usual results of certain 
 determinate causes ; and, secondly , that the text 
 refers to the most efficient and powerful means
 
 XXIV PREFACE. 
 
 Avliich art supplies for attaining the effects 
 intended to be exemplified, whereas the pages 
 of a book admit but of a very limited and 
 inefficient means of representing nature. 
 
 With regard to the plan of dictating, to 
 ■which I have had recourse, the difficulties attend- 
 ing it have been fully compensated by the 
 patience, zeal, and perseverance of my young 
 assistant Mr. G. Webster,
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 3, line 1 ; for reasonin*^, read reason. 
 
 110, line 5; and page ir)4, line 2, for airs of the eounte- 
 
 naticcs, read airs of the rountenanee. 
 ill, line 2 from bottom ; for Cistus, read Cestus. 
 138, line 17 j for proceed, read to proceed. 
 270, line 10 from bottom ; for gallery, read galleries. 
 293, line IS ; for onset read outset. 
 337, line 2 ; for width on the perpendicular plane, rearf depth 
 
 on tlie vanishing plane, 
 418, line G from bottom ; for at the same so undefined, read 
 
 at the same time so undefined. 
 434, liiu^ 2 from bottom '.for seen jirofile, read satw in profile.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 AESTHETICS CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO ART. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introductory i 
 
 Analysis of the Leading Views which have been enter- 
 tained CONCERNING THE NaTURE OF THE BeAUTIFVL 14 
 
 On the Elementary Principles which constitute the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 Introductory Remarks il 
 
 The SuLlime -19 
 
 The Picturesque o3 
 
 The Grotesque 61 
 
 The Graceful 63 
 
 Elegance 68 
 
 Principles necessary ok conducive to the Perception of 
 THE Beautiful. 
 
 Association 70 
 
 Early developement of the influence of Associiition 74 
 
 Alison's views on Association considered 77 
 
 Accidental Association 8-2 
 
 Contrast 87 
 
 Contrast of Proportion 88 
 
 Contrast of Expression 89 
 
 Contrasts of Succession 90 
 
 Variety !" 
 
 Dcsifjn 07 
 
 lic-jularily and Symmetry loo 
 
 c
 
 XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 P«ge 
 
 I atricacy 1 02 
 
 Indistinctness 105 
 
 Remarks on Tastk and the Ideal. 
 
 On Taste io7 
 
 On tlic Ideal los 
 
 PART II. 
 
 SUBJECTS PRACTICALLY CONNECTED WITH 
 IMITATION IN PAINTING. 
 Composition. 
 
 General Rules 119 
 
 Impropriety of Exaggerated Action 128 
 
 Equilibrium 1 .•)! 
 
 On the Supernatural in Composition 132 
 
 Comjiosition in the Landscape 135 
 
 Forms of Composition which are adapted for Landscapes 142 
 Forms of Landscape Composition adopted by the Old 
 
 Mastei-s 145 
 
 Expression. 
 
 With Reference to the Figure 148 
 
 E.xpression in the Landscape 160 
 
 Relations of Light and Shade. 
 
 Predominating Influence of Light 164 
 
 Effects of Contrast 165 
 
 Differences which result, in the impression produced on 
 the Eye, by the dimensions of the contrasting Object 
 
 or Tint 173 
 
 On Chiaro-Scui'o 189 
 
 Lights of Divers Hues 193 
 
 Shadows of Divers Hues 194 
 
 Cursoiy Remarks on the Projected Shadow 197 
 
 Shadows in the Figure 199
 
 CONTENTS. XXVI 
 
 On some of the Pkopekties of Lioht. 
 
 Page 
 
 Reflexes 202 
 
 A Distinction dniwn between Positive Light and Acci- 
 dental Reflexes, on the Surfaces of Olijects 202 
 
 Distinction between Definite and Indefinite Reflections 207 
 
 Effects of Reflected Light furtlier Developed 208 
 
 Reflected Lights on Funiiturf, Household Utensils, &c. 215 
 
 Transmitted Light - 220 
 
 With reference to Draperies, &c 220 
 
 Transuiitted Light in Liquids 223 
 
 Transparency in Painting 224 
 
 Principles of Colouring. 
 
 Relations of Colours 227 
 
 On Natural Harmony, resulting from the usual Relations 
 
 of Lights and Colours in Nature 228 
 
 Simultaneous Contrasts of Colour 23R 
 
 How far the Harmony of Nature is attainable by the Art 
 
 of Painting 241 
 
 Harmony of Nature ; considered with refereni'e to Practice 
 
 in Painting 247 
 
 Advancing and Retiring Properties of Colours 258 
 
 With regard to the Relative Tone of Objects in the 
 
 Landscape 202 
 
 HtU'mony of Effect, or Accidental Harmony 266 
 
 Artificial Colouring, in connection with the Supernatural 
 
 in Composition 272 
 
 Styles of Painting. 
 
 Choice of a Style suitable to the Subject 277 
 
 Styles of Painting, considered with reference to the 
 
 Powers of the Artist 280 
 
 Style, considered as a means of lessening the Difficulties of 
 
 Execution 284 
 
 Practical Remarks. 
 
 Execution 289 
 
 Execution in Landscape Painting 290 
 
 Elementary Studies 293 
 
 Process of Painting used in I taly 290 
 
 Handling noi
 
 XXVin CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, PROJECTED SHADOWS, AND 
 REFLECTION ON POLISHED SURFACES. 
 
 LiNE.\R Perspective. 
 
 Page 
 
 Remarks ou the prevailing Methods of Teaching Per- 
 spective 304 
 
 Developement ol' the Principles of Perspective 309 
 
 Application of the Theoiy of Pei-spective 333 
 
 Inclined Planes 350 
 
 The Knowledge of Perspective which is requisite in the 
 
 Picture Gallery 354 
 
 Point of Observation 355 
 
 Foreshortening 359 
 
 Furtlier particulars connected with the Observer's Station 301 
 
 Projected Sh.\do\vs. 
 
 General Remarks 375 
 
 Definition of Projected and Local Shadows 377 
 
 Effects of the Diffusion of Shadows further exjolained ... 380 
 
 Ray of Shadow projected through Space 383 
 
 Theoretical Considerations on the Projection of Shadows 385 
 
 Shadow of the Geometrical Point, and of the Right Line 387 
 Shadows jirojected bj- Objects having two E.xtensions, or 
 
 one Plane 389 
 
 Distorted Shadows 391 
 
 Shadows of Solid Bodies 400 
 
 On the relative Situation of the Shadow, of the Object, 
 
 and of the Luminary 400 
 
 Process usually employed for putting Projected Shadows 
 
 into Perspective 405 
 
 Shadows projected on variously inclined Surfaces 409 
 
 Shadows projected on irregular Surfaces 415 
 
 Perspective of Reflections. 
 
 General Remarks 418 
 
 Reflection in Plane Mirrors 4-24 
 
 A few Practical Hints 4i4 
 
 Relative distance of the Object and of the Mirror 425 
 
 Relative Position of the Object and of the Mirror 431 
 
 Reflection ou Smooth Water 4.'S(i
 
 PART I. 
 
 ESTHETICS 
 
 CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO ART. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 After contemplating the romantic beauties of na- . { (,i YixiA^'to fitOM otvu . 
 tural scenery, the thoughts of the observer are often cast iW^i »ute/w /vc^fcfjUi*, 
 back upon himself, and he feels a desire to penetrate " i'-uzct-oBt^ 
 
 the recondite springs of the pleasures of which he has . . .. v, os^e.^-.. 
 
 partaken. The inquiry perhaps suggests itself. Is thisi, -. -....u/tC Ca, ■.: 
 
 large share of pure enjoyment owing to a secret intel - 
 ligence between the mind and external nature, — to 
 affections silently communicated, and incapable of inter- 
 pretation bv language ; or is it the property of every 
 object to convey those impressions only, which arc akin 
 to its own nature ? Do emotions of awe alone, prevail 
 where rocks threaten danger ; or none but those of 
 repose, where the sea is calm, and the course of the 
 stream p lacid ? 
 
 B
 
 » .T-:sTiir.Ti(s. V 
 
 However absorbing the interest of such reflections, 
 when in the presence of nature, they can be expected to 
 unravel but very imperfectly, the mvsterv which enve- 
 lopes the inquiry. If the dimness which now and then 'ouuif^luJ^ 
 creeps over the surface of the problem may be partially 
 removed, its depths must remain unfathoiiied, and its 
 recondite principles ever unrevealed to the searching ray 
 of intellioence. Most authors, indeed, who have inves- 
 tigated these subjects, have generally set ofi' with a 
 laudable resolution of giving up as vain, the discovery 
 of the primitive source of the pleasure which we ex- 
 perience as we behold the beautiful objects which 
 surround us ; though, in many cases, the interest which 
 is involved in such an inquiry has led them to go 
 further than they would willingly have done : and I 
 much doubt, whether to this difficulty of fixing, in so 
 fascinating a subject, the limits of plausible research, 
 may not, in a great measure, be attributed the errors 
 and the contrariety of opinions which arise in discus- 
 sions of this nature. There is no kind of evidence, on 
 this point, to be deduced from reasoning, which will not 
 appear feeble when compared with the liveliness of first 
 impressions, unbiassed and uncontrolled. The inquiry ^/^ »^- 7 
 into the nature of the passions and emotions, ever re- 
 mains forbidden ground to the scruUniziiig mind ; 
 whereas, a discreet forbearance begets the more tardy 
 but satisfactory solution of experience. At the moment 
 when a strong passion or an absorbing emotion sways 
 the mind, no time is left, and no care entertained, for in- 
 vestigation concerning its origin or nature ; all research 
 is adjourned for tranquil moments, when the calm but
 
 IN'TKOnUrTOHY. o 
 
 unexciting voice of reasoning is alone heard. If, on 
 the other hand, curiosity become the prevailing sen- 
 timent, the passion (say admii-ation, or wonder,) to which 
 the powers of the intellect are directed, must fall in the 
 scale : it is no longer that unbounded emotion which 
 enthusiastically swells the breast when uncontrolled by 
 calculating I'easoning ; and curiosity sees the object which 
 it intended to scrutinize, escape from its grasp. It would 
 be, therefore, vain to busy ourselves much with the 
 essence of the pleasures which we receive through 
 external causes. 
 
 Emotions similar to those which arc inspired by the 
 works of nature, are raised, it is true, by poetr^y, by 
 poetical description, and by oratory ; and the brilliant 
 energy of the images, and their rapid succession, may at 
 times render the emotions thus excited, more vivid than 
 those produced by nature herself .* This is the power 
 of reviving and concentrating impressions first acquired 
 by natural causes ; but it does not disclose their natui-e, 
 or even approach to the explanation of it. The attempt 
 
 * Mr. Payne Knight, a contemporary and friend of Mr. Price, as deep a 
 thinker as he was a shrewd logician, remarks, that the impressions of the 
 / sublime may be greatly increased by poetry, in which the energetic qualities 
 
 of objects are seized upon, hci^litcncil, and embellished by eloquence. He 
 likewise ascribes to the art of painting, a similar power of heightening the 
 expression of sublimity, although in a less degree; "since poetry:," as he 
 observes, " is confined by no laws of s trict imitation, but may bring forward 
 those qualities only of an object, which suit its purposes, and leave all the 
 rest entirely unnoticed. It is not under the necessity of expressing "antal 
 energies through tlic medium of coi^)Oical form, biU darts them at once upon 
 the mind ; and thus, without departing from the t£uth_ of description, gives 
 sublimity to objects whose bodily d eformity , x ycakness , or minuteness, might 
 preven t them from ap|K'aring so in reality."— .i4nn/^'»i«/ htquirii, part iii. 
 chap. I, par. "!'>. 
 
 (i- 
 
 // .
 
 tca.din-ci 
 
 U-~ 
 
 flit 
 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 
 -a.. 
 
 •■.V U-l 
 
 
 
 
 ^ic". ^ 
 
 
 ( 
 
 4 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 to do SO, by mingling argument with poetic description, 
 
 would at once chill the emotions which are raised by 
 
 eloquence. 
 
 j\\a: ^^/-...^^^ More profitable would be the task of observing the 
 
 io I kinds of emotion which are most generally and most 
 
 ^fp,^ strongly associated with the leading forms and aspects 
 
 of nature, and of considering the impressions we ex- 
 I)erience in connexion with them, with a view to the 
 improvement of taste in the delineation, as well as in 
 — the distribution and grouping, of natural objects. In 
 representations of the human figure, whether in colour 
 
 '' ■ or marble, the attainment of expression and character 
 
 °f -;-:— is facilitated, and rendered more certain, by acquaint- 
 
 '"'^ ance with the nature of the passions themselves; and 
 
 ^ r ^ although the primary causes of emotion which are 
 
 o^i/t^^ founded on the aspect of the inanimate creation, are 
 
 vague and little definable, compared with the expression 
 of emotions in the human features, where effect and 
 cause are combined in sympathetic union, yet it cannot 
 be doubted, that by the exercise of discriminating ob-w/v. -tav^w 
 servation, the judgment may be enlightened with regard 
 to the appreciation of the great and beautiful in land- 
 scape natui'e, as well as in the figure. In both classes 
 of subjects, the emotion becomes void without the object ^'^'f 
 which gives rise to it ; as, without the emotion, the 
 object itself is meaningless. The study of our internal 
 impressions and emotions, in reference to the inspiring 
 causes, tends, therefore, to expand the mind, and to 
 diffuse truth, precision, and taste, into the various ope- 
 rations of the intellect. The mind, thus instructed, 
 mistakes not altogether the nature of the sensations
 
 INriiOnUCTOKY. 
 
 which it is to expect from each characteristk; expression 
 of nature ; and those impressions and emotions which, 
 in the natural objects, are most harmoniouslj and hap- 
 
 feuitf't- pi'v blended, become, as discernment is increased, asso- 
 
 /A^//-f<' ciated together with the greater propriety and effect, 
 in the productions of art. 
 
 A distinction of the impressions which are con- J tvq ^ '«•<.; ^ ow •*vv<'.i : 
 nected with the productions of nature and art, may be ttt^invc''. cuv o| -fat. iM\^!i 
 made in two ways: fi rstly , bv taking our impressions itciu .utttu^.ti-J, >>-<.th 
 as distinctions ; in which case, certain classes of objects )a^°dn.cAtfr!v j c j- ourf ti^& p h-^ n.- 
 are grouped together, according to the nature of the 
 
 impressions or sensations excited by them, — as, for >, -fct/iautyotu '1,1 
 
 instance, a certa,in class of objects inspires us ^^^^ \idi4ij.r ^^ cu cii 
 impressions of the sublime, another class of objects ' 
 
 with impressions of the picturesque, a third with im- 
 pressions of the grot esque , and a fourth of the niirthful, 
 and so on. Our impressions are, in these cases, centres , 
 or axes, round which objects partaking more or less of 
 these characters, are grouped. 'Die expression of the ?1ift. c>:jt-u)i'. •.■- o< 
 object is considered to be founded upon the nature oi VicX a <ji>'\\~Uc\jJuiA. 
 the emotion with whidi it is connected, and tliose cha- |>ou4vcltet ott + ivt-'^- 
 racters which have no connexion with this emotion, are ^ ,^.j^^/, j 
 
 ' disregarded. Thus, if it be our intention to give to ^ ~~' ~■c^^^ 
 
 the features of a landscape the expression of the ter- 
 rible, or to those of a countenance the expression of 
 severity , we banish from our thought s all emotions hav- 
 ing an opposite tendency, and admit onlv to the council- 
 chamber of our reason, those which are conducive to the 
 particular character which wo design to impress on our 
 subject. 
 
 Another view of the fclations uliicli objects liav*;
 
 .i:sthi;tics. 
 
 CqAc iM. >v{we-tv t^t» fc-»u) to the emotions excited, is that in which the latter 
 
 iimi ejccx.K«l cuut. oioi are not sufficiently marked and definite to form a 
 
 )ii<\^'tC'5 RKi characteristic distinction. They are too faint, or too 
 
 p«»>i- cv clu- equally mingled, that the egression of the subject be 
 
 , , , ' founded upon anv one of thom in particular. It ceases 
 
 '- ■ to be characterized by sublimity, by mildness, or by 
 
 any other similar qualification ; but although no one of 
 these emotions connected with it is suiScicntly pre- 
 dominant to give its cast to the scene or object, their 
 mingled union may still be necessary to its perfection, 
 or pleasing effect. Thus , if two heads express firmness, 
 dignity, benevolence, and grace, so proportioned and 
 blended in each, that we are scarcely able to tell which 
 of the two may best claim any one of these characters, 
 their more successful union in one figure than in the 
 other, or their propriety and becomingness with re- 
 ference to the subject, may afford us the means of pro- 
 nouncing at once for one of these objects of art in 
 preference to the other. When ever it has been de- 
 signed that the emotions connected with any subject, 
 be so mingled in the expression of it, that no one of 
 them would appear predominant, it becomes necessary 
 to take for our guide, that instinctive appreciation of 
 forms which discovers differences of expression, even 
 when the emotions connected with them are various and 
 indeterminate. In the first supposition, a direct appeal 
 is made, in the work of art, to some particula r em otion 
 or passion, and character and expression become its 
 chief merit ; in the other,^ its excellence depends on 
 the perfect and natural union of various expressions in 
 the same subject, — grace and ideal perfection become 
 
 ^ ^
 
 INTRODUCTOKY. 
 
 oil J fjC 
 
 the aim toward which evci7 thouglit and eiiorgy is 
 
 directed. 
 
 We shall not, however, so far pursue those analogies \^jr^z(Muid to I-Ajl-Kt^ 
 
 and distinctions of objects, which are based on the (^^^^ tiaacu.Uoi. [cj.^ 
 
 similarity and difference of the impressions connected ,T ~~ , ' ' 
 
 — — — ^ - - — ^ - ■ T/u. »la+uvc,» 
 
 with them, as to lose sight of those n atural and lamihar ■ - • 
 
 distinctions which are quite inciependcnt ot the emotions ' 3 
 
 which these objects are the means of exciting, ' riies o '"^^ ^o<.i-ii.cx, , 
 distinctions are such as are entirely founded on cir- Tot*M-Oa^ icja«>-CM>sW^ 
 cumstances of appropriation to our use, either pV£|£^^ /iiti.ivc-iit. £*ae«<>iv 
 or intellectual. For instance, although a mountain, an ■ i + , i 
 oak, or an animate being, be capable, under particular ^ ~" * 
 
 circumstances, ot impressingf us with various emotions, ' 
 yet, practically, these emotions have no share in dis-"'^*'^ Ltoi • 
 tinguishing them one from another, or in marking the ^^" '"^ '•'' 
 
 class of objects to which they belong. We have, there - ^ ^ — -__ 
 
 fore, with regard to the habitual pursuits of life, a'cc-unn Odch' \ v, 
 distribution of objects, which, whether or not they may^,p . „ .„ , 
 
 afford the i nterest of emotion, is founded upon principles ». . ,. ^ ,,, . 
 
 entirely inde pendent of our emotions. The distinctions 
 
 here, arc such as are founded upon custom ; the physical 
 sciences likewise adopt them, since dislike, approval, 
 or admiration, have seldom any share in those arrange- 
 ments and classifications of objects which science es- 
 tablishes : but, with regard to the fine arts , to every 
 branch of which the emotions of the mind extend their 
 influence, the only divisions which appear to have been imo-tniu 
 adopted, apart from the dictates of taste and feeling, -tu <>U»li(ui-*-<..>^i c. 
 are those which mark the styles ; namely, the figure , •:^ \vt^fv ■ 
 
 the landscape, and the ornament (considered as the uj ioS? w<v 
 
 associate or basis of architecture). Although various ^j-w<*»w
 
 O /KSTHETICS. 
 
 emotions may prevail indiscriminately in these different it..^,, 'fJ.'^^JcL; 
 styles, or in the objects comprehended by them, they 
 cannot affect or alter the distinctions which correspond 
 with the leading, or even with the subordin ate, branches 
 of art. 
 fe-Mvui to olei"}"-^ w^- I will next allude to the distinction of those terms, 
 umJccWJ cjc<%luiict' t'U/ which are used to designate the characteristic expres - .i/-.J«"'"' 
 o&icci^ Or jio/tt sions of objects, from those , which, in their usual ac- 
 
 ~ ■ " ceptation, imply merit or excell ence ; a point which it 
 
 is very desirable to determine before commencing an 
 argument in which such terms must frequently occur. 
 The expi'essions which are used to designate unqualified 
 excellence, in objects affecting the sense of vision, are 
 few in number, and, strictly speaking, almost wanting. 
 The terms "admirable," "charming," and "engaging," 
 are used generally, and the expression "beautifuj," by 
 some critics, and not by others, to imply that which 
 is attractive in objects, without anj reference to the par - 
 ticulars which render them especially pleasing. "Ad- 
 mirable" and " charming," which are chiefly used as 
 adjectives, admit of no other signification ; but " beauti- 
 ful," or the substantive, "beauty," has been frequently 
 used by writers on art, to imply a particular kind of 
 excellence, which Alison has called the emotion of 
 () 0(tcu</ M iJ-L-ivui i,^^rx^<CK>- beauty. Much confusion and waste of argument have 
 (iti<t. " .-£.■(: iitt/nlarisen, from the term beauty having been thus used to 
 
 , . ., :4i >, define some peculiar kind of merit, rather than to imply 
 2 T~ 1 , .r excellence or perfection. In the modern, as well as in 
 ", •', , '.' the classical languanjcs, the word, as api)lied to objects 
 
 'of sight , seems generally to designate p erfection ; and 
 
 grtfM-, t(^y^ if it be not used to imply this quality equally in all 
 
 HAHCO 
 
 WOtu'il '.5., tV
 
 INTUOnUCTOKV. f) 
 
 objects, it is chiefly because all objects are not sus- 
 ceptible of it in an equal degree. The word "beauty" 
 
 is most used with reference to those objects, with which 
 
 we connect ideas of the t^reatest degree of perfection. 
 
 It is used, above all, in connexion with the human form 
 
 and countenance, at the period of youth or middle ai>o. 
 
 It is less applicable to old age thaii to vouth, to man 
 
 than to woman : because it is with the latter age and 
 sex that beauty of form is most habitually associated, - 
 
 with reference to the other qualities which constitute 
 excellence in the human species. 
 
 it must certainly be allowed that, owing to the Ctu-fritf oy cOi^cuvimq 
 custom uf associating impressions of beauty more gene- i^uuiiulwiU cj- l~(.aiUu 
 rally with smooth and delicate objects, than with coarse ^^^^ dnicx 
 and rugged ones, this term sometimes acquires, even . 17~Z ■ ^^ 
 .t«£.. /.-^ ill popular phraseology, a somewhat partial signification ; 
 and this is, perhaps, the more the case, as it happens 
 that the objects which are beautiful from their smooth- 
 ^/<.z/<= ..) ness, delicacy, polish, glossiness, and otlu-r sliining 
 qualities, are those which both come nwre frequently 
 under our eyes, and concern us most. The softness and 
 delicacy of the skin and complexion, the smoothness 
 of the coats of animals, and of costly apparel, the high 
 polish admired in works of art of all kinds, the general 
 attractiveness of a clear sky in fine weather, are cases 
 
 in which principles of smoothness, tenderness, or mild- T ^ -■ .\ r.-n.v«-' if;nr. 
 ness, prevail in constituting the beautiful ; whereas that - 
 beauty which is admired in wild romantic scenery, as , r_ 
 
 well as ill ruins, is of a kind more seldom met with, (^ ., 
 
 although the more pleasing for being rare. We cannot, 
 therefore, Ix" surprised that the term lifniilifitl should 
 
 T± 
 
 CO
 
 10 ESTHETICS. 
 
 have been considered by some, less appropriate ns applied 
 to picturesque scenery, although such an application of 
 the term be sanctioned by custom, than when applied to 
 those more smooth and delicate objects which are const antly 
 before us. Price , certainly, furnishes an ing enious parallel 
 between the beautiful which relates to smoothness and 
 delicacy, and that which 'is applied to the picturesque, 
 by introducing a female, to whom he ascribes, in the 
 first place, soft and tender features, and, afterwards, that 
 complexion and appearance peculiar to a gipsy , or to 
 a figure of the most grotesque description :* but, although 
 his portrait of the delicate girl is alone conformable to 
 our most customarv ideas of beauty, it does not follow 
 that the gipsy or peasant girl may not become an almost 
 necessary part of a beautiful landscape, provided she 
 be placed in such a manner, and with such accompani- 
 ments, that the general effect would lose much bv her 
 absence. In the same manner, the old and leafless trunk 
 of a tree, although it should have an unsightly appear- 
 WiioO&tt-cU.vV'i-i-C'.iWia^ ance in smoothly decorated pleasure-grounds, might add 
 lZy^u^kmjM,t)^U^ greatly to the general beauty of a forest or rocky scene. 
 TTr. ' -V, , ,r But, though the shattered trunk may thus become a 
 
 "7 ,' ' i beautiful object when suitably associated, it cannot be 
 
 ""■ C entitled to this appellation so generally and deservedly 
 
 '' ^ as an object which is beautiful whatever be its situation, 
 
 — ?^'" ■ ' or which appears to diffuse a charm on all that sur- 
 ■.uu°-i^. tui'^'i^ ^- f^^^'^ QunAs it. The beau tiful, at the same time that it 
 vt't^ frvtv«.itn<£r*^ acquires from association a partial and generic signifi- 
 t Mucli oppAct V to Ci . cation, is, nevertheless, a term which mav be used in 
 
 j!;XTi.:,,»iV I ;V ii^y * P™'^'s '"l^ssajs on the ricturesqiic," vol. i. p. 176.
 
 INTRODUCTOKy. 1 I 
 
 a most general sense. This is the view decidedly taken 
 
 by Mr. Payne Knight, who observes that " the word 
 
 beauty is a general term of approbation of the most 
 
 vague and extensive meaning, applied indiscriminatelv 
 
 to almost everyth ing that is pleasing, either to the sense, 
 
 the imagination, or the understanding."* Notwith- ;i.u i^^C1ltil (vwD j^oii 
 
 standing the opposite opinions entertained by other ^kttttiwt' ' . e 
 
 authors, beauty , used as a generic term, might often -JetufVi'- ' J 
 
 advantageously make room for other expressions of a-lcwu ; 
 
 more speciBc and limited signification. In French andoXvuoif ct..,^''iyi uu 
 Italian , where consi derable extension is given to theL^TTT! ; cm^ 
 
 term beauf/ful, it is almost equally used to imply per-^.., . l ~ n' 
 
 rection m the features ot both sexes, as well as of old '^ ~ . — 
 
 age and childhood. This is shewn by the expressions — ,, -r— : — ;, •• 
 " be/l' 110)110," " bel vecchio," and " bel fanciuUo " ^ '"" cuio juts- cvtc 
 whereas it is known that in English the terms "hand-'^ '*'^^''*^"^'^ ®'^'"' 
 some " and "fine" are more usually employed in con-'"*' JY '- 
 nexion with the two conditions of manhood, middle andi^'''^'^li^''"^ 
 old age ; and the term " pretty ," with that of child- ~ 
 
 hood. 
 .■j/tiUi(r-/'i<^ \. Terms which imply generic merit are easily distin- 
 ,ui^^ttJt^>^'- ^uished from those which designate pure unspecified '■••<^ uucu^ 
 
 excellence, i£ they will bear that a qualifying term be -'t ^ v.iixix. o^ 
 applied to them, as is the case with such expressions as - I ~ 
 
 f^'«*'»*;"'v»"'''; .gorgeous, sumptuous, splendid, fine, neat, and the like ; - 
 wi'eu//. * ^ all which terms of merit may be modified ni their signi-- 
 fication by the use of other terms, as is the case when a 
 building is said to be gorgeous, but heavy ; splendid, 
 
 * Tayiie Knight's " Analytical Inquiry," &c. intioUuctioii, par. •>.
 
 1'^ .ESTHETICS. 
 
 hut tawdry ; elegant, but flimsy ; sumptuous, but over- -) H'^f^^^ 
 (lone. The beautiful , it is true, is not always proof 
 against qualifym^ or depreciating terms, but such cases 
 are exceptional ; and, in discussions in which degree and 
 kind are easily associated in the same idea, it becomes 
 necessary, (under the penalty of forfeiting the clearness 
 of the subject, to adopt, with regard to each term, its 
 most habitual signification ; and, when degree and kind 
 are alike expressed by the same term, it becomes im- 
 portant not to found on the general and extended 
 signification, arguments which alone apply to the more 
 limited and specific one. Quality and kind generally 
 furnish the materials for di-^strtation, but it will not do 
 to magnify these partial meanings into that importance 
 which the term with which they are connected ) alone 
 obtains as the exp ression of worth or excellence. 
 
 So natural is it for us to adopt, as principles, those 
 views of a question, which we had first taken up acci- 
 dentally, that there is danger of reasoning- against our 
 own conviction before reaching the end of a Ion"- 
 argument, unless we determine carefully beforehand, the 
 exact meaning of every term which might have an 
 influence in forming our conclusions, and maintain that 
 which has been first adopted, throughout the subject. 
 Had Alison, in his dissertation on gi'ace, not suffered 
 himself to be guided by partial views, and consulted 
 rather more than he has done, the populai" signification 
 of the term, it is probable that his theory would have 
 been more conformable to the impressions entertained 
 at large on this subject, and that he would have ascribed
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 13 
 
 to grace, characters very different to those which are 
 the result of self-command and self-control.* He would, 
 probably, have let flow the impulses of nature in many 
 of those cases in which he has checked them ; he would 
 not have denied grace to the innocent joys of childhood, 
 nor to the abandon of nature, in the unconstrained 
 expressions of feelings and emotions, in whatever station 
 of societv the manifestation of such feeUnys and emotions 
 might occur.t The association of the word grace with 
 expressions which, like self-command and self-control, 
 imply a certain degree of restraint, can only be the 
 result of a very limited and exclusive acceptation of 
 the term. 
 
 * Tlie subjoined paragraph, as well as many others wliich I do not think 
 it necessary to quote, shew thnt Alison ascribes emotions of grace c hiefly to 
 ideas of respect : — 
 
 " Every attitude or gesture of a well-p roportioned tbrm, and which is at 
 
 once easy and expressive of some amiable or interesting feelings, is beautiful, 
 
 and is accordingly spoken of as beautiful. But when we add the \.evm grace- 
 
 ■nictUiii u.- f^i '^'"^ wish, I think, al ways to convey the idea of some additional quality 
 
 aaifitJiff which is expressive of some conceived dignity or su periori ty in the mind of 
 
 the person." — Essuij.i an Tdstf, vol. ii. p. 38;3. 
 
 t Alison observes, "Xothing, for instance, is more beautiful than the 
 attitudes of hope or joy, or the gestures of mirth and innocent gaiety. We 
 love them in the frolics of infancy, in the sportive activities of youth, in the 
 cheerful ahdiuhm of rural dancing, &c. But it is rarely that we find the 
 graceful in this tumult and intemjierance of happiness. There is something, 
 «>^ _,',»_ rather, that always borders upon the ludicrous, and the slightest exaggeration 
 
 of the gestures is suflicient to make them the objects of laughter, rather than 
 of admiration." — Vol. ii. p. 3H8.
 
 It .TiSTHETICS. 
 
 ANJVLYSIS OF THE LEADING VIEWS WHICH HAVE BEEN 
 ENTERTAINED CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE 
 BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 jL, a, . ^^._ It might appear from a chance and unsystematic 
 
 vui d uui s I ti 1 1 J u - survey of the various opinions entertained concerning the 
 
 { • """ E+ti»M i i iGfb"^*"^^ ^^ ^^^ beautiful, that the frequent adoption of a 
 
 ' ;, - f ■ partial and one-sided signification of terms, in the expo- 
 
 -: ' ~ — sition or general and abstract principles, has led to 
 
 ■'■.,- ^ "^ nothing less than a maze of conflicting: theories. I will, 
 
 therefore, introduce here, two or three of the most strik- 
 ing errors, or misapprehensions, which are ascribable to 
 a too theoretical and limited conception of beauty, in 
 order that we may, in the sequel, pursue unembarrassed, 
 and in the path little trodden, of concilia tion , the analysis 
 of the opinions entertained concerning the nature of our 
 emotions, with a view to infuse order and clearness into 
 those operations in which the impressions and impulses 
 of the mind are concerned. 
 
 irvv*. ■ v,v ,,r. Let us return to the causes of eiTor which result 
 
 !'___»"''' 
 
 I .../,*« from referring our pleasures of sight too much to 
 . i-tavv zc^v»- w-uCi _.. .. ^_ & K — n— — 
 
 r> ! ,'fi abstract principles in the forms beheld. To what 
 
 OOllti'. 
 
 other cause can we ascribe some of the striking con- 
 tradictions which appear in Alison's inquiries into the 
 principles of beauty ? For instance, in the pages on 
 ^_^ ' architecture, the beauty of which he makes to depend 
 
 upon the fitness of the parts to the purposes of the 
 /tlt^giv- S ^fiuca^4 edifice, associated with impressions of magnificence, he 
 
 alludes to the beauts in the proportions of a column as 
 depending entirely upon its aptness to the degree of
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 15 
 
 support required of it for the pediment, or roof. He 'oca-ivCw ^^l^nto, 
 
 multiplies the instances ; and setting, in the first place, pcrtictvJ c-l «. coiaiiuc; 
 
 a sinole block on end ; in the second, a column on the 
 
 block, now become its base ; and, in the third, the 
 
 weight of the superincumbent portion of a building, 
 
 upon the column ; he ascribes to the supporting pillar 
 
 different proportions in succession, according as it has 
 
 become the support of larger and more burdensome 
 
 masses, attributing, in each case, the apparent fitness of 
 
 the object to the impressions we receive of its solidi ty. 
 
 So far he may be near the truth; but, elsew here, allud- Apjofutttij, 
 
 ing to the iniinrssions of beauty which are related to oi i:vl vtJ^{-«> 
 
 delicacy , he endeavours to impress upon his readers, 
 
 that beauty, or at least elejjance, is to be found in an 
 
 eminent degree in the tripod; and this, chiefly on 
 
 account of the ideas of frailty and unsteadiness connected 
 
 with its form, requiring, to use his own expression, 
 
 "care in the handling." I can see no apology for so 
 
 evident a contradiction ; and the apparent elegance of 
 
 the tripod, if it possess that quality in an eminent 
 
 degree, can only be accounted for by the tastefulness of 
 
 the ornaments, which withdraws the attention from the 
 
 insecurity of the object itself. His chapter on elegance 
 
 and delicacy contains other similar contrad ictions. He j-ivvTi.i o~ 
 
 acknowledges the flowing or sinuous lines to be a source Cwv,""^ inuu-<iL.> : 
 
 of great beauty, as characteristic of weakness and deli --,^ ^l_ „^^- 
 
 cacy ; yet, elsewhere,* he ascribes a like merit to angular 
 
 lines, as indicative of a liiglior degree of fragility, and 
 
 attributes, particularly, great beauty to articles of glass 
 
 * Vol. i. p. .11 ;4.
 
 1() 
 
 icsTur.Tics. 
 
 cut in angular shapes, chiefly because the greater degree 
 of fragility and delicacy connected with such forms, is 
 conformable to the ideas we haye of the frailty of tlie 
 material . It is not improbable that the source of such 
 glaring contradictions might be found in the attempt to 
 giye too much importance to these principles" of beauty, 
 and to ascribe to t hem too extensive an influence in 
 diflferent forms of matter.* 
 
 Burke, after i-ejecting proportion, fitness, and per- 
 fection, as elements of beauty, furnishes us with three 
 principles of his own, namely, diminutiveness, smooth- 
 ness, and gradual yariation of surface. Payne Knight 
 maintains, with well-founded arguments, that the ideas 
 of perfection which we habitually connect with diminu- 
 tiveness, are owing to the impressions of submission and 
 harmlessness which form the usual accompaniment, or 
 characteristic, of this condition ; a circumstance which 
 naturally engenders fondness and love. He shews con-, 
 tempt to be the predominating sentiment where defi- 
 ciency or demerit is implied.t It would, therefore, be 
 conformable to the opinions of Payne Knight, to allow 
 Burke's principle to be true in certain cases only : its 
 applicability cannot, at all events, be general, since the 
 beauty which we admire in buildings, monuments, and 
 landscape scenery, increases as these objects, or scenes, 
 become more enlarged and expanded. 
 
 * The beauty of the angular forms which prevail in glass objects, might 
 more reasonably be accounted for by the greater solidity which they afford 
 as applied to so fragile a material, than from any principle of a dditional deli;- 
 cacy or frailty ; and, in many cases, from the multiplicity of the reflected 
 lights which result from a variety of angles. 
 
 t Analytical Inquiry, part ii. chap. ii. par. 107.
 
 ON- TIIR BEAUTIFUL. 17 
 
 With respect to smoothness, a quality of far inorc 
 extensive applicability than the preceding, most persons 
 will, I think, admit it to be a source of pleasurable im- 
 pressions in a great variety of objects ; nevertheless, so 
 little has Uugald Stewart deemed it an essential and 
 necessary principle of beauty in objects at largo, that he 
 begins his argument on this point by stating that he 
 cannot recollect any philosophical conclusion whatever, 
 more erroneous in itself, or more feebly supported ; but 
 he immediately after admits smoothness to be one of the 
 constituents of beauty in a great many objects, the cause 
 of which he ascribes to the connexion between the 
 senses of touch and vision.* Stewart gives as the other 
 causes of beauty in smooth objects, the quantity and bril- 
 liancy of the light reflected by them, and those impres- 
 sions of high finish and perfection which we naturally 
 connect with such smooth articles as are the produce 
 of art. 
 
 With respect to the gradual variation of surface, 
 which constitutes Burke's third element of beauty, we 
 suspect that the author, in alluding to the fascinating 
 cflccts of those lines gently melting into each other, as 
 he expresses it, had forgotten the maxim, which he re- 
 commends at the commencement of his essay, that in 
 decisions of taste, the impulses which result from a calm 
 l)erception of the beautiful, should be kept distinct from 
 the allurements of passion. Wo can, indeed, scarcely 
 applv this third principle of Burke, based on female 
 
 • The opinions of Mr. Payne Knij^ht are entirely opposed to those 
 conclnsions wliicli admit snioolhutss to form a conslitiient of l)caufy. See 
 part i. diap. v. 
 
 C
 
 18 - .ESTHKTICS. 
 
 beauty, to the more abrupt deviations of surface which 
 characterize the bolder forms of the male sex ; to the 
 athletic frame of a Hercules, or to the sinewy limbs of a 
 Centaur ; far less to that beauty which may be traced, 
 in deviations and transitions of all kinds, in natural 
 scenery. 
 
 Mr. Walker, in his comments on the theory of 
 Burke,* does not admit the general applicability of any 
 abstract principles of beauty, such as those which form 
 the basis of Burke's system. The argument substituted 
 by him does not, however, entirely do away with the 
 theory that certain essential principles of beauty do 
 exist; but asserts the existence of different species of 
 beauty, each of which he circumscribes within certain 
 definite limits in the natural world. His arrangement of 
 these principles, based on the three kingdoms, — mineral, 
 vegetable, and animal, might serve very well as a defini- 
 tion of the elementary forms to be met with in these 
 three kingdoms ; but does not, it appears to me, point 
 out, or does so but very faintly, any principles of 
 beauty which, in the numerous divisions of nature to 
 which he respectively assigns them, claim our attention 
 <»• excite our admiration more than other forms would 
 do. He regards the sphere as the first element of 
 beauty in inanimate beings, as that to which the parti- 
 cles of matter, not subjected to pressure or violence, 
 naturally adapt themselves. This may, as a physical 
 fact, give some degree of interest to the globular form, 
 since the circumstance that the sphere contains the 
 
 * Walker's " Analysis of Reality," chap. yi.
 
 ON' THK BKAirriFUI,. 19 
 
 greatest mass in the smallest compass, by rendering this 
 form tlie simplest in nature, gives it a peculiar mathe- 
 matical interest ; but, independently of this, I doubt 
 whether unprejudiced opinion would attribute greater 
 beauty to the spherical or orbicular form than to manv 
 others more or less analogous. The orb of the I'ising 
 sun often excites great admiration ; but do not these 
 impressions depend chiefly upon the accompanying cir- 
 cumstances of sunrise and sunset ? And witliout these 
 would the disc of the sun be more beautiful than other 
 celestial appearances which do not present the orbicular 
 shape, such as the crescent of the moon, Saturn with its 
 rings and satellites, or some of the constellations ? It 
 may be asked, in reference to the question of intrinsic 
 beauty in the sphere, whether there is any thing essen- 
 tially more beautiful in the form of an oranjje than in 
 that of a peach, because the former comes nearest to 
 the sphere ; and whether we do not admire the forms 
 of these and other fruits, chiefly on account of their 
 smoothness, delicacy, and the association of other 
 pleasing qualities. 
 
 Mr. Walker points out, as a characteristic of beauty 
 in the vegetable kingdom, or, to use his own term, in 
 living beings, firstly, the rounded or cylindrical form 
 of the trunk and stem in trees and plants ; as though 
 he inferred that the circumstance of their springing 
 from the orbicular globe, caused the forms of those 
 productions of nature in which the manifestations of 
 life first begin, to bear a rude resemblance to that form 
 which characterizes their mother earth. To these 
 forms, closely allied to the primarv ones, succeed, ac-
 
 20 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 cordin" tu Mr. Walker's theorv, the forms which cha- 
 racterize the more tender and developed parts of the 
 plant, as well as those which are peculiar to animals ; 
 all of which (such at least is the impression which this 
 arrangement conveys) appear to deviate progressively 
 from the primitive form of matter, as they become more 
 remotely situated from it in the scale of existence. 
 
 I will observe, with respect to these leading fea- 
 tures of Mr. Walker's theory, that it may be highly 
 interesting to examine, as a subject connected with 
 the study of natural history, the forms assumed in 
 succession by matter, from its rudest state to tliat of 
 the most perfect organic developement ; but, as con- 
 nected with aisthetic pleasure, or with our appreciation 
 of the beautiful, such an arrangement must, I presume, 
 fulfil its object very imperfectly. It is not the trunk 
 of a tree unusually cylindrical, or any curve of a bough 
 taken by itself, which excites our admiration, but far 
 more the general form of an entire tree, or of a group 
 of trees. Perhaps a flower will make us turn out of 
 our way still further to behold it than any of these ; 
 or else some other object, or association of objects 
 entirely different in their nature ; and I presume 
 that if we search for principles of beauty, we should 
 look for them, in the first place, where their captivating 
 influence lays the strongest hold of our fancy. Beauty 
 — I mean that beauty which captivates — strikes us in 
 a multitude of dissimilar ways. In most cases, there 
 is no uniformity of relation between the degree of 
 interest and the physical conformation of the object. 
 
 With a difficult and ungrateful purpose, like that
 
 ON THE I5KAUTIFUL. !^1 
 
 wliifli Mr. Walker seems to have aimed at, of asso- 
 ciating the various elementary forms presented by nature 
 with distinct principles of beauty, I am not surprised 
 that, after a persevering investigation of various authors, 
 he should have lamented, in somewhat bitter terms of 
 discourasrement, the confused condition of the materials 
 presented by them, and the difficulties which the nature 
 of tlie subject presents. Nature everywhere abounds 
 in beauties, or in features fitted to excite pleasurable 
 emotions ; but it is not in the physical structure and 
 conformation of her parts that she addresses herself 
 to the imagination. 
 
 Let us now examine whether the observation of 
 nature mav lead to the discovery of what may be called 
 an essential principle of beauty. If, in that almost 
 infinity of forms in which nature presents it, this 
 quality strikes us more forcibly, or excites in us livelier 
 impressions of pleasure, in some shapes than in others ; 
 or if we observe that certain forms of beauty have a 
 greater prevalence than others, and that their influence, 
 instead of being limited to one class of objects, extends 
 over several ; or if we observe, again, that a slight de- 
 viation or falling off from these characteristics of beauty, 
 produces a sudden and striking deficiency of this quality ; 
 we conclude that there is something more in these forms 
 than what others usually possess, which justifies the dis- 
 tinguishing appellation of a principle of beauty. Yet 
 if we come to this conclusion, as we perhaps miglit do 
 to a limited extent, we have not yet determined the 
 point, wlu'llicr tlu" greater amount of beauty which is 
 ("xliiltilrti b\ certain forms, nia\ not Ix- due \n situation
 
 22 .tSTUETlCS. 
 
 and circumstance ; that is to say, to the association 
 of ideas, which are either connected with such forms 
 themselves, or which result from their combinations with 
 other objects. The question, whether there exist abs- 
 tract principles of beauty, that is to say, principles 
 involving an extraordinary degree of beauty, inde- 
 pendently of circumstance and situation, still remains. 
 We can scarcely fancy a principle of this kind to be 
 otherwise than unique, since we cannot admit several 
 principles of beauty, without supposing them to differ, 
 nor can we reasonably admit this, without supposing 
 these different kinds of beauty to be subject to degree 
 — that is to say, to afford unequal grounds for ap- 
 proval and preference ; but, were the principle of beauty 
 unique in its nature, objects of the most dissimilar 
 kinds would be more or less beautiful, as they partook, 
 to a greater or less extent, of the supposed primary 
 cause of all perfection with reference to form. Does 
 this supposition agree with the various impressions of 
 the beautiful, which are associated, even by the same 
 taste and judgment, with dissimilar objects ? But the 
 dissimilarity of tastes renders it at once impossible to 
 come to any conclusion, in this particular, equallv satis- 
 factory to all opinions ; we may, however, briefly con- 
 sider a few of the most essential points. 
 
 I will examine, in the first place, whether there are 
 any forms, concerning which we have sufficient evidence 
 for concluding that they are beautiful in themselves, 
 independently of any kind of association. Of these 
 abstract forms, those which I believe are most gene- 
 rally admitted to be beautiful, or to aflfect us with
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 2S 
 
 unmixed pleasure, are the sinuous or waving lines set 
 forth in the first place by Hogarth, and admitted, I 
 believe, by most subsequent writers, to possess a greater 
 degree of beauty than straight or angular lines ; but 
 whether even these lines would have any unusual claims 
 to this quality, without the associations which we so 
 naturally connect with them, is a question which ap- 
 pears to me far from being decided. The associations 
 connected with waving lines are all of a pleasing cha- 
 racter. This form is, as Stewart and Alison agree, a 
 characteristic of tenderness and delicac\ ; but it is, 
 moreover, the undeceiving mark of youthfulness, health, 
 activity, and, I think I may add, of life, since the 
 winding forms become less apparent, and often dis- 
 appear, where the vigour of organic existence fails ; 
 whereas, stiflPness and rigidity are represented by straight 
 and angular lines. Since, however, the winding line 
 possesses, in appearance, some degree of beauty, inde- 
 pendently of any immediate and visible connexion with 
 these associations, it may be considered to have unusual 
 claims to that kind of distinction which is desigTiated 
 by the epithet " self-beautiful." This acknowledged 
 superiority of the waving form over the straight one 
 amounts, however, to nothing more than an indeter- 
 minate and sweeping consent that one class of forms 
 is preferable to another, and does not give the supe- 
 riority to any particular curve, sin(;e Hogarth does 
 not state the degree or the progression of the curvature 
 required in order to constitutes the most beautiful line. 
 With respect to the other principles or constituents 
 of bcautv disooverablo in nature, thev have still less
 
 '21 .i:STHETl('S. 
 
 of an abstract character. Their influence or applica- 
 bility is remarkably vaoiic and indeterminate, and is 
 alternately supported and contested by different authors. 
 For instance, alluding once more to the beauty of the 
 sphere, maintained upon the principle of its simplicity, 
 «e find it opposed by that very principle of curves 
 having no common centre or focus, which AV'inckelmann, 
 Burke, and some others after him, acknowledge to 
 be such an important characteristic of beauty.* Else- 
 where, namely, in Home, quoted by Walker, we find 
 the square preferred, upon the same ground of its sim- 
 plicity, to all other angular forms, such as the paral- 
 lelogram, and other more complex angular figures ; 
 whereas Alison, guided probably by the opinions of 
 Hutcheson, prefers the more complex, though regular 
 figures, such as hexagons, octagons, &c. to the square. 
 If, therefore, we can hardly admit one principle of 
 beauty upon the grounds of general consent, how can 
 we explain those endless variations of the beautiful 
 which are characteristic of nature ? 
 
 If we now consvdt Hutcheson, whose views first 
 attracted considerable notice in England, and to some 
 extent on the Continent, we find a principle of beauty 
 applicable in some cases, but almost untenable in several 
 of the others to which it has been intended by the 
 author to apply. The principle to which he ascribes 
 so general and pervading an influence, is the combi- 
 nation of uniformity and variety, the best and most 
 
 * Winckelmann observes, " The forms of a beautiful body are composed 
 of lines whose central point is continually changing, and which, though 
 always curved, never describe a circle." — Histuire ilc VAil, \o\. i. p. 258.
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 25 
 
 uppropriate examples of which lie points out to exist 
 in the regular figures above alluded to, such as pen- 
 tagons, hexagons, octahedrons, dodecahedrons, &c. So 
 far his theory may be plausible, for in figures which 
 bear no particular mark of design or purpose, uniformity 
 or simplicity becomes a no small degree of merit, and 
 there is no doubt that the addition of variety renders 
 these figures more pleasing to the sight ; but, whenever 
 uniformity loses its purpose of imparting simplicity and 
 rcgidarit), we find that other forms, such as those of 
 trees, plants, and fancy ornaments, of which the parts 
 have not sufficient connexion between them to consti- 
 tute what is generally understood by uniformity, please 
 equally well. And, towards the conclusion of his essay, 
 Dr. Hutcheson appears to lose sight of his original 
 purpose in the combination of variety and uniformity, 
 by referring to the unity which prevails in the organi- 
 zation both of plants and of animals, as being connected 
 with the variety everywhere conspicuous in their forms 
 or actions ; thus absurdly associating to the characters 
 which affect the sight, those principles of internal me- 
 chanism and structure, the beauty and adaptation of 
 which only manifest themselves to us by examination 
 and research, and which, therefore, form of themselves 
 a perfection in their varied uniformity, differently ap- 
 preciated, and (juite distinct, from the external forms 
 which immediately fall upon the eye.* Thus we find 
 a principle, which in some cases may be conducive to 
 
 * Sec Ilutclicson's '■ Inquiiv into the orifjirial of our Ideas iil' IJiiiuty 
 anil Viiiiic," K»>a) 1. p. •i'i, aiul Ibllowiiig [lagcs.
 
 26 JCSTHETICS. 
 
 the pleasures of sight, become weak and untenable, as 
 soon as it is swelled up to the prevalence and im- 
 portance of a general law. If, instead of affirming that 
 those forms contain most beauty whicli associate the 
 most variety with the most perfect uniformity, Hutche- 
 son had maintained that it dwells chiefly in those forms 
 which combine with simplicity the most abundant sources 
 of emotion, he would, perhaps, have come a step nearer 
 to the truth, though he would have equallv failed in 
 pointing out the signs by which beauty, in its perfection, 
 or in its varied characters, is expressed. 
 
 Diderot, in the article Beau of his Encyclopjedia, 
 ascribes our perception of the beautiful to a system of 
 relations in the forms of objects. Stewart makes, in 
 a few words, a rather severe and contemptuous com- 
 ment on this theorv, for which he is in some measure 
 justified by the importance and universality of Diderot's 
 claims. But, setting aside this too great presumption, 
 (which, bv the by, is seldom found wanting when 
 favourite theories are propounded), it appears to me 
 that Diderot's principle contains in itself a great deal 
 of truth, and that its devclopement throws considerable 
 light on several parts of the question. If the author 
 flattered himself, that by pointing out the relations of 
 forms and things he gave an explanation of what beauty 
 consisted in, and taught us infallibly to discern the 
 beautiful from the misshapen and ugly, Stewart may 
 be right to the full extent of his accusation ; but if 
 Diderot, as seems most consistent with the nature of 
 his arguments, relinquished so great an aim for that 
 of diffusing more general and clear ideas concerning
 
 ON THE HKAinill'L. ^7 
 
 the attributes of beauty, as manifested in the various 
 forms of objects, his acute researches fulfil their pur- 
 pose. The ideas which are connected with relations 
 certainly go very little way towards designating any 
 type of the beautiful ; the importance of these prin- 
 ciples arises from their being indispensable agents. 
 The painter or the sculptor would soon find out that, 
 unless he maintained certain due relations between the 
 parts of individual objects, or between various objects 
 assembled together, he would make few steps towards 
 the accomplishment of a work of taste. If he de- 
 signedly alter the proportions of his object, every rela- 
 tion (jf form must be altered conformably, or its 
 character of beauty would instantly vanish. Thus, the 
 influence of relation extends to proportion as well as 
 to kind. Its prevalence is, in fact, illiraited. With- 
 out relation there could be no distinction ; consequently, 
 no diversity of form or character. Design, fitness to 
 purpose, symmetry, proportion, and expression, and 
 other such acknowledged principles of beauty, are all 
 connected with, and dependent upon, the coexistence 
 of relation of parts ; but from this very generalization 
 of the term it loses all worth as a specific test of ex- 
 cellence. We, moreover, discover beauty in nature, 
 when the objects presented to us seem to afford dif- 
 ferences, ratlier than relations, as is understood by this 
 term in vulgar phraseology ; for we admire greatly, 
 in a landscape, the union of a cottage and trees, of 
 mountains and water. Technically speaking, however, 
 it may be said that these very diff^'rences are relations ; 
 and, ill fact, the whole of nature affords nothing but
 
 28 ESTHETICS. 
 
 relations, taken in this sense. It will, therefore, be 
 not very difficult to see that relations, unless explained, 
 qualified, or specified in a particular manner, will not 
 guide us far in the discrimination of the beautiful. 
 Diderot's merit is in having shewn the far-extended and 
 perhaps universal influence of relation, and in having, 
 it appears to me, sufficiently proved, by well-grounded 
 argument, that this principle absorbs, in its compre- 
 hensive and all-pervading influence, all minor and more 
 particularizing definitions. Diderot adduces very happy 
 instances, taken from passages of poetry, to prove that 
 language owes its force of expression to relation ; and 
 though, with regard to form and distribution, the in- 
 fluence of this principle may not at first sight be 
 evident, its importance in colouring becomes at once 
 conspicuous and striking, as we have no harmony, 
 nothing even gratifying to the sight, without certain 
 arrangements and relations of colour.* 
 
 Let us now consider those conditions or circum- 
 stantial principles of beauty, respecting which, with 
 very few exceptions, all authors who have treated this 
 matter agree, namely, proportion, regularity, and sym- 
 metry, conditions which are intimately connected with 
 the important principles of fitness and design, of which 
 they are in general the expression.t The predominance 
 of regularity and symmetry is chiefly apparent in objects 
 of art and industry ; but the principle of symmetry is 
 likewise manifested, throughout the animal kingdom, 
 
 • See " Relations of Colours." 
 
 T See Alison's opinion on Dc-iigu, Essav II. cbaii. n . i-cc. -•
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 29 
 
 in the conformity of the corresponding parts or lateral 
 halves of each individual. We must not, however, 
 forget that these are conditions which involve, it is 
 true, certain classes of forms, hut do not themselves 
 constitute any determinate form ; as, for instance, re- 
 gularity and symmetry demand corresponding shapes at 
 corresponding intervals, but do not determine the pre- 
 cise nature of those shapes. They may, however, to 
 a certain extent, be entitled to the appellation of prin- 
 ciples of beauty ; firstly, on account of their extensive 
 influence in the works both of nature and art ; secondly, 
 because the impressions connected with them are of a 
 nature precise and definite, whilst the least deviation 
 from them, produces a marked and striking falling off 
 in the beauty of the objects to which they apply. 
 
 The prevalence and importance of regularity and 
 symmetry are, doubtless, to be ascribed almost entirely 
 to the circumstance that our wants and conveniences 
 are best supplied, either directly or indirectly, by forms 
 based upon these principles ; and the habit of asso- 
 ciating the forms of objects with the purposes which 
 they best fulfil, induces by degrees the conviction that 
 these forms are, in themselves, the most perfect, and that 
 they are the marks of design. 
 
 Hogarth has given, in tlic following lines, a very 
 ingenious and strikingf demonstration that it is to ideas 
 of fitness, and not to proportion as a mere mimicry 
 of counterparts, that regularity and symmetry owe the 
 beauty which we connect with them. " If the uni- 
 formity," he observes, " of figures, parts, or lines, 
 were trulv the chief cause of beautv, the more exactly
 
 30 .KSTIIETICS. 
 
 uniform their appearances were kept, the more pleasure 
 the eye would receive ; but this is so far from being 
 the case, that when the mind has been once satisfied 
 that the parts answer one another with so exact an 
 uniformity as to preserve to the whole the character 
 of fitness . . . the eye is rejoiced to see the object 
 turned and shifted, so as to vary these uniform appear- 
 ances. Thus the profile of most objects, as well as 
 faces, is rather more pleasing than their full front. 
 Whence it is clear the pleasui-e does not arise from 
 seeing the exact resemblance which one side bears the 
 other, but from the knowledge that they do so on 
 account of fitness, with design, and for use."* 
 
 Alison, likewise, states his conviction that it is to 
 the expression of design that uniformity and regularity 
 owe the impressions of beauty which we connect with 
 these qualities ; and proves his assertion by observing 
 that where regularity is the result of chance, and not 
 of design, its appearance conveys very different im- 
 pressions.! 
 
 This connexion of design with the beauty of regular 
 forms is further proved by a circumstance pointed out 
 cursorily by Mr. Home. In referring to the principle 
 of regularity in geometrical figures, he observes that 
 a parallelogram loses its beauty when it constitutes a 
 
 * It is probable that Hogarth docs not intend to imply by i^e term 
 profile, as is usually meant by it, an exact side view, since he alludes imme- 
 diately after to the beauty which the countenance acquires " from being 
 turned a little on one side and slightly inclined." — See Hogarth's " Analysis 
 of Beauty," chap. iii. p. 19. 
 
 t Alison on Taste, vol. ii. p. 64.
 
 ON THE HKAUTIFUL. 31 
 
 mere approximation towards equality ; " for propor- 
 tion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity, and 
 the figui-e appears an unsuccessful attempt upon a 
 square."* It is evident that this remark would apply 
 to all objects in which regularity constitutes a mark 
 of design. The least visible departure from regularity 
 in such objects, would cause in us a sensation of dis- 
 satisfaction and uneasiness ; whereas in those combi- 
 nations of forms in which the occasional occurrence of 
 regularity appears to be the result of mere chance, we 
 see with perfect indifference, a greater or less degree 
 of approximation to any regular form. 
 
 I must next refer to the important influence which 
 Reynolds has attributed to custom, in forming our taste 
 for the beautiful. It will hardly be necessary to state, 
 that the opinion of this eminent and truly philosophical 
 artist, was, that in every species, both in the animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms, beauty was to be found midway be- 
 tween all extremes. " Nature," as he expresses himself, 
 " inclines towards one fixed and determinate form, like 
 various lines terminating in one centre ; and as these 
 lines all cross the centre, though only one passes through 
 every other point, so it will be found that perfect beauty 
 is oftener produced by nature than deformity." In a 
 subsequent sentence, Reynolds confounds the beauty 
 which is proper to organized beings with that which is 
 conspicuous in fashions. He here seems to have lost 
 sight of the fact, that in all created beings, and even in 
 
 * Sec Walker's " Aiinlysis of Ht'inity," p. 7(1.
 
 •'3'2 .icsTiimrs. 
 
 tilings which apply to the uses of man, heaiity is in- 
 separable from those conditions which have immediate 
 reference to their destination, and tliat the principle of 
 custom can hold as long only as it corresponds, in some 
 beings and objects, with the adaptation of means to 
 ends. Reynolds, unfortunately, carries his principle of 
 custom so far, as to make it, as it were, an essential and 
 almost unconditional element of the beautiful ; and his 
 doubtless somewhat hasty assertion, "that if all the 
 world would agree that yes and 710 should change their 
 meanings, yes would deny and no would affirm," has not 
 only considerably lessened that share of reliance to 
 which his theory is entitled, but given rise, on the part 
 of Stewart and Burke, to the expression of opposite 
 opinions, calculated to perplex a question, concerning 
 which there are, it appears to me, no strong grounds for 
 dissent, provided the influence exercised by custom or 
 habit be rightly appreciated. 
 
 Stewart refutes the doctrine of Reynolds : firstly, 
 upon the ground, that although custom, by which we are 
 to understand the most frequent recurrence of the same 
 form, should determine our preference for one individual 
 over another of the same species, " the question still 
 remains to be answered. On what principle do we 
 pronounce the beauty of one speqies to be greater than 
 that of another ?" And he further elucidates his argu- 
 ment by asking, "Whether, upon the principle of 
 custom, we can pronounce the rose to be more beautiful 
 than the dandelion, the peacock than the stork, and a 
 beautiful woman to he the masterpiece of nature's handi-
 
 ON THE BEAinrFUL. 33 
 
 work."* But I cannot see that the influence of custom 
 is rejected, even by this argument, provided we consider 
 custom as a powerful auxiliary, and not an essential 
 quality of beauty. Custom is tlie tuition of nature ; it 
 instructs us how to apply the various forms and appear- 
 ances before us, to the ends and purposes which they 
 have been intended to serve ; it teaches us how to appre- 
 ciate these forms and appearances at their true value, 
 and to ascribe to each of nature's works, the exact degree 
 of perfection and beauty which is consistent with the 
 position marked out for it in the creation. 
 
 Coming more directly to the question before us, I 
 must observe that the beautv of the rose, as well as that 
 of the peacock, being, in a great measure, if not ])rinci- 
 pally, dependent on colour, these examples do not ex- 
 actly come within the limit of an inquiry which regards 
 form. But putting colour aside, we shall, I apprehend, 
 equnlly find, that we do not discover the whole beauty 
 wliirh belongs to each object, until custom, or the habit 
 of judging and comparing, has made us fully conversant 
 with all its qualities. If we had not, fnmi our youth, 
 been accustomed to associate the habits and character of 
 each living species with its form, it seems very doubtful 
 whether we should he as sensible as we are now, to that 
 kind of beauty which is peculiar to each. In the grey- 
 hound, the terrier, the stag, and the horse, we admire 
 tlie most opposite expressions of form, because, custom 
 having made us conversant with tlicir (jualities and 
 habits, we are able fullv to appreciate that perfect con- 
 
 * Sec Stewart's " PliilDsophical Essays," part ii. p. 349. 
 
 D
 
 34 .'T;sthetics. 
 
 formity of structure with the purposes required, which, 
 in every species respectively, constitutes the index of 
 beauty ; and even when the exact knowledge of their 
 respective habits is wanting, custom, combined with the 
 influence of opinion, has taught us to give our tacit and 
 willing acknowledgment to the perfection of each. It is 
 in this manner that custom greatly assists in making us 
 sensible to those kinds of attraction, seemingly uncon- 
 nected with purpose, which determine our predilection 
 for certain pet animals ; and if, on the other hand, we 
 ascend to that beauty which, in the human countenance, 
 is the expression of supreme intelligence, and of every 
 tender emotion, habit again powerfully assists in that 
 communion of sentiment, without which, many traces of 
 beauty must remain undiscovered, although the pre- 
 valence of those sentiments and emotions which are 
 inseparable from the contemplation of human beauty, 
 considerablv modifies, in the last case, the influence of 
 habit. 
 
 Had Revnolds limited the bold assertion above 
 quoted, to ornamental designs and patterns, which are 
 intended to please the eye, without reference to utility, it 
 might have held out against every objection ; for, in 
 such figures as these, regularity is the only principle 
 which remains stable, — the rest is merely conventional : 
 and when the world agrees (that is to say, the world of 
 fashion,) that one design is more beautiful than another, 
 it becomes and remains so until a contrary verdict is 
 pronounced. But this doctrine could not apply to 
 nature at large, unless we could reverse the purposes to 
 which all things have been adapted, and discover, for
 
 ON THR HKAl TIITK. 35 
 
 instance, in the leg, the conformation required for car- 
 r)ing ; in the arm, the requisites for walking ; in the 
 ear, those for smelling, &c. I expose, without hesi- 
 tation, the ridicule to which the unreserved application 
 of this statement of Reynolds would lead ; because I 
 feel convinced that it was custom, associated with the 
 principle of adaptation to purpose, that he had chiefly 
 in view throughout his argument on the principle of 
 beauty. 
 
 Stewart has, it appears to me, given an uufavourable 
 and incorrect interpretation of the general meaning of 
 Reynolds's text, when he reasons upon custom as of a 
 principle unconnected with anv thing else, considering it 
 as a mere repetition of the same thing, or of the same 
 occurrence, a great many times ; for this meaning he 
 distinctly implies, when he alludes to the fall of heavy 
 bodies to the earth, as instances of that which is common 
 or customary.* Now this frequent recurrence of the 
 cflfect of a natural cause, on which Stewart grounds his 
 second objection to Reynolds's theory, has, as I think 
 will be perceived, very little connexion with the greater 
 prevalence, in sensitive beings, of that form which is 
 midway between every extreme, and which wc conse- 
 quently regard as the most customary one. Nor does 
 the principle asserted by Burke, in order to prove that 
 proportion and custom have nothing to do with beauty, 
 appear to me to be better founded. The substance of 
 his assertion is, that deformity is not the opposite to 
 beauty ; and that proportion and regularity may prevail, 
 
 * See Stewart's " riiili><:o|)liical Essays," p. 351.
 
 36 
 
 .liSTHEIlCS. 
 
 without its being neccssarv tlint l)oauty should follow,* 
 Now, if deformity were not opposed to beautv, we niiuht 
 remove the former, and yet come no nearer to the latter ; 
 but all persons will, I think, admit that the removal of a 
 deformity produces, in every instance, an approach to 
 beauty, and that its presence invariably causes a de- 
 parture from it. Indeed, it appears evident, that 
 deformity is nothing else than the excess of those minor 
 defects and blemishes, the existence of which suffices 
 of itself to destroy beauty of form : and the more our 
 eye is conversant with those forms, which, in every 
 species, present least of these defects, and come nearest 
 to perfection, the more sensible we are to the charac- 
 teristic beauty of each. 
 
 Mr. Harding, alluding t<j the doctrine propounded 
 by Pere Buffier, and supported by Reynolds, that beauty 
 is to be found in the most customary form, or that 
 which is most removed from every extreme, observes, 
 that a theory which designates beauty as something, 
 neither one thing nor another, shews that the writer 
 who propounded it had either a very vague idea of 
 beauty, or if his ideas were distinct, that he could 
 not express them clearly. t Doubtless this task of dis- 
 covering the true and perfect amid all the deviations 
 and extremes which nature presents, is a difficult one ; 
 nor would it be possible, by any mechanical or artificial 
 means, thus to separate the pure and the beautiful 
 from the misshapen and the defective : but if the eye 
 
 * See Burke on the " Sublime and Beautiful," part iii. sec. 5. 
 t Harding's "Principles and Practice ol'.i\jrt," p. 41.
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. Sj 
 
 of taste 1)0 resorted to, instead of calculation and mea- 
 surement, is it not the only method which we can employ 
 with anv thinor like success ? It is in the human coun- 
 tenance that we find materialized, as it were, the most 
 perfect expression of that beauty which pertains to our 
 species ; and, incomplete as may be each single model, 
 would not a selection and union of the most perfect, 
 bring us nearer to ideal perfection, than any artificial 
 means that can be suggested? Thus, though somewhat 
 antiquated, I see no method which appears more avail- 
 able in practice, and deserving our reliance, than that 
 which Winckelmann attributed to the Greek artists, of 
 selecting beauty amid the nearest approaches to it dis- 
 coverable in various individuals, in order to form one 
 ideal whole more beautiful than anv model.* 
 
 Burke, Stewart, Alison, and U'inckelmann, have all 
 argued to prove that this perfection of form is not at- 
 tainable by anv rules of proportion, or by any mathe- 
 matical deductions. Indeed, the term "ideal boautv" 
 
 * Mon5!. (iuaticnKTc de Quincy, in his argument on this subject, ob- 
 serves, " that ideal perfection is best attained by a gi-neral study of the 
 aim of nature in her various creatures, and by the observation of the means 
 employed by lier to fulfil the various fuiictions appropriated to each part in 
 every individual." I'pou the whole, Jl. de (Quincy seems to be adverse to 
 the opinion expressed by most authors, that ideal beauty is a selection of the 
 perfections existing in many individuals, united together for the completion 
 of a single figure. lie regards these views as embracing too much of a 
 principle of m.iterial aggregation, which he affirms to be a thing impracti- 
 cable ; and maintains that the system of selecting beauty in the multitude, 
 and of realizing an ideal subject, can only be available in the general ob- 
 servation of nature, and by a process of internal judgment, which he allows 
 to be a faculty possessed by a very limited few. See his " Kssui mir I' I dial 
 ditHX scs applications pratiques aux (riicrea tic I'iiiiiliiliiiii propi-i ilts arts (In 
 tUv.sin." Paris, IR.17. Page fi.5, and subsc<iuent (lages.
 
 38 ESTHETICS. 
 
 implies of itself something imaginary, and shews that 
 the first opinions that were entertained upon this subject 
 were conformable to this sense of the term ; and it 
 becomes a matter of surprise that so much pains should 
 have been bestowed in discovering a key to a problem, 
 concerning which Winckelmann observed, nearly a hun- 
 dred years ago, " that if our ideas of beauty were to 
 partake of the evidence of geometrical demonstrations, 
 the judgment respecting it would be unanimous, and that 
 there would be scarcely any men so ill-bred, or so ill- 
 organized, as to cherish in its stead an imaginarv phan- 
 tom."* Now this is the axis on which the whole force 
 of the question revolves. We cannot expect that the 
 mist which seems to envelope this proposition will be 
 dispelled, unless we trace a distinction between perfect 
 beauty, as an object of practicable attainment, and its 
 ideal existence, as a mark stimulating to noble exertion 
 in the contest of the arts. It is as necessary that perfect 
 beauty should not be attainable bv any positive and defi- 
 nite means, as it is that we should have within us the 
 sentiment of an ideal beauty. It is the sentiment of ideal 
 beauty and perfection only, which causes us to aspire to 
 something higher and more perfect than that which lies 
 open to the observation of every one in the works of 
 nature. It is this feelincr alone which can raise the art 
 above every circumstance of life, and give it a high 
 intellectual position. That this sentiment of the beauti- 
 
 * See Winckelmann's "//ii/oirerfe r^rt." Vol. i. p. 243. 
 
 The same author adds, "Beauty is a secret of nature : we behold it, and 
 experience its effects ; but it is not easy to form a distinct and clear idea of 
 its nature. Its essence is still to be discovered," &c.
 
 ON THE BEAUTIFUL. 39 
 
 ful is a conception not to be realized, seems proved 
 by the circumstance that no one has hitherto given, 
 or could possibly give, such substance to it as to win, 
 in favour of his work, the unanimous approbation of 
 taste. That it has but a local and transitory dominion, 
 seems likewise to be proved by the circumstance that 
 the nations or races of men, each of which founds its 
 primary ideas of beauty according to a type of its 
 own, are both circumscribed in their extent and influ- 
 ence, and limited as to the period of their duration. 
 Nevertheless, it is necessary, in order that art may 
 have a distinct object in view, that ideal beauty should 
 have all the importance and consistency of an existing 
 fact, and of a demonstrable truth. It is likewise ne- 
 cessary, that in the eye of art it should have the per- 
 manence of a law of nature ; for that perfection in 
 art which we esteem to be the highest and soundest, 
 is that which maintains its pre-eminence during the 
 greatest lapse of time. There are no limits to the 
 period during which the creations of art may continue 
 to be held as models of perfection. As realized by 
 Greek sculpture, they have maintained their pre-eminence 
 through successive races of men, and imposed their 
 supremacy to the decisions of the remotest periods. 
 An aim not less elevated than this, should art — historical 
 art, at least — have in view in all times and countries, 
 even should it be without hope of achieving so high 
 a design. An aim short of this, is nothing more than 
 that which constitutes the easy prize of all inannerists, 
 and of those painters who work for time and circum- 
 stance.
 
 ■M .KSTUETICS. 
 
 I will offer elsewhere, some further and more special 
 remarks on this point, without endeavouring to subvert 
 or influence such received opinions as are the result of 
 long experience and reflection. We will now proceed 
 to the consideration of such principles as are, to a 
 greater or less extent, essential elements in emotions 
 of the beautiful, and subsequently to the examination 
 of those principles which are conducive to it in the 
 works of nature, and which tend to promote it in the 
 productions of art. These principles, conducive to per- 
 fection in works of art as abstract causes, may be, at 
 the same time, some of them, at least, more or less 
 included in its practical mechanism, for there is no 
 precise point at which the truths of theory cease to 
 afford practical rules. Generally speaking, however, 
 I have reserved such observations as have a direct 
 reference to painting for the second part of the work, 
 availing myself, in the arrangement of the subjects, of 
 the advantages of system, to such an extent as per- 
 spicuity might require, without imposing any restraint 
 on the imagination of the reader.
 
 ON THE ELEMENTAUY PRINCIPLES WHICH CONSTITUTE 
 THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THE SUBLIME. THE PICTUUESQUE. 
 
 rilE GROTESQUE. THE GRACEFUL. 
 
 THE ELEGANT. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 In offering a few remarks on the principles which 
 are connected v\'ith the perception of the heautiful in 
 its various aspects, or which are comprehended in a 
 general and tasteful survey of nature, I shall allude 
 but briefly to the opinions entertained by some authors, 
 respecting the cause of our emotions under various 
 circumstances, and chiefly apply myself to point out 
 the immediate and appreciable influences which most 
 cfl'cctually concur in promoting a cheerful perception 
 of every kind of beauty, as well as some of those points 
 of difference and agreement in writers, the knowledge 
 of which is necessary, in order that taste may be enabled 
 to find out at once its object through a bewildering 
 maze of apparently conflicting systems and opinions. 
 
 Alison, than whom few writers have entered into 
 this subjec;t with more diligence and research, main- 
 tains, with iiiiuh scemin" assurance, the necessitv of 
 a predisposed state of the mind, in order that beautiful 
 or sublinu' objects niav atloct it witli those sensations
 
 42 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 which expaiul and gladden it ; and though he may 
 ap})oar to ascribe too much to the influence of rea- 
 soning and to the involuntary exercise of the imagin- 
 ation in relation to the objects beheld, nevertheless, the 
 influence of previous impressions is in many cases so 
 great, and the predisposition to pleasure is so much 
 increased by a return of the same moods and throb- 
 bings to which the mind has been already once alive, 
 that one cannot be surprised if Alison has extended 
 the effects of the imagination, and of trains of reason- 
 ing, beyond the usual limits of their influence with most 
 persons. Whether or not it be necessary that the 
 imagination be actively engaged at the time that the 
 mind receives impressions of delight from beautiful and 
 extraordinary objects, it cannot be doubted that a sen- 
 sitive and lively imagination partakes the most of these 
 pleasures, and that an education calculated to awaken 
 the mind to the grandeur of natural objects, would have, 
 in this respect, a decided superiority over one in which 
 the cultivation of objects of taste has no share. Any 
 one must, I think, be aware of this, who observes the 
 indiffference with which peasants and persons of low 
 pursuits behold the wonders of nature. We may further 
 conclude, that a person whose imagination has been 
 busied and entertained beforehand concerning any par- 
 ticular objects of beauty, will derive, even though his 
 anticipations may not be fully realized, an increased 
 amount of pleasure from the actual contemplation of 
 them. 
 
 To these remarks, bearing on the preparatory con- 
 dition of the mind, it may be added, that delight almost
 
 THE SUBLIME. 'k'3 
 
 invariably results from the revival of cherished im- 
 pressions of the past. Thus we derive, generally speak- 
 ing, great pleasure from revisiting towns, countries, and 
 places, where we have previously enjoyed ourselves ; 
 we indulge over and over aijain in a walk become a 
 favourite one by acquaintance, and hail, with increased 
 delight, the return of a season of which we have tasted 
 the pleasures. This may be an important fact in our 
 moral constitution, since it is by the revival of impres- 
 sions already awakened, that our habits are, in a great 
 measure, governed. Custom, by degrees, makes us take 
 equally a delight in those things which our judgment 
 commends or disa])proves ; and, in the like manner, with 
 respect to objects of taste, it is chiefly to the habit of 
 seeing and of hearing commended, certain modes of ex- 
 pressing nature, that is to say, certain styles and man- 
 ners of execution, that our judgment becomes refined 
 or perverted. 
 
 THE SUBLIME. 
 
 I will now allude to some of the opinions which I 
 think have been erroneously entertained respecting the 
 sublime. Stewart, adopting principles very different 
 to those which have been generally entertained on this 
 subject, discovers the chief source of the sublime in 
 those ideas which arc connected with elevation. This 
 is, doubtless, a powerful principle, having a direct and 
 immediate action in producing emotions of the sublime ; 
 but I doubt whether Stewart has not extended its
 
 ii .ESTHETICS. 
 
 prevailiiijf influence to circumstances in which other 
 sources of emotion so strongly prevail, as almost en- 
 tirely to obliterate the ideas of sublimity which result 
 from elevation. 
 
 Alluding, for instance, to the epithet mountain bil- 
 lows, as connected with one of the chief sources of the 
 sublime in the aspect of the ocean, namely, the height 
 of its waves, or to the influence which the custom of 
 navigators of looking up to the stars in their astro- 
 nomical observations, has in extending still further the 
 prevalence of this emotion, the author forsakes those 
 primitive elements of the sublime, which the immensity 
 of the ocean presents, modified in a hundred forms by 
 its storms and dangers, to adhere to secondary and 
 more remote causes. Principles like these detract from 
 those which are most immediate and powerful in their 
 influence. 
 
 The author, alluding, in page 419, to the concavity 
 over our heads, of which the summit or cope is alwavs 
 exactly coincident with our shifting zenith, says, " It 
 is observable that its sublime effect is much increased 
 by the mathematical regularity of its form ; suggesting 
 the image of a vast Rotunda, having its centre everj'- 
 where, and its circumference nowhere ; — a circumstance 
 which forces irresistibly on the mind, the idea of some- 
 thing analogous to architectural design, carried into 
 execution by Omnipotence itself. ... As the natural 
 bias of the imagination, besides, is to conceive the 
 firmament to be something solid, in which the sun, 
 moon, and stars, are mechanically fixed, a sentiment 
 of wonder at the unknown means bv which the law of
 
 THE SLULIME. 45 
 
 gravity is in this instance counteracted, comes to be 
 superadded to the emotion excited by the former com- 
 bination of circumstances." 
 
 By converting the boundless space of the firmament, 
 as it were, into a close vault, by assigning to it form 
 and substance, instead of endless penctra])ility, the 
 author allows to escape those impressions of the sub- 
 lime which are allied to infinity and eternity, to secure 
 the comparatively petty causes of astonishment, which 
 may be the result of a skilful mechanical artifice. The 
 suspension of a compact azure vault over our heads, 
 inlaid, as it were, with the stars and planets, could 
 give rise to nothing more than that kind of surprise 
 with which, as the author observes, " we behold, in 
 looking up to the vaulted roof of a Gothic cathedral, 
 the triumph of human art, in rendering the law of 
 gravitation subservient to the suspension of its own 
 ordinary effects." * 
 
 Stewart, alluding to the circumstance that hori- 
 zontal extension, as well as great altitude, is an element 
 of the sublime, observes, " Upon the slightest reflection, 
 however, it must appear obvious, that this extension 
 of the meaning of sublimitv, arises entirely from the 
 natui-al association between elevated position and a 
 commanding prospect of the earth's surface in all di- 
 rections. As the most palpable measure of elevation 
 is the extent of view which it affords, so, on the other 
 hand, an enlarged horizon recalls impressions connected 
 with great elevation. Tlio ])lain of Yorkshire, and 
 
 * Sto Stcwail's " l'Iiil<i-i()[)liic;il I's^ays." On the Suliliiiic : p. 41 1.
 
 40 AESTHETICS. 
 
 perhaps still in a greater decree, Salisbury Plain, pro- 
 duces an emotion approaching to sublimity, in the mind 
 of a Scotchman, the first time he sees it; an emotion, 
 I am persuaded, very different from what would be 
 experienced, on the same occasion, by a Fleming or a 
 Dutchman ; and this, abstracting altogether from the 
 charm of novelty."* Here, as in the preceding re- 
 marks, Stewart has again generalized too much the in- 
 fluence of elevation, his favourite principle of the sub- 
 lime. The charm of novelty, which so remarkable a 
 feature of nature as a boundless plain, would afford to 
 an inhabitant of the mountains, far from having no 
 influence in inspiring ideas of the sublime, would be a 
 fertile cause of astonishment and wonder, impressions 
 which, united to ideas of immensity, would be a most 
 productive source of sublime emotion ; and this, I 
 should say, much more from the connexion which a 
 boundless plain has with infinity itself, than from the 
 relation it bears to perpendicular height. 
 
 Stewart, however, entertained, I think, views 
 perfectly just, in establishing an intimate connexion 
 between elevation and power, thus attributing to it one 
 of the most important elements of the sublime ; and 
 this truth he proves, by shewing the advantage which 
 an elevated position affords, in warlike aggression and 
 defence. 
 
 In connecting ideas of sublimity with energy of cha- 
 racter, Stewart adopts the opinions entertained by Payne 
 Knight, and observes that " the direction in which the 
 
 * Stcw.-irt, p. 415.
 
 THE SliBMMK. 47 
 
 energies of the huinan mind are conceived to be exerted, 
 will of course be in opposition to that of the poivers to 
 which it is subjected, of the dangers which hang over 
 it, or of the obstacles which it has to surmount in rising 
 to distinction. Hence the metaphorical expressions of 
 an unbending spirit, of bearing up against the pressure 
 of misfortune, of an aspiring or toivering ambition, and 
 innumerable others."* One meets, here, with a re- 
 markable concurrence in the views of authors, very 
 remote in other respects, concerning a question which 
 has frequently been marked by ridicule on account of 
 the dissensions to which it has given rise. At the 
 same time that the opinions which are entertained by 
 Mr. Payne Knight, respecting the connexion of the 
 sublime with the display of mental energy, correspond, 
 in almost every particular, with those which Stewart 
 so fondly dwells upon, we might, apparently, trace to 
 the Greek author Longinus, the true source of these 
 opinions, who, according to Mr. Payne Knight's quo- 
 tation, says, that the effect of the sublime is " to lift 
 up the soul ; to exalt it into ecstasy ; so that, partici- 
 pating, as it were, of the splendours of the divinity, it 
 becomes filled with joy and exultation, as if it had itself 
 conceived the lofty sentiments which it has heard." t 
 
 Stewart points out (p. 433) the relation between this 
 energy or mental elevation, and the upward looks of 
 man, " os subli>me ;" but I tliink ho does not sufficiently 
 develoj)e his idea, tlie erect position of the head and 
 bust being, in fact, the expression itself of the energy, 
 
 * Stewart. |). 114. t See I'.ivnc Knif;lit, Part III. chiip. i. par. 17.
 
 48 ESTHETICS. 
 
 firmness, and elevation, of a mind abounding with sub- 
 lime emotion, whereas the opposite bending attitude, 
 generally marks despondency, discouragement, or still 
 meaner propensities. The sublimity of the human 
 stature, therefore, is not in the erect position itself, 
 any more than it would be in that of an upright pole, 
 or monument of any kind, but in the mental energy 
 of which it is the symbol ; and this, probably, owing 
 to the mechanical effort made to raise the head and body, 
 cither in conceivinor elevated schemes, or in carrving 
 out noble actions. 
 
 Proceeding from a partial fact to a more general 
 one, we may ascribe, with Stewart, the fundamental 
 principle of that sublimity which is connected with 
 elevation, chiefly to the effort and energy required to 
 overcome a force, namely that of gravity, which, though 
 purely mechanical to our external senses, becomes thus, 
 indirectly connected with our moral existence ; an 
 exercise of energy, which, in all cases, is attended with 
 great and admirable results. As a further (;ause of this 
 connexion between elevation and sublimity, on which 
 Stewart so much dwells, may be added, that it is chiefly 
 in looking upwards that we become impressed with 
 infinity and mystery ; - — boundless extension when the 
 vapoury film of clouds is withdrawn ; and when the 
 zone of mist is spread above us, that kind of uncertainty 
 and doubt which is connected with almost all the phe- 
 nomena of the atmosphere. The interior of the earth, 
 which we look down upon, it may be said, affords equally 
 striking examples of uncertainty and mystery. But it 
 is the earth's surface with its distinct productions, and
 
 THK SUHr.lME. 49 
 
 not its recondite recesses, which first falls upon the eve, 
 and which we habitually contrast with the vague and 
 undefinablc wonders of the regions above us. Alison, 
 in ascribing impressions of the sublime to warlike instru- 
 ments of various kinds, falls, I think, into the same kind 
 of error as Burke does, when he affirms that this emotion 
 is raised at the aspect of the meanest animals which 
 are injurious or dangerous. Both extend the principle 
 of the sublime to objects which possess, if I may so 
 express myself, but so small a particle of it, that in cases 
 in which these objects are most usually introduced, 
 either into paintings or descriptions, other impressions 
 prevail, and whatever there may be of the sublime, is 
 forgotten. If we see a raised dagger, or perceive a 
 levelled gun or pistol, we may feel anxiety for the person 
 whose life seems endangered ; — the presence of snakes 
 or of scorpions may, in a similar manner, awaken our 
 interest, sympathy, or alarm ; but of the sublime, I see 
 here very little, unless there be something great or noble 
 connected with the incident, of which these instruments 
 of harui, of whatever nature they may be, form a part. 
 For instance, the dagger may become a sublime object 
 in connexion with the death of Julius Caesar ; and the 
 snake, with that of Cleopatra ; but attach these instru- 
 ments of death to some incident of common life, and 
 they lose, at once, all their sublimity. A wolf, a dog, or 
 a bear, may be rendered sublime objects, if they be 
 made to have some share in the formation of a suhliine 
 subject; as a stream, a tree, or even a flower, niiu be 
 made to form a part of a sublime composition : hut in 
 I'illier rase, the scene which lomprebonds these objects 
 
 E
 
 50 iESTHETlCS. 
 
 is not sublime because they are found in it, but because 
 it possesses other features which are more essentially 
 sublime. Remove any of these creatures or objects : — 
 the composition may perhaps suflFer much in its pleasing 
 effect, but very little in its sublimity. An object trulv 
 sublime is one which itself imparts greatness to the 
 subject of which it forms a part, and which, in any com- 
 position, extends and magnifies that which it mav al- 
 ready possess from other causes. 
 
 In opposition to the opinions entertained by Burke, 
 concerning the emotions of grief, fear, and terror, 
 Pavne Knight adduces, from the writings of Lonjrinus, 
 conclusions which contemporary critics have overlooked. 
 According to these tenets, grief and fear arc not in 
 themselves characterized by sublimity, but, inasmuch as 
 they tend to humility and subjection, thcv are rather 
 the reverse ; and it is only by its association with the 
 exercise of energ)' and power, that the impression of 
 danger partakes of the sublime. Where fear so far 
 predominates, as to extinguish those impressions of 
 energy and power which are immediately associated 
 with the cause of danger, the sublimity which is con- 
 nected with it, disappears, and gives place to opposite 
 emotions. The storm, according to Payne Knight, has 
 sublimity to him, only, who has sufficient strength of 
 mind to dispel all apprehension of danger, and who, 
 consequently, enjoys the calm necessarj- for contem- 
 plation.* 
 
 Setting aside those differences of opinion to which 
 
 * See Payne Knight, part iii. chap. 1, par. 55.
 
 THE SUBUME. 51 
 
 I have ])iirtly alluded, cind which appear to result 
 chiefly from the too great influence which has been 
 ascribed to trivial and partial causes, it vi^ill be found 
 that there is, in general, more consistency than might 
 be expected in the opinions entertained, even by dif- 
 ferent authors, on the nature of the sublime. This 
 principle, indeed, embraces several conditions of events 
 or matter, so apparently different from each other, that 
 unless all authors had fixed upon the same, or had 
 alluded to every one of them, their views on this subject 
 must have differed considerably. We cannot admit in 
 the Sublime, as we do in the Beautiful, a principle 
 having a like tendency wherever it manifests itself. 
 The latter, we discover to be that which is most pleasing 
 to sight in every object, and the most pleasing of all, 
 in the object which is the most susceptible of imparting 
 pleasure. But the impressions of the sublime, present 
 themselves considerably modified, in the various ap- 
 pearances and incidents of nature with which they may 
 be connected ; and the theories of the authors to whom 
 I allude, are not more opposed to each other, than 
 might be expected to result from this apparent diversity 
 in the nature of the sublime itself. 
 
 In Blair, we find as its chief characteristics, impres- 
 sions of (tiDe and terror, sokmnih/ and rastness. It 
 expresses the highest degree of grandeur. 
 
 Burke, who has been more unfortunate in his ex- 
 amples, than in the principles which he asserts, likewise 
 admits awe and terror, as fundamental causes of the 
 sublime, adding, as secondary agents, obscinifj/, potrcr, 
 rttsf'wss, infiiiifji, and iii/ii^/iificence.
 
 52 .ICSTHETICS. 
 
 Stewart attributes to elevdtio/i, tin- chief cause of 
 the sublime ; and associates with this principle, the 
 influence of the laws of gravitation, as well as the opi- 
 nions entertained, at all periods, respecting the celestial 
 abode of the Divinity. 
 
 In Alison, we find occurring, the same expressions 
 of danger, awe, solemnity, mngnitude, elevation, extent, 
 magnijicence, and power. 
 
 According to Payne Knight, mental energy, from 
 the feelings of sympathy which it excites, seems to be a 
 ruling source of the sublime. 
 
 The author of " Modern Painters" deviates very 
 little from the theory of Burke, respecting the sub- 
 limity which is connected with danger and death, and 
 concurs with Blair in ascribing the highest degree of 
 sublimity to greatness in the noblest objects. 
 
 Mr. Inglis, in an elegant description of a romantic 
 scene in Norway, gives his testimony to the influence of 
 impressions of power, in constituting the sublime. 
 
 In all these various definitions of different indi- 
 viduals, we may trace some quality which has reference 
 to wonder, reverence, or admiration. Their connexion 
 is, I think, sufficiently marked, to show that unpreju- 
 diced opinion is nearly unanimous as to the general 
 nature of this emotion. As before observed, however, 
 the instances to which the sublime is applicable, differ 
 widely. The dignity and profound sagacity, which may 
 be its ensign in the head of a Jupiter, seem to bear but 
 a faint analogy to the terrors of a thunder-storm ; or the 
 expression of fortitude and virtue in the human features, 
 to the mysterious gloom of a forest, or the starry vault
 
 THE IMCTUUESUUE. 53 
 
 of heaven : yet, if we are able to trace the various im- 
 pressions connected with these objects, to one same 
 source, we ought, I think, to feel satisfied, that they 
 are allied to one another. Do not the dignity and 
 foresight which the Greek artist has graven on the head 
 of his god, and the terrors of the thunderstorm, bespeak 
 alike, power ? And is not the same principle alike pre- 
 dominant, in the mysterious grandeur of the scenery of 
 nature, and in the serenity of innocence itself ? Great- 
 ness, magnificence, elevation, duration, extent, and 
 danger, though they may differ, and be, in some mea- 
 sure, opposed to each other, are all referable to power. 
 Power, therefore, more than any other attribute, be- 
 comes the foundation of all emotions of the sublime ; 
 and power, or rather, omnipotence \_allmachf\, may be 
 regarded as the key to all the other expressions of the 
 sublime included in our phraseology. 
 
 THE PICTrUESQUE. 
 
 With reference to the picturesque ; — this term, 
 according to Gilpin, is derived, in the first place, from 
 the suitableness of the objects characterized by it, for 
 pictures ; and, in the second place, from a degree of 
 roughness, ruggedness, shaggedness, and other similar 
 qualities, possessed by them. But he erroneously as- 
 cribes the suitableness of ]iiitures(]U(' objects to the 
 purposes of tlie artist, to this character of roughness and
 
 54 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 irregularity ; and draws a mistaken inference, that the 
 smoother objects become commendable to the painter, 
 only because they possess a certain degree of irregu- 
 larity of surface, or modification of colour. It is true, 
 that in the landscape, the irregularity and apparent 
 roughness of a great many objects, greatly contributes 
 to that variety which renders them so well suited to the 
 composition of a picture. Rocks, mountains, and ruins, 
 are, in general, marked by a great degree of irregularity, 
 and are, at the same time, eminently picturesque objects. 
 But it does not follow, that smooth objects must be ex- 
 cluded from the picture unless we can discover some 
 means of making them rough. By endeavouring to 
 prove that rough and smooth objects are equally right 
 in their place, I should be encroaching on the subject 
 of variety ; and shall here only allude to some of the 
 cases in which a certain degree of roughness, or of 
 diversity of colour in the surface of objects, adds, ac- 
 cording to Gilpin's peculiar views, to their claims to 
 the picturesque, or to the honour of becoming part of 
 a picture. 
 
 Alluding, in terms of admiration, to the beauty of 
 the human form, he adds, that " the more its smooth 
 surface is ruffled, tlie more picturesque it appears ; and 
 that Avhen it is agitated by passion, and swoln by strong 
 emotion, the whole frame is shown to the most ad- 
 vantage."* How completely does the author here forget 
 the true causes of the delight which the image of the 
 human figure is capable of exciting, to put forward in 
 
 ' Ste Gilpin's " Essay on Picturesque Beauty," p. 12.
 
 TllIO I'ICTUKESCiUE. 55 
 
 their stead, a principle, namely, the picturesque, which 
 must be entirely lost in the case alluded to, and which 
 can only predominate in a class of objects of an opposite 
 order ! 
 
 The cart-horse is preferred, for the harder lines of 
 his form, the roughness of his coat, &c., to the pam- 
 pered horse of the livery stable ; yet, owing to the 
 diversity of lines which mark the coat of the latter, he is 
 not considered by Gilpin so unpicturesque, as to deserve 
 being banished from the picture altogether.* Does 
 he suppose that the swiftness apparent in his limbs, the 
 fire of his eye, and the courage, tempered by mildness, 
 expressed in his countenance, are nothing to the point ? 
 In short, could he not discover in the thorouiibbred 
 Arab, any qualities, besides the spots and roughness of 
 his coat, to cause admiration, or welcome his presence 
 in a production of art ? 
 
 The same author ascribes, in a great measure, the 
 picturesqueness of a lake, to the diversity of shades 
 occasioned by the objects reflected there, " thus causing 
 it, though in fact smooth, to appear rough or uneven."t 
 As we neither ruifle the surface of a glassy lake, nor 
 the polished coats of animals, to render them interesting 
 and valuable objects in the artist's studio, we may, I 
 presume, be sufficiently satisfied, that they have some 
 (pialities, besides these variations of surface, which 
 render them suitable objects for a painting. 
 
 Though Gilpin does not ascribe a distinct character 
 to the beautiful, he follows the footsteps of Burke, in 
 
 * Sec '• Essay on Picturesque Beauty ," pp. \i-'22. 
 t Ibid. p. '2-2.
 
 56 ESTHETICS. 
 
 rendering smoothness one of its chief constituents, 
 whether the objects to which this quality applies, he 
 large or small. This establishes a marked distinction 
 between it and the pictui'esque, which, in the opinion 
 of this author, is only compatible, as above stated, with 
 roughness and ruggedness. 
 
 Price takes up the question nearly on the same ground 
 as Gilpin, and developes his ideas, by ascribing the cause 
 of the picturesque, to the eflPects of time, in fact, to the 
 wear and tear of nature. But finding that the pic- 
 turesque has features which are not always met with in 
 beautiful objects, he seems to fancy, that the beautiful 
 expresses a distinct emotion, and that, as well as the pic- 
 turesque, it is a generic principle. It does not occur to 
 him, that there are other terms, such as " elegant," 
 " graceful," " delicate," the signification of which, is 
 more directly opposed to that of picturesque, and which, 
 therefore, are more appropriately used as distinctive 
 epithets.* 
 
 Dugald Stewart discovers the mistake of Mr. Price, 
 resulting from the partial view entertained bv him of the 
 term "Beautiful"; and observes, "that he was neces- 
 sarily led to this conclusion, by the admission, at his 
 first outset, of Mr. Burke's peculiar tenets, (respecting 
 the beauty of smooth objects,) as so many incontrovertible 
 axioms." Stewart ascribes to Beauty, its usual sig-nifica- 
 tion of degree rather than kind, and to the picturesque, a 
 
 * Dugald Stewart, alhiiliiig tu tho theory of Price, observes that " he 
 ought to have extended the application of the word 'Beauty' to whatever 
 qualities in natural objects affect tlie mind witli agreeable emotions through 
 the medium of sight." — Philusuphkid Essiiijx. third edition, p. 303.
 
 THK I'lcrURKSQUE. .57 
 
 moditying or embellishing principle, which may even en- 
 hance the former.* l?y remarking, however, subsequently, 
 that an object mav be beautiful without being picturesque, 
 or picturesque without being beautiful, Stewart seems to 
 contradict the principles upon which he allows that a pic- 
 turescpic object so essentially contributes to the beauty of 
 a subject. 
 
 In Stewart's observations on the picturesqueness of 
 the ass,t we find a remarkable instance of the errors 
 which arise from seeking out causes from afar, when 
 they are to be found immedintely at hand. He acknow- 
 ledges, with Gilpin and Price, the picturesqueness of the 
 ass, and of other humble animals, to result from their 
 rough and shagged outline ; yet he mentions, as a great 
 omission on the part of these authors, that kind of pic- 
 turesque beauty which he deems to be resulting, in the 
 ass, from association with the passages of scripture in 
 which mention is made of this animal, as well as with 
 the fables of ^Esop, and the classical language of other 
 ancient poets. This is indeed seeking a long way off, 
 that kind of pictorial merit which we discover in the 
 humble beast of burden standing bv the mill, or tethered 
 beside the green load of the woodman. t I do not, how- 
 
 • Alluding to I'rice, Stewart observes, " Instead of making the pic- 
 turesque a distinct genus from the beautiful, it would certainly have been 
 more logical to say, that the former is, in some cases, an important element 
 in the constitution of the latter. For my own part, I cannot conceive any 
 principle whatever, on which we can reasonably refuse a place among the 
 elements or constituents of beaut)-, to a class of qualities, which are acknow- 
 ledged, on all hands, to render whiit was formerly beautiful, more beautiful 
 still."— P. 310. 
 
 t 1". .-no. 
 
 i It appears that the late Kev. Sidney Sjnith thought so little of the
 
 .08 iESTHKTICS, 
 
 i!ver, see, that this seeking after remote causes by a dis- 
 tinguished author, in order to throw furtlior light on an 
 exhausted subject, should seriously weaken the conclusion, 
 to which such strong evidence is borne by the unanimity of 
 most writers, that it is chiefly to ruggedncss, roughness, and 
 other marks of rusticity, that impressions of the picturesque 
 are owing. We might in vain seek far and wide, amongst 
 the arguments of various writers, to find a denial of this 
 point. But the picturesque, like all other qualities of 
 objects which please and delight us, being spoken of with 
 a certain degree of enthusiasm, loses, generally, when 
 used descriptively, and in the warmth of admiration, 
 those characteristic distinctions, according to which, we 
 are disposed to give it a meaning apart from all those 
 which imply other conditions of beauty. Its signification 
 becomes the more generalized, as we behold, or describe, 
 with increasing rapture, the objects or scenes which are 
 depicted by the term ; and it is, there is no doubt, by the 
 extension which it has in this manner acquired, that it 
 has been employed to signify, as Gilpin affirms, all those 
 beauties which are peculiarly adapted for the formation 
 of a picture. 
 
 With reference to the sentiment of the picturesque, 
 Humboldt's scientific researches respecting the pro- 
 gressive developement of a taste for natural scenery, 
 from the remotest periods of history to the present time, 
 as enounced in the second volume of his " Kosmos," 
 have given considerable interest to the question, how far 
 
 merits of the ass, as a beautiful animal, that, with the intention, doubtless, 
 of improving upon nature, he deemed it advisable to Iiave stags' horns 
 fastened to the heads of those whicli fed in his grounds.
 
 THE PICTURESQUE. 59 
 
 landscape painting was cultivated by the ancient Greeks 
 and Romans, and to what extent, a feeling for the beau- 
 ties of nature in general, was entertained. The following 
 passage bears most directly on this subject : — " In Gre- 
 cian and Roman antiquity, which we call classical from 
 the peculiar direction in the minds of the people, land- 
 scape painting was as little an independent object of art, 
 as was the poetical representation of the country. Both 
 were merely treated as something secondary. Subordi- 
 nate to other objects, landscape painting served only, for 
 a long time, as the background of historical compositions, 
 or as an accidental ornament of pictures on the walls. In 
 a similar way, the epic poet, by an artistic description of 
 the landscape- — I might almost repeat, of the back- 
 ground, before which the actors in the scene are moving, 
 — represents the locality of some pictorial event."* These 
 doubtless orioinal sugfgestions of Alexander von Hum- 
 boldt, for which the distinction of the name which is 
 connected with them, as well as the general and popular 
 nature of the subjects treated, claim a large share of 
 attention, afford a remarkable instance of the increased 
 importance which all observations and discoveries derive, 
 from any propitiating circumstances which attend their 
 announcement. The remarks, equally fi-ee from ambi- 
 guity, expressed, in the last century, by the Rev. Mr. 
 Twining, respecting the indifference of the ancients for 
 the picturesque beauties of nature, as shown both in their 
 paintings and poetry, appear to have fallen into oblivion, 
 and not to have met the eye of more recent commentators. 
 
 * " Kosmos," I'ritchiinrs translutioii, vol. ii. ]). 74.
 
 60 a;stiikiics. 
 
 I give the following selection of Mr. Twiniiig's remarks.* 
 "... For it appears, I think, from all that has been 
 transmitted to us of the history of that art among the 
 ancients, that landscape painting either did not exist, or 
 at least was very little cultivated or regarded, among the 
 Greeks. In Pliny's account of Grecian artists, we find 
 no landscape painter mentioned, nor anything like a 
 landscape described in his catalogue of their principal 
 works. The first and the only landscapes he mentions, 
 are those said to be painted in fresco by one Ludius, in 
 the time of Augustus . . . He seems to have been the 
 Claude Lorraine of ancient painting. But that land- 
 scape was not, even in Pliny's time, a common and 
 established branch of painting, may perhaps be pre- 
 sumed from the single circumstance of its not having 
 acquired a name." The author here alludes to its being 
 called by Plinv, periphrastically, " an agreeable kind of 
 painting, or subject, ' anicenissiinam picfurai)),' " — and 
 continues, further, " The Greek poets did not describe 
 the scenery of nature in a picturesque manner, because 
 they were not accustomed to see it with a painter's eye. 
 Undoubtedly they were not blind to all the beauties of 
 such scenes, but those beauties were not heightened to 
 them, as they are to us, by comparison with painting — 
 with those models of improved and selected nature, 
 which it is the business of the landscape painter to 
 exhibit. They had no Thomsons, because they had no 
 Claudes. Indeed the influence of painting, in this 
 
 * See Dissertation First, "On Poetry considered as an Iiiiitati\c .\rt," 
 prefi.xed to the translation of Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry, by the Rev. 
 Thomas Twining. Published in 1789, pp. 34-3(i.
 
 THK GROTESQUE. ()\ 
 
 respect, not only on poetry, but on the general taste 
 for the visible beauties of rural nature, seems obvious 
 and indisputable. . . . Such beauty does imitation 
 reflect back on the object imitated." In notes which are 
 subjoined to the preceding passages, further proofs are 
 adduced of the insensibility of the ancients to landscape 
 beauty. Mr. Twining alludes to the deficiencv of any 
 single term, either in the Greek or Roman language, 
 appropriated to express exactly what ice mean by a 
 prospect. He says that Pliny, in his Epistles, book v. 
 epistle 6, and in the 17th of 2nd book, "has frequent 
 occasion for such a term, but is obliged to have recourse 
 to circumlocution." After a quotation from Winckel- 
 mann, who is referred to as one of the safest authorities 
 in ancient art, he observes, that " Men and manners 
 were the only objects which the Greeks seem to have 
 thought worth regarding, either in painting or poetry." 
 
 THE GROTESQUE. 
 
 In most respects, the grotesque differs very little 
 from the picturesque ; and most of the foregoing 
 remarks will, therefore, apply equally to it. In some 
 respects, however, it does deviate from, or at least 
 greatly exceeds, tli(> picturesque, in the expression of 
 similar characters or ideas. Dugald Stewart ascribes 
 the origin of the term, to certain figures and devices 
 which nro painted in fresco, on the walls of a subter-
 
 62 .KSTMKTirS. 
 
 ranean grotto at Rome, alludint;, |)r()ba1)lv, to the 
 fantastic figures and arabesques in the Columbarium of 
 the Villa Doria Pamfili, of which the character exactly 
 corresponds with our present idea of the grotesque ; 
 although it seems more probable, that the term 
 grotesque is due, rather, to a certain resemblance 
 between a wild and capricious style of painting, and 
 those whimsical freaks of nature which the artificial 
 grotto sutrgests. 
 
 There is something more exaggerated, more fan- 
 tastical, and more allied to the caricature, in this style, 
 than there is in any production having the character 
 which is usually designated by the term Picturesque. 
 It seems to admit, in some degree, of the supernatural, 
 of the magic, and fiendish ; since the representation of 
 fauns, satyrs, and witches, is particularly calculated for 
 carrying out ideas and impressions decidedly tinged with 
 the grotesque. This peculiarity of the grotesque, proves 
 that there is a principle in imaginative art, capable of 
 affording considerable interest and delight, which has 
 not, I believe, been hitherto alluded to. It acts strongly 
 on the imagination, and very little on the tender passions; 
 and, probably for this reason, it has not won the exclu- 
 sive homage of any style of art. Its most successful and 
 appropriate arena is the stage. However, the style of 
 painting which is designated as the grotesque, involves 
 a large share of it, although it cannot be exactly termed 
 its representative.
 
 THE GRACEFUL. 63 
 
 THE GRACEFUL. 
 
 I have already alluded to the errors which Alison 
 has fallen into, in attributing to grace, a character at 
 variance with the usual and popular opinions entertained 
 concerning it ; but, in as far as he establishes a con- 
 nexion between impressions of gracefulness, and those 
 curved and winding forms which are the result of motion, 
 his views appear to be substantially correct. It is, in 
 fact, one of the characteristics of motion, to produce 
 sinuous lines ; whereas, its cessation, or abrupt inter- 
 ruption, produces a sudden break or disturbance of the 
 flowing line, and thus becomes the source of the angular 
 form.* Whether, as Alison affirms, the grace of motion 
 is increased by the impressions, that the past, the 
 present, and the future, appear linked together in fugi- 
 tive action, is, perhaps, less evident, although there is, 
 doubtless, a peculiar charm in the motion of living 
 objects. 
 
 Alison further alludes to freedom and ease in motion, 
 as being necessary conditions of the graceful. With 
 respect to fi'cedom, it must, doubtless, have, here, a 
 relative siirnification, as a straight line would result from 
 motion deprived of all restraint. Motion may appear 
 perfectly free, in living creatures, because it is considered 
 with reference to the act of volition which is its imme- 
 diate cause. Restraint, in this case, can only be the 
 
 * Sec .Vlison's " Essays on Tnstc," vol. i. \>. :?.'i4 ; vol. ii. p. 210.
 
 G't .i;sriiKTics. 
 
 result of some external force, whitli prevents the limb 
 from obeying the will ; and although the muscles are 
 compelled to move in a certain manner, and with certain 
 restrictions, necessary to the purposes of the animal 
 when in action, yet, provided there be no hindrance or 
 compulsion from without, the motions of this living being, 
 are considered to be perfectly free. But the expression, 
 " perfect freedom," would not apply equally well, to the 
 organic creation without life. A tree, or a plant, may, 
 indeed, appear perfectly free in its growth, when not 
 hampered by other trees and plants, when nothing leans 
 against it, or bears it down to the ground ; but if the 
 natural growth of trees, that is to say, their tendency to 
 rise upwards, were to remain perfectly unchecked and 
 uninfluenced by external causes, it is probable that the 
 vegetable kingdom would present much less than it does, 
 those curved forms which are so agreeable to the eye. 
 The wind, the weight of the fruit and blossoms, the rain, 
 and even the dew, are causes which, with many others, 
 vary, in a thousand ways, the curves and twistings which 
 are peculiar to plants. It is not, therefore, the entire 
 absence of external force, but the removal of all violent 
 exercise of it, that is required, in order that the kind of 
 gracefulness which is the result of motion, should occur. 
 Few forms are more elegant than those which we admire 
 in a single jet of water under the influence of the wind, 
 or in the curling of smoke agitated by a light breeze ; a 
 kind of graceful motion which, in both cases, is the 
 result of a force which controls and modifies the first 
 impulse. Even in objects of art, the most graceful forms 
 appear to be parabolic curves, which correspond with
 
 THE GRACEFUL. 65 
 
 those, which, in the laws of nature, result from two forces 
 acting upon each other in different, though not in opposite, 
 directions. 
 
 In jars, vases, and ornaments, the parabola, the 
 hyperbola, and the helix, are, in general, preferred to 
 those forms, which, being composed of the sphere, have 
 but one focus. All men of taste seem to agree, that 
 there is something exceedingly beautiful in the gradual, 
 but progressive, deviation of any line from its primitive 
 direction. Square, cylindrical, and globular forms, are 
 more capacious, and therefore more useful, than those 
 which have a narrow stem or base, but which, gradually 
 and progressively expanding, form a widened orifice. 
 Can we, upon this principle, admit fitness to purpose to 
 be an element of the graceful, as it is, frequently, of the 
 beautiful ? Does it not seem, rather, that in these deli- 
 cate and slender forms, in which grace stands predomi- 
 nant, use becomes rather the apology, than the end ? and 
 that, in attaining the graceful, it is the imagination that 
 we chiefly consult, — that light and delicate fancy, which 
 the reminding, too directly, of the wants and purposes of 
 life, would alarm ? 
 
 If we might trace the grace of inert form, to a more 
 direct influence, than that which is exercised by motion 
 on flexible and elastic bodies, it would be, to the quality 
 of lightness. A figure is light, when it appears to require 
 but a sliirht cff"ort to raise itself above the surface of the 
 heavy earth ; as a vase, or jar, appears light, when, 
 having great elevation and little bulk, it seems to rest, 
 with little weight, upon its support, ami carries the 
 imagination pleasingly upwards. This principle of grace, 
 
 F
 
 66 AESTHETICS. 
 
 is very different to that tottering insecurity, which Alison 
 ascribes to the tripod, and other articles of furniture, 
 which require so much caution in handling them. The 
 object is graceful, not because the smallness of its base 
 renders it insecure, but because its very lightness is 
 proved by the smallness of the space required for the 
 foot to rest upon, and which would cause the overthrow 
 of a heavy or ill-proportioned vessel. This kind of grace, 
 derived from lightness, applies, therefore, more particu- 
 larly to upright objects ; for those which are reclining, 
 whether they be slender or massive, require no lightness, 
 dexterity, or art, to keep them in their position. But a 
 reclining figure, I mean a figure from the life, main- 
 tains, in a great measure, that lightness which charac- 
 terizes it in an upright and moving attitude. The ideas 
 of lightness and grace, become, in this case, associated 
 with those forms which are best adapted to the manifesta- 
 tion of these qualities ; and when we see the figure in a 
 recumbent, and even sleeping attitude, we still connect, 
 without any effbrt of the imagination, the form before us, 
 with the means possessed by it for light and graceful 
 action. 
 
 It may be remarked, that the graceful is not obtained 
 by being made the end or aim of any particular form or 
 attitude. It should, on the contrary, be the natural con- 
 sequence of a different aim or purpose. For instance, a 
 figure standing on tiptoe, with its arms raised, would 
 appear any thing but graceful, if this kind of beauty 
 were to be made the aim of that particular position ; 
 whereas, suppose the same figure to be gently raised to 
 gather an apple, and it will become distinguished, (form
 
 MADONNA TiELLA SCdDELLA. 
 Bv Ciiheooio. 
 
 IN THE AOeADElIIA f)F PAr.MA.
 
 THE GRACEFUL. 67 
 
 and attitude being tastefully combined,) by a high degree 
 of grace and elegance. In the same manner, a figure in 
 motion becomes graceful, not when the limbs appear to 
 be put forward, or extended, with the object of obtaining 
 grace, but when grace appears to be the unpremeditated, 
 and almost unintentional, consequence of the lively action 
 which the figure is called upon to exercise. In Cor- 
 reggio's painting of the Flight into Egypt, called the 
 Madonna della Scodella, now in the gallery of Parma, 
 this principle is beautifully modified. The infant Christ 
 stretches out his hand to receive the dates offered by 
 Joseph ; but all his thoughts and affections seem to be 
 concentrated in his mother, on whom he is reclining. 
 Thus, the artist, by an ingenious and most tasteful 
 arrangement, has availed himself of a mere accessory 
 cause, for the developcment of the most graceful form 
 and attitude. The accompanying plate can give but a 
 faint idea of the exquisite taste which has prevailed in 
 the arrangement of the group, in the original. In every 
 case, the graceful results most, as it appears to be less in- 
 tentional, but seems to be the necessary consequence of 
 purposes remote and different. 
 
 How far this principle may extend to inanimate 
 nature, is not so evident. Whether, for instance, we 
 connect greater ideas of elegance with the tall narrow 
 lighthouse, because it is destined to carry afar off its 
 warning signal, — or to the slender mast, when the flag 
 waves at its top, — or with the bridge, when the graceful- 
 ness of its arches appears to be resulting, rather, from 
 the best contrivance to its useful purposes, than from a 
 separate and intentional end, — may be open to doubt.
 
 68 JESTHETICS. 
 
 If the rule that use and purpose must be the end, some- 
 times misapplies altogether, with respect to purely orna- 
 mental objects, such as porcelain jars and vases, orna- 
 mental flowers, arabesques, &c., it is, most probably, 
 when the purposes of utility of such objects are so slight, 
 that they arc lost sight of, and their particular form and 
 arrantreraent can have no other aim than elegance itself; 
 for, since they have no pretence to usefulness, we cannot 
 disapprove that they should claim to be designedly grace- 
 ful or ornamental. 
 
 ELEGANCE. 
 
 What has been said of the Graceful, will, in a great 
 measure, apply to Elegance ; and, as it is not my wish to 
 create more distinctions than are consistent with the im- 
 pressions, of a definite character, which are connected 
 with certain classes of objects, I need not dwell upon a 
 term which, in several of its applications, becomes syno- 
 nymous with gracefulness. It is, perhaps, more extended 
 and indefinite in its applications, than the term " Grace- 
 ful." Thus the term " Elegant," may be applied, indif- 
 ferently, to a composition in painting, to a style of 
 writing, as well as to various kinds of buildings ; 
 whereas "Graceful" is chiefly limited to those objects 
 and compositions, to which lightness and delicacy may 
 be applied. Elegance characterizes the manners of a 
 nation, and Grace those of an individual. It may be 
 further remarked, that Elegance frequently requires an
 
 ELEGANCE. 69 
 
 accompaniment of acquired qualities, which simple and 
 artless grace rejects as superfluities. A woman may he 
 elegant from the union of very dissimilar qualities, by 
 her manners, and in a great measure by her style of 
 dress ; but she owes gracefulness chiefly to natural deli- 
 cacy and ease. Owinor to the ideas of rank and hiffh 
 breeding which are sometimes associated with the term 
 " Elegance," it may be applied to man ; which, again, 
 shews that it differs in some respects from the Graceful, 
 which is applicable chiefly to the female sex, and to 
 childhood. 
 
 Thus, from its simple and unadorned nature, Grace 
 suggests less the concurrence of various qualities than 
 Elegance does ; and, though both are generally associated 
 in the same object, Grace has the most distinct and 
 definite meaning, and we may conceive it to be more 
 independent of Elegance, than Elegance of Grace.
 
 PRINCIPLES NECESSARY OR CONDUCIVE TO THE 
 PERCEPTION OP THE BEAUTIFUL. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 ASSOCIATION. CONTRAST. 
 
 VARIETY. DESIGN. 
 
 REGULARITY and SYMMETRY. 
 
 INTRICACY. INDISTINCTNESS. 
 
 ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Before considering the principles which, like variety, 
 contrast, and symmetry, have a dii'ect influence in causing 
 impressions of the beautiful, I will introduce the import- 
 ant principle of Association, which is loss determinate, 
 but more extended in its influence. 
 
 Alison claims a great share of influence for this 
 principle, in the enjoyment which is connected with the 
 contemplation of nature. The leading views propounded 
 on this point, in his introductory essay, are clear and 
 satisfactory. The object which the author appears to 
 have chiefly in view throughout his argument, is to prove 
 that it is not the form itself of matter, which causes our 
 pleasure in beholding it, but the expi'ession or meaning 
 associated with that form ; that it is, in fact, the sign, and 
 not the substance, which infuses various emotions into 
 our minds ; and he points out successfully, that the rela- 
 tion which our internal impressions bear to the various 
 external signs presented by nature, becomes the source of
 
 ASSOCIATION. 71 
 
 an endless variety, in the pleasures which result from this 
 association. 
 
 I should not omit to allude, here, to a very apposite 
 remark to be found in the " Penny Cyclopaedia," under the 
 article " Beauty ;" since it establishes a distinction be- 
 tween Association as applied to Form, and as applied to 
 Colour, and thus affects the question at its onset. The 
 author of the article referred to, observes, " The beauty 
 of visible objects consists of two parts, viz. the beauti/ of 
 colour and the heautij of form, which, although closely 
 connected with each other, arise from different sources, 
 and from sources of a different character, inasmuch as 
 the one appears to be, in most cases, a simple emotion, 
 and therefore an ultimate fact, of which no explanation 
 can be given, while the other is a pleasure derived from 
 association, which is susceptible of analysis." I might 
 be willing to admit, with the author of the article, that 
 the emotions of beauty are, with regard to colour, facts, 
 with which association remains perfectly unconcerned ; 
 but this conclusion could apply only to colour uncom- 
 bined, and unconnected with form ; for no sooner does 
 colour become modified, either bv changes and combina- 
 tions which regard itself, or by its relations with form, 
 than it becomes, in common with the latter, a promoter 
 of all those various and combined impressions, towards 
 which the association of ideas contributes so large a share 
 of interest. 
 
 If we admit that certain colours please, of them- 
 selves, more than others, we do not thereby prove, that 
 they cannot be rendered more pleasing still, by Associa- 
 tion, and that, in fact, the associating principles which
 
 7!^ /ESTHETICS. 
 
 apply to form, arc not connected, more or less, with the 
 different appearances of colour. The intimate relation 
 of form and colour is shewn, whenever we replace the 
 usual colour of any object by one less fitted for the pur- 
 pose. Every one is aware how unsightly most objects of 
 use or ornament would appear, if dressed in colours 
 opposite to those which are customary. If, therefore, 
 the relation of the form and purposes of the object to its 
 colour, be so intimate, we can hardly suppose that the 
 principles of association which would apply in one case, 
 would fail to do so in the other. 
 
 Returning to the inquiry as to the general influence 
 of association, I will here introduce one or two cii'cum- 
 stances, which, it may be, are familiar to most short- 
 sighted persons, shewing that, at the first glance we 
 obtain of an object, it is the impression which is asso- 
 ciated with it, and not the object itself, which takes hold 
 of our mind, and that there is an instantaneous con- 
 nection between the external forms of objects, and pre- 
 viously acquired impressions. I have mistaken white 
 linen, floating, at a distance, in the wind, for the steam 
 of a locomotive engine, the motion of the linen producing 
 exactly the same effect as that of the sudden jets of steam. 
 A few moments sufficed to destroy the illusion ; but this 
 did not take place gradually during that time ; and 
 although the image of the linen, fluttering in the wind, 
 which appeared at first so perfectly to represent steam, 
 must have been gradually modified as I advanced, the 
 impressions which I received, were not progressively 
 changed ; but when I hit, all at once, upon the fact, a 
 revolution, equally sudden, took place in my ideas, and
 
 ASSOCIATION. 73 
 
 the meaner impressions which ai'e associated with the 
 drying of linen, were at once substituted for those which 
 are connected with a train in motion. A white railing 
 has presented such a perfect resemblance to water, as to 
 produce, likewise, complete deception, for a few moments : 
 and in this case also, my ideas, as I advanced towards it, 
 did not pass gradually from the impressions which are 
 connected with a smooth sheet of water to those which 
 belong to a white railing, as would have been the case, 
 had my thoughts followed the progressive transformation 
 of the image impinged upon the retina ; but the idea of 
 the railing came all at once upon ray mind, and this idea, 
 rather than the visible object, suggested impressions en- 
 tirely different to those which are connected with the 
 characteristic appearance of water. If others have ex- 
 perienced impressions, similar to those which I have here 
 described, when discerning objects indistinctly at a dis- 
 tance, we may conclude, that the immediate and usual 
 effect upon the mind, of an object as it becomes visible, 
 is, to suggest a train of thoughts bearing on the nature of 
 that object. 
 
 Whenever uncertainty, or improbability, is connected 
 with the appearance of any object, as sometimes occurs 
 in travelling, a sensation of uneasiness is produced ; 
 whereas, the discovery of the true nature of the object 
 doubted about, is attended with emotions of satisfaction ; 
 thus realizing, in a very evident and palpable manner, the 
 fact, so generally admitted, that it is to the evidence, 
 afforded by objects, of their aptitude and fitness to their 
 intended purpose, that all our ideas of their harmony and 
 perfection are to be ascribed.
 
 74 AESTHETICS. 
 
 Earlij developeme?it of the injlue7ice of Association. 
 — If, from these familiar examples, we pass to those 
 more extended and general influences, which are con- 
 nected with Association, we shall equally find that it 
 has an important share in producing those pleasures 
 which we expei-ience in heholding the scenery of nature. 
 We may trace this varied influence of Association, even 
 in early infancy. The kind of delight which is mani- 
 fested by children in the use of toys, is, in a great 
 measure, derived from the relation of these toys to 
 objects of use, or of greater value and importance. A 
 child does not content himself with admiring the pretty 
 colours, or the fanciful shapes, of a little set of culinary 
 and other similar apparatus, but takes pleasure in put- 
 ting them together, in the same manner as would be 
 required for the use and operations of real utensils. He 
 sets his dishes in array, builds a house with his bricks, 
 tries the locomotion of his carriage, and the speed of his 
 horse. All these are, doubtless, pleasures of association, 
 which feed and satisfy the mind of the child, in the 
 same manner as the river with its boats, suggestive of 
 easy motion, of trade, and other similar ideas, and the 
 forest, telling us of the wild herds and feathered flocks 
 which people its recesses, or filling us with the more 
 indefinite impressions which are connected with the 
 growth and character of trees, afford, in our later years, 
 charms, linked together, and heightened, by Association. 
 
 It may be urged, as a defect of this theory, that Asso- 
 ciation must have a beginning, and that objects or scenes 
 must, in the first instance, afford us direct pleasure, in 
 order that the recurrence of them, or of such circum-
 
 ASSOCIATION. 75 
 
 stances as are fitted to cause a renewal of the impressions 
 previously felt, should inspire us with joyful sensations. 
 In answer to this difficulty, we may suppose the con- 
 dition of the mind to be such as to require constant 
 change for its entertainment, and that, unless frequently 
 enlivened by new objects and circumstances, it would 
 grow heavy and oppressed. Variety is, indeed, the na- 
 tural food of the mind. To escape from the monotonous 
 occupations, and confined atmosphere, of the apartment, 
 is, in itself, a change, fraught with sensations of pleasure, 
 at all periods of life ; and this pleasure is proportionate to 
 the novelty and striking character of the objects, which 
 a flight into the expanse of nature introduces to our 
 notice. The seeds of pleasure having been thus sown, a 
 renewal of the objects or scenes which first caused this 
 pleasure, or an impressive allusion to them afforded by 
 other scenes and objects bearing a striking resemblance 
 to the former, becomes the germ of associated enjoy- 
 ments. Thus, the mind of the child, which, in the first 
 place, demands only to be called from one bauble to 
 another, because the second differs from the first, and 
 thus affords variety to its imagination, learns, by degrees, 
 to connect new ideas with new playthings ; its embryo 
 affections and passions are roused ; one toy excites 
 wonder, a second promotes daring, a third inspires am- 
 bition, and a fourth begets fondness and love ; all of 
 which, being primitive sources of emotion, open the way 
 to the more extensive and varied pleasures of association. 
 The kite continues to amuse, after the wonder caused by 
 its ascent into the air has subsided ; whilst the box of
 
 76 iESTHETICS. 
 
 little agricultural instruments yields a prolonged interest, 
 by affording occupations, which the infantine, but as- 
 piring mind of the child, gladly associates with those of 
 husbandmen. 
 
 It will, I think, be perceived, that Association thus 
 begins almost at the same time as the pleasure which 
 is derived from novelty. It is so intimately connected 
 with it, and tends so much to its increase, that the 
 distinction is exceedingly faint, and often indefinable. 
 Whenever we are struck with sudden surprise and 
 admiration at the aspect of great and beautiful objects, 
 the sensations of pleasure are, as far as I can judge 
 by my own experience, of a primitive kind, and almost 
 unconnected and unassociated ; whereas, the pleasures 
 of association chiefly prevail, in the contemplation of 
 those scenes which have ceased to overpower the mind 
 with novelty and wonder, but leave room for pleasing 
 reminiscences, founded on circumstances dear to us, or 
 on previous enjoyments perhaps oftentimes renewed. 
 We may, doubtless, ascribe to surprise and admiration, 
 the pleasure which we derive at the fii'st sight of the 
 Alps, or of any other extraordinaiy works of nature. 
 After the enthusiasm of the first moments has subsided, 
 the more indistinct impressions connected with the main- 
 tenance of the snow under a glaring sun, and the size 
 and number of the rivers which it supplies, as well as 
 the practicability and manner of sojourning in these 
 peculiar regions, successively maintain the interest. 
 But, though the pleasures of association may thus gra- 
 dually prevail, the first, and consequently the most
 
 ASSOCIATION. 77 
 
 powerful impressions, arc wonder and admiration at 
 objects so cxtraordinarj- and beyond the sphere of con- 
 ception. 
 
 Thus, in endeavouring to follow the connexion 
 between the various pleasures of sight, through the pro- 
 gressive developemcnt of the mind and expansion of the 
 intellect, it appears to me that we may ascribe the 
 earliest sources of pleasure to change and novelty, to 
 which succeed the excitation of the tender and noble 
 passions, and those primary impulses of delight which 
 emanate from an intellectual relationship with the works 
 of the creation : the pleasures of Association then follow, 
 closely interwoven with the primitive emotions, in their 
 varied and far-extending influence. 
 
 Alisons views on Association considered How- 
 ever forcible may be Alison's conclusions, in his intro- 
 ductory essay, respecting the influence of Association, 
 one cannot read through his work, without perceiving 
 that he has, in several cases, given too great an ex- 
 tension to this principle, and embarrassed a subject 
 which he had begun with a clear exposition. For 
 instance, taking up views entirely opposed to those 
 which I have quoted from the " Penny Cyclopaedia," he 
 ascribes almost entirely to Association, the beauty of 
 colours ; and we are compelled to infer, from what he 
 says on this subject, that they have, in themselves, 
 little or no power to please, and that everv attraction 
 which they possess, pi'oceeds from our habit of con- 
 necting them with various prereceivcd impressions, such 
 as may result from their having obtained the sanction of 
 rank and fashion when applied to dress. In observing
 
 78 ^ESTHETICS. 
 
 (vol. i. p. 303), that " no new colour is ever beautiful 
 until we have acquired some pleasing association with 
 it," Alison seems to forget, that, in aerial effects, we are 
 frequently struck with the beauty of colours which we 
 either never saw before, or which, from their seldom 
 occurrence, add the charm of novelty to their natural 
 splendour ; and that the introduction of a flower with 
 which we have not been previously acquainted, becomes 
 a most usual source of delight. 
 
 In alluding, in his introductory essay on the emo- 
 tions of Sublimity and Beauty, to the additional at- 
 tractions imparted to certain spots, from the recollections 
 awakened by them of memorable events, Alison seems to 
 have entertained an ill-founded opinion, that the interest 
 of deeds of renown, or of political importance, associates 
 itself easily and naturally with the sublimity and beauty 
 of scenery ; an opinion which I am so far from sharing, 
 that I believe the existence of any striking natural 
 beauties, like those which the passes of the Alps afford, 
 would have the effect of obliterating in the mind of an 
 observer, the impressions which are connected with any 
 important but remote event, such as the passage of 
 Hannibal, excepting in those moments when the ad- 
 miration of actual and present grandeur, gives place to 
 meditation ; and that the interest of a memorable action 
 is, in general, more easily revived, in proportion as the 
 locality in which it occurred, abounds less in such na- 
 tural attractions as would divert the attention from con- 
 siderations of the past.* 
 
 * See " Accidental Association," p. 86.
 
 ASSOCIATION. 79 
 
 Alison, elsewhere, bestows considerable pains, in de- 
 tecting the influence of Association on various kinds of 
 lines, — on those signs which, being disconnected with 
 any useful or interesting purposes, are least of all sub- 
 jected to its influence ; * and he is thus led into argu- 
 ments which appear to be wanting in his usual force and 
 penetration. He observes that strong and angular lines 
 express strength and harshness, and are therefore very 
 seldom beautiful : and that strong and winding lines 
 express strength and gentleness or delicacy ; that their 
 effect is mutually destroyed, and that they are, accord- 
 ingly, indifferent, if not unpleasing. Amongst others, 
 Alison discusses the merits of a fine and angular line, 
 which he maintains to be beautiful, only when the ex- 
 pression of delicacy prevails over that of roughness. This 
 seems to be little else than a contradiction, since we find 
 neither in nature, nor in our own ideas of harmony, 
 fineness associated with roughness or jaggcdness. The 
 feebleness of these arguments evidently results from the 
 application of Association to things, which, in themselves, 
 are as little connected with it, as are geometrical propo- 
 sitions. The extension of a principle beyond the due 
 limits of its influence, has, doubtless, misled many ; and 
 by thus endeavouring to carry beyond the bounds of 
 their real merit, the principles of beauty ascribed by 
 Hogarth to simple lines, Alison seems to have used, 
 unawares, the best possible argument in favour of those 
 principles of Association, based on character and ex- 
 pression, to which he elsewhere rightly assigns so ex- 
 
 * Sec Allison's coiuidcratiuns on " Accidental Association," vol. i. p. 33fi.
 
 80 iESTHETICS. 
 
 tensive an influence. If we may allow, with him, that 
 fine lines are, in general, to be preferred to strong ones, 
 it is, doubtless, because they convey to us the impression 
 of slender and delicate objects, or, if not of objects 
 slender and delicate in themselves, of those, at least, 
 which are rendered so in appearance, by intervening 
 space and atmosphere. When delicate lines are made 
 to represent hard and massive objects, they affect us 
 less agreeably than would heaNaer lines, which are more 
 consistent with the nature of such objects. With respect 
 to smoothness or roughness, I think it will be found, that 
 our approval or disregard of these qualities, in abstract 
 lines, arises chiefly from the impressions conveyed by 
 them, of skill or clumsiness in the tracing of them. It 
 is a matter of mere practical dexterity. 
 
 It is, however, sufiiciently she^Ti by the general tenor 
 of the argument in which these remarks on the beauty 
 of lines are introduced, that Alison, himself, attached 
 no great importance to form, independently of Asso- 
 ciation ; and his division, or classification, if it may be 
 so termed, of the various influences of Association, is, 
 if considered with respect to its general tendency, and 
 not to some accidental errors, particularly calculated to 
 instruct the mind respecting the pleasures which are 
 connected with the perception of various classes of 
 objects. These leading divisions, as given, nearly in the 
 words of the author, are, firstly, the expression which we 
 connect immediately with any particular forms in nature, 
 which he calls their Natural Beauty ; secondly, the qua- 
 lities of design, fitness, or utility, indicated by these 
 forms, called their Relative Beauty ; and, thirdly, the
 
 ASSOCIATION. 81 
 
 Accidental Associations which we happen to connect 
 with them.* 
 
 Alison establishes, in connexion with his second prin- 
 ciple of association, namely, the relative beauty of forms, 
 three further distinctions,! which I will now consider. 
 These are based, in reference to a given object, on the 
 excellence or wisdom of the design ; on the fitness or 
 propriety of the construction ; or on the utility of the 
 end. The first consideration appears to me but the 
 complement of the two last, since the excellency of the 
 design, with regard to any work or object whatever, is 
 in exact proportion to the utility or greatness of that 
 object, and to the fitness of its construction to its in- 
 tended purpose. That object is the most excellent in 
 its conception and design, the aim of which, having been 
 best fulfilled, is at the same time of the highest oixler. 
 The representation by art of this, Alison's second prin- 
 ciple of association, consists, it must be acknowledged, 
 in nothing more, than in making a thing appear fit for 
 the purposes for which it was intended, — a man or beast 
 fit for action, — a house for occupation, — water smooth 
 and flat, — clouds light and buoyant, &c. It is a faithful, 
 though, it must be added, intelligent, imitation of nature ; 
 for, if not effected with a certain degree of skill and art, 
 the representation of these material and living objects, 
 would not convey the impression that they are well 
 adapted to fulfil their respective purposes. The kind 
 of beauty, therefore, which objects acquire from this 
 principle of association, being founded on their ma- 
 
 * See Alison's Essays, vol. i. p. 318. f Vol. ii. p. 57. 
 
 a
 
 82 ESTHETICS. 
 
 terial or physical adaptation for use, is of the simplest 
 description, and ought, I think, to have heen placed the 
 first in the order of Alison's treatise. It is a kind of 
 perfection which is satisfactory, because necessary and 
 understood by every one ; and the want of which pro- 
 duces uneasiness and discomfort. Its faithful translation 
 in the language of art, aflFords, chiefly, that kind of satis- 
 faction which we experience at striking examples of 
 practical skill. 
 
 That kind of Association on which Alison makes the 
 Natural Beauty of objects depend, being based on the 
 characteristic, intellectual, or moral, expression of 
 objects, does not refer to the circumstances of our 
 common wants, and is less within the compass of our 
 habitual thoughts. It requires, therefore, a greater 
 intellectual effort and power of the imagination, to trans- 
 mit to an observer, by any process of art, those emotions 
 which are due to this kind of Association. Since, how- 
 ever, the expression of grandeur, beauty, and power, in 
 the objects of the natural world, speaks eloquence to the 
 mind, and makes a direct appeal to the sympathies of 
 man, it is by the association of these and similar emo- 
 tions, that art, especially the art of Landscape Painting, 
 acquires one of its most successful means of affording 
 delight. It is a means of very general resort, admitting 
 of taste and judgment, but without pretence, and almost 
 without danger. 
 
 Accidental Association. — Those indirect and vary- 
 ing pleasures of Association, which are connected with 
 what Alison terms the Accidental Beauty of objects, may 
 either be limited to individuals for whom certain places
 
 ASSOCIATION. 83 
 
 and objects have a peculiar kind of interest, or they may 
 be general, that is to say, they may affect a large body of 
 men, or a whole nation, provided all its members may 
 equally receive pleasure from becoming associated with 
 any particular event or incident. It is evident, that it 
 is only when applied to large masses of men, that this 
 kind of Association can be rendered available to art, 
 since it is necessary that all who witness any object of 
 art, should be alike partakers of the interest which may 
 accrue from Associations of this kind. The employment 
 of Accidental Associations, both in painting and in 
 sculpture, may become highly advantageous, if limited to 
 the clear indication of remarkable facts by some simple 
 and natural means ; for instance, by the cii'cumstances 
 which are peculiar to the habits of animals, or to the 
 growth of plants, or by some sign or episode ingeniously 
 introduced : but supernatural appearances, or incon- 
 sistent and improbable occurrences, often lead to great 
 absurdities, when resorted to for this purpose. 
 
 M. Quatremcre de Quincy devotes many pages of his 
 work on the Ideal, to what he terms the " Mctaphoric 
 Style of Painting," and which is based chiefly on the 
 interest which is derived from accidental or distant Asso- 
 ciation.* Apparently desirous of impressing French 
 artists with the great advantages of this style, he enters 
 into a long exjjlanation of the different modes by which 
 it may be introduced into painting and sculpture. He 
 recommends the naked figure, as well as the Greek 
 costume, on the principle that any departure from the 
 
 * Sec " Essai sur I'ldeal," dissertation ii. § .I.
 
 84 ESTHETICS. 
 
 matter-of-fact expression of modern usages, is favourable 
 to ideality. He even goes so far (though he perhaps 
 expresses himself rather indefinitely on this point) as to 
 recommend, in historical compositions, a departure from 
 real form and action. He alludes, in support of these 
 principles, to the diversity of manner in which different 
 individuals would view and delineate the same object, 
 though present before them ; and adds, that the dis- 
 similar descriptions, and antagonist views, which are 
 entertained by different persons, concerning by-gone oc- 
 currences, produce still greater differences in the form 
 in which I'emote events have been transmitted to us. 
 In the metaphor, the author generalizes an extensive 
 subject in a simple idea or expression. A still further 
 condensation constitutes what he terms " the Allegorv ;" 
 hut he agrees that in the fine arts, the allegory is chiefly 
 employed in bas-reliefs, medals, and such cases in which 
 the want of space does not admit of the full developemcnt 
 of the subject represented.* M. de Quincy has shown 
 himself judicious in making this reserve ; for however 
 pleasing the metaphor may appear, when introduced as 
 a mere episode in the leading subject, it would evidently 
 be a departure from the general principles of art, to 
 make so conspicuous a use of it, as to substitute an 
 allegory for the true and natural representation of any 
 event. The carrying of this principle a little further, 
 would inevitably lead to the conclusion that a mere sign 
 or hieroglyphic would have the same merit as a finished 
 picture, if the meaning conveyed by it were equally im- 
 
 * See " Essai sur I'ldeal," dissertation ii. § 1 1.
 
 ASSOCIATION. 85 
 
 portant and extensive. Of what use would be, in this 
 case, lights, shades, colours, transparency, depth, and har- 
 mony ? Our principle of operation would be changed ; 
 we should have substituted one art for another ; and we 
 might as well make the substitution complete, by using 
 letters instead of signs. 
 
 The kind of Association termed by Alison " Acci- 
 dental Association," to which I am still alluding, may 
 sometimes be introduced successfully, and with pro- 
 priety, into historical paintings, provided the scene 
 represented, be such a popular one, that the observer 
 would easily detect, and perhaps seek of his own accord, 
 any incident tending to give the subject an interest and 
 an expression, different to that which it at first sight 
 appears to have. If the subject be a less familiar one, 
 the incident which serves to link the events expressed 
 with those which arc alluded to, or understood, should 
 be rendered the more clear and distinct. Unless the 
 metaphoric allusions are rendered, in this case, con- 
 spicuous and evident, the features and attitudes of the 
 figures must appear false and unmeaning. Every look, 
 gesture, and expression of passion, will either appear 
 without object, if the cause be not made evident, or will 
 be attributed to a different and more probable cause ; 
 for we are always disposed to give the most probable 
 and natural interpretation, to the composition of the 
 artist, until we have clear and evident reasons for infer- 
 ring that a more remote one has been intended. 
 
 In the Landscape, the introduction of Accidental 
 Associations, that is to say, of remote principles of 
 interest, is fraught with much greater difliculties and
 
 86 /ESTHETICS. 
 
 chances of failure, than in the Figure. The means of 
 pointing out indirect events, are there much more 
 limited, and their introduction, if not made with much 
 taste and contrivance, would engender triviality. The 
 heauties of nature are, of themselves, as elevated and 
 engrossing, as the associations and sympathies imme- 
 diately connected with them, are extensive and lasting ; 
 whereas accidental Associations, even those which have 
 some historical interest, seem to partake of a character 
 of littleness, when compared with the works of nature ; 
 but their insignificance, when introduced into landscapes, 
 arises, I presume, still more, from the difficulty of 
 pointing them out in a distinct and satisfactory manner. 
 It cannot be easy to impress on a composition, at the 
 same time, the sublimity of romantic nature, and that 
 kind of interest which is connected with particulars of 
 mere local or personal import ; for the attempt thus to 
 produce a twofold meaning in the same subject, gives 
 rise to stifi'ness and constraint in the expression of 
 either. 
 
 It can, I believe, scarcely be doubted, that the 
 striking inconsistencies which sometimes appear in the 
 landscapes of the present day, arise from the attempt 
 to introduce unusual and peculiar effects ; and that, in 
 historical pictures likewise, a great many defects are 
 ascribable to the circumstance, that artists jjenerallv seek 
 novelty of expression, in some remote and far-fetched 
 interpretation of a subject, instead of contenting them- 
 selves with those more simple and obvious truths in 
 connexion with physiognomy and the signs of emotion, 
 which come at once home to the feelings of the observer.
 
 CONTRAST. 87 
 
 By consulting, in the expression of his subject, the most 
 natural turn which the action would take at the moment 
 of the deepest interest, the artist conveys at once to 
 the observer, the impression of consistency and uni- 
 formity of design ; and I believe that a little reflection 
 will bear the conviction with it, that the productions of 
 an excited imagination, however bold and energetic, 
 would fail to afford anv permanent delight, unless go- 
 verned by such a degree of consistency and truth, as 
 would render the expression of the subject at once con- 
 genial to the deep-rooted sympathies and feelings of 
 every one. It appears highly probable that we may, in 
 a great measure, ascribe to a departure from this prin- 
 ciple of simplicity and unity of expression, in modern 
 historical compositions, the great falling off" which cha- 
 racterizes them, in the eyes of almost everv observer, 
 when compared with those of the old masters ; and I 
 may perhaps add, that it is the more general adherence 
 to it in the landscape, which has determined the steady 
 and uniform progress observable in this branch of art, 
 considered in its most comprehensive developement. 
 
 CONTRAST. 
 
 I will here consider, chiefly, those points in relation 
 to Contrast, which aff"ect the imagination ; reserving for 
 another part of the work, those which relate to chiaro- 
 scuro. The contrasts which chiefly operate on the 
 fancy, arc those oi proportion and expression. Contrast
 
 8S /T.STIIETICS. 
 
 of proportion makes a thing appear either larger or 
 smaller than it really is ; and contrast of expression 
 makes a thing appear of a different character, — softer 
 or rougher, livelier or gloomier, more gentle, more 
 severe, more delicate, or more coarse. 
 
 Contrast of Proportion. — Examples of this kind of 
 Contrast are aiforded bv every colossal monument of art 
 which is set off by diminutive objects. For instance, 
 the apparent height of a gothic tower, or cathedral, is 
 increased by the elaborateness of its decorations ; and 
 the statue of a giant is shown off by another limited to 
 the proportions of the human stature ; for it is well 
 known, that without objects of comparison, having dis- 
 tinct and uniform dimensions, no exact idea can be 
 formed of the size of architectural monuments, nicely 
 proportioned, nor, in many cases, of the dimensions of a 
 figure, the parts of which are well adjusted. Indeed, 
 the more perfect the adaptation of every portion of the 
 whole, whether it be a building, an interior, or a statue, 
 the more readily the eye of the observer is deceived 
 respecting its real magnitude. The disproportion of 
 any one of the parts, betrays the impotence of the arti- 
 ficer to carry out so great a design ; the eye detects the 
 littleness of the hand which has raised the structure, 
 and the visible marks of effort seem to indicate that the 
 scale of the work is exceedingly great. Where the 
 harmony of the parts equals the boldness of the design, 
 no apparent labour is perceived, and the dimensions of 
 the work can be discovered only by the relations of 
 external objects. Thus, Contrast of Proportion, based 
 on the relative dimensions of various objects, becomes
 
 CONTRAST. 89 
 
 one of the most useful and available means of erivinjr 
 grandeur to a composition. But the method of increas- 
 ing the apparent size of objects, by comparison, if made 
 to exceed what is natural or probable, as it frequently is 
 in the imitative arts, must have a very bad influence 
 with regard to those truths which depend on correct 
 drawing and perspective. 
 
 Contrast of Expression. — With respect to contrast 
 of expression, it becomes generally and strikingly apparent 
 in those opposite forms, habits, and dispositions, which 
 are manifested in the various tribes of the animal creation ; 
 such dissimilar and opposite characters as slenderness, 
 agility, gentleness, or docility, opposed to bulk, sloth, 
 fierceness, or voracity : but in the vegetable kingdom, 
 where contrast of expression is chiefly limited to diifer- 
 ences of form, it becomes manifest, with less extension and 
 variety, in such differences of character as are exhibited 
 respectively, by the various trees and plants. And 
 whereas, in the pastoral scene, the fleecy coat is opposed 
 to the bristly hide, exertion and vigour to an attitude of 
 Tepose, the landscape-painter opposes the ruggedness of 
 the thorn to the lightness of the birch or willow, as did 
 the poets of old, the grim deformity of Vulcan to the 
 grace and delicacy of Venus. The influence of Contrast 
 is perhaps less evident, with regard to the beauty of the 
 human form, considered individually. It is by its oppo- 
 sition to symmetry, that the variety of contrast there 
 becomes chiefly aj)parent ; for in the limbs, symmetry 
 and an exceeding variety of form appear most remark- 
 ably contrasted and blended at the same time. 
 
 And vet, in the higher branches of art, of which the
 
 90 iESTHETICS. 
 
 human figure is the basis, it must be acknowledged, that, 
 as a source of pleasure, Contrast is inferior to those per- 
 fections which constitute grace and beauty, and more 
 especially to the expression of the emotions, sympathies, 
 and aflTections. Its influence is chiefly confined to the 
 relations of various objects, or of different parts of the 
 same object. Here are its limits ; and we lose all traces 
 of it, as soon as energy of expression, intent of purpose, 
 combined with a lively sensibility in the airs of the counte- 
 nance, awaken that kind of interest which is felt with 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Contrasts of Succession. — Impressions connected 
 with the pleasures of contrast, are likewise those of 
 change, novelty, or surprise ; but these relate more par- 
 ticularly to contrasts of succession, and are, therefore, 
 little available for the purposes of art, which only embrace 
 one moment and one scene of action. 
 
 Contrasts of succession are those which occur in the 
 progi'ession of the day, particularly at sunrise or at sunset, 
 or which entertain the traveller as he journeys along, 
 when plains succeed to precipices, and cultivation to the 
 wilderness. But although the interest afforded by tran- 
 sitions of this nature, cannot be communicated imme- 
 diately to the observer, by any style of art, they may still 
 be made conducive to the pleasure and entertainment of 
 a composition, when they appear to be pointed out more 
 or less indirectly. As for instance, the light of dawTi 
 which breaks forth from the east, by conveying to the 
 mind the impression of a rapid change which will soon 
 light up every object still buried in the uncertainty of 
 gloom, kindles the fancy, and suggests a thousand imagi-
 
 VARIETY. 91 
 
 nary objects very remote from the positive expression 
 of colour ; and although, as far as the features of the 
 picture are concerned, minutes pass away without the 
 dissipating of a single shadow, without a single gilded 
 ray appearing on the mountain tops, the fancy discovers, 
 during that time, the beautiful tints of dawn spreading 
 over the hills and distance, and pictures to itself the 
 shadowy forms kindling into a brilliant existence, as 
 they successively emerge into the sun's eifulgencc. In 
 like manner, the energetic expression of a storm may be 
 rendered so enfjajjino', that the imagination becomes 
 concerned with all those changes which succeed each 
 other with such beautiful eflPect, when nature is in active 
 operation. 
 
 Impressions of succession are often communicated by 
 a form of composition which points out more than it dis- 
 closes to view, as is effected by the half concealment of 
 objects ; whereas the fancied power of penetrating beyond 
 the visible limits of the scene, is greatly checked by the 
 want of space and atmosphere, which results from a too- 
 crowded arrangement. 
 
 VARIETY. 
 
 We find mentioned in Montesquieu* that Variety is 
 one of the chief sources of beauty. This is a fact which 
 few persons would think of controverting ; but as a 
 
 * "CEuvrcs dc Mouttsquicu. Kssai sur Ic Goiit. Dc3 Tluisirs Ue la 
 Variety," p. 590.
 
 92 iKSTHETICS. 
 
 tliorougli conviction of its truth would be most likely to 
 result from the knowledge of the arguments which miyht 
 be raised against it, I will introduce those which have 
 been used, in opposition to the opinions of Montesquieu, 
 in a modern French work on the imitative arts, by M. 
 Keratry.* The author observes, as a proof that we do 
 not naturally court variety, that we often seek for scenes 
 already familiar to us, in preference to new ones, and that 
 there is within us, a growing attachment for the same 
 object, which would not be the case if variety and change 
 were one of the chief sources of pleasure. But, although 
 every one should agree, with M. Keratry, that there is, in 
 our disposition, an increasing fondness for things, as we 
 become more conversant with them, and that we love to 
 sympathize with old places and old recollections, it does 
 not follow that this disposition prevails to the exclusion of 
 all others, and that there is not, at the same time, a de- 
 cided and prevalent taste for change and variety. They 
 are, in fact, two distinct principles, doubtless both equally 
 necessary, and equally in harmony with the other attributes 
 of our mental organization. The disposition alluded to 
 by the commentator, would have the effect of increasing 
 the interest which we feel for any particular work of art, 
 such as a picture or a statue, as we have it longer in our 
 possession ; and, though we should even, at last, get to 
 cherish it as a darling object, we should not wish to see 
 its resemblance in all other pictures or statues, but be 
 gratified, as before, with regard to art in general, by 
 diversity and novelty. The eagerness with which we seek 
 
 * " Du beau dans les arts d'imitation." Paris. 1 822.
 
 VARIETY. 93 
 
 the excitement, not only of new compositions, but of new 
 styles of art, proves that there is a taste for change, not 
 less than a gi'owing endearment for the same objects. 
 
 But our love for novelty applies, chiefly, to that diver- 
 sity which is demanded of a succession of works. That 
 kind of variety which enters into the composition of a 
 single work, is governed by the many other principles, 
 such as character, elegance, harmony, and others, neces- 
 sary to its perfection, and becomes subservient to the rules 
 of taste. 
 
 If a conclusion could be drawn against the existence 
 of any one inclination within us, from the prevalence of 
 an opposite one, we might object to the predominance of 
 a taste for Variety, upon the ground that there is, in 
 general, a decided predilection for simple forms. But 
 this only shows, that it is not necessary that the ex- 
 clusion of one sentiment, should follow the introduction 
 of another. The impressions which are usually con- 
 nected with simplicity, are those of effecting a great 
 purpose with little means, of a discerning economy of 
 material and labour, — consequently of intelligence and 
 skill. These impressions do not, in the least, interfere 
 with that pleasure which we owe to Variety. Simplicity 
 and uniformity, far from being principles opposed to 
 Variety, in the extensive scale of nature, are, on the 
 contrary, highly conducive to it ; for, in order to pro- 
 duce diversity, in a scene composed of many objects, 
 it is necessary to have recourse to a principle quite op- 
 posite to that which ensures variety in one object only. 
 For instance, uniformity in a single object will some- 
 times produce sameness and monotony j whereas, in a
 
 94 yT';STHETICS. 
 
 scene composed of many objects, it will add to the 
 variety of the whole ; for, if the greater number of the 
 objects be irregular and complex, the more simple and 
 uniform is that which we oppose to them, the greater 
 will be the variety resulting from this combination. 
 
 It is pleasing to observe the coincidence of several 
 authors in assigning this character to the variety of 
 nature. Price observes to this effect : " The true end 
 of Variety is to relieve the eye ; not to perplex it : it 
 does not consist in the diversity of separate objects, but 
 in the diversity of their effects when combined together ; 
 in diversity of composition, and of character." And 
 further, — " There is no having variety of character 
 without a certain distinctness, without certain marked 
 features on which the eye can dwell."* And Stewart 
 remarks ;t "A deviation from uniformity, in the gi-and 
 outlines sketched by the hand of nature, enhances to an 
 astonishing degree, the delight arising from the regu- 
 larity, which, in her minuter details, she everywhere 
 scatters in such inexhaustible profusion." And Alison, 
 - — " Beautiful forms must necessarily be composed both 
 of uniformity and variety ; and this union will be perfect, 
 when the proportion of uniformity does not encroach 
 upon the beauty of embellishment, and the proportion of 
 variety does not encroach upon the beauty of unity."t 
 Lastly, in old Hogarth, we find, as clearly expressed as 
 in any other author, that Variety does not result from 
 the most dissimilar forms accidentally mingled together, 
 
 * " Essays on the Picturesque," vol. i. p. 235. 
 
 t " Philosophical Essays." Third edition. P. 284. 
 
 I " Essays on Taste." Si.\th edition. Vol. ii. p. 105.
 
 VARIETY. 95 
 
 but from certain combinations of regular and complex 
 forms ; — " How great a share Variety bas in producing 
 beauty, may be seen in the ornamental part of nature. 
 All the senses delight in it, and equally are averse to 
 sameness. Yet, when the eye is glutted with a suc- 
 cession of Variety, it finds relief in a certain degree of 
 sameness ; and even plain space becomes agreeable, 
 and, properly introduced, and contrasted with Variety, 
 adds to it, more Variety. I mean, here, and everywhere 
 indeed, a composed Variety ; for Variety uncomposed, 
 and without design, is confusion and deformity." * 
 
 Other examples might be quoted, and it would be 
 found that most authors agree, not only respecting the 
 great prevalence and value of Variety, as a source of 
 Esthetic pleasure, but as to the nature of the Variety 
 which forms so essential an ingredient in all works of 
 taste, and which constitutes the beauty of relation. For 
 although I may not be inclined to admit, with Diderot, 
 that relation constitutes an essential and exclusive prin- 
 ciple of beauty, throughout all nature, yet there can be 
 no doubt, that the relation of parts in single objects, 
 and the relation which these objects bear to one another 
 in the varied elements of a complex scene, constitute the 
 charm of Variety itself. 
 
 Varietv in a simple object, such as a vase or a jar, 
 results from the slightest deviation of lines, or from the 
 most triflinc increase or fallinij off of a curve ; and the 
 introduction into these simple forms, of those marked dis- 
 tinctions and differences which apply to various classes of 
 
 * Sec Hogarth's " Analysis of Beauty," chap. ii.
 
 [)6 /"ESTHETICS. 
 
 objects, would destroy their unity of purpose, and their 
 propriety as individual objects. But, in the variety of 
 nature at large, there is as much diversity and contrast of 
 form, as there is characteristic difference in the nature 
 and uses of the various objects there assembled. Variety 
 is but a multiplication of contrasts, sometimes violently 
 antagonizing, sometimes gently diverging, till lines blend 
 into conformity. 
 
 Variety is not a principle connected with any peculiar 
 forms of objects, but its sphere extends throughout all 
 nature ; and, abstractedly considered, it is inseparable 
 from the order and relation which all objects and effects 
 bear to each other, and is entii'ely dependent, in the 
 scenery of nature, on the principles which constitute 
 character and expression. The charm which has been so 
 often attributed to intrinsic beauty of form, may, doubt- 
 less, in many cases, be ascribed to the expression which 
 is derived from the influence of surrounding objects. For 
 instance, Hogarth attributes a peculiar beauty to the 
 tapering form of the spire ; whereas, the beauty which 
 we similarlv attach, under various circumstances, to the 
 square and other diversely shaped towers of churches and 
 cathedrals, shows that the beauty of the spire is chiefly 
 one of relation, and not an intrinsic quality. In land- 
 scape scenery, where the rounded and indeterminate forms 
 of vegetation prevail, the regular taper, and sharp apex, 
 of the spire, form a decided transition, and become greatly 
 conducive to beauty. It is a remarkable instance of an 
 upright and lofty object standing well by itself, unassoci- 
 ated with other vertical lines destined to break the sudden- 
 ness of the transition. Other examples may, doubtless.
 
 DESIGN. 97 
 
 be found, in which an outline abrupt and peculiar, may 
 stand out from a different class of forms, without bad 
 effect ; but more frequently, the most violent transitions 
 require to be mitigated by others less decided : and, at 
 the same time that it may be well, for the perfection of 
 Landscape-painting, to study the causes of that endless 
 variety, which results in nature from various and often 
 antagonizing forms, it should be remembered, that the 
 same art has other demands, such as softness, elegance, 
 and harmony, which often require that the extremes of 
 Variety and Contrast be suppressed, and that the gentler 
 transitions be resorted to. 
 
 DESIGN. 
 
 The influence of Design, in producing impressions 
 of the beautiful, has been already alluded to in so many 
 parts of this treatise, that there can be scarcely any 
 necessity for adding any more special remarks, unless it 
 be to avoid the appearance of an omission, with regard 
 to one of the most important elements in matters of 
 taste. There is scarcely an author, from Pcre Andre 
 to Hogarth and Reynolds, who, in the developement of 
 his theory, does not, more or less, pay tribute to the far- 
 extended principle of Design. It may be traced in the 
 ideas of relations of Diderot, in those of custom pro- 
 posed by Reynolds, in the fitness for purpose and use 
 held in so much account by Hogarth, in tlic principles of 
 
 H
 
 98 /ESTHETICS. 
 
 beauty laid down by Blair, in Stewart's remarks on 
 association, in Home's theory of beauty, and in Alison's 
 essays, as one of the principal agents in the production 
 of the pleasures which are connected with sight. 
 
 Raphael Mengs, with less consideration and argu- 
 ment than Alison has devoted to this point, shows, con- 
 cisely and forcibly, (judging at least from the French 
 translation of his work on beauty and taste in the art of 
 painting,) the important share which may be attributed 
 to Design, in forming the impressions which we en- 
 tertain, of the perfection of natural objects. According 
 to his doctrine, " Beauty is found in every object, if it 
 be perfect with reference to the idea which we especially 
 attach to it. It is to be found everywhere (e?i toutes 
 Glioses'), because nature has formed nothing that is 
 useless. The impressions which we entertain concerning 
 all objects, are inseparable from the knowledge of their 
 use or destination : beauty exists in all, when their sub- 
 stance and destination may be associated in the same 
 idea. That our impressions concerning the beauty of 
 objects, are determined by the ideas which we entertain 
 of their nature, is evident from the number of opposite 
 ones with which we equally connect ideas of beauty. 
 Beauty proceeds from the harmony of substance with our 
 impressions concerning it ; and our impressions, from 
 our knowledge regarding its destination ;" — and the 
 author ascends hence intellectually, stage by stage, to 
 the Divine Source of all things.* 
 
 * The above citations, translated from the French edition, are somewhat 
 londensed, and clianged in the order of their arrangement. See " CEuvres 
 Uaphael Mengs, traduites par Doray dc Longrais." 1782. P. 68, &c.
 
 DESIGN. 99 
 
 This is the kind of argument, which, with regard to 
 its general import, may be found repeated over in most 
 languages, and in most periods, since a decided interest 
 has been awakened for matters of taste ; though, at the 
 same time, the spirit of opposition and censure, which 
 has so generally prevailed amongst writers, has given to 
 the various opinions entertained, the appearance of the 
 most perfect dissent from these conclusions. The im- 
 portant points of coincidence, which are so easily de- 
 tected, in the general convergence of opinions at large, 
 seem to have been overlooked, in the attempts which 
 have been made to overthrow doctrines and systems by 
 pointing out particular instances of disagreement. 
 
 Design, like most other principles which have been 
 brought forward as causes of the beautiful, will not stand 
 the charges which may be made against it, if it claim to 
 be the germ and essence of that which, in our sight, is 
 admirable and excellent. Like fitness, regularity, and 
 order, it has an important share in determining those 
 shapes and features which are pleasing to the eye, and 
 satisfactory to the understanding ; but, far from being 
 universal, self-sufficient in every respect, and an answer 
 to every inquiry, it can, at most, pretend to afford some 
 clue to our most habitual emotions, and to inform us 
 what forms of objects are, generally speaking, best calcu- 
 lated to afford us, not so much the delight of enthusiasm, 
 as the satisfaction which attaches itself to propriety. 
 Neither the enchantments which belong to wild and 
 desolate nature, nor those which pertain to female beauty 
 when enhanced by unconscious negligence, are compre- 
 hended in that expression of the beautiful, which is
 
 100 -ESTHETICS. 
 
 fingered out to us by the word Design. All is mystery 
 and uncertainty, when the ardour of enthusiasm, excited 
 by any scenes or objects whatever, is unbounded : De- 
 sign does not suggest itself, till the mind has become suffi- 
 ciently calm to admit, to a certain extent, of the exercise 
 of reason and judgment, or (as in the inspection of 
 specimens of architecture, and other productions of art,) 
 to allow acquired knowledge, and the habit of judging, 
 to have some share in the impression which is connected 
 with the thing observed. These are so far from predo- 
 minating on all occasions of unbounded pleasure, that 
 our delight, in such moments, seems to partake of the 
 nature of surprise and admiration at an eflFect obtained, 
 apparently, in total defiance of those means of gratifying, 
 which bear the especial print of intention and Design. 
 
 REGULMIITY A\D SYMMETRY. 
 
 Regularity is expressed by the repetition of the same 
 form at equal intervals. Symmetry results from the 
 division of a regular figure into equal portions, and ap- 
 plies, particularly, to the appearance of the whole, con- 
 sidered with reference to this central division. 
 
 Regularity and Symmetry are abundant sources of 
 pleasure, because these qualities express intention, or 
 design, more immediately, and more distinctly, than 
 any others. Corresponding parts at corresponding in- 
 tervals, strike every one as being the result of intention ; 
 and the circumstance that the sliijhtest want of exactness
 
 REGULARITY AND SYMMETRY. 101 
 
 is at once perceived, proves how strong!)' this idea is 
 impressed on the mind. We do not always know why 
 one object or ornament should have its counterpart. We 
 do not, perhaps, at first, discover the necessity of two 
 eyes, or of two ears, instead of one ; but perceiving that 
 a Superior Wisdom has deemed fit to provide us with a 
 pair of each of these organs, their similarity of use 
 teaches us, that they must have conformity of structure ; 
 and, as we are gratified in perceiving the perfect simi- 
 larity of these organs, so are we jjleased when we discover, 
 in objects of art, that perfect identity of corresponding 
 parts, or Symmetry of the whole, which brings at once 
 home to our minds, the impression of design well cai'- 
 ried out. 
 
 Hogarth and Alison have both given testimony to 
 the obvious nature of the beauty which results from Re- 
 gularity and Symmetry, by maintaining, that both child- 
 hood, and the infancy of art, take particular delight in 
 the representation of regular and symmetrical forms,* a 
 delight which, Alison affirms, changes its object, when- 
 ever maturer years, and more consummate skill, render 
 the imitation of irregular forms of as easy achievement 
 as that of svmmetrical ones. In both cases, it is the in- 
 tention and design, which are manifested by the resem- 
 blance of the work of art to the object of nature, which 
 become the source of the delight. 
 
 It should, however, be observed, that Regularity and 
 Symmetry, by assimilating the different parts of the 
 same object, as well as bv determining the resemblance 
 
 * See Hogarth's " Analysis of Ceauty," chap. iii. Alison's " Essays 
 on Taste." SLxth edition. Vol. ii. pp. 58, (is.
 
 102 iESTHETICS. 
 
 of separate objects, tend to confine the ideas which are 
 connected with these principles, as compared with those 
 impressions of the beautiful which result from the 
 variety of nature at large. 
 
 INTRICACY. 
 
 I concur with Mr. Price, in considering Intricacy to 
 be a source of pleasure distinct from others, and in 
 ascribing to it a position of its own amongst the elements 
 necessary to ajsthetic enjoyment. Still, it appears to 
 me to be a mixed source of pleasure, constituted chiefly 
 by mystery, variety, and that principle, without a defi- 
 nition, in the scenery of nature, which excites curiosity, 
 of which modesty is the representative in the relations 
 of society ; a principle to which Mr, Price distinctly 
 alludes, in the subjoined definition, — " According to the 
 idea I have formed of it. Intricacy in landscape might 
 be defined, that disposition of objects, which, by a 
 partial concealment, excites and nourishes curiosity."* 
 
 This principle, so essentially conducive to pleasure 
 in landscape composition, and which the term propriety 
 only partially implies, is not limited to the extreme irre- 
 gularity and confusion which may prevail in a forest, or 
 in a wild rocky scene, but should enter, more or less, 
 into the arrangement of CAery landscape composition. 
 
 * Price's " Essays on the Picturesque," vol. i. p. 17.
 
 INTRICACY. 103 
 
 When a picture, in which the sublime and the beautiful 
 are but half revealed in an humble and unobtrusive 
 scene, affords us more delight than would a full dis- 
 closure of the grandest objects, we may be sure that the 
 artist who painted the former picture, has alone under- 
 stood the value of the principle alluded to. It is this 
 kind of unassuming merit, which makes the vignette 
 style so inviting, and renders the glance which is stolen, 
 at an interesting object, through an opening in trees, 
 preferable to an ostentatious display of the most sublime 
 scenery. This principle, although it may blend per- 
 fectly with that of variety, which Price justly considers 
 to be another constituent of Intricacy, is, nevertheless, 
 distinct from it. As Intricacy, with regard to objects of 
 sight, is most remote from uniformity and order, it must 
 necessarily afford, in combination with regular forms, 
 one of the most adequate means for the production of 
 variety. The diversity produced by the combination of 
 objects more or less regular and irregular, may be al- 
 ready exhausted, when that aflForded by Intricacy, the 
 extreme of irregularity, and the next-door neighbour to 
 confusion, will be still at our command. How could 
 variety be maintained, in scenes wanting the symmetry 
 of buildings, unless nature, in her most intricate com- 
 binations, were to supply a degree of irregularity, greatly 
 exceeding that which characterizes her ordinary appear- 
 ances ? Intricacy is not a necessary ingredient of variety, 
 more than perfect symmetry is ; but it extends the 
 range of picturesque art, and by enabling the artist to 
 go further in one given direction, than he could do 
 without it, affords scope for diversifying his subjects.
 
 104 iliSTHETICS. 
 
 A third constituent of Intricacy, to which Mr. Price 
 docs not allude, or which he ma}- have confounded 
 with that modest retiring principle alluded to above, is 
 mystery. No one will doubt of the mystery of a groye of 
 trees, of dark cayernous places, and of the gloom which 
 is now and then cast oyer wild nature. It is, indeed, an 
 emotion of so elevated a kind, that it becomes one of the 
 principal sources of the sublime. It is, in external 
 nature, what uncertainty and doubt are in a moral sense ; 
 and, as nothing adds more to the terrors of pain and 
 danger, than the uncertainty of relief, so, few things 
 contribute more to the greatness of natural scenery, than 
 the mystery in which it is sometimes enveloped. 
 
 Mystery, variety, and unobtrusiveness, or something 
 beyond, are, therefore, principles which combine to 
 render that Intricacy in which uncultivated nature 
 abounds, a desirable and important element in landscape- 
 painting. 
 
 Hogarth ascribes to Intricacy, a principle very dif- 
 ferent from the preceding. He connects a peculiar kind 
 of pleasure with the discovery that order and design 
 prevail, where, previously, confusion and chaos appeared 
 to rule. These views, which we find supported, appa- 
 rently by mere chance, in a passage of Alison,* seem 
 to relate to the pleasure of surprise, which doubtless 
 ensues, whenever order and distinctness succeed to the 
 concealment of Intricacy, but which is wanting when 
 the gloom of uncertainty remains. 
 
 * " Essays on Taste," vol. ii. p. 67.
 
 INDISTINCTNESS. 105 
 
 INDISTINCTNESS. 
 
 We frequently discover, in the works of artists, the 
 intention of imitating the effects which are pecuHar to 
 the deep shadows of nature, because these deep shadows 
 seem to cast a kind of mysterious and poetic gloom 
 over the scenes or objects which ai'e subjected to them. 
 The representation, however, of these shadows, by dark 
 and opaque colour, is not an interpretation of this 
 peculiar expression of the transparent shades of nature. 
 What gives them this character so pleasing to the 
 imagination, is, the Indistinctness and uncertainty which 
 pervade the parts thus thrown into gloom. The effects 
 of dusk and dawn, make us fully sensible of this ; 
 whereas, any opaque shadows, even in nature, such as 
 appear in windows, or in dark holes surrounded by 
 intense light, are mere blanks which awaken no sym- 
 pathy or interest : and it should further be considered, 
 in reference to the use of very deep shadows in painting, 
 that black paint does not represent gloom. Lamp or 
 ivory-black, in a picture, exposed, as a work of art 
 usually is, to a full light, may represent darkness, with 
 reference to the lights of the picture, but would, per- 
 haps, fail to do so, with respect to the darkest shadows 
 accidentally projected into the room. In reference to 
 the latter, the shadows of the picture become black 
 paint, not gloom. Let us remember, therefore, that to 
 obtain the sentiment and idealitv of the shadows of
 
 106 AESTHETICS. 
 
 nature, we must aim at an expression different to that 
 of mere blackness ; and the more that kind of uncer- 
 tainty is produced, which, without jettiness, has the 
 true character of gloom, and causes amazement respect- 
 ing the method by which objects expressed with cha- 
 racter, have been rendered, at the same time, indistinct, 
 the more likely is it that the aim of the artist will be 
 successfully attained, and that his work will unite with 
 the vagueness of uncertainty, that transparent airiness 
 which suggests, so agreeably, impressions of space and 
 depth.
 
 REMARKS ON TASTE AST) THE IDEAL. 
 
 ON TASTE. 
 
 A dissertation on Taste cannot, with any hope of 
 arrivincr at a satisfacton^ conclusion, be extended to the 
 objects which are subjected to its decisions. It must 
 either bear, as AUson's Essays have done, on the manner 
 of exercising and improving this umpire of the noble 
 and refined pleasures ; or, it must have for its object, to 
 define the term, — for instance, to specify- whether it 
 implies simple appreciation of beauty, the faculty of dis- 
 tinguishing the relative beauty of objects, or whether it 
 includes the power of applying this faculty, more or less, 
 to some end or useful purpose of art ; the solution of 
 which' points is but of minor importance. 
 
 With regard to the principles on which Taste is 
 founded, it would, in all cases, be necessary to submit 
 the question of their expediency to the taste of others. 
 Whosoever does not subscribe to these conditions, puts 
 forward his o^vn peculiar views on a point concerning 
 which every one claims, as his very first right, indepen- 
 dence of opinion ; and I believe that no one who knows 
 the fickle nature of the ground upon which such argu- 
 ments arc raised, and the tenacity with which everj- one 
 desires to maintain his own position, would be \er\
 
 108 ESTHETICS. 
 
 ambitious of imposing his rules of Taste on others. As 
 it is, arguments are not wanting, to show the uselessness of 
 any attempt to establish a criterion in matters of Taste. 
 Even the writings of Hume and Stewart, notwithstanding 
 many striking remarks, neither afford nor pretend to 
 give, any definite reply to this inquiry.* 
 
 Refinement, precision, and quickness, in judging of 
 objects of Taste, are best acquired from such writings as 
 bear immediately on these objects, whether it be in rela- 
 tion to their form, their arrangement, or their applica- 
 tions in art. Little advantage can, however, be expected 
 to be derived, even from direct remarks on select objects 
 of art, unless the eye itself be exercised : and the kind 
 of pursuit which is calculated to be most practically 
 useful, is that which unites with the general data con- 
 cerning the beautiful and perfect, which are the result 
 of experience, the examination of select specimens of art. 
 
 ON THE IDEAL. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell advances a theory possessing con- 
 siderable originality, for the attainment of the Ideal in 
 the various expressions of the human features. t He 
 institutes a comparison between the characters which 
 
 * Sec Hume's " Essay on the Standard of Taste. " Also Stewart's " Philo- 
 sophical Essaj's." Part 2. On Taste. 
 
 t See Bell's " Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression, as connected with 
 the Fine Arts."
 
 THE IDEAL. 109 
 
 distinguish the beauty and dignity of man from the more 
 gross expressions of animals, and gives, in particular, to 
 those which chiefly determine the superiority of the 
 human expression over that of animals, their fullest 
 developement. He even goes further, — he marks those 
 forms of the human head and face, which most effectu- 
 ally convey impressions of dignity, mildness, and the 
 other esteemed characters ; and, by somewhat exaggera- 
 ting, or enforcing, these principles of expression, and by 
 suppressing those which have a contrary tendency, he 
 forms a model, powerfully stamped with the nobler attri- 
 butes of the mind. This is a very different plan to the 
 one, on the compiling principle, employed by the ancients, 
 and recommended by Winckelmann ; but there is no 
 reason why Bell's method should not come to its support, 
 as it may, in some cases, be desirable to exaggerate the 
 signs which mark the noble attributes of man, in order 
 to give additional force and energy to the expression of 
 these qualities. This applies particularly to sculpture, 
 where the uniformity of the material produces tameness, 
 unless every expression of the features be made very 
 prominent ; and, in bass-reliefs, and other works of 
 sculpture, which decorate lofty buildings, and are, there- 
 fore, seen from a distance, this necessity of decided fea- 
 tures becomes still more obvious. But, though the 
 method of Sir Charles Bell may afford elementary and 
 eeneral rules for eivinjj to the human features certain 
 casts of expression, it leaves a great deal to the imagina- 
 tion and taste, in the achievement of Ideal perfection. 
 
 Dr. Hutcheson's treatise on our Ideas of Beauty and 
 Virtue, contains some very excellent remarks on beauty
 
 110 /"ESTHETICS. 
 
 as applied to the human features. He goes beyond the 
 usually admitted facts of the necessity of regularity of 
 form and proportion, and establishes a higher principle 
 of beauty in those charactei's and expressions which are 
 discovered in the airs of the countenance^, in the same 
 manner as he founds ugliness, not merely on deformity 
 and disproportion, but on such marks as indicate dull- 
 ness, vacancy, haughtiness, and the like characteristics. 
 
 The influence which the immediate connexion be- 
 tween the forms of the features, and internal sentiment, 
 has on our impressions of beauty, is, I think, forcibly 
 exemplified by the circumstance, that all features which, 
 from their defective conformation, afford but a confused 
 image of that which they are expected to express, or 
 whose blemishes and imperfections are opposed to its 
 open manifestation on the countenance, strike somewhat 
 painfully upon every fresh observer. To him, more 
 particularly, such features fulfil but imperfectly their 
 intended office : but, with increased familiarity and ac- 
 quaintance, such marks as contribute to the agreeable 
 expression of any particular countenance, come foremost, 
 and the influence of those which have a contrary ten- 
 dency diminishes ; slight deformities are, by degrees, 
 regarded as strangers to the part which the muscles of 
 expression have to perform ; their presence is, at last, 
 almost overlooked ; and, unless to a mind bent on dis- 
 covering that kind of beauty which is dependent on 
 regularity, they nearly cease to be causes of its privation. 
 
 Hutcheson admits that we derive pleasure from the 
 signs which indicate the amiable qualities, even when 
 expressed in countenances wanting in regularity and
 
 THE IDEAL. 1 1 1 
 
 beauty. But these circumstances, having so much influ- 
 ence on the enjoyments of social life, cease to apply in 
 the selection of that kind of beauty which constitutes the 
 Ideal. Art has not yet attained that degree of perfection, 
 which, in the research after the more tender and delicate 
 expressions of the countenance, might enable it to dis- 
 pense with all the advantages which result from perfect 
 regularity of form, and the other admitted principles of 
 beauty. This could alone be expected to be successfully 
 accomplished, in tlie present stage of art, in family sub- 
 jects. The research of the beautiful as applied to sub- 
 jects of a classical and elevated character, avails itself 
 but with restrictions, of the social and familiar afi*ection3 
 of society, as it rejects altogether, the arbitrary decisions 
 of fashion, and the conventional decrees of the drawing- 
 room. Familiarity and social intercourse, by causing an 
 endearment for those qualities of others which adapt 
 themselves to the peculiar dispositions of individual 
 persons, give rise to certain confined circles in which 
 these qualities are especially valued. They arc not 
 equally appreciated by men in general ; and their indi- 
 cation in the airs of the countenance could not, thei'e- 
 fore, suit the purposes of an art, the object of which 
 ought to be invariably to generalize, that is to say, to 
 seek out pleasing expressions in forms in which they 
 may be universally understood. 
 
 Doubtless the kind of feeling which guides society, 
 at the present time, in its appreciation of the perfect in 
 art, is considerably opposed to that which, at the 
 Stadium, or the combat of the Cistus, assigned the 
 highest personal merit to agility and to muscular
 
 112 .ESTHETICS. 
 
 strength. Even the prize which was carried off by 
 beaut)' itself, must, if we consider the prevailing taste, 
 at these national solemnities, for ostentation and show, 
 have been bestowed on forms, which, although full of 
 sj'mmetry, possessed very imperfectly, that aptitude for 
 soft and tender expressions, which, in the present state 
 of society, most effectually challenges sympathy and in- 
 terest. Even the beauty of the Grecian marbles, which 
 was originallv derived from these and other similar 
 sources, would, doubtless, appear tame and formal, if 
 (as in the works of modern art) it were presented to 
 us, unembellished by the association of the most inter- 
 esting records of history, and of the prodigious and 
 admirable strides which marked the early attempts of 
 sculpture and painting in Europe. 
 
 The question, therefore, presents itself: To what 
 extent, and by what means, should modern and Christ- 
 ian art, substitute the marks of emotion and sentiment, 
 to that coarser and more formal expression of beauty, 
 which, as in the productions of the ancients, is chiefly 
 the result of a strict adherence to proportion and sym- 
 metry ? In that kind of Ideal which adapts itself to the 
 present age, the perfect symmetry of muscular form no 
 longer claims the degree of attention which it did for- 
 merly ; and even the marks of intelligence and vivacit)', 
 however essential, might, perhaps, sooner be dispensed 
 with, than the so affecting expression of tenderness and 
 benevolence, the deficiency of which, in the female fea- 
 tures, would at first seem to be almost equivalent to a 
 want of beauty. The expression which is best substi- 
 tuted for the marks of high mental attainments, is that
 
 Tin; IDEAL. 113 
 
 of modesty ; lor this virtue, presented to us in those 
 circumstances of life in which it is rendered most 
 engaging, contains an intelligence, discernment, and 
 fortitude, peculiar to itself. Through it, the smile 
 acquires grace by its sincerity, and seems to beam with 
 a world of innocent delight ; whilst the slightest marks 
 of expression acquire a worth and interest which they do 
 not possess under any other circumstances. Thus are 
 those traces of superior mental endowments, which, in 
 masculine features, especially in mature age, are so es- 
 sential to the expression of the human countenance, in a 
 great measure supplanted, in youth, especially in the 
 female sex, by a quality, the indications of which, are 
 most fitted to add grace and dignity to the gentler 
 emanations of art. 
 
 Reverting, once more, to the question of the ne- 
 cessity of regular forms. It is evident that there are 
 features, as in the models which are selected from the 
 multitude, which are not only regular, but considered to 
 be perfectly beautiful, without manifesting any clear or 
 decided expression of those delicate sentiments and emo- 
 tions, of which Hutcheson was the first to point out the 
 merits. Are such features as these amenable to the 
 uses of art, in the production of the Ideal ? No doubt, 
 it may here gather much with regard to those principles 
 of form and colour which are necessary to the production 
 of beautiful features. In availing itself of these prin- 
 ciples of beauty, art copies but the intention of nature to 
 produce perfection ; and though its realization may have 
 been partially thwarted, the envelope may retain the print 
 of all those gi'aces, of which a more careful education might 
 
 [
 
 114. .ESTHETICS. 
 
 have brought forth the riper fruits. But, however much 
 may be derived from these sources, as to ideality of form 
 and colour, they can be expected to yield, as far as ex- 
 pression is concerned, neither chasteness nor depth. 
 
 Again, can inferiority of station supply us with those 
 models of beauty, which are marked by delicacy and 
 refinement of expression ? or should they be sought for 
 in those ranks only, where the tender plant has been 
 reared up with all the care and luxury which would 
 render it, in its maturity, of a perfect though delicate 
 organization ? I think it would be found that, should 
 lowness, or, rather, humbleness, of station, influence the 
 expression of that which is refined, delicate, or noble, we 
 should rightly trace such results less to a condition 
 fraught with hardships and discomforts, than to those 
 meaner associations, either of intercourse or of occupa- 
 tion, which, in such stations of life, are more difiicult to 
 avoid ; since we find that the expression which is en- 
 hanced and perfected by cultivation, and by the contem- 
 plation of elevated aims and purposes, is not in the least 
 diminished and tarnished by exposure to climate, to 
 weather, and even to those inconveniences and discom- 
 forts which may occasionallv bring those subjected to 
 them into the humble condition of persons brought up in 
 rustic life. The complexion may, perhaps, be impaired 
 in its delicacy ; but expression would, probably, gain in 
 variety and depth, by this subjection to vicissitudes of all 
 kinds. 
 
 Since expression may impart to the Ideal of beauty, 
 a charm which it could never obtain from an union of 
 parts perfect from their regularity only, how do we
 
 I'lIK IDEAL. 115 
 
 account for that perfection which is required in the regu- 
 larity and devclopcment of those parts which are not 
 essential to expression, and which seem to be entirely 
 disconnected with it? For instance, the ear and the 
 nose have, like the eye and the mouth, uses very evi- 
 dent in reference to the wants of the possessor, but they 
 have not, like the eye and the mouth, in addition to 
 these uses, any evident purpose in as far as expression 
 is concerned. Why, therefore, should the perfection of 
 these parts be so necessary, as it undoubtedly is, in 
 order that expression itself be complete and satisfactory ? 
 This circumstance appears to be one of those which 
 strongly prove, that it is the imagination which is 
 chiefly engaged by a pleasing expression, or by the air of 
 beauty, diffused in the countenance. When that lively 
 and pleasing expression, and that air of beauty, are per- 
 ceived, it is, almost invariably, with the accompaniment 
 of those parts, in a condition more or less perfect, which 
 are not necessary to expression. Whenever these ex- 
 pressions, and these airs of countenance, reoccur in other 
 features, the imagination is alive to their influence ; but 
 it would not be so, if any deformity, though unconcerned 
 in tlie expression, were to obtrude itself: and such is 
 our habit of seeing the perfection or completeness of 
 those parts which arc inactive in the production of ex- 
 pression, associated with the excellence of those on which 
 it depends, that any imperfection or blemish in the struc- 
 ture of the former, would inmiediat(;ly operate unfiivour- 
 ably on the imagination, and destroy our relish and 
 admiration for the countenance to which they belong.
 
 1 1 a .ESTHETICS. 
 
 That these parts are not necessary to expression, is 
 shown by the circumstance that, when they are hidden 
 by the hair, the dress, or any other object, the expression 
 remains the same. Should they be deficient, or partly 
 wanting, the omission would at once be felt, and a dis- 
 agreeable eiFect wovdd result ; but mere concealment 
 leaves the imagination active, which, without effort, 
 completes the whole. This is not the case with respect 
 to the parts which have the greatest share in expression ; 
 for if the eyes, or the mouth, were even accidentally 
 concealed, it would be found very difficult to complete 
 the expression or the graceful air of the countenance. 
 The eyebrows, though of no other apparent use than as 
 ornaments, contribute so far to expression, that their 
 deficiency would be greatly destructive of beauty. 
 
 Another kind of inquiry, of which the solution cannot 
 be indifferent to the career and prospects of art, is, 
 whether those decisions of taste which are influenced by 
 impassionate admiration, are admissible as a means of 
 obtaining the Ideal in beauty of form, — whether, in fact, 
 the objects of its choice be of the domain of art in ge- 
 neral, and not confined to individuals. Guido, Carlo 
 Dolci, Murillo, Greuse, and Reynolds, have all suc- 
 ceeded in producing the loveliest expression of virginal 
 innocence ; an expression which, in none of these cases, 
 we can conceive to be resulting only from a thorough 
 knowledge of the rules of proportion, or from a study of 
 nature made according to any of the admitted principles 
 of art. Could we suppose these men, each eminent in 
 his sphere, to meet before each other's works, they would
 
 THE IDEAL. 117 
 
 not, I fancy, whatever might be the influence of previous 
 cultivation and experience, be rendered sensible to the 
 perfection of these productions, by studies which, in 
 each of their respective countries, would be found ma- 
 terially to differ : but, oia witnessing their enthusiasm 
 suddenly kindled, as though one great master had lighted 
 up the energy of another, by the flame of his own genius, 
 we should not, I think, hesitate to conclude, that the 
 sentiment of the beautiful which partakes of the en- 
 thusiasm of passion, is general and comprehensive, and 
 that its language is alike understood, in all periods, and 
 in all countries. Vast and comprehensive, indeed, is 
 this unity of sympathy and love ; yet equally unbounded 
 is that variety of form, which, although founded on one 
 prevailing emotion, gives an unlimited extent to the 
 conceptions of art. 
 
 If those expressions of the features possess no or- 
 dinary sweetness, which, at the same time that they 
 promise all the endearments of friendship, draw a veil 
 over its anxieties, who would not be sensible to those 
 inspired productions of art, the enchantments of which 
 call at once to mind these blissful dreams ? And, 
 since the enthusiasm of emotion greatly exceeds the 
 reality of any hoped-for pleasure, it may become the 
 means of imparting to form, in vigorous characters, an 
 ideal and angelic excellence which could never be 
 obtained by the most careful academic studies. More- 
 over, a deep-felt impression of the beautiful, as derived 
 from her choicest models in nature and art, alone 
 converts into living images, those graceful and fugitive
 
 118 ^ESTHETICS. 
 
 emanations of the fancy, which are borrowed from 
 these sources. The impression thus grafted on the mind, 
 remains unshaken by the disturbing influences of a 
 lon<r and arduous work, and, after relentless efforts, 
 is brought before you, as a chastened reality, with 
 marvellous life and energy.
 
 PAUT 11. 
 
 SUBJECTS PRACTICALLY CONNECTED 
 WITH IMITATION IN PAINTING. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 GENERAL RULES. 
 
 The history of art, or, rather, the comparison of its 
 productions at difForent periods, shows that very httle is 
 to be gained by rules of Composition ; and there would 
 be more usefulness in teachinfj how to select amongst 
 those which have been given centuries ago, than in 
 advancing new ones. 
 
 Sound principles of taste appear to have been already 
 established, in the flourishing times of Greece ; and the 
 Latin authors have likewise given excellent rules, appli- 
 cable to poetry, and, in a general way, to painting. 
 These rules were of the simplest nature, because those 
 which are most essential in practice, are of themselves 
 obvious ; and the writers of antiquity had sense enough 
 to perceive, that taste is rather hampered, than assisted.
 
 120 COMPOSITJON. 
 
 by prescriptive laws, and by an indecorous intrusion 
 into its sanctuary. Moreover, they bad not been driven, 
 in order to avoid repeating hackneyed maxims, to seek 
 out insignificant and remote ones, which, if no greater 
 evil is done, become verv detrimental to the elemcntarv 
 truths, by acquiring undue consideration and import- 
 ance. But the very simplicity of the primitive rules of 
 taste, seems, in later times, to have opened the way to 
 doubts as to their adequacy ; for wc find, either in 
 modern authors, new maxims asserted, or, in modern 
 artists, new principles acted upon, which, being more 
 elaborate, and, in appearance, more profound and im- 
 portant than the simple truths which had been so long 
 familiar, have exercised a considerable influence, and, in 
 some schools, acquired even the ascendancy over sounder 
 principles of art. This mistake should not, however, be 
 ascribed wholly to the intentional aim of the present 
 schools of painting, but, in a great measure, to their 
 position ; since the necessity of satisfying the world with 
 something new, almost compels them to quit, sometimes, 
 the path of their predecessors ; and this they frequently 
 prefer doing, even should it be more perilous, to the 
 palmless course of following in the beaten track. A 
 still more powerful inducement, is that of imposing a 
 fashion, or a new style, on the public mind. But, beside 
 the injury which the artist, who overlooks nature and the 
 obvious rules of taste, does to art in general, by creating 
 a host of imitators less scrupulous and still less suc- 
 cessful than himself, he can scarcely look forward, how- 
 ever delightful may seem the expression of present ap- 
 plause, to the oi)inion of posterity.
 
 GENERAL RULES. 121 
 
 To Aristotle we owe the elementary principles of 
 unity of time, place, and action, prescribed by him 
 chiefly to the drama, but which, in the historical paint- 
 ing, equally apply to the subject or event.* Several 
 other simple, but equally necessary, truths, have been 
 apparently borrowed from the principles enounced by 
 the ancients, and applied to the art of painting by 
 Du Fresnoy. Amongst these are, order in the arrange- 
 ment, abstinence from all superfluous ornaments, and 
 from episodes foreign to the subject, the avoidance of 
 all lines and forms which meet end to end, without 
 intervening objects or colours to prevent the jarring of 
 these corresponding extremities, the necessity of keeping 
 the principal figure in the action foremost, and con- 
 spicuous amongst the rest, and the defects which result 
 from forced and ungraceful actions and positions, as well 
 as from parallel lines and geometrical forms.t 
 
 The observance of this last rule presents consider- 
 able difficulty in historical paintings in which the naked 
 figure is introduced, owing to the sudden anijles which 
 are presented by the joints of the limbs when in a bent 
 
 * It would appear from the following passage of Aristotle, quoted from 
 the Rev. Thomas Twiniug's translation, that the Greek author intended to 
 include works of art in the application of his principles of unity; "As, 
 therefore, in other wii«iW/c «/7.v, one imitation is an imitation of one thing; 
 so here, the fahle, being an imitation of an action, should be an imitation of 
 an action that is one and entire ; the parts of it being so connected, that if 
 any one of them be cither transposed or taken away, the whole will be de- 
 stroyed or changed : for whatever may be either retained or omitted, without 
 making any sensible difference, is not, properly, a part." Mimetic art is 
 considered by the translator to imply a work of art or picture. — Sec trans- 
 lation of Aristotle on Toetry, p. Nl. 
 
 ■f Sec Du Fresnoy "s " Art of Tainting ;" Drydeii's translation, pp. II. 
 1."., 1!), 25, 37.
 
 I'-'i'i COMPObllJON. 
 
 position ; and where several figures are introduced, the 
 crossing of the limbs, and the repetition of the angles 
 of the joints, produce a disagreeable eflFect, which fre- 
 quently destroys the beautv of works, of high merit in 
 other respects. Of this number may be mentioned the 
 painting, by Raffaelle, of the Murder of the Innocents, 
 now in the National Gallery. This defect is also strik- 
 ing, at first sight, in the painting of the Last Judgment, 
 by Michael Angelo, in the Cappella Sistina ; although 
 with a longer inspection, it is rendered less apparent, 
 as the attention is drawn off by the excellencies of the 
 work, which gradually come out. These objections 
 apply more to the paintings of the old masters than to 
 those of the modern ; partly from their more frequent 
 use of figures from the life, partly from the sinking, 
 which the lapse of time has occasioned, of the semi- 
 tints into black, which frequently causes an immediate 
 and harsh contrast, between the dark ground and the 
 staring white limbs. This should be a warning to 
 modern artists, to maintain transparency in the shadows, 
 and to make great use of the half lights and semi- 
 shades, which serve as a useful medium between the 
 first, or strongest lights, and the darker colours. 
 
 The distribution of lights and shades, is a secret 
 power, which the artist holds in reserve, and calls 
 chiefly to his assistance when he htis erred in judgment, 
 or failed in the execution. It even enables him, by the 
 great resources which it places at his command, to 
 invent, and to ordain the outline of his subject, in ap- 
 parent opposition to the rules of taste. In the land- 
 scape, it is a judicious diffusion of the lights and shades,
 
 GENERAL RULES. 126 
 
 which counteracts the hardness resulting from the repe- 
 tition of the marked outlines of mountains, rocks, houses, 
 &c. Likewise in the historical picture, it is the skilful 
 distribution of these lights and shadows, that chiefly 
 assists, in overcoming the still more formidable diffi- 
 culties, resulting from the similar forms and angular 
 disposition of the limbs. Thus, should the means af- 
 forded by the use of draperies, as well as by the arrange- 
 ment and grouping of the figures, prove insufficient to 
 counteract every objection resulting from the repetition 
 of similar forms, and from their awkward combinations ; 
 the resources which are furnished by partial shadows, 
 should be had recourse to. By throwing some of the 
 forms into half shadow, or by placing them at an aerial 
 distance, they may be made to lose, in a great measure, 
 their connexion with the more conspicuous and foremost 
 parts of the composition ; and reduplication of form, 
 should it even exist, thus becomes scarcely felt. In the 
 admirable painting of the death of Saint Jeronymo, by 
 Domenichino, in the Vatican, the heads which incline 
 over the dying saint would doubtless lose a great deal of 
 their variety, without the shadows thrown partially over 
 some of them. 
 
 Scenes* in the open air, or in roomy apartments, 
 afford greater advantages, with regard to light and 
 shade, than those compositions in which all the person- 
 ages are on the same plane, and brought out in relief on 
 an opaque background. AMien space has been secured, 
 all the resources which may result from foreshortening, 
 and from partial concealment, with the concomitant 
 circumstances of projected shadows, are entirely at tlip
 
 124 COAll'OSITlON. 
 
 artist's disposal. lie likewise obtains greater facility 
 for displaying variety in the action, as well as in the 
 other marks of emotion and interest. This is not only 
 desirable, from the additional grace and ease which it 
 gives to the composition ; but wherever the expression 
 and general interest of the subject are deficient, the 
 other objections above alluded to, such as the redupli- 
 cation of similar parts and similar forms, obtrude them- 
 selves so much the more. The defects which result 
 from a want of space, show themselves, perhaps, in the 
 somewhat constrained position of San Girolamo, in the 
 pictm'e of the Holy Family, by Coreggio ; whereas the 
 movements of most of the other figures are graceful 
 and easy, and the cheerful animation of their features, 
 but imperfectly rendered in the annexed plate, appears, 
 with the master's touch, almost to equal that of life. 
 
 As an instance of admirable grouping, in open space, 
 and with a great number of figures, may be mentioned, 
 the painting of St. John the Baptist by Giulio Romano. 
 The groups, in this picture, are sufficiently distinct, to 
 relieve the eye by the appearance of separate masses, 
 and, at the same time, they are so connected by the ar- 
 rangement, and by the same feeling and interest per- 
 vading the whole, that the perfect observance of unity 
 of subject, place, and action, will strike every one. The 
 artist has gained additional facilities for avoiding the 
 repetition resulting from the similar forms of the limbs, 
 by enveloping several of the figures in flowing draperies. 
 
 It may, at the first impression, appear unaccountable, 
 to the persons who have read Mr. Burnet's very useful 
 work on Composition, that, whereas an approach to
 
 ■\>^ 
 
 ''in . 
 
 SAN GIROLAMO. 
 
 Bv COREOOIO. 
 
 IN THE VCCAPEMI.V OF PARMA.
 
 GKNKRAL Hrr.KS. 125 
 
 symmetry in the forms of the principal groups and 
 objects, is, in general, considered a tiling to be carefully 
 avoided, the author and artist alluded to, appeal's to 
 have adopted, to a certain extent, regular forms for 
 Composition, in preference to others. But it appears 
 to me, that the chief danger incurred by the author, is 
 that of being mistaken as to his object in introducing 
 regular shapes, such as the diagonal, lozenge, and cir- 
 cular, forms, to which he alludes in his work ; for it is 
 evident, by the explanations which follow, that he attaches 
 very little importance to these forms in themselves, and 
 that he employed them, chiefly, as a practical means of 
 directino^ the attention of the student towards the general 
 outline of the masses in Composition, the neglect 
 of which, even in the pursuit of those more absorbing 
 principles of excellence, which lie hidden in the emo- 
 tions and actions of the figures, renders the work less 
 perfect. 
 
 The student who seeks elegance in the exterior out- 
 line, either of inanimate objects, or of living beings, is 
 apt to forget that the apparent forms of the masses depend 
 less on these exterior outlines, than on the distribution 
 of such parts as are illuminated, or which receive the 
 full light : and anv rules, which may serve to mark out 
 especially the form and distribution of the principal 
 masses of light, to show their influence in the picture, 
 and to distinguish them from those boundary lines which 
 arc mere definitions of substance, and which often vanish 
 into shade, mav be verv desirable. The elementary 
 figures of geometry, affbrd some tangible means of in- 
 structing the student respecting tlio tonus nnd arrange-
 
 126 COMPOSITION. 
 
 ment of the leading masses ; and their great simplicity, 
 and abstract nature, render them less objectionable than 
 forms more complicated, or than such as arc connected 
 with useful purposes, and would, therefore, be likely to 
 remind the observer of some object foreign to the subject. 
 Any form, whether it be in the details of a picture, or in 
 the masses, which may be easily construed into some 
 strange imaginary object, and which, therefore, diverts 
 the attention from the subject, is, doubtless, to be depre- 
 cated ; and the artist and student equally strive to avoid 
 these accidental coincidences of real and imaginary 
 shapes. * Elegance and variety, combined with a simple 
 and clear exposition, constitute their chief aim, in the 
 economy of the subject, and the distribution of the parts. 
 
 * Whenever any such imaginary form is brought before the mind of the 
 beholder, however sublime may be the intended subject, he inevitably takes 
 the step which leads to the ridiculous. When I was shewn, at the Accadcmia 
 at Venice, the much-admired picture by Tintoretto, called " II Miracolo di 
 San JMarco," the first idea produced, was, that a very wonderful bird had 
 appeared in the skj% at which the multitude beneath were anxiously gazing, 
 in the hope and expectation of its very shortly falling to the ground. Thc«e 
 representations of aerial flights, which so often form the subjects of the chef 
 tCmwres of the great Italian JNIasters, who were obliged to satisfj' the super- 
 stitious taste of their time and country, never gave me real pleasure. Even 
 the celebrated Assumption of the A'irgin, by Titian, unfortunately brought 
 to my mind the effect of a very interesting lady balancing herself on the 
 tight-rope, with her arms extended; the httic angels looking like inferior 
 nymphs dancing round her. At last, I found that the only way to derive 
 rational pleasure from such pictures, and to appreciate the powers of the 
 artists, was, to resist the first tendency to the ridiculous, by forcing the 
 attention away from that which was actually intended to form the chief at- 
 traction. Then, indeed, one might admire the skilful grouping of the multi- 
 tude, their various expressions of fear, astonishment, awe, reverence, or devo- 
 tion, the exquisite beauty and richness of the colours, so wonderfully blended 
 and skilfully harmonized as they are in the Flight of St. i\Iark, though still 
 more succe^fully so, in the Assumption of the Virgin, by the inimitable Tit- 
 ian. — Mnt. H. Tirhins-
 
 GENERA I. nilI.ES. 127 
 
 Any geometrical or otherwise symmetrical forms, 
 either in the distribution of the lights, or of the groups 
 themselves, are defects, if sufficiently obvious to become 
 noticed ; but if the subject be so effectively borne out, as 
 to engross the entire attention, and if its points of inte- 
 rest fill the mind of the observer, he will be less likely, 
 than when its execution is ineffective, to take offence at 
 any approach to geometrical figures, in the general forms 
 of the composition. A certain degree of regularity, 
 resulting from the concentration and grouping together 
 of the parts, is, in all cases, greatly preferable to that 
 kind of irregularity, which would result from the random 
 scattering of objects over a large surface. 
 
 The union of dispersed groups by some common link, 
 is one of the most necessary principles of Composition. 
 In the centre of a small picture of the Assumption, by 
 Franccschini, in the Palazzo Pallavicini, at Genoa, is a 
 flying group of figures, of a lozenge shape, with one of 
 its angles downwards. This symmetrical form of Compo- 
 sition is scarcely interrupted by the shadows in which 
 some of the figures are placed, or by two little angels, 
 standing, who connect the central group with the ground. 
 Yet these slight artifices are so well managed, that the 
 symmetry of the composition does not strike at first 
 sight. It appears, on the contrary, exceedingly beauti- 
 ful, from the graceful, but at the same time, successful 
 efforts of the angels to bear up the Virgin. The con- 
 nexion between the different groups of figures, has like- 
 wise been studiously maintained in the picture of the 
 Assumption, by Titian, by small Putini, excjuisitely 
 painted, flying in the niidwav air.
 
 128 ( OMI'OSITION. 
 
 IMPROPRIETY OF EXAGGERATED ACTION. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, although he recommends, in his 
 treatise, that the figures which are engaged in stirring 
 events should have all the impetuosity and fire in their 
 motions and attitudes, which may he called for by anima- 
 ted action, nevertheless proportions the ardour displayed 
 in their attitudes, to the subject which calls for it, as he 
 himself shows, by a comparison between a man who 
 hurls a javelin, and another represented in the less 
 violent action of throwing a stone.* As far as regards 
 practice in the arts of drawing and sculpture, the cir- 
 cumstances which are connected with action, differ con- 
 siderably from those which influence expression. It will 
 be allowed, that, with regard to expression in the human 
 features, there is no difficulty in equalling, or even in 
 exaffgeratingr, those marks of emotion and character 
 which depend on the distension or contraction of the 
 muscles : but this is not exactly the case with respect to 
 the actions of the limbs ; for at the same time that all 
 excess, in the apparent movements and actions of the 
 limbs, is to be reproved, it must be remembered, that 
 
 * "A figure whose motions are not perfectly accommodate to the sentiment 
 or passion it is supposed to have, shows its members to be in a stale of re- 
 bellion, and to want that duty and allegiance which they owe to the mind. 
 * * * The action of a figure must be so proper and peculiar to the subject, 
 that it cannot possilily serve to signify any other thing, nor be used on any 
 other occasion, than it is intended for." — Da Vinci on Painfiiii^. Senex's 
 translation, p. 110.
 
 KXAGGKI! ATED ACTION. 129 
 
 the novico in tlic fine arfs ac^complishes what appears to 
 him a great achievement, when he succeeds in disen- 
 gaging the limbs of his figures from the stiffness and 
 constraint which appear to cling to every first attempt. 
 This question, therefore, whether it regard works exe- 
 cuted in marble or with the pencil, must be, in a great 
 measure, relative to the powers of execution of the 
 artist, as it is to the general progress of art itself. He 
 who is still diffident in his art, has to embolden himself, 
 before he can attain the ease and gracefulness of nature ; 
 whereas the one who exercises complete mastery over his 
 materials, and carries out without effort every precon- 
 ceived design, may sometimes find it desirable to check 
 his own ardour, and to regulate and govern the violence 
 expressed in his subject. Canova mi'j^ht, it appears to 
 me, have somewhat subdued the impetuosity expressed 
 in the attitude of Theseus killing one of the Centaurs, a 
 group which now decorates the A'olksgarten at Vienna. 
 Such a display of strength and exertion, against an 
 enemy already overcome, does not agree with one's ideas 
 of so mighty a hero. According to tlic prevalent im- 
 pressions of a Theseus, less effort would have been re- 
 quired, even in the first struggle with his opponent. 
 How much more successfully has Thorwaldscn given the 
 expression of unsubdued courage, in the reposing attitude 
 of the Lion of Lucerne, thouiih wounded and dvintj ! A 
 few decided marks show what this noble creature must 
 have been in liis strengtli ; and tlic imagination goes, 
 perhaps, still further, assisted by the peculiar enchant- 
 ments of thi' spot.* How nnifb would the Saint John, 
 
 * The I, ion here alliuled to, i« tlie momimcnt erected by Thorwaldsen, 
 
 K
 
 130 COMI'OSIXION. 
 
 by Guido, in the Dulwicli Galler)', have lost of its cha- 
 racter of deep and earnest thought, if the limbs had not 
 been kept in a position of ease, and expression left en- 
 tirely to the features ! 
 
 If great action of the limbs be desirable in order to 
 give variety and interest to the muscular forms, it must 
 be done by introducing a subject which calls for great 
 bodily exertion, as in the Descent from the Cross, by 
 Rubens ; or, rather, in the painting of the same subject 
 by Danieli di Volterra, in the Chiesa della Trinita del 
 Monte, at Rome. An appearance of effort which is not 
 called for, has been stigmatized, in all times, by men of 
 taste, and is generally the mark of feebleness of invention. 
 An example of propriety, in this respect, is afforded by the 
 cartoon of the First Trial by Jury, by Mr. Cope. He 
 has not given more action to the figures than the nature 
 
 near Lucerne, in commemoration of the brave and noble Swiss Guards who 
 were slain in defending Louis XVL and Marie Antoinette. The history of 
 their admirable faithfulness is well known ; and this monument recalls it 
 vividlj' to the mind, filling one with sublime reflections; while the spot itself 
 adds to these thoughts, impressions of the beautiful. I have not seen on the 
 plain of Waterloo, nor inclosed in any cathedral, so touching and magnificent 
 a monument, nor one which so well satisfies the spectator as to its durability. 
 One feels that the noble Swiss martyrs are immortalized, as well as the artist 
 who conceived this gr."ind and appropriate design. Some magnificent cliffs 
 have been selected, and, by cutting through them, their diagonal stratifi- 
 cations and varied tints are brought to bear on the effect of the wounded 
 lion, which calmly reposes below, in an irregular cavity. The surrounding 
 trees extend from the top to the bottom of (he rocks on either side, inclosing 
 the monument, which is roofed over by the pure sky, and giving it an air of 
 romantic beauty and deep seclusion, in perfect accordance with its simple 
 character. Honour and glory to the brave, the noble, the faithful guards, 
 who, though overcome by numbers, were unsubdued in spirit, and fought to 
 the last drop of their blood in defence of their royal master and mistress ! — 
 Mrs. H. T.
 
 KQUILIBRIUM. 131 
 
 of the subject would justify ; vet the interest which re- 
 suhs from it, as well as from expression, is not wanting 
 in any part of this fine composition, and has been most 
 successfully attained in the features and attitude of the 
 youthful accuser. 
 
 EQUILIBRIUM. 
 
 A very nice point, in connexion with the action of 
 figures, is that of balance. Generally speaking, what- 
 ever be the attitude of the figure, such a distribution of 
 the limbs, and other parts, as produces a perfect equi- 
 poise of the whole, is considered one of the first and 
 necessary conditions of the art of grouping, — one, of 
 which Leonardo strongly advocates the importance. But, 
 with regard to the motion of progression, this perfect 
 balance of the parts of a figure, appears to be subjected 
 to restrictions, as the position of a man rapidly ad- 
 vancing, is that of a suspended fall. In the simple 
 attitude of walking, however, even with a hasty step, it 
 mav be doubtful whether the greatest mass of the bodv 
 inclines, at any moment, beyond the perpendicular, al- 
 though it might require some effort to stop suddenly 
 short. This difficulty of stopping abruptly, is due to 
 the impulse which is acquired, rather than to a position 
 of the body in which the centre of gravity is beyond the 
 point of support ; unless it be, perhaps, at the moment 
 that one foot is held suspended in the air before the 
 next step is taken — a position which is never repre- 
 sented, excepting in the running figure, either in sculp- 
 ture or in painting. 'J'he position of the Diana a la
 
 lo^i COMPOSITION. 
 
 Biche, though indicating swift progress, is perfectly erect ; 
 and that of the Fighting Gladiator, who, apparently, 
 is advancing toward the foe, is characterized by firmness. 
 There are, however, in the gardens of the Tuilcrics, two 
 running figures of Atalanta and Hippomenes (l)y C'oustou, 
 an artist of the eighteenth century), tastefully distributed 
 in one of the parterres. In these graceful statues, the 
 appearance of falling, in the attitude of the body, is, as 
 far as I can remember, only prevented by the indication 
 of rapid and successive movements of the inferior limbs. 
 Independently of the mechanical difficulty of supporting 
 the figure, considerable artistic skill must have been 
 required ; since, without the most perfect and charac- 
 teristic signs of speed, in every attitude and movement, 
 the result would have been a falling, and not a racing, 
 figure. 
 
 ON THE SUPERNATURAL IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 I believe that the Supernatural belongs very little to 
 the province of historical painting. Its analogy with 
 poetry has, I apprehend, led, in many instances, to sup- 
 pose that the capacity of art for compositions of this 
 kind, is much greater than it really is. But it is espe- 
 cially with respect to those points which are most ideal 
 and imaginative, that art chiefly differs from poetry. 
 The latter, in fact, only suggests the subject, or traces it 
 indistinctly with bright flashes here and there : whereas 
 the sister art operates with positive materials ; and it is to 
 the distinct and forcible expression of ideas, resulting 
 from this positive labour, that it chiefly owes its charm.
 
 THE SUl'F.UNATUKAL. 133 
 
 It would be mistaking its object, and throwing away its 
 most valuable attribute, to dispossess it of this true, 
 precise, and positive character, in comparison with the 
 other productions of the imagination. The less perfect 
 the work, as a composition or picture, the less it will be 
 required to afford the exact image of those matter-of-fact 
 forms which are familiar to us. A mere sketch may 
 embody imaginary scenes and effects, without causing 
 any surprise, or insinuating misgivings as to their pro- 
 priety ; whereas, the more perfect the work, the less 
 suited it is for that exercise of the imagination, which 
 selects its objects beyond the limits of nature. Hence 
 Vie discern the true tendencv of art. But although ex- 
 traordinary or fairy scenes, do not strictly belong to its 
 domain, might it not still be admitted that they may be 
 sometimes employed to embellish it? Supposing this to 
 be the case (and experience seems to show that it may 
 be so), the course to be pursued is, in my mind, evident. 
 Art will not, indeed, suffer such freaks of the imagina- 
 tion to intrude upon those parts of anv work whi(;h are 
 most essential and conspicuous, or which involve the 
 greatest interest. They must be kept in the background, 
 nearly unperccived, and ouK sufficiently apparent to 
 denote the influence which any such supernatural signs 
 exercise on the subject ; that thcv mav explain the tale, 
 diversify its character, and thus add to its expression, 
 but without detracting from that important attribute of 
 the art of painting, which gives the appearance of sub- 
 stance. Mr. Townsend, in his painting of Minnula, in 
 the "Tempest," exhibited in the vear 1S18 at the Roval 
 Academy, has assigned to tiie supernatural its true
 
 134 COMPOSITION 
 
 bounds, by keeping in the distance, and little con- 
 spicuous, the imaginary personages of Ariel and his 
 attendants, which are necessary for the subject, but 
 which, had thev been obtruded upon the observer, would 
 have destroyed its character of propriety. 
 
 The my thologv of the Greeks partakes of the cha- 
 racter of the fable, and is, consequently, much better 
 adapted for the purposes of imitative art, than those 
 fleeting and indefinable spirits and images which are 
 described in the poetry of the more northern nations. 
 Apollo, pursuing his luminous course above the clouds, 
 surrounded bv the Graces, and preceded by the personi- 
 fication of Aurora, has not proved too mysterious and 
 supernatural a subject for the pencil of Guido Reni. 
 However bold the fiction, its images have all substance, 
 and belong, therefoi-e, to the domain of art, as is ren- 
 dered sufficiently evident by this matchless production of 
 its kind, painted in fresco, on one of the ceilings in the 
 Palazzo Rospigliosi, at Rome. Indeed, most of the 
 fictions of the Greek and Latin poets, are such as the 
 imagination mav compass without any eff"ort, and art as 
 easily embody. Daedalus fastens the feathery wings to 
 the shoulders of his son Icarus ; and the marks of pa- 
 ternal solicitude to which this act, preceding their ad- 
 venturous flight, gives rise, furnish the artist with a 
 subject most fitted for inspiring feelings of tenderness 
 and emotion. This is the moment chosen by Cara- 
 vaggio, in a painting of this subject in the possession of 
 Mr. Thomas Twining, of Twickenham. The ^Milanese 
 painter has deemed it preferable to the rendering of the 
 flight itself. Bv thus keeping out of sight the marvellous
 
 IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 135 
 
 of the tale, he has allowed its influence to prevail in full 
 force on the imagination of the observer. In vain mijiht 
 we seek for anvthinfj so definite in the Safja and mvtho- 
 logy of the Scandinavians ; nor were it easy to embody 
 in material pigment, the ghost, of which Ossian says, — 
 " His robes are of the clouds of the hill," " His eyes 
 are two decaying flames," and " The stars dim-twinkled 
 through his form." 
 
 COMPOSITION IN THE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 In the landscape, the limits of plausible departure 
 from the truth of nature, cannot be exactly traced by 
 principle. They must depend on the style and cha- 
 racter of the landscape ; on its being a fancy piece, a 
 composition, or the transcript of a scene in nature. 
 They must also depend on the taste of the artist, and 
 his power of carrying out ably, the suggestions of his 
 fancy. The immense difference which exists, in this 
 respect, between the copy of a scene in nature, and a 
 work of the imagination, is obvious ; and it is likewise 
 evident, that there are various stages between the 
 faithful transcript and the fancy piece, in which a 
 greater or less degree of caprice and abandon is com- 
 ])atible with the subject : but with respect to the amount 
 of the digression from nature, allowable in these various 
 styles, it would be difficult to find so much as two 
 opinions perfectly agreed. I shall only consider, here, 
 what impressions are likely to result from certain com- 
 binations of the fanciful with truth, and let the opinion of
 
 136 COMPOSITION 
 
 others decide the cases in which their union is com- 
 mendable. 
 
 I will begin by alluding to slight deviations from 
 truth nf representation. There are, I believe, very few 
 artists, who, in what they might call a faithful represent- 
 ation of nature, would not consider themselves justified 
 in making such alterations in the foreground, as they 
 might deem necessary to show off to advantage the prin- 
 cipal objects in the scene, and add to its effect. The 
 plausible reasons for so doing are, that time brings on 
 changes in the comparatively minor objects which con- 
 stitute the foreground, and also, that the artist may 
 choose a different spot, or point de vue, without ma- 
 terially changing the general character of the scene. 
 He may even, before beginning his sketch, alter, by 
 physical strength, the arrangement of some of the minor 
 objects immediately around him, and thus partly form 
 for himself, such a distribution as is best adapted to the 
 character of the landscape. These circumstances render 
 the mind so easily reconcileable to any modifications of 
 the realities of nature, in the foregrounds of paintings, 
 that a recourse to such changes is not usually considered 
 to detract from the graphic truth of the general 
 prospect. 
 
 Let us now proceed to those parts of the landscape 
 which fill up the middle planes and distance. They 
 are formed of houses, trees, castles, bridges, rocks, 
 mountains, &c. It cannot be doubted, that any de- 
 parture from correct form, in the most conspicuous of 
 these objects, or their omission, will tend to diminish the 
 general and characteristic resemblance of the picture to
 
 IN LANDSCAPi: PAINTING. 137 
 
 any given scene : and is it not evident that any such 
 want of resemblance, or departure from the truth, in 
 imitations of nature, generally lessens the satisfaction 
 and interest, which every one who has travelled, or 
 busied himself with pictui'esque beauties, experiences, in 
 beholding the likeness of any chosen spot ? Is it not 
 again certain, that accurate knowledge concerning the 
 characteristic features of nature, as well in her general 
 outlines, as in her minute particulars, becomes more and 
 more prevalent at the present time? That the sci- 
 ences of Geology and Botany both offer inducements to 
 more particularizing and comparing surveys, than were 
 formerly thought of? And is this not considered a 
 desirable result, a step calculated for the advance- 
 ment of art ? On the other hand, if we were to re- 
 commend a departure from nature, not only with regard 
 to her particulars, but respecting her general and charac- 
 teristic features, such as the elevation of the mountains, 
 the width of the rivers, and the style of the buildings, we 
 should be pursuing an opposite course ; unlearning what 
 we have learned, and adopting in our imitations, a plan 
 which would call forth such expressions as " thereabout," 
 " something like," and similar confused and indefinite 
 terms. 
 
 It may be objected that tiie character of a country 
 does not result from the portraiture of individual spots 
 contained in it, and that the artist may copy its features, 
 — its stratifications, its vegetation, and the style of its 
 buildings, — without strictly representing any individual 
 rocks, trees, or houses. Hut this plan, wliich might 
 answer very well for a (lass of compositions to uhich I
 
 ltJ8 COMPOSITION 
 
 shall presently allude (not claiming to be portraits of any 
 particular spots in nature), must fail if it pretend to point 
 out the place that we wish to be reminded of; and, 
 whilst attending, in the landscape portrait, to characteris- 
 tic minutite, if we neglect the most obvious indications of 
 locality, we have the appearance of becoming over-wise 
 in one respect, to betray but the greater ignorance in 
 another ; and I think we should find, that by entirely 
 neglecting the marks which are expressive of locality, in 
 works which claim to be representations of particular 
 spots, we should soon allow our ideas and impressions to 
 be involved in a degree of confusion, as much opposed to 
 the true enjoyment of nature and advantage of art, as 
 would result from the neglect of general characters and 
 distinctions. 
 
 Ought we, for fear of falling into this kind of igno- 
 rance,>^proceed to trace with precision, every minute par- 
 ticular which marks the spot, and, with the patience of 
 Canaletti, count the bricks and tiles ? The dullness and 
 insipidity of the Daguerreotvpe prove, that we should not 
 be rendered so alive to the resemblance of a place by this 
 mechanical imitation, as by one which would rather have 
 effect and character for its aim.* "What are, then, the 
 suitable limits to the imitation of the scenery of nature ? 
 Can we go something beyond a lively but characteristic 
 expression of sites or places ? Can art improve them, 
 
 * Mons. Topffer has most satisfactorily shewn, by a series of very in- 
 genious and acute observations contained in a pamphlet entitled " Reflexions 
 d'un Peintre Gencvois," that the Daguerreotype fails to convey impressions 
 of resemblance so forcibly as a good work of art will do, and has thus proved 
 that it could not become a substitute for paintings.
 
 IN LANDSCAPK PAINTING. 139 
 
 render them more palatable, and cause them to please us 
 more than such scenes in nature generally do, or might 
 do uiulor the most favourable circumstances ? The de- 
 cision of these points, must, I think, be left chiefly to the 
 taste and judgment of individuals. It is evident that 
 nature must always be preferred in her most fitting ap- 
 parel ; but it is likewise e^ddcnt, that she herself is, at 
 times, so much disguised by the dress put on, that her 
 very features seem altered. The artist who knows the 
 cause and sources of these disguises, labours to the great- 
 est advantage. He improves and embellishes his scene, 
 without departing from truth, and without maiming any 
 of those permanent facts and particulars, the recognition 
 of which is always attended with pleasure. The resources 
 which are offered by the various aspects and seasons 
 in which nature is beheld, are immense. Form itself 
 depends, in a great measure, on the position selected by 
 the observer, on the direction of the lights, and the 
 transparency or mistiness of the atmosphere. From such 
 causes as these, the mountains may become more elevated, 
 the plains more vast ; depth, space, and distance, may be 
 increased ; and the artist, who thus adds to the grandeur 
 or beauty of a subject, by availing himself of means 
 borrowed from nature herself, instead of tantalizing the 
 mind, and engendering an admiration based, in a great 
 measure, on ignorance in matters of art, instructs, at the 
 same time that he diverts, his admirers. 
 
 A frequent cause of difiicuUy, in taking views from 
 nature, arises from the exigency of taste in matters of 
 art. So much is demanded of her supposed perfectibility, 
 that nature can never be oopied in all licr jiarfs indiscri-
 
 140 COMPOSITION 
 
 minately : additions and alterations are required. The 
 artist, therefore, is frequently compelled to select some 
 leading object fi'om the living scene ; the accessories he 
 invents, or arranges according to his fancy, distributing 
 them so as to shew, in the most graceful and eflPectual 
 manner, the more prominent objects which he has bor- 
 rowed from nature. 
 
 Another plan, is that of assembling together materials 
 furnished by different localities ; a method which may 
 produce a very good patched- up composition, after the 
 fashion of an Italian villa or Dutch jjarden in an En<>'- 
 lish pleasure-ground, but having neither the merit of 
 an invention, nor the interest of a portrait of nature. 
 These difficulties may be obviated, and the interest 
 which results from the association of place and climate, 
 be partly maintained, by composing landscapes possessing 
 the most characteristic marks of any particular country, 
 but without embodying any individual object existing 
 there. Thus is avoided the necessity of mutilating 
 nature, whenever a portion of the objects does not corre- 
 spond, in interest and beauty, with the remainder. Some 
 countries, though sterile in picturesque beauty, are re- 
 markable for certain general and characteristic features, 
 and it may then be desirable not to select any particular 
 spot for the subject, nor to adhere closely to the unpictur- 
 esque truth. But the artist who makes it his object to 
 secure the character of a place, and not its likeness, has 
 the form and arrangement entirely to himself ; and he is 
 able to attend to the demands of art, without departing 
 from truth in the general aspect of the scene. 
 
 In these different methods of appropriating the beau-
 
 IN LANDSCAPK PAINTING. 1 H 
 
 ties of natural scenery to the purposes of art, from the 
 most faithful portrait, to the most generalizino- expression, 
 the judgment and experience of the artist will point out 
 the degree of departure from nature, which is consistent 
 with his plan. He will, I think, be aware, that in pro- 
 portion as he endeavours to captivate the imagination 
 with brilliancy of effect, and to excite the sympathies of 
 emotion, he must be sparing of minute indications of 
 character. The imagination is hampered by confined 
 and exact study ; and, in the thoughtful mood, physical 
 particulars and distinctions are willingly overlooked. 
 
 In subjects of mere invention, the skill and power of 
 the artist, alone, prescribe bounds to the imagination. 
 The boldest flights of his fancy, may remain uncon- 
 trolled, provided the deceits of an imaginary creation be 
 so artfully contrived, that they do not appear to con- 
 tradict the positive truths of nature ; and, indeed, in 
 works of a half spiritual, half human, character, it is a 
 matter of no very great difficulty, to elude the principles 
 of fitness and proportion which govern the world subjected 
 to the senses. But the chief merit of compositions of 
 this kind, shows itself, when effects, the most extraor- 
 dinary in appearance, are associated, in a probable and 
 natural manner, with memorable events recorded by 
 history, and therefore claiming a deep share of interest. 
 In this kind of Composition, Mr. Martin has had great 
 success ; and he has, in my opinion, made a great step, 
 from the point at which the ancient masters left the 
 treatment of sacred subjects of an imaginative or mys- 
 terious character. In many of these old jjaintings, 
 angels and demons have been introduced, with the forms
 
 14'<J COMPOSITION 
 
 of the flesh, without any appeal being made to the 
 imagination, in the eflPect or style of the composition. 
 The difference between an imaginative or sentimental 
 style, in subjects of this kind, and mere mechanical 
 fiction, would be forcibly shown, by a comparison of the 
 paintings of the modern artist above alluded to, with the 
 ludicrous appearance of the temptations of Saint Antonio, 
 by Peter Petersz Brueghel. A profound knowledge of 
 the harmony and natural arrangement of colours, united 
 to expertness in their use, and to the liveliest fancy, is 
 doubtless necessary, for the realization of these fantastic 
 and imaojinarv scenes, in an enfjasiingr form. But in 
 addition to these, a knowledge of the most unusual and 
 singular phenomena of nature, may be desirable, such as 
 the characteristic appearances of the sun and moon in 
 connexion with Parhelia and Halos, of the Aurora 
 Boi'ealis, Mirage, Shooting Stars, &c. These rare, and 
 sometimes inexplicable, appearances of the natural world, 
 always impress the mind with mysterious astonishment 
 and admiration ; and the judicious application of such 
 signs to works of art, cannot fail to exercise a more 
 powerful influence on the observer, than the introduction 
 of mere conventional and imaginary effects, having no 
 apparent connexion with the phenomena of nature. 
 
 Forms of Composition which are adapfed for Lotid- 
 scapes. — The elegance of a Landscape Composition, 
 requires that there should be an opening, or a depression 
 of the general outline, in the centre, or towards the side, 
 of the picture ; — in the centre is perhaps most graceful. 
 This form is sometimes departed from, in bold compo-
 
 IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 143 
 
 sitions, where the extraordinary character of the scenery 
 suffices ill itself to engage the attention : the imagina- 
 tion, which is enraptured with the sublimity of the 
 objects, may be made, for a time, to forget its wonted 
 longing for freedom. It is, however, proceeding but 
 conformably to nature, to leave a space, more or less 
 open, in the centre of a landscape, and to direct the 
 attention towards that point. In choosing the spot for 
 viewing a prospect, we naturally endeavour to place our- 
 selves in a convenient position ; or in such a manner that 
 we may discover before us, either a great number of 
 objects, or a small number of striking ones ; to effect 
 both which purposes, space is required. Whether this 
 be supplied by the opening of a valley, of an avenue, or 
 of a street, or by any other such means, the progressive 
 diminution of the various objects which fill up the scene, 
 towards its centre or most interesting part, tends to con- 
 centrate the sight on that point ; so that the plan of 
 leaving a central opening in composed landscapes, is 
 not altogether an artificial one. But art, taking the 
 hint from nature, employs additional means for concen- 
 trating the attractions of the landscape towards its centre. 
 It is there that the principal light is diffused, and that 
 the most interesting objects are assembled ; it is pointed 
 out, more or less, by the convergence of the perspective 
 forms, bv the buildings, roads, rivers, &c., which recede 
 towards the interior of the scene, and distract very much 
 if they turn off abruptly by the side of the picture, as do, 
 in general, all lines which converge, in a conspicuous 
 manner, towards a point without its boundaries. 
 
 There seems to bo miuh difference of opinion, as to
 
 ll"* COMPOSITION" 
 
 whether or not objects, such as trees, or a lijjht foliajre, 
 rising in or near the centre of the picture, ])reak too 
 much, the distant perspective, and disturb its repose. 
 Claude has not always abstained from thus intercepting, 
 with a group of trees, the faint line of distant objects, 
 and the expanse of a bright sky. vSalvator Rosa cuts 
 boldlv into distant forms, with shagged trunks and inter- 
 woven branches. Many other instances may be men- 
 tioned ; but, in most cases, the plan is adopted as an 
 additional means of producing variety, with a partial 
 sacrifice of elegance. The most perfect composition is 
 doubtless that, where, as in Claude s Molino, the view of 
 a receding distance, near the centre of the picture, 
 remains unobstructed ; but it must be acknowledged, 
 that this arrangement is not without its dangers of 
 formality ; and few examples contrast better, than those 
 of elegance, nearly bordering on affectation, on the one 
 hand, and of case, almost approaching to negligence, 
 on the other, which are afforded by the landscapes of 
 Claude and Both. 
 
 The objections to the introduction of a central 
 group, increase with its proximity and size. When it 
 is massive and opaque, it divides the picture into two 
 parts, which has a very bad effect. If it be light 
 and transparent, and allow the eye to penetrate be- 
 yond, thi'ough spared openings, the objection is consi- 
 derably lessened, more especially if the form and con- 
 nexion of the distant objects be well kept up, through 
 the intervening apertures. Although the eye be partly 
 obstructed, the fancy is not ; it connects the forms, 
 where thev are broken, and completes the scene where
 
 IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 145 
 
 any portion is wanting. Thus, the continuity of the 
 remoter objects, and the interest afforded l)y them, pre- 
 dominate, notwithstanding the partial interposition of 
 nearer ones. In a small picture by Mr. Cooke, the 
 distant form of Mount St. Angelo, on the Cape of Sor- 
 rento, is perceived througli the meshes of a net, sus- 
 pended at the entrance of a cave, in the Island of Capri ; 
 and in another painting- by the same artist, the outline of 
 the Rock of Gibraltar, appears through the intervals of a 
 flight of birds. In both cases, the distant scene scarcely 
 appears interrupted, nor is breadth diminished ; for this 
 necessary principle in art, depends much less on the 
 unbroken continuitv of material form, than on the im- 
 pression of extent itself. In like manner, littleness does 
 not result from the breaking up of any large form, unless 
 the idea of its continuity and vastness be destroyed. 
 
 if it be intended to break the distance with an inter- 
 vening object, it mav be well to avoid making any dispo- 
 sition to this effect, during the progress of the work, lest 
 tlie {)rojected arrangements in the nearer parts, should 
 interfere with the simplicity and entireness of the more 
 distant. The forms of the background should be carried 
 out, in as complete and perfect a manner, as if they 
 were wholly to be seen. 
 
 Forms of L(tndscape Composition adopted hi/ the 
 Old Masters. — I will conclude this subject with a few 
 remarks on the examples of landscape composition 
 wliich have been left us bv our predecessors in art. 
 The landscape paintings of the Italian and Flemish 
 schools, both present composition under two distinct
 
 14-0 COMPOSITION 
 
 forms. The one depends chieflv on nature, the beauties 
 of which it compiles ; while the other disdains to borrow 
 fi'om any real scene, and, if we may judge by Salvator 
 Rosa, seems to be the gift of an enthusiastic and highly 
 excitable mind, fed in earlv days with scenes of a ro- 
 mantic character, whose mingled images present them- 
 selves, at certain moments, to the painter, divested of 
 their original form and connection, with the vivacity of 
 inspirations. This exuberance of a mind overflowing 
 with picturesque beauty, materialized on the board or 
 canvas, is characterized bv the simphcity and ease of 
 primitive thought. The facility and boldness which are 
 manifested in Salvator Rosa's compositions, arc, doubt- 
 less, owing to his versatile genius, combined with the 
 circumstance that his early days were spent in travels 
 through the most romantic districts of Italy. The 
 landscapes of Gaspard Poussin, appear, also, to have 
 been the creations of a fertile imagination, enriched with 
 remembrances, as well as with copies, from nature, and 
 bearing, everj-- where, the marks of that pure and 
 classical taste, of which the sentiment appears to have, 
 in later times, died away. Amongst the Flemings, John 
 Both unites variety and ease, in a manner to prove that 
 his compositions, if derived chiefly from the sketch- 
 book, were partly due to the versatility of his genius ; 
 and it seems probable, that Berghem's simple but ele- 
 gant compositions, and John Brueghel's fantastic, but 
 somewhat crowded and monotonous scenes, were prin- 
 cipally derived ft-om the stores of the mind. 
 
 Amongst the more recent landscape-painters, Wilson, 
 almost alone, has maintained the classical composition.
 
 IN LANDSCAI'K PAINTING. 117 
 
 in the elevation of the style. In France, Joseph ^'^crnct 
 has preserved this character in some of his compositions, 
 though he appears to have aimed less designedly at the 
 classical style, than his English contemporary and ft-iend, 
 Wilson. The rules for composition established by the 
 Institute of the Fine Arts at Paris, especially for the pic- 
 tures exhibited in competition for prizes, have had some 
 influence in preserving the classical or historical land- 
 scape, in France, from the complete neglect which it has 
 met with in this country. With respect to the cause of 
 this falling off, it may be remarked that, at the period of 
 the revival of the fine arts in Italv, landscapes, as well as 
 historical pictures, were doubtless looked upon with 
 mingled curiosity and surprise, and the merit due to 
 novelty, almost equalled, in the minds of the beholders, 
 that of the conception and execution. The amazement 
 caused by the first appearance of these productions, was 
 succeeded, in after times, by the reverence which is paid 
 to the relic. The name of the great master from whose 
 touch they emanated, and the vicissitudes from which 
 they had escaped, rendered them objects too sacred to be 
 familiarly dealt with. Opinion still upheld their ex- 
 cellence, and the interest which they afforded remained 
 undiminished. These impressions have given place, ^nth 
 respect to modern art, to more calm and scrutinizing 
 examinations. Consequently, modern artists have had 
 recourse to natui'e, which is unfailing in producing a 
 considerable amount of pleasure, although it may not 
 give rise to that excessive admiration and delight, whicli 
 sometimes results from works of the imagination.
 
 l'l>y EXPRESSION 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 WITH REFERENCE TO THE FIGURE. 
 
 Although the limits between Expression and that 
 kind of excellence which is designated by the term 
 Beauty, are uncertain and undefined in the human 
 features (since beauty itself is based on the expression 
 of eveiy engaging quality) ; the term Expression applies 
 more particularly to those modifications of the features, 
 which, independently of permanent form, are associated, 
 either with the sudden impulses and emotions, or with 
 the habitual modes of thinking, of individuals. 
 
 The expression, therefore, which concerns the painter 
 of the figure, is of two kinds. The one should have for 
 its object the most habitual, and at the same time the 
 most agreeable, manifestation of thought, of which any 
 given features are susceptible ; and this is one of the 
 chief aims of the portrait. The other consists in the 
 lively indication, on the countenance, of the interest and 
 concern which are awakened by external causes, either 
 present or remote ; and this last is the kind of ex- 
 pression which chiefly constitutes the interest and merit 
 of historical paintings. A pleasing expression, though it, 
 perhaps, may be more successful than others, is here not 
 so necessary as in the portrait, since the interest is that 
 which is awakened by the event, and not, as in the 
 former, bv an air of contentment, or by an engaging 
 demeanour.
 
 IN THK FIGURE. Hf) 
 
 The expression wliich belongs to historical subjects, 
 is either resulting from emotions too deep and sudden to 
 admit of speech, or is derived from the very acts and 
 gestures which accompany the extemporaneous and ener- 
 getic utterance of words. In nature, this kind of ex- 
 pression serves only to give additional emphasis to 
 language ; it never becomes a substitute. This is shown 
 by the entirely different nature of the action used in the 
 pantomime, the mimicry of which is not borrowed from 
 the gestures which generally accompany energetic speech, 
 but is conventional, and adapted for acting on the 
 imagination. 
 
 In subjects of art, the circumstances and character of 
 the personages are, in general, so well known, that the 
 signs which are used to express their emotions arc at 
 once understood, and the conformity of the expression to 
 the thoughts entertained, or to the words uttered, is 
 immediately felt. But sometimes, the subject, without 
 being a notorious one, explains itself, like the scene of a 
 drama or comedy taken from common life. There is 
 here no labelling of costume to say, " This is Macbeth, 
 Richard the Third, or Falstaff." The characters ex- 
 pressed are rather those of a class than of distinguished 
 individuals ; but the expression is still, such as the event 
 would most naturally produce, according to the dispo- 
 sitions of the various personages respectively ; and the 
 subject becomes equally manifest, by the true and natural 
 concurrence of the emotions, airs, and gestures, with the 
 leading incidents. 
 
 That kind of expression which is adjusted to our 
 impressions of illustrious por.-^onagcs in history, belongs
 
 150 KXPKKSSION 
 
 to the highest department of art, and has formed the 
 chief aim of the old Italian masters ; whilst expression 
 connected with unknown individuals, merely denoting 
 character, has generally been the favourite theme of the 
 Dutch schools. 
 
 An expression which is not in accordance with the 
 feelings most natural to each individual in his respective 
 situation, is a fault offensive to every one. In a painting 
 of the Deposition from the Cross, by Coreggio, in the 
 Gallery of Paraia, the female figure supporting the 
 fainting Mary, shows on her lips, indications of a smile, 
 which becomes repulsive from its direct opposition to the 
 affecting event ; and in a picture of Christ taken in the 
 Garden, by Lionello Spada, in the same gallery, this 
 want of relation between the expression of the coun- 
 tenances, and the circumstances of the picture, is still 
 more strikingly offensive. In the picture of Coriolanus, 
 by Vandyck, in the Palazzo Pallavicini at Genoa, the 
 figure of Veturia is another instance of expression having 
 no relation to the incident. Though well painted, it is 
 a blank in the picture, and has the appearance of a 
 portrait. 
 
 Unity of expression is the most indispensable con- 
 dition, wherever various figures and groups of figures 
 are united together in one subject. This unity of ex- 
 pression is the most usual result of the unanimous in- 
 terest afforded by the main incident, and it generally 
 tends to produce a certain similarity in the looks and 
 gestures of all : but unity of expression and interest do 
 not always appear to correspond in the same subject ; at 
 times, unitv of interest manifests itself, in very different,
 
 IN THE FIGURE. 151 
 
 and almost opposite, expressions of the countenances, as 
 well as attitudes of the body. This arises from the di- 
 versity of the impressions which the same event gives 
 rise to in various individuals. For instance, the attack 
 of a wild beast on a child, might produce the marks of 
 pity, terror, and the ardour of revenge, in the coun- 
 tenances and acts of different persons, according as a 
 greater or less degree of interest in the fate of the child, 
 and constitutional differences of frame and temperament, 
 would render them diversely affected by the same event. 
 
 It may therefore be seen, that unity of expression 
 may result, in the first place, fi*om a conformity of in- 
 terest, as well as of emotion, manifested by various indi- 
 viduals ; or it may result from the various and dissimilar 
 emotions, caused in different persons, by one principal 
 focus of interest and excitement. It cannot proceed 
 from a pluralitv of principles of interest, either in ad- 
 jacent or in distant points of a composition. Accessory 
 incidents need not, indeed, be entirely excluded ; but in 
 all pleasing and well-understood compositions, they are 
 mere episodes or secondary occurrences, connected with, 
 and dependent on, the leading idea. The Last Supper, 
 by Leonardo da Vinci, affords a striking example of the 
 diversity of expression which results from the different 
 manner in which various persons arc moved by one 
 event. 
 
 Ilaffaelle's "Transfiguration" is a most extraordinary 
 exception to the principle of unity of expression. This 
 picture, however, involves the question of unity of sub- 
 ject ; a point far more delicate than unity of expression, 
 as far as Raffaellc's judgment is concerned. In a picture
 
 lo'-2 EXPRESSION 
 
 by Pietro da Cortona, in the Gallery of the Louvre, the 
 subject of whicli is a sacrifice for the reconciliation of 
 Jacob and Esau, this, the leading event, is represented 
 by small figures in the background, whilst figures of in- 
 ferior interest, and having but a small share in the 
 action, are prominent in the foreground. The incon- 
 sistency of such a composition is evident. This fault is, 
 however, redeemed by great beauties in the colouring. 
 
 Whenever the expression of the features, and action 
 of the body, instead of being directed to the point of 
 deepest interest, appear to refer chiefly to some less im- 
 portant circumstance, the composition becomes wanting 
 in grace. In a picture of the Baptism of our Saviour, by 
 Paris Bordone, (formerly attributed to Giulio Romano), 
 in the Pinacoteca of Milan, the attention is drawn to 
 the effort made by St. John to maintain himself in a 
 convenient situation for pouring water on the head of 
 the Saviour, and not, by any means, to the religious 
 emotion which one would wish to see impressed in every 
 feature and action of the saint on such an occasion. 
 There are other pictures of the same subject, in the 
 galleries of Italy, in which the efforts made by St. John, 
 to reach a suitable elevation for performing the cere- 
 mony of baptism, are more conspicuous than his pious 
 humility. 
 
 There are several instances, in the galleries of 
 Bologna and Parma, where expression is greatly height- 
 ened by the beauty, refinement, and delicacy, of the 
 countenances. It would appear, from these examples, 
 that expression, in many cases, is to be obtained rather 
 by a judicious selection of features appropriate to the
 
 IN TH1-: FIGURE. 15^ 
 
 subject, than by an attempt to mark the characteristic 
 signs of emotion on features coarse and insignificant, or 
 taken indiscriminately. This applies chiefly to the 
 female features ; but even in men, where great dignity, 
 or the expression of that extreme benevolence which 
 should be characteristic of divine subjects, is required, 
 coarseness of features suffices to defeat the object. The 
 common features of a San Francesco, by Domenichino, in 
 the Palazzo Zambeccari at Bologna, though not out of 
 place in a head which one is inclined to associate with 
 that of a Franciscan monk, would appear utterly wanting 
 in dignity in the head of our Saviour, which at first 
 sight appears to be the subject of this painting. In the 
 sacrifice of Isaac, in the Pinacoteca of Milan, Jordacns 
 has given common, and almost clownish, features, to the 
 angel sent to Abraham, instead of the seraphic beauty of 
 a heavenly being. The features are totally devoid of 
 expression, and even had they possessed the suitable in- 
 dications of emotion, expression, associated with the 
 coarse forms adopted by the artist, would probably still 
 have remained very imperfect. 
 
 I have already alluded to the principles advanced 
 by Sir Charles Bell. He founds his interesting analysis 
 of expression partly on a comparison, formed by antithe- 
 sis, between its characteristic signs, in the various wild 
 animals, and in the human features ; but principally on 
 anatomical research respecting the office performed by 
 each muscle of the face, when subjected to the varying 
 influences of violent emotions. Either of these systems, 
 carried out in practice, must lead to results far short of
 
 154 EXl'KKSSION 
 
 those delicate expressions and engaging airs of tlie 
 countenances, which, in works of art, captivate, at the 
 same time that they stir up our feehngs. Before, how- 
 ever, entering into the consideration of those coarser 
 marks of expression which physiology points out, the 
 author, by an allusion to the mild expression of the 
 Inuiian features in sleep, shows that he is not insensible 
 to those delicate external signs which are chiefly per- 
 ceived when the mind is contemplated, as through a 
 slender veil, beyond. But his observation " that ex- 
 pression shows itself in the sleeping features, because we 
 judge them to be capable of it under other circum- 
 stances,"* seems almost to be going to the opposite 
 extreme ; for although the state of profound sleep would 
 seem to imply the absence of all outward signs of mental 
 activity, the features, nevertheless, disclose a particular 
 state of the mind, quite distinct from any waking- 
 condition which we might suppose to be devoid of the 
 usual indications of emotion or intellectual exertion. 
 There can be no waking state of the countenance from 
 which thought is entirely excluded without producing 
 vacancy. 
 
 In the opinion of Winckelmann, all violent distortion 
 of the features, in the paroxysm of emotion, is greatly 
 detrimental to art. It disturbs, according to him, that 
 beauty of form which should prevail, even in the violence 
 of passion ; and he disapproves of a treatise of Le Brun, 
 
 ' Hell's " Anatoni)' and Piiilosophy of Expression, as connected with 
 the Kine Arts," Essay 1 , p. 1 0.
 
 IN THE FIGURE. 155 
 
 the examples of which have been taken from the exag- 
 gerated effects of passion.* 
 
 Intense and energetic expression may result, either 
 from the exciting and moving nature of the event, or 
 from the deep feeling and excitability of the beholders ; 
 but it will appear either constrained, unnatural, or ludi- 
 crous, when it seems resulting from a violent disturbance 
 of the features, without due reference to the cause. The 
 Massacre of the Innocents, by Guido, in the Accademia 
 of Bologna, shows how much may be done, even in the 
 most heart-rending subjects, without any excessive dis- 
 tortion of the features. The Lucretia in the Palazzo 
 Zampieri at Bologna, the Allegrezza Fresco, also by 
 Guido, and in the same palace, and elsewhere, various 
 heads of Virgins and inspired Saints, are further examples 
 of how much expression is associated with perfection in 
 the moulding of the features. In a Madonna by Van- 
 dyck, in the gallery of Parma, a marked expression of 
 placid joy is given, by the slightest motion of the lips and 
 almost imperceptible alteration in the usual form of the 
 countenance ; yet the intended expression is perfect, and 
 most charming. In the Madonna della Scodella, as well 
 as in the San Girolamo, by Coreggio, both at Parma, 
 there are beautiful instances of the advantage which 
 results from the adaptation of the airs of the counte- 
 nances to the subject, with very little effort. In the 
 original picture, this is pleasingly exemplified bv the 
 countenance of the young angel near the figure of San 
 
 * Sec Wiuckulmanii (Sur I'Ait.) vol. i. p. '.iOI. '• KcnmrqiiL' s-ur l'K.\- 
 prcssioii (Ics Artistes Moili'iiii:'."
 
 156 KXl'KESSION 
 
 Girolamo ; but unfortunately for those who have not 
 visited Parma, such expressions as these, cannot be ren- 
 dered by any ordinary style of illustration. These light 
 and delicate indications of feeling, as they remind the ob- 
 server of expressions familiar to liini, often appear more 
 true to nature than the marks of passion which are 
 accompanied by a greater distortion of the features. It 
 would seem, in many instances, as though the artist con- 
 tented himself with placing his figures in the most easy 
 and graceful positions which are conformable to the sub- 
 ject, and allowed expression to follow, almost as a conse- 
 quence, and not from a desire to produce effect, or a show 
 of emotion. 
 
 In the Sainte Marguerite delivered from the Dragon, 
 in the Louvre, the form and attitude of the youthful saint 
 are marked by peculiar elegance : seraphic innocence 
 prevails in her features. Thus, to her piety and inno- 
 cence alone, we ascribe her victory over the dragon : had 
 she been armed with strength instead of virtue, this 
 beautiful dependence for her preservation on a Superior 
 Power, would not have impressed itself on the observer. 
 A small picture bv Guido, in the collection of the Mar- 
 quis of AVestminster, represents the adoration of the 
 Magi ; and one of the shepherds, instead of gazing in- 
 tently on the infant Christ, as might have been expected, 
 has an absent and meditative look, indicating, perhaps, 
 much more forciblv than would have done a more lively 
 expression of interest, that amazement and deep inward 
 emotion which stamp the impress of stupor on the fea- 
 tures. 
 
 In few niodcni j)ictures has that sweetness of expres-
 
 IN THE FIGUKK. 1.57 
 
 sion which befits graceful and delicate female features, 
 even in deep melancholy, been more ])eautifully attained, 
 than in the two paintings of the Sisters, from the poem 
 "Bereavement," exhibited by Eddis, in the year 1848. 
 
 If exaggeration be sometimes allowable in the expres- 
 sion of the countenances, it appears to succeed best when 
 its aim is to add to the animation of the features, and to 
 impart a cheerful liveliness to the looks and attitudes, 
 sometimes approaching to exultation. This kind of ex- 
 pression has been introduced, with a pleasing result, in 
 several of the pictures of Holy Families by the old mas- 
 ters, especially by Coreggio ; and one might perhaps 
 add, by Michael Angelo, although it has taken, in this 
 master, a somewhat different tendency. In a painting of 
 the Holy Family, by Andrea del Sarto, in the Louvre, it 
 strikes you at once, that there is something uncommon 
 in the movements and airs of the heads ; and it may be 
 observed that character and expression are somewhat 
 exaggerated in this picture, and that the artist, by a 
 slight violation of truth to nature, has, without offending 
 the taste, succeeded in affording to the observer the 
 delight which results from livelier and more extended 
 powers of the imagination. 
 
 By giving, however, a dramatic character to the ex- 
 pression and grouping of the figures, art falls from 
 nature, to a pitch much lower than herself. This is the 
 fault which does so great an injury to the paintings of the 
 French master, David, and obliterates, in the eyes of 
 many, the merit of his beautiful drawing and correct 
 anatomy. Paul Veronese has, in general, avoided this 
 defect, notwithstanding the tendency which large paint-
 
 15<S KXPKKSSION 
 
 ings with a multitude of figures, (such as appear in his 
 Suppers and other works) have, to produce this style ; 
 but, in his picture of the interview of Alexander with the 
 familv of Darius, at Venice, the appearance of the armed 
 figures has something dramatical ; and the picture of 
 Mutius Scsevola, by Guercino, in the Palazzo Pallavicini 
 at Genoa, appears to derive a dramatic character fi'om 
 the armed costume of the personages. The appearance 
 of figures in complete armour being now confined almost 
 entirely to the stage, it is not surprising that their intro- 
 duction into paintings should give a dramatic character to 
 the subjects represented. 
 
 A successful attempt at deep expression, or intense 
 thought, is seldom met with, where lively and showy 
 colours have been employed in the drapery and other 
 parts. The sleep of the infant, and the fond mother's 
 care, are both strongly and beautifully expressed in the 
 Madonna of Sasso Ferrato, in the Brera of Milan ; but 
 the anxious watchfulness of the mother's countenance 
 would, probablv, have been much more conspicuous, had 
 it been surrounded by colours less obtrusive. A por- 
 trait of a Pittrice, by herself, of the Bologncse school, in 
 the gallery of Milan, shows how much expression is en- 
 hanced by the perfect subordination of those lights and 
 colours which do not form part of the features. 
 
 In the Marriage of St. Catherine, by Coreggio, at the 
 Louvre, the bright colouring of the draperies docs not, 
 as frequently happens, appear to diminish the lively ex- 
 pression of the countenances ; but, in this case, a certain 
 cheerfulness pervades the subject, and a smile on most of 
 the faces, harmonizes with the glowing effect of colour.
 
 IN THE FIGURE. 1.59 
 
 Tlie picture of the Holy Familv, by Murillo, in the 
 National Ciallery, exemplifies strikingly, the happy re- 
 sults of a cheerful and animated exnression suitably com- 
 bined with a rich and lively colourinff. 
 
 A deep and rich colouring, without being glaring, does 
 not appear, in general, to interfere with expression, as is 
 proved by the admirable union of expression and richness 
 of tone, in most of Titian's paintings. Guido has 
 afforded a fine example of the possibility of this union, in 
 his St. Peter and St. Paul, in the Pinacotcca at Milan.* 
 
 The mechanical difficulties of execution, with regard 
 to expression in the human features, are much increased 
 by the positive and decided eflfcct, either for good or bad, 
 of every touch, as the work proceeds. Before the whole 
 draws near to its completion, and the relation between 
 the different parts is thus established, each dash of the 
 brush, though it may be justified in due time by the final 
 result, frequently appears, for the moment, to act in 
 direct opposition to its intended effect. Thus, the 
 painter appears to operate in contradiction to the adapta- 
 tion of means to ends which he knows to be the right 
 one ; and a desrree of certainty and firmness in the deci- 
 sions of taste, is required, for the success of this merely 
 practical part of expression, in the figure, which is not 
 at all necessary with regard to the less positive and de- 
 terminate results aimed at in other styles. This difficulty 
 is, in some measure, lessened, by painting the subject 
 over, two, three, or more times, with colours very light 
 at first, and progressively increasing in tone, till the 
 
 • 'I'lio oiitliiif ol'tliis picture will lie found in the part on perspective, as 
 an illiistriition of forcshortenin-r.
 
 IGO KXPUK.SSIOX 
 
 required vigour of colouring is arrived at : I)ut those 
 masters of their art, who paint, as the Italians designate 
 it, alia prima, put on the colours with all their intended 
 depth of tone at first, and, in defiance of the most incon- 
 gruous and sometimes absurd appearances, work out at 
 once, the result which they have conceived, and taken 
 firm possession of, in their minds. * 
 
 EXPRESSION IN THE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 In the landscape, expression has a much more indefi- 
 nite character than in the figure, or in the historical 
 composition. In the first place, there is nothing, in the 
 irregular objects which compose natural scenery, that 
 cojTesponds with those qualities which indicate perfection 
 in the human species, and constitute its types of beauty. 
 
 * Many of the most skilful of the aucient masters, however, have evi- 
 dently proceeded very frequently on the most cautious plan, as may be proved 
 by the various detached portions of their works, in a more or less finished 
 state, which are still preserved. The original designs for Coreggio's beautiful 
 picture of the iladonna della Scodella, for instance, may he seen, in three 
 parts, in a private collection at Milan ; and these, too, in a highl^'-finished 
 state ; the figures possessing quite as much expression and sweetness as in the 
 actual picture. The painting of St. Girolamo may also be seen in parts ; the 
 angel with the same heavenly countenance, and Elizabeth in a still more 
 confined position than in the picture itself, in which the artist allowed more 
 room, but still not enough {Sec Plate, p. 124). Again, the figures introduced 
 in the Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci, may be met with as detached 
 heads; and RaflTaelle, Michael Angelo, &c. were not above these studious 
 efforts to master their subject gradually, and carry out, with pains, their own 
 grand and beautiful conceptions. Occasionally they repeated their efforts 
 on the same canvas ; and, when time has worn off a portion of the external 
 surface, a leg, or arm, may be traced, in a different position from that finally 
 adopted. These blunders, however, called by the Italians ^' penlimenli" are 
 very likely to occur, when the artist is attempting to paint " alia prima" or 
 from an imperfect sketch. — Mrs. H. T.
 
 IN THi: I.ANDSCAPK. l6l 
 
 A tree is not the more picturesque for being of regular 
 growth, nor the outline of a rock or mountain for being 
 symmetrical. Such characters as these tend to lessen the 
 beauty of rural scenery. In the second place, impressions 
 more or less definite and uniform, result, in the figure, 
 from certain expressions of the features, and actions of 
 the limbs ; whereas, in the scenery which constitutes the 
 landscape, no constant and uniform emotions can be 
 traced to particular classes of objects. The beauties of 
 rural nature awaken, like music, impressions, not of one 
 uniform tenor, but varying with change of time and cir- 
 cumstance, even in the same mind. 
 
 The characteristic merits of the figure, and of the 
 landscape, may be traced in the nature of the pleasures 
 which are afforded by these diflferent styles. Those 
 which arc dependent on expression in the human fea- 
 tures, arc, I'clatively speaking, more limited and definite. 
 Those which result from the contemplation of nature, are 
 vague, indeterminate, and fluctuating ; but they are 
 entirely free from the association of those imperfections 
 which are inseparable from human nature. 
 
 We may trace the pleasures aflForded by the landscape 
 painting, to those which usually attend the contemplation 
 of sublime scenery, — to that delightful and ennobling 
 pursuit of natures adornments, which generally unites a 
 healthful and invigorated state of the frame, with the 
 most perfect mental calm, and admits, therefore, of the 
 highest degree of contemplative enjoyment. Hut if it be 
 in the nature of landscape scenery, in opposition to the 
 forms of the luinian features, to produce a state of 
 reverie in which the iiiiiid l)iiiltl> images, and forms pie- 
 
 .M
 
 Hi*^ EXPRESSION 
 
 tures, to itself far more perfect than any thing that art 
 can produce ; the vagueness and uncertainty which are 
 (.haracteristic of hindscape beauty, seem, at first, to oppose 
 themselves to that concentration and clear devclopement 
 of images and ideas, without which there would be no 
 visible aim in the exercise of art. The characteristic 
 scenes and effects of nature are, however, notwithstanding 
 the mystery which is connected with their expression, 
 sufficiently marked and distinct from each other, to 
 engross a considerable degree of interest individually. 
 The distinctive features which appear severally in the 
 outward forms of different scenes, and the marked 
 changes which are successively brought on, either in the 
 usual or extraordinary course of natural events, suffice, 
 ahke, to constitute distinctions which forcibly strike 
 the imagination. Nature supplies to art her most valu- 
 able stores, in those efifects which accompany her sudden 
 transitions ; and art, in order to give additional em- 
 phasis to the expression of these characteristic signs of 
 nature, avails herself of various episodes and incidents of 
 her own peculiar resort. The expression of morning 
 or of cveninji is amonffst the liveliest which nature 
 affords ; but the smoke rising from the cottage, cattle 
 leaving their enclosures, or the gathering in of the 
 harvest, the collecting of the implements, and other si- 
 milar incidents, mav be made to give additional emphasis 
 to the expression of these periods of the day. The more 
 trifling and unnoticed is the incident which adds ex- 
 pression to a scene, the greater, in general, is the pl(>a- 
 surc resultiiijj from it. The flatr waving on the church 
 lower, in Hogarth's picture of the Knnigcd Fiddler, to
 
 IN THE I.ANDSCAl'K. 16S 
 
 indicate the ringing of the helly, whose deafening peals 
 add to the general uproar, and to the despair of the 
 musician, is an admirahle, though singular, instance of 
 expression. 
 
 Unity of purpose is as necessary in the expression of 
 a landscape, as unity of action is in the historical subject. 
 All objects must assimilate in one point, however dis- 
 similar they may be in others. There must be some 
 conformity of tone, and relation of form, however great 
 the variety in the characteristic features of the subject. 
 Expression frequently depends, in the quiet landscape, 
 on the gracefulness and beauty of objects set in perfect 
 unison of form and colour. A slight change in the tone 
 of the atmosphere, or in the slender form of a hanging 
 bough, may suffice to complete the expression of a scene 
 thus nicelv balanced : unsubdued colours in the clothina; 
 of the figures, the too decided green of the meadows, or 
 a cold ripple of the water where a warm sky would other- 
 wise be reflected, would disturb it. The artist fails in 
 retaining these soft and delicate expressions of nature, 
 cither in her moments of perfect stillness and repose, or 
 when they mark her fleeting transitions ; but he forms, 
 in his mind, an ideal picture, before he paints the real 
 one ; he endows it with the sentiment with wliirh he 
 is himself animated ; he then endeavours to work up, in 
 light, shade, and colour, to the height of his inspiration, 
 and to make others sharers of iiis own conceptions ; and 
 he succeeds, or fails, in proportion as he impresses, more 
 or less forcibly and distinctly, his ideal scene, on the 
 minds of others.
 
 l64 RELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 RELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 PREDOMINATING INFLUENCE OF LIGHT. 
 
 In the processes of art, relations of light and shade 
 can only include such effects as may result from neutral 
 tints of various degrees of intensity, from white to black ; 
 but, considered with reference to nature, the influence of 
 real light must be superadded. 
 
 Nature affords striking examples of the predo- 
 minating power of light over colours of all subordinate 
 shades. Its influence sometimes prevails to such an 
 extent, that form itself cannot be distinctly traced, and 
 often appears changed. For instance, the sharp lights 
 reflected on highly-polished surfaces often appear to cut 
 into some darker object which comes across them, form- 
 ing an apparent gap ; and the sun appears to leave a 
 kind of depression, where it emerges in full brilliancy 
 from the horizon ; and should it come in contact with 
 a slender object, such as a pillar or the trunk of a tree, 
 the brilliancy of the light appears to encroach upon its 
 substance, and diminish its width ; an effect which 
 Turner has happily represented in a small picture in the 
 possession of Mr. Wyndham, where one of his luminous 
 suns comes in contact with a tower. 
 
 The prevailing influence of light, is exemplified, in 
 a less degree, by that of white colour, as is shown by the 
 examples 1 and 2 in the adjoining plate. Fig. 1 widens 
 progressively from its light extremity towards the other, 
 and fig. 2 is most contracted in the centre ; but the ten-
 
 EFFECTS OK CONTKAST. H)5 
 
 dency of the white to spread, and to prevail over darker 
 tints, causes these bands to widen in appearance, in the 
 wliite part ; and, viewed at a distance at which the im- 
 pression prevails rather than the precise boundary, their 
 sides appear parallel. Fig. 3 shows this prevalence of 
 tlic white over a subdued or grey tint, in })roducing, 
 when seen from a distant point, more or less the ap- 
 pearance of a straight line with parallel sides ; and the 
 white portion of fig. 4 appears to belong to a larger 
 circle than the corresponding darkened portion, an effect 
 which is strikingly exemplified by the greater apparent 
 size of the luminous portion of the moon, in its first 
 quarter, compared with the remainder of its disc, when 
 rendered faintly visible by the light which is reflected 
 from the earth. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTKAST. 
 
 The next point to be considered, in reference to liglu 
 and shade, is the influence of contrast; embracing the 
 various effects which are due to the exercise of a 
 powerful stimulus on the organ of sight. The accom- 
 panying figure is an example of the reciprocal action of 
 neutral tints, of various shades, placed in juxtaposition.
 
 166 
 
 HKLATJONS OF LHillT AN'O SHADE. 
 
 The delusive result which may be obtained by so trifling 
 a moans, uiuy enable us, in some degree, to appreciate 
 the extensive and important influence of contrast, in 
 those various and intricate combinations of lights and 
 colours, which constitute the harmony of nature. The 
 parallel bands of neutral tint of various shades, appear 
 darker on the side contiguous to a lighter shade, and 
 lighter on the side contiguous to a darker shade ; so 
 that the whole series has a fluted appearance, although 
 the intensity of each shade, taken separately, is uniform. 
 If we can thus be made sensible to a delusive influence, 
 by means so inadequate as those which are afforded by 
 mere gradations of neutral tint, what powerful results 
 might not be expected, from the oppositions of real light 
 and dai'kness, had we the means of divesting any par- 
 ticular natural appearances of all those influences which 
 act as counterpoises and maintain that equilibrium of 
 harmony which renders nature, subjected to the sense 
 of vision, true and constant in her effects ! 
 
 By substituting the light of nature for the white of 
 paper or pigment, and its shadows for black, we step 
 beyond these simple effects, and become engaged in that 
 variety of consequences, which depends on all possible 
 combinations both of light and of colour. I will but 
 suggest a mode of classifying these results, and of placing 
 them in a more comprehensible form. 
 
 Tlie following are some of the pi'incipal distinctions 
 which occur with regard to the transitions of light and 
 shade which are presented by nature: — Firstly, The 
 effects which are due to contrasts of light and shade on 
 monochromatic surfaces, such as white or grey paper ; — 
 Secondly, On surfaces affording various shade? of the
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTHAST. l67 
 
 same tint; — and, Thirdly, On surfaces of all shades, 
 and of all colours ; in which case, the brilliancy of the 
 most glaring colour may be united to that of a primitive 
 light, and the darkness of the deepest colour to the ob- 
 scurity which results fi-om the most complete practicable 
 privation of light. In this last case, the amount of 
 transition which is comprehended in the whole range of 
 colours, from black to white, is combined in its effects, 
 with those which are afforded, in nature, by the oppo- 
 sition of the brightest lights and the deepest shadows. 
 We may easily fancy these extremes of light and shade, 
 as well as of colour, to occur simultaneously, under 
 various circumstances. For instance, we may suppose 
 the white wall of a house, fully exposed to sunshine, to 
 project its shadow over a bank covered with brown 
 mosses. In this case, we have the brown of the moss op- 
 posed to the white of the house, and the projected 
 shadow to the full sunshine ; — both must be summed up 
 to complete the intensity of the contrast. But we may 
 further suppose that under the house, in the shade, is 
 a hole or small arch, with water running from it, and 
 that this cavity likewise abounds with brown moss or 
 black stains. All this is immediately contiguous to the 
 side of the building which is exposed to the sun, so that 
 the transition would be near enough to he t'olt. To the 
 previous gradation from sunshine to the projected 
 shadow, we have, therefore, now added the increased 
 gloom which results from a cavity, perhaps further 
 sheltered by surrounding foliajje. 
 
 Similar examples of contrast, or approaching in 
 power, may occur in a hmidn-d ways; as for instance.
 
 1()8 UELATIONS OF I.KJHT AND SHADE. 
 
 when the white hark of certain trees catches the light of 
 the sini, which is excluded from their blackened hollows ; 
 and when sunny rocks and cliifs open, in their shadowy 
 recesses, clefts and fissures darkened by the weeds and 
 water. The clothing of figures, frequently adds very 
 dark local colours to the shadiness of the situation. I 
 need not multiply the examples. It will be evident, that 
 the greatest intensity of contrast which could be pro- 
 duced, would result from the strongest light associated to 
 the brightest colour, on the one hand, and the deepest 
 shadow in connection with the material the best adapted 
 to absorb light, on the other. But it is probable, that 
 we are prevented, by that construction of the eye which 
 enables us to distinguish objects with considerable dis- 
 tinctness in deep shadow, from appreciating the entire 
 amount of contrast which may result from the combined 
 influence of the extremes of light and colour, set in op- 
 position. The sun itself, if we are momentarily able to 
 observe it, when at a considerable elevation in the sky, 
 does not give the impression of a violent contrast with 
 the surrounding space ; which may partly be accounted 
 for, by the incapability of the organ of sight to ap- 
 preciate the degree of darkness which borders the most 
 intense light, and partly from the luminous atmosphere 
 by which the sun appears to be surrounded. 
 
 The intense contrast of light and dark which appears 
 to accompany a flash of lightning, results, probably, from 
 the previous condition of the eye, the pupil of which, 
 being dilated by the prevailing darkness, becomes ex- 
 tremely sensible to the sudden brilliancy of the light- 
 iiing. Thii#-i.s, perhaps, the strongest example of light
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 1 1)9 
 
 and darkness, to which we are rendered familiar by na- 
 tural effects. It is probably surpassed however by those 
 which are produced artificially, by the combustion of 
 certain highly inflauimable substances in darkened 
 rooms. 
 
 The deepest shadows which arc presented, in the 
 ordinary eflPects of nature, are far from realizing the 
 impression which we form of complete darkness ; for 
 there are no recesses, however protected, which do not 
 receive light, in a greater or less degree, by reflexion ; 
 and the increase of light in the shadows, provided the 
 circumstances be not altered, takes place in a ratio cor- 
 responding to that of the primitive light. Generally 
 speaking, the intensity of the contrast does not appear to 
 increase with the strength of the primitive light, unless 
 the transparency of the atmosphere be, at the same time, 
 increased. For instance, the observation of the lights 
 and shadows which are produced by sunshine, does not 
 convev the impression of contrasts greatly exceeding in 
 depth those which are formed by the light of the moon ; 
 and it may be doubted, whether the latter do not some- 
 times appear equally strong. Likewise from sunrise till 
 noon, the amount of contrast between the lights and the 
 ])rojected shadows, does not appear to increase in the 
 same ratio as tlio light itself. If the increase of the 
 primitive light, in such cases, were represented by tens, 
 the progression of the reflected light in the shadows, 
 would be indicated by the corresponding units ; !)ut 
 these data are imperfect guides in judging of the ap- 
 [)arent effect. Tlic diifcrence between the relative ap- 
 parent intensity of the shadows and of the lights, cliieflv
 
 170 RELATIONS Ol LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 dei)eiids, in sucli cases, upon the degree of purity ot" the 
 atmosphere ; the shadows being ver^ deep when the sky 
 is clear, and proportionably faint when it is thick and 
 hazy. In fact, the apparent intensity of all projected 
 shadows, is proportionate to the absence, or removal, 
 of all objects which might reflect light. In an open 
 ph\in, the projected shadows are much deeper, if the 
 sky be clear, than in inclosed places ; but the presence, 
 in the sky, of a few bright clouds, will at once diminish 
 the depth of the shadows. I have remarked an extraor- 
 dinary degree of intensity, in the shadows projected by 
 the rocks on the summit of Mount Righi ; an effect 
 which was produced by the combined influence of a pure 
 atmosphere, and of the absence of all neighbouring 
 objects which might reflect light. On the other hand, 
 in places inclosed between white walls, where the sun, 
 shining upon one of them, is reflected back upon the 
 other, as well as on the space between, the projected 
 shadows will at times almost disappear. 
 
 I have endeavoured, by employing gradations of 
 neutral tint, from white to black, to establish a term of 
 comparison for the intensity of the transitions which 
 mark the passage from sunshine to shadow, and from 
 simple shadow to the darkness of a confined spot pro- 
 tected from all light. I came to the approximate con- 
 clusion, that when the projected shadows of an object 
 were very perfect, and little influenced by reflected 
 lights, the transition alluded to, could be represented, 
 only three times, by the different shades of neutral tint 
 which occur between white and black. I conceive that 
 it may be necessary to explain the manner in which the
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTKAST. 17 1 
 
 experiment was performed, in order to be understood. 
 A board is taken, having, in the first place, different 
 shades of neutral tint, from white to black. The shade 
 No. 1 has such a degree of darkness, that, placed in the 
 sun, it appears to match the pure white, in the shade 
 which is projected by an opaque body. The passage, 
 therefore, from pure white to shade No. 1, corresponds 
 with the transition from sunshine to shadow, on a surface 
 of an uniform tint. In the second experiment, the tint 
 No. 2, placed in the sunshine, is made to match No. 1 
 in the shade ; and in the third experiment, the tint 
 No. 3, which corresponds to black, will match, when 
 placed in the sunshine. No. 2 in the shade : and here we 
 have the transition from primary sunshine to simple pro- 
 jected shadow, repeated three times over, by the gra- 
 dations which are afforded by the pallet from white to 
 black. 
 
 But I must here observe, that simple shadow is not 
 the deepest shadow that nature affords, even in broad 
 daylight. The shadows of hollows and recesses, espe- 
 cially if their surface be darkened so as to absorb 
 light, are much deeper. If, therefore, we compare the 
 scale of artificial tints with nature, we shall find that, 
 according to the previous comparison, we are one shade 
 wanting at the bottom of the series ; since it would 
 require one degree more of shade, added to black, to 
 make it equal the darkness of sheltered hollows. The 
 transition, therefore, from bright sunshine to the dark- 
 ness of the most obscure recesses, would oidy be equalled 
 twice, speaking proximatolv, by the whole range of tints, 
 or neutral compounds, from pure white to black. The
 
 172 KKI,AT10NS Ol' MGIIT AND SIIADK. 
 
 pure white witli which those supply us, put in u shady 
 place, or in a room (which corresponds, to a certain 
 extent, to a shady situation out of doors), is equivalent 
 only to a grey tint placed in the sun ; and, at the lower 
 end of the scale, the darkest black in simple shade, is 
 ecjual only to a dark grey placed in a gloomy recess. 
 What in nature exceeds the former in brilliancy, and the 
 latter in darkness, art cannot furnish by any material 
 means : we shall afterwards consider whether it can, in 
 some measure, supply the deficiency by artifice. More- 
 over, in scenes in which the sun's light is reflected by 
 polished surfaces, as by water, some leaves of trees, and 
 other glazed or glossy surfaces, we have a degree of 
 light considerably exceeding the brilliancy of sunshine 
 on unpolished surfaces of any colour. If it be, there- 
 fore, our intention to introduce these primary and 
 dazzling reflexes, in any part of a picture, it will beconK' 
 necessary to keep those tints which represent sunshine 
 on light-coloured objects, a degree lower than would be 
 otherwise necessary ; and the remainder of the scale, 
 down to black, will become more limited. 
 
 Using colours to match the transition from sunshine 
 to shadow, instead of neutral tints, the number of gra- 
 dations becomes reduced ; since, instead of having white 
 for the starting point, we begin with a positive colour 
 more or less inferior to the brilliancy of white. Taking, 
 however, a series of yellow gradations, beginning with 
 chrome yellow, the great brilliancy of that colour, allows 
 the transition from sunshine to shadow to be matched 
 nearly three times, down to black, if the atmosphere be 
 not particularly clear, but little more than twice, willi a
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 17'^ 
 
 transparent and deep blue sky ; for in this last case, the 
 yellow, placed in the shade, is exposed only to the blue 
 rays of light, which that pigment does not reflect, and 
 therefore loses much of its brilliancy. With the red and 
 blue series, the experiment can only be repeated about 
 twice ; the starting points, namely, vermilion in the one 
 case, and cobalt blue in the other, being considerably 
 inferior, in their degree of brilliancy, to white, or even 
 to chrome yellow. At the lower end of the scale, where 
 those colours are situated which absorb the greatest 
 quantity of light, a much less decided difference of tone 
 is required, to equal the transition from sunshine to 
 shadow, than at the upper end of the scale ; for the 
 influence of the sun on the lighter colours, is much 
 more apparent. This is important in paintings where 
 coloured draperies are introduced, since it shows that in 
 dark-coloured materials, the passages from light to 
 shade must be put in, relatively speaking, in a less de- 
 cided manner than in light-coloured textures. 
 
 Diferences which result, in the impression produced 
 on the eije, by the dimensions of the contrasting object 
 or linl. — The following circumstances, connected with 
 contrasts of light and shade, have a great influence on 
 the practical method of representing objects in paint- 
 ings. It is necessary, in the oppositions of light and 
 shade, that the chiaro-scuro be presented to the eye in 
 masses of a certain extent, in order to produce the full 
 amount of contrast of which it is capable. Those transi- 
 tions which are presented in a minute form, escape, in 
 a great measure, observation. This mav be practically
 
 174 
 
 RELATIONS OV LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 shown, by plnciiig bars or slips, of various thicknesses, 
 in a window-frame, that is to say, between the observer 
 and the principal source of light. Although they be all 
 of the same colour, they will appear more or less dark 
 according to their width or tenuity ; the thickest or 
 widest appearing considerably darker than those which 
 are most slender. And if slips or other slender objects, 
 placed at various distances from the eye, be brought 
 into apparent contact with each other, they become 
 darker than when viewed singly, and their increase of 
 darkness is, to a certain extent, proportionate to the ap- 
 parent increase of width produced by the aggregation of 
 the slips. 
 
 When slips or bars, at unequal distances from the 
 eye, are so placed that they appear to cross each other, 
 the point of contact is marked by an increase of shade, 
 forming, as it were, a dark spot. This effect is, how- 
 ever, not exactly the same in all positions. The dark- 
 ened spot appears to correspond with the intersection, 
 chiefly, when a vertical object crosses one placed hori- 
 zontally, as in Fig. 1. When slender objects cross each 
 
 Ffg. 2. 
 
 F^.3. 
 
 Fif;.\.
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 175 
 
 other diaoonally, the darkened knots do not appear to 
 correspond with the intersections, but they are con- 
 spicuous at a point contiguous to that of conjunction, as 
 in Fig. 2. In representing, therefore, slender objects 
 which cross each other either contiguously or at various 
 distances, the effects of nature would justify our making 
 tliem a little harder, or more marked, either at the in- 
 tersecting points, or in the immediate vicinity. It will 
 perhaps be seen, that in Fig. 3, where the bars are ren- 
 dered with flat shade, the effect is less natural ; but as 
 the result varies, with the relative position of the ob- 
 servei', and of the objects which cross each other, some 
 variety is allowable in the manner in which these cross- 
 ings are emphasized in a drawing, especially in irregular 
 objects. 
 
 Almost every one with whom art is a pursuit, has 
 some vague knowledge of the proponderating influence 
 which is exercised by extent or breadth in uniform 
 shades of tint and colour. The tree which stands out 
 surrounded by the atmosphere, is not painted, even by 
 the unskilled, equally dark and heavy in its centre and 
 oil its visible edge or boundary ; although, from its 
 situation, the masses of foliage would be equally exposed 
 to light on all parts of its circumference. The intuitive 
 appreciation of contrasts speaks even to the child, and 
 instructs liiin that the same tint will appear darker on 
 the edire next the lijiht, than where it is surrounded bv 
 shade. Facts so obvious require to be neither parti- 
 cularly impressed nor elucidated. It is, however, in 
 effects like these, which arc more easily appropriated to 
 the daily purposes of art than examined, that routine
 
 17<> UELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SIIADK. 
 
 creeps in as it were by stealth, and misleads, not only 
 the indifferent with regard to the truths of nature, but 
 even those who, making her their ostensible study, 
 neglect to analyse and to compare. 
 
 Those changes in the appearance of objects placed 
 at unequal distances from the eye, which are due to the 
 difference of the focus of vision which is used alter- 
 nately to see the nearer and the more distant object, 
 make little impression on the senses, although they are, 
 in reality, very considerable ; for the attention of the 
 observer being always directed to the point on which 
 both eyes are simultaneously fixed, that point or object 
 appears to him at the moment invariably perfect : and 
 with such instinctive rapidity is the glance transferred 
 from one object to another, in the appreciation of forms, 
 that it may be presumed that the impression of com- 
 pleteness of that last observed, has not disappeared, 
 indeed, has scarcely diminished, ere the new object, or the 
 part of it upon which the eye is directed, is distinctly 
 beheld. Indistinctness in the boundaries of objects, 
 doubtless occurs in flashes, as the glance is transferred 
 from one point to another ; which, with one or two other 
 circumstances unnecessary to particularize, contributes to 
 the appreciation of the intervals of space which separate 
 objects one from another. These undefinable and transi- 
 tory effects cannot be rendered, or even attempted with 
 any chance of success, on flat surfaces. But the omission 
 of effects, of which we become fully sensible only by 
 taking as it were our own impressions by surprise, cannot 
 be much felt in the picture, in whicli the subject itself 
 absorbs the whole (if the attention. It niav, however, be
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 
 
 177 
 
 well to exclude from it the representation of such objects 
 as are situated in the close proximity of the eye. 
 
 I will return to the effects of contrast before alluded 
 to, and which are entirely independent of the' focus of 
 vision. If we draw lines of various thicknesses, but of 
 equal strength or hardness, on white paper, as in Fig. 5, 
 we find that the result corresponds, exactly, to that of 
 slender bars or slips placed before a strong light, and 
 that the narrowest appear excessively faint, whilst the 
 broadest appear dark and heavy, the progression of 
 strength being proportionate to the apparent width of 
 the lines. Or if a series of parallel lines be drawn, so 
 close together that the intervals between them almost dis- 
 appear (see Fig. ()), they again acquire an apparent 
 degree of shade and darkness, which we do not connect 
 with the appearance of each line taken singly. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 
 This simply brings us back to what I have stated 
 before, that it is not merely the intensity of tiic shade, 
 but the mass or extent of surface which it covers, which is 
 
 N
 
 178 UEI.VTIONS or LIGHT ANU SHADE. 
 
 required, in order to produce the greatest amount of 
 contrast. There is, however, a point at which the di- 
 mensions of the object which is placed against a strong 
 light, or the extent of darkened surface on a white 
 ground, cease to add to the intensity of the opposition. 
 When the angular or visual size of the object inter- 
 cepting the light, becomes increased to a certain extent, 
 either by adding to its width, or by drawing it nearer to 
 the eye, its surface loses somewhat of its darkness, and 
 the influence of secondary reflections becomes apparent. 
 Thus, if I place in a position to intercept the light, 
 bars or slips, of various colours as well as sizes, those 
 which are neither wide nor extremely attenuated, appear 
 dark, and of an uniform colour ; but as their width in- 
 creases, their colour becomes proportionately more ap- 
 parent; and coloured bands having about an inch in 
 width, show their colour tolerably distinctly, when 
 placed at the distance of a yard or two from the eve. 
 This can be stated but in an approximate manner ; 
 the point at which the effect of contrast appears to 
 diminish, and the local colour of the object to prevail, 
 differing considerably with every observer, owing to the 
 difference of the focus of sight of various individuals. 
 Short-sighted persons would not perceive the local 
 colours of objects placed before a glaring light, from so 
 distant a point as would long-sighted individuals. They 
 are obliged to approach much nearer, before the influence 
 of contrast gives place to local colour. But this effect, 
 though variable in its degree, is nevertheless constant 
 whenever the influences which occasion it are at hand. 
 Let us mark the contrasting influence of a strong
 
 KFFF.CTS OK CONTRAST. 179 
 
 light, Oil the most delicato forms of nature ; for instance, 
 as it affects the appearance of the twigs and light foliage 
 of trees, and the stems of plants. When a slender twig 
 or reed crosses the sky and distance of a landscape ; as 
 it passes from a luminous portion of the background, to 
 one that is less so, for instance, in passing over a small 
 cloud, or a distant hill, it becomes more marked and 
 distinct on the cloud or hill, than on the sky and lightest 
 parts of the distance ; whereas, if the object be of large 
 dimensions, it is when opposed to the greatest light, that 
 the contrast will appear the greatest. The stem of a 
 tree, a thick post or pillar, and a distant tower, there- 
 fore, become darker, from contrast, as they rise above 
 the neighbouring objects into the luminous atmosphere 
 of the sky. 
 
 Let us again mark the result, when a semi- 
 transparent mass, such as the light foliage of a tree, 
 extends over a background more illuminated in one part 
 than in another. It will appear more light and trans- 
 parent against the luminous part of the sky, than against 
 the darker portion. The light, appearing abundantly 
 through the intervals of the foliage, produces the same 
 result, as if the leaves were of a lighter and more trans- 
 parent character. A less quantity of light behind, ren- 
 ders the appearance of the foliage heavier. The effect, 
 therefore, corresponds to that of the slender form, taken 
 singly. The light liehind does not add to the contrast, 
 but takes off from the hardness of the opposition. Har- 
 mony and softness are secured by nature, and contrast 
 itself diminished, where, if too powerful, harshness would 
 result. Thus, the circumstance that the eye loses the
 
 180 RELATIONS OF MGIIT AND SHADE. 
 
 exact delineation of slender objects which arc surrounded 
 by a luminous atmosphere, becomes a means by which 
 lightness and delicacy arc infused into those parts of a 
 landscape where they arc required, whilst, at the same 
 time, the whole effect of contrast is maintained, where 
 the bulk and opacity of the objects demand it. 
 
 But, in cases of contrast, it is difficult to say when 
 the effect requires to be superadded in the imitation, 
 and when the similarity of the conditions of the drawin"; 
 with those of nature, is of itself sufficient. It may be 
 easy, when the local colour of an object is known to be 
 decidedly lighter or darker than one behind it, or when 
 its exposure to the light is unquestionably greater or 
 less, to determine whether it shall be made to come out 
 in light, or in dark ; but when the tint of an object 
 appears modified by the unequal influence of neigh- 
 bouring contrasts, it cannot easily be determined what 
 allowances are to be made, with regard to positive colour, 
 for those apparent changes which depend on relative 
 effect. For instance, a slender pillar in the aisle of a 
 church, although its tone be uniform throughout, or 
 nearly so, becomes dark where it crosses a window, and 
 light again where it traverses the dark recesses of the 
 vaults or groining. In nature, these transitions in the 
 appearance of the column, are owing entirely to effects 
 neighbouring or correlative. The colour and lighting of 
 the column itself, may be perfectly uniform. But, in 
 the painting, will these accompanying circumstances, if 
 correctly introduced, with mere pigment for light, and 
 without any contrivance or artifice, produce a corre- 
 sponding result ? Or will it be necessary to modify the
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTUAST. 181 
 
 tone of the column itself, in its different parts, in order 
 to give the character of truth to appearances which, in 
 nature, are superinduced, and not real ? 
 
 In the Molino of Claude Lorraine, a little to the 
 left of the centre, there is a slender graceful tree, with 
 scanty foliage, the stem of which winds across the tower 
 of the mill, and emerges thence into the sky. Being so 
 slender and distant an object, it might be difficult to 
 say, how far the deep tone of the building would absorb 
 the light on the stem of the tree, and whether its dia- 
 meter would be sufficient to make it come out, in light 
 contrast, on the dark background. Claude has not 
 made the stem of this tree at once lighter, as it passes 
 from the clear skv to the darker ground presented by 
 the tower ; but, deepening the colour of his brush, has 
 caused the stem to come out in soft shade, as he ex- 
 tended it across the tower. As it widens downwards, 
 however, a little light is thrown upon it, which brings it 
 out with contrast, upon the building. With such appa- 
 rently feeble means of relief, this object does not appear 
 to adhere to the building, but stands out, lightly and 
 freely. It is one of those cases, in which the exact 
 degree of opposition which each touch of colour meets 
 with, as it is put on, requires to be nicely weighed 
 against those conditions of contrast, which would occur 
 from really existing causes. Where the shrouds of the 
 vessels, in Claude's sea-views, come across buildings 
 more distant, their appearance is natural enough, being 
 somewhat heavier than where they traverse the sky ; and 
 it is probable, that although, in nature, ropes do not 
 change their actual colour, whether there be skv or
 
 182 KKl.ATIONS OF LIGHT ANU SHAUK. 
 
 building-s behind them, Claude found it necessary to 
 paint them considerably darker, where they came out 
 upon the buildings. In paintino', we confine ourselves 
 entirely to appearances, whether they be those of light 
 or of pigment ; and it is desirable that we should, for a 
 time, forget how we know things really to be. 
 
 The diversity which characterizes the colours of 
 objects, is so great, that, generally speaking, any object 
 which, in nature, comes before another more distant, 
 appears to take a shade and colour, contrasting de- 
 cidedly with that of the object which it crosses ; but 
 should the object happen, in certain points, to be of the 
 same tone and colour as the field which it traverses, it 
 is not always necessary, in imitative art, that any means 
 for producing relief should be substituted for those 
 which are wanting- in nature. A contrast in some 
 portion of the object, suffices to give relief to the whole ; 
 and its appearance becomes less stiff and formal, than 
 when the background has been kept studiously dark, in 
 order that the nearer object may come out with a 
 marked relief on every point. A little uncertainty as to 
 form and relative position, is far more pleasing, than 
 would be a boundary having everywhere the precision 
 of a line traced with the burin. 
 
 Most of the principal facts connected with the ap- 
 pearance of objects subjected to such influences as are 
 of daily occurrence, appear so familiar, that it seems 
 almost superfluous to mark them out especially for 
 observation. That objects become indistinct, not only 
 in proportion as the side which we are looking at be- 
 comes deprived of light, but also in proportion as the
 
 EFFECTS Ol' CONTRAST. 183 
 
 space behind is more luminous, is a fact known to 
 every one. No person who wishes to see the counte- 
 nance of his friend, thinks of seating him at the window, 
 and taking a seat for himself at the other end, or the 
 centre, of the room. But, simple and well understood as 
 is this principle in its main results, it does not appear to 
 be appreciated as it ought to be, nor sufficiently applied 
 to art, in its various degrees of influence ; and there are 
 many paintings, excellent in other respects, in which the 
 influence of a light behind an object, is not duly ac- 
 counted for. For instance, figures having the sky for 
 their background, ai'e often put into landscapes, with 
 their features as distinct and marked as if they were 
 placed in a room with a dark ground and a side light ; 
 whereas, figures which come out on a luminous atmo- 
 sphere, appear invariably to lose, more or less, that 
 precision of detail which characterizes them when they 
 are lighted up in front, and stand out before a dark 
 background. 
 
 It may be further observed, that objects which are 
 placed before a bright light, appear to bori'ow their 
 hue, more or less, from the glow which surrounds them. 
 Any strong light surrounding an object, or which is 
 seen beyond it, counteracts the efi'ect of the light which 
 is thrown upon it more feebly from the opposite di- 
 rection, and appears to diffuse an indistinct warmth or 
 glow over its whole surface. Thus, the shadowy side 
 of a figure placed against the light, does not become 
 opaquely dark, but derives a transparent warmth from 
 the ajjparent mingling of the rays of light by which 
 the object is surrounded, with the small portion which
 
 184 RELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 is reflected from its surface. The glow of a luminous 
 background, as it appears to extend more or less over 
 the objects before it, causes the most opposite colours 
 to harmonize with each other. Thus, blue, green, and 
 even white draperies, may be brought together under 
 the influence of this aerial efifect of light, without any 
 disturbance of the necessary repose of the scene. I 
 would ask any observer of nature to call to his assist- 
 ance the effects of any bright sunset which he may have 
 witnessed, and to consider its influence on intervening 
 objects. When the sky is illuminated in the west, you 
 will observe, on looking in that direction, that the 
 trunks of the trees, which are bordered on either side 
 by the blaze of the atmosphere, appear of a warm brown 
 tint, harmonizing perfectly with the colour of the sky 
 beyond ; but as you trace the colour of the objects which 
 are situated to the right and left at a greater distance 
 from the focus of light, you w\\\ perceive that they 
 partake of the cold reflexes resulting from the colour 
 of the sky in the opposite direction. In representing, 
 therefore, comparatively slender objects, surrounded by 
 a strong light, we take very little account of their local 
 colour, since their appearance is an assumed one, de- 
 pendent on relative effects ; but as their removal from 
 the source of these effects causes their influence to 
 diminish, local colours and appearances prevail, and the 
 object becomes, if I may so express myself, characterized 
 by individuality. I have observed the marble columns 
 of an open portico, to lose the spots and veined ap- 
 pearance of the marble, when I placed myself in such 
 a position that the columns appeared backed bv the
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 185 
 
 strong light which was admitted at the extremity of the 
 portico ; but when I changed my position, so that the 
 light became hidden, the veins of the marble reap- 
 peared, without any additional light on the column 
 itself. 
 
 In the landscape scene, one portion of which is illu- 
 minated, whilst the other portion is thrown into shade, 
 similar results occur, variously modified according to 
 the strength and distribution of the lights. The im- 
 mediate effect of a gleam of light thrown across a land- 
 scape, particularly if it extend to that part which is 
 near the observer, is not only to increase the gloom of 
 adjacent parts in a degree proportionate to the intensity 
 of the light, but to render all minuter objects, there 
 situated, indistinct, and sometimes almost imperceptible. 
 This circumstance, which appears to be principally owing 
 to the contraction of the pupil of the eye in the presence 
 of a strong light, is one of the chief sources of the variety 
 of effect which is exemplified in every kind of scene, 
 producing results as advantageous to art, as they are 
 pleasing in the scenery of nature ; for, as I shall en- 
 deavour to show, it affords the elements of two distinct 
 styles. The one, which is based on high finish, elabo- 
 rateness, and the graphic representation of every object, 
 is presented to us when an unifoi-m light pervades a 
 scene of any kind ; the absence of all partial and 
 dazzling lights, then allows the eye to discover every 
 detail, and to appreciate the due value of every local 
 tint : whereas the foundation of the other style dejiends 
 u[)iiii tlic contrasting influence of a brilliant liglit thrown 
 across some portion of the landscape ; in which case,
 
 18G HELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 the details and minutiae disappear, and boldness of the 
 masses, united to breadth of effect, prevails. Thus, in 
 proportion as chiaro-scuro, combined with simplicity of 
 form, becomes the predominant characteristic of a pic- 
 ture, the interest derived from minute and graphic 
 representation is less required. The indistinctness 
 which is thrown over any portion of a scene by the 
 contrast of light, becomes an advantage, when, owing 
 to the tameness of its objective, its interest must 
 depend on effect of light and shade ; whereas, if its 
 attraction be derived from a different source, namely 
 from the picturesque assemblage of the objects, the 
 effects which result from partial lights would be detri- 
 mental to its beauty, since many interesting particulars 
 become lost to the observer, by the remarkable influence 
 of a strong light adjoining the shady parts. Pleasing 
 changes are thus produced in glens, and in situations 
 shaded by dense masses of foliage, when the alternate 
 appearance and concealment of the sun behind a rock 
 or lofty tree, produces gleams of sunshine, varying in 
 their position as the hour advances. 
 
 I have sketched a scene in the valley of Lutchenen, 
 near Interlaken, with two distinct and opposite effects. 
 In the first case, the light was nearly uniform all over, 
 and the sketch owed its interest to the form and cha- 
 racter of broken fragments of rocks bordering a foaming 
 torrent. The mosses and herbs gi'owing upon them, 
 every mark and stain, and every minute incident con- 
 nected with the locality, were there with the precision 
 and distinctness of a Brueghel. In the other case, the 
 entire bed of the torrent was thrown into shade bv a
 
 EFFECTS OF CONTRAST. 187 
 
 group of lofty firs ; but a sunbeam, reaching the fore- 
 ground, brilliantly illuminated a few sprigs and bushes. 
 This bright light, being so near the eye, sufficed to 
 throw the space beyond into comparative darkness, and 
 to render indistinct the objects there situated. A 
 slender bridge of firs, thrown from rock to rock across 
 the torrent, would perhaps have escaped notice, had it 
 not been that, now and then, a figure, rendered visible 
 by the colours of the clothing, or perhaps by its very 
 motion, attracted the eye to that point. In both cases, 
 the scene owed its interest to very distinct principles of 
 picturesque effect. 
 
 The following is an effect, due to similar causes, 
 which I have frequently witnessed in the Alps. A 
 mountain lo the east conceals the rising sun ; and in 
 order better to enter into the subject, I beg the reader 
 to take a seat on a grassy eminence, with the mountain 
 before him. Its flanks are covered with rocks and 
 pasture, interspersed with wood. Before the sun has 
 reached the ridge of the mountain, the general light of 
 day is sufficient to enable you to see clearly the separate 
 masses of the trees, the grey colour of the rocks, and 
 the green patches of pasture. (See 1st Plate of the 
 Valley of Interlakcn.) The distinctness of these objects 
 increases with the general light diffused throughout the 
 atmosphere, until the sun has reached the brow of the 
 mountain. At that moment, the spot on which you are 
 seated, being illuminated by its direct rays, throws into 
 apparent shade the mountain before you, and the objects 
 thereon grow tonfused and indeterminate. (Sec '2d I'late.) 
 'I'his indistinctness increases as the foreground becomes
 
 188 RELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 more exposed to the sun's rays. Perhaps tlie inoniin{»; 
 vapours, and the smoke from some cottages, becoming 
 illuminated as the sun ascends, still further intercept the 
 view of the mountain, which appears enveloped in a dense 
 mist ; and its objects do not re-appear with a distinct 
 form, till the sun begins to tip the hanging woods and 
 projecting rocks with its bright yellow, and to separate 
 them, one by one, from the indistinct mass. 
 
 The mechanism of stage scenery affords resources, 
 with regard to lights and shades, which no usual process 
 of art possesses ; and those very results which depend on 
 the contraction of the pupil of the eye, may be made 
 subservient to the production of some of the most bril- 
 liant and overpowering effects. By throwing the audience 
 into shade or light, may be produced alternately, those 
 results which depend on a clear and prominent objective, 
 and those which are due to indistinctness and uncer- 
 tainty ; for when the theatre, or the fore part of the 
 stage, is lighted up, that penetrable indistinctness which 
 represents the more mysterious and sublime effects of 
 nature, seems to pervade the remoter parts. These 
 effects, which, according to the distribution of the light, 
 may either be rendered partial, or be made to pervade 
 the whole scene, become the means of a variety and 
 power in the imitation of nature, of which, transpa- 
 rencies, as well as luminous beams projected through a 
 misty atmosphere, further extend the resources. Neither 
 the merit due to some of these representations, in their 
 present state of advancement, nor the importance which 
 they might be made to acquire, by further imj)rove- 
 ments and more extensive application, appears to have
 
 CHIARO-SCURO. 189 
 
 been, as vet, duly appreciated ; thougli from tlie lively 
 impression which such scenic eiFects are cakulated to 
 exercise on the imagination, as well as fi-om their po- 
 pular character, such exhibitions are particularly calcu- 
 lated to exercise a favourable influence on our national 
 recreations, and to extend to all classes, a taste for the 
 sublime wonders which often teem in the most unnoticed 
 natural phenomena. 
 
 ON CHIAROSCURO. 
 
 Chiaro-scuro is one of the principal means employed 
 for obtaining relief. It causes all such objects as are 
 wanting in the distinction of colour, to come out before 
 each other ; and it renders those which these local dif- 
 ferences cause to appear distinct, still more prominent. 
 But to make the attainment of relief the chief aim of so 
 extensive and useful a principle in art, would be mis- 
 taking its object, and assigning to it, invariably, a part 
 in the picture, which it frequently is not called upon to 
 fulfil. Relief is, in fact, (and I must here express my 
 concurrence in Mr. Ruskin's views), not the object of 
 the picture. If it were, an entirely different plan of 
 proceeding must be adopted. Instead of having, as is 
 at present the case, a supposed direction for the light, in 
 every picture, coming from the right, from the left, or 
 in front, according as the artist deems fit after consi- 
 dering the effect of his piece, his chief consideration 
 would be, the direction of the real light, that is to say, 
 the position of the window in tlic hall or (■liiiiul)er which
 
 lf)0 RF.LATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 his work is intended to decorate ; and the scene or 
 subject chosen, would be such as would afford the 
 means of establishing an easy and immediate connexion 
 with the lights of the apartment, so that they would 
 appear to play upon the objects or figures, and have that 
 reality which, in works intended to be pictures, they do 
 not possess, because, in a picture, the lights are only 
 supposed or conventional. The intended result, when- 
 ever relief forms the chief object in view, must be an 
 illusion, and not a painting. Instead of a record of 
 nature, hung up in an apartment for its embellishment, 
 we must expect to see the representation of a window, 
 opening, seemingly, into a vestibule or gallery, and 
 affording a deceptive resemblance of some prospect 
 beyond. In carrying out a design of this nature, one 
 of the chief points to be considered would be, the re- 
 lation which the supposed prospect seen through this 
 opening would have to the apartment itself, to the pre- 
 vailing colours, and to the light which there predo- 
 minates ; and if the supposed opening had the ap- 
 pearance of leading to an architectural scene, the lights 
 and shadows on the columns and other parts, would 
 be put in with reference to the light of the apartment 
 with which the architectural scene appeared to be con- 
 nected, as far, at least, as the influence of this light 
 of the apartment would extend. Thus, the effect (as 
 is the case in imitations of galleries, courts, and per- 
 spectives which are intended for illusions) is entirely 
 subservient to the conditions of light, and other causes, 
 which are apparent in the apartment itself, or which 
 would seem to be most likely to prevail beyond its limits.
 
 CHIAKO-SCURO. If)! 
 
 Such contrivances as these, when they do succeed in pro- 
 ducing a momentary delusion, are certainly ingenious, 
 and mark a considerable degree of practical talent ; but, 
 in Italy, they are frequently seen in country towns and 
 villas, by unknown artists ; and even those imitations 
 of stone bass-reliefs, which, by a minute observance of 
 the direction, extent, and depth, of the shadows, in 
 reference to the nature and position of the principal 
 light in the apartment itself, astonish us by the per- 
 fection of the relief, and make us often trust to our 
 eyes rather than to an informed guide, — even these 
 works, however extraordinary, do not establish the 
 reputation of the artist, should he possess one. The 
 simple oil painting, which, not having the same aim, 
 nor any concerted adaptation of real light, cannot pre- 
 tend to the same perfection with respect to relief, 
 becomes, nevertheless, a very different criterion of real 
 genius, and even of general powers of execution. We 
 may, therefore, easily conceive, that perfect relief is as 
 remote from the real purpose, as it is beyond the attain- 
 ment, of the painting in its usual form. Although 
 relief may be considered as an additional advantage, 
 and deserve attention as long as other points are not 
 sacrificed to it, the artist would decidedly take a false 
 view of the callings of art, who would set it up as a 
 goal, directing towards it all his exertions ; and unfor- 
 tunately, to strive, as some have done, for this kind of 
 eminence, generally involves the neglect of other at- 
 tainments which ought to have stood foremost. We 
 cannot expect to see those powers which, like projection 
 and relief, may be tei-nied practical, united, in per-
 
 192 KELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 fection, witli those which, like expression and beauty, 
 are fruits of the imagination and sentiment; our physical 
 nature is opposed to it. But in the picture, cliiaro- 
 scuro, or light and shade, has other purposes to fulfil 
 than those which in nature serve to mark the rotundity 
 and projection of form. A happy distribution of the 
 lights and shades, becomes of itself a source of pleasing 
 effect and beauty ; at times by concentrating the effect, 
 and consequently the impressions of the observer, towards 
 a given point, at times by extending the interest, with 
 the dispersing of the lights, over a wider scene. It is 
 toward the attainment of effect that the varied resources 
 of light and shade are thus chiefly directed. Without 
 this enlivening principle, the eye of the observer, 
 satisfied with a first glance at a picture, would imme- 
 diatelv seek for recreation and amusement elsewhere, so 
 necessary it is that favour and attention should be won 
 in the first place by the external appearance, in order 
 that those more hidden perfections which are the result 
 of profound thought and assiduous study, may in turn 
 receive their due consideration. 
 
 Light and shade are always at our command, to 
 compensate for what is wanting in form and in positive 
 colour. Where there is too great a redundancy and 
 reduplication of forms and tints, projected shadows, or 
 gleams of light, will connect them all in unity of effect, 
 and establish simplicity where, previously, multiplicity 
 prevailed ; and where simplicity draws itself out into 
 sameness, the diffusion of various lights breaks the 
 monotony, and the most bald and uniform objects 
 become teeming with variety.
 
 LIGHTS 01' DIVKltS HUES. \9^ 
 
 Lights and shades, diffused over a distant scene, are 
 invaluable as a means of obtaining breadth, without 
 interfering with any of those arrangements connected 
 with locality, which it may be desirable to maintain. 
 The stream of light combines unity with transparency. 
 It admits of the objects being seen distinct from each 
 other, and yet connects them with the link of one 
 common efifect ; and even where the floating lights are 
 multiple and diversified, the common source whence 
 they proceed, connects them, and the objects upon 
 VFhich they fall, in the same idea. 
 
 The multiplication, however, of these lights, in the 
 landscape, cannot, in general, be commended. If car- 
 ried to excess, this evil is, perhaps, greater than that 
 of reduplication of form. These fugitive and dispersed 
 lights perplex and unsettle the observer; — he finds no 
 resting-place. I have been struck with this fault, in 
 some of the landscapes at our modern exhibitions, other- 
 wise well executed. The introduction of a principal 
 light, more brilliant and extended than the others, and 
 more or less connected with them, does not disturb in 
 the same manner. It forms a centralizing point, which 
 the eye expects, and seeks more or less, in a picture. 
 
 LIGHTS OF DIVERS HUES. 
 
 The simultaneous introduction of two lights of dif- 
 ferent kinds, although it might seem to divide the at- 
 tention, does not produce a bad effect. By different 
 kinds of light, I mean such as prevail, simultaneously, 
 
 o
 
 194< KEI.ATIONS OK IICIIT ANU SHADK. 
 
 when the light of the moon is contrasted, in its pale 
 eflFects, with those of a lamp or fire ; when the light 
 admitted into a cathedral, through painted windows, is 
 contrasted with the natural hue of daylight, which comes 
 in from an opposite direction ; or, when the sun, break- 
 ing through the clouds or partial mist, produces warm 
 tints, which are opposed to the cold light which prevails 
 elsewhere. Great diversity even, is admissible in the 
 combinations of lights of various kinds, without producing 
 an offensive result. The artist will necessarily avoid 
 such as would tend to form separate and distinct effects, 
 and divide his picture into two parts : but the lights 
 which come in different directions, mutually cross each 
 other, as they illuminate the opposite sides of the objects 
 in the scene ; the result of which is, that the diffusion 
 of the lights, where they meet, becomes irregular and 
 varied, and they mingle insensibly with each other. 
 
 SHADOWS OF DIVERS HUES. 
 
 If there be more than one luminary or principal 
 light, the colour of the shadow produced by any one of 
 them is determined by that of the other primary lights. 
 Thus, if a scene be illuminated at once by the moon and 
 by a blazing fire, the shadow caused by the latter, 
 partakes of the cold light of the moon, whilst a shadow 
 from the moon assumes the warm tints of the fire : and, 
 if the light of a lamp be added, different in tone to the 
 two preceding, its shadows will present the mixed tints 
 of the fire and moonlio;ht ; the shadows of the fire will 
 
 ■x..
 
 SHADOWS OF DIVERS HUES. 1 D-'J 
 
 partake of the combined light of the lamp and of the 
 moon ; and so forth : the general light will be a com- 
 bination of all three, although each, alternately, be- 
 comes more prevalent in certain parts. 
 
 The apparent tone of shadows in general, is, in a 
 great measure, determined by the relation of the 
 secondary, or, rather, tertiary, lights reflected there, 
 with the predominant lights of the scene. In the effects 
 of sunset, the reflexes or secondary lights of the shadowy 
 parts, appear cold, compared with the warmth of the 
 sunshine. Even in the daytime, the shadows have 
 mostly a bluish tinge, in open situations, because the 
 principal light of reflection is that of the sky. The 
 sun's light is, nevertheless, white at noon ; and, under 
 the trees, the shadows obtain by comparison a warm 
 yellow tinge, which is increased by the partial trans- 
 parency of the foliage, — the light which is admitted by 
 transparent objects, being, in general, warmer than that 
 which is thrown oft' from their exterior surface. There 
 is, therefore, no positive rule as to the relative colour of 
 objects in the light and in the shade. In proportion as 
 the shadow becomes dark and colourless by the di- 
 minution of reflected light, its apparent tone or colour 
 is the more subjected to the influence of relation ; and 
 the tone of the deepest shades in nature, may be con- 
 sidered to be almost entirely relative. If the prevailing 
 tone of the lights be cold, the deepest shadows will 
 appear warm, by comparison ; and if the prevailing tints 
 of the lighted portion be warm, the local darks, if there 
 be any reflexes, will appear, bv comparison, of a some- 
 what colder hue. Hut the light nliirh, more or less, is
 
 19() RELATIONS OK I.I(;I1T AND SIIADK. 
 
 evcrvwhere diffused, or, what might be termed tlie 
 ambient light, has, 1 believe, in almost every case, some 
 influence in warming the shadows ; and in no instance, 
 scarcely, docs the greatest dark of tlic hollows appear 
 cold. 
 
 It is a fact familiar to every artist, that opaque black 
 does not represent the shadows of nature, and that the 
 browns and bitumens are better suited, partly because 
 thev have a closer relation to the effijct of nature, partly 
 because they possess transparency, one of the most es- 
 sential characteristics of shadows. If the shadows of 
 nature are best represented by warm browns, this may be 
 partly owing to the manner in which these transparent 
 colours are put on as glazings, the effect of which is to 
 produce those successive modifications of shadow which 
 are characteristic of transparency. But I believe the 
 successful use which has been made, by the Dutch 
 masters, of these warm shadows, to depend chiefly on 
 the conformitv to nature of their relations with the 
 lights ; as, for instance, where the tone of the shadows 
 is chiefly relative to that of the sky and distance, it is 
 conformable to nature to employ, constantly, warm 
 shadows, which, filling up the whole of the foreground, 
 oppose the coolness of the distance ; but, in scenes in 
 which varied lights and colours prevail, the relation of 
 the shadows must be adapted accordingly. There may 
 be warmer objects in their vicinity, which may cause 
 them to lose part of their own warmth. If introduced 
 into the tints of the flesh, or into the folds of silks and 
 glossy draperies, which would reflect cool lights, the 
 result is heaviness, and not transparency ; but the
 
 THE PROJECTED SHADOW. 11)7 
 
 Flemings were careful to keep their warm browns 
 witliout the boundary of these light and delicate parts. 
 
 CURSORY REMARKS ON THE PROJECTED SHADOW. 
 
 At the time when perfection in the landscape was 
 but a recent attainment, the ideas of painters, with 
 regard to effect, seem to have been based, chiefly, on 
 the progression of tints, namely, from dark to light, from 
 strength to feebleness, as they recede into the subject. 
 They had, perhaps, been struck with the beautiful result 
 of Claude's aerial effects, and considered them a brilliant 
 step in the art of landscape painting ; and although they 
 did not follow, exactly, Claude's example, it doubtless 
 appeared, that to pursue an opposite course, would be to 
 recede in art. But, with its further progress, different 
 views were gradually entertained, with regard to the 
 means by which effect is produced. It was observed 
 that, in nature, the greatest darks prevailed in those 
 parts, over which deep shadows were projected, to a 
 certain extent independently of situation : and, in con- 
 sequence of these remarks, the greatest vigour of effect, 
 instead of being concentrated invariably in the fore- 
 ground, was distributed unequally and variously, ac- 
 cording to the nature of tlic subject, and the ideas of 
 the painter ; the chief sources of power being sometimes 
 removed so far back as the middle planes, without 
 injury to the apparent naturalness and truth of the com- 
 position. Such effects as these, being, however, occa- 
 sional rather tlian usual, in nature, they should be in-
 
 IQy RELATIONS Ol LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 troduced with caution, and without detracting from that 
 sharp and particularizing indication of the details, which 
 is invariably a distinctive character of near objects. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, a successive emancipation 
 from that thraldom which a partial knowledge, only, of 
 the truths of nature, and of the means of art, formerly 
 imposed, we frequently discover, in landscape paintings, 
 a shadow, or belt of dark colour, thrown across the fore- 
 ground, for the purpose of keeping back the more distant 
 parts. But unless there be a cause, such as some 
 building or tree, for producing so decided a shadow, this 
 effect can be neither true nor desirable. The shadow of 
 a cloud has not so decided nor so straight a boundary, 
 as the shadows to which I allude ; and, though marked 
 at a certain distance, it becomes very indistinct and dif- 
 fused on a near point. The influence of a passing cloud, 
 may separate one tree from another, or a gi'oup of figures 
 from another group, but it would not throw one figure 
 into sunshine, and another into shade, belonging to 
 the same group ; and the improbability of these ac- 
 cidents of light and shade, in the immediate foreground, 
 causes them to appear afifected in this part of the 
 picture. Make a choice of nature ; then take her as 
 she appears ; and so decided a departure from truth, as 
 the introduction of a belt of dark shade across the fore- 
 ground, for the seeming purpose of affording a sub- 
 stantial groundwork to the composition, may be done 
 away with. 
 
 In the landscape, the shadows of objects form part of 
 the living scene. Any deficiency or failing in the ren- 
 dering of them, would cause an immediate falling off of
 
 SHADOWS IN THE FIGUKE. 199 
 
 its interest and character of truth. It therefore be- 
 comes a matter of consistency, that such important ac- 
 cessaries should be always made dependent on their 
 cause, and conformable, as far as it is possible, to the 
 forms and distribution of the objects which occasion 
 them. 
 
 SHADOWS IN THE FIGURE. 
 
 In the historical painting, the case is different. 
 Beauty of form, action, expression, and colouring, have 
 there so influential and leading a part in the composition, 
 that the observance of the exact relations of the shadows 
 with the objects which project them, is seldom necessary ; 
 and, indeed, the variety and brilliancy of the colours 
 used in the draperies and other parts, so far exhausts 
 the means afforded by the artificial range of colours, 
 that it would be impossible to maintain, in every case, 
 an exact account of the projected shadows, and of their 
 influence on materials of such diversified hues. Now 
 and then, the marked and correct form of the shadow of 
 an arm or foot, on a neighbouring object, may serve to 
 give projection to the limb ; but, generally speaking, the 
 crossing of definite shadows with the outlines of positive 
 form, would, in groups of figures, have a disagreeable 
 and confused effect ; and the light best suited to such 
 subjects, is that which does not project a definite 
 shadow, but, like the light of a window, or of a luminous 
 sky without sunshine, produces diffused and graduated 
 shadows. 
 
 At a certain period of art, named, I believe, the
 
 200 RELATIONS OF LIGHT AND SHADK. 
 
 " Caravaggesque," tlie opposition of opaque dark with 
 staring white colours, appears to have been mistaken for 
 a means of obtaining the relief of nature. By this use 
 of uniform dark colour, the lights were thrown beyond 
 every scale of harmony. This will become evident to 
 every one who compares the paintings of this school with 
 the chiaro-scuro of the Flemish painters. These artists 
 produced transparency and depth, by maintaining broad 
 middle tints, and by limiting the deepest shadows to 
 small recesses and other dark points. This is how 
 nature presents herself, whenever there is a tranquil 
 effect of light, or such as is best suited for the figure. 
 The prevailing tints of the background ai"e semi-shade, 
 whilst, here and there, darker shadows, perhaps a point 
 or two of the deepest black, give the character of locality 
 to the semi-tints, and an appearance of penetrability to 
 the picture. 
 
 By the observance of progression in the shades, and 
 by economy in the use of the darkest, is maintained that 
 apparent depth, which makes the limbs of the figures 
 appearto move in ambient air, instead of adhering to a 
 darkened wall. When every local dark is absorbed by 
 the blackness of the ground tint, it is impossible to give 
 to a subject, that point and spirit which sometimes 
 depend upon the insertion of mere black touches for the 
 eyes, or, it may be, of black hair, or of black velvet. 
 
 I have frequently remarked, that semi-shades, well 
 defined, and distinct, both from the prominent lights, 
 and from the deep shadows, have something which is 
 very pleasing and advantageous to the picture. In some 
 of Titian's larger paintings, the tints of the flesh are, in
 
 SHADOWS IN THE FIGURE. 201 
 
 great part, kept in the subdued tone of projected 
 shadow ; which gives them a delicate transparency, and 
 throws out, most pleasingly, those portions of the limbs 
 or head, which receive the full light. As an example 
 may be given an effect in the painting of the Assumption, 
 by Titian, in the Accademia at Venice. The light partly 
 falls on the infant angels, whilst the other parts of these 
 little figures have the warm transparent colouinng of half 
 shadow. A similar principle of effect enhances the glow 
 of light which falls on one of the Putini, and other 
 figures, in the picture of the Virgin, by x\lbano, in the 
 Accademia at Bologna. Various paintings, in these 
 galleries, show the superiority of contrasts of colour, and 
 of light and shade, introduced by means of projected and 
 accidental shadows, over those which depend on the 
 local colour of the objects only. In the picture of the 
 Meeting of Jacob and Esau, by Pietro da Cortona, in 
 the gallery of the Louvre, the prevalence of transparent 
 shade, in the figures, adds greatly to its pleasing effect. 
 
 IlaffacUe has produced one or two remarkable ex- 
 amples of an opposite principle of light and shade. For 
 instance, in his St. John, in the Tribuna of Florence, a 
 uniforndy dark background serves to show off the ex- 
 pression of the features, and the pure correctness of the 
 design : whereas, in the Fornarina, a companion picture, 
 a dark warm ground-tint has enabled Raffaelle to give 
 substance, without heaviness, to the features ; main- 
 taining, at the same time, a purity and a firmness of 
 outline, which, in the paintings of this master, are fre- 
 (piently associated with the most graceful forms. 
 
 In a small and beautiful ])icture of Rembrandt, in
 
 202 PllOPERTlES OF LIGHT. 
 
 the collection of the Marquis of Westminster, repre- 
 senting the Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth, the whole 
 of the distance has been put in of a darkness approaching 
 to pure Vandyke brown ; nevertheless, we do not per- 
 ceive the want of that light opening which is generally 
 so much required in the distance of a picture. The 
 mass of darkness does not block up the scene ; but 
 through it are perceived innumerable objects, in per- 
 spective gradation, which appear to retire almost in the 
 same manner as if they were thrown into distance by the 
 haze and aerial colour of daylight. 
 
 ON SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 REFLEXES. 
 
 A Distinction drmcn between Positive Light and 
 Accidental Reflexes, on the Surfaces of Objects. — A 
 portion of the light which falls upon bodies more or less 
 rough, is decomposed before being reflected, and trans- 
 mits to the eye, the colour and other characters of the 
 body which reflects it ; whereas, another portion is 
 thrown off" from the body on which it falls, undecom- 
 posed, and in its primary state. This portion does not 
 represent the colour of that body, but, rather, the an- 
 terior condition of the light, or the colour which cha- 
 racterized it as it sprung from its original source. The
 
 UEl'LEXES. ^203 
 
 light which is thus reverberated, preserving its original 
 tint, and without conveying to the observer any informa- 
 tion respecting the surface which throws it off, alone 
 erives rise to those influences which are generallv com- 
 prehended in the term Reflexes. 
 
 Reflexes, or Reflections, is, thus, a term used in art 
 to imply, indiscriminately, those flashes, as well as softer 
 indications of light, which are unconnected with the 
 local appearance of objects. This application is very 
 comprehensive, since light may (according to the nature 
 of the surface on which it falls) be reflected with all 
 degrees of strength. The reflection may be due to a 
 primarv light which falls upon an object directly, such as 
 that of the sun, or of a lamp ; or it may result from a 
 beam of secondary light, that is to say, which has already 
 been once reflected from a different object. By reflexes, 
 are perhaps most usually implied, in the terminology of 
 art, the secondary lights of reflection, or those which are 
 borrowed from objects which are themselves illuminated 
 directly from the principal source of light. Such is, for 
 instance, the diff'used light which is derived from the 
 clouds, from objects in sunshine, or from bodies which, 
 at night, are directly illuminated by a lamp or torch. 
 
 These distinctions, however, are not permanent, 
 because the conditions of light to which they apply, are 
 liable to constant changes : as, for instance, the reflexes 
 from the sky, which are but secondary lights, contrasted 
 with sunshine, become the principal or primary lights, 
 when the sun is hidden by a cloud ; or when the object, 
 instead of being left in the open air, is removed to the 
 interior of a room, where, from the want of sunshine,
 
 '204 PKOPEKTIES Ol' LIGHT. 
 
 the light refloctetl from the sky becomes the first or 
 primary light. In the same manner, in scenes which 
 are lighted from various sources simultaneously, the ac- 
 cidental reflexes may become positive lights by the con- 
 cealment or removal of some of the generating causes, 
 leaving one primary light to prevail uninfluenced. These 
 facts I allude to, less for the sake of definition, than with 
 the design of rendering more easily understood the dis- 
 tinction between accidental reflexes and positive light. 
 The influence which the reflected lights have, in the 
 scene of nature, is not, in general, sufficiently attended 
 to. Polished bodies, or those which are decidedly 
 smooth, are made, it is true, to reflect more light than 
 others ; but the various influences of reflected light, on 
 surfaces having various degrees of roughness, or exposed 
 unequally to its effects, are often but very imperfectly 
 accounted for. In fact, the roughest bodies, as well as 
 those which appear to be the most exposed to the in- 
 fluence of a general and uniform light, are, to a certain 
 extent,' subjected to the influence of partial reflections. 
 Even rocks, and such materials as, from their coarseness, 
 would appear to be uninfluenced by modifications of 
 light, undergo a very visible change in their tints, when 
 neighbouring objects become exposed to a powerful 
 sunshine ; and with respect to the delicate forms and 
 texture of the clouds, it is from reflection that their 
 softest and most varied hues are derived. 
 
 In paintings of the human figure, accidental re- 
 flections have a very prominent and decided share in the 
 appearance of the subject. The smooth surface, and 
 delicate colour, of the flesh, become impressed with the
 
 REFLEXES. '205 
 
 slightest and tenderest reflected hues ; and the rich 
 colours of adjacent draperies frequently exercise (espe- 
 cially if exposed to a strong light) a most powerful and 
 decided influence on the tints of the skin : effects which, 
 in paintings in general, are not to be seen rendered with 
 the intensity with which nature presents them under 
 given circumstances. The vivacity of the light which is 
 reflected from the most polished parts, gives, especially, 
 a degree of spirit and expression, which can never be 
 realized by flat and dead colour. It is bv the varying 
 brilliancy of the reflected light, that is marked the very 
 unequal degree of polish of the diflPerent parts, such as 
 the lips, the eye, the hair when even and glossy, or the 
 extreme polish of the head bald with age.* The want 
 of due attention to the reflected lights, is, perhaps, felt 
 still more urgently, in the costume and draperies, than 
 in the heads and members. There is an immense dif- 
 ference in the manner and degree in which the light is 
 reflected by textures of various kinds, from the soft 
 woollen clothing, which absorbs the light nearly equally 
 in every part, to the glossy silks and satins, in which the 
 sharp quivering reflexes are intermingled with the dull 
 positive colour of the parts in shade. All these are very 
 well, and sometimes admirably, rendered, when the 
 artist has made it his special style or object to represent 
 
 * A German artist, whose studio I visited at Rome, (one of those severe 
 followers of Overbeck, who appear to trace the true path of historical 
 painting to the examples left by Perugino, and to the other rigid and dry 
 productions of that early school,) deprecated the use of brilliant reflexes in 
 painting, as being opposed to simplicity and grandeur, and as tending to 
 divert the attention from the deeper interest which results from expression 
 and sentiment.
 
 ^On PROPERTTES OF LIGHT. 
 
 the characteristic nature of various textures and ma- 
 terials in close scenes ; but, where other aims have been 
 kept in view, in reference to the subject, the nature of 
 the materials, especially of draperies, has been so imper- 
 fectly represented, even by good painters, that the re- 
 semblance of the imitation could not be traced to any 
 substance in nature. This may be jjarticularly observed 
 in the raw blue draperies of many of the old masters, 
 in which the lights have the comparative brightness of 
 silk, whereas the folds of the material are those of a 
 more soft and downy substance. 
 
 The eifects which depend on reflexes of various 
 tints and intensities, are chiefly characteristic of interiors, 
 such as cathedrals, halls, banquet-rooms, or those more 
 humble subjects of cloister-cells and rustic kitchens, of 
 which the Flemish artists have availed themselves for 
 the faithful and spirited representation of materials and 
 utensils of all kinds, with their characteristic polish, 
 graining, texture, or varnishes. In scenes like these, 
 but more especially in those which exhibit abundance of 
 polished marbles and wood, such as the choirs of cathe- 
 drals, the principle on which the effect of the scene 
 chiefly depends, is entirely difl^erent to that which pre- 
 vails in most out-of-door subjects. The most usual and 
 prevalent effects, in the latter, are those which depend, 
 either on the local colour of objects, or on the influence 
 of positive lights ; whereas, in the effects characteristic 
 of the choir, the cloister, or of the baronial hall, local 
 colour becomes completely subservient to the glaring 
 white lights and quivering reflexes which are emitted 
 from the polished marbles and furniture, and which
 
 r^;^ 
 
 -■^Pl'LK . 
 
 h!i:rl 3 -jh. 1.ilh*;rp 'hji ■ 'jt-e-
 
 UEFLEXES. 207 
 
 sparkle, with still greater brilliancy, in every object of 
 polished metal or crystal. In the figures, those light 
 portions of the apparel which are not glossy, and do not 
 throw off the flash of light, receive it, in modified hues, 
 from the naves and windows ; whilst the more sober 
 apparel, contrasts, in deep penetrable shadow, with the 
 distinctness of form, and the sharpness of the colours, 
 which prevail in the neighbouring glow. The annexed 
 Plate may serve to distinguish a scene in which reflected 
 lights prevail, from those in which local colour or posi- 
 tive light predominates ; but it cannot be expected to 
 render, without the assistance of colour, either the variety 
 or the strength of the reflected lights. 
 
 Distinction between Dejinite and Indefinite Re- 
 flections. — Before entering into further particulars, I 
 will endeavour to show the chief distinctions between 
 the light which is thrown off from rough, and that which 
 is reflected by polished, surfaces. It is known that 
 rough as well as smooth bodies, reflect, alike, the light 
 which falls upon them : the difference between the two, 
 arises from the circumstance, that rough bodies reflect 
 the rays of light diff'used, or scattered in various di- 
 rections ; whereas, the surface of a polished body reflects 
 all the rays in the same relative direction, and this 
 represents an angle corresponding to that of incidence. 
 To the indeterminate and scattered reflection of the 
 rays, which takes place on rough bodies, may be traced 
 the circumstance that no image is produced ; the colour 
 only of neighbouring objects is made apparent in a 
 greater or less degree ; whereas, in the reflection which
 
 '20S rUOPERTIES OF MGHT. 
 
 takes place on polished bodies, a distinct image of sur- 
 rounding objects is transmitted to the eye, owing to the 
 undisturbed condition of the ravs of litrht which are there 
 reflected. I have suggested, in my work entitled " Ele- 
 ments of the Picturesque," that the kind of reflection, in 
 which the rays of light are thrown off from the re- 
 flecting surface, under the same condition as that in 
 which they have reached it, producing a distinct image, 
 should be termed definite reflection, in order to dis- 
 tinguish it from the irregular and indeterminate re- 
 flection which takes place on rough bodies, and which I 
 have proposed calling indejinite reflection. 
 
 Effects of Reflected Light furtlier Developed. — 
 When two bodies are placed contiguously, one of them 
 of a brighter colour than the other, or more exposed to 
 light, the one which is brightest in colour, or most 
 luminous from its situation, throws upon the surface of 
 the adjacent body, a tint or hue corresponding to its 
 own, which becomes the more apparent, as the second 
 body is more in the shade, or more colourless. When 
 two neighbouring surfaces are equally exposed to the 
 light, that which they reflect upon one another is over- 
 come by the superior strength of the primitive light, and 
 is little perceptible. The effects of reciprocal reflection 
 become, however, sometimes apparent in the hollow folds 
 of draperies, producing a depth and richness of tint, 
 which would not be anticipated ft-om the apparent 
 colour of the material when exposed to white light. 
 Colourless surfaces, such as grey and white, are most 
 sensible to the influence of any reflected tint. The hues
 
 REFLEXES. 209 
 
 which appear reflected on rough surfaces, are the more 
 concentrated and intense, in proportion as the object 
 reflecting them is nearer ; and become progi-essively 
 more faint, and, at the same time, more extended, by the 
 removal of the object producing the reflection, to a 
 greater distance. 
 
 Coloured light, reflected on a dififerently coloured 
 
 body, has an effect similar to that which results from the 
 
 mechanical mixture of the two colours : thus, yellow 
 
 light thrown upon red, produces orange ; yellow light 
 
 upon blue, green ; and red light upon blue, purple. 
 
 Coloured light which is reflected from an object on 
 
 another of the same colour, adds to the apparent depth 
 
 and purity of its hue : the blue ground gains lustre by 
 
 the proximity of a blue object more illuminated ; and 
 
 the red or yellow receive additional glow from objects 
 
 shining with these colours. Compound colours are 
 
 much more sensible to those reflexes which partake, 
 
 more or less, of one of the colours of the compound, 
 
 than to those which contain none : as, for instance, an 
 
 orange surface, which is very alive to red and yellow 
 
 reflexes, is very little sensible to the blue ; whilst the 
 
 green admits either the blue or vellow reflexes, but 
 
 remains indifferent to tlic red. A similar inclination 
 
 shows itself in the pink, and purple, either for the blue 
 
 or the red, when reflected upon it ; though, in this 
 
 instance, the yellow light, owing to its great brilliancy, 
 
 is not absorbed. The coarser and impurer colours, such 
 
 as the brown, drab, and others, shine, likewise, with 
 
 reflected light, and appear modified in accordance with 
 
 the combination which the reflected light would na- 
 
 P
 
 210 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT, 
 
 turally make with their own colour. Even the black, as 
 produced by artificial means, is not insensible to re- 
 flected tints. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, coloured reflexes, as 
 before said, are most apparent on those surfaces which 
 are nearest to the objects which produce the coloured 
 light ; but, when foreign objects intervene, and form an 
 impediment to the free passage of the rays in all di- 
 rections, the relations of the reflected light to the object 
 producing it, give rise to peculiar effects, which are 
 modified by circumstances. Let us take the case of a 
 window admitting the light from without. The external 
 objects or media producing the light, arc, a blue sky 
 above, and, beneath, green trees or verdure in sunshine. 
 The valance within, gives a downward direction to the 
 rays which proceed from the blue sky ; and, at the same 
 time, a low blind prevents the rays which proceed from 
 the bright verdure from extending very far downwards, 
 and gives them chiefly an upward direction. Thus, the 
 position of the blue, and of the green light, in the 
 apartment, becomes inverted ; the ceiling Avould receive 
 a greenish hue, and the lower part of the walls, and the 
 floor, a blue tint, with varying intensities, as marked in 
 the diagram. A similar distribution of external objects, 
 horizontally, will produce corresponding results in the 
 room, in that direction. It sometimes occurs, that the 
 sun falls upon one half of a curtain, or that which hangs 
 on one side of the window, — we will suppose it to be the 
 right-hand side. Now, if the left-hand curtain prevents 
 the blue light of the atmosphere from penetrating freely 
 into the room, and directs it towards that side on which
 
 •S[tBA3a(l UD3JJ) ■P'^'^iK
 
 212 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 hangs tlie curtain lighted by the sun's direct rays, its 
 bright azure light will prevail, in that part of the room, 
 over the yellow, or otherwise warm, light of the curtain ; 
 whereas, at the opposite end of the room, the blue light 
 of the sky being intercepted by the left-hand curtain, or 
 that which is in the shade, the yellow light of the curtain 
 in sunshine there predominates. Thus, the situation 
 of the lights reflected into the room, is exactly contrary 
 to that of the sources whence they proceed. These 
 passages of reflected lights are generally progressive and 
 gradual : but if, under these circumstances, any object 
 intervene, so as to produce a shadow, the transition from 
 the blue shadow of the sky to the warm shadow of the 
 object illuminated by the sun, is sudden and intense. A 
 dark colourless shadow generally intervenes between the 
 two coloured ones, as the surface on which it is pro- 
 jected, partakes there, neither of the blue light of the 
 atmosphere, nor of the warm light of the object in sun- 
 shine. These eflPects sometimes occur, produced by 
 natural causes, in a picturesque and striking manner, 
 frequently varied by the folds of the drapery, which 
 catch certain reflections more than others, and diversi- 
 fied by other accidental circumstances : and the effects 
 of reflected lights can scarcely be expected to be mas- 
 tered, in all their variety, unless such results as these 
 are observed and studied from nature, when they are 
 accidentally or designedly produced. 
 
 The foregoing remarks are entirely referable to 
 surfaces without polish or glazing : they become im- 
 pregnated as it were with the tints and hues which 
 neighbouring bright objects throw upon them, the more
 
 REFLEXES. 213 
 
 in proportion as their own colour is duller and less 
 apparent. But the transition from these, to the polished 
 surfaces which reflect light in a definite form, is not 
 sudden, but f^radual. The conditions of the various 
 substantial and solid bodies, present, in this respect, 
 considerable analogy with the circumstances which are 
 peculiar to water, from its ruffled and turbid state, in 
 which the local colour of the water prevails entirely over 
 the reflexes which are thrown off from its surface, to the 
 gentle ripple, in which partly the colour of the water, 
 partly the objective of the neighbouring shores and sky, 
 appear ; and from this intermediate state, to that per- 
 fectly even and mirror-like condition of the surface, in 
 which every object is reflected with a perfect and definite 
 image. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, whose remarks arc frequently 
 strikingly correct, though somewhat quaint, even in 
 the language of the translator, gives a very good general 
 idea of the modifications to which reflection is subjected, 
 in connection with various natural objects. He says, 
 "Those bodies, of all others, do best discover their 
 natural colour, whose surfaces are the roughest and most 
 uneven. This may be seen in cloth, linen, leaves of 
 trees, and herbs that are furry, on which the light cannot 
 gather in any quantity, and which, for that reason, being 
 unable to receive the images of neighbouring objects, 
 send their colours pure and unadulterated to the eye : 
 hence these bodies are neither tinged with the blueness 
 of the ambient air, nor discoloured with the redness of 
 the setting sun, even when he paints the clouds and the 
 whole horizon with his colour." ^\"ith regard to polished
 
 SI* PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 bodies, the same writer observes, " Of all surfaces, there 
 is none whose genuine colour is harder to be discerned, 
 than those which are bright and polished. This is 
 observable in some herbs, and in the leaves of some trees, 
 whose surfaces, being smooth and shining, assume that 
 colour which the sun's reflex casts upon them, or at least 
 that of the air which illumines them ; insomuch that, in 
 those parts where these reflexes strike, the real colour is 
 but little seen."* 
 
 Few of the solid substantial bodies in nature arc 
 sufiiciently polished, or extended, to reflect definite 
 images of neighbouring objects ; but, by including those 
 which have been subjected to manual labour, we may 
 discover the property of reflection in all its different 
 stages, as manifested by the roughest unwrought ma- 
 terials, by the smooth walls or pavement, and by the 
 highly polished articles used as furniture or ornament. 
 When bodies have a certain degree of smoothness, with- 
 out being polished, they reflect definite images in a very 
 oblique direction only ; whereas, if looked down upon, 
 that is to say, in a direction perpendicular to their 
 surface, or nearly so, their own colour and texture 
 appear to prevail, instead of the reflexes from neighbour- 
 ing objects. An ordinary slate, or the leathern cover of 
 a book, has, in general, just that degree of smoothness 
 that you may perceive the reflection of a finger, or of any 
 other object, in a very oblique direction, and no image at 
 all in a vertical one. This may become every day 
 apparent, by the extreme distinctness with which every 
 
 * See Senex's translation of Da Vinci's " Treatise on Painting," 17:il, 
 page 85.
 
 REFLEXES. 215 
 
 object is reflected in a direction nearly horizontal, on 
 polished tables, and other articles which have received 
 the varnish of the cabinet maker ; the grain of the wood 
 disappearing, at the same time, almost entirely. It may 
 be likewise observed that, in cathedrals and other build- 
 ings, in which some windows are situated higher than 
 others, the quantity of light which appears reflected by 
 the pavement, depends, in a great measure, upon the 
 situation of the window from whence it proceeds. It is, 
 in general, the lowest window which occasions the 
 brighest reflection on the level floor. 
 
 The light which falls with equal intensity on diflferent 
 parts of the circumference of a column, may appear to 
 shine more when it is reflected from the edge or boundarv 
 of the column, than when it is thrown off" fi'om the cen- 
 tre : but I think that it should not be admitted as a rule, 
 as is the case in some treatises, that the edge of the 
 column should invariably be represented lighter than the 
 parts adjoining, as being necessary to the appearance of 
 rotundity, for this is, frequentlv, not the case, and must 
 depend upon circumstances. 
 
 Reflected Lights on Furniture, Household Uten- 
 sils, Sfc. — The chief characteristic of definite reflection, 
 with respect to those objects which do not present a 
 suflicient extent of surface, or whose polish is not suf- 
 ficiently perfect, to produce distinct images, is a flash, 
 spark, or belt of light, varying in extent and form with 
 the size and shape of the objects where these bright 
 reflexes appear, and partly, also, with the position and 
 extent of the primary light whence such reflexes are
 
 2l6 PROPKRTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 derived. These brisk and dazzling reverberations of 
 light, which are so particidarly characteristic of house- 
 hold apparatus and decorations, appear also, more or 
 less modified, on the leaves of trees, the coats of animals, 
 or on objects which, from the abundance of moisture, are 
 glazed, as it were, with a varnish of water. 
 
 The bright light which appears on one side of every 
 polished object of a round or cylindrical form, such as 
 the legs of chairs and tables, gilded knobs, or earthen- 
 ware vessels, is invariably the reflection of the strongest 
 light of the locality where these objects are placed. 
 When the object thus reflecting the principal light 
 presents a flat surface, such as the blade of a knife, 
 the top of a table, &c., the reflected light is of consider- 
 able extent, but can only be seen when the reflecting 
 surface is placed in a certain angle with respect to the 
 observer, as well as to the opening whence the light 
 comes : but when the object has a spherical shape, the 
 principal light of reflection appears contracted in pro- 
 portion as the object on which it shews itself is reduced 
 in size ; it moves according to the position of the ob- 
 server, and may be seen by him from any situation 
 which does not exceed 180°, or a right line, from the 
 point whence the light proceeds. It here becomes a 
 thin touch of lig-ht on the edge of the rounded bodv. 
 
 In the open air, the principal reflected light is broad 
 and extended, even on circular objects. If the sky be 
 cloudy, or the objects otherwise in the shade, the ap- 
 pearance of these reflexes becomes, at the same time, 
 dull and heavy. When, however, the direct light of the 
 sun falls upon polished objects, in the open air, the
 
 REFLEXES. 217 
 
 touches of light which are reflected here and there, 
 obtain a degree of brilliancy to which art cannot ap- 
 proach. In the room, where the light from the window 
 becomes the primitive light, it outshines the reflection of 
 any other object which may be in the room, even of 
 a light colour. 
 
 The interior of a polished vase or jar, has a second 
 reflection, on the side opposite to that on which the first 
 appears ; or, if two jars be placed near each other, the 
 reflection of the one would be seen on the exterior of the 
 other. The extent to which the furniture of a room is 
 reflected on the surfaces of household utensils, &c., 
 varies, of course, with the degree of polish of these 
 apparatus. Those of metal have frequently so high a 
 degree of polish, that the image of almost every object 
 in sight may, with little attention, be detected in them. 
 However, in that superficial kind of view which, from 
 its being the most habitual, is the most expressive of 
 general facts, little else is observed than the principal 
 masses which are formed by the reflection of light and of 
 dark objects. In most cases, the objects which are 
 situated very near the reflecting surface, alone become 
 very conspicuous ; so much so, that their reflections might 
 be expected to be individually attended to in a finished 
 and delicate work. 
 
 Reflections of objects on convex surfaces, become 
 most contracted or shortened, in the direction in which 
 the convexity of the surface is greatest or most sudden, 
 and more extended or lengthened, in the direction in 
 which the convexity of the surface is least sudden or 
 decided. This is, however, only relative ; for no images
 
 218 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 reflected on convex surfaces, can appear more extended 
 than they would if reflected in a plane mirror similarly 
 situated. The reflections which take place on the 
 polished sides of concave objects, assume, owing to the 
 multiplication of reflexes from side to side, such irregular 
 and intricate shapes as would defy any rule of imitation. 
 
 It frequently occurs, with regard to the reflected 
 lights on furniture and other objects, that the second 
 reflection is seen when the first is not ; as, for instance, 
 the light which, from a window, falls upon the leg of a 
 table, does not, in some cases, shine on the leg, but may 
 be distinctly seen in the polished wood flooring, or 
 glazed oilcloth, beneath it ; or the light which falls on 
 the polished side of a box or chest of any kind, placed 
 on the table, may occasionally be seen to shine, not on 
 the box itself, but on the table. This takes place, be- 
 cause the light which produces these bright reflexes, is 
 thrown off in the far greater proportion, in the angle 
 corresponding to that of incidence ; consequently, falling 
 from the window upon a vertical surface situated below, 
 it continues, after being thrown ofi^, to proceed in a 
 downward direction, and cannot reach directly the eye of 
 the observer: but any polished and level surface on 
 which the object is standing, reflects the light again, 
 upwards, and the eye of the observer catches it, more or 
 less abundantly, according as his position is more or less 
 suited for receivinjj the li^ht thus doublv reflected. 
 
 There is a great difference in the appearance of the 
 bright reflexes on various objects, in connection with 
 their own colour. Some, such as most of the metals, 
 show their native tint, even where they receive the
 
 REFLEXES. 219 
 
 greatest lustre fi'om strong and partial lights. Others, 
 such as polished woods, glazed leathers and cloths, and 
 even earthenware, give but a faint indication of their 
 local colour in the lifjhts. A cool whitish liyht is 
 thrown off from most of these glazed objects. It is, 
 doubtless, to the decided and often deep colour, which 
 most of the metals retain, even in the brightest reflexes, 
 that are owing the fulness and splendour of their effects, 
 in polished decorations and ornaments. The rich lustre 
 of jewellery is, doubtless, owing to a similar cause ; 
 whereas the light reflected by the polish of most manu- 
 factured materials, has, relatively speaking, a dull and 
 sober uniformity. 
 
 Where the degree of polish is the same, the reflected 
 lights appear much livelier on such objects as are of a 
 dark colour than on light-coloured objects. This very 
 circumstance Leonardo da Vinci refers to, as being due 
 to contrast ; observing that " when the ground is darker 
 than the reflex, the latter will appear strong and sensi- 
 ble, the former serving as a foil to it : so where the 
 reflex is found on a bright ground,* it must of course 
 appear the more dim by reason of the whiteness sur- 
 rounding it ; becoming, by this means, almost imper- 
 ceptible." 
 
 It is by a close attention to the characteristic appear- 
 ances of the various materials in art and nature, both 
 in the sharpest and brightest lights, and in the shadows. 
 
 * Tlic Translator has put " on a ground hrighler than itself;" which can- 
 not be, since the reflex, or reflected light, must always render any ground, 
 however white, in some degree brighter than the parts over which the re- 
 flected light does not extend. See Senex's translation of Da Vinci, p. 62.
 
 220 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 that their cliaracter and aspect are truly represented. 
 It is necessary to observe the great difference which 
 exists in the degree of susceptibility to light of various 
 polished bodies, from the earthenware vessel, which re- 
 flects little else than the principal light which falls 
 upon it, to the polished brass utensil, and gilded orna- 
 ment, in which the subordinate lights appear likewise 
 reflected ; and to remark, also, the very unequal man- 
 ner in which various smooth bodies decompose and 
 modify the light which falls upon them ; how local 
 colour is united chiefly to the shady side of the coarser 
 materials, whereas the bright and polished metals show 
 their native colour chiefly in the reflexes, the light be- 
 coming, as it were, impregnated with their colour, 
 before it is thrown off". 
 
 TRANSMITTED LIGHT. 
 
 With reference to Draperies, 4'C. — I will now con- 
 sider the effects which are peculiar to transmitted light, 
 chiefly with regard to colour. The light which is trans- 
 mitted through substances, more or less transparent, 
 contributes greatly to diversify the effects in which it 
 plays a part. With reference to these effects, it is 
 necessary to distinguish the light which is seen directly 
 through the substance or liquid, from that which is re- 
 radiated, or thrown off upon some other object, after pass- 
 ing through the transparent medium. The light which, 
 after thus penetrating the transparent material, is thrown 
 upon surfaces situated beyond, is deeply tinged with the
 
 TRANSMITTED LIGHT. 221 
 
 colour of the substance traversed, and, in general, is 
 diffused in a manner similar to that in which the liifht 
 is reflected from opaque coloured bodies on neighbour- 
 ing surfaces. The coloured light which is thus pro- 
 jected on objects which are deprived of it from other 
 sources, has, frequently, a deep and rich hue in the 
 immediate vicinity of the transparent material ; but it 
 does not prevail with intensity at any considerable dis- 
 tance, or take a definite form, excepting in the case of 
 stained glass, upon which the direct rays of the sun 
 fall, transferring the colours, and, to a certain extent, 
 the figures impinged on the glass, to surfaces which are 
 situated in a line with the direction of the light. The 
 brilliancy and distinctness of the colours thus trans- 
 mitted, is proportionate to the privation of light from 
 other quarters. 
 
 I next allude to the effect of seeing the light directly 
 through translucid or semi-transparent substances, as 
 when they are hung up before a window. A decided 
 and sometimes remarkable difference appears in the 
 colour of most silks, linens, and draperies of all kinds, 
 according to whether the light is seen through them, 
 or upon them. The greater part obtain a warmer and 
 deeper hue, when seen as transparent materials. This 
 is chiefly the case with those which are glazed, or of 
 a close texture, though, at the same time, transparent. 
 And, in some cases, the dyes of transparent materials 
 greatly outshine in brilliancy the hues of any body 
 colours. Hence the beautiful and unmatched eflbcts 
 of transparencies, of coloured blinds, and especially of 
 stained glass.
 
 222 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT. 
 
 The effects which arc characteristic of draperies, 
 and other materials, suspended against the light, can 
 be faithfully rendered in painting, only by a due atten- 
 tion to those tints and colours which appear when the 
 light is seen through the transparent material, with 
 reference to those which prevail on the side on which 
 the light falls ; that is to say, by observing the relations 
 of the colours which chiefly prevail at the same time, 
 under both conditions of light. For instance, with 
 regard to opaque bodies, truth of imitation depends on 
 the due relation of the tints on the shady side, with 
 those which are on the side of the light ; and, in the 
 same manner, with transparent materials, the natural 
 effect depends upon the maintenance of the exact rela- 
 tion between those parts where the object, (a curtain 
 for instance, or any other drapery,) is seen as a trans- 
 parent material, and those parts in which it is seen as 
 an opaque body. Considerable difference may arise 
 from the degree of closeness of the texture. If there 
 be much space between the threads, the light passes 
 through them without partaking much of the colour 
 of the material. On this account, such thin materials 
 seen in transparency, appear to have less colom* when 
 the observer looks up at the light directly through them, 
 than when the material is situated, as it were, less in 
 the path of the light, or less directly between it and 
 the observer ; for the light which falls on the reverse 
 of these transparent materials, appears to colour them 
 the more, when it is not seen through them as through 
 a sieve, but when the immediate background is obscure. 
 Thus, the changes which characterize the appearance
 
 TRANSMITTED LIGHT. {223 
 
 of materials when seen with transmitted light, varies 
 with their texture, as well as with collateral circum- 
 stances. Many acquire a richer and more brilliant 
 hue ; whilst some lose part of their vivacity, and, espe- 
 ciallv, the purity and freshness of colour which dis- 
 tinguishes them when tliev are seen with the light 
 upon them. Some of tliose which have but a faint 
 tincture of red, such as the light pink and buff, acquire 
 an additional blush or warmth, which is very striking 
 if the folds of the material cause it to be doubled, so 
 that the light be subjected to a more complete modi- 
 fication in its passage through the material. 
 
 Transmitted Light in Liquids — Many of the richest, 
 as well as most delicate hues, which appear in nature, 
 result from transmitted light. Hence are derived the 
 glowing and vcllowish green of the under side of the 
 leaves of trees in sunshine, and the peculiar reddish tints 
 visible in the sky, and on luminous clouds, when dimmed 
 by an intervening film of coarser vapour. Indeed, the 
 most pleasing effects of the atmosphere may, in a great 
 measure, be traced to this principle. In liquids, the 
 influence due to transmitted light is still more obvious 
 than elsewhere ; and the increased brilliancy of the local 
 colour, is here a resvdt more constant than in the case of 
 transparent draperies. The pleasing effects which result 
 from the passage of light through water, may be observed 
 especially, in the green and copper-coloured streams of 
 mountainous districts. The white stones in the beds of 
 torrents, and, sometimes, the foam which has been forced 
 beneath the surface, reflect, in beautiful golden hues, the 
 direct rays of the sun. The light which is reflected from
 
 2$iJ4 TRANSPARENCY 
 
 the bottom of glass vessels, becomes likewise tinged, both 
 as it penetrates into the liquid which they contain, and 
 as it is thrown out again ; and thus acquires a richness of 
 colour, to which, the convergence of the rays of light, 
 produced by the refracting powers of the glass, frequently 
 gives an increased degree of brilliancy. Hence those 
 sparkling effects and gilded lights of replenished cups 
 and vessels, which, for the purposes of art, would require 
 either to be rendered less familiar, or to be removed to 
 those scenes of boorish mirth and rustic festivity, in which 
 Teniers, Ostade, and Brouwer, displayed their talent in 
 pourtraying character, and indulged in the inexhaustible 
 droUerv of their humour. 
 
 TRANSPARENCY IN PAINTING. 
 
 The charm which transparency lends to a picture, is 
 so evident, that the allusion to it is generally considered 
 to involve encomium. The merit due to transparency 
 may arise partly from the impression of penetrability 
 and depth, where we know that there is none. But, as 
 a deceptive principle, transparency is closely associated 
 with relief; and the inferior merit of this quality, shows 
 that it is not as a means of deception only, that the great 
 advantages of transparency are felt. The impressions of 
 space are always pleasing, even in nature. A distant 
 prospect ever delights more than the barrier which sud- 
 denly intercepts the view, however ornamental be its 
 character ; and this faculty of retiring in thought into
 
 IN PAINTING. 225 
 
 remote parts, is particularly pleasing, when, at the same 
 time that it is propitiated and encouraged by the artifices 
 of the picture, all the other conditions are maintained, 
 which constitute a whole, both as a subject and as a work 
 of art. Relief loses, from the very opposite causes, part of 
 the interest which it might otherwise claim. It is gene- 
 rally obtained by some great effort ; and it is, therefore, 
 very seldom, that the appearance of a marked and 
 decided projection can be extended, alike, to all parts of 
 the subject. A hand and arm, or a leg, come forward, 
 whilst the other members or figures remain at a more 
 sober distance ; and the picture loses that unity of effect 
 which results from the equal and progressive vanishing 
 of all the parts. Transparency, in painting, results 
 chiefly from the trutliful rendering of the influence of 
 atmosphere in the light and aerial parts, and of indis- 
 tinctness in the recesses and shadows ; whilst, in the 
 details, is maintained a kind of transparency which is 
 peculiar to individual objects. 
 
 A characteristic feature of transparency is, that it 
 admits of lines crossing each other, without any ap- 
 parent harshness or awkwardness in their distribution. 
 The imagination follows, unchecked, the form beyond, at 
 the same time that the eye is arrested by other forms 
 which come before it. After what has been already 
 stated, with regard to forms and the impressions which 
 are immediately connected with them, I inav leave the 
 reader to find out for himself, anv further clue to this 
 harmless and harmonious meeting, in transparent sub- 
 stances, of cross-lines, the clashing of which, under 
 other circumstances, would suffice to ruffle any nerves, 
 
 Q
 
 226 TRANSPARENCY. 
 
 susceptible in matters of art. Whenever lines inter- 
 sect each other with sudden angles, without offending, 
 whether it be in the waves of the sea, in the hollow 
 thicket, or in the draperies which cover the limbs and 
 body, there penetrability or transparency must prevail. 
 Such lines could not otherwise meet, without jarring. 
 
 Lightness is often regarded as analogous to ti'ans- 
 parency, in the effects of the atmosphere, because it 
 indicates but little disturbance of the prevailing colour, 
 which is that of light. Light vapours, the more pale 
 they are, the more transparent they appear, if they, by 
 this means, come nearer to the luminous tone of the at- 
 mosphere : but there are cases, in which the addition of 
 light produces opacity ; for instance, when the ground 
 behind is dark. Clouds, seen from above, or against a 
 mountain, will appear the more transpai-ent, in pro- 
 portion as the whiteness of the vapour appears tempered 
 by the darkness of the hill or mountain situated behind. 
 The transparency then increases as the colour of the 
 distant object prevails tlie more ; and must be very 
 great, when indications of form appear. 
 
 There is this peculiar to the transparency which is 
 connected with drapery, that it may exist quite inde- 
 pendently of colour. It is one form influenced and 
 acted upon by a different form; — the projection of the 
 folds and creases of draperv, displaced and modified by 
 the projection of the muscle. Hence the pleasing effect 
 of the draperies, as so delicately expressed by the chisel 
 of the Greeks; — soft and flexible, without colour, — 
 light and transparent, in the native opaqueness of the 
 marble.
 
 RELATIONS OF COLOURS. 227 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 RELATIONS OF COLOURS. 
 
 The colours of nature present relations of two kinds. 
 One kind of relation is that which is afforded by the 
 colours of the prism. These colours, as seen in the 
 rainbow, or in the artificial spectrum, strike us, from 
 the intrinsic beauty of each separate colour, as well as 
 from the perfect harmony and consonance of their ar- 
 rangement. The other kind of relation is that which is 
 afforded by the indefinite colours which characterize 
 most objects in nature, and which are generally called 
 broken tints or colours. The impressions of beauty 
 resulting, either from the colours themselves, or from 
 their association, are here less vivid and immediate, 
 than those which are connected with the aspect of the 
 primary colours, but they are more diversified. 
 
 The charm which is connected with the prismatic 
 colours, corresponds with that of simple and pure notes 
 combined in harmony ; whereas, the relations of broken 
 colours correspond with the indefinite modulations of the 
 human voice, which accompany speech. The primary 
 colours, like the primitive notes, please of themselves, or 
 by their inmicdiate combinations ; the broken tints and 
 colours afford pleasure chiefly by the expression of cha- 
 racter, as do the broken sounds of speech by the ex- 
 pression of ideas : and it is remarkable that this analogy, 
 which Mr. Field has so ably developed in his ti-eatise on
 
 228 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 Chromatics, shows itself still further in the combinations 
 of sounds, and in those of colours : for it is chiefly in its 
 modulations and inflections, and not in its primary notes, 
 that sound combines with articulated syllables, to show 
 itself with those new attributes which render it the 
 channel of thought ; in the same manner as broken and 
 indefinite colours chiefly associate with form, to realize 
 those trains of various impressions, which are linked 
 together bv reasoning, and eml)ellished by fancy. 
 
 From that distribution of broken colours which de- 
 pends upon the assemblage of objects of all kinds, results 
 the harmony of nature, which I propose considering, 
 before we concern ourselves with another kind of har- 
 mony, more flattering to the eye, which is, generally 
 speaking, required in a picture, and which may be 
 termed harmony of effect. 
 
 ON NATURAL HARMONY, 
 
 Resulting from the usual Relations of Lights and 
 Colours in Nature. 
 
 In surveying nature with reference to the colours 
 presented to our view, it will be found that some oppose 
 each other, or contrast in a striking manner, whilst the 
 transitions of others are effected by successive gradations. 
 The contrast of the sky with the opaque masses under it, 
 the opposite colours of buildings and vegetation, the 
 passage of the colours of the flesh to those of drapery, 
 the primitive colours of flowers, the distinct markings of
 
 HARMONY OF NATUIIE. 229 
 
 the animal creation, and, sometimes, the bright and di- 
 versified reflections of polished surfaces, are examples of 
 abrupt and decided distinctions ; whereas, we discover, 
 in the passage from one kind of vegetation to another, in 
 the softer colours of rocks and earth, in the blending of 
 the hues of the sky, and in the tints of the countenance, 
 as well as in the conformable dyes of well-adjusted 
 draperies, thousands of instances of gentle and pro- 
 gressive change. 
 
 The most abrupt, as well as the most gentle of these 
 transitions, are equally characteristic of nature, and tend 
 equally to realize those results which render her aspect 
 agreeable. However violent the distinctions of the an- 
 tagonizing colours — however mild and gentle the rela- 
 tions of others — all appear fit and becoming, because 
 they are in their right place. The visible world is uni- 
 formly revealed to us by the same definite signs, tlie dis- 
 turbance of which would estrantre and disfifjure its 
 simplest aspects. These relations, not only of the local 
 colours of objects, but of the reflected lights, and induced 
 shadows, which modify their appearance, being, there- 
 fore, necessary to the true character of every object, 
 whether we observe each individually, or in connectioi 
 with others, constitute the Harmonv of Nature. This 
 kind of harmony prevails as much in her habitual and 
 most familiar appearances, as in her extraordinary effects. 
 It is the necessary condition of things in their normal 
 state, — of colours having their usual influence, — of 
 lights and shades exercising their due and wonted action. 
 It prevails throughout all nature, wheresoever the eflTocts 
 appear to correspond naturally with their cause ; and it
 
 230 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 appears deficient, only in certain effects, of seldom oc- 
 currence, which caimot be accounted for by usual infer- 
 ences. The appearance of each object which constitutes 
 a part of natui'e, adapts itself to every condition of light, 
 shade, or contrast, which a change of circumstances in- 
 duces, and is, therefore, in general, in accordance and 
 unison with every visible influence. But when any pe- 
 culiar or unusual influence manifests itself in nature, the 
 balance between cause and effect appears disturbed, and 
 the degree of harmony requisite to the natural appear- 
 ance of objects, is wanting. 
 
 Owing to our acquired habit of ascribing to objects 
 and efiiects, those characters which are most apparent, 
 we are, in general, little willing to admit any results of 
 contrast to be deceptions, but hold them to he bond fide 
 realities, until they are proved to us to be otherwise. 
 The increased darkness which usually surrounds a 
 bright light, is a circumstance so familiar to us, that 
 although the result of an illusion, we do not in general 
 consider it to be such. At the same time it must be 
 allowed, that the luminous atmosphere which frequently 
 appears to surround a light shining in darkness, operates 
 in opposition to the effect of contrast. 
 
 There are, however, some circumstances in nature, 
 which render us very sensible to the changes produced 
 by contrast, in the appearances of objects. For in- 
 stance, the brilliant reflection of the moon, on the 
 ruffled surface of the sea, appears, frequently, to pro- 
 duce the distinct image of a cone of shadow, extending 
 from the horizon to the moon, which forms its apex, 
 whilst its base corresponds with the breadth of the
 
 HARMONY OF NATURE. 231 
 
 reflection on the surface of the sea. The intensity, as 
 likewise the extent, of the cone of shade, appears very 
 unequal under different circumstances. The combined 
 influence of the moon, and of its brilliant reflection on the 
 sea, gives to the shadow of opposition, a pointed apex 
 and a widened base, in conformity with the small di- 
 ameter of the moon and the extent of its luminous 
 reflection ; and renders this eflFcct of contrast striking 
 and remarkable. Again, we are, generally speaking, 
 unconscious of any darkening of the portion of the sky 
 which surrounds the moon, when shining, at night, in 
 its full brilliancy. When, however, the moon, in its 
 first quarter, appears in the west, surrounded by twi- 
 light, its crescent is accompanied by an apparent deep- 
 ening of the surrounding blue. There must, therefore, 
 be something peculiar in tbe appearance of the moon, 
 at the hour of twilight, which does not apply in the 
 conditions in which we usually behold it. What ap- 
 pears most probable, is, that the radiance which usually 
 surrounds the moon, when in its full brilliancy, by 
 lesseninn; the suddenness of the transition from liffht to 
 darkness, takes away the eflFcct of contrast ; whereas, 
 the evening twilight, which deprives the moon of its 
 usual radiance, admits the entire influence of opposi- 
 tion. And, further, the obelisk on the ci-devant Place 
 de la Concorde at Paris, has appeared, when lighted 
 by lamps, at night, to be surrounded by a shadow ; but 
 other buildings, lighted up in a similar way, do not 
 usually give rise to this appearance : there must have 
 been, therefore, something peculiar, in connection either 
 with the monument, with the lights, or with the general
 
 232 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 impression produced, which rendered a])parent the 
 influence of contrast of this lighted object with the 
 darkness of the surrounding space. Was the source 
 of the light on the monument less perceived than is 
 usually the case ? If so, the degree of light was at 
 variance with the apparent cause ; and one cannot be 
 surprised that the darkness of the surrounding space, 
 should likewise present something unusual. The effect 
 not being a customary one, would impress itself the 
 more. 
 
 I adopted the following method for testing the 
 influence which would result, in an effect of this kind, 
 from the concealment of the cause. During a dark 
 night, two white square surfaces were placed upright, 
 and at a corresponding distance, separated by an interval 
 of a few feet. The light of a lamp closed at the back, 
 was thrown upon one of the squares, whereas the other 
 square was illuminated by open lamps. The concealment 
 of the light from view, in the first case, by preventing its 
 effect from being the result of a visible cause, might 
 have been expected to render the surrounding darkness 
 more intense. This appeared to be the case to a certain 
 extent, though, perhaps, not so much as might have 
 been anticipated ; a more decided difference being that 
 resulting from a kind of haze which appeared to sur- 
 round the open lamps, and which diffused a somewhat 
 greyish tint over the surrounding space, rendering the 
 shadows less transparent than in the neighbourhood of 
 the lamp closed at the back. It is probable that if a 
 white surface could be lighted up in so artful a manner 
 that no suspicion would arise, in the mind of the oh-
 
 HARMONY OF NATURE. 233 
 
 server, as to the source of the light, a remarkable 
 apparent deepening of the surrounding gloom might be 
 produced. He would then view the white surface, and 
 the adjacent darkness, in the manner of relations, and 
 not as customary eifects. But our apprehension through 
 sight is, in general, much more alive to the deceptions 
 of art, than to the illusions of nature. How difficult it 
 is to persuade ourselves that a statue of imitation marble 
 is as beautiful as one of the genuine material, whenever 
 the smallest chip broken off discovers to us the decep- 
 tion ! And how readily is the impression which is con- 
 veyed to us by a single scratch or jag, transferred to the 
 entire object! 
 
 In all impressions connected with sight, we judge, 
 perhaps, more by what we have learned by experience, 
 than by what we see before us. Nature very rarely 
 appears to us unaccountable. If certain of her appear- 
 ances are very remote and peculiar, we generally attri- 
 bute to them an origin different from the real one, or 
 discover in our fancy another kind of effect, until the 
 true one becomes revealed, together with the cause of 
 its peculiarity. We are frequently unable to explain 
 by analogy, the eflfects which are connected with t' e 
 atmosphere, and chiefly with the clouds ; consequently 
 they often appear singular, and sometimes unnatural. 
 This arises from the variety of unseen causes which 
 are engaged in producing some of the tints which 
 are peculiar to the atmosphere. Hence, a considerable 
 degree of discrimination is required in the execution 
 of atmospheric effects. But the greater certainty which 
 we experience, both as to the true character of nearer
 
 234 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 objects, and as to the influences to which they are sub- 
 jected, causes them for the most part to foil into the ge- 
 neral harmony of nature, and to present, at least, a 
 fitting appearance, although they may differ in the 
 degree of their attractiveness. 
 
 In ornamental objects, especially in articles of furni- 
 ture or dress, in which the choice of the colours is under 
 the sway of fashion, there is scarcely any arrangement 
 of these, to which the eye does not become reconciled 
 by custom. If, however, colours, or even forms, should 
 be employed, entirely different to those which are intro- 
 duced in the rotations of taste, the result would appear 
 preposterous, or, at least, most fanciful ; an effect which 
 might be easily imagined, by supposing, as I think 
 Alison has done, that in the same apartment were asso- 
 ciated, a sky-blue carpeting and a green ceiling; the 
 unsightliness of which would, in a great measure, depend 
 upon the distribution of the colours of the apartment 
 being in direct opposition to the order of nature. 
 
 If we employ the most fanciful colours that can be 
 imagined, for the designed purpose of subverting the cus- 
 tomary appearance of the objects which surround us, it 
 is not so much the distribution of the colours them- 
 selves, which offends the eye ; but they become repul- 
 sive, chiefly by the impressions of the absurd and ludi- 
 crous which are associated with them, and by disturbing, 
 with a bad and vulgar resemblance, the truthful image 
 retained in our minds, of more pleasing objects. Another 
 source of unsightliness arises when, by departing from 
 every usual style in the decoration of an object, we cause 
 it to resemble something of inferior value ; in which
 
 HARMONY OF NATURE. 235 
 
 case, it is rather the impression of inferiority which 
 becomes connected with it, than the actual nature of 
 the decoration itself, which causes it to fall in our esti- 
 mation. Unless by connections of this kind, that is to 
 say, by counterfeiting objects which arc coarse or vulgar, 
 there arc scarcely any artificial combinations of colours, 
 to which the eve cannot easily be accustomed. The 
 impression of their being designed, soon reconciles the 
 mind to the most unusual combinations. 
 
 In fact all objects which are either useful or orna- 
 mental, become, to a certain extent, identified with the 
 general aspect of nature, under whose influence, colours 
 appear right, in every possible diversity of combination 
 and strength : and it may appear remarkable that, 
 whereas, in the natural scene, we discover this perfect 
 adaptation of every colour to its neighbour, making 
 invariably the best of its situation, we find the imita- 
 tion, in any work of art, to be attended with so much 
 uncertainty and difficulty. Why should not the student, 
 as far as colouring goes, fall into one of nature's effects, 
 when he misses the other ? How often is he compelled 
 to alter, and rc-alter, his first tints, before he can pro- 
 duce something approaching to any one of these appear- 
 ances ! That it is so difficult to render correctly the 
 simplest of these, is a proof that every combination of 
 colours, afforded by nature, has a tendency to adapt 
 itself to our acquired impressions of propriety, which 
 docs not exist in works of imitation ; and until the 
 student is able to trace all that he beholds to its very 
 principle, he fails to render nature, and frequently pro- 
 duces but a mockery. I will, therefore, examine the
 
 236 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 most essential conditions of that harmonious arrangement 
 which is characteristic of nature's scenery, with a view 
 to faciUtate representation, and to insure that precision 
 in the results, which prepares the way to the highest 
 attainments of ideal art. The influence of simultaneous 
 contrasts of colour will be next considered, with refer- 
 ence to this inquiry. 
 
 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRASTS OF COLOUR. 
 
 M. Chevreul observes, in his excellent treatise on 
 simultaneous and successive contrasts of colours, that 
 the reciprocal influence of two neighbouring colours on 
 each other, causes them to appear different to what they 
 would be without this influence;* and the general expose 
 of his principles, tends to prove, that it is not possible 
 for us to judge of the exact effect which would be pre- 
 sented by any particular colour, if seen disconnectedly 
 from all others. Mr. Field adopts a bolder and more 
 comprehensive theory, by maintaining " that colours 
 should be considered as relations, and that, if there 
 were only one colour in the world, there would be no 
 sense of colour at all."t If I understand rightlv the 
 author's meaning, it does not imply that no colour has 
 a property of its ovra, distinct from all others. For, 
 if we deprive any colour, as much as possible, of the 
 
 * " De la Loi du Contraste simultane des Couleurs." Par Mons. E. 
 Chevreul, p. 190. Par. 325. 
 
 t Field's " Chromatics ; or, the Analogy, Harmony, and Philosophy of 
 Colours." Par. 59.
 
 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRASTS. 237 
 
 influence of contrast, it still conveys the distinct im- 
 pression vvliich is peculiar to it. Green, for instance, 
 placed upon white, or black, surrounded, in the first 
 case, by all the rays of light combined, and, in the 
 second case, by none, still appears green ; as, in the 
 same way, any other distinct colour appears of that 
 colour, under most of the circumstances that our inge- 
 nuity might devise to produce an apparent change. 
 The term " relation " seems to apply, not to the colour 
 itself, which, in every example that can be furnished, 
 is a fact, a result produced by a definite cause, but, 
 rather, to our idea, which, without the relation of one 
 colour with other colours, would be indefinite and con- 
 fused. Whenever we see a colour, as on white paper, 
 without the contrast of other colours, it is to the im- 
 pression retained in our minds, of its relation to them, 
 that is owing the definite idea which we connect with 
 it ; and we can form no opinion of the kind of impres- 
 sion we should experience, had we never seen it asso- 
 ciated with other colours. Like form unrelated to any 
 other forms, it would be meaningless. 
 
 Taking M. Chevreul for mv guide, in the condu- 
 sions which I have formed from personal observation, I 
 will point out some of those influences of contrast of 
 colour, which are most apparent, and consider what 
 share they should have, in painting, amid the various 
 other influences which are to be accounted for. 
 
 M. Chevreul distinguishes contrasts of colour into 
 simultaneous and successive effects. The latter, being 
 those which take place in succession, and in consequence 
 of an influence which has passed away, scarcely apply
 
 238 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 to the art of painting. The various influences which 
 are connected with simultaneous contrasts of colours, 
 may be all traced to the following general law : — The 
 presence of a bright or powerful colour induces, in its 
 vicinity, or on neighbouring colours, the appearance of 
 the colour which is complementary to itself. Thus, 
 bright yellow, opposed to neutral tint or grey, imparts 
 a purple or pinkish tint to the latter ; from the vicinity 
 of red, the grey receives a greenish hue ; and from that 
 of blue, an orange tint : whereas, if bright colours be 
 contrasted with each other, the complementary one is 
 superinduced, reciprocally, to each of the positive 
 colours. 
 
 If a neutral tint be placed between two primaries, 
 that tint is acted upon differently, according to the 
 nature of the primary which it adjoins. Thus, grey, 
 between blue and red, becomes orange where it borders 
 the blue, and of a greenish hue where it borders the 
 red ; grey, between blue and yellow, becomes orange 
 next the blue, and purple next the yellow ; if bordered 
 on either side by red and yellow, the induced colours 
 are purple next the yellow, and green next the red. 
 
 If, instead of the grey, a primary colour be placed 
 between two other primaries, a similar effect is super- 
 induced to the positive colour, which becomes more or 
 less modified. Thus, with red for a central colour, and 
 blue and yellow for side colours, the red acquires an 
 orange tint next the blue, and a reddish purple next the 
 yellow, whereas its appearance is rendered dull in the 
 centre. Corresponding results take place, by employing 
 the other primaries, successively, for the central and side
 
 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRASTS. 239 
 
 colours. The principle is the same throughout, but the 
 influence varies with the degree of brilliancy of the 
 colours employed ; so that with a brilliant yellow, for 
 instance, as a central colour, its reaction on the side 
 colours predominates, and the influence of the latter on 
 the yellow is very feeble. Bright colours seem, however, 
 to lose their effect on the black, as the complementary 
 colours do not there appear. Moreover, the foregoing 
 results, although sulficiently constant to be subjected to 
 general rules, are very variable as to the intensity of the 
 impressions which they produce on the eye. The slight- 
 est deceptive influence tends to increase, to diminish, or 
 even to obliterate them. The results appear to be most 
 decided, when the eye fixes itself on the colour opposite 
 to that where the superinduced influence takes place ; 
 and a motion of the coloured papers, (if these are used,) 
 which tends to deceive the eye, renders the imagination 
 at once more alive to the complementary colours which 
 associate themselves with any given primary. 
 
 With results apparently so variable as these, it would 
 be impossible to assign the exact cases in painting, in 
 which allowance should be made for the influences of 
 contrast of colour ; but, at the same time, we may feel 
 assured, that the artist possesses great advantages, who is 
 familiar with them. The chief difficulty is, to be able to 
 foretell, in the use w-hich is made of colours in painting, 
 whether their mutual influence will exactlv correspond 
 with tliat which they exercise over each other in the real 
 subject, whether it be a model, draperies, or a landscape. 
 The influence of the colours upon each other, in a picture, 
 may suffice, of itself, for the true representation of the
 
 240 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 effect of nature, or it may not suffice. This the artist finds 
 out, by experience only ; and I must concur in the 
 opinion, expressed by Mons. Chevreul, that the know- 
 ledge of the usual effects of the reaction of colours, 
 greatly assists him in detecting any insufficiency of such 
 reaction in the colours of his painting. If, by mistake, 
 he has modified his local colours with gradations of an 
 opposite tendency to those which would result from the 
 contrast of neio'hbourinfj ones, he knows how to correct 
 his error ; and, instead of giving, for instance, to white 
 linen a reddish tint, to make it harmonize with the adja- 
 cent red draperies, he finds, perhaps, that by giving it a 
 greenish hue, (the complementary colour of the red,) he 
 succeeds more effectually, both as to harmony and nature ; 
 or, perhaps, he finds that, in a case in which yellow and 
 blue draperies are contiguous to each other, the effect is 
 rendered more agreeable by deepening the blue, conform- 
 ably to the influence of contrast, than by giving it a 
 warmish tint in the parts bordering the yellow, with a 
 view to produce harmony. But, as the reader must be 
 aware, there are various influences besides those which 
 result from the contrast of colour, which are to be 
 accounted for in painting ; and amidst these different 
 principles, a choice is made of those, the results of which 
 satisfy the eye most completely, or seem most agreeable 
 to the effects of nature.
 
 IN PAINTING. 241 
 
 HOW FAR THE HARMONY OF NATURE IS ATTAINABLE BY 
 THE ART OF PAINTING. 
 
 Having considered what arc the usual effects of the 
 opposition of colours under given circumstances, we will 
 endeavour to find out whether the ordinarj^ conditions 
 of the picture require the adoption of other means, in 
 order to obtain results which, to the eye, may appear 
 to correspond to those of nature. It is evident that we 
 are able to imitate, tint for tint, any particular effect 
 resulting ft-om combinations of colours in nature, only 
 so far as the conditions of the painting are the same ; 
 and that, unless we can make sure that they are so, the 
 truthfulness of the representation must remain uncer- 
 tain. Now it is the destiny of art, that its productions 
 should never be subjected to the same conditions of 
 light, shade, and colour, as the subjects which are fur- 
 nished by nature. I have shown, in the section on 
 light and shade, that the transition from sunshine to 
 shadow may be matched two or three times successively, 
 by artificial gradations of colour. But although the 
 artist who sets aside the most violent transitions of 
 nature, may thus sometimes find it in his power to 
 render her gradations in equal value, yet it should be 
 remembered that one great difference must remain, 
 namely, that white in the shade will always form his 
 starting point, or the head of the scale, and not white 
 in various degrees of sunshine. Moreover, colours
 
 242 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 which arc equivalents for lights in the open air, would 
 cease to be so in a room, where the diminution of light 
 produces a general sinking of the tints, and a corre- 
 sponding change in their relations. On the other hand, 
 it should be borne in mind, that the passages from light 
 to shade which appear simultaneously in any effect of 
 nature, are not to be compared, as to their degree, with 
 those successive changes which take place from noon 
 to evening, or from sunshine to moonlight. These last 
 transitions are, relatively speaking, immense. The 
 bright torch, which, at night, illuminates every object 
 that its light falls upon, but itself appears almost extinct 
 when placed in sunshine, shows what an amount of 
 diminution may take place in the quantity of light, 
 before we are made aware of it by indistinctness of the 
 objects. But the slow progression both of light and of 
 darkness, in nature, as well as the gradual adaptation 
 of the eye to every new condition of light, by the con- 
 traction and the expansion of the pupil, render these 
 changes little perceived : and, in a computation of this 
 kind, we should take care not to mix up those important 
 variations of light which take place in succession, with 
 those which are simultaneously before us, and appre- 
 ciable to the eye in one instant. The painter very 
 rightly disregards effects which may be witnessed un- 
 consciously, and takes account of those only which are 
 apparent to the eye, and distinctly appreciated by 
 every one. 
 
 Let us, therefoi-e, limit the task of the artist who 
 proposes to make a faithful imitation of nature, to the 
 representation of appearances which take place simul-
 
 IN PAINTING. 
 
 243 
 
 taneously ; and, in order to give him a fair chance of 
 success, let us suppose the effect selected by him to be 
 one of moderate power, and the tints quiet and subdued. 
 His object is to produce an exact transfer of the scene of 
 nature, matching the lights with his brightest colours, 
 and the semi-tints and shadows by colours darkened in 
 various proportions with black ; but, in order to do this, 
 it is necessary that the conditions of the picture be made 
 to correspond exactly with those of the subject, or, at 
 least, with some object contained in it, which may serve 
 as a test, or term of comparison, for the remainder. But, 
 in the first place, how can we satisfy ourselves that the 
 light in which we have placed the picture exactly corre- 
 sponds with any light, in the real scene, which we have 
 fixed upon as a term of comparison for the rest ? If it be 
 placed in the shade, it has reflected lights ; and what 
 means have we for determining whether they correspond, 
 in degree and tone, to those which fall upon the shadow 
 side of objects in nature ? If it be placed in the sun, 
 how can we regulate its obliquity with respect to the sun's 
 rays, so that it be equally illumined with any given 
 object? But, supposing that we were able to establish an 
 exact conformity 'between the conditions of light in our 
 picture, and those of any one given object, how could we 
 be sure, with the eye for our only guide, that we should 
 be able to match the innumerable gradations of tints and 
 colours which are subjected to the unequal influences of 
 distance, and to the fluctuations of light and shade ? The 
 strong lights in nature, exercise a degree of reaction 
 which the imitation lights of paint do not produce. A 
 sketch taken from nature, with one layer of colour, may
 
 244 PRINCIPLES Ol- COLOURING 
 
 be made to appear true ; yet it may be painted over with 
 a second layer, so as equally to appear true, although the 
 tone of its colours bo greatly deepened. And again, are 
 not the intended situations of pictures, and consequently 
 their final and permanent conditions of light, very diffe- 
 rent to those which prevail during their execution ? 
 
 If the truthfulness of a picture were to depend on 
 perfect similarity of shade and colour with any given 
 scene, its character for excellence would suffer with every 
 change of position to which it might be subjected. The 
 moonlight, which science tells us to be 300,000 times 
 less brilliant than sunshine, we find sometimes hung up 
 by the side of an effect of daylight, and merely a shade 
 darker, without its being suggested to us that either the 
 one or the other is a departure from nature.* Both may 
 appear correct and natural, if the colouring remind us of 
 a scene by day, on the one hand, and of a moonlight 
 effect, on the other. It is the characteristic appearance 
 of the objects, and not their degree of darkness, which 
 tells us that it is a moonlight. 
 
 Every painting is thus based on principles more or 
 
 * The relations above given of the light of the moon to that of the sun, 
 are taken from Mrs. Somerville's " Connection of the Physical Sciences." 
 According to a calculation, based on the difference between the quantity of the 
 sun's light which is reflected to us by the small periphery of the moon, and that 
 which is reflected by the entire surface of our own earth, .'57,000 designates 
 in round numbers the difl'erence between the amount of light which we 
 receive from the sun and that which we derive from the moon. In Mons. 
 Bouger's " Traite d'Optique," the light absorbed by the moon is stated 
 to be as 1 to 2 to the light reflected ; and with regard to the surface of 
 the earth, the relation of the light absorbed to that which is reflected, is 
 probably nearly the same. According to Dr. AVollastou's photometrical 
 researches, the effulgence of the full moon is 801,072 times less than that of 
 •the sun. See Mr. Hunt's " Poetry of Science," p. 98.
 
 IN PAINTING. 245 
 
 less remote from those which govern the suhjeet which it 
 represents ; and every painter when he sets to work, 
 takes up a position more or less independent of that 
 nature which he professes to follow, adopting a key-tone 
 which will serve as the basis of all his relations of 
 colours. It is, therefore, with regard to general re- 
 lations — to the impression given, taken as a whole, — 
 and with heedlessness as regards minor points of identity, 
 that nature can alone be represented by any of the usual 
 processes of art. The best sketches in the open air, 
 may please for a time by their graphic resemblance ; but 
 the art of that country would be thought low indeed, 
 which would fill its exhibitions with portraits painted 
 from nature, colour for colour, tint for tint, and nothing 
 more. It is the impression of nature with which the 
 artist chiefly concerns himself. Provided he maintain 
 this, and succeed in imparting it in full force to the 
 beholder, it little matters what may be his peculiar views 
 in the treatment of the subject. That artist succeeds 
 best, who conveys the liveliest impression of objects in 
 the most pleasing form. The tone may be improved, 
 the tints varied ; new charms mav be substituted for 
 those which nature never parts with. This, in my 
 opinion, only successful way of representing nature, as 
 seen through a beautifvintr mirror, far from beinjr detri- 
 mental to the art, ensures that variety, those endless 
 modulations of eff'ect, which answer to every taste, sym- 
 pathy, and feeling. Imitation, unpolished and unre- 
 fined, would narrow the limits of the art, and bring 
 down taste and genius to a level with the meanest me- 
 chanical processes.
 
 246 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 It is the uncertainty that prevails, with regard to the 
 attainment of truth in imitation, which enables the artist 
 to command the sympathy of the most dissimilar tastes. 
 Be it cheerfulness, softness, delicacy, or vigour, that is 
 required, he can comply, without appearing to digress 
 from that fidelity to nature, which these different styles 
 equally recommend. Subordinate and imperfect means 
 are substituted for those eflScient ones which art cannot 
 possess ; and the mystery which, to the inexperienced, 
 appears to envelope these operations, disguises an artifice, 
 which, if easily discovered, would take away the charm 
 of imitation, and lessen their estimation of the art. 
 
 If, in a gallery of pictures, or exhibition, we set aside 
 a certain number of paintings of which we most approve, 
 we shall find, although we see nature in all, that in 
 each, a distinct and peculiar method has been adopted 
 for translating her effects ; and we might discover, that 
 every artist, even though the character of the scenery be 
 the same, has understood nature in a different manner, 
 and has rated differently the privileges which art has a 
 right to exercise in her imitations. Some of these will 
 appear servile, others bold, others fanciful ; but our 
 ideas of excellence will not so much result from the 
 closeness of the resemblance, but will chiefly depend on 
 the liveliness with which we are made to experience those 
 impressions which naturally connect themselves with any 
 particular subject. In every case, something more will 
 he demanded of art, than the evidence of that imitative 
 skill which is acquired by practice.
 
 IN PAINTING. 247 
 
 HARMONY OF NATURE ; 
 
 Considered with reference to Practice in Painting. 
 
 If, in connection with the above remarks, we reflect 
 for a moment on the diversit}- of styles in painting by 
 which nature may be interpreted, and consider the de- 
 gree of satisfaction attendant on all, we may be willing to 
 admit that the impression of the harmony which delights 
 us in nature, is not the result of one system of imitation, 
 but of an immense variety of systems, although, at the 
 same time, the discomfort and uneasiness which attend 
 our perusal of bad productions, show that there are 
 certain conditions in imitation, the neglect of which 
 causes nature to appear either falsified or greatly im- 
 paired. These principles, the whole of which could 
 scarcely be contained in an entire treatise, may be sum- 
 marily expressed by " corresponding effects for corre- 
 sponding causes," and are implied in a general manner 
 by the term "consistency." Whatever be the expression 
 of nature which is intended to be produced, whatever 
 contrivance, artifice, or practical skill, be employed to 
 realize this expression, it must be done so throughout, 
 with a perfect and understood relation of one part of the 
 subject to another, of one effect to another cff'ect, and of 
 both to one common and prevailing cause. The neglect 
 of this agreement of every part, or the want of skill to 
 carry it out to its whole extent, is that which dis- 
 tinguishes a bad work from a good one, — a picture
 
 248 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 which is harmonious to the eye, from one which is re- 
 pulsive and discordant. 
 
 There is a vast number of paintings which scarcely 
 aJBRord any traces of harmony based on a true principle 
 of relation between the parts. Such paintings a prac- 
 tised eye judges to be infinitely further from nature, than 
 those which have a colouring, exaggerated, it is true, 
 but founded on a principle of obedience to the universal 
 laws which govern cause and effect. When this prin- 
 ciple is scrupulously observed in a general manner, — 
 when cause and effect are nicely balanced, — every stroke 
 of the brush tells, and has its influence, as it were, in 
 the whole scene. 
 
 Suppose that you are representing a subject with 
 groups of small figures. One of them may appear 
 to want relief. You put in its shadow darker ; expecting 
 that the contrast will add to the effect, and make the 
 figure come out more. But you observe, perhaps, that 
 instead of this, there is less effect than before ; you 
 perceive that you have put in a black patch, and not a 
 shadow. You then consider its relation with the other 
 shadows, both local on the shady side of the figures, 
 and projected by them on the ground ; and you observe, 
 that all these shadows are paler in shade, or more feeble 
 in tone, than the one you have put in. This suggests 
 to vou the expedient of deepening these different sha- 
 dows. The first shadow then no longer appears black 
 paint without a meaning ; it begins to express some- 
 thing : and when its relation to the different shadows 
 is completed, due allowance being made for differences 
 of situation and local colour, the desired result, of
 
 IN PAINTING. 249 
 
 figures coming out with a lively expression of relief 
 and action, will be accomplished, and their effect in 
 the picture will become animated and pleasing. 
 
 We must not however suppose, that to i-ender the 
 shadows everywhere of a depth proportionate to the 
 decree of li<^ht, will sufBce in every case. Let us 
 examine whether any other conditions have been neg- 
 lected, which, in nature, would certainly not have 
 been wanting. You may have thought it fit to darken 
 the coat of a black horse, in order that it should come 
 out better amongst other cattle. But, instead of coming 
 out more, it will very likely have the appearance of a 
 daub of black paint, flat, and without relief, until you 
 have put in those touches of glimmering light which 
 mark glossiness. All these lights, various in their 
 hues, have their exact relation to the strength and 
 direction of the shadows which were put in before, not 
 less than to the breedin"- of the animal. Should there 
 be no glitter in the sunbeam, less attention is given to 
 these glossy reflections ; but the harmony of relations 
 is maintained by strengthening the colours of the other 
 cattle, each according to the positive markings of his 
 coat, and to the relative strength of the local hues of 
 various kinds of animals. Nature may thus be rendered 
 by imitative art, with various degrees of power ; but in 
 each successive stage of strength, the exact influence 
 of every agent exercising an active part in the efi^ect, 
 must be duly considered. We should never allow our- 
 selves to be surprised that our imitation does not ap- 
 proach so near to nature as we could wish, until we have 
 faithfully iucjuired wliether anv of those conditions which
 
 250 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 are inseparable from the existing circumstances of the 
 scene, have been omitted. 
 
 In the following ingenious remarks, Mr. Field ap- 
 pears evidently to embrace the opinion that nature may 
 be rendered as well by exaggerated as by subdued 
 colours : " Too much of any colour in a painting, is in- 
 variably reconciled to the eye, by the due introduction 
 of its opposite or equivalent, whether in the way of 
 compounding by glazing, or by contrast : in the first 
 manner, with neutralizing and subdued effect ; in the 
 last, with heightened effect and brilliancy : in the one 
 case by overpowering the colour, in the other by over- 
 powering the organ ; while in each, the equilibrium, or 
 due subordination of colours, is restored." * 
 
 Let us consider a case in which power of colouring 
 is sought for. It is when that force of chiaro-scuro is 
 aimed at, — that relief and aerial perspective which seem 
 to give a picture the evidence of nature herself, — that 
 a certain degree of daring must go haiid-in-hand with a 
 profound knowledge of facts. If a glaring colour be put 
 alone into a picture, without connection, without object, 
 and without any apparent cause for its peculiar hue, it 
 will appear false ; but when opposed by others of equal 
 strength, it ceases to have an exaggerated appearance, 
 and that balance of colour is re-established, upon which 
 the harmony of nature depends. A dash of colour, re- 
 presenting the effect of sunset on a building, may appear 
 too brilliant, or too red : but increase the glow of the 
 evening sky, and it will become reduced to its true 
 
 * Field's " Chromatics," par. 60.
 
 IN PAINTING. 251 
 
 character. Perhaps it will be found impossible to give 
 the glow of the sky a degree of brilliancy corresponding 
 to the effect so strongly indicated on the building ; in 
 which case, it may be concealed by some intervening 
 object, and other means may be adopted to point out the 
 nature of the effect in question. Care should be taken 
 to give corresponding brilliancy to every object so situ- 
 ated as to be exposed to the glow of sunset : at the same 
 time, bright colours should be cautiously withheld from 
 those parts, where, according to the distribution of the 
 picture, the sun's rays could not reach ; for, as above 
 remarked, the resemblance to nature depends less on the 
 degree of colouring, than on the relation of every colour 
 to the circumstances producing it. Where the sun's 
 rays strike upon the building, put in the shadow which 
 it would project on the adjoining walls. Let this 
 shadow cease where the glow of the sun dies away ; and 
 let the amount of reflected lights, combined with the 
 local colour of each object, and with the influences of 
 contrast, be observed in every part respectively. For 
 instance, if the sky be clear and blue in the direction 
 opposite to sunset, cold reflections will prevail. They 
 will be stronger on smooth and wet objects, than on 
 rough and dry ones. It is by well marking the charac- 
 teristic appearances of objects, where the sun does not 
 shine, that the effects which are due to its presence 
 become distinct and satisfactory. Every incident, every 
 feature put on by nature, declares the glow on the build- 
 ing to be that of sunset ; and though we have substi- 
 tuted colour for light, and perhaps departed considerably 
 from the tints of nature, yet by the exact coincidence of
 
 252 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURIKG 
 
 every cause and effect, no other intention is suspected 
 than that which is apparent, and the result appears in 
 exact conformity with nature. 
 
 If the scene be one in which the lights and shades 
 play no part, but where the chief interest depends upon 
 force of colouring, the local colours are exaggerated, and 
 not the reflected lights. For instance, the scene repre- 
 sents a weather-beaten forest, with mossy trunks and 
 red sand-banks. The trunks of the trees are warm ; 
 but to make them come out more forcibly upon the 
 sky, paint them warmer still. They will, perhaps, look 
 unnatural ; but add to the colouring of the sand-bank, 
 to the freshness of the surrounding vegetation, in short, 
 to the vivacity of every body colour, and to the rich 
 transparency of the glazed ones. Harmony will now be, 
 to a certain extent, re-established. But if the balance 
 or equilibrium of the colours be still incomplete, mark 
 carefully every other point susceptible of high colouring, 
 and put in the most powerful colours of which the 
 nature of the object is susceptible, exceeding rather what 
 appears natural at the time, and trusting for the re- 
 establishment of harmony and the balance of colours, 
 to their simultaneous effect when all shall have been put 
 in. In this manner great power of effect is obtained ; 
 and if the reaction of every colour, not only upon those 
 adjoining, but on colours separated by considerable 
 intervals, be well studied, the whole may be made to 
 appear natural, although each object taken separately 
 would differ widely from nature. In the former ex- 
 ample, the brilliancy of the lights, or of the reflected 
 tints, was exaggerated ; in the present one, it is the
 
 IN PAINTING. ^53 
 
 local colour of the objects. Thus it is that hai'mony 
 is obtained, less by softening and toning than by a 
 truthful and spirited indication of character. If the 
 nature of the soil, in the scene last described, were not 
 clearly shown, the red would appear discordant with 
 every thing around it ; but point out distinctly its sandy 
 nature, and the red paint, far from appearing exag- 
 gerated, will be perfectly in place, and complete the 
 resemblance. 
 
 Another picture is before me, somewhat advanced, 
 but not finished. There is an object in it which looks 
 like a tree. It appears dark and heavy. You can 
 scarcely make out whether it be a tree or not ; and 
 indeed, until you can in some degree trace its character, 
 its genus at least, you cannot expect that it will grow 
 either lighter in the picture, or more like a tree in 
 nature : but point out distinctly that its darkness is 
 owing to the colour of the spray or foliage, — show it 
 to be a cedar or a yew, — and its blackness will not 
 appear heavy, but the natural result of the characteristic 
 tone of the foliage ; and the tree, though darker than 
 everything else, if put in exact relation with other ob- 
 jects, will appear in harmony with everything else. 
 
 In the same manner, a rock, in paint, may appear 
 too dark to the observer ; because, the nature of the 
 rock not being indicated, he cannot account for its 
 darkness : but give it the characteristics of slate or 
 granite, in such a manner that it cannot easily be mis- 
 taken, and its appearance will coincide perfectly with 
 that of other objects, and suggest nothing but what is 
 natural. That very dryness of the outline, and that
 
 254 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 suddenness of the transitions, with which you have 
 thought proper to mark the hard and stony nature of 
 the material, will appear to lose their character of harsh- 
 ness, in proportion as the imitation of the slate or granite 
 becomes closer, and the distinction between the hardness 
 of these rocks and the softer edges of other objects is 
 increased. 
 
 In cases where we find ourselves bound as to local 
 colour, we must observe whether other means are not 
 open to successful improvement, — whether our lights 
 have sufficiently the appearance of lights, and whether 
 they do not partake rather too much of the nature of 
 paint. For instance, a tree, which we may see clearly 
 is intended for an ash, appears much lighter than an 
 ash would be. Its character is well described, and 
 therefore we do not wish to change it into a tree of a 
 lighter kind ; and perhaps it may not be convenient 
 to do so. But we examine if there be any play of light 
 upon its foliage ; and if we observe that, Avith the 
 existing effect, there is nothing in the surrounding parts, 
 or in the sky, to indicate that the light does fall upon the 
 tree, we consider whether the over-brightness of the 
 foliage mav not be rendered satisfactorily accountable by 
 giving it more the appearance of being due to an effect 
 of light ; and we immediately colour up, with light 
 colours, such of the adjoining objects as, from their posi- 
 tion, would be likely to share the light which we intend 
 to throw upon the ash. We likewise make such altera- 
 tions as we may think fit in the clouds, or in any other 
 objects which would intercept the sun's rays from the tree. 
 The shadows, and all other circumstances attendant on
 
 IN PAINTING. Q55 
 
 projected light, of course are not forgotten. Thus, 
 that lightness of the foliage, which previously, from its 
 appearing without a cause, was out of place — an error — 
 an eyesore, — has now become nature, even though we 
 may have added to its amount. 
 
 Since the harmony of nature depends, in a great 
 measure, on the characteristic expression of objects, those 
 which are represented too lank and flaccid may be made 
 to gain rotundity and plumpness, by adding to their 
 softness, if, by so doing, the resemblance of the material 
 becomes closer than before ; in the same manner that 
 hard and brittle substances, too timorously painted, may 
 be made to partake of that kind of softness which is 
 inseparable from harmony in the relations of objects, by 
 increased hardness and decision of their outline ; or that 
 delicate objects, too faintly drawn, may be made to gain 
 more delicacy by being strengthened. Hardness, soft- 
 ness, and feebleness, become defects, only when they 
 arc extended indiscriminately to every object in the 
 scene ; but they are alike true to nature, when applied, 
 respectively, to objects which are distinguished by such 
 quahties. 
 
 A picture painted on the principle of giving to every 
 colour, whether exaggerated or subdued, a relation with 
 other colours corresponding to that which it would 
 obtain in the natural scene, carries with it at least the 
 impress of nature. The most antagonizing colours, and 
 those which in other circumstances would appear gaudy, 
 may be introduced ; and yet, if the management be 
 perfect, there will be neither crudity nor tawdriness.
 
 256 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 The general tone of the picture will not appear to 
 incline to the extremes either of warmth or of cold, 
 but every colour, every hue, will appear balanced by 
 another ; the key-tone will be neutral, and the prevail- 
 ing harmony will be that of expression and character. 
 A particular effect, a general glow, or a prevailing tone 
 of colour, may be superadded to this harmony of nature. 
 This will elsewhere be further considered. 
 
 In pointing out, as far as my experience will allow, 
 the means for attaining powerful colouring, it is not my 
 intention to put forward a stylo as an example, and to 
 depreciate those styles of painting which show less 
 power of colouring, but make amends for its deficiency 
 by other merits. Each has its distinct object. Those 
 perfections Mhich depend on grace and delicacy, and 
 tbe various other fruits of the imagination and taste, 
 are seldom united in the same work with great force of 
 chiaro-scuro and colour. The painter who exercises all 
 his energies to obtain that powerful relief which almost 
 equals the projection of nature, is compelled to desert 
 the realms of fancy and poetry. The pursuit of graphic 
 imitation and positive effect, does not easily associate 
 itself with tbe mystery and indefinite images of a creative 
 imagination. The aims are distinct and opposite, and 
 the same mind cannot grapple with both at the same 
 time. The poetical images of the fancy can only be 
 expected to be realized with brilliant colouring and 
 lively projection, so far as the difficulties of execu- 
 tion are overcome without effort. That skill and prac- 
 tice which can leave this part of the work to the hand,
 
 IN PAINTING. 257 
 
 and set the imagination free, are best calculated to 
 accomplish works of art possessing these different kinds 
 of excellence. 
 
 Generally speaking, it may be more useful to point 
 out a method for avoiding weak and insipid colouring, 
 than for obtaining a high degree of strength. Two or 
 three circumstances equally tend to produce feebleness 
 of colouring ; namely, the whiteness of the ground tint 
 on which the painter first starts his subject, the greater 
 facility which is generally afforded of bringing out masses 
 one before another in light colour than in dark, a natural 
 distrust of powerful and heavy colours, and an inclina- 
 tion to restore the harmony of a picture by lowering the 
 obtruding colours rather than by adding stimulus to the 
 feeble ones. A certain method is required in the execu- 
 tion of a painting, for convenience sake. For instance ; 
 it is found that by commencing with the sky the colours 
 remain more clear and pure for that most delicate part, 
 than if any other portion were painted in first ; also, the 
 other objects, following the order of nature, from the 
 most distant to the nearest, are drawn more conveniently 
 after the sky has been put in, than before. But a sys- 
 tematic method of this kind, though desirable in some 
 respects, unfortunately leaves its influence when not 
 wanted ; and that purity of the atmosphere, and light- 
 ness of the distance, which form the charm of certain 
 effects, are quite out of place in others. Unless it be 
 intended to form a very distant and graduated perspec- 
 tive, care should be taken not to paint the sky too light. 
 By doing so, the distant and middle planes would be 
 likely to become pale and weak. By painting, as cir- 
 
 s
 
 258 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 cumstances may suggest, the darker masses of colour 
 first, there is less danger of the general tone of the 
 picture becoming enfeebled by the influence of the light 
 grey of the atmosphere. Although the purity which 
 generally characterizes the tints of the sky, seems, in 
 some measure, to justify its priority in the progress of 
 the painting, nature is too varied in her effects to be 
 imitated by one system only ; and although expediency 
 may require the use of rule and method, a constant 
 watch is kept by the vigilant performer, lest system 
 should beget the evils of routine. Particular attention 
 is required to the tints of the sky and water in various 
 effects, and to the relative colour of the principal masses, 
 in order to counteract this tendency to feebleness. 
 
 Advancing and Retiring Properties of Colours. — ■ 
 Before offering a few remarks on the relations of tone 
 and colour of the leading objects in the landscape scene, 
 I will call the attention of the reader to the advancing 
 and retiring nature of colours themselves, considered 
 independently of casual and accidental influences. 
 
 If colours, isolated from all surrounding objects, be 
 compared together, with a view to ascertain the relation 
 of their advancing and retiring properties, the order of 
 their recedence appears to be conformable to that of 
 objects seen through a light and vaporous atmosphere ; 
 the lightest and palest conveying the impression of the 
 greatest distance, and the most heavy and powerful, of 
 the most immediate proximity. With colours chosen 
 accidentally, the white recedes most, or maintains a 
 doubtful position compared with the very light blue;
 
 ADVANCING ORDER OF COLOURS. 259 
 
 next to these, come, in advancing order, light yellow, 
 light green, pink, dark blue, dark green, red, and black. 
 
 This comparison of the receding and advancing 
 nature of colours, was made by viewing them, in an 
 isolated manner, or in pairs, through one or two small 
 holes in an intervening surface ; and its result seemed to 
 prove that the mere brightness of a colour tends very 
 little to make it advance, the bright yellow and light 
 green appearing only one degree nearer than the light 
 blue, whereas the pink, which contains so much of the 
 tint of the atmosphere, advances before them. However, 
 the example employed of the pink colour was heavy ; had 
 it been of a lighter tint, it would probably have retired 
 beyond the light green or the yellow. The orange, 
 being a much more powerful colour than this last, took 
 up a very different position, appearing to advance before 
 the dark blue. 
 
 The greater prominence, in the scene of nature, of 
 the brilliant colours, (as for instance, of the bright 
 yellow,) is probably due chiefly to their relation with 
 other colours ; and when seen disconnectedly, the im- 
 pression is chiefly that of lightness, and consequently of 
 distance, where uniform light prevails most. Of the 
 darker primaries, red and blue, the red comes foremost, 
 which is conformable to the principles generally adopted 
 concerning the advancing and retiring powers of colours ; 
 but from the conclusions I have drawn, perhaps in rather 
 a summary manner, and which I should like to see tested 
 by further observations, it appears. to me that the prin- 
 (ijjlcs usually adopted for the advancing and retiring 
 powers of colours, ascribe the retiring qualities in a too
 
 260 PRINCIPLKS OF COLOURING. 
 
 exclusive manner to the blue colour, and that the accom- 
 panying conditions of lightness are not taken in sufficient 
 account. It is, doubtless, to the analogy which a portion 
 of the colours presents with the tints of the sky and dis- 
 tance, that they owe their retiring properties ; and this 
 analogy or conformity depends scarcely less on lightness, 
 than on the prevalence of the azure tint. It is true that 
 lights are employed successfully in painting, to denote 
 proximity, and to bring objects forward ; but it is prin- 
 cipally because they give convexity to form. The light 
 falls chiefly upon the projecting surfaces of objects ; and 
 white colour necessarily advances when employed to 
 counterfeit these lights. These bright touches of light 
 become one of the most efficient means of bringing out 
 small objects before each other. They represent those 
 sparkling flashes of light which infuse so much life and 
 spirit into the individual character of nearer objects. 
 
 Generally speaking, the distant or proximate appear- 
 ance of objects depends less upon their colour than upon 
 other distinguishing characters, such as proportion, form, 
 texture, and other properties of the substance. There is 
 no tint peculiar to distance, which cannot be made to 
 advance, by embodying it in some near object duly cha- 
 racterized as such. Certain flowers are characterized by 
 tints similar to those of distance, without appearing to 
 retire from the observer more than others which have 
 stronger colours ; and, with the exception of bright 
 green, there is scai'cely a tint of the foreground, which 
 might not be seen in the distance under some circum- 
 stance or other ; but a complete change in their relations 
 prevents their being recognised whenever they do appear
 
 ADVANCING ORDER OF COLOURS, 261 
 
 under these unusual circumstances. Nature not unfre- 
 quently presents near and remote colours so much alike, 
 as not to be distinguishable from each other until such 
 indications as arc peculiar to near objects are discovered, 
 and such marks alone establish their proximity. Black, 
 compared with lighter colours, conveys decidedly the 
 impression of nearness ; but, viewed by itself, its position 
 seems to be less determinate than that of other colours, 
 as it probably conveys alternately the impression of a 
 receding cavity, and of a proximate black substance. 
 The relations of progression and recedence between light 
 and dark vary according to circumstances. At sunrise, 
 the most luminous portion of the sky appears to retire 
 most : at night, the bright disk of the moon seems to 
 come forward in the deep blue vault. A white house, 
 and the dark foliage of a tree, may appear equally to 
 come out upon the middle-toned distance : an increase of 
 light, and an increase of darkness, would alike add to 
 their relief; but a sky even more luminous than the 
 house would recede beyond it. 
 
 If the light and dark parts of a picture be seen 
 through small isolated apertures, so that all connexion 
 with the subject will be lost, they will appear alternately 
 near and remote ; for, as the impression changes, one of 
 these positions suggests itself to the fancy in preference to 
 the other. It appears, therefore, that the advancing and 
 retiring nature of colours, should always be considered as 
 subservient to the truthful and characteristic represen- 
 tation of substance. In scones, such as interiors, from 
 which the atmosphere is excluded, it may not be always 
 necessarv to attend to the advancing and retiring powers
 
 262 PRINCIPI>ES OF COLOURING 
 
 of the colours. In costumes and drapery, the blue may 
 be made to come out before the red, and tlie grey before 
 the yellow, if tlic material be well characterized, and the 
 other conditions of situation duly attended to, A picture 
 by Vandyck, in tlic Louvre, representing two figures 
 doing homage to the Virgin, affords a remarkable 
 instance of a large mass of black drapery keeping its 
 place in the foreground, bv tlie side of livelier colours. 
 But where there is choice, it may be preferable, even in 
 confined situations, to distribute the local colours of 
 objects to a certain extent conformably to the aerial 
 progression of nature at large, placing the warm colours 
 before the cold ones, which are those of atmosphere, but 
 making correct representation the chief means of relief. 
 
 With regard fo the Relative Tone of Objects in the 
 Landscape. — If the sunshine be general, objects come 
 out in light or in dark indiscriminately, according to the 
 relative lightness or darkness of their local colour. Be- 
 ginning with the distance, a green slope in sunshine has 
 a light colour, yet not so light but that the tint of a 
 clear sky near the horizon would be lighter still ; 
 consequently, though a bright object, it would come out 
 in dark upon the sky behind. Groups of trees, or masses 
 of foliage, although in sunshine, would again appear in 
 obscure colour upon the green slope, the tone of their 
 foliage being deeper than that of the grass ; and the 
 objects in the foreground, with the exception of those of 
 a light colour, would again come out in tone, from the 
 want of the intervening luminous atmosphere which 
 lightens the tints of the distant objects. But it some-
 
 IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 2G3 
 
 times occurs that the deep blue of the sky extends, modi- 
 fied with grey, down to the horizon ; in which case, 
 buildings, and even a road, should it appear in con- 
 nection, come out in light upon the sky. 
 
 If there be gleams of sunshine, the effects of light 
 are more powerful in the distance than is the colour of 
 the objects ; and those which are lighted up generally 
 come out in light upon those which are not, inde- 
 pendently of local colour ; whilst nearer objects, not il- 
 lumined, appear dark upon the sunshine behind them. 
 Sometimes objects in the foregi'ound, having a dark local 
 colour, such as the trunks of trees, or the dingy roofs of 
 cottages, will come out, although in sunshine, in an 
 obscure tone of colour, even on a distance shadowed bv 
 clouds. The intervening illumined atmosphere nearly 
 equalizes the lights and the shadows, rendering the 
 whole bright, compared with the deep tone of proximate 
 objects, whose local colour, in sunshine, is thus more dark 
 than distant shadow. It is seldom, however, that proxi- 
 mate objects in sunshine come out in dark upon the more 
 elevated part of the sky. If sufficiently lofty to approach 
 the zenith, the deep blue which they there meet generally 
 throws them out in light. 
 
 The facts which, like the foregoing, are subjected to 
 constant change, and less dependent than others on 
 uniform principles of influence, are those which are 
 mastered chiefly by practice ; whereas, the study of those 
 more deejjly-rootcd causes whose influence is general, 
 should not, as far as I am able to judge by experience, 
 be inconsiderately mixed up with practical copying t'lom 
 nature. That excellent tuition of the liand and eve
 
 ■204 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 which is afFordod hy painting in the open air, should not 
 receive the slightest check from the desire to carry out 
 theories, which, with the book of truth before one, 
 cannot be required. 
 
 In the exercise which the student meets with abroad, 
 amidst picturesque scenery, the application of governing 
 principles can, at most, be made in a very free and 
 general manner. It is rather in the after comparison of 
 works, made, respectively, under, different and peculiar 
 circumstances, that he is enabled with great advantage 
 to examine the nature of the principle which has the 
 prevailing influence in each ; and it is especially with 
 regard to the works of the close studio, where nature 
 and sometimes good standards of art are wanting, to 
 guide the eye and confirm the judgment, that the ad- 
 vantages of a general knowledge of the principles which 
 are most essential to the harmony of nature, are particu- 
 larlv felt. But it must be admitted, that the painter 
 who, at the onset of his work, proceeds with that cer- 
 tainty and assurance which arises from the knowledge 
 of the precise result of every step which he takes, finds 
 out, as he advances towards its completion, that he is 
 frequently obliged to take leave of the guide which is 
 aflbrded by theory, and to trust entirely to a lively im- 
 pression of the subject retained in his mind. In this 
 delicate work of refinement, the knowledge of principles 
 assists him only in detecting the causes of the errors 
 which he may chance to fall into, and in enabling him 
 more easily and speedily to correct them ; but it is no 
 longer his guide, — it ceases to point out the path which 
 he is to pursue. He must trust, further, to his im-
 
 IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. Q65 
 
 pression of that which is beautiful and perfect. He 
 must confide himself to his own taste ; that supreme, 
 but fickle and variable tribunal, which judges every 
 thing, but at the same time is subjected to the control 
 of fashion, custom, and every influence which stirs up or 
 sways the mind. As the guidance of rule and precept 
 forsakes him, those productions of art on which his taste 
 is founded lead the way, and the perfection of his own 
 productions is involved in all that uncertainty which 
 results from the choice of masters and examples, founded 
 on preference, sympathy, or enthusiasm. The painter 
 is here made to feel his human condition : the nearer 
 he comes to perfection, the greater hazard and uncer- 
 tainty involve its attainment. 
 
 To study from nature freely, and with a view to 
 general eflfects, affords the safest and most speedy means 
 of dispelling the errors and delusions of routine. It 
 disengages the mind as well as the hand, gives right, as 
 well as new, ideas of colouring, and, above all, inspires 
 assurance. The hand which once trembled to put in 
 the most uinneaning colours, lest they should produce 
 results different from those intended, now employs 
 without restraint the brightest and the most powerful 
 tints, which, far from interfering with each other, pro- 
 duce that very harmony and agreement of the parts, the 
 attainment of which was striven for in vain by lowering 
 the lights and assimilating the colours.
 
 26G ruiNciPLES of colouring. 
 
 HARMONV OF EFFECT, OK ACCIDENTAL HARMONY. 
 
 The practised student, who feels himself perfectly at 
 home in representing the positive features of nature, 
 and such as characterize her ordinary appearances, seeks 
 for those of her effects which possess particular at- 
 tractiveness. He studies those instances in which a 
 warm and peculiar glow diffused over the scene, appears 
 to superinduce a harmony more beautiful and more 
 perfect than that which characterizes ordinary nature ; 
 he avails himself of the hints which she affords, in her 
 varied and most smiling moods ; he adopts them as the 
 choicest models ; and the imagination, thus stimulated, 
 strews the path of art with its liveliest flowers, and 
 breathes the sweetest incense into her sanctuary. 
 
 That kind of harmony which proceeds from the dif- 
 fusion of a warm light over the scene, might be termed 
 " accidental harmony," in contradistinction to that per- 
 manent harmony of nature, through the prevalence of 
 which we invariably derive similar impressions from si- 
 milar results, and ever discover, in corresponding cases, 
 the same external relations of things. Accidental har- 
 mony is manifested in the transient effects of nature : it 
 accompanies the glow of morning, and the fire of the 
 setting sun ; or denotes that unusual warmth of the at- 
 mosphere, which is perhaps too exclusively associated 
 with a meridian climate ; and, in torchlight scenes, it 
 results from the gradual spreading of the light from a
 
 HARMONY OF EFFECT. 267 
 
 central focus. The term " harmony of effect" might 
 perhaps be found equally applicable ; for although effect 
 generally results from opposition and contrast, and con- 
 sequently, from transitions from light to shade, yet the 
 prevalence of any luminous effect in one portion of a 
 scene, generally diffuses its influence, by reflection, over 
 the other. Effects, however, are but accidents in nature : 
 and whether one expression or the other be employed in 
 preference, it will be equally evident that something 
 more is implied than that distribution and adaptation of 
 the parts, which, under all circumstances, causes our 
 admiration of the visible world ; and that there are 
 certain of nature's adornments which the artist claims 
 more particularly as his own. Doubtless, those peculiar 
 merits of colouring which, in all periods, have dis- 
 tinguished certain masters and certain schools, have been 
 chiefly borrowed from those harmonious effects which 
 decorate the primitive beauties of nature with additional 
 loveliness. 
 
 That unity of effect which in the picture goes hand 
 in hand with unity of composition, renders almost neces- 
 sary the adoption of a prevailing tint — a predominating 
 hue — which is called the key-tone of the subject. This 
 decided difference of colour isolates the picture from 
 surrounding objects, and prevents the eye from being 
 disturbed by them. In the paintings of the Venetian 
 school, we admire a harmonious richness of the colours, 
 giving the impression of yellow light on the prominent 
 objects, and of transparent shadow in the darks and 
 recesses. Tiie picture of the Pisani family, by Titian,
 
 '^68 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 in the Chiesa dei Frari at Venice, is one of the best 
 specimens of that master, of a powerful colouring pro- 
 duced by harmonious richness. In those beautiful works 
 of the Flemish masters, especially of Rembrandt, where 
 harmony itself seems to fix the gaze of the observer, the 
 rich transparent browns seem to prevail over every other 
 colour, and to leave very little to be done by the natural 
 relations of tints. Elsewhere, as in Claude, it is the 
 warmth of a vapoury atmosphere which blends all objects 
 together. In Cuyp we have the glow, but not the haze ; 
 still there is a common bond between all objects, — a 
 bond which is closer than that which nature affords in 
 ordinary circumstances, and which meets more readily 
 our habitual impression of harmonious relation. 
 
 Comparing, in the paintings of the Italian masters, 
 richness of colouring with brilliancy, it has generally 
 struck me that those pictures which possess richness of 
 colouring are most pleasing and effective. If any decided 
 colour prevailed, a warm yellow appeared to me preferable 
 to any other key- tone. This gilded effect appears to be 
 in itself pleasing ; and many paintings, which are indif- 
 ferent with respect to form or composition, attract the eye 
 agreeably, merely from its adoption as the prevailing 
 hue.* The yellow tint predominates in the paintings of 
 Nicolas Poussin ; and though there mav be a certain 
 stiffness and uniformity in his compositions, it is seldom 
 that his colouring does not please. The analogy which 
 
 * Reynolds observes, in his notes on Du Fresnoy's " Art of Painting," 
 that " the predominant colours of the picture ought to be of a warm mellow 
 kind, red or yellow." — [Note xli.]
 
 HARMONY OF EFFECT. 269 
 
 we are inclined to discover between the yellow colour 
 and light, may perhaps contribute to its pleasing effect. 
 The predominance of the other primaries, such as red 
 and blue, does not appear to be equally successful ; and 
 the introduction of the secondary colours, or binary 
 compounds, especially of pink or purple, for the toning 
 of the picture, has, in most cases, a very disagreeable 
 effect. A decided orange is scarcely ever met with. A 
 prevailing green is, I think, generally disliked, although 
 its abundance in landscape nature renders us, perhaps, 
 less sensible to its disadvantages than to those of the 
 other secondary colours. 
 
 Those paintings possess great advantages, which, 
 with a soft and harmonious key-tone, combine agree- 
 able passages of livelier colours. A more complete 
 knowledge of colours, and of their relations, is required, 
 but effects much more lively are produced. A picture 
 by Rubens, of Thomyris Queen of the Scythians, in the 
 Louvre, is pleasing chieflv from the arrangement and 
 harmony of the colours. The dresses of the queen and 
 her attendants pass off from white to yellow and blue, 
 which itself is relieved by the deep red of a hanging cur- 
 tain, forming a background to the group. A little blue 
 breaks the white in the centre of the picture, whilst a 
 scarlet robe on the left seems to balance that colour on 
 the right. Thus the combination and the opposition of 
 colours, go here a great way, independently of the sub- 
 ject, to form an agreeable whole. 
 
 M'ith regard to colouring, the artist has great diffi- 
 culties to contend with, resulting, if not from prejudice, 
 at least from preconceived impressions. If, in rendering
 
 270 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 nature, he limits himself cither to the most faithful, or 
 to the most prevalent modes of imitation, he runs the 
 risk of not being noticed ; whereas, if he steps beyond, 
 and endeavours to translate her by some means more 
 forcible and expressive than those which are usually 
 adopted, he is frequently condemned without being 
 understood. Every one may be aware with what dif- 
 ferent impressions he views the same paintings on dif- 
 ferent occasions, whether before or after having seen 
 other pictures, with the eyes and mind fresh for the 
 perception of the most delicate indications of beauty, or 
 satiated with the most brilliant eflfects of colouring. Un- 
 pleasing associations likewise mix up their baneful in- 
 fluence with those which arise from preconceived ideas of 
 colouring ; and the individual who has frequently in his 
 mind's eye any particular colour worn in dress, or used 
 for mean purposes, at once connects it with the colours 
 which he perceives in the picture ; and the associations 
 formed, instead of being those of the aurora, or of sunset, 
 will be, perhaps, those of pink ribands and gamboge. 
 
 The copy of one of the many choice productions of 
 the old masters, which the visitor to the gaWerf of 
 Europe admires so much side by side with the original, 
 because he discovers in it the very marks and features 
 which characterize a work of both real and famed excel- 
 lence, he is surprised to find, on his return, looked upon 
 by his friends, who are unacquainted with the original, 
 with the same sort of feeling as that with which they 
 would regard a very dry production of a modern Italian 
 or German artist. Thus it is, that the mere fact of 
 being able to trace a production of art to an elevated
 
 HARMONY OF EFFECT. 271 
 
 and dignified origin, bestows upon it a degree of merit 
 which it could never possess in the eyes of persons who 
 arc ignorant of the source of those qualities by which 
 it is distinguished. The painter who works for public 
 aj)probation, can neither tell what preconceived impres- 
 sions of excellence he may have to deal with, on the 
 part of those to whom the merits of his work will be 
 submitted, nor what construction various classes of indi- 
 viduals may be led to put on his own productions by 
 common-place associations. But these difficulties he 
 must be prepared to encounter ; for the observer will 
 seldom allow himself the opportunity of discovering the 
 genuine merits of a picture, if the first sight of it chills 
 or distrusts him : and the artist who has not attained the 
 fortunate point of ruling public opinion, encounters the 
 hard case of being compelled to afford some allurement 
 to the eye, whilst, at the same time, he keeps the 
 strictest watch lest he admit anything which prejudice, 
 or exclusive views, might construe into defects. 
 
 In the landscape, where the interest which is derived 
 from the expression of the features, and from the grace- 
 fulness of the human form, is wanting, it is generally 
 admitted that colouring becomes one of the chief attrac- 
 tions, and that to excel in this point is almost a sure 
 stop to success. But, in the prevailing differences of 
 <)j)inion as to the use of bright colours, some give a very 
 wide construction to the adornments put on by nature ; 
 whereas the followers of the classical masters banish, in 
 their strict notions of purity, every thing that has a sem- 
 blance of tawdriness, as tending to lower the character of 
 landscape painting.
 
 272 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 ARTIFICIAL COLOURING ; 
 
 In connection ivitk the Supermdurdl in 
 Composition. 
 
 As, in the composition of a picture, we are made 
 to experience that kind of interest which is connected 
 with impressions of awe and terror, by the use of super- 
 natural signs and images ; so, with regard to colours, 
 the choice of those which arc most pleasing to the eye, 
 and their distribution in agreeable series, become the 
 source of a kind of pleasure which is not afforded by 
 the usual appearances of nature. Sufficient occasion 
 for outstepping her habitual effects is afforded by the 
 fabulous descriptions of the ancient and modern poets, 
 and even by sacred history ; and the uncertainty which 
 involves imitation with regard to light and colourinof, 
 as well as the occasional appearance in nature of extra- 
 ordinary meteoric phenomena, render still more plausible 
 the use of similar licenses and eccentricities of art. As 
 far as the composition is destined to act on the imagina- 
 tion, its strangest and most fantastic forms may possess 
 a certain degree of elevation and dignity. But as a 
 mere pretext for introducing colours flattering to the 
 eye, and which afford but the sensual pleasure which 
 is attached to prettiness, or the equally fleeting enjov- 
 ment which belongs to novelty, such productions as 
 these, however engaging they may be for a time, fall, 
 in real merit, far below those which have for their aim 
 the simple and bond fide rendering of the ordinary 
 effects of nature ; and, in all cases, the slightest neglect
 
 IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUPERNATURAL. 273 
 
 of the rules of taste, or the least opportunity afforded 
 for misconstruction, will convert the most poetical idea, 
 or the most striking image, into the grossest absurdity. 
 
 In effects having for their object a display of brilliant 
 colours, great beauty generally results from their succes- 
 sion in gradual and progressive order, and from their 
 being perfectly blended as they pass into each other, 
 producing delicate intermediate tints. It might be ex- 
 pected that, where the absence of all material objects 
 affords complete liberty as to the distribution and 
 arrangement of colours, the natural order of the iris 
 or rainbow would yield the greatest amount of beauty ; 
 but this seems to result less from any particular order 
 of succession of the primary colours, than from the 
 introduction of some circumstance, in connection with 
 their arrangement, which renders one order of succes- 
 sion more probable, or more expressive of some idea 
 derived from nature, than another. Thus, if the chief 
 impression be that of the natural aurora, the order of 
 succession would be, yellow, red, and blue, with inter- 
 mediaries of orange, and pink or purple ; but if, in 
 the fancy composition, some iridescent effect be had in 
 view, the prismatic progression of colours, namely, red, 
 yellow, and blue, with the intermediaries of orange and 
 green, and the boundary tint of purple, will be pre- 
 ferable. Even light blue, yellow, red, and purple, will 
 form a very agreeable succession, if there be no warm 
 light in the direction of the blue to prevent this arrange- 
 ment from appearing a natural one. What the eye can- 
 not suffer, is a dark primary, such as deep red or hhic, 
 for a central belt of colour, with light side colours ; or, 
 
 T
 
 274 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING 
 
 an alternation of light and dark colours.* These pre- 
 vent that impression of concavity which is always con- 
 veyed by a gradation of colours from light to dark, and 
 which realize those ideas of penetrability and space 
 without which these combinations of colours would lose 
 all their mystery, and become mere relations of pigments. 
 
 Mr. Field remarks that the old masters, especially 
 those of the Roman school, show, in their paintings, 
 great deficiency in the knowledge of the natural arrange- 
 ment of colours, inasmuch as they put the red nearest 
 to light, instead of the yellow.t This last colour 
 undoubtedly forms the most luminous portion of the 
 spectrum ; but in the effects of sunrise or sunset, the 
 gradations of tint are diversely modified. In a misty 
 atmosphere, the red appears to prevail chiefly nearest 
 the sun, although the sky may be more luminous 
 elsewhere. 
 
 There are cases in which the introduction, in large 
 masses, of a colour almost uniform, but pleasing to the 
 eye, has prepossessed the observer in favour of the 
 picture in which it has been resorted to : the difficulty 
 in an effect of this kind, is to render the appearance 
 natural, and at the same time to modify the prevailing 
 colour with delicate modulations of tint, in such a 
 manner as to prevent sameness. 
 
 * In this, as in many other instances, we are forcibly reminded of the 
 very rcmarkal>le anah)gy which exists between the sister arts of painting and 
 music. As the ear is pained by the indiscriminate use of major and minor 
 intervals, or by a change of key, without modulation, so is the eye distressed 
 bj- a sudden transition, from light to dark, or from one colour to another, 
 without a blending or softening of tints. — Mrs. 11. T. 
 
 + Field's " Chromatics," par. 34.
 
 IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUl'EUNATURAL. 275 
 
 In compositions which are based chiefly on a gradu- 
 ated distribution of colours, the principal effect may be 
 interrupted by some cause foreign to it, such as clouds 
 and meteors ; and in such cases, the order of colours 
 which has been adopted in the general effect, may be 
 repeated with agreeable results, in the partial effects 
 and ima<Jfes with which the scene has been varied : as 
 for instance, a mock sun, or a luminous cloud, the 
 colours of which have been graduated in the same 
 manner as those of a general effect of the iris, pleases the 
 eye because it conveys the impression of one pervading 
 principle throughout, extending its influence to the 
 minor effects as well as to the general masses. Repe- 
 tition, combined with unity of cause, produces, in all 
 compositions, breadth and greatness. 
 
 Though the fancy acknowledges no bounds on the 
 field which is afforded by arbitrary arrangements of 
 colours, there is some natural source whence each of its 
 creations is derived. This should always be kept in 
 view ; and indeed the resources which are afforded in 
 this respect by the economy of nature, as also by the 
 organism of the eye itself, are such as might satisfy the 
 most fastidious imagination. In addition to the phe- 
 nomena which are particularly connected with the sun 
 and moon, to the characteristic appearances of their 
 rising and setting, and to those of the aurora borcalis ; 
 mists, rain, the dewy moisture of the hci'bage, and the 
 other ordinary appearances of nature, exhibit the pri- 
 mitive colours in forms as lively as they are fanciful : 
 to which resources, art may justly add those still more 
 fantastic an<l nivsterious images which arise IVoiu oi iilar
 
 276 PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING. 
 
 illusions ; always resting the foundation of its attempts, 
 on some natural or physical law. And in the same 
 manner that ghosts and phantoms, though the offspring 
 of the imagination, and belonging to the realms of 
 spirits, must, in poetic fictions, discover their human 
 origin in their passions and actions ; so, in every mys- 
 terious effect of light and colour with which the painter 
 thinks fit to enrich his subject, some fundamental truth 
 of nature must appear, in order to give reason and 
 plausibility to the effects and images introduced. The 
 complementary colours may be introduced, conformably 
 to the rules of optics, although they do not belong to the 
 object represented ; thus allowing the green and the 
 orange, although really absent from our subject, to be 
 associated with the red and blue : and since the eye 
 derives imaginary impressions of colours from the mere 
 circumstance of dwellinij for a time with fixed attention 
 on opposite ones, we can easily fancy that when brilliant 
 colours abound, and constitute as it were the life of the 
 scene, the dazzled eye might discover fancied colours 
 where there is no immediate cause for the real ones. 
 The limits of these embellished, I might almost say va- 
 riegated, effects, arc traced chiefly by the taste and judg- 
 ment of the painter ; but they depend in no small degree 
 on his knowledge of the harmonv of colours, and his 
 skill in the manipulation of them ; for, in effects in 
 which the most delicate hues are introduced, success is 
 greatly influenced by their purity, and that extreme 
 softness of their gradations which is alone obtained by 
 great manual dexterity.
 
 STYLES OF PAINTING. ^77 
 
 STYLES OF PAINTING. 
 
 It is not my intention to allude, with regard to 
 styles in painting, to those different changes which have 
 marked the vicissitudes of the art, — its rise and its fall, 
 — nor to the characteristic distinctions of the different 
 schools founded by the old masters. The remarks which 
 follow are entirely of a practical nature. Thus con- 
 sidered, the inquiry has a two-fold application; — the 
 choice of a style suitable to the subject intended to be 
 represented ; and its adaptation to the genius, taste, and 
 skill of the performer. We will here consider the first 
 of these points. 
 
 CHOICE OF A STYLE SUITABLE TO THE SUBJECT. 
 
 Before fixing upon any style for a work, its character 
 should be well considered, as well as the means it affords 
 for gratification. If it be an historical subject, re- 
 quiring little effect, but simple, and capable of moving 
 the mind by the expression of deep thought or impas- 
 sioned energy, a style devoid of high colouring, — such 
 as Fresco, Tcmpra, and other similar styles, — is equally 
 advantageous with one which possesses great resources 
 in the way of colouring.* Indeed, the choice of a style 
 at once modest and severe, as that of fresco, would in 
 
 • Tempra, a style of painting, still employed in Italy, in which size is 
 used as a vehicle, and canvas usually as the surface painted on. It has the 
 inconvenience that the colours undergo a very decided change in drying.
 
 SlJyS STYLES OF PAINTING 
 
 some cases have a decided advantasre, on account of the 
 security which it affords against the danger of being led 
 away from the more elevated and estimable qualities 
 of a work, by the fascination of effect and colouring. 
 Reasons like these will account for the fitness of fresco 
 and encaustic for most sacred subjects, the solemnity 
 of which renders misplaced and frivolous any great 
 attention to the colours : to which it may be added, 
 though somewhat foreign to the purpose, that in the 
 sacred composition, there is so strong a connection be- 
 tween the subject and the religious character of the 
 locality where it is seen, that the wall of a consecrated 
 edifice seems the most suitable, and indeed the true site 
 for such paintings ; whereas mythology, landscapes, 
 and all subjects which have no particular claim to the 
 place which they occup}' under the roof of a mansion, 
 find an appropriate and natural destination on the port- 
 able surface of the canvas. 
 
 The styles which admit of the greatest delicacy and 
 variety of colouring, are those which best suit the Land- 
 scape. Oil and water colours are better adapted than 
 anv other: the one on account of the vigour of its 
 colours, and its great resources in combining them ; the 
 other from the extreme delicacy and richness of its tints ; 
 to which, the whiteness of the ground painted on, and 
 the absence of any vehicle liable to alter with time, give 
 a degree of purity scarcely attainable in any other style. 
 At the same time, the precautions and practical know- 
 ledge which are required in water-colour painting, in 
 order to ensure depth and permanency to the tints, and 
 to prevent them from rapidly fading, by increasing the
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO THE SUBJECT SELECTED. "^79 
 
 difficulties of this art, ought to render its productions 
 the more appreciated and valued when successful. 
 
 Fresco and tempra do not admit of perfection in the 
 landscape. The comparative dullness of their colour 
 renders them cold and unattractive. Besides, the white 
 or yellowish plaster, when it makes its appearance in the 
 lights, is fatal to illusion. This is exemplified by the 
 flat and insipid landscape-frescoes of Gaspard Poussin, 
 in the Palazzo Farncsina at Rome. The foliage of the 
 trees has nothing of the freshness of nature, and the 
 foreground is devoid of those transparent glazings, 
 which, in the oil painting, frequently compensate for the 
 want of more impressive truths of light and colour. 
 The landscape-fresco chiefly belongs to the decorative 
 stylo, in reference to which it possesses the advantage 
 of looking well by torch-light, similarly to the decorations 
 of a theatre, where no reflected lights disturb the eye. 
 
 The absence of colour in drawings and engravings, 
 renders the attractions which are due to form, or to 
 a rich and animated scene, more necessary than in 
 a coloured work. I'he landscapes of Gaspard and 
 Nicolas Poussin, which make such elegant engrav- 
 ings, are remarkable either for the forms of a striking 
 character which they present, or for the importance 
 and interest of the objects. The sentiment of a land- 
 scape may, however, be beautifully expressed in the 
 line engraving ; and it is probably owing to this, that 
 the landscapes of Claude, which are so full of taste and 
 feeling, are so successfullv rendered in this stvle.* The 
 
 * I slioiild have been desirous of avoiding to express here, an opinion, 
 concerning the landscapes of Claude Lorraine and Poussin, so diametrically
 
 280 STYLES OF PAINTING 
 
 engraving possesses, moreover, a degree of finish and 
 precision in the details, which becomes ahnost a substi- 
 tute for the charms of colour, and enables the varied 
 components of the landscape to please unattired. Be- 
 sides, every white space being filled up, form is made 
 suflBciently distinct bj- the diversity of shades, and by the 
 meetino- of the hatchinijs which mark the substance of 
 objects ; so that a distinct boundary line becomes unne- 
 cessary ; whilst the absence of any blank light, gives to 
 the finished engraving, great depth and relief. 
 
 STVLES OF PAINTING, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO 
 THE POWERS OF THE ARTIST. 
 
 The other point to be considered, in selecting a 
 style, is its adaptation to the particular talents of each 
 individual ; with regard to which, I refer less to the 
 method selected for embodying any subject, than to what 
 the Italians term inaniera, which, independently of the 
 materials employed, implies those differences of style 
 which distinguished one painter from another, and the 
 productions of the same artist at different periods of his 
 life. Genius, imagination, a correct eye, and lightness 
 of hand, has each its influence in directing the artist's 
 attention to a severe, a fanciful, a precise, or to a light 
 
 opposed to those views whicli Mr. Ruskin }ias supported with so much 
 strength of argument, and which have been received with such general 
 favour and sympathy : but the above remarks having been put down on 
 paper some years ago, when in Italy, and before having met with the work 
 on modern painters, I do not see any sufficient grounds for altering or re- 
 tracting them; especially as, in all matters of art, any judgment whatever, 
 must in a great measure be determined by individual taste.
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO THE POWERS OF THE ARTIST. 28 I 
 
 and flowing style where much is expressed in few 
 touches. Shortness of sight generally determines the 
 choice in favour of a minute style of painting. Some 
 have passed, with extraordinary facility, from a minute, 
 to a large style of performance ; but, generally speak- 
 ing, those who paint beautiful cabinet pictures, have 
 only realized harsh and stiif productions, when they 
 have endeavoured to enlarge to any considerable 
 extent. 
 
 The examination, founded on comparison, of the 
 examples which have been left to us in different styles 
 of painting by the great masters, may, to a certain ex- 
 tent, guide us in the choice of the one which we propose 
 to adopt ; nevertheless, the varying success with which 
 others have cultivated different styles in works of art, 
 could afford but blind and fruitless experience, unless 
 assisted by the intuitive knowledge which every one pos- 
 sesses of his own capabilities, — that implicit confidence 
 which he feels, (all distracting influences being set aside,) 
 that he can succeed better in one particular style than 
 in another. Amongst nations, the customs, the habits, 
 and the degree of civilization, chiefly influence the taste, 
 and determine a style of imitation consistent either with 
 a rude and primitive state of society, or with more ad- 
 vanced practice and experience. The want of the know- 
 ledge which is necessary for shading, and for represent- 
 ing objects in perspective, has taught the natives of 
 India to limit their humble attempts in art, chiefly to 
 birds and flowers, which the self-taught artists of that 
 country render with a degree of accuracy and precision, 
 which is the natural result of a decided partiality for the
 
 282 SI YLES OF PAINTING 
 
 subjects of theii" choice.* As art advances, and em- 
 braces a more extended range, the influence of national 
 manners and customs becomes less apparent : talent, 
 education, and example, produce that diversity of style 
 in painting which shows itself in the works of indi- 
 viduals. The pervading influence of the different schools 
 of art may, it is true, be traced more or less, but the 
 instinctive admonitions of individual experience still pre- 
 dominate in the apparent results ; and, were it not for 
 the various impulses and distractions which shake this 
 innate sentiment possessed by every one, it would point 
 out, unerringly, the fittest course to be pursued. The 
 fear of reproof and censure deters the timid from attempt- 
 ing what their genius and practical skill would other- 
 wise enable them to accomplish ; or, seclusion may pre- 
 vent that extension of their talents which results from 
 the sight of great works, and from intercourse with those 
 who created them. 
 
 Lanzi, alluding to the extreme rapidity of the pencil 
 of Tintoretto, observes that " diligence is seldom com- 
 bined with the desire of accomplishing much, — the true 
 source, in this man, as well as in many other artists, of 
 painting badly, or at least indifferentlv ; whereby Tin- 
 toretto gave rise to the remark of Paul Veronese, that 
 he did an injury to the profession, by painting in every 
 manner."t Many, possessing the confidence but not the 
 genius of Tintoretto, are borne away by the desire of 
 
 * The above extract, respecting the stj'les of art practised by the Hin- 
 doos, is taken from the unedited papers, relative to India, of Mr. Thomas 
 Twining, late of Bengal. 
 
 t " Storia Pittorica della Italia." Vol. iii. p. 157.
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO THE POWERS OF THE ARTIST. ^83 
 
 equalling the most eminent in art, and do not listen 
 unbiassed to the instinctive voice which points out to 
 them where their true station lies. The desire, and 
 indeed sometimes the necessity, of changing a style which 
 frequent repetition has rendered common and familiar, 
 induces others to attempt that which affords no guarantee 
 of success ; and the comparative failure of Wilkie as an 
 historical painter, after his long and eminent success as 
 a generist, shows the danger of such innovations, even 
 to the most experienced. On the other hand, there are 
 examples of painters, who have taken up, with great 
 success, an humble style, after having failed in a more 
 elevated one ; and doubtless, the first rank in an inferior 
 style, is preferable to a second or third one in the highest 
 departments of art. There are, however, instances of 
 artists who have successfully progressed from an inferior 
 to a more elevated style of painting ; but this has been 
 done gradually, and by stages, at each of which the 
 artist has paused to consider what principles have had 
 the greatest share in every new success. In this con- 
 siderate manner of proceeding, every step is tested by 
 public opinion, before another is ventured upon. 
 
 Every style, however humble, is more or less suscep- 
 tible of being raised in character ; and, if it cannot be 
 elevated to the rank of a classical work, it may at least 
 be exempted from triviality, and receive a sufficient 
 amount of grace and dignity to ensure it a respectable 
 if not a high standing, in art.
 
 284 STYLES OF PAINTING 
 
 STYLE, CONSIDERED AS A MEANS OF LESSENING THE 
 DIFFICULTIES OF EXECUTION. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, a few remarks suggest 
 themselves respecting the great facilities of execution 
 which certain styles afford, compared with others. The 
 choice of a style or process of working, has an immense 
 influence in overcoming the difficulties which attend the 
 first attempts at imitation. The assistance thus to he 
 gained, is chiefly founded on the following circumstances. 
 Certain styles naturally favour and promote, either cen- 
 tralization of efi^ect, or breadth of light and shade. 
 Transparencies, in which, owing to the particular means 
 employed for lighting the subject, the glow is generally 
 accumulated in one bright focus, and diff'used thence by 
 equal gradations over the whole, produce almost unavoid- 
 ably this centralization of effect ; whereas, breadth is 
 obtained in those processes of drawing and colouring in 
 which a few bright lights are thrown in after the masses 
 of shading have been completed. 
 
 Amongst the various styles which lead to this easy 
 attainment of effect, may be mentioned, drawings with 
 the stump, or in charcoal, touched up with white or 
 coloured chalks ; as also drawings on paper prepared 
 with a coating of white cement, where the principal 
 lights are scratched out with a steel point, after the 
 ground tint has been completed. The smoked card, in 
 which, in addition to the bright lights scratched out with
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO EXECUTION. 285 
 
 the point, the softer ones are taken off with Indian rub- 
 ber, is likewise one of the numerous means by which 
 great effect is produced by very few touches. 
 
 Various causes contribute, according to the nature 
 of the style selected, to produce the pleasing results with 
 which all appear to be more or less attended. One of 
 the most efficient is, the facility which is afforded by 
 these styles for imitating the effects and striking features 
 of nature ; whilst, at the same time, the means of ren- 
 dering the characteristic and circumstantial particulars 
 are wanting. The performer is consequently compelled 
 as it were to direct his attention to the very conditions 
 of imitation which are most essential to its success ; 
 whilst the observer himself, struck with the truth of the 
 effect, neglects to examine whether the representation 
 has been alike faithfully carried out in other respects. 
 
 The method of handling, or, rather, the manner in 
 which the manual labour is performed, has also a great 
 influence in assisting or retarding the apparent success. 
 Thus, bold hatchings in a drawing, and regular lines 
 in a print, may not only be agreeable in themselves, 
 but they may become the means of rendering the work 
 more acceptable. In almost every style of painting, 
 but particularly in those in which the handling is most 
 apparent, it is not the subject alone, which an observer 
 examines and interests himself about : the mechanical 
 labour of the artist, that is to say, the manner peculiar 
 to him, or that which he has thought best adapted to 
 produce any given effect, has also its share of considera- 
 tion and interest ; and sometimes the degree of attention 
 which is engrossed by this mechanism of the art, is sue-
 
 ^86 STYLES OF PAINTING 
 
 cessfully employed to divert the obsei'ver from the want 
 of those qualities which are of more difficult attainment. 
 A free, a uniform, as well as an ornamental style of 
 handling, are agreeable to taste ; and any marks of the 
 hand possessing such characters, may supply a kind of 
 interest distinct from that which is derived fi'om the 
 imitation of nature, independently of the process em- 
 ployed. This influence of the mechanical process in the 
 general effect of the work, should not be disregarded in 
 any style ; but it becomes an abuse when it is made a 
 blind to the genuine merits of a work of art, by offering 
 a snare to curiosity and the other foibles of the imagina- 
 tion. 
 
 It may further be remarked that, in the unfinished 
 drawing, chance strokes are evidently intended to play 
 their part in the effect. In the work hastily performed, 
 whatever appears wrong is very readily construed into 
 a lapsus pennce. But the unfinished sketch derives its 
 principal merit from the fancy of the observer. It is 
 remarked by Reynolds, that sketches often convey a 
 higher opinion of the talents of the artist than do his 
 finished works, because the imagination of the observer 
 fills up that which is wanting in the mere sketch, substi- 
 tuting all that is most perfect according to his own ideas. 
 The embellishing influence which is exercised by the 
 imagination, is exactly proportionate to the omission of 
 positive and particularizing forms. Some of the appear- 
 ances of nature, such as gleams of light, and gentle 
 gradations of sky and cloud, are so vague, and so inde- 
 terminate in their character, as to admit of frequent and 
 even striking instances of resemblance from purely acci-
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO EXECUTION. '287 
 
 dental causes : and certain processes, such as smoked 
 cards, and other means of obtaining great breadth as well 
 as soft gradations of shade, possess of themselves, or with 
 the slightest additions, nearly all the requisites for a 
 happy though somewhat indefinite imitation. It must 
 be allowed that, in such cases, little skill and art can be 
 necessary for bringing out that which, at the first glance 
 only, appears to be nature. It is, nevertheless, but 
 justice to the fanciers of these light and efitminate pro- 
 ductions to observe, that a certain degree of taste is 
 required ; for, however simple and easy the process by 
 which the effect is obtained, there must be the discern- 
 ment and quickness of the eye necessary for fixing the 
 moment when the resemblance is produced. It would 
 be almost humiliating to art to mention some of the 
 absurd and preposterous means which have been resorted 
 to for what is sometimes considered an effective style of 
 imitation. The trickery or the novelty of the process 
 wins approval, in a degree which is proportionate to the 
 extravagance of the means employed, rather than to the 
 worth or merit of the result ; nevertheless, so easily is 
 the pleasure which is derived from astonishment con- 
 founded with that which we owe to merit, that our ad- 
 miration is not withheld. There is at times but a very 
 slight distinction between the expressions " how beau- 
 tiful!" and "how extraordinary!" however widely the 
 conditions which may call for the one may differ, on 
 other occasions, from those which give rise to the other. 
 Thus it is that in proportion as the style becomes lower, 
 the difiicultics to he couteiidi'd with diminisli ; till, at 
 last, a child who lias an unusual share of daring, might
 
 288 STYLES OF TAINTING, ETC. 
 
 almost seem a prodigy, from the extreme facility with 
 which he produces surprising results. 
 
 The highest styles of art arc those, in which no as- 
 sistance is borrowed from preparation, either in the 
 materials or in the method employed, from regularity in 
 the mechanical process, or from trickery in the manual 
 part of the labour ; and in which no colours are extended 
 or concentrated, in order that some effect pleasing to the 
 eye may be substituted for the truths of nature. The 
 styles in which success is most uncertain, as it is most 
 creditable, are those, in which the colours used have the 
 degree of brilliancy, transparency, or substance, which 
 is required in order to convey the most truthful im- 
 pression of the subject ; and where the forcibleness of 
 the imitation depends consequently on substantial and 
 positive workmanship, and not on the fascination of the 
 beholder. In this respect, oil-painting seems to claim 
 the preference over other styles ; but water-colours, in- 
 dependently of other merits which oils do not possess, 
 come very near to it, when, by successive colouring, and 
 glazing, the white of the paper has entirely disappeared 
 under a rich and transparent body of colour.
 
 EXECUTION. ^89 
 
 PHACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 EXECUTION. 
 
 In historical composition, it is by various an4 suc- 
 cessive processes that the primitive idea is made to ripen 
 into the perfect work. A rough sketch, in pencil or 
 crayon, is first made, — sometimes repeated over several 
 times, with various alterations ; from which it is usual 
 to make a small picture in oils or water colours, having 
 the colouring, as well as the effect of light and shade, 
 which it is intended that the finished picture shall 
 possess. Further correctness is obtained in a more 
 finished drawing or cartoon. Modelling in clay is also 
 had recourse to : it has the advantage of marking the 
 relative position of every figure in a group, and the exact 
 influence of perspective and foreshortening, giving the 
 true projection to every limb.* The arrangement once 
 made, the living model is introduced ; whereby variety 
 and nature are given to the features, ease and truth to 
 the form and movements. The folds of drapery are 
 taken from dresses worn by lay-figures. These precau- 
 
 * Lanzi informs us that Tintoretto was in the habit of making a great 
 number of small figures of wax and plaster, which he dressed up, and lighted 
 with strong lights, so as to obtain the true effects of chiaro-scuro. It appears 
 that ho fonncd, also, small bouses or boxes, in which these figures were placed 
 in various attitudes ; and being lighted up through the windows, ho observed 
 the effect of the whole. Some he suspended to the roof, and observed them 
 from various points, in order to obtain that kind of foreshortening called sotto 
 in su. Paul Veronese and C'oreggio appear, likewise, to have made great use 
 of models. See Lanzi's " Storia Pittorica della Italia." Lives of Tintoretto 
 and Coreggio. 
 
 U
 
 290 PRACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 tioiis are rendered necessary by the great precision 
 required in painting the human figure, as well as by the 
 difficulty of giving to the conceptions of the mind, the 
 character and expression of life. • 
 
 EXECUTION IN LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 
 
 In the Landscape, the diversity and disconnection of 
 the objects give to the arrangement of its parts the cha- 
 racter of chance ; and one form may often be substituted 
 for another with almost equal advantage. Perfection 
 thus bears a less definite character ; and the progressive 
 stages by which it is attained in historical painting, 
 become superfiuous in the Landscape. The original 
 pencil sketch is, in many cases, the only guide to the 
 painter whilst completing his work. Some, indeed, trace 
 their ideas on the very board or canvas where they are 
 definitively to remain, allowing full play to their fancy as 
 they work on. One incident suggests another ; and the 
 difficulty of composing, or rather of inventing, is lessened. 
 This plan may succeed in the unpretending drawing, 
 however defective in the execution of an important work. 
 It would be dangerous to rely too much upon the maxim, 
 that nature is indefinite in her forms and combinations ; 
 for the principle which determines the connection between 
 form and beauty, doubtless extends, in the landscape, far 
 beyond those circumstances of relation which appear at 
 the first glance : and it is only by long acquaintance with 
 
 * See "Expression in the Figure," p. 159.
 
 EXECUTION IN THE LANDSCAPE. 291 
 
 her most beautiful forms and effects, as well as by the 
 
 ' ml 
 
 apprenticeship afforded by the study of the most perfect 
 productions of art, that is acquired the power of selecting 
 amongst the choicest materials presented by nature, and 
 of combining them at once agreeably to the exigencies of 
 fancy and to the rules of taste. How can it be expected 
 that these results of time and labour will avail, in the 
 rapid pencilling of those ideas which suggest themselves 
 as the work proceeds ? Moreover, art assigns, even 
 here, a decided preference for certain forms over others, 
 and adopts them as types of the picturesque. Some of 
 these combinations may be partly conventional, yet they 
 appear to have won the approval of art in all times and 
 countries ; and their superiority, though partly due to 
 example and precedent, has remained uncontested. 
 
 A small coloured drawing of the subject, placed 
 within siyht, as the artist is engaged on his larger work, 
 constantly draws his attention to the whole, impresses his 
 mind with the general effect, and prevents his falling 
 into that local and unconnected method of painting, 
 which destroys breadth, and generates littleness and 
 insignificance. The eflFect is much easier to tjive in a 
 small unfinished sketch, than it is in a large picture ; 
 and when once marked in light and shade, or in approxi- 
 mate colouring, it is there as a reference, to prevent any 
 falling off from the merits of primitive arrangement, 
 whilst, at the same time, it does not preclude improve- 
 ment. A preparatory sketch has, moreover, another 
 advantage, — it secures simplicity. The objects forming 
 the composition are enlarged, in tlie transfer to a wider 
 canvas ; tin- intervals between them are likewise in-
 
 '292 PKACTJCAL REMARKS. 
 
 creased ; but their number is not added to. Tims is 
 obviated that redundancy and confusion which often 
 result from the impatience of labour, which urges the 
 student to fill up all empty spaces seeming to him too 
 (extended as he works close to the canvas, but which are 
 sufficiently filled up for a distant view. AVhen guided 
 by our own disposition only, we arc more inclined to 
 accumulate and to condense, than to enlarge and sim- 
 plify. 
 
 The enthusiastic student, absorbed in the interest 
 which even the mechanical imitation of nature affords, is 
 often too exclusively guided, in the execution of the 
 picture, by the appearance of the limited portion of it at 
 which he is working at the time ; and in this kind of 
 plastic labour, the prejudice and short-sightedness of an 
 inexperienced mind, prevail over the truthful and stable 
 impressions which are due to general results. This kind 
 of routine should above all be avoided. The young painter 
 who fondles over some object of fascinating interest, 
 adding touch after touch, and seeing nothing but that 
 which is immediately at the point of his pencil, would 
 frequently require to be roused from his lethargy, and to 
 be reminded that it is not for himself, but for others, 
 that he paints. He should be aware that a foreign eye 
 begins with the whole, — compares distant parts, effects 
 of colouring, or indications of beauty and of action, on a 
 large scale, — quite unconscious of the merit which the 
 artist attaches to some unimportant portion of the work, 
 from the unusual toil and labour he has there encountered. 
 Whatever circumstances, therefore, tend to generaliza- 
 tion, whether they depend on the style selected, or on
 
 ELEMENTARY STUDIES. 293 
 
 any particular plans which the increnuity of the operator 
 mav suo-<rest for disensa<aniT his thoughts from local and 
 temporary seductions, and for giving a wider range to 
 his tool, would be highly desirable. It is rather a disad- 
 vantage to the artist than otherwise, that the situation in 
 which his work is painted is, generally speaking, more 
 favourable than any one in which it is likely to be placed 
 afterwards ; and he cannot be too well prepared to meet 
 any future drawback of light and position, by observing 
 the effect of his picture, before completion, under the 
 most varied circumstances. 
 
 Elementanj Studies. — With regard to elementary 
 instruction, various plans have been adopted. The 
 study of the human figure, especially of the head, has 
 been recommended by some, as a key to almost every 
 style ; and the delineation of the separate organs and 
 members has been regarded as the best preliminary step. 
 Others recommend drawing from nature at the onset ; 
 and the eye is practised on solid geometrical figures, 
 before it can adapt to each other the parts of a more 
 complicated subject. Occasionally, both of these appear 
 to be neglected ; and the impatient genius of the young 
 performer is indulged, by his being taught colouring at 
 once : or he may be shewn a still more rapid way of 
 attaining his object, by being informed that boldness and 
 confidence are the secrets of practical success. 
 
 With the exception of these last maxims, so destruc- 
 tive to the talents which are acquired by patience and 
 industry, each has its peculiar advantages ; but every 
 plan is ill-advised which adopts any one method of
 
 294 PRACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 teaching to the exclusion of all others. The drawing of 
 heads affords, there is no doubt, great advantages in 
 learning the art generally, owing to the precision which 
 is essentially required in the delineation of every part 
 which belongs to the human figure. Drawing from 
 models having geometrical and other simple forms, must 
 also prove highly useful in teaching the beginner to 
 transfer figures having depth as well as breadth, to a flat 
 surface, and to account for the various relations of 
 advancing and retiring forms. But, in order to obtain 
 efficiency in every point which contributes to the comple- 
 tion of a work, it is necessary that instruction of a very 
 different kind be added to the precision which is gained 
 by copying heads, as well as to the discernment which is 
 acquired in studies which are made from solids or from 
 the round. Projection is one of the chief points in 
 drawing ; but it is not all : and the youth who may be 
 able to represent admirably, a cube, a pyramid, a jug, or 
 a table, may be incapable of adapting various objects so 
 as to form a graceful composition, or of finishing it up 
 with that ease, lightness, and at the same time decision 
 of the hand, which are acquired by diligent practice, and 
 practice obtained on a sound principle of handling or 
 working. 
 
 There are many parts, both of the figure, and of the 
 landscape, especially in the trees of the latter, which 
 cannot be imitated effectually without a certain conven- 
 tional touch or method, which it would cost the student 
 immense time and trouble to find out for himself; whilst 
 the labour and acquired experience of the teacher place 
 him at once, with regard to this mechanical imitation of
 
 ELEMENTARY STUDIES. 295 
 
 objects, in an advanced position, from whence other 
 difficulties may be easily overcome, and merits of a 
 higher order aimed at. Thus, if the first attempts from 
 nature be made with simple objects, with a view to give 
 practice to the eye in determining form and proportion, 
 it may be well, at the same time, to copy from finished 
 drawings and other works of art, those which, possessing 
 more intricate forms, demand peculiar and special means 
 of imitation. The use of method and sound principles 
 soon renders easy the representation of the most divcrsi 
 fied objects. 
 
 In the more advanced stages, which involve colour- 
 ing, nature becomes an indispensable guide ; but to go 
 to nature at once, and without previous knowledge of the 
 value and use of colours, would be something like 
 endeavouring to decipher the meaning of an unknown 
 tongue, without the previous acquaintance of its charac- 
 ters. It is only when the use and properties of colours 
 have become familiar, that the guidance of nature may 
 be safely trusted to ; and her austere truths, instead of 
 embarrassing, will inspire those general ideas, and give 
 those strong and firm impressions of form and colour as 
 connected with living objects, which result finally, in the 
 power of composing and painting unassisted by models 
 of any kind. 
 
 Faithfulness and circumspection, coupled with per- 
 severance, are the best companions in every stage of 
 tuition in art ; but although it be desirable that the 
 youthful artist be kept, with regard to his practical 
 studies, within certain limits based on previous acquire- 
 ments, lest he should chance to wade beyond his depth.
 
 296 PRACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 it is bv no means necessary that he should be made to 
 dwell on trivial and uninteresting subjects. The model 
 should be an inviting one ; and there should always be 
 something held out as an encouragement for improve- 
 ment. The inducement to correctness and accuracy 
 should rest chiefly on the perfection and finish of the 
 subject intended to be copied. With the best pro- 
 ductions before him as examples, the mind of the student 
 becomes gradually imbued with the principles which are 
 necessary to perfection ; till at length his taste and 
 judgment are fitted for the appreciation of those tran- 
 scendent excellences which have raised art itself to a 
 glorious and dignified station. 
 
 Process of Painting used in Ifnly. — Having some 
 time since put down, from memory, a brief account of the 
 processes which are chiefly employed in Italy for paint- 
 ing the landscape, I have thought that such particulars 
 might not be without interest to the amateur and to some 
 of our native artists. Although the low estimation in 
 which modern Italian art (especially the art of landscape 
 painting) is held in this country, precludes any extensive 
 adoption of such principles, it is not a reason why we 
 should disdain to glean even from those whom we excel, 
 or shut our eyes to things which afi'ord some little to be 
 approved of, though much to be censured. 
 
 It is usual to trace a sketch or outline in the first 
 place, with chalk, pencil, or any substance easily effaced, 
 in order to afibrd the greater facility for changes : but, 
 when fixed upon, the outline may be repeated over with 
 pen and ink, in order that it may not be easily rubbed
 
 PAINTING IN OILS. 297 
 
 out when the colour is afterwards put in, as also that it 
 may be seen through the first coating, and still serve as 
 a guide. The colouring begins with the sky ; and if 
 there be few clouds, they are generally omitted in the 
 first coating. Concentric or parallel belts of colour, 
 according to the form of the principal focus of light, are 
 then put in, in succession, one above another ; com- 
 mencing with the warm tint near the horizon, and work- 
 ing upwards. These layers are united together with 
 a hard brush and a vertical motion of the hand ; after 
 which, the whole is blended. The landscape is then 
 painted in lightly, with the exception of the trees which 
 come in contact with the sky, and which are painted in 
 afterwards. 
 
 It is desirable to put in the distant mountains when 
 the sky is yet fresh, both in the first and second coat- 
 ings ; a practice which gives them softness. The degree 
 of tone and finish of the first coating varies with the 
 plan of the artist. Some put it in exceedinglv light and 
 thin, — a general warm tint rather than the approximate 
 colour of each object. Others give to the first layer a 
 tone almost approaching to that of the finished picture. 
 In figures, I have seen copyists paint at once up to the 
 colouring of the original; a method which the Italians, 
 as before stated, designate " dipingere alia prima.' It 
 consists in putting on the colour very thick and pasty ; 
 and requires only a few glazings in the finishing. This 
 style demands great precision and firmness in the out- 
 line, and would scarcely seem practicable in composi- 
 tion, where repeated alterations cease only with the 
 completion of the work.
 
 208 PRACTICAL KEMAUKS. 
 
 The plan of giving a considerable degree of colour 
 to the first coating seems to have some advantages, since 
 proportionately less remains to be done in the finishing, 
 and considerable time is thus saved. Its objections are, 
 that unless it be perfectly understood what changes will 
 be produced in the first colours, by those which come 
 after, mistakes may happen as to their reciprocal influ- 
 ence, and it will be diflBcult to give to the picture the 
 exact eiFect which it is intended to produce. By pro- 
 ceeding more cautiously from the commencement of the 
 work, — by putting in light colours at first, and adding to 
 their strength afterwards, when the definitive effect can 
 be more easily foreseen, from the disappearance of the 
 white canvas, the point aimed at may be attained with 
 greater certainty and precision. 
 
 Warm tints are preferred in the first layer of colour, 
 because they secure harmony. Grey or brown coloured 
 canvas may be used ; but the white or nearly white 
 ground is preferred by some, in order to obtain great 
 purity in the sky and aerial parts. A Milanese master 
 noted for the clearness of his colours, considered that the 
 least impurity in the preparation of the canvas would, by 
 degrees, make its way through the superposed layers 
 of colour, and diminish their brilliancy. These white 
 canvases necessarily require additional labour in order 
 to bring the picture down to a proper tone : the layers 
 must be more numerous, or put on thicker. 
 
 Mountains seen through the vapours of the extreme 
 distance, can scarcely be put in too light ; but in the 
 nearer planes, it is well to give them a firm and substan- 
 tial colour, or they will appear excessively pale when
 
 PAINTING IN OILS. 29*J 
 
 the remainder of the picture is worked up to its full 
 tone. 
 
 The figures are either delineated at the same time 
 as the other parts of the composition, and painted on 
 the blank canvas, after the landscape has been put in, 
 in colour ; or they may be painted over the landscape. 
 The last method presents many advantages for figures 
 not exceeding two or three inches. It admits of a 
 bolder and less restrained method of composing the 
 landscape, than when the flow of the hand is here and 
 there interrupted by the figures. If the figures come 
 out on a smooth and uniform surface, such as the sky 
 or water, the inconvenience of retouching, and perhaps 
 of entirely repainting, is avoided, by putting them 
 in afterwards. If painted first, they would be half 
 effaced in the free motion of the hand which is required 
 for smoothening the ground-tint ; whereas, if painted 
 over a perfcctlv dry back-ground, they may be washed 
 out with oil and a soft brush, whenever their appearance, 
 or the site in which they have been placed, is not satis- 
 factory. The objections to this plan are, the influence 
 which the colours used in the landscape may have in 
 impairing those of the figures put over them ; but this 
 inconvenience does not show itself in figures not exceed- 
 ing two or three inches, provided fhoy be painted in 
 substance twice. A more serious inconvenience with 
 small figures is, that of a rough and unequal surface 
 to paint upon, when the colour has been previously 
 laid on in thick masses. When this is the case, the 
 surface should be scraped smooth where the figures 
 arc intended to be put in.
 
 300 PHACTICAL UEMARKS. 
 
 It is usual to make a separate sketch in colour of 
 the principal groups of figures, before putting them in. 
 This is done principally for the purpose of obtaining 
 precision and ease in the attitudes. Sometimes their 
 situation in the picture, and relative proportions, are 
 determined by drawing, or cutting out, small figures of 
 the intended size, and affixing them for a time to the 
 canvas. However, too much trial of efifect, and com- 
 parison between figures in one position and in another, 
 unsettles the mind, and lessens the innate feeling of 
 the artist for that which is most picturesque or most 
 tasteful. 
 
 In the methods of painting with which I became 
 familiar in Italy, glazings of crimson and purple lakes 
 are but scantily and cautiously used in the distance. 
 Warm glazings are chiefly employed to give tone and 
 vigour to the foreground. Those of bitumen, mineral 
 browns, &c., are almost necessary for giving transparency 
 to the shady parts. The effect is then natural. It is not 
 perhaps equally so with the glazings of yellow lake at times 
 abundantly used on open foregrounds. These certainly 
 give great brilliancy of tone, and throw back the dis- 
 tance ; but they have a tendency to render of a uniform 
 tint the plants and foliage, which in nature show so 
 much diversity ; and they impair, perhaps, the freshness 
 of the lights. A very bright and a very dark ground- 
 tint are equally unfit for transparent glazings ; but a 
 sober warm sub-layer shows off the richness of the dark 
 transparent colours which are put over it. 
 
 Glazings of light body-colour are used in the distance 
 of landscapes. They are composed chiefly of white, with
 
 HANDLING. 301 
 
 a little toning of blue, or of vermilion and yellow. They 
 increase the vapoury appearance of the atmosphere, and 
 give distance to remote objects. Such thin layers of 
 light colour require an unusual degree of attention to 
 the purity of the vehicle used for extending them. 
 
 Handling Bent on the result, rather than on the 
 
 method of obtaining it, artists adhere little to rule in the 
 art of handling the pencil. A length of tool is recom- 
 mended for giving freedom and ease ; and a stiff brush 
 is frequently preferred to a fine point, though more 
 difKcult to use. The flexible point of the beaver pro- 
 duces hard, the hog's-hair soft, outlines ; and of either 
 excess, the latter is preferable. Besides, all means are 
 advisable which tend to counteract the stifiriess which is 
 natural to beginners. 
 
 Not unfrcquently, negligence and daring are mis- 
 taken for freedom of touch. The latter is, however, 
 easily distinguished, by character and a truthful resem- 
 blance to the object represented. A conspicuous use of 
 strokes and touches is, in general, the mark of an inferior 
 style. In the most perfect, the mechanism of the art 
 disappears, and substance alone becomes prominent, in 
 the various forms and aspects in which it is exhibited 
 in nature. 
 
 The suitable degree of finish for a picture is a point 
 on which tastes greatly vary. It is carried by some 
 painters to such excessive minuteness, that a lens is not 
 only used by the artist, but is also required by the ol)- 
 server in order fully to appreciate the elaborateness of 
 the work. This extreme finish is advocated by some,
 
 302 PRACTICAL REMARKS. 
 
 and apparently with reason, by the appearance of nature, 
 the details of which become ever more minute and re- 
 dundant, as the investigation is closer. Those, however, 
 who recommend the lens, in order that the high iinish 
 of their work may be done justice to, seem to forget that 
 nature is seen through it by naturahsts only. The 
 painter and the lover of picturesque scenery view her 
 very differently. In a scene which would be comprised 
 in a picture, the nearest objects do not, on an average, 
 come within fifteen paces of the observer ; a distance at 
 which the minute fibres which constitute substance dis- 
 appear, even to the keenest eye ; and the forms of objects 
 grow more or less indistinct to every observer, accord- 
 ing to the narrower or more extended range of his 
 vision. 
 
 Nature is, however, characterized by the variety of 
 her forms and details, even when seen indistinctly ; and, 
 generally speaking, art is beneath rather than above 
 nature, with respect to high finish, which has a won- 
 derful influence on the beholder when not carried out at 
 the expense of effect. Nevertheless, a free and bold 
 style of painting compensates, by many advantages, for 
 a want of fidelity to nature ; and its combined softness 
 and energy seldom fail to secure favour. However, the 
 attractions of effect appear to have been, not unfre- 
 quently, overrated ; the result of which is a coarse 
 and negligent manner of painting. Artists who esteem 
 effect more than correctness of form, occasionally go so 
 far as to leave the outline of minor objects unconnected, 
 as though by forgetfulness. Such instances of neglect 
 seem unaccountable to the correct delineator, whose one-
 
 HANDLING. 303 
 
 sided views on this point prevent him from fully appre- 
 ciating those (lualities of a picture on which effect 
 depends. On the other hand, the partisan of cflFect 
 cannot enter into the feelings of the careful performer, 
 who regards as a lihel upon nature, the omission of the 
 minutest of her details. 
 
 It is in such particulars as these, connected with any 
 manner of painting, that the circumstances under which 
 the artist has laboured, perhaps adverse, perhaps favour- 
 able, become apparent ; and although it would be an 
 unsatisfactory method of judging of the merits of a 
 painting, to seek out excuses for its faults, its impartial 
 appreciation requires that the causes which led to them, 
 and the difficulties which have been contended with, 
 should be known. Those extremes of roughness or of 
 finish, which appear so inexcusable when considered to 
 be the result of ignorance, or of inability to paint other- 
 wise, are viewed with very different impressions when 
 known to depend on a condition of the organ which 
 causes nature herself to appear under an entirely dif- 
 ferent aspect to one individual or to another.
 
 PART III. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, PROJECTED SHADOWS, 
 
 AND REFLECTION ON POLISHED 
 
 SURFACES. 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE PREVAILING METHODS OF TEACHING 
 PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 Perspective is generally understood to explain the 
 influence of distance on the colour of objects, as well as 
 on i\\Q\Yform ; and comprises, under the name of aerial 
 perspective, all such effects of nature as are due to light, 
 shade, and colour, modified by atmospheric influence : 
 but having found it more convenient to consider these 
 subjects separately in this volume, as well as in my 
 unpublished work on the picturesque, I will here con- 
 fine myself to a few remarks on that branch of per- 
 spective which especially regards the forms of objects, 
 and which may be termed linear ; not, indeed, that the 
 forms or boundaries of objects, in nature, are defined by
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 305 
 
 lines, but because these afford the most effectual means 
 of indicating the configuration or the various shapes of 
 bodies, with the least labour. In nature, it is by transi- 
 tions, and chiefly by those of light and shade, that form 
 becomes recognizable. 
 
 It is, perhaps, an untoward circumstance in the 
 education of youth, that the form in which Perspective is 
 first introduced, is generally calculated to engender a 
 distaste for it. Its dry and monotonous problems first 
 make their appearance in connection with the fascinating 
 occupation of drawing and painting, and seem to present 
 an obstacle to easy and rapid progress. Its practice 
 seems to confine the hand, and restrain the fancy, in the 
 exercise of an art the pleasures of which naturally asso- 
 ciate themselves with those of sportive uncontrol. But 
 what seems more worthv of consideration is, that the 
 methods of instructing usually adopted in this branch of 
 art, tend, in fact, to form a stiff and constrained style of 
 execution. For this reason, it might be wished that the 
 study of it were made more philosophical, and its appli- 
 cation more extensive and generalizing. Confined, as it 
 frequently is, to the explanation of diagrams, its princi- 
 ples remain unconnected, in the mind of the student, 
 with those prominent and characteristic features of na- 
 ture, to which they so admirably apply ; as the rules of 
 syntax, when learned by rote, generally remain uncon- 
 nected with the practical use of tho tongue which they 
 were intended to teach. The knowledge of perspective 
 might be made to extend to the ideas and mind, that 
 precision and nicety in the appreciation of forms, which, 
 
 X
 
 306 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 in its present stage of advancement, it bestows almost 
 exclusively on the sense of vision. 
 
 It has been remarked, and not without foundation, 
 that mathematical study tends to chill the warm im- 
 pulses of the heart, and to arrest the natural flow of 
 kindly and amiable feelings. It must, however, be 
 allowed, that this aphorism can hold, only when applied 
 conditionally, and with certain restrictions. Definite 
 and precise studies, like all others, become prejudicial, 
 when rendered too exclusively absorbing, and not when 
 they call but for a due and reasonable share of attention. 
 Any pursuit which tends to give precision to our im- 
 pressions concerning the relations of things, as well as 
 certainty to our appreciation of events, deservedly claims 
 a large share of our attention. If the emotions which 
 proceed from the heart, or from spontaneous impulse, 
 were always characterized by a beneficial tendency, we 
 should be right in disregarding at once any pursuit 
 or study calculated to restrain or influence them ; but, 
 when unguided by reflection and reason, such outpour- 
 ings, even when the moving principle is pure, are in 
 general characterized by the most ephemeral and uncer- 
 tain results. What orator, though he should speak from 
 the eff^usion of his soul, can make sure, even for a day, 
 of the consequence of the principles which he confidently 
 and strenuously asserts ? And to what incalculable evil 
 does not at times lead, the slightest mingling of passion 
 with the spontaneous eff'usion of internal emotion 1 
 Were reflection and thought never overpowered in the 
 unguided enthusiasm and boundless exultation which
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 307 
 
 accompany the enunciation of feelings wrought up by the 
 circumstances of the moment, what dissensions might be 
 spared, and what untoward events might receive a 
 timely check ! It would be taking, therefore, a false 
 view in this matter, to deprecate unconditionally and 
 unrestrictedly every precise study, upon the ground of 
 its having a withering influence on the tender and 
 sociable emotions. When accompanied by a due ad- 
 mixture of the glowing fervour of an expansive soul, and 
 when occasionally moistened by the fertilizing dews of 
 an overflowing imagination, these pursuits have but their 
 just and rightful influence. They are thus made to 
 direct, and not to stem, the tides which flow from the 
 heart. Perhaps that kind of application of the exact 
 sciences possesses peculiar advantages, which does not 
 unnecessarily confine the impressions to small and dis- 
 connected signs and figures, but which, taking the forms 
 and aspects of nature herself as illustrations, expands the 
 ideas, and opens a free and extensive range for the 
 reasoning powers of the mind. 
 
 The universal application and usefulness of the laws 
 of radiation, on which perspective is based, are but very 
 indifferently appreciated ; nor does this comprehensive 
 principle share, to its due extent, the admiration which 
 is so justly awarded to the organization of the eve; al- 
 though, without that progressive apparent diminution of 
 objects by distance, which is associated, in the inverse 
 ratio, with the diffusion of the rays which reach the e\ e, 
 sight itself would become inferior to the sense of touch, 
 as a means of a])preciating form. Every object would 
 become an obstacle to the perception of another situated
 
 308 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 beyond ; and our position would be similar to tbat of 
 one feeling his vva}' in the dark, from one body to ano- 
 ther in succession, instead of grasping as it were at the 
 same instant, a world of living objects.* 
 
 * The diminution which takes place in the intensity of the rays of light 
 which are emitted or reflected from the surfaces of bodies, is commensurate 
 with its diffusion through space in the ratio of the squares of the distances, 
 although each single ray, considered independently of the influence of the 
 atmosphere, and of all volatile matter, is subjected to no decrease of power 
 whatever be its extent ; so that, supposing the eye were to receive but a 
 single ray of light from each object, its intensity would appear the same at 
 all distances, subtraction made of atmospheric and other influences. This is 
 concisely proved in the extracts made by Mons. Brisson, from the papers on 
 " Shadows and Perspective," by Mons. ]\Ionge ; who observes, with regard to 
 the light which is radiated from objects to the eye of the observer, " that if 
 it were to traverse a space entirely free, and offering no resistance, two 
 bodies, luminous in an equal degree, would continue to appear equally so at 
 whatever distance they might be situated. In order to be convinced of this, 
 (continues the author) let us suppose two circles of equal diameter, equally 
 lighted, and having the same inclination with regard to the visual ray. The 
 intensity of the light emitted by each, will decrease in the inverse ratio of the 
 squares of the distances ; but, at the same time, the size of the images pro- 
 jected by these circles on the eye, will appear to decrease in the same ratio. 
 So that if, on the one hand, the light radiated from the whole surface of one 
 of the circles, when removed to a distance, is less intense (less in quantity in 
 a given area), it is, on the other hand, condensed into a smaller apparent 
 compass. These two results taking place in the same progression, counteract 
 each other, so as to give rise to the impression which we experience, namely, 
 that the two circles placed at unequal distances, appear to have the same 
 intensity of light." — (See p. 172 of the " Geometrie Descriptive" of 51. 
 Monge, 5th edition.) 
 
 To this, the substance of the remarks of 51. Monge, it might be added, 
 that a small portion of surface detached from a large one near the eye, is cir- 
 cumstanced similarly, with regard to radiation, with a large surface at a dis- 
 tance, since it fills up the same apparent space. The number of its rays 
 passing through any given spot or area, would be less numerous than those 
 of the large surface from which it has been separated, in a proportion corre- 
 sponding to its limited extent ; yet no one would suggest that a small portion 
 of a surface having a given degree of colour, or of light, would appear, ex- 
 cepting from the effect of contrast, less of that colour, or less lighted, than 
 the whole of the surface before being divided.
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 309 
 
 Developement of t/ie Principles of Perspectioe. 
 — Whenever we look around us, whether in open 
 places, or in more confined spots, we perceive that all 
 the objects, by which we are surrounded have certain 
 relations of form with regard to one another. What 
 first strikes us is, the distinctive nature or character of 
 the objects, which these relations seem to point out, 
 relatively to their use or purpose. But, at the same time 
 that the expression of individuality is conveyed by these 
 relations of form, we discover, if we consider the prospect 
 at large, as a whole, and not in separate parts, that 
 something more is expressed by these relations ; and 
 that, combined with the individual character of objects, 
 correct impressions are obtained of their distribution 
 and arrangement. We judge, without- hesitation, of the 
 intervals of space which separate them one from another, 
 and of the direction of their greatest extent, north or 
 south, to our right, to our left, or in front of us. Thus, 
 character, j)ositiofi, and distribution, are involved in the 
 same impression which is conveyed to the mind by sight. 
 The former, which opens the way to physiological in- 
 vestigation, belongs to the descriptive sciences ; the two 
 latter depend on those principles of optics which it is 
 the object of perspective to elucidate, and to place within 
 the compass of practical processes. 
 
 The natural laws which are generally admitted as 
 principles of perspective, are based on the progressive 
 apparent diminution of objects as they recede from the 
 eye, in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances,
 
 310 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 for direct recedcnce ; but which the unequal degree of 
 vanishing of various objects, according to their position, 
 subjects to further modifications. Every object in 
 nature, whether regular or irregular in shape, is alike 
 subjected to the influence of this principle, to its whole 
 extent, and with the same rigorous application of it : 
 but, with regard to irregular forms, this perfect subor- 
 dination and obedience to perspective rule, although it 
 equally exists, does not strike the eye ; for, as before 
 observed, the principle which points out differences of 
 position is, in the appearances of nature, so intimately 
 connected and blended with the characteristic forms of 
 objects, that the effects due to the one, are, in irregular 
 bodies, most easily attributed to, and confounded with, 
 the results of the other. For instance, with regard to 
 trees, or to the unevennesses of the soil, the eye does not 
 inquire whether such and such an appearance be due to 
 the real size and form of the masses of foliage, or to the 
 projections and depressions of the soil, or whether it be 
 due to those conditions which depend on greater or less 
 proximity, or on a degree of more or less decided ob- 
 liquity of the surfaces, in reference to the position held 
 by the observer. By that tuition of nature which cor- 
 rects all misconceptions with the gradual increase of 
 experience, we are enabled to judge, with tolerable pre- 
 cision, of the true form and position of objects, by their 
 apparent relations ; and, in imitative art, a similar 
 kind of tuition, based on the experience of the eye, 
 suffices to enable those who follow this pursuit, to attain, 
 with regard to the irregular forms of nature, a degree
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCII'LES. 311 
 
 of perfection and approximation to truth, which appear? 
 fully adequate to the purposes intended. If, through 
 ignorance of the laws which govern the recedence of 
 objects, a hill be made to appear higher or more preci- 
 pitous, or the leaves of a tree larger, broader, more 
 elongated, or more round, than would be consistent with 
 the precise nature of these objects, could their dimen- 
 sions be taken mathematicallv, — who would think of 
 objecting to the performer, that he was unskilled in per- 
 spective, rather than in correct drawing in general ; and 
 that, in consequence of the position marked out for the 
 observer, the hill must appear less lofty, or less pre- 
 cipitous, or the leaves of the tree smaller, less broad, or 
 less elongated ? Would not such particulars as these 
 appear trifling minutiae, undeserving of the artist's at- 
 tention ; and that, because there may be hills of all 
 heights and of all degrees of steepness, and leaves, 
 speaking generally, of all sizes, of all lengths, and of all 
 widths ? It appears therefore evident that, with regard 
 to the imitation of irregular objects, or of those which 
 are not limited to any precise and constant form, that 
 degree of accuracy which results from the natural tuition 
 of the eye, with practice and observation, but without 
 rule, fulfils every purpose which is in general expected 
 or rctjuired. 
 
 But is this the case with respect to regular objects, 
 — with regard to those forms which extend to consider- 
 able distances in one given direction, with equal divisions, 
 and corresponding parts, of which most buildings afford 
 examples ? Is it not evident that a certain nicety and 
 precision, in the imitation of such objects, cannot bo
 
 312 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 dispensed with, without producing apparent error and 
 falsehood ? A range of houses, of which the roofs were 
 to rise gradually from one end towards the other, or of 
 which the windows were made progressively smaller, 
 further apart, or not level, would be so extraordinary 
 an instance of building, that neither the eye nor the 
 mind could admit the possibility that the houses were 
 ever constructed on such a plan ; and, in the repre- 
 sentation of them, the error would be laid entirely to the 
 charge of the delineator, the more directly in proportion 
 to the degree of absurdity of the eflFect produced, rather 
 than to the amount of deviation from truth. A street 
 is sometimes seen to contract, or to widen, towards one 
 of its extremities ; which would require, in the repre- 
 sentation, an unequal convergence of the lines : but 
 even in this case, the improbability of this deviation 
 from parallelism, in a street in other respects regular, 
 would be weighed against the skill of the artist; and, 
 unless to those who were acquainted with the spot, the 
 mistake might very likely appear his. Wherever, there- 
 fore, objects are regular, or expected to be so, certain 
 methods must be resorted to which will give to the 
 portraiture a degree of precision, and resemblance to the 
 subject portrayed, much greater than can be obtained 
 by any habit of observing and comparing, unassisted by 
 rule. 
 
 It has been discovered (and I will not here inquire 
 into the origin of the discovery), that a certain mathe- 
 matical uniformity of convergence may be superadded, 
 in the delineation of symmetrical forms, to the primary 
 and characteristic indications of regularity, in order to
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 313 
 
 give them the appearance of being subjected to that 
 progressive optic diminution which, accoi-ding to the 
 laws of radiation, results from distance. The methods 
 which are usually adopted in practice, answer, in gene- 
 ral, all the purposes required ; and when, by the mere 
 perspective convergence of the principal lines, and the 
 progressive contraction of the parts, the idea of a street 
 or avenue retiring from us is rendered on a flat surface, 
 we are struck with the resemblance to nature, and with 
 the delusiveness of the effect. 
 
 So far, the means adopted appear adequate, and their 
 application easy and almost self-evident. But the prin- 
 ciples of perspective are not applied exclusively to objects 
 retiring directly from the eye. Surfaces frequently 
 recede in a more or less oblique direction ; they have 
 sides which are at right angles with those which recede : 
 and it then becomes frequently a question and a matter 
 of doubt, whether, and to what extent, the surface at 
 right angles with the one which recedes indirectly, should 
 be made to converge on the plane of the picture, — 
 whether, and in what cases, objects placed at intervals, 
 retiring to the right and left, should be drawn progres- 
 sively closer together as they become more distant, as 
 would necessarily be the case with objects retiring de- 
 cidedly into the picture. 
 
 With regard to points like these, many are perplexed 
 at the appearances afforded by nature, even before they 
 attempt to transfer these appearances to a plane sur- 
 face. For instance, a person placed in a long gallery, 
 observes the lines which mark the floor and the roof to 
 converge, and the various partitions and divisions to
 
 314 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 contract, towards one of the extremities. He turns in 
 the opposite direction, and observes there also, that the 
 horizontal lines converge, and that the vertical spaces 
 contract. But when he turns towards the wall, allowing 
 the gallery to retire on his right and left, he perceives 
 no kind of angles where the lines unite ; all the divi- 
 sions or boundarj' lines arc straight and horizontal. In 
 the same manner, an observer who places himself in the 
 interior of a tower, knows the lines which form the sides 
 to be vertical, — perpendicular to the surface of the 
 eartb ; he is even satisfied that they appear so, provided 
 his eye compass but a short interval of space. But if, 
 the tower being high, he looks up to the summit, he ob- 
 serves that the sides appear to contract, and the lines to 
 draw closer together ; till, if the tower be very lofty, 
 they almost seem to meet. But the habit of witnessing 
 these delusive effects, associated with the knowledge 
 that the gallery before him, or the shaft of the tower 
 above him, does not really contract, but remains of an 
 uniform size throughout, suffices to prevent him from 
 considering either as a thing unusual, or the explanation 
 of which involves difficulties. 
 
 In order to take a general and unprejudiced view of 
 these perspective phenomena, it would be desirable to 
 divest one's self of the confined impressions which al- 
 most necessarily result from the practice of delineating 
 objects on plane surfaces ; for it can scarcely be doubted, 
 that the habit acquired from our earliest attempts at 
 drawing, of judging of the forms and relative positions 
 of objects in connection with the surface on which we 
 represent them, infuses partial and confined ideas with
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 315 
 
 regard to their relations in nature and space. Certain 
 formulaj and conventional methods greatly facilitate 
 practical imitation, and are almost indispensable to it ; 
 but when, from the circumscribed sphere of operation in 
 which we become thus engaged, we cast a glance on 
 nature at large, and endeavour to determine the forms 
 there exhibited, by their relations one to another, we 
 find that the principles which have been acquired by 
 constant reference to practical theories, have obtained a 
 stronger hold than we have been aware of, and that it 
 becomes necessary to shake them off, if we wish to judge 
 of the appearances of nature unbiassed. 
 
 Perspective, not technical, but general and descrip- 
 tive, would be based on the relations of individual points, 
 or of various lines, as marking the positions of surfaces 
 in space. The lines which serve to mark the most re- 
 gular forms in nature, are not very numerous. Right 
 lines and curves might be used to trace most of their 
 leading boundaries. Let us consider the nature of the 
 right line, the most prevalent of all, and the definition of 
 which is moreover necessary for the explanation of the 
 perspective of the gallery above alluded to, as well as of 
 the tower. 
 
 The right line is represented by a segment of a circle, 
 or of any simple curve, the plane of which is occupied by 
 the eye of the observer. In descriptive geometry, there- 
 fore, any right line is equivalent to a simple curve corre- 
 spondingly situated in space, and in the plane of the eye. 
 For instance, if a person, situated on a large plain, or at 
 sea, takes a circle, (we will say a hoop, to make it more 
 familiar), and, placing himself in the niiildlt', raises it to
 
 3l6 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 the level of his eye, he will find that it will correspond 
 exactly, and in every point, with the terrestrial horizon. 
 This being gi-anted, I will suppose that he places himself 
 between two right lines, or, in familiar terms, between 
 two straight rods, parallel with each other, on a level 
 with his eye, and which we may imagine to be extended 
 indefinitely at both ends. He will perceive that each 
 rod will correspond exactly with one half of the natural 
 horizon ; that the points where they appear to meet will 
 be at 180° from each other ; and that the two right lines 
 combined, will thus be equivalent to, and correspond 
 with, the entire circle formed bv the natural horizon. 
 
 So far, the horizon, the hoop, and the two right lines, 
 become identical to the eye situated in the midst. If, 
 now, the hoop be raised from the level of the eye of the 
 observer, to an elevation more or less considerable above 
 it, — four feet, for instance, — its appearance will be that 
 of a circle of less extent than that of the horizon, and 
 measuring from every point an equal number of degrees 
 above it. Let us now see whether the two right lines, 
 or straight rods, placed in a similar position, will corre- 
 spond, as before, with the circumference of the circle. It 
 will be found that, instead of presenting, as it does, an 
 equal number of degrees with the horizon at every point, 
 they will subtend that number of degrees at the point 
 only where they come nearest to the eye of the observer, 
 that is to say, where they cross the spot occupied by him ; 
 and that, from thence, they subtend from the horizon, 
 a number of degrees progressively diminishing until 
 they meet it conjointly, at the opposite points of the 
 compass.
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 317 
 
 Straight and horizontal lines therefore, raised above 
 the level of the observer's eye, no longer correspond with 
 the circumference of a circle placed horizontally at the 
 same elevation, but form the boundaries of inclined 
 planes which intersect the horizon at the two opposite 
 and corresponding points, and whose axis of inclination 
 is at right angles with these points. But if the straight 
 lines, in the position now described, thus differ from the 
 horizontal circle there situated, will they equally differ 
 from a circle the circumference of which attains the same 
 elevation, but which is inclined towards the observer in 
 such a manner that his eye is in the plane of its inclina- 
 tion ? If the former proposition, tliat a right line corre- 
 sponds to the segment of a circle in the plane of the eye, 
 when on the same level, holds good, it will apply equally 
 to a circle raised a given number of degrees above that 
 level, provided it has the same relation to the eye of the 
 observer ; and I think a little reflection will make it 
 evident, that the horizontal line elevated four feet above 
 the level of the eye, and the circle reaching to the same 
 point at its greatest elevation, and so inclined that the 
 eye of the observer corresponds with the axis of its 
 inclination, must appear, as to the correspondence of all 
 their parts, identical. Right and horizontal lines, there- 
 fore, elevated above the level of the eye, arc equivalent 
 to segments of circles, or of curves, of which the axis is 
 in the plane of the eye. The greater the angular eleva- 
 tion of the horizontal linos, the greater would be the 
 inclination of the planes of whicli those lines, or the 
 curves corresponding with those lines, might be supposed 
 to form the boundary ; until, if, by successive degrees of
 
 318 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 elevation, we reach the zenith, and suppose it to be 
 traversed by a right line extending horizontally over the 
 observer, it will be found to correspond with the circum- 
 ference of a vertical plane, intersecting the natural hori- 
 zon at right angles, and at the same opposite points as 
 all other lines parallel to it, or as all other inclined curves 
 having the same axis of inclination. 
 
 It is, therefore, the property of all parallel horizontal 
 lines which arc not on a level with the eye, to unite toge- 
 ther, as well as to meet the natural horizon, at their ap- 
 parent extremities, or at the points which are remotest 
 from the eye ; and to subtend the greatest apparent ele- 
 vation above the horizon, as well as the greatest intervals 
 between themselves, midway between their points of 
 conjunction with the horizon, or at the point which is 
 nearest to the eye of the observer. What applies to 
 horizontal lines, applies likewise to vertical lines, but 
 with reversed relations. Thus, all vertical lines, as well 
 as all vertical curves, the axis of whose curvature passes 
 through the eye of the observer, intersect the line of the 
 natural horizon at their centres, or at the point which is 
 nearest to the eye of the observer ; and meet at his 
 zenith and nadir, the points the most remote from the 
 horizon. If this present no great difficulty to the un- 
 derstanding, when considered abstractedly, there seems 
 to be no plausible reason why it should, when the 
 same principles are applied to those forms and ap- 
 pearances which come under our frequent observation. 
 The parallel horizontal lines may easily be supposed to 
 be those which, in the perspective gallery before alluded 
 to, mark the meeting of the roof and walls, as well as of
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 319 
 
 all the other longitudinal compartments of the gallery : 
 and if, in our abstract impression, we are satisfied that 
 all horizontal lines are equal to curves which meet the 
 horizon at both of their extremities, and subtend the 
 greatest angular elevation from it at their centres, or at 
 equal distances from the two points of conjunction with 
 the horizon, so, in the case of the gallery, and indeed of 
 every apartment in which we have long horizontal lines 
 to deal with, there is no reason why we should not con- 
 sider these as the equivalents of curves of which our eye 
 is situated in the axis of curvature. 
 
 With these views, the terms of ascent and descent 
 to the point on the horizon, technically called the point 
 of sight, become conventional. The boundary lines of 
 an apartment, as well as curves which are inclined in 
 the plane of the observer's eye, present the greatest ele- 
 vation relatively to the horizon, and the widest intervals 
 with reference to one another, midway between their two 
 points of conjunction. The apartment acquires its 
 greatest apparent developement at this point, because 
 the intervals which separate the parallel lines, or their 
 corresponding concentric curves, are here greatest. If 
 the lines did not in appearance possess these properties, 
 they must cease to be right lines ; and should such lines 
 still be represented by curves, they could no longer be 
 curves in the plane of the eye, but would deviate more 
 or less from that plane. In the case of the tower, its 
 interior appears likewise to have the greatest develope- 
 ment where its parallel vertical lines present the greatest 
 intervals, and to be most contracted where these inter- 
 vals become apparently loa^;t. As, however, vertical
 
 320 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 lines extending to a great elevation are met with, in 
 nature, less frequently than parallel horizontal ones, it is 
 less often that difficulties arise from the representation 
 of objects in which such vertical lines occur. 
 
 If, after these explanations concerning horizontal, 
 as well as vertical lines, it still be asked, why a hori- 
 zontal straight line which is above the level of the eye, 
 appears to ascend from its extremities to the point which 
 is nearest to the observer, it must be answered, that it is 
 an inherent property of the right line, so situated, to do 
 so, — such is its invariable relation to the horizon, or to 
 a right line which corresponds with the horizon. The 
 apparent declination of lines so circumstanced, is a fact 
 analogous to the apparent straightness of curves of which 
 the eye of the observer corresponds with the axis. It is, 
 in fact, but the converse of this problem. If the diflB- 
 culties which arise in art, from the apparent convergence 
 of right lines, are more frequent than those which result 
 from the apparent parallelism of curves under given 
 circumstances, it is because right lines are of more 
 frequent occurrence, in delineating natural objects, than 
 are curves which are in the plane of the eye. To the 
 painter of panoramas, the difficulties which are con- 
 nected with this question must be far more practically 
 great. With him, all straight lines which are not 
 vertical, or which are not on the same level as the eye 
 of the observer, are represented by segments of curves. 
 A straight line below the horizon, but parallel to it, 
 would be represented, if continued on the cylindrical 
 surface of the panorama, by an ellipse, of which the line 
 of the horizon would form the small axis ; as also, the
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 3^1 
 
 right lines of level objects situated above the eye, would 
 be represented by segments of ellipses, which would 
 intersect the line of the horizon at the two opposite 
 points of the circular picture. 
 
 I will now proceed to the intersections of right lines. 
 If it be evident that right horizontal lines, having one 
 direction, for instance that which corresponds to north 
 or south, would all meet at the natural horizon at those 
 two points, and present the greatest relative divergence, 
 that is, the greatest elevation above the horizon, and the 
 greatest depression below it, midway between them, it is 
 likewise evident that the same will occur with regard 
 to lines extending east and west, or at right angles 
 with the former. Now, as such of the lines extending 
 north and south, and of those extending east and west, 
 form the greatest angle with the horizon, as have the 
 greatest apparent elevation above it (at their centres), 
 and the smallest angle with the horizon, as arc the 
 least elevated above it ; so, likewise, with regard to any 
 angles which might occur by the intersection of these 
 lines, such as result from the lines which are most 
 elevated, namely, which come nearest to the zenith, will 
 be greatest, and such as result from the intersections 
 of those lines which are least elevated, or which deviate 
 least from the line of the horizon, will be smallest. 
 
 It will further appear that all horizontal lines which 
 arc intermediate between those extending north and 
 south, east and west, as before mentioned, will present 
 the smallest angles of intersection with those lines from 
 whose direction tlu'v deviate least, and the greatest 
 angles of intersection with those lines from the direction 
 
 Y
 
 322 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 of which then- own diflFers most. As, for instance, lines 
 running nortli-east and south-west, at corresponding 
 elevations above the horizon, would present smaller 
 angles, at their intersecting points, with lines extending 
 east and west, than would do corresponding lines ex- 
 tending north and south : and this increase or decrease 
 of the angles of intersection, would be proportionate to 
 the deviation of the intersecting lines from, or to their 
 approximation to, parallelism. 
 
 Now if it be true that lines encompassing spaces or 
 surfaces may convey to us the impression of the form, 
 as well as of the direction, of those spaces or surfaces, 
 and consequently of the bodies with which they are con- 
 nected ; it will be evident that there must be certain 
 conditions which are common to the lines above alluded 
 to, which are all right lines, and to the right lines which 
 encompass or circumscribe regular objects. And again, 
 since the direction of the lines alluded to has reference 
 to, and indeed is indicated by, the angles of their inter- 
 sections, so the relative directions of all surfaces per- 
 taining to regular bodies would be indicated or expressed 
 by the angles formed at their accidental or apparent con- 
 junctions. Any deviation of a line from its primitive 
 direction, by causing a disturbance of its previous re- 
 lation to other lines, would alter, in a proportionate 
 degree, the relation of the surface or object to which it 
 belonged, with other neighbouring surfaces or objects. 
 
 Now a picture may itself be considered as one of 
 these regular objects : its top and bottom are bounded 
 by right horizontal lines; and their relation to all other 
 horizontal lines which miiiht come into contact with
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 3^3 
 
 them from various directions, must necessarily be in- 
 cluded in those general conditions, relatively to their 
 angle of conjunction, which have been shown to apply 
 unexceptionably to such classes of lines, without any 
 reference whatever to the purposes or objects with which 
 thcv arc connected. But if the border or frame of a 
 picture be subjected to the laws of recedence which 
 govern all other regular objects, any right lines which 
 may be included within that frame or border, that is to 
 sav, which are traced on the surface of the picture, will 
 be likewise subjected to them, and have conditions 
 common to all otlier right lines. One of these con- 
 ditions, which it is here particularly necessary to boar in 
 mind, is, that the perspective inclination of parallel 
 horizontal lines toward the horizon, as also their 
 angles of intersection with those which have dissimilar 
 or contrary directions, do not depend upon the real ele- 
 vation of such lines, but upon their apparent or angular 
 elevation with reference to the eye of the observer. So 
 that lines having a yard, or only a foot, of actual ele- 
 vation, at a point near the observer, would be circum- 
 stanced, with regard to their perspective appearance, 
 identically with lines having a real elevation above his 
 eve, of ten feet, or of ten yards ; provided their hori- 
 zontal removal were such, that the elevation of ten feet, 
 or of ten yards, of these lines, would not subtend a 
 greater angle from the horizon, that is to say, present a 
 greater nppurerit elevation, than would the lines raised 
 only one yard, or one foot, above the eye of the ob- 
 server, on a close surface. This is proved by the re- 
 duced model of a house, or of any other object, which is
 
 3^4- LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 seen from a given point, and with one eye, through a 
 transparent medium ; and which presents, with mathe- 
 matical precision, the same perspective phenomena, as 
 Mould a house, or other object, of the usual size, if 
 placed at a relative distance. The lines which appear 
 to intersect the transparent surface, may therefore alike 
 express a large and remote object, or a small and near 
 one. Their relations to the boundary lines of the 
 surface through which they make their appearance, are 
 in both cases the same. 
 
 From the circumstances already referred to, namely, 
 that the picture is subjected, as well as any portions or 
 divisions of the picture, to the same perspective influence 
 as all other objects in nature, and that horizontal lines 
 havins: a determinate angle of elevation above the 
 horizon, are similarly circumstanced, whatever be their 
 real height and distance, results the faculty which we 
 possess, of giving to objects delineated on a plane surface, 
 the apparent forms of those which are situated at all 
 distances, and whose surfaces have various directions. 
 The picture, it is true, is a quadrangular object, and, as 
 far as its external shape or boundary is concerned, 
 aflbrds us little means of imitation : but we have the 
 power of marking, and cutting out as it were, certain 
 portions of its surface ; which, being transferred by the 
 imagination to a distance, and identified in appearance 
 with the surfaces of real objects, are made, by ingenious 
 adaptation, to represent correctly, those sides of the 
 objects whose direction is the same with the plane of the 
 surface or picture which we have appropriated for this 
 purpose. Every near surface thus portioned out, and
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 325 
 
 cut into a determinate fi<fure, serves to match some 
 distant surface of the same shape ; but this will hold so 
 long only as the distant and the near surfaces are pa- 
 rallel. Were a picture soft and malleable, like clay, we 
 could mould the representation of an object into any 
 shape ; and, as the direction of the surface might then 
 be made to correspond, in every part, with that of a 
 given object, a small but near figure might be made to 
 appear to the eye, the exact fac-simile of a large figure 
 placed at a greater distance. A small bronzed image of 
 Apollo, might, with very little artifice and adjustment 
 of neighbouring objects, be made to impress on the mind 
 of the observer, the appearance of the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, in its full proportions. No contraction of some 
 of the parts, and extension of others, would be neces- 
 sary. The representation, on a reduced scale, would be 
 complete ; but as the gigantic proportions would be 
 wanting, these would have to be feigned, as it were, by 
 correlative appearances and arrangements, calculated to 
 act upon the imagination, and to delude the senses. 
 
 But, in imitations with the pencil, where we have 
 but one surface at our command, instead of a variety of 
 surfaces, all those lines of the object intended to be 
 represented, which are not in the plane of that surface, 
 must be counterfeited. The surface of the picture 
 cannot be bent back where that of the object is turned 
 away : therefore, allowance must be made for the in- 
 fluence of this change of direction on the boundary lines 
 of objects, by so regulating, on the surface of the 
 canvas, the lines which express these receding forms, 
 that they shall have the same relations to those which
 
 3^G LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 define the parallel sides of the ohject, in the repre- 
 sentation, as we discover them to possess in the real 
 object. 
 
 A prevailing principle in the delineation of objects 
 on plane, and indeed on all uniform surfaces, is therefore 
 compensation. The picture or surface on which we 
 operate, furnishes a plane corresponding to those sur- 
 faces or sides of objects, which are directly facing us. 
 All the lines pertaining to these sides of objects meet, 
 indeed, with their exact equivalents, without any com- 
 pensation being required, on the parallel surface of the 
 picture ; but with regard to the sides or surfaces of 
 objects which recede, as we have not their equals, and 
 cannot match them in substance, we are obliged to make 
 allowance for this difference of direction, on the single 
 plane surface to which our operations arc confined, ^^'^e 
 give to the lines which are intended to express the form 
 of these retiring sides or surfaces, the same relations to 
 the lines of the parallel plane, as those retiring surfaces 
 would possess if real ; and by thus producing artificially, 
 on one uniform plane, those results which, in nature, 
 are due to various planes, we impress upon the eye the 
 semblance of those forms whose relations to our plane of 
 operation would be exactly conformable to those of the 
 signs employed to represent them. 
 
 We possess, in those geometrical formula; which are 
 usually employed for illustrating the principles of per- 
 spective, the means of rendering, with the greatest pre- 
 cision, the apparent forms of objects, on a flat surface. 
 The dimensions and distance of the objects to be repre- 
 sented, once correctly given, we could vie with the
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 3^7 
 
 accuracy of a tracing from nature herself on a trans- 
 parent surface ; but the acquisition of these simple and 
 beautiful means for correct delineation, which science 
 affords, frequently becomes embarrrassing from our im- 
 perfect knowledge of the relations of forms in space, or 
 of descriptive geometry in the scale of nature. They 
 arc tools, the very excellence and perfection of which 
 perplex us, and render us sometimes doubtful as to the 
 mode and extent of their use and application. The 
 student who may have commenced, with the greatest 
 accuracy, the outline of a building, forgets, perhaps, on 
 his return to finish it, the relative position of his di*aw- 
 ing. He nevertheless endeavours to complete the work 
 upon the plan commenced : but should any difficulty 
 present itself, respecting the parallelism, or the con- 
 vergence, of the lines of the different parts of his build- 
 ing, lie would soon find himself at a loss how to proceed ; 
 unless, remembering that he had shifted the plane of his 
 picture, he were to recommence his work on a new plan, 
 or to replace himself in the same circumstances in which 
 he was before situated with regard to the object. And 
 in this, the rules of perspective, in their most usual 
 forms of application, would little assist him, unless he 
 united with these, the knowledge of the general re- 
 lations of lines and surfaces in nature. In order to 
 apj)ly this theory of perspective philosophically, he must 
 consider the lines pertaining to the objects in nature to 
 be as definitively and invariably related to those of his 
 picture, as they are to one another in the real natural 
 object. All those ideas which are connected with the 
 l)irtuie as they would be with a moveable piece of fur-
 
 328 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 niture, must be abandoned. Tliat degree of precision 
 which is obtained by tracing the outlines of objects on a 
 transparent medium, lasts as long only as the direction 
 of the transparent plane remains unaltered. Cause the 
 least deviation to take place in the direction of the 
 transparent plane, — and the lines traced, and those pro- 
 jected by the object, will no longer agree. The dis- 
 tortion is as complete as though the real object were 
 twisted by some extraordinary convulsion, and distended 
 into forms which it never possessed. It is only when 
 the lines, being indelibly fixed, are observed indepen- 
 dently of those of the object beyond, that the direction 
 of the whole surface may be altered, provided the re- 
 lative position of the eye of the observer be maintained ; 
 for, as the lines which serve to indicate the object would 
 then preserve the same relations with the boundary lines 
 of the surface, their truth and correctness, as a portion of 
 the scene or picture included in those boundary lines, 
 would remain undiminished. 
 
 The images in the looking-glass, which appear 
 correct, both as to their perspective, and as to their 
 relation with the real objects, do not, like the traced or 
 painted representation, remain stationary, when its po- 
 sition relatively to the objects, or to the observer, is 
 changed. If the mirror be fixed, the images move as he 
 moves, and adapt themselves to his point of sight ; or, if 
 the mirror be transportable, the reflected images adjust 
 themselves to every new position of the glass. Such 
 being the case, how can it be expected that the picture, 
 with regard to which the continual shifting of the 
 observer incessantly alters his relations, as it also does
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 329 
 
 the relations of the painted representation to the real 
 objects, can continue to remain, as an imitation, truly 
 and permanently like, under these various circumstances ? 
 Between this mobility of the images, as they appear in 
 the mirror, and those permanent and unalterable signs 
 which are used in the arts of drawing, one might fancy, 
 and this not without some foundation, that there is a 
 certain degree of adaptation of the visible forms of objects 
 to our habit of appreciating them, — some concession, 
 depending on our imperfect apprehension of the relations 
 of form and space, which renders those images which 
 are inflexible and indeviable in the drawing, sufficiently 
 yielding to accidental circumstances to appear natural. 
 
 I will endeavour to show, in general terms, by what 
 process the geometrical accuracy of perspective is usually 
 applied to the art of drawing ; and afterwards consider 
 to what extent this rigorous precision may be adhered to 
 in practice, and the flexibility and docility by which it is 
 tempered may be allowed to prevail. The position in 
 which a picture is usually and properly placed, imme- 
 diately opposite the eye, is that in which its surface, or 
 any surface parallel to it, is subjected to the least per- 
 spective diminution. This enables the performer to 
 give to all objects, even such as are seen in front, and 
 with the fullest developement, their entire apparent 
 dimensions in the least possible compass. The diminu- 
 tion to which they become subjected, when they are 
 represented to recede, furnishes him, as it were, with 
 considerable elbow-room for the distribution of them ; 
 but another condition of the principles on which he
 
 330 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 proceeds, supplies him with the moans of appropriating 
 to himself space, still more abmidantly. 
 
 The greatest possible extension of surface which, in 
 the scenery of nature, is comprehended in any given 
 angle of vision, is invariably transferred to that, portion 
 of the canvas, or surface of operation, in which the same 
 an^le represents the least extent of surface, or includes 
 the smallest amount of space. This is satisfactorily 
 shown by the line or level at which all horizontal planes 
 meet the perpendicular surface of the canvas of operation ; 
 for it is at the horizon, the most distant point at which 
 we are able to discover the surface of the earth, that 
 equal spaces appear most contracted to the eye, and 
 objects most crowded together ; whereas, it is at that 
 portion of all vertical surfaces, whether near or remote, 
 which exactly corresponds to the horizon, that the 
 smallest real spaces fill up the greatest apparent com- 
 pass, and that a given angular extent comprises the 
 fewest objects, provided they be disseminated in the 
 direction of that plane. Consequently, it is in that 
 portion of the vertical plane which corresponds with the 
 vanishing boundary of horizontal surfaces, that is to say, 
 with the eye's level, that the greatest extent of scenery 
 occupies the smallest space, on the board or canvas. 
 
 The vanishing boundary of those receding surfaces 
 which, instead of being horizontal, are vertical, likewise 
 corresponds to the point where the visual ray falls per- 
 pendicularly upon the upright plane of the picture ; and 
 with regard to these surfaces, similarly with the liori- 
 zontal ones, the greatest spaces in the scene represented.
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF ITS PRINCIPLES. 331 
 
 arc transferred to that part of the canvas where the 
 smallest spaces have the greatest apparent or visual 
 amount. Owing to these peculiar- relations of surfaces 
 which extend in various directions, we are enahled to 
 condense into a small compass, planes and ohjects having, 
 comparatively speaking, boundless extension ; whereby 
 the smallest picture or drawing is rendered the exact 
 equivalent of the most expansive scene, provided its 
 situation with regard to the eye be proportionate to its 
 dimensions. 
 
 With regard to the circumstance that the natural 
 horizon, or extreme boundary of any open prospect, 
 always corresponds with the level of the eye, it does not 
 depend on any perspective property connected with it 
 which is not common to the boundary of any other plane 
 surface. What gives the horizon so much importance in 
 drawing, is the great prevalence of level surfaces, conse- 
 quently of horizontal lines, over all others ; the re- 
 currence of which is, in all cases, more or less directly 
 connected with the uniform level of the earth's surface, 
 taken as a whole. Whatever lines, not horizontal, extend 
 in one uniform plane, have likewise their horizon, as 
 they have their vanishing point whenever they are pa- 
 rallel to one another. The lines which mark the 
 inclination of a roof, have their vanishing point at a 
 great angular elevation above the natural horizon ; as, 
 on the other hand, all lines which correspond with a 
 descending slope, meet at a depressed point of con- 
 vergence. But the circumstance that convenience, as 
 well as an appearance of order and propriety, require 
 that the greater proportion of the straight lines of build-
 
 332 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 ings should be horizontal, gives particular importance to 
 the line which always corresponds with the land or sea 
 boundary itself, when visible. 
 
 The dimensions of objects are measured by the 
 angle of divergence of the rays which, from their circum- 
 ference, reach the eye of the observer : and whenever 
 these objects are so distant, that the rays from their 
 opposite sides correspond, and form in appearance one, 
 they become a point ; a geometrical point being the 
 extremity of a line, the direction of which corresponds 
 with the visual ray. In whatever direction the objects, 
 thus reduced by distance, are seen, they form points to 
 which all the forms of nearer objects, extending in any 
 corresponding direction, appear to converge ; and all 
 objects which recede in one plane only, form (although 
 they should extend in every possible direction of which 
 that plane admits,) a series of points in the extreme 
 distance, constituting the boundary line of that plane. 
 Now, as the far greater number of objects extend in the 
 plane of the earth's level, that is to say, of the horizon, 
 though in different directions, they constitute, as they 
 vanish from sight, points which are all situated on the 
 boundary line of that plane, although each of them 
 differs as to the part of that boundary line, or natural 
 horizon, to which it corresponds : and when the natural 
 indication which is afforded by the utmost extension of 
 the earth's level, is wanting, an imaginary line, corre- 
 sponding with it, exists in the mind of the observer, and 
 is rendered almost necessary, in the operations of draw- 
 ing, by the great abundance of accidental lines of every 
 description, extending in the same plane.
 
 APPLICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICE. 
 
 333 
 
 Applicntion of the Theorij of Perspective. — 
 We will proceed to examine the practical methods of 
 accounting for the perspective influences to which re- 
 ceding objects are subjected. One of these influences, 
 the primary cause of all perspective phenomena, is the 
 progressive diminution which results from direct re- 
 moval ; being, as already stated, in the inverse ratio 
 of the squares of the distances. The other, which is 
 determined by the unequal influence of this diminution, 
 depends on the different degrees of obliquity under 
 which the surfaces of objects are seen. 
 
 Now the first result, namely the diminution due to 
 direct recedence, is obtained, on the plane surface tech- 
 nically called the perspective plane, by simply drawing 
 lines from a base A B (see Fig. 1.) parallel to the ob- 
 server, to a common point or apex S, opposite the eye, 
 
 Fig.i.
 
 334 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 called the point of sight. All such lines, being parallel 
 to the visual ray, arc perpendicular to the canvas. 
 The perspective diminution of objects which recede 
 directly from the observer, is rendered by the decreasing 
 intervals between these lines at successive distances : 
 whereas, that diminution which is the result of the in- 
 creasing obliquity of any surface, as it recedes, is given 
 by lines intersecting or crossing the others diagonally ; 
 and which, from the same base line, meet at a common 
 point D, at the same altitude as the point of sight. The 
 intervals formed by the intersections of these with the 
 former lines, may be seen to decrease in a uniform ratio, 
 with their obliquity ; since equal intervals on the base 
 line A B, subtend angles progressively diminishing as 
 the distance from their common apex D, increases. In 
 practice, it is by means of these intersections that the 
 depth of all objects which recede from the eye, is ob- 
 tained ; as indicated by the parallel horizontal lines. 
 
 We have thus the means of giving, in any situation, 
 and at any distance, the width and depth of any object 
 of which the dimensions have been previously deter- 
 mined on our scale of operation. Let us now see in 
 what manner the proportions or relative dimensions of 
 any given object, are transferred to our perspective 
 plane with the greatest accuracy, — I do not say the 
 most advantageously in ordinary practice. A plan is 
 drawn of the horizontal extension of the object in every 
 direction. This may be done by actual measurement, 
 and by reducing the scale to proportions suitable to the 
 dimensions of our board. Thus we have a section or
 
 API'LICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICE. 
 
 335 
 
 geometrical plan of the object, which, for conveniency, 
 we shall call a house (See Fig. 2, a b c d e). It will 
 not be supposed that the plane here in question, because 
 it is called a geometrical one, becomes disburdened of 
 the perspective influence which governs all other planes ; 
 but merely that the figures or sections drawn upon it are 
 subjected to no otiicr perspective control than that which 
 belongs to the plane itself, and that the eye of the observer 
 may be shifted about to any position which affords most 
 convenience for ascertaining their proportions, as an 
 architect or surveyor changes his position, when he pro- 
 ceeds to ascertain by measurement the situation and plan 
 of a real building. On the perspective plane, the figure
 
 336 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 representing the object is subjected to deviations from its 
 primitive geometrical form, as well as to a reduction of 
 scale ; by which means, an apparent direction is given 
 to its surfaces, which does not belong to the surface on 
 which it is delineated. This plane or surface has, in 
 fact, only two kinds of extension, namely, in length and 
 in width ; but the object delineated on it in perspective, 
 acquires apparently, by means of the artifice alluded to, 
 three kinds of extension, width, height, and depth : 
 differing so far from the geometrical plan, in which there 
 is no compensation, no departure from the reality, but 
 reduction only ; no kind of extension being communi- 
 cable to the object than such as is common to it and to 
 the plane on which it is delineated ; and, as the bird's- 
 eye view is chosen, horizontal extension is alone ac- 
 counted for. 
 
 We wish now to transfer the section or diagram, 
 obtained by measurement and reduction, from the geo- 
 metrical plane to the perspective one ; and to assign to 
 it in the same, a definite position. I give the following 
 method merely as one of the formulae used in practice. 
 The geometrical section of the object having been drawn 
 below the ground-line B C, of the perspective plane, 
 the diagonal lines m n o p are drawn from the principal 
 points or corners of the geometrical plan : and from the 
 points of contact of these lines with the ground-line, are 
 drawn the lines q r s t to the point of distance ; the in- 
 tersections of which with the lines 12 3, drawn to the 
 point of sight, from the points of conjunction of the per- 
 pendiculars A< 5 & with the ground-line, give to the per- 
 spective object a position above the ground-line exactly
 
 APPLICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICK. 337 
 
 oorrespondiiiij witli that of the geometrical Hijure helow 
 it, as they likewise determine its relative width on the 
 peji p on dicula r plane. 
 
 The perspective section having been thus deter- 
 mined, the scale of elevation is fixed upon. This may 
 be done either on a conventional vertical line A B, by 
 the side of the picture, the elevation of each ])art being 
 thence transferred to a point situated perpendicularly 
 above the corresponding parts in the section ; or, on the 
 nearest perpendicular line of the perspective object itself. 
 In either case, lines drawn to the point of sight produce 
 a reduction proportionate to the removal of the part of 
 which they mark the elevation. This method, which 
 aims at precision, suits the purposes of the architect, 
 and enables him to furnish, true to a line, the drawing 
 of the edifice which he purposes to erect. 
 
 We may easily be convinced that the proportions 
 thus (jbtained in the perspective projection, correspond 
 perfectly with those of the building or object which it 
 has been our intention to reproduce, since we have had 
 recourse to calculation for the reduction of the same, 
 and to an influence which is invariablv uniform, in its 
 conversion into a perspective drawing. Nevertheless, 
 this impression of accuracy does not add much to our 
 information respecting the relations of any object de- 
 lineated on a flat surface to the real one ; and the in- 
 (juiry concerning the conditions of proportion and 
 distance which applv respectively to real objects and to 
 tlii'ir imitation, would seldom lead, on this principle, to 
 anv thing like a satisfactorv and conclusive solution. 
 Let us consider sonic nf tlic jxiints wliidi tend to remove 
 
 z
 
 33S I.INEAK I'KKSl'ECTIVE. 
 
 this kind of uncertainty. As our impressions of the 
 appearances of objects are founded not only on their 
 real, but on their apparent size, and as the picture or 
 canvas cannot be brought nearer, or moved further off, 
 without causing the corresponding change in the pro- 
 portions of the images drawn upon it, it becomes ne- 
 cessary to fix the actual position of the picture, before we 
 can give the apparent position and dimensions of the 
 objects there represented. 
 
 It has already been shewn, that lines on a near 
 surface and small scale, may be made to correspond 
 exactly with the lines of distant surfaces on a large scale : 
 but it still remains to be ascertained at what point the 
 objects represented on the small scale of the canvas, will 
 appear to the observer to correspond with the objects on 
 the large scale of nature ; and to be proved, that from 
 a given position, the perspective of objects having the 
 reduced proportions and near position of the canvas, 
 becomes identical with that of objects with large pro- 
 portions but far removed. In general, the truth of a 
 given point of observation rests on no further evidence 
 than the accuracy and perfection of the object repre- 
 sented or delineated, as seen from it ; and the excellence 
 of the result seldom fails to obtain, on the part of the 
 beholder, implicit faith as to the infallibility of the 
 means employed. If mathematical proof be asked for, it 
 becomes extremely difficult to supply it in a satisfactory 
 manner ; owing, chiefly, to the circumstance that, in 
 explanations with diagi'ams, perspective influence and 
 illusion cannot easily be pointed out by figures which, 
 to form an intelligible picture, must be themselves sub-
 
 APPLICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICE. 3^9 
 
 jected to a different kind of pei-spective influence ; and 
 this entangles and perplexes that which they were in- 
 tended to explain. The lecturer, who may, to a certain 
 extent, deal with space, and mark out points of coin- 
 cidence and relation in the ambient air, possesses much 
 greater advantages : and it is with the request that the 
 reader who may wish to accompany me through the fol- 
 lowing demonstration, will divest himself, as much as 
 possible, of the impressions which are immediately con- 
 nected with the figure, and endeavour to embrace those 
 ideas which relate to form and distance in space, that I 
 submit to him the following means of identifying the 
 representation of an object, on a plane surface, with the 
 object itself, from a given point of observation. 
 
 The distance which I here fix upon for the point of ob- 
 servation, is that usually adopted in practice, namely, one 
 equal in amount to the width of the picture : the position 
 chosen, opposite one of the top corners, is, however, 
 quite unusual ; but has been assigned to the observer in 
 this case, owing to the greater facilities afforded by it in 
 the explanation. 
 
 We will suppose the observer to be placed with his 
 eye exactly opposite the top corner, B, of a square picture 
 B C D E, Fig. 3, and at a distance equal to its width ; 
 in which case, a line, /, drawn from his eye to the 
 further corner of the picture, C, would meet the horizon 
 at an angle of 45° from the nearest corner of the picture, 
 B ; since such a line would be the hypothenuse of a 
 half- square, of which the width of the picture forms 
 one side, and a lino drawn from the eye of the oh-
 
 340 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVK. 
 
 Fig. 3.
 
 APPI.rCATION 01' THEOUV IN I'RACTICE. 341 
 
 server to its nearest corner, H, the other.' Hut the 
 bottom corner of the picture, E, in consequence of its 
 square form, subtends likewise an angle of 45° from the 
 top corner B, to the observer at A, situated at a distance 
 equal to its width. The line E C therefore represents, 
 at the same time, the diagonal of a vertical square situ- 
 ated at a distance from the observer equal to its width, 
 and the diagonal of a horizontal plane commencing at 
 a point situated 45° below the level of the eye, and 
 extending to the horizon. The diagonal of the one 
 becomes the diagonal of the other, because B C is in 
 both cases equal to 45°, and B E the side of the picture 
 in one case, and, in the other, a vertical section of a 
 horizontal plane of the same angular extent. That the 
 elevation of the eye has no influence on the position of 
 the point of distance, is rendered evident by supposing 
 the observer to change his position from A to E, on a 
 level with the horizontal plane E D F G ; in which 
 case, as the line of the horizon always adapts itself to 
 the eye's level, the point D, on that line, would appear 
 to correspond exactly with the point C to the observer 
 at A. If the line E C, on a vertical plane, represents 
 equally the diagonal of a level plane extending to the 
 horizon from a point 45° below it, it will likewise re- 
 present the diagonals of all smaller squares which may 
 be in the direction or path of that line, since diagonals 
 have the same relations to squares of all sizes. And 
 since it has already been agreed, tlmt all lines wliich are 
 
 • Tlie true position of the observer's eye, on the diiigram, is B ; hnt as 
 this could not l)e represented witlioiit effiicing the corner of the frame, a 
 conventional position iius been adopted, leaving it partly to the imagination 
 of the reader to suppose the position of the eye to be innnediatcly in advance 
 of the left-hand top corner of tlie frame.
 
 •SI.'2 I.INKAll I'KKSPECTIVK. 
 
 really parallel, converge, in appoaraiuo, to tho same 
 point, if the square B C D E be converted into a 
 perspective plane, or one designed to represent ap- 
 pearances, all lines which, on that plane, converge at 
 C, would serve to mark the perspective diagonals of 
 any squares having the same direction as those of which 
 E C forms the diagonal. Observe the intersections of 
 the check pavement. 
 
 The point which corresponds to C, is called the point 
 of distftnce, because its position regulates the perspective 
 width of receding objects with regard to their distance 
 from the observer. The angular relation of the point of 
 distance with the point of sight being always equal to 
 45°, its position, with regard to the side or border of the 
 picture, must depend, not less on the distance of the 
 observer than on the width of the picture. Thus, 
 whereas the relations of the point of distance to the 
 border, as well as to the ground-line, of the picture, vary 
 continually with the position of the observer, its relation 
 to the point of sight remains invariably the same. If 
 the obsei'ver be situated opposite the centre of the pic- 
 ture, the true position of the point of distance is some- 
 thing less than half the width of the picture beyond its 
 boundary ; the diameter of the picture, seen from a point 
 opposite its centre, at a distance equal to its width, being 
 very nearly equal to 55°. This is, however, not more 
 than the eye can very easily embrace without any motion 
 of the head, and therefore furnishes those relations of the 
 observer to the picture, which are most usually adopted 
 in art. With regard to the height of the horizon, it is 
 the apparent extent of surface comprised between it and 
 the bottom or ground-line of the picture, which de-
 
 APPLICATION OF THEORY IN I'UACTirK. 343 
 
 termiiies (su|)posin<r the scene to be a level one) the 
 distance from, the eye, of the nearest part of the subject 
 represented ; as the lines drawn from thence, to the 
 point of distance, regulate the perspective of the 
 nearest object, conformably to its apparent distance from 
 the observer. It is, however, only on the supposition 
 that the level of the eye corresponds with the top 
 of a square picture, that the diagonal of the vertical 
 square becomes the perspective one of horizontal squares. 
 The removal of the picture to successive intervals of 
 distance equal to its height, would cause an apparent 
 shortening of it, successively, of one-half, one-third, one- 
 fourth, one-fifth, one-sixth, &c. ; and a corresponding 
 diminution of the angle of distance, if it may be so 
 termed, of one-half, one-third, &c. Or, reckoning by 
 degrees, the angle formed with the line of the horizon 
 by the first diagonal in a square picture removed from a 
 distance equal to its diameter to twice that distance, is 
 reduced from 45° to 22|° ; and by the further removal 
 of the picture at equal intervals, or of the objects con- 
 tained in it, the angles formed by the diagonals at the 
 point of distance, would be reduced successively, to 
 15 j°, 11|°, 9tV°, and so on. Thus, any given removal 
 of the front or ground-line of the subject, as well as of 
 any of the objects of which it is composed, is exactly 
 accounted for in perspective, by the angle which lines 
 drawn from the perpendicular of the point of sight, to 
 the point of distance, form with the line of the horizon. 
 But, as the height of the horizon does not usually exceed 
 one-third of that of the picture, the angle formed at the 
 point of distance, bv the lines marking the diagonals of 
 square objects, with the line of the horizon, is generally
 
 .'344 i.iNiiAit PEKSPiXTni:. 
 
 much less, at <a given distance from the observer's eye, 
 than what has been here allowed. 
 
 It is, however, usual in practice, to draw the lines 
 marking the diagonals of squares across the whole width 
 of the picture, from one of its bottom corners to a point 
 of distance equal to half its width without its opposite 
 boundary. This plan has the advantage of affording 
 more decided, as well as more numerous intersections ; 
 although, at the distance at which the picture is usually 
 seen, it gives too great an extension to the perspective 
 horizon. But slight deviations from the exact relations 
 of objects on the canvas to those in nature, are frequently 
 sanctioned in pi-actice, by convenience, although in- 
 correct. Departures of this kind from the exact truth 
 have but a relative importance. The characteristic re- 
 semblance of a scene or spot docs not lose much from its 
 being presented to the eye as though it were viewed a 
 little closer, or a little further off, provided the relative 
 distances and positions of the objects are maintained. 
 Indeed, the ever-varying position of the eye evidently 
 renders it impossible to be always consistent with nature 
 with regard to that point which determines the depths 
 or distances of objects, as it does likewise with regard to 
 the other points toward which parallel lines converge. 
 Provided all the lines and surfaces having the same di- 
 rection converge at these points, it is almost immaterial 
 whether their position be a little further to the right or 
 to the left. At the same time it must be allowed, that 
 when the spectator hits upon the true point for observing 
 the correct representation of an architectural subject, the 
 perspective effect is so greatly superior to that afforded 
 from any other point, thnt the object portrayed appears
 
 APPLICATION'OF THEORY IN PRACTICK. 34.'5 
 
 to increase in size, and may almost be fancied to have 
 the proportions of the reality. But if the discovery of 
 the point alluded to be attended with improvement as to 
 the drawing, and with increased satisfaction on the part 
 of the beholder, his eye is not distressed for the want of 
 it, and receives offence only from such errors as result 
 from the nonconvergence of all lines which evidently 
 belong to corresponding planes or surfaces, — in fact, 
 from the disobedience of the parts of any building or 
 regular object to that subjection which should govern 
 alike the whole. 
 
 The degree of accuracy which it is possible to arrive 
 at in perspective, greatly exceeds the amount which is 
 required by the usual uncertain relations of the picture 
 to the observer ; and it especially leaves far behind, the 
 degree of knowledge in the application of these prin- 
 ciples, which is generally possessed by those who have 
 acquired some skill in the practice of them. How 
 frequently we meet with persons w-ho have gone through 
 a treatise of perspective, or copied several diagrams, and 
 would yet feel some embarrassment in putting into 
 perspective an object so simple as a chair : and I believe 
 this to arise, in a great measure, from the impression 
 entertained by them, that the mathematical precision 
 which appears to be in the very nature of every per- 
 spective figure or problem, must be strictly adhered to 
 in the application of these problems. They can hardly 
 fancy that, whereas the difference of a hair's breadth in 
 the parallel sides of an object will suffice to make it 
 appear distorted, a difference of an inch to the right or 
 to the left, in the position of the point of sight, of the 
 ])()int of dishiiicc, or of liotli nt tin- s.-imc time, will, in
 
 3W 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTJVE. 
 
 many cases, cause nothing unnatural in its appearance, 
 (see Fig. 4) : and because they find themselves at a loss 
 how to turn to account all the accuracy which they know 
 to be inherent in the principles themselves, they imagine 
 that they have some misconceptions as to the application 
 of them. Such persons need only consider that the un- 
 certainty which will always exist with regard to the situa- 
 tion from which their productions will be seen, renders 
 it useless for them to bind themselves to the letter of any 
 rule in fixing the position of the vanishing points, or, in 
 other words, in determining the degree of inclination of 
 the lines which mark the sides of the object ; the 
 variation of which has no other eflPect than to assign, as 
 it were, to the observer, a position more or less near, to 
 make him look more or less down upon the object, (if 
 below the level of the eye), and to render the view of its 
 level surface fuller or scantier. Such considerations as 
 these should be determined by the effect on the eye, and 
 by the perspective relations of other objects, if several be 
 introduced, rather than by a scrupulous nicety in the 
 pei'spective arrangements which refer to any individual 
 one. It is not in putting in a first object, that you are 
 limited as to the position of the point of distance, but in 
 putting in a second, the perspective of which must of 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 rm--
 
 APPLICATION OK THEORY IN PRACTICE. 347 
 
 necessity be conformable and consistent with the per- 
 spective of the first. This may be seen by the diagram 
 of the two chairs, represented with square seats in order 
 that they might present regular figures. Each chair, 
 having points of sight and distance different from those 
 of its neighbour, appears right singly, but wrong as seen 
 in connection with the other. 
 
 It is with regard to the distribution of objects in a 
 composition, that all the disadvantages which are con- 
 nected with the method of drawing their geometrical 
 plan beneath the picture before raising their perspective 
 elevation on its surface, are rendered apparent. It soon 
 becomes manifest that it is productive of the most confined 
 ideas. Certainly, by this plan, the horizontal dimensions 
 are, as I have before remarked, determined with the 
 greatest exactitude ; and the scale of elevation on the 
 side of the picture serves to mark, with equal accuracj% 
 their height : but, together with this map-like precision, 
 the subject, when put in perspective, would have an 
 insufferable degree of stiffness and formality, and would 
 at once prove to the eye the sources whence it was 
 derived, namely, the rule and compass. Art demands 
 something that is elegant and graceful, as well as in ap- 
 pearance correct ; and in order to obtain this, it is 
 evident that a course should be pursued, very different 
 to that which fixes in the first place the geometrical 
 positions of objects, and leaves the circumstances which 
 most affect their apjjcarance to chance. In order to 
 obtain pleasing results, perspective should be jiractised 
 conjointly with the art of composition, or, if it be a scene 
 from nature, with attention to a distribution of the
 
 348 LINEAR PEKSPECTIVE. 
 
 objects which is (Iccidcdly graceful. Those lines and 
 forms which have the chief influence in this, as well as 
 in the perspective effect, are carefully observed ; and the 
 points of convergence on the horizon arc fixcnl upon as 
 correctly as the eye may he able to accomplish by an 
 attentive comparison with the appearances of nature. 
 The perspective of the details is then accurately made 
 out by processes applied immediately to the object itself, 
 by means of the intersections of the lines which meet at 
 the point of distance, or at accidental vanishing points, 
 with those which converge at the point of sight ; or by 
 finding out the centres of arches, by means of diagonals 
 drawn from the corresponding points of perspective 
 lines ; as well as by the other practical methods, of which 
 it would be foreign to the object of these remarks to give 
 here the analysis. 
 
 In the landscape scene, the more is accomplished by 
 the eye and judgment, and the less is left to rule, in the 
 leading perspective forms, the more elegance or pic- 
 turesqueness is likely to result from their arrangement. 
 In rustic and irregular objects, perspective becomes, to a 
 certain extent, subservient to the dictates of caprice. 
 When, however, forms assume a regular and symmetrical 
 character, as in pieces of architecture, especially when 
 they belong to interiors of retiring aisles and galleries, 
 with gothic arches, groining, &c., where the beauty of 
 the subject depends chiefly on the perfect resemblance 
 and conformity of the decorations, it becomes necessary 
 that every part should be drawn with exact reference to 
 the rules of perspective, and be made subservient to one 
 extensive and combined scheme of perspective effect.
 
 APPLICATION OF THEORY IN PRACTICE. 349 
 
 I will now mention some points which, if neglected, 
 are especially calculated to offend the eye, and to reveal 
 the ignorance of the performer, in scenes which afford 
 little art and symmetry, and leave the mind at liberty to 
 plan its own arrangements. All lines of houses, for 
 instance, which, if continued, would meet at a point not 
 on the horizon's level, but above or below it, appear 
 decidedly wrong; as buildings are never seen, even when 
 constructed on slopes, whose floors and windows are not 
 level. Any apparent want of uniformity in the front, 
 pediment, or wings of a building, where evervthing 
 seems to point out that these parts are intended to cor- 
 respond, likewise gives the impression of false drawing : 
 and in taking a view of a quadrangular edifice with four 
 towers, (one at each corner), similar in form, but some- 
 what unequal in size and height, it would be almost 
 necessary, in the perspective drawing of the building, to 
 suppose these towers equal, or the awkwardness of the 
 effect would appear to be the result of false perspective, 
 and not of correct imitation. A scrupulous adherence 
 to nature, in the representation of a building irregular in 
 some of its parts, though in its general aspect sym- 
 metrical, would, it is most likely, be misunderstood. 
 An old arch of a bridge, of which the two sides did not 
 correspond, though it might hold together, and in nature 
 appear the more picturesque, would scarcely be tolerated 
 in a picture ; so seldom do we associate impressions of 
 stability with an arch wliich is not regular, and so 
 often notions of false drawing with arches of wliich 
 one half does not in aj)pearance correspnnd with the 
 DtiiiT half.
 
 350 LINEAR PERSPECTIVK. 
 
 Inclined Planes. — Considerable difficulty is fre- 
 quently experienced in making a road, plane, or terrace, 
 appear to go down hill, or descend from the observer. 
 I believe the difficulty to arise generallv from the cir- 
 cumstance that collateral particulars are too much 
 neglected. The attention is not sufficiently extended to 
 the perspective effect of the entire scene. The difference 
 between the actual convergence of a level road, and of a 
 descending road, is, in general, so trifling, that it does 
 not convey the impression of a difference of direction, if 
 observed without reference to the height of the horizon, 
 or to the relations of other objects. If a board, or any 
 other opaque body, be so held that the horizon and dis- 
 tance, as well as all other objects of reference, are con- 
 cealed, the inclination of a descending road left visible 
 beneath, is rendered at once problematical, even in na- 
 ture ; and in many cases it would be difficult to discover 
 whether it descend or not. As the lines of the road 
 itself afford, therefore, so little evidence of its direction 
 relative to the horizontal plane, the indications of its de- 
 scent must be sought for in the characteristic appearance 
 of other objects in connection with it. If there be 
 houses, the relation of the horizontal lines of these houses, 
 and of their vanishing point, to the direction of the point 
 of convergence of the lines of the road, marks the descent 
 of the latter much more impressively than would irre- 
 gular objects ; because we are in the habit of connecting 
 at once the idea of level surfaces and of level lines, with 
 the appearance of every house which we see. If there 
 be no buildings, the appearance of the trees, and of all 
 other upright objects, greatly assists in appreciating the
 
 DECLIVITIES. 351 
 
 amount of a descent. Those which are situated on the 
 top of the eminence on which you stand, rise nearly their 
 full height above the distance ; those which are lower 
 down the descent, have about one half of their length 
 below the horizon or boundary of the scene, and the 
 upper half above, cut out on the sky ; lower still, a less 
 portion of the tree is lifted above the land-boundan* ; 
 till, at the bottom of the hill, the whole tree has sunk 
 below this mark. In addition to this, the tops of the 
 trees are rendered more visible as their position is lower, 
 and the trunks or stems become proportionably more 
 concealed under the spreading heads. This marked and 
 progressive difference in the appearance of the trees, as 
 they occupy a lower position on the hill, is connected, in 
 the mind's eye, with the less apparent changes in the 
 road itself, and enables the observer, in a great measure, 
 to assign to it its true amount of inclination. 
 
 When the descent is sufficiently great to afford a 
 bird's-eye view, the apparent expanse of every stream 
 and sheet of water, the full view which is obtained of the 
 roofs of buildings, the great extent of country which is 
 seen beyond the slope, and the comparatively parallel 
 sides of the level portion of the road which traverses it 
 in the distance, mark tlie amount and continuity of the 
 descent. The appearance of a road ascending an op- 
 posite hill, may likewise contribute to the descending 
 effect of the portion which is nearest to the observer. 
 It is by means of these circumstances that lu> becomes 
 aware of thi^ direction of the descending plane, when the 
 term of comparison which is afforded by a view of the 
 natural horizon is wanting. Much of the (juickness and
 
 352 LINEAR PEKSPECTIVE. 
 
 certainty with which we are able to appreciate effects of 
 this kind, is doubtless owing to our instinctive knowledge 
 of the eye's level, or of the position of the natural horizon, 
 even when concealed from view. Instances would other- 
 wise abound in nature, in which the degree of ascent, or 
 descent, of roads and slopes, could not be easily ascer- 
 tained. Hereby is shewn the importance of a position of 
 the observer's eve on a level with the horizon, in all pic- 
 tures in which the appearance of a descent is introduced. 
 The lines of a road which becomes steeper at a 
 certain distance from the observer, converge much more 
 rapidly than do those of a road which begins to have an 
 equal degree of steepness from the point where the ob- 
 server is situated ; which is owing to the circumstance 
 that when he is stationed on the level part of a road, as 
 is the small figure B, diagram 5, the plane of the other 
 part of it, which descends rapidly, is nearly on a level 
 with his eye, and appears, consequently, extremely fore- 
 shortened, as is shewn by the very small angle which the 
 inclined portion of the road from C to D presents to the 
 eye of the observer at B. This rapid convergence, as I 
 have already stated, does not occur when the observer is 
 himself on the plane of the inclined road, as at the 
 point C* 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 * The increased convergence of the lines of an inclined road relatively to 
 the lines of a flat road, is proportionate to the greater proximitj' of the eye 
 of the observer to the latter, in a direction perpendicular to its plane.
 
 DECLIVITIES. 353 
 
 One of the characteristics of a descent is, tliat the 
 same angular inclination below the horizon includes 
 greater distances than it docs on a level surface. The 
 more rapid the descent, the further are removed the 
 objects on which the eye would alight with the same 
 inclination of the visual rav : so it happens that, when 
 there is a sudden break or precipice, the eye passes all 
 at once from objects comparatively near, to very distant 
 ones ; and, when there is but a slight gradient, the point 
 attained by the eye, below the horizon, is still consi- 
 derably greater than it would be on a flat surface. 
 Owing to this circumstance, a picture in which a descent 
 has been represented, without raising the horizon, would 
 commence much further off, that is to say, its ground- 
 line would mark a point much more removed, than 
 would be the case were the picture to represent a level 
 scene : but as it is usual in such cases, to raise the 
 horizon considerably, in order that a portion of fore- 
 ground may be included as well as distant objects, the 
 bottom or ground-line of the picture becomes much more 
 depressed, relatively to the observer, when tlie land- 
 scape is represented as seen from a loftv and com- 
 manding situation, than when supposed to be seen on a 
 level. In nature, the effect of this depression of the 
 sight manifests itself in every particular. The stones 
 show more of their top in proportion to their sides ; the 
 weeds and herbs are seen as from above ; even a figure 
 a little way removed, would show the crown of the hat. 
 All these minutiaj and circumstantial facts contribute 
 their quota to the truth and fac-simile likeness of the 
 whole. 
 
 A A
 
 354 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 The want of a sufficient clue to the effect before us, 
 often renders the appearance of nature deceptive ; and 
 in bleak open places which afford no standard of com- 
 parison, either the rapidity of a descent, or the steepness 
 of an opposite acclivity, not unfrcquently appears greatly 
 increased or diminished, until the nature of the spot can 
 be surveyed from points which do not subject the observer 
 to delusive influences. The apparent impracticability of 
 the road which is before the traveller, is an occurrence 
 by no means rare to him in a country possessing new 
 features. Deceptions of this kind, which I have wit- 
 nessed in every possible form, never struck me more 
 than at a spot half way between Grasse and Castellanc, 
 in the departement des Basses Alpes, in which a ser- 
 pentine road, ascending a barren and treeless slope, 
 appeared, in some places, perfectly vertical. Several 
 circumstances combined to produce this illusion ; but it 
 appeared to take place chiefly because the effect of per- 
 spective inclination was added to that of the actual slope 
 of the road, without being apparent, owing to the pe- 
 culiar nature of the slope. The ascent of the road 
 proved, afterwards, to be most gradual and uniform. 
 
 THE KNOWLEDGE OF PERSPECTIVE WHICH IS REQUISITE 
 IN THE PICTURE GALLERY. 
 
 Perspective will be here considered chiefly as ap- 
 plied to the examination of works of art, with a view to 
 their more complete enjoyment. Truth of imitation, 
 especially with regard to form, would be more uni- 
 versally and more closely adhered to, if amateurs in
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 355 
 
 general were more experienced in applying whatever 
 principles of perspective they may possess, to the in- 
 spection of pictures. The developcmcnt of the talents 
 and resources possessed by the artist, proceeds step by 
 step with the tasteful disccnimcnt of the amateur. The 
 more enli<jhtened is the latter in matters of art, the more 
 extensive and cflScient arc the means of gratification 
 which the painter commands ; and the following re- 
 marks have chieflv for their object to promote acquaint- 
 ance on either side. 
 
 Point of Observation Mr. Charles Hayter, in his 
 
 work on Perspective, alludes to the necessity that the ob- 
 server should be aware of the painter's distance ; observ- 
 ing, " This is a duty you owe the artist, before you are 
 qualified to criticise the perspective of his picture."* 
 Whenever an observer places himself before a work of art 
 on a flat surface, the perspective arrangement of the sub- 
 ject, and his own experience, should enable him to fix 
 upon, or (if circumstances should prevent), at least to de- 
 termine in his mind, the point at which it will appear 
 most true, consequently most pleasing. In presence of a 
 large painting, he retires to a distance of from five to 
 eight or ten yards ; in which case, the figures, which are 
 of the size of life, are seen by him exactly as he would 
 view a group of living figures. In the small landscape, 
 in which the proportion usually adopted for the figures 
 is about or under three inches for a picture a yard in 
 width, they appear to an observer, stationed at a dis- 
 
 • Ilajtcr'g Introduction to Perspective, Practical Geometry, &c. p. 56.
 
 356 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 taiice equal to the witltli of the picture, to correspond to 
 the size of real figures situated about twenty yards off; 
 a distance three or four times as great as that from 
 which he is supposed to view the figures in the historical 
 painting. This shows at once the relative scales of the 
 historical and of the landscape painting. That of the 
 historical piece, though seen further ofi' on account of its 
 larger dimensions, generally exhibits the subject as it 
 would appear in a somewhat close view of the same 
 objects in nature ; whereas the landscape, though gene- 
 rally seen from a comparatively near point, represents a 
 scene which is contemplated at a considerable distance. 
 In either case, it is necessary that the perspective plan 
 should be adapted to the intended point of sight : conse- 
 quently the foreshortening of objects becomes more 
 marked and sudden in the subject which is composed of 
 large figures, than in the landscape. If architecture be 
 introduced in the historical piece, the lines fall rapidly 
 towards the horizon : and the distant objects, though on 
 a large scale, are smaller, as compared to the figures, 
 than in the landscape ; so that the head, or a limb, will 
 cover over, and appear to hide, a larger portion of them. 
 In the landscape, on the contrary, the figures, which are 
 supposed to be seen at a considerable distance, intercept 
 but a small part of the objects beyond them : buildings 
 and mountains rise behind, unbroken in their general 
 form by the figures and the secondary objects of the 
 foreground. Thus is maintained the due ascendancy of 
 the landscape portion of the scene, conformably to the 
 aim of this kind of composition. 
 
 Now what will be the result when the observer
 
 APPLIED TO THE KXAIMINATION OF PICTURES. 357 
 
 neglects the true point of sight, — I mean the jjosition 
 called for by the size and arrangement of the piece? 
 Let liim remember tliat objects receding at etiual in- 
 tervals, undergo a diminution which is proportionate to 
 the nearness of the objects subjected to this diminution ; 
 and that if there be three or four houses, of which the 
 second is at a distance beyond the first, equal to the sup- 
 posed distance of the first from the observer, the second 
 will be but half its height, the third two-thirds of tlie 
 height of the second, and so on. Now, if the observer 
 recede to a distance at which the first house will be 
 twice as far from him as the second house from the first, 
 the decrease from the one to the other will be too great 
 and sudden, and no longer consistent with the distance 
 at which he is supposed to view them. By receding 
 twice the length of the picture, the diminution from the 
 first house to the second would be equal to one-third 
 instead of one-half, and the relations of all the other 
 houses would be likewise influenced in a less degree. 
 In this manner, a perspective plan whicli is adapted for 
 a close view, becomes, unfitted for a distant one. But as 
 it is in the nature of perspective drawings to adapt 
 themselves to circumstances, and to assume, in every 
 case, the appearance which seems most probable, the 
 detached houses would appear to draw closer together, 
 or to grow further apart, as the observer approached 
 nearer to, or receded further from, the picture ; and 
 would invariably maintain such perspective relations as 
 would 1)(' l)est suited to Ills po?.itiou. Thus, the effect 
 would not be false in itself, but only as the repre-
 
 358 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 sentation of a spot or locality in which the houses were 
 situated at determinate intervals. 
 
 If, instead of objects whose form and position, like 
 those of houses, are variable, we suppose something 
 which is more uniform in shape, such as an arcade or 
 colonnade, it will be evident that the proportions of the 
 arches would be changed, and their elegance increased 
 or impaired, should the adoption of a nearer or of a 
 more distant point of sight on the part of the observer, 
 cause the arches in appearance to contract or to widen. 
 Arches which, in nature, are seen in the distance, are 
 crowded in greater numbers in the same ocular space, 
 than arches which are nearer on the same plane : and if 
 the observer, by retiring a step or two backward, place 
 himself in a position at which the foremost arches in a 
 picture become distant ones, they will be subjected to 
 those circumstances which in nature would render them 
 in appearance narrower, or more contracted in pro- 
 portion to their height ; whereas on the inflexible can- 
 vas, their form remains unchanged. They therefore 
 become, in appearance, wider and less graceful. 
 
 It might be useful if the observer were to com- 
 pare the outlines of objects, having determinate forms, 
 which arc situated in the foreground, with the same 
 objects situated in the middle distance. He would thus 
 be able better to appreciate the exact effect of his own 
 removal from a near to a distant point of sight. A man 
 walking, in the foreground of a picture, appears to stride 
 if drawn in exactly the same position in the background ; 
 and the same effect takes place, to a certain extent, if
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 3.59 
 
 the observer throw back, as it were, tlic walking figure, 
 by receding to a greater distance from the picture. 
 The heads of animals bear a very diflferent proportion to 
 their bodies with a close and with a distant view : 
 though rightly proportioned as seen from the true point, 
 they become too large for the body by removal to a 
 distance. A circle drawn in perspective at a given 
 distance from the horizon, appears oval when the surface 
 on which it is traced is held too near the eye : this in- 
 creases its angular distance from the horizon ; and a 
 circle drawn in this position is alwa\ s made more round 
 and less elliptical than one situated near the horizon. I 
 have seen an engraving of the Colosseum, in which the 
 artist's point was too close to the building. The circular 
 lines fell too abruptly ; and from that position which was 
 in other respects preferable for viewing the plate, this 
 building lost the character of vastness for which it is 
 remarkable. Some figures unloading a cart of hay, in a 
 picture by a modern artist, exhibited a few years since, 
 formed a very natural group from a near point ; but with 
 a distant view, where the same perspective diminution 
 expresses wider spaces, the intervals between the figures 
 on the cart and those on the rick, appeared too great, and 
 they lost the connection necessary for their employment. 
 
 Foreshortening Mr. Ilayter discourages attempts 
 
 at foreshortening in the human figure, especially when 
 single.* It appears to me that he might have added, that 
 the ill effects which result from attempts at foreshortening 
 
 * Introduction to Perspective, S;c. p. 6:1.
 
 360 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 in historical pictures, depend chiefly on an exaggerated 
 application of the principle. 1 have observed in some 
 paintings of the old masters, I believe chiefly of the Bo- 
 lognese school, a very marked difference between the size 
 of the figures on the immediate front or in the bottom 
 corner of the picture, and of those having a somewhat 
 more retired or central position. Now in order that 
 groups of figures thus proportioned to each other should 
 appear true to the eye, it would be necessary to take a 
 verv close view indeed of the figure or of the figures which 
 are so much exaggerated in size. From so near a point 
 as this, the effect of the picture could not be judged of, 
 nor the treatment of the subject appreciated : and in fact, 
 this class of pictures, in which the artist appears to have 
 made it his first object to display his knowledge of per- 
 spective, and skill in foreshortening, seldom exhibits 
 those more desirable merits which abound in contempo- 
 rary works of other artists, and perhaps in paintings of 
 the same master. The relative proportions of the 
 figures in a historical subject, do not appear satisfactory 
 unless adapted for a point of sight whence the whole com- 
 position may be seen at once : and in this case, an attempt 
 at foreshortening in the figures, and in the positions of 
 the limbs, does not appear to be open to the objections 
 to which Mr. Hayter alludes ; and the merit of the per- 
 formance, when successful, is due much more to correct 
 drawing and anatomy, than to the knowledge of per- 
 spective. Many striking and at the same time very na- 
 tural examples of this kind of foreshortening, are to be 
 found in the paintings of the old Italian masters. One 
 of the best that 1 have met with is the foreshorten in or of
 
 SAN inKTKO K SAN TAdLo. 
 I'.v Li I inn I!i:ni.
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 36l 
 
 the hand of St. J*et(>r, in the admirable picture of St. 
 Peter and St. Paul, by Guido Reni, in the Pinacoteca 
 of jNlilan. In the original painting, the adaptation of 
 the proportions of the hand to those of life, by admitting 
 of a convenient and at the same time natural distance 
 for observation, has doubtless assisted the artist not a 
 little in attaining a most brilliant mastery over the diffi- 
 culties of foreshortening. 
 
 Further particulars connected ivif/i the Ob- 
 server's Stat/o/i. — I will here offer another remark 
 or two, relative to the adaptation of the perspective 
 of objects to the point of observation. If you were 
 to take a picture two feet in width, and to draw a 
 buildinof six inches in heio-ht, with its corner toward 
 the observer, you would necessarily make the lines 
 which mark the top of the building, very much in- 
 clined to the right and left, that is to say, toward 
 their respective points of distance. But again, take 
 a picture three yards in width, and put in a build- 
 ing, likewise six inches high, and not more, with its 
 angle turned towards you. Would you, in this case, make 
 the lines of the top equally inclined as before to the 
 riirht and left, or less so ? A\'ould not a much less 
 degree of inclination appear sufficient in the large 
 picture, than in the small one ? And would not the 
 reason of this bo, that as the large picture is seen 
 further off, the angles of inclination of the two sides of 
 the building are made to correspond with those of the 
 same object when seen at a much greater distance in 
 nature? Whereas, in the small picture, two feet wide.
 
 362 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 placed proportionately near the eye, the six- inch building 
 can represent nothing else than a very near object, and 
 its lines must have that excessive convergence peculiar 
 to objects which you look very much up to, that is to say, 
 which subtend a lar^e an<jle of vision. But if the 
 building with the slightly converging lines is right in 
 the picture three yards wide, because it is expected that 
 the observer will place himself at a proportionate dis- 
 tance, how could the marked declination which is given 
 to the top of the building in the two-foot picture, appear 
 equally right at the distance which is suited to the large 
 one ? Is it not evident from this example, that there is 
 a distinct focus for each ? Yet it is but an unexagge- 
 rated instance of the necessity of considering, with regard 
 to pictures of various sizes, what results the point of 
 observation you are about to fix upon may have in the 
 appearance of the picture. 
 
 Another consideration has reference to the uniform 
 influence of removal with regard to the objects in a 
 picture, as compared with the different degrees of in- 
 fluence which a corresponding removal of the observer's 
 point of view produces on the objects in nature. In the 
 natural scene, the foremost objects being, the most sub- 
 jected to change, they sink beneath the remoter objects 
 as the observer takes a more distant view; — the 
 mountains rise, as he recedes, above the intervening 
 trees and houses : whereas in the picture, where the 
 influence of removal is equal on all objects, the hills and 
 mountains remain stationary like every thing else, and 
 become, from a distant point of view, deficient in 
 grandeur.
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 3fi3 
 
 In addition to these defects, immediately connected 
 with relations of form, the aerial perspective suffers in 
 its correctness, wlien the observer takes up a position 
 different to that which the picture was intended to be 
 seen from. Too close a view of distant objects in a 
 painting, renders their tone inconsistent with their di- 
 mensions ; they become too faint and vapoury for their 
 increased proximity. On the other hand, remote objects 
 painted with the degree of vigour necessary for a near 
 view, appear heavy with a distant one. The progression 
 in the indistinctness of objects is relative to the supposed 
 distance of the nearest from the observer. If he take 
 up a position at which this indistinctness ceases to have 
 any connexion with the space which separates him from 
 the scene, he is prevented from participating fully in the 
 aerial gradation, and from entering into the sentiment 
 of its delicate effect ; and he ceases to be as it were a 
 member in the scene. 
 
 The progression of the graduated hues which paint 
 the vault of heaven, as they spread iVoni the horizon 
 upwards, is entirely relative to the apparent or angular 
 division of space ; it has no relation to the real di- 
 mensions of the objects on the earth's surface : and the 
 rendering of this effect on the canvas, can be adapted 
 but for one position, — that from which the progression 
 of the tints equals their succession in nature in a deter- 
 minate angular space. The colour of the sun passes 
 from red to white, as it ascends, in the same geometrical 
 ratio. Till' deepening of the colour of tlic water, from 
 the hori/on downwards, is also appreciable by the angle 
 of vision only ; and since you must look down upon the
 
 364) LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 water, in nature, in order to be made sensible of this 
 deepening of its colour, that part of any picture in which 
 it is rendered, ought likewise to be looked down upon, 
 "With the nearly level view which is obtained from a 
 distant point, the colour of the water could not pos- 
 sibly be seen. 
 
 A change in the position of the observer, to the right 
 or to the left, that is to say, in a direction parallel to the 
 plane of the picture, produces results of a ditFerent kind. 
 The vanishing surfaces of objects appear to move as he 
 moves, but in the contrary direction. As he proceeds to 
 the right, the retiring lines appear to converge to a point 
 further to the left ; whereas, if he move to the left, the 
 receding surfaces appear to incline toward the right. 
 The perspective eflPect thus becomes partially turned 
 round with the lateral motion of the eye. But although 
 the receding planes appear to adapt themselves to the 
 position of the observer, the direction of the parallel ones 
 does not always seem to correspond. They cease to 
 appear at right angles with the vanishing surfaces. For 
 instance, if a building, with a parallel front and receding 
 side, occupies the right of the picture, the horizontal 
 lines of the front would only be drawn parallel to the 
 top and bottom when suited to the eye of an observer 
 situated opposite the vanishing point of the side, con- 
 ventionally termed the point of sight. A deviation of 
 the observer from this point of convergence, toward the 
 right, would, in order to be in accordance with nature, 
 require that the parallel lines of the front of the building 
 should have a certain inclination or convergence toward 
 the side of the picture : whereas, if he proceed beyond
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 365 
 
 the point of sight to tlie left, it would be necessary 
 (and this may appear paradoxical at first thought) that 
 the top lines of the front of the building should incline 
 upwards toward the side of the picture on the right, or 
 the front of the buildino; must cease to be at rijjht antrles 
 with its vanishing side ; for the side lines of a square 
 building, of which the front is parallel to the picture, 
 meet at a point exactly opposite the observer. Merc 
 they to unite at a point nearer to the building, they could 
 not belong to a surface perpendicular to the plane of the 
 picture, but would represent a surface retiring with a 
 still more abrupt angle. When the observer, therefore, 
 takes a position beyond the point of sight, the parallel 
 lines of the front of an object no longer remain square 
 with those which mark the side, unless they are made to 
 diverge upwards and downwards towards the border of 
 the picture. But in general, the lines representing the 
 fronts of buildings are drawn horizontal ; and since they 
 continue to remain so whatever be the position of the 
 observer with reference to the point of sight, an ap- 
 pearance of false perspective frequently ensues in large 
 pictures, especially when the closeness of the parallel 
 lines to the frame fixes undeviatiugly their position, in 
 the eye of the observer. Unless stern necessity should 
 intci'ferc, a right appreciation of the truths of per- 
 spective with regard to the arrangement of pictures, 
 would at all times cause large architectural subjects to 
 be so placed that the observer could take a front view of 
 the principal receding vista, and, should he be at liberty 
 to choose his own position, determine him to select at 
 once this so necessary point of sight.
 
 366 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 Sir David Brewster makes some cursory but very 
 ingenious remarks on the effects of that mobility of re- 
 tiring surfaces which so greatly tends to mitigate, in the 
 picture, the evils arising from incessant change in the 
 point of observation. The example which he introduces 
 is that of a gun, which, from whatever point it is seen, 
 appears ready to shoot the looker-on ; — in fact, as Sir 
 D. Brewster observes, in terms which convey approxi- 
 mately the same meaning as those which I have used, 
 it is the gun which is exactly turned towards you, of 
 which, in every case, you see neither side, but the muzzle 
 only. And since, in the picture, a gun which is painted 
 with the muzzle alone visible, never appears otherwise, 
 whatever position the observer may take up ; its ap- 
 pearance when thus represented must necessarily convey 
 the impression of one which is directed towards you. 
 The example is strengthened by two other guns, one on 
 each side, of which the sides of the barrels are visible, 
 and which appear to turn with the centre one as the 
 observer changes his position. 
 
 The influence which these changes in the position of 
 the spectator exercise in the relations of squai-e build- 
 ings, and of other angular objects, to the surface of the 
 picture, is extended more or less to circular objects. A 
 tower which is situated in the centre of a picture, or 
 opposite the eye, is represented with an equal fall or 
 inclination of its summit on either side, because the 
 whole visible portion of the tower, or the half of it 
 which is nearest to the observer, corresponds exactly 
 with the plane of the picture on which it is drawn ; but 
 the visible half of a tower which is situated near the
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 367 
 
 side or border of tlic picture, does not correspond with 
 its plane. The vertical section of it made on this prin- 
 ciple, would Ik' inclined inwards relatively to the plane 
 of the canvas : consequently the points of contact of the 
 sides of the tower with the line of its summit, would be 
 marked at unequal heights on its surface ; and the line 
 indicating the summit of the tower, or any circumference 
 situated above the level of the eye, would fall lower and 
 more rapidly toward the middle of the picture than it 
 would toward the side. It may therefore be preferable 
 in large pictures, where the observer would be likely to 
 confine himself to a central view, to cause the summit of 
 a tower situated near the side, to incline towards the 
 centre ; though in small pictures seldom seen from one 
 point, an equal inclination of both sides of the tower 
 should be preferred. 
 
 The expediency of confining the eye to a given point 
 of observation, depends greatly on the size and pro- 
 portions of the work. Rules to this effect are much 
 less stringent in small paintings than in large ones. In 
 the case of a small drawing which is held in the hand 
 and turned about in any direction the observer fancies, 
 the eye seems to be almost inclined to regard the objects 
 as a group artificially put together, and moving with the 
 plane to which they have been affixed ; whereas, the 
 larger the representation, and the less it is capable of 
 being transferred from one situation to another, the more 
 the mind is disposed to identify it with nature, and the 
 more conspicuous are all such distortions and incor- 
 rectnesses of outline as result from the want of a point of 
 observation at which every line delineated on the canvas
 
 368 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 would exactly correspond with the apparent form of 
 the objects, supposing them to be real. It is in deco- 
 rative painting, where one of the chief objects aimed at 
 is to deceive, and to make imitation pass for reality, that 
 these incoherencies of perspective become most striking : 
 and the representations of galleries and arcades, executed 
 with the object of giving apparent extent to the internal 
 architecture of a building, appear monstrous, until the 
 eye has caught the true point for which the effect was 
 intended. 
 
 Large historical pictures are seldom seen in per- 
 spective. The bottom is, in general, not much below 
 the level of the eye ; and the horizon is necessarily, in 
 such cases, considerably above it. Horizontal surfaces 
 are shown where, according to nature, they could not be 
 perceived. In appearance, they slant toward the ob- 
 server ; and not unfrequently, the plates and dishes 
 seem about to fall from the table on which they are 
 placed : though, were the observer on a level with the 
 point to which the horizontal lines converge, the per- 
 spective would appear correct, and the effect natural. 
 Paul Veronese appears to have managed the splendid 
 architecture of his large historical works with due regard 
 to these difficulties of situation. He has at times kept 
 the horizon so low, that the level surface scarcely ap- 
 pears, and the figures come out immediately on the sky, 
 or on the buildings, beyond them. In another example, 
 which seems to have been repeated by the same artist, 
 the banquet and consequently the principal groups of 
 figures are on a terrace above the level of the eye, so 
 that its level surface is unseen ; although the steps
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 3G'J 
 
 which load up to it, and other tasteful arrangements, 
 give sufficient extent and dcvelopement to the archi- 
 tectural composition. 
 
 In the landscape painting, the necessity of a position 
 which admits of a horizontal view is chiefly felt in flat 
 scenes, such as sea-pieces, plains, and rivers. If looked 
 up to, the level which constitutes the marking feature of 
 the scene disappears, and it loses its character of truth. 
 The effects of elevated position are less prejudicial in 
 mountainous scenes, where the eye discovers no horizon, 
 and no level of any extent. But planes inclined from 
 the observer, such as descending roads, cannot be ex- 
 pected to deceive, unless they be hung at or below the 
 true level. The difference between a horizontal and a 
 slightly inclined plane being in a great measure de- 
 pendent on the depressed angle of sight, the overcoming 
 of this difficulty cannot be hoped for, if the observer 
 has to look up to a descending plane in the imitation, 
 which he would look down upon in nature. When the 
 picture cannot be hung on a level, an inclination for- 
 ward, proportionate to its elevation, is desirable. The 
 eye then meets the plane of the picture at right angles, 
 and level planes appear at least perpendicular to its 
 surface. 
 
 Some persons may remember a view of Amalti, by 
 Stanfield, exhibited in the year ISkS. The town ex- 
 tended at the foot, and up the steep slope, of a mountain 
 on the right. The lines belonging to the parapet of a 
 bridge, and to the roofs of the houses, were made to 
 descend very rapidly toward the horizon. As this pic- 
 ture was hung below the level of the eye, the inclination 
 
 n H
 
 370 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 of the parapet of the bridge, and of the lines of the 
 houses alluded to, did not appear to result from the per- 
 spective effect. It would rather have been attributed 
 to a very precipitous, and, as the picture was situated, 
 unaccountable ascent of the road and buildings : and it 
 was by no means easy to place one's self in a position 
 from which these lines would appear horizontal. The 
 apparent defect in this fine picture, resulted, in this case, 
 from its position : but as the most favourable site is 
 seldom attainable with perfect freedom and convenience, 
 is it not evident that there is some danger in giving to 
 the horizontal lines of buildintjs so decided an inclination, 
 that they only appear correct to the eye from a very 
 limited and close point of observation ; and that it may 
 be desirable not wholly to deprive the spectator of that 
 freedom in the choice of his own ground, of which some 
 share at least is always expected by him ? 
 
 When the painting is hung on a level, it is the ob- 
 server himself who is chiefly responsible for finding out 
 the true point for observation ; but it devolves upon the 
 artist to facilitate the detection of it, by giving to the 
 objects proportions suitable to the dimensions of the 
 picture, and by so disposing them as to draw the at- 
 tention chiefly towards the centre of it, or the central- 
 izing point of the vanishing lines. It is not the fault of 
 the observer, if the number and diminutiveness of the 
 objects oblige him to pass before each in succession, 
 viewing them as he would detached portions of a pano- 
 rama, instead of remaining stationary at a central point 
 in the distance. A multitude of minute details in a 
 large picture, require to be viewed so closely, that a
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 371 
 
 sight of the whole cannot he enjoyed at the same time ; 
 and they hecomc isolated ohjects or groups of objects. 
 With this close inspection, the beauty of arrangement 
 and the power of effect, which should bind all the objects 
 together, become lost to the eye, as they extend on the 
 oblique surface to the right and left of the observer. 
 
 As a plea for minuteness, it has been urged that 
 there is a certain pleasure in perusing closely an ela- 
 borate representation, which does not lessen that of en- 
 joying afterwards, the effect of the picture at a proper 
 distance. But objects cannot be painted truly both for a 
 close and for a distant view. A composition is alone 
 seen ([uito correctly, as a scene in nature would present 
 itself on a transparent medium of such dimensions, and 
 placed at such a distance from the observer, that his 
 eye could embrace the whole from one point, with very 
 little motion of the head. A picture placed at a distance 
 from the eye equal to its width, meets these conditions, 
 whatever be its dimensions ; and although the various 
 sizes given to objects in the best proportioned compo- 
 sitions, the many dissimilar shapes of the pictures where 
 they are represented, and the varying distances at which 
 they are seen without much apparent distortion of the 
 objects, show that the relations of proportion between the 
 real subject and the subject represented may vary consi- 
 derably, a decided departure from every intermediate 
 term of proportion, leads to the most unsatisfactory 
 results: and the work must necessarily fail in exciting 
 tliat interest which is realized by a comprehensive sub- 
 ject, unless the connection between every part be felt, and 
 the harmony of the entire arrangement enjoyed, at once.
 
 372 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 
 
 I have remarked, in the section on light and shade, 
 that a broad line appears darker than a fine or narrow 
 line of ecjual intensity. But at a distance, all lines 
 become in appearance more attenuated ; consequently, 
 large drawings which are intended to be seen at a dis- 
 tance, must have their delicate lines heavier, and their 
 strong lines broader in proportion, than such lines are 
 made in a small drawing which is held in the hand. 
 
 But there is more than this with regard to the 
 adaptation of lines or touches to the situation of the eye. 
 Mr. Ruskin has described very forcibly, the change 
 which takes place in the countenance of a friend as he 
 advances towards you. The features are identified 
 slowly and progressively.* Now I should like to see 
 objects introduced into the picture with just that degree 
 of distinctness which is necessary that they may be easily 
 identified ; but without having any thing of that con- 
 spicuous and uniform contour which is usually ascribed 
 to very near objects. There is a kind of intelligence in 
 the distribution of the touches, which renders the fea- 
 tures and character of objects, most perfectly at a deter- 
 minate distance, and seems to point out the observer's 
 station. If he approach nearer than that point, he 
 discovers the mechanism of the art. It may be nothing 
 offensive, — perhaps a free and bold handling of the 
 brush, — but still the objective is not distinctly indi- 
 vidualized ; and he is able to interpret less easily than 
 at a yard or two further back, the meaning of every 
 stroke. If, on the other hand, he recede beyond the 
 
 * See " Modern Painters," vol. i. 3d edition, p. 189.
 
 APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES. 373 
 
 intended point, the appearance of the picture becomes 
 diffuse, and less significative. Tlie fact is, that in this 
 last position, the touches of light want the necessary 
 power, and those of dark the necessary breadth, in order 
 that the . whole subject be pregnant with relief and 
 effect ; and the observer hastens to a spot where these 
 shadowy and meaningless images become speaking forms. 
 Such is, to a greater or less extent, the management and 
 condotto of that painting, of which every particular, even 
 down to the execution, is carried out with a view to its 
 perfection. Pictures in which the objects are put in 
 with a hard and distinct outline, however unsatisfactory 
 with a close view, do not improve with a distant one. 
 They remain hard as long as they can be seen, and then 
 become insipid and feeble. The amateur learns nothing, 
 by the survey of such a picture, of his engagements 
 towards it ; or, if he already possess the degree of tact 
 which is necessary for the observation of works of art, he 
 feels embarrassed in endeavouring to apply it. Gene- 
 rally speaking, difference of sight prevents the advantages 
 which depend on the adaptation of the style of the 
 painting, and of its degree of finish, to a determinate 
 focus, from being fully realized : the diminutiveness of 
 the objects and the elaborateness of the work may, how- 
 ever, always be made to bear some relation to the size of 
 the picture, and to the proportions of the subject. 
 
 It is chiefly in the large picture that the influence of 
 distance, or of a suitable removal, is made to concur in 
 producing that predominance of effect over positive form, 
 which, in nature, is the result of a still greater expanse 
 of the scene. In small and closely-examined pictures.
 
 374- LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 little assistance can be thus borrowed from the interval 
 
 • 
 
 which separates the observer from the canvas. The il- 
 lusions of distance must be entirely counterfeited. The 
 lines and touches are made either fainter or more diiFuse ; 
 but the faintness of the line, or the diffusoness of the 
 touch, is perceived, and forms no exact substitute for 
 indcfinitencss. The usual conditions of the small picture 
 are therefore much less favourable to the rendering of the 
 effects of distance, than are those of the large painting. 
 
 The defects which result from too small a scale, and 
 too high a finish, of a portion of the painting, for the 
 size and distx'ibution of the whole, are very evident in 
 the picture, representing a Boar Hunt, by Velasquez, in 
 the National Gallery. The comparative smallness of the 
 figures on the foreground, and the many details there 
 brought together, require a very close position for their 
 inspection ; whereas the landscape, representing a small 
 plain surrounded by a circle of hills, in the neigh- 
 bourhooil of the Escurial, extends so high up the picture 
 that it seems intended for a bird's-eye view ; and in its 
 present position, hung on a level with the eye, the effect 
 can only appear tolerable at a considerable distance, 
 whei'e the care bestowed on the figures would be lost. 
 They require a focus of vision distinct from that which is 
 adapted for the landscape. The perspective of the scene 
 would be improved, if the picture were hung still lower ; 
 but in no position would the figures in the front, though 
 nicely painted, appear otherwise than a belt across the 
 fore<iround. Their arrangement and execution would 
 alike prevent their mingling with the subject. 
 
 Some of the old Flemish painters, who were skilled
 
 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 375 
 
 in rendering the common-place truths which are de- 
 pendent on character, but neglected those which are the 
 result of theory, occasionally fell into the error of adapt- 
 ing an excessively minute style of execution to pictures 
 whose dimensions were not proportionately reduced. 
 Amongst our modern artists, the paintings of Mr. 
 Martin manifest, in some cases, a corresponding ten- 
 dency. The multiplicity of the most elaborate details, 
 and the fascination of his miniature-like figures, invite 
 the closest inspection ; whereas the vastness of the 
 subject allows it to be comprehensively embraced only 
 from a distance. Should less successful imitators carry 
 out this style, the observer would be kept in suspense 
 between a near and a distant view, without being rivet- 
 ted to the former by the magical delicacy of the work, or 
 satisfied, in the latter position, by the grandeur of the 
 subject. 
 
 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Could we assemble together, and consider collectively, 
 the variety of effects and appearances which are con- 
 nected with tlie projection of shadows, including such as 
 are due to a single lamp, to several lights, and those 
 which are produced by the sun itself, the aspects and 
 shapes assumed by the shadows projected, could not fail
 
 376 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 to strike us forcibly, and to afford tliat interest which 
 results from boundless variety proceeding from simple 
 causes, and, in many instances, from one uniform prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 When the light of the sun which is admitted through 
 the porticoes or open tracery of some vast architectural 
 pile, produces shadows which may be observed simul- 
 taneously to advance, to recede, to revolve round some 
 pivot or centre, to bend or to straighten as they traverse 
 curved or uniform surfaces, assuming most various and 
 intricate shapes, — the result almost reminds one of some 
 gigantic scheme of clockwork, the parts of which, how- 
 ever dissimilar and various in their forms and move- 
 ments, alike obey one common principle of motion. If 
 considered in connection with the ramifications of the 
 skeleton forest, or with the gigantic forms of mountains, 
 nature appears to have traced, herself, figures remarkable 
 either for their intricate variety or for their stupendous 
 scale ; whereas, in the various regular shapes which 
 result from the projected shadows of buildings, she ap- 
 pears playfully to have mingled that unity and order 
 which govern her universal principles, with the sym- 
 metry of form which art so fondly adopts. 
 
 Produced in space from a source almost too remote 
 for conception, these effects are characterized by that 
 complexity which results, firstly, from the various re- 
 lations of the primary source of light to the bodies 
 which it illuminates ; secondly, from the dissimilar 
 shapes of these bodies ; and, thirdly, from the varying 
 direction of the surfaces on which their shadows are pro- 
 jected : the result being definitively exposed to those
 
 DEFINITION OF PROJECTED AND LOCAL SHADOWS. 377 
 
 further modifications which depend on the unequal 
 perspective influence to which the surfaces receiving 
 the shadows are themselves subjected. The effects 
 which are due to these combined causes, attain some- 
 times, in connection with architectural buildings, an 
 elaborate character, such as it would seem almost beyond 
 the combined powers of geometry and perspective to 
 unravel : nevertheless, there are few of these results 
 which a little diligent research cannot explain in detail, 
 and transfer to the canvas with a degree of precision 
 which more than equals what is usually demanded of the 
 representation of any of nature's appearances. In fact, 
 we possess but very limited means of appreciating the 
 form and position of the shadows which are presented to 
 us by nature ; which renders unnecessary the attainment 
 of the same degree of precision in this as in the other 
 branches of perspective. The apparent position of the 
 sun, or of any other remote luminary, relatively to the 
 objects which immediately surround us, is, itself, from 
 the want of points of connection, involved in great uncer- 
 tainty ; unless, from the misty state of the atmosphere, 
 there be visible rays which may serve to point out the 
 direction of the luminous body. 
 
 Definition of Projected and Local Shadows — 
 By shadows in general we understand a subtraction or 
 diminution of the light which falls upon the surfaces of 
 bodies : but the terminology of art distinguishes shadows 
 into two kinds, local and projected shadows. The local 
 or fixed shadow is limited to the side of an object wliich 
 is' turned away from the light: the projected shadow is
 
 378 PnOJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 produced, on any given object, by the interposition of 
 another object between it and the principal source of 
 light. 
 
 The depth of a shadow, as has been elsewhere men- 
 tioned, is proportionate to the absence of secondary or 
 reflected lights : but the local shadows are generally 
 less intense than the projected shadows, because in most 
 cases they receive more reflected light ; the reason of 
 which is, that the surface on which falls the projected 
 shadow is situated opposite to the shady side of the 
 object projecting it, whereas the object itself receives 
 unobstructed the light which is reflected from the sky 
 and from various other objects in sunshine. There are, 
 however, cases in which local shadows are darker than 
 projected ones ; as for instance, when the object which 
 projects the shadow is small ; in which case, whilst it 
 intercepts the direct rays of the luminarj', it does not 
 obstruct the general light diffused throughout the at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 The transition from light to shade constitutes the 
 boundary of a shadow. Thus, when local, it is resolved 
 entirely by that portion of the object which is turned 
 away from the luminary ; when projected, it is deter- 
 mined by the direction of the rays which immediately 
 surround the intervening object, and depends, not only 
 on the size and form of the object, but also on the mag- 
 nitude and position of the luminary, and on the direction 
 of the surface on which the shadow is projected. 
 
 When the luminary or primary light is smaller than 
 the object which projects the shadow, as in the case of 
 a candle lighting ordinary-sized objects, the shadow in-
 
 DIFFUSION OF THE EDGES OF SHADOWS. 379 
 
 creases in size with its distance from the object, without 
 materially losing the relative precision of its outline. 
 When the luminary is larger than the object, as in the 
 case of a large fire throwing its light on objects of a less 
 diameter, the result is, firstly, a complete or true 
 shadow which diminishes with increased distances from 
 the object, and, secondly, a half-shadow or penumbra 
 which spreads or widens as it is projected further, be- 
 coming proportionately more faint and indistinct. The 
 combined effect thus presents two cones or pyramids, one 
 within the other : the inner one, contracting as it ad- 
 vances, has its apex turned away from the object ; whilst 
 the other, spreading as it advances, has its apex (which 
 is truncated) turned towards the object. The extension 
 of the true shadow, and of the penumbra, is determined 
 by the relative dimensions of the source of the light and 
 of the intervening object. 
 
 The light from a window forms this double shadow 
 with the smaller objects in a room, unless the eflfect be 
 disturbed by the light from other windows. It is pro- 
 duced, likewise, more or less, in connection with every 
 object which is illumined by the direct rays of the sun ; 
 but the smallness of the angle or apparent diameter of 
 the sun's disc, renders the penumbra very inconsiderable 
 for the shadows of objects which are projected on neigh- 
 bouring surfaces. In proportion, however, as the object 
 is more removed from the surface upon which its shadow 
 is thrown, the penumbra becomes more extended, and the 
 edge of the shadow proportionately uncertain and diffuse. 
 Thus, close shadows in sunshine should always be made 
 with a sharp edge, and the shadows of distant objects.
 
 380 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 under the same circumstances, with a softened edge, 
 passing gradually into light. 
 
 Effects of the Diffusion of Shadotos further ex- 
 plained. — I will introduce an instance, open to every one's 
 observation, of those differences in the appearance of 
 shadows which depend on the distance of the objects 
 which produce them. Those leaves of trees which are 
 nearest to the gi'ound produce shadows ivith distinct and 
 sharp edges, and those furthest from it, shadows which 
 are diffuse and uncertain. It may also be remarked, 
 that the patches of light which appear on the ground 
 under a canopy of foliage, do not always take the form 
 of the intervals through which the light of the* sun is 
 admitted ; but when the distance is great between the 
 ground and the openings in the leaves, they take a form 
 more or less circular. Thus, if you mark the patches of 
 sunshine on a walk under a grove of trees, you will 
 observe that some are diffuse, and at the same time 
 nearly circular ; whereas others have a distinct edge, 
 showing the form of the leaf projecting the shadow, and 
 the exact shape of the opening through which the light 
 of the sun is admitted. In the case of a large tree, the 
 patches of sunshine which appear in that part of the 
 shadow which corresponds to the top of the tree, are 
 rounded and diffuse ; whilst those which chequer the 
 shadow of the inferior branches, are irregular, distinct, 
 and conformable to the character of the leaves. It is 
 evident that the principle which governs this little phe- 
 nomenon, so familiar in its effects, is the crossing, which 
 takes place in every hole or contracted space, of the rays
 
 DIFFUSION OF THE EDGES OF SHADOWS. 381 
 
 of light which proceed from a luminary larger than that 
 space. When the hole or opening is very small in pro- 
 portion to the diameter of the luminary, as well as to the 
 distance or remoteness of the surface on which its rays 
 arc projected, the patch or gleam of light which appears 
 on this surface takes the form of the luminary or primary 
 light, rather than of the hole through which it is ad- 
 mitted. The light of a lamp or candle projected on a 
 white sheet of paper, through a small round hole in a 
 card or board, takes, at a certain distance from the focus 
 of the rays, the elongated shape of the flame, and not 
 the round shape of the hole : and proceeding in our 
 inductions by analogy, wc must come to the conclusion 
 that, in the case of the sun's rays admitted through the 
 intervals of foliage, the shape of the space or interval 
 being irregular, and the sun or luminary being round, 
 the patch of light will not take the irregular shape of 
 the interval, but the round shape of the sun. M'hen, 
 however, the surface subjected to this impression of 
 light and shadow, is so near the opening in the trees 
 admitting the light, that the rays cross each other but in 
 a very small degree, the form of the opening prevails 
 over that of the luminary, in the gleam of light which it 
 projects. 
 
 It may be here remarked, that the thickness of the 
 atmosphere docs not diminish the precision of the out- 
 line of a shadow. It renders it pale and faint ; but, as 
 long as the sun's rays can penetrate the cloud or mist, 
 the outline of the shadow remains distinct. This is 
 seldom closely attended to in paintings : and the dis- 
 tinctness of the shadow ceriainlv becomes verv cmbar-
 
 382 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 rassing, when the objects projecting it have intricate or 
 marked forms, as in the case of figures combined with 
 variously shaped objects. The method most usually 
 practised (though rather incorrect) is to put in the 
 shadows vanishing gradually as they spread fi-om the 
 foot of the object projecting them ; as vvoidd be the case 
 if they were lighted by a bright cloud or bright sky, and 
 not by the immediate rays of the sun. This method is 
 consistent only with the nature of the shadows which 
 result from an " effect of light."' 
 
 With a clear atmosphere, and bright sunshine, the 
 convergence of the true shadow, and the divergence of 
 the penumbra, are very apparent on the ground on which 
 a staff or pole is placed erect, so as to intercept the sun's 
 rays. Mv attention was first called to this point by the 
 appearance presented by the shadow of a lofty pole on 
 the summit of the Righi, toward sunset ; observing that 
 the width of the entire shadow, including the penumbra, 
 was very considerable at the extremity furthest from the 
 foot of the pole. I have since endeavoured to ascertain 
 rather more precisely, the proportion of this divergence 
 of the penumbra or half-shadow, by fixing in the ground 
 a staff with a quadrangular piece of cardboard fastened 
 at the top, destined to intercept the sun's rays. The 
 extension of the entire shadow or penumbra, allowing 
 for slight differences dependent on the intensity of the 
 shadow, and the manner of appreciating its edge or 
 boundary, was equal to about one inch for a distance of 
 ten feet, and the contraction of the true or total shadow 
 in the same proportion ; the width of the cardboard 
 being three inches, that of the penumbra, at a distance
 
 RAY OF SHADOW PROJECTED THROUGH SPACE. 383 
 
 of ten feet, on an average four inches, and the width of 
 the true shadow two inches. Proceeding by calculation 
 to the solution of this question, nearly the same results 
 would be arrived at, admitting the apparent diameter of 
 the sun to be equal to one half a degree. 
 
 The extension of the sun's penumbra becomes very 
 remarkable in the shadow of a lofty mountain : and I 
 have observed one, whose summit was about a league 
 and a half off, to form, as the sun rose behind it, a 
 penumbra two or three hundred yards in width. At 
 the immense distances, however, at which these pro- 
 jected shadows are generally seen in the Alps, this ex- 
 traordinary width of the penumbra produces no other 
 effect than that of softening the boundary line. The 
 shadow of the llighi at sunrise, as seen from its summit, 
 forms a distinct pyramid, stretching out over lakes, vil- 
 lages, and inferior mountains, till its apex reaches the 
 Jura. 
 
 It is interesting to trace, by means of these inter- 
 mediate connections, the relation between the slight 
 faintness which extends over the edges of shadows on 
 the smallest scale, and the transparent penumbra which 
 the earth projects on the moon's surface at the period of 
 its eclipse, before its disc becomes entirely hidden by the 
 cone of true shadow. 
 
 Ray ofSliadow projected through Space. — Those ap- 
 pearances which sometimes occur on high mountains, 
 and are known in Germany Ity the name of Schattenhild, 
 give a precise idea of the nature of the cone of shade 
 which is projected through space, before its eftect
 
 384 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 becomes visible on some opaque body. On these oc- 
 casions, the shadow of the beholder, as well as of the 
 persons and objects which immediately surround him, 
 appears to be impinged upon a cloud or mist, as the sun 
 ascends above the horizon in the opposite direction ; but 
 the shadow of the observer himself appears most perfect, 
 while those of neighbouring objects become less so in 
 proportion as they are more removed from the spot 
 which he occupies. The reason of this is, that, as the 
 shadow is only projected on semi-transparent vapour, it 
 requires that it should be seen to a considerable depth 
 in order to appear distinct. Now, as the observer looks 
 in a direction exactly corresponding to that of the rays 
 by which he is surrounded, he sees, on the cloud of mist, 
 the whole depth of his own shadow ; his eye follows 
 everywhere the direction of its boundary ; whereas, with 
 respect to neighbouring shadows, he sees them more or 
 less sidewards, his eye partly crosses them in their 
 thickness, and they become deficient both in form and 
 depth. The iris which accompanies these images, and 
 adds so much to the magic of their effect, is, I believe, 
 perfectly similar to those which are frequently seen on 
 the morning mists of lakes and rivers. 
 
 Owing to the almost infinite distance at which the 
 sun is situated from us, compared with that which sepa- 
 rates one from another the objects subjected to our 
 notice on the earth's surface, the direction of the sun's 
 rays may be considered to be perfectly parallel with 
 regard to all those objects which the eye can embrace at 
 once ; although the enormous volume of the sun itself 
 causes a certain degree of convergence of its rays, slightly
 
 THEORETirAL CONSIDEH \ TION'S. SH.') 
 
 affectiii<>' the appearance of individual shadows. Prac- 
 tically speaking, liowcvcr, the shadows of the sun may 
 be regarded as perfect illustrations of the phenomena 
 which are due to parallel rays of light. 
 
 Theoretical Considerations on the Projection of 
 Shadows. — Before considering the more abstruse prin- 
 ciples of projected shadows, I will bring home to the 
 reader those simple facts which he may have daily op- 
 portunities of observing. A projected shadow has its 
 greatest extension, when the direction of the rays is 
 nearest to one which is perpendicular to that of the in- 
 tercepting body, and to parallelism with the plane on 
 which the shadow is thrown ; and the least extension 
 when the direction of the rays is parallel to the pro- 
 jecting body, and perpendicular to the plane : but in the 
 former case the projected shadow disappears, when, the 
 parallelism of the rays and of the receiving surface beinjj 
 perfect, it becomes absorbed in the prevailing local 
 shadow ; as it also vanishes in the latter case, when the 
 intercepting body fills up the site of its own shadow. 
 
 Between these tw^o opposite points, the projected 
 shadow obtains all degrees of extension and contraction, 
 according to the increased or diminished obli(|uitv of the 
 rays, relatively to the surface on which they fall. 'I'liis 
 is exemplified by the shadow of an upright object, which 
 the declining sun casts upon the level ground ; as well as 
 by the shadow of an advancing roof or of a bulging sill, 
 whi( 1) the noon-day sun projects downwards on the vertical 
 surface of a wall. But if the shadow reaches the earth, its 
 increased extension there ceases ; in the same manner as
 
 ■iH() PROJECTEU SHADOWS. 
 
 the longthencd sliadow of a man, or of a carriage, on a 
 road, ceases to be so on an upright wall or bank, on 
 which the rays of the setting sun strike almost perpen- 
 dicularly. Thus it is that a shadow becomes more or 
 less lengthened according as the plane on which it is 
 cast deviates more or loss from a direction perpendicular 
 to that of the rays producing the shadow. The shadow 
 of a staff half as long again as another staff placed in the 
 same direction, may become six times as long, if it 
 reaches a point where there 5s a break in the direction of 
 the surface on which it is cast ; whilst a much greater 
 difference in the length of two objects becomes very 
 trifling as to the length of their shadows, if the longer 
 shadow of the two reaches a plane more perpendicular to 
 the rays which project it, than that on which the shorter 
 shadow appears. 
 
 I will now proceed to the solution of one or two 
 abstract questions ; for here, as elsewhere, it is by seek- 
 ing out the root of the inquiry that general and compre- 
 hensive views are obtained, and the minor particulars 
 rendered more accessible and easy. The propositions 
 which follow are not intended as a substitute for practical 
 examples of shadows which are projected in various ways ; 
 but if entered into and well considered, they may tend, 
 in some measure, to remove that uncertainty which gene- 
 rally exists concerning the nature and origin of those 
 effects which are only practically illustrated. The 
 forms of projected shadows have been less studied 
 in this country than in France ; as has been remarked 
 by Mr. Gwilt, whose small work on the projection of 
 shadows seems to offer (if I may judge from a summary
 
 SHADOW OF THE RIGHT LINE. 387 
 
 perusal) much that is practically useful, in a condensed 
 form.* 
 
 Shadow of the Geometrical Point, and of the Right 
 Line. — Let us observe, firstly, what conditions are pe- 
 culiar to the shadow of a geometrical point. All consi- 
 derations of form and extension are necessarily excluded ; 
 since, whether the receiving surface extend obliquely or 
 not with reference to the direction of the rays, the 
 shadow of a point is neither lengthened nor shortened, 
 nor influenced in any way whatever as to its form. The 
 shadow of a point is therefore liable to no other changes 
 with reference to the projector,+ than those of distance 
 and relative position ; the remoteness of the shadow de- 
 pending solely on the distance of the surface which re- 
 ceives it, whereas the position of the shadow is influenced 
 by distance associated with the inclination of the rays. 
 
 I will now define the right line, which enters into 
 the coni])osition of most regular figures, before alluding 
 to its shadow. The right line has this peculiar to itself, 
 that it is parallel to any surface, of which it might, as it 
 were, become the axis of evolution. For instance, any 
 vertical surface whatever may be made to turn round a 
 vertical line ; consequently, the right line continues to 
 remain parallel to that surface at any period of its cvo- 
 
 • " Sciographj', or Examples of Shadows;" 1 vol. Hvo., by .T. Owilt. 
 
 t To avoid circumlocution, I have h.id recourse to two or three con- 
 ventional terms. The projector implies the object projectin^r a shadow ; and 
 tlic receiving surface, the surface on which a shadow is thrown. The ex- 
 pressions rcrli'c'il ami liorizoiit'il iiuliiiiilion have likewise been used to 
 express the direction of the sun's rays, with reference to that of other 
 cibjoct-i
 
 388 I'liujKCTEn SHADOWS. 
 
 lutioii : ur, what comes to the same tiling, tlu' right line, ' 
 if upright, remains parallel to every vertical surface, 
 whatever be its horizontal inclination ; and, if level, to 
 every horizontal surface, whatever be its vertical in- 
 clination. 
 
 The same applies to the s/uidoir of a right line. Jt 
 remains unclianged by any deviation in the direction of 
 the surface on which it is projected, in a plane which is 
 at right angles with the projector. This may be better 
 understood by alluding to the plane of a shadow as pro- 
 jected through space. The interval which is comprised 
 between the two extremities of a right line and the 
 surface which receives its shadow, constitutes the plane 
 of that shadow. Thus, any change in the direction of a 
 uniform surface, which takes place in a plane which is at 
 right angles with the plane of the shadow, involves no 
 change whatever in the direction or in the form of the 
 projected shadow : whei-eas, those surfaces which arc 
 subjected to a change in their direction conformably to 
 the plane of the projected shadow, induce a correspond- 
 ing change in the apparent dii-ection of the shadow ; 
 and all curved surfaces, whose curvature corresponds 
 with that of the projected shadow, induce a change 
 in its apparent form which is proportionate to their 
 curvature. 
 
 The conditions of change to which the shadow of the 
 right line is liable, on plane surfaces having various 
 inclinations with regard to the object, are those of po- 
 sition, direction, and extension or length. No curved or 
 distorted forms can result, whatever be the relative 
 inclination of the object and of the surface.
 
 SHADOWS Ol' OBJECTS MAVINC; ONK I'l.ANK. .'389 
 
 Shadows projecfiul bij Ohjt:cts h(ivi)ia; two Ex- 
 tensions, or one Plane The shadow of the right line, 
 
 whatever be its direction, being subjected to no other 
 change than that of position on a parallel surface, a 
 figure which extends in a uniform plane (being composed 
 of a series of parallel right lines), projects, on the parallel 
 surface, a regular and conformable shadow. Bodies ex- 
 tending in a uniform plane, project, therefore, a shadow 
 the shape of which differs from their own, only on sur- 
 faces which are not parallel. But the parallelism of the 
 surface and the object, is not a condition necessary to 
 the uniformity of the projected shadow. It has the same 
 shape as the projecting body, on a surface extending at 
 right angles with it, whenever the inclination of the rays 
 is equal to 45° : likewise at all intermediate angles, with 
 determinate inclinations of the rays ; provided these 
 relations do not involve a departure of either surface 
 from a common axis of inclination. 
 
 When the surface which receives the shadow 
 presents indeterminate variations in its relative degree 
 of inclination with the projector, at the same time 
 that it maintains the same axis of inclination, no 
 other chanjies than that of extension affect the form 
 of the shadow, which becomes lengthened or short- 
 ened in a certain progression, as the direction of 
 the two surfaces varies relatively to that of the rays. 
 With those conditions of change, the plane of the 
 shadow, resultin<r from the vertical inclination of the 
 rays in connection with the position of the object, if 
 upright, continues to remain ])arallt'l with the common 
 axis of inclination of the two surfaces. Hence arises the
 
 390 PUOJUCTEU SHADOWS. 
 
 impression, that the shudow, though differing in length, 
 remains to a certain extent conformable to the pro- 
 jecting object. 
 
 There is yet another condition of the projector and of 
 the opposed surface, which, at the same time that it 
 admits of a considerable amount of change in the i)o- 
 sition of the latter, does not interfere with the apparent 
 regularity of the projected shadow. It is when the 
 receiving surface remains parallel to an axis having any 
 amount of inclination with regard to the projector, in a 
 plane which is that of the projected shadow. The 
 changes here referred to, in the direction of the re- 
 ceiving sm'face, are those to which it would be sub- 
 jected if moved round a cylinder, but remaining 
 during its evolution parallel with its sides. Tlie 
 relative positions of the luminary, of the object, and 
 of the cylinder, would be determined by a right 
 line passing thrQugh the centre of each, and marking, 
 at the same time, the direction of the rays. The 
 cylinder might deviate to any extent in the direction of 
 this right line, and the surface having a uniform plane 
 might deviate to any extent (at which the shadow would 
 remain visible), in a direction which is parallel to the 
 sides of the cylinder, without any apparent diminution 
 being caused, by these changes, of the regularity of the 
 shadow. It would be lengthened in proportion to the 
 inclination of the cylinder, and widened in proportion 
 to the inclination of the surface in a direction at right 
 angles with the inclination of the cylinder ; but the 
 shadow of any rectangular object would, under these 
 varying circumstances, remain square, on the flat sur-
 
 DISTORTED SHADOWS. 
 
 391 
 
 tkce. A plane thus diagonally disposed with regard 
 to the object, forms a corresponding section of the 
 column of shadow which is projected through space ; 
 consequently, the extent of superficies obscured 
 exceeds the width of the object. The widening of 
 the shadow produced 'according to 
 this principle, maybe frequently ob- 
 served in nature. Diagram G, with 
 the shadow of the chimney thrown 
 across the inclined roof, represents 
 one of the numerous instances which 
 occur as it were accidentally. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Distorted S/uidows. — Whenever the surface on which 
 a shadow is projected is parallel to the object project- 
 ing the shadow, the figure of the latter, as before men- 
 tioned, is conformable to the shape of the object, of 
 \vhicli we thus trace the perfect profile in the boundary- 
 line of the shadow. But it may be remarked, that when 
 the surface which takes the shadow is situated at right 
 angles, or nearly so, with the form which projects it, 
 the shadow-line projected by the sides of the object 
 conveys the impression of a streak or ray of shadow, 
 rather than of any definite form referable to that of the 
 object itself. This is exemplified by the sliadows of 
 all upright objects, when thrown upon the level ground. 
 And when the surface crossed by a projected shadow is 
 neither at right angles, nor parallel, with llio projecting 
 object, the shadow-boundary seems to partake partly of 
 thv nature of a ray of shade, and partly nf the iharae-
 
 392 
 
 l'UO.IKCTEl) SHADOWS. 
 
 teristic appearance of the projecting object. In pio- 
 portion as tlio relative direction of the form whicli 
 projects and of the surface \\hicli receives the shadow, 
 corresponds, and approaches to parallelism, the form of 
 the shadow is the more assimilated to that of the 
 object : but in proportion as the direction of the sur- 
 face which receives the shadow difters from that of the 
 object projecting it, so much the more do the shadow- 
 boundaries convey the impression of streaks or rays of 
 shade. 
 
 It is when the inclination of each surface is in a 
 different plane, that these transition relations in the 
 respective directions of both cause the form of the 
 shadow thus projected to appear twisted or distorted. 
 On these half-oblique surfaces the eye cannot satis- 
 factorily trace and follow out the connection between 
 the boundary-line of the shadow and that of the ob- 
 ject ; nevertheless, a sufficient resemblance prevails to 
 prevent the observer from substituting altogether the 
 impression of the ray of shadow for that of the object's 
 outline. Tims in diagram 7) the shadow from a to in. 
 
 Fig. 7.
 
 DISTOKTED SHADOWS. 
 
 393 
 
 OH the surface of the inclined stone, does not appear to 
 expi'ess the direction of the rays of light so completeK 
 as the short part of the shadow which extends on the 
 level ground at o, from the foot of the upright stone ; 
 and yet it does not appear quite conformahle to the 
 upright boundary-line / a of that stone : and likewise 
 that portion of the shadow which is projected bv the 
 top of the same stone, extending on the inclined stone 
 from III to b, appears much less conformable to the 
 boundary with which it is connected, than where pro- 
 jected on the level ground at c. In fact, it is some- 
 thing between the ray of shade, (the impression of which 
 would predominate still more if the relative direction 
 of the stone No. Q to the stone No. 1 were more oblique,) 
 and a shadow definite and conformable to its object, 
 (the impression of which would prevail entirely if the 
 positions of the two stones were parallel). If we refer 
 to Fig. 8, we shall observe that, owing to the oblique 
 position of the two upright stones, -f'S"**- 
 
 the shadow line a b, instead of 
 being horizontal, as it would be if 
 the stones were parallel, partakes 
 partly of the inclination of the 
 rays, and loses, in the same pro- - 
 portion, that character of resemblance to the object, 
 which is remarked more or less in projected shadows. 
 Let us investigate more fully the principles on which 
 the twisted or distorted appearance of the shadow de- 
 pends. Speaking of the shadow of the right line, I have 
 alludc<l to the ])lan(' in wliiili il is jirnjci led llirDii^li 
 spacr. Now, a> bodies iiaving t«o cxicnsions, arc rii-
 
 SO'i PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 cumscribed, it" angular, by rigbt lines liaving likewise 
 two kinds of extension, it becomes necessary to distin- 
 guish the plane of projection of one of these classes of 
 lines from that of the other ; that is to say, to define, if 
 the body be upright, the figure of the shadow which is 
 projected through space, by connecting its sides, vertical 
 and horizontal, with the lateral and upper boundaries of 
 the object, — a connection which at once calls for the 
 application of the terms which are referable to the ver- 
 tical and to the horizontal inclination of the rays of 
 light. 
 
 Availing myself of these conventional expressions, 1 
 proceed to observe, that the shadow of an object having 
 two extensions does not become distorted by a change in 
 the direction of the surface projecting and of the surface 
 I'eceiving it, provided this change affect the relations of 
 both with regard to one inclination of the rays only. 
 For instance, (as has already been agreed,) the shadow 
 of an upright object is regular on a surface having any 
 degree of vertical inclination in a plane which is per- 
 pendicular to both surfaces ; for ail changes in the 
 direction of two surfaces, conformably to a plane which 
 is perpendicular to both, can affect their relative posi- 
 tion with regard to one inclination of the rays only, 
 namely the vertical one, — producing no disturbance with 
 regard to the other, namely the horizontal inclination. 
 Thus, with regard to the horizontal inclination of the 
 rays, A, B, and C, (Figs. 9 & 10,) are placed in exactly 
 the same circumstances, however different from each 
 other with regard to the vertical inclination of the rays ; 
 and although their shadows are variously lengthened or
 
 DISTORTED SHADOWS. 
 
 395 
 
 contracted, according to the relative direction ol the 
 plane which intercepts the P'S- ^^■ 
 
 sun's rays, and of that which 
 receives the shadow, the re- 
 gularity of the shadow is in 
 no case disturbed.* 
 
 FiL'. 9. 
 
 The projected shadow becomes amorphous, or in 
 appearance distorted, when the interposed object, having 
 already relations dift'eront to those of the surface receiv- 
 ing the shadow with reganl to one inclination of the 
 rays, presents likewise different relations with regard to 
 
 * The difference in tlie positions of these objects with ret'ercncc to the 
 observer, is intlepcndent of the inclination of the rays : and it may perliaps 
 ho as well that tlie reader sho\ild be able to divest his impressions of the 
 inthience ol' perspective and arrangement, with regard to lignres to which 
 the principles under consideration cqnally apply.
 
 396 
 
 IMiOJKCTED SHADOWS. 
 
 the otlier. 'I'liiis, tlu' upright Ix^inl 1), projects its 
 
 sliadow on a level surface, or one 
 which differs with regard to the 
 vertical inclination of the ravs ; 
 whilst at the same time, owing to 
 its oblique position, and conse- 
 quently to its different axis of 
 inclination, it has nothing in 
 common with the level surface 
 Avith regard to the horizontal 
 "i ■■■ inclination of the ravs. Aoain 
 
 'i I referring to diagram 10, it will 
 
 \l be seen by the shadow of the 
 
 \\ post and rail G, that a change in 
 
 \i the direction of the object, which 
 \ is referable to the vertical in- 
 clination of the rays onlv, effects 
 a corresponding change in the apparent form of the 
 shadow. But when the direction of the rail and of its 
 support (see L, in the same figure,) becomes oblique 
 with regard to the horizontal inclination of the rays, 
 the relationship between the plane projecting and the 
 plane receiving the shadow, with reference to the di- 
 rection of the light, is lessened, and the form of the 
 shadow differs more decidedly from that of the object. 
 
 As may have been observed by the references to 
 diagrams 7 and 8, the apparent distortion of the shadow 
 arises not less from a diagonal direction of the surface 
 on which it is thrown, than from a diagonal position 
 of the object projecting the shadow. When their rela-
 
 UISlOltTEl) SHADOWS. 
 
 :m 
 
 tions to tlio direction of tlio light nrc respectively the 
 same, corresponding results must necessarily follow. 
 But it will l)e unnecessary to consider what degree 
 of influoiice more complicated relations would exercise 
 on the forms of projected shadows. 
 
 Diagram 1^2 exemplifies an apparent distortion or 
 twistiny of the shadow, resulting from a less deoree of dii'- 
 ferencc in the relations of the two planes. The board E, 
 and the wall, being upright, both surfaces are here parallel 
 with regard to one of their extensions. In this case, 
 the projected shadow becomes irregular or defonucd, 
 only when the rays of light arc inclined with reference 
 to the sides or boundaries of the object which extend 
 in the direction in which the two planes differ. Tlu' 
 shadow of the board E, projected on a vertical wall, 
 
 Fit:. 1-2. 
 
 though leno-thencd or shortened, would remain regular 
 with any horizontal inclination of the rays, if uuac- 
 (■omj)anied by a vertical incliiiatiuii ; IiccauM- tlic Iiori- 
 znutal iiiclinaliiiii affects tliose sides oiiK nl' the (iliject.
 
 398 PRO.TEOTFD SHADOWS. 
 
 which arc parallel to the surface on wliich the shadow 
 is projected, whereas the vertical inclination regards 
 those boundaries of the interposed object, the direction 
 of whose extension is foreign to the plane of the sur- 
 face which receives the shadow. But when the rays 
 have a vertical inclination, these boundaries of the 
 shadow are projected lower down in one part than in 
 another, owino' to the areater distance traversed bv the 
 rays : consequently they obtain angular relations with 
 the other sides or boundaries of the shadow, different 
 to those which determine the form of the object pro- 
 jecting the shadow. 
 
 I will here give a modified example of the length- 
 ening of shadows which takes place according to the 
 principles already stated. AVhen two plane surfaces, 
 the one projecting a shadow and the other receiving 
 it, are parallel with regard to one of their inclinations, 
 and not with regard to the other, the length of the 
 shadow is influenced only by that extension of the pro- 
 jecting body which is in a direction not parallel with 
 the opposed surface. Any extension of the projector 
 which involves no deviation from parallelism with the 
 receiving surface, does not influence the proportions, 
 or, in other words, alter the length or the breadth, 
 of the shadow, relatively to those of the object. It 
 will be seen how truly this principle holds with regard 
 to the shadows of the guide-post, which maintain (some 
 allowance beino- made for the diffusion of the ravs 
 where thev traverse the greatest interval of space) tlio 
 same width throujihout, whatever len£thenin<j or short- 
 eninsf i-esults, in the forms of those shadows, from the
 
 nrsTORTFi) sir \do\vs. 
 
 m) 
 
 various directions in which the arms of the post extend 
 with rooard to tlic surface on wliicli the shadows im- 
 pinge, as well as to the direction of the rays. The 
 extension of the arm B, of the post, in the direction 
 of the wall, hrings the shadow projected by it very close 
 to its extremity. Were it a little longer, the ends of 
 the arm and of its shadow would appear to meet. The 
 shadow of this arm is the longest, because its direc- 
 tion is nearest to the perpendicular at the same time 
 relatively to the wall and relatively to the rays ; whereas, 
 the shadow of the arm A is the shortest, because it is 
 most conformable to the direction of the rays. The 
 relations of the direction of the light, and of that of 
 the surface receiving the shadow, with regard to the 
 arm of the post C, are such as to render the length 
 of its shadow intermediate between that of the two 
 other shadows. 
 
 Fig. 13.
 
 400 I'HO.IIX TKI) SHADOWS. 
 
 S/indows o/' Solid Bodies. — 1 shall not enter into the 
 intricate relations of the shadow to the projector, which 
 have reference to cnhical and other solid forms, and 
 which could not, without great difficulty, be reduced to 
 general principles : but I shall confine myself to the 
 remark, that the shadows of solid bodies, if considered 
 independently of the plane of the surface on which they 
 are projected, are most extended when the direction 
 of the interposed body is such, that the rays of light 
 would intersect the plane of its greatest diameter at 
 right angles. It necessarily follows, that the position 
 of the object required in order that the rays of light 
 should meet its greatest diagonal plane at right angles, 
 must vary, in every individual case, with its form. 
 
 On the reldtire Situation oftlu: Shadoic, of the (Jtijeet, 
 and of the Luminary. — Those changes in the situation 
 of a shadow, which depend on the progressional motion 
 of the sun, are always (unless in tropical regions) of a 
 complex nature : that is to say, they never deviate from 
 any given point in one direction, without deviating at 
 the same time in some other direction ; or, they are 
 not subjected to any vertical change, without being at 
 the same time subjected to a horizontal change. The 
 shadow of an upright object is never seen to change 
 its position horizontally on a vertical surface, without 
 at the same time either rising higher, or falling lower 
 down : and such is the predominance of this simul- 
 taneous progression in the shadows of objects, dependent 
 on the complex motion ei'thcr of the sun or of the 
 moon, that anv other kind of displacement seems an
 
 DIUHNAL PROGUKSSION OF SHADOWS. KU 
 
 exception, and, though it may be less intricate, can 
 only be produced artificially. 
 
 A simple diange in the relative position f)f a shadow 
 and of its object occurs, when a light is moved in a 
 plane which is parallel at the same time with the object 
 which projects and with the surface which receives the 
 shadow. In this case, the projected shadow may be 
 subjected to any amount of transposition in one given 
 direction, without inducing any degree of change in 
 another direction. Let us suppose a light projecting 
 the shadow of an object on a vertical surface, to be 
 moved horizontally : it is evident that the shadow of 
 the object will continue to maintain a unitnrni level 
 on the opposed surface, whatever be the extent of the 
 horizontal transposition of the light. Instead of chang- 
 ing the position of the liglit, let us allow it to remain 
 stationary : it will be perceived that the shadow which 
 is projected by any successive portions of a right line, 
 on points progressivelv more remote of an opposed sur- 
 face, as the direction of the rays diverging from the 
 light becomes more oblique, exemplifies a case corre- 
 sponding with that of the light which is moved in a 
 horizontal direction with regard to any given point pro- 
 jecting a shadow. For instance, the diverging rays of 
 a lamp which are cut off by a rectilinear object, spread 
 fan-shaped as they extend beyond this line or boundary, 
 carrying its shadow to points at an uniform level on a 
 parallel surface. Thus is adduced from the single light 
 or luminary, an example of the increasing obliquity of 
 t\u' ravs, relativelv to the ul)jcct which projects the 
 -li.nluw, ;iii(l to the surface on*\\liiili il i^^ thrown, with- 
 
 1) I)
 
 402 
 
 PROJECTED SHADOWS. 
 
 out any change in the level of the shadow thus pro- 
 jected. As the horizontal divergence of the rays is 
 increased, their vertical inclination is diminished propor- 
 tionablv ; which compensates exactly for the increased 
 length of the rays as they diverge more, and maintains 
 the level of the shadow which is projected by them. 
 
 But if we suppose the displacement of the lamp or 
 light to be the result of a combined motion in a direc- 
 tion parallel to the plane of the object projecting the 
 shadow, and in a direction which is perpendicular to 
 it, bringing the light closer to the object, the shadow 
 which is projected on a parallel upright surface no 
 longer maintains the same level, as its position changes 
 with the diagonal direction of the rays. Thus, if the 
 light which casts the shadow of the square A on the 
 square B, (fig. 14) is moved horizontally nearer to its 
 
 surface, at the same time 
 that it is moved toward 
 the observer, the shadow 
 of A becomes shifted, by 
 the effect of this com- 
 bined removal of the 
 77^. 14. light, to a position on 
 
 the surface B, at the same time lower down and 
 further off. But the inferior position of the shadow, 
 as projected at n, is due in this case, not to a greater 
 inclination of the rays, but to the greater distance tra- 
 versed by them ; for the change from vi to 11, of the 
 ray projected by the corner /, would not be accompanied 
 by any increase of its inclination, if resulting from the 
 horizontal displacement of a light, equal in a direction
 
 ))II UNAI. HHOGHESSION Or SHADOWS. 403 
 
 pai-allel with the -iiirface A, and in a direction which 
 is perpendicular to it. 
 
 But the translocation of shadows which is the result 
 of the complex progressional motion of tlie sun, never 
 manifests itself to us under these circumstances ; for 
 the vertical or ascensional motion of the sun is added 
 to two kinds of horizontal progression. Hence, if we 
 consider the shadow projected by A, on the surface B, 
 to be due to the sun, instead of being the result of an 
 artificial light, its translocation from m to n would ne- 
 cessarily be the result of a combined simultaneous pro- 
 gression in three directions, — two of them referable to 
 horizontal, the other to vertical progress ; the combined 
 lateral changes in the position of the sun being at all 
 periods of the day associated with those of its ascent or 
 of its decline. These simultaneous changes in the 
 horizontal and in the vertical inclination of the sun's 
 rays, are with difficulty expressed either by geometrical 
 or by perspective drawing. If lines be employed to 
 define on a flat surface the inclination of the rays, each 
 change in their direction necessarily involves, in the 
 representation, that increased or diminished slant of the 
 lines which depends upon the influence of perspective 
 recedence. A glance at the figure last alluded to suf- 
 fices to show, that the line / in, which defines the ele- 
 vation of the shadow on the surface B, marks the true 
 vertical inclination of the rays, only when the shadow of 
 A is projected at right angles with the surface B, or in a 
 direction parallel to its extremity ; and that when the 
 shadow is projected diagonally, the real inclination of the 
 rays becomes disguised by perspective influence. Thus
 
 40 1. 
 
 I'UOJKf Tri) •SHADOWS. 
 
 in diagrams, as iiulceil in all illustrations <>f projected 
 shadows, on a flat surface, the real inclination of the rays 
 is not easily distinguishable from their perspective con- 
 vergence ; a point which will presently be further 
 explained. 
 
 The concealment of the true direction of the rays by 
 the influence of perspective, is perhaps rendered more 
 striking in diagram 1.5, where, as the inclination of the 
 shadow boundary as projected on the wall A, increases 
 progressively from C to B, the inclination of the lines 
 defining the direction of the ravs decreases. It should 
 be observed, that although the direction of the shadow 
 boundary deviates more from the perpendicular at C 
 than at B, this is not due to a less decided inclination of 
 the rays. It is, as shown in the diagram, the result of 
 altered relations in the direction of the rays of light, with 
 reference to the line E F of the building which projects 
 the shadow. It may be further remarked, that the 
 shadow-line is the more expressive of the true direction 
 of the rays, in proportion as these are nearer to parallcl- 
 
 Fig. 15.
 
 PEKSPKCTIVE OF SHADOWS. 405 
 
 isni with tlie surface on which tiie\ lirojucl the shadow ; 
 so that if both extended in the same ])lane, the projected 
 shadow, if distinguishable from local shade, would mark 
 the exact inclination of the sunbeam. 
 
 PROCESS USUALLY EMPLOYED EOR PUTTIXO PROJECTED 
 SHADOWS INTO PERSPECTIVK. 
 
 Let US now proceed to consider the methods which 
 may be employed for determining, on the Hat surface 
 of the canvas, the position as well as the form of 
 projected shadows. This operation is facilitated by 
 supposing the ravs which proceed from the sun to 
 be visible, and by defining their inclination with re- 
 ference to the surfaces of those bodies with which they 
 become connected. This inclination, as has already 
 been stated, may be designated vertical and horizontal. 
 The vertical inclination of the rays has reference to 
 horizontal surfaces, and their horizontal inclination lias 
 reference to vertical surfaces, tlie horizontal extension of 
 which is determinate. In diagram 1 !•, the former in- 
 clination is represented 1)\ tlie lines / in and / //, and the 
 latter by the lines p and q. It k owing, as betbre 
 stated, to the influence of persj)ective, that a single line 
 marking the vertical fall of the rays does not suffice to 
 express their direction. One indicating their horizontal 
 inclination is likewise required, which, by intercepting 
 the line which marks their vertical inclination, deter- 
 ipines, at the \w\nt of contact, the extremity of the 
 shadow of anv given object. M'hcn such object happens 
 to be is(jlated, ami uiicoiincrli'd with the ground, the 
 position 111' its shadow is eijuaiiv Inuiid I'li the lc\el
 
 406 PROJECTEU SHADOWS. 
 
 surface bv merely tracin<>, in addition to the process 
 alluded to, a temporary vertical line down to the foot 
 of the point or object of which the position of tlie 
 shadow is required. The position of any gleam of 
 sunshine in a mass of projected shadow, as produced by 
 a loophole or open window, is found in this manner ; as 
 may be, indeed, tliat of any projected shadow, however 
 intricate or elaborate the building, or object of any kind, 
 with which it is connected. Thus, however great may 
 appear the difficulty resulting from complexity combined 
 with precision in the forms of shadows, their projection 
 on a uniform surface, such as the level soil, is one of the 
 simplest processes which are connected with perspective. 
 An inclined line drawn fi'om the top of any given object 
 till it meets another line drawn from the foot of the 
 same object, determines, at the point of conjunction, the 
 length and position of the projected shadow. 
 
 When the direction of the rays is parallel to the 
 observer, the inclined line drawn from the summit of the 
 object gives exactly the vertical inclination of the sun's 
 rays, and all the lines which serve to define this inclina- 
 tion are made parallel ; whilst the horizontal direction 
 of the rays is rendered alike by parallel horizontal lines. 
 When, however, the rays of light are not parallel to the 
 observer, but either advance or recede, the lines which 
 mark their vertical inclination, as well as those which 
 indicate their horizontal inclination, are made to con- 
 verge. When they are thrown toward the observer, or 
 as it were out of the picture, as exemplified by the 
 shadow of the upright post and board B, Fig. 10, p. 3!).5, 
 the boundary lines of the shadow converge towards the 
 object which projects it, and their point of convergence
 
 PEKSPKCTIVE Ol- SHADOWS. 407 
 
 is situated on the horizon, immediately below the sun ; 
 whereas the point of convergence of the lines which 
 mark the vertical inclination of the rays corresponds to 
 the position of the sun itself. Wlien (the sun being 
 situated behind the observer,) the shadow' is projected 
 into the picture, the j)oint of convergence of the lines 
 which mark the vertical inclination of the ravs is exactly 
 opposite to the position of the sun, at a distance below 
 the horizon equal to the elevation of the sun above it ; 
 whereas the point of convergence of the lines of the 
 shadow itself is situated on the horizon, above the point 
 of convergence of the rays of light. (See Fig. 1 1, p. 396.) 
 It is necessary, before proceeding further, to make 
 a distinction between the perspective of the lines (to 
 which I have Iiitherto confined myself,) forming as it 
 were the sides of a shadow, and indicating the direction 
 in which it is projected, and that of the terminal lines 
 of the shadow, or of those which mark its extreme 
 boundary, to which I will now refer. When the shadow 
 of a receding building, or of any other object, is pro- 
 jected at right angles, or across the picture, there is 
 but one vanishing point, which is that of the lines which 
 mark the extreme boundary of the shadow ; in which 
 case, the same point of convergence is made to serve 
 for the lines of the shadow and for those of the build- 
 ing: whereas, a shadow which is projected diagonally 
 has, in addition to the point to which the lines marking 
 the extreme boundary of the shadow converge, another 
 vanishing point, (namely that first alluded to,) toward 
 wliicli fend those lines which mark the direction of the 
 shadow, and the position of which devialos more or
 
 (08 I'UOJKCTEI) SHADOWS. 
 
 less from tlio vanishini;- point nl' tlu- linos constituting 
 the extreme bomulary or liinil of the shadow, accord- 
 ing to the direction more or less oblique in which the 
 shadow is projected. 
 
 The shadotts of curves, like their perspective forms, 
 are found out by indicating a series of points on the 
 line of the curve, the intervals between which are filleil 
 up by the eye. The same principles which are em- 
 ployed for determining the perspective of curved and 
 other varying forms, are likewise applicable to their 
 shadows, even though they should diifer (according to 
 the inclination of the rays, or to the obliqueness of their 
 direction,) from the form of the object itself. The 
 shadow of an arch becomes depressed or flattened with 
 the increased inclination of the rays, or takes a skew 
 form from their diagonal direction. And in the deli- 
 neation of these figures, resulting from the projection 
 of shadows on a level surface, the same perspective 
 rules apply which are had recourse to in the tracing 
 of regular or of eccentric ellipses. In fact, the forms 
 of shadows which are projected on a flat and uniform 
 surface, are to be considered merely as figures or pat- 
 terns : they are included in the same general per- 
 spective conditions as if they belonged to that surface. 
 
 When the shadow is projected sidewards or trans- 
 versely, each part or division bears exactly the same 
 relation to the other parts of the shadow, as the same 
 part of the object does to the other parts ; but when 
 diagonally, either thrown back or projected forward, 
 these relations of proportion in the parts of a shadow 
 become unequally modified by the perspective of the
 
 PEKSrECTIVK OF SHADOWS. 1()<) 
 
 plane receiving it, according as tlie part ot tlie surt'ace 
 where it is projected advances or retires. Tlie cxtcn- 
 .-^ion of the shadow ot" a part of a building whicli ad- 
 vances more than the rest, is exactly proportionate, when 
 projected sidewards, or in a direction parallel to the 
 observer, to that of the corresponding portion of the 
 building itself. But when the shadow, under these 
 circumstances, is represented as projected forward on 
 a level ])lane, it is necessary to increase its length in 
 a progression which is proportionate to the perspective 
 increase of equal spaces as they advance toward the 
 observer. These perspective relations of the parts of a 
 shadow to the whole, are determined in the manner 
 usuallv employed for marking the progressive expansion 
 or contraction of equal spaces on the perspective plane. 
 'I'he required precision in the perspective of shadows 
 is therefore obtained, in the first place, by finding out 
 the position of any given point projecting a shadow, 
 bv means of lines connected with the leading points 
 of the object, and which mark the vertical as well as 
 the horizontal inclination of the rays ; and, where the 
 shadows of regular but complex forms are projected, 
 bv emploving the same means for dividing space as 
 are used in the perspective dissection of real objects. 
 
 ."S/i'ti/uir.s projecled on rtirioiLsh/ inclined Sttrfiicrs. 
 — We may in most cases trace the form of a shadow on 
 a surface which passes suddenly from one direction to 
 another, bv connecting the boundary lines of the shadow 
 ubicb aic parallel to the object, with iIki^c which arc 
 projected at right angles. Most of (he foriii> uliicli arc
 
 410 
 
 PllOJECTEU SHADOWS. 
 
 connected with buildings att'ord alternately, transitions 
 from the horizontal to the vertical direction, and vice 
 versa .- and in these alternations, the shadows of upriglit 
 objects change from the horizontal direction to the 
 vertical one, and resume the former. Thus, the shadow 
 of an upright object, thrown across a flight of steps, 
 passes alternately, at the tread and riser of each step, 
 from the direction which marks the track of the rays of 
 light on the horizontal surface to the vertical direction, 
 and from the latter back again to the former : and the 
 connection of this broken line of shadow, at the angles 
 or corners of the steps, completes the entire form of the 
 shadow which is thrown across them. 
 
 When corresponding forms are thus repeated, there 
 can be no ditEculty either in finding out the direction of 
 the projected shadow, or in determining its extremity, 
 namely, the limit of its greatest extension ; for, as we 
 possess both the position and the direction of the 
 shadow on one level surface, the usual means furnished 
 by a line marking the vertical inclination of the rays, is 
 rendered available for finding out its extreme boundary 
 on surfaces which are situated at various elevations ; the 
 conjunction of this line (/ m. Fig. 1()) with one marking
 
 PERSPECTIVE OK SHADOWS. 411 
 
 the direction of the shadow wherever it uiitiht occur on a 
 level surface, serving invariably to define the extremity 
 of the shadow. A line drawn from the foot to the top 
 of the fliglit of steps, gives at once the general direction 
 of the shadow which is thrown across them, and assists 
 in making out its direction on each separate stej). 
 Should the steps be deficient, or their shape so far de- 
 faced as to distort the shadow, or break its continuity 
 until it reached a level surface above, a perpendicular 
 line, c d, resting on the track of the ray (supposing it to 
 be continued in its primitive direction), and raised till it 
 met any determinate point on the level surface above, 
 would serve in anv case to mark tlic position of the 
 shadow on this last plane. In this manner the length 
 of a projected shadow is determined when its continuity 
 is broken. Those forms of tlie sliadow which cor- 
 respond with the leading points of the object projecting 
 it, or with the prominent parts of the surface crossed by 
 it, are thus determined, by raising perpendiculars from 
 the track of the shadow on the level surface, till they 
 meet lines marking the vertical inclination of the rays. 
 The same degree of accuracy is not always attain- 
 able with reijard to surfaces wliidi extend in various 
 directions ; and that chiefly because the nature of the 
 surfaces on which the shadows are projected cannot be 
 precisely defined. The situation of the shadow is not 
 more difficult to trace than the form of the surface 
 which it obscures ; uncertainty extends etpially to l)oth. 
 If the reader refers once more to the diagram nt tlic 
 inclined stone, Fig. 7, j). S[)% he will observe that the exact 
 position of the \)tAu\ of tlie shadow })r()jccfed at ///, does
 
 H^ PROJECTED SHADOWS, 
 
 not depend alone on the incliiiivtion of tlie ray expressed 
 by the line / ?w. it might have been earried beyond 
 the point ni, or have stopped short of it ; and, with 
 no other guide than the apparent position of the stone 
 as rejjresented to us by the diagram, we are not able 
 to say with confidence whether the point of the shadow 
 ought to be exactly where it is, a little lower down, or 
 a little higher up. This would depend o)i the degree 
 of inclination of the slanting stone ; which itself is ex- 
 pressed by that of its boundary lines, with due reference 
 to their convergence toward a vanishing point situated 
 above the horizon. But, the furthest end of the inclined 
 stone being without any immediate connection with the 
 level plane, the eye has no guide in appreciating its de- 
 gree of inclination ; and its slightly converging boundary 
 lines, as represented in the diagram, would be applied 
 with equal correctness, according to its distance from 
 the observer, to a square stone in a position not greatly 
 differing from the horizontal, or to an oblong one in a 
 position more erect. 
 
 The impression made by the appearance of the stone 
 on the mind of an observer who incessantly alters his 
 relations of distance, is perhaps that of a simultaneous 
 and combined change in the proportions of the stone, 
 (that is to say, in its relative length and width,) and 
 in its degree of slant ; the stone becoming less inclined 
 with a near view than it is with a distant one. It is 
 true that, in the adaptation to the position of the ob- 
 server which regards the plane of inclination of one of 
 ' the stones, the other has an equal share. Their rela- 
 tive position, and consequently that of the projected
 
 PKHSPFCTIVF. OF SHADOWS. H '? 
 
 shadow, cannot tlierefore var\ on this hist principle 
 only. But when the proportions of the stone are in- 
 volved, as is the case in the figure, from the want' of 
 a point of contact with a determinate plane, the shadow 
 which is thrown across it by another object cannot be 
 precisely determined. In the case here alluded to, the 
 true position of the shadow could be fixed upon only 
 if the position of the stone over which it extends were 
 accurately made out ; as, for instance, by giving, in a 
 ground-jAan, the horizontal extension of the object, and, 
 on a scale of elevation, its exact height, or its degree 
 of slope. But the uselessness of tliis method would 
 soon become apparent, as applied to tlie definition of 
 the boundaries of shadows on uneven surfaces ; of which 
 we are unable, even in nature, to ascertain without diffi- 
 culty the precise direction, whilst the shadows them- 
 selves vary in shape and position during the very time 
 we are engaged in this precise and accurate measure- 
 ment, in tlic diagram last referred to, tlic inclined 
 stone, although we may not feel satisfied whether it he 
 an exact squan; or an oblong, we know at least to 
 be of a regular shape. How much greater would 
 be the uncertainty connected with the form and posi- 
 tion of tlie shadow, if the shape of the stone itself were 
 irregular. 
 
 It must now I think appear evident, that when, 
 owing to the intricacy of the subject delineated, the 
 relations of its parts become uncertain, it would be vain 
 to seek to trace witii the accuracy of a geometrical 
 process, the jxisition of the ])rojected shadow. At the
 
 IH I'ltOJF.rTF.n SHADOWS. 
 
 same time, it would be evincing a want of correct draw- 
 ing, to make any such deviations from truth, as would 
 b6 apparent to the eye. 
 
 When the position of the leading points of a pro- 
 jected shadow is uncertain, the inclination of the boun- 
 dary lines is likewise necessarily difficult to determine in 
 a perspective drawing. I will here recapitulate the prin- 
 cipal data which are connected with this question. In 
 the first place, a twisted form of the shadow cannot result 
 from a deviation of the surface receiving it from paral- 
 lelism with the plane of the object, if the direction 
 of the rays is at the same time conformable to the plane 
 of that deviation. The two points next to be considered 
 are, the degree of inclination of the plane of the pro- 
 jecting object and of the receiving surface relatively to 
 each other, and the degree of inclination of the rays of 
 light relatively to a plane which has the same relations 
 to both. It shoidd be further observed, that the change 
 produced in the direction of a shadow takes place alike 
 and to the same extent, by a deviation of the surface pro- 
 jecting, or of the surface receiving it, from a direction 
 which is at right angles with one of the planes of the ravs 
 of light. In Fig. 7> which has been last considered, the 
 deviation of the inclined stone from the plane of the up- 
 right one takes place in two directions simultaneously, 
 and obtains, therefore, with regard to both these con- 
 ditions of its surface, different relations to the direction 
 of the rays. Hence it is, that the shadow of the vertical 
 boundary of the upright stone, as projected across the 
 inclined one, deviates fi'om the perpendicular, whilst
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF SHADOWS. 11.0 
 
 the shadow of tlie lovel boundary of the same stone 
 deviates from the horizontal. 
 
 I shall not enter further into the consideration of 
 the complicated effects which are due to various di- 
 rections in the plane of the object which intercepts the 
 light, associated with the same diversity in the direction 
 of the surface which receives the shadow. The prin- 
 ciples heretofore given, if applied in detail and in con- 
 nection with each other, will perhaps be found of 
 some assistance in carrying out the more simple effects 
 which are connected with the projection of shadows. 
 Amongst the leading applications of these principles, 
 it will especially be remembered, that the fulness of 
 the shadow, and its conformity with the object, depend 
 on the parallelism of the latter with the surface 
 upon which it casts its shadow ; that a change in the 
 direction of the projector, which causes it at the same 
 time to deviate from that of the receiving surface, and to 
 approximate to the direction of the rays, produces inva- 
 riably a shortening, contraction, or thinning, of the pro- 
 jected shadow ; and that any change of direction, which 
 is limited to one object (namely, to the receiving surface 
 or to the projector), whilst the rays of light remain per- 
 pendicular to the other, can have no other result than 
 the extension or the widening of the shadow, without 
 influencing its regularity. 
 
 Shadows projected on irrei>nhir Surfaces — I need 
 only add a few general remarks to the foregoing defi- 
 nitions. The shadow of a ri^lit line, or of a straight
 
 1<1() phojkctkd shadows. 
 
 object, takes the direction, and indeed marks the form, 
 of any surface across wliicli it is thrown : it follows 
 the curve of a concave surface, and the projection of 
 a convex one ; and, where other indications are want- 
 ing, may assist not a little in marking the bent or 
 direction of any surface crossed by it. It will be seen 
 that the shadows of the uprights A and B, Fig. 1 G, take, 
 on reaching the upright or inclined surfaces, the exact 
 direction of those surfaces. Under the projecting part 
 of the parapet, the shadow of B is partly bent upon 
 itself, following backward the track which it pursued on 
 the level surface. But in tracing the shadows projected 
 by regular objects on curved and sinuous surfaces, it is 
 necessary to consider the forms of the latter in con- 
 nection with the direction of the light. The forms of 
 projected shadows correspond with those of the pro- 
 jections and depressions of the surface, only wlien its 
 general direction is at right angles with that of the pro- 
 jected shadows. When the direction of the surface is 
 oblique relatively to the plane of the shadow, the form 
 of the latter becomes proportionably more sinuous, 
 jagged, and broken ; the intervals being wider where 
 the shadow-line is interrupted by the hollows and depres- 
 sions of the surface. 
 
 To these departures from the shape of any object in 
 the shadow projected by it, dependent on its relations to 
 the direction of the light, as well as to the surface ii])()n 
 which its shadow is thrown, are added, as has been 
 already remarked, those contrasting differences in the 
 appearance and character of both, which result from the
 
 PEHSIMU TIXK OF SHADOWS. 
 
 117 
 
 dissimilar perspective infiuonee to wliieli they are sub- 
 jected ; oecasionally producing the strangest discre- 
 pancies in the relative forms of the shadow, and of the 
 object wliich intercepts the light. Diagram I7 shows, 
 in some measure, how far the form of a shadow may be 
 changed by the unequal perspective influence to which 
 the planes over wliich the projected shadow extends are 
 subjected. The two receding arches, being seen verv 
 foreshortened, arc proportionably narrow. The floor of 
 the arcade, on which the shadows of the arches are first 
 thrown, being somewhat less foreshortened, they here 
 widen a little ; and, where f^'S- i" 
 
 projected on the wall, oppo- 
 site the arches, thev widen 
 considerably ; as that wall, 
 though parallel with the 
 arches, recedes much less di- 
 rectly from the observer than 
 do the arches themselves. These modifications in the 
 forms of the shadow are due entirely to the perspective 
 condition of the surfaces over which it extends, its real 
 width bein<j the same as that of the arch throughout. 
 If we could suppose a door to l)e adjusted to one of the 
 side arches in the diagram, and to be left partiv open, 
 the surface or plane of the 'door would be still more con- 
 tracted, or perhaps disappear entirely ; and yet its 
 shadow, as projected under the archway, would very 
 nearlv fill up the whole space which is surroiuulcd by tin- 
 shadow of the arch ; sliowiiin .still more strikingly the 
 effects resulting tVoui a difference in the pliiiic ol the 
 
 I', i:
 
 MS i'i:iisri:cTivi: of reflections. 
 
 body which intercepts the light, IVoiii that over wiiicli 
 its shadow extends. The guide-post, Fig. 13, p. 3!)9, 
 has been chosen as a fit ilUistration of the effects 
 which are due to perspective associated with utlier prin- 
 ciples. The great dissimilarity of the kind of influence 
 on which the forms of the shadows and those of the arms 
 of the post depend, is rendered manifest by the entire 
 want of connection and analogy in their appearance. 
 
 PERSPECTIVK OF RRFLKCTIONS. 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Few circumstances afford a better proof of the supei*- 
 ficial manner in which nature is generally observed, than 
 the jumble which is continually made, of the appear- 
 ances which belong to shadows and of those which 
 pertain to reflections. There are some cases, indeed, 
 as on a rough sea in cloudy weather, in which the 
 reflections arc so diffuse, ancl the shadows at the same 
 §(? undefined, that they are not easily distinguished one 
 from another, especially when both extend over the 
 same area : but when persons who draw, and who it 
 may be draw well, appear embarrassed, if asked whe- 
 ther the image which is cast by a tree on a smooth
 
 GEVEKAI. UF.MAKKS. II!) 
 
 lake or pool, is its reflection or its shadow, it strikes 
 one that there must be something very superficial and 
 defective in the niannor in wliicli art is usually tauglit. 
 One simple consideration, however, will at once set at 
 rest any doubts respecting the distinction between the 
 reflection of an object and its shadow. The reflection 
 changes its position continually with that of the ob- 
 server; it seems to follow him wherever he goes, and 
 does not remain stationary like the shadow, which is 
 subjected to change, onlv when the object projecting it 
 or the primary light itself is removed, and which re- 
 mains unaflPected by the position of the observer. Again, 
 in order that a reflection be produced on a smooth surface, 
 the object alone is required, — no light or luminary, as 
 in the case of the shadow, need be looked for ; unless, 
 indeed, the object itself be wanting ; in which case, the 
 light is reflected, and becomes in fact the object. But 
 such remarks as these may almost seem trivial to those 
 who first observe nature, and then proceed to imitate 
 her. 
 
 The great governing principle in all the phenomena 
 of definite reflection, or, of reflection affbrding a distinct 
 image, is, the throwing ofi' of each ray, by the reflecting 
 surface, in the same angle as that in which it falls upon 
 it ; and although hundreds, perhaps millions of rays, 
 are transmitted in various directions from the object to 
 the polished surface which reflects them, one pencil of 
 these, onlv, if the surface be nnifdrm, reaches tin- eye 
 of the observer, and conveys to him ilic exact appear- 
 ance of that ])ortion of the object wIkmicc it is derived.
 
 420 PERSPECTIVE OF REFLECTIONS. 
 
 The immediate result of this principle that each ray 
 is reflected in the angle of its incidence, is, that in pro- 
 portion as the object, or the portion of the. object, from 
 which the ray proceeds, is further removed from the 
 plane of the reflecting surface, it is thrown back or 
 reflected from a part of that surface nearer to the 
 observer. If he look down upon a smooth sheet of 
 water, the higher the surrounding trees rise above the 
 shore, the nearer their reflection seems to reach to the 
 spot occupied by him ; or, if he place himself opposite 
 to an upright looking-glass, the further the objects 
 which he sees there, are removed from it, provided it 
 be in a direction perpendicular to its surface, the nearer 
 will their image be reflected to that point of the glass 
 or mirror, which is directly opposite to him. To this 
 circumstance may be traced that condition which is 
 peculiar to all reflected images, namely, that their posi- 
 tion is the reverse of that of the primary objects. I 
 will endeavour to bring this home to the mind of the 
 reader. 
 
 The simple and immediate influence of perspective, 
 causes invariably the objects which recede directly from 
 the eye, to occupy, with respect to a plane parallel to 
 the observer, (supposing them to be seen through it,) 
 a point successively nearer to the position of his eye, 
 in proportion to their removal. Now it has just been 
 proved, that the same principle governs the apparent 
 reeedence of those objects which are reflected on a 
 plane surface : they present themselves successively on 
 parts of the reflecting surface more perpendicularly
 
 GENERAL UEMARKS. 121 
 
 under the eye, in proportion as they have the appear- 
 ance of beiiif^ situated further off. If we now consider 
 this increasing apparent distance of the image or images 
 reflected by the mirror, in connection with the increas- 
 ing distance of the corresponding object or objects be- 
 fore it, we find the immediate result to be, the inverted 
 position of the reflected imago. Ever\- projection of 
 objects, wliich is away from the mirror, in ;i direction 
 perpendicular to its plane, is reproduced by the image 
 apparently situated beyond its surface, with exactly the 
 opposite extension. 
 
 The relationship of position of the object and of its 
 image, corresponds alone with reference to the inter- 
 vening mirror, and not with leference to the observer, 
 or to space. A figure which looks eastward, looks west- 
 ward in the reflection, as a knife held with the handle 
 one way, is reflected with the handle turned the oppo- 
 site wav. In the reality, as in the reflection, however, 
 the handle, as I liavc placed the knife, is turncl towards 
 the glass, and llic blade awav IVom it. The plane of 
 the glass, or the reflecting medium, is as it were mid- 
 way between the object and tlic image: it constitutes 
 the term of relationship between them ; and, with 
 reference to it, the position of both is identical. 
 
 Considered by itself, this turning round of the image, 
 so that it meets the object end to end, front to front, 
 does not convey with it any such impressions as are 
 generallv connected with a difl'erencc of appearance, it 
 is onlv with reference to other associated impressions, 
 which in most cases arc foreign to our ideas respecting 
 the position of objects, that this inversion of tlu- reflected
 
 422 PEUSPECTIVF. (Jl- KKII-ECTIONS. 
 
 image strikes us as having in it something extraordinary. 
 What, for instance, will be the result, if the mirror be 
 laid down horizontally ? The case will then correspond 
 with that presented by a pool of smooth water ; with 
 the only difference, that the reflecting surface will bo 
 smaller : the principle of the reflection is not in the 
 least changed. The portion of an object which is most 
 distant from the surface of the mirror in the reality, is, 
 as before, most distant from that same surface in the 
 i-eflection. But this causes, to our senses, a much 
 greater departure from the natural result, than what 
 was observed in the former position of the glass. The 
 figure no longer appears turned round, but upside 
 down : and this is the exact appearance which all ob- 
 jects have when reflected in water. Everything there 
 is seen topsy-turvy, although this strange, unnatural 
 effect, as it may seem to be, difi^ers nothing in princi- 
 ple from the reflections which are formed in every plane 
 reflector. Here, a principle influences our impressions, 
 which has nothing to do with them when we look at 
 objects which are reflected on vertical surfaces. Gra- 
 vitation, which causes all bodies to fall to the earth, 
 renders the appearance of objects which rise erect, and 
 in opposition to this force, agreeable to our impres- 
 sions of firmness and solidity, — in fact, right, and as 
 we expect that they should be ; whereas, with the oppo- 
 site downward extension, are naturally associated im- 
 pi'essions of fear and alarm. And, whereas the mere 
 fact that upright objects are projected downwards when 
 reflected on horizontal surfaces, conveys the impression 
 of a great departure from the reality, the turning round
 
 GENKRAL URMAUKS. iqS 
 
 or inversion of the image in the vertical mirror, appears 
 so natural, that the change in its position relatively to 
 the ohject, is scarcely perceived. 
 
 The analogy which exists between the reflection in 
 a mirror and that which takes place on the level sur- 
 face of water, shows itself at once, when we look down 
 at the reflection, in the water, of objects which are 
 close by us. We then perceive that their under-side, 
 or that which faces the water, chiefly appears in the 
 reflection, — as the under-side, for instance, of a tree, 
 of an arch, or of a shed. These close objects approxi- 
 mate to the condition of those which we see reflected 
 in the looking-glass. Their appearance corresponds 
 better still, when a somewhat elevated position affords 
 us a view of the opposite side of the object to thai 
 which is reflected in the water ; as is the case, for 
 instance, when from a high bank we see the back and 
 shoulders of a sheep or cow standing in the water, 
 though the throat and belly appear reflected; just as 
 a person sees the back of his own hand which he holds 
 up to the glass, whilst he sees the palm reflected. 
 
 The chief difference between objects which arc re- 
 flected in the lake or river, and those which are reflected 
 in the glass, inde])endently of the impression of looking 
 down, arises from their distribution, in the former case, 
 on the extreme verge of the reflecting surface, wliitli 
 causes them in 1)1' seen obliquclv and in the distance; 
 whereas, in the mirror, the attention is chiefly called 
 to the oi)jects wliirh jippcar full and conspicuous before 
 vou. The reversion of objects in the glass, certainly 
 liives rise lu a kind of (Uparturc from the reality, which
 
 V24f I'KKSl'liCTlVL; Ol- REl'LECTIONS. 
 
 has something of an anomalous nature : as for instance, 
 each eye, or each hand, has its corresponding reflection : 
 but the reflection of the right eye, or of the right liand, 
 is not, in our mind, the riglit eye, or the right hand, of 
 the individual reflected ; for his right members, in the 
 position in which we see them, correspond with our 
 own left. But this circumstance arises from nothing 
 more than that mutual agreement which has decreed 
 that one side of the human figure, and all tliat relates 
 to it, should receive a name to distinguish it from the 
 other. The result of this, with reference to the human 
 figure, is, that the right hand becomes the left hand 
 in the reflection, and iiice vcrsu ; for, as a person who 
 looks this way, has his right hand in the opposite direc- 
 tion to what it would be were he looking the other way, 
 so it is with his reflection, — right and left become re- 
 versed. The impression thus produced has little to do 
 with the principle of reflection, and would disappear 
 without the conventional distinction which has been 
 made between the opposite members of the body. 
 
 REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRROKS. 
 
 A few Practical Hints. — The hints which follow 
 are not intended as a means for ascertaining the rela- 
 tion of every definite reflection to its object, in. a manner 
 similar to that in which the form and position of real 
 objects are determined with mathematical precision by 
 perspective rule. Owing to the circumstance that the 
 greater part, if not the whole, of the real subject, gene-
 
 REFLECTION IN PLANE MIKKOKS. 425 
 
 rally remains hidden to the observer who sees its reflec- 
 tion in a mirror, it woidd \n manv cases be useless to 
 endeavour to connect. the two in one illustration, by 
 means of perspective lines. In the simplest relations 
 of an object to its reflected image, the eye seems to feel 
 the want of the necessary data for appreciation : and if 
 to these indistinct impressions be added, in the repre- 
 sentation of reflected images, the uncertainty which 
 arises respecting the position of tlie mirror in the 
 picture, as also respecting the position of the observer 
 (jut of it, it would be found that the degree of precision 
 attainable with an ordinary amount of care and atten- 
 tion, must be inferior to that which regards the direct 
 appearance of natural objects. Nevertheless, the egre- 
 gious mistakes which have been made, not only by 
 inferior artists, but occasionally by the first masters of 
 the old schools, shew the necessity that these points 
 should be considered with a degree of penetration which 
 they have not hitlicrto elicited. I will chiefly endeavour 
 to call the attention of the student to some few points 
 especially calculated to attract his notice, and which, 
 like beacons on the trackless waste, may serve to guide 
 him in the solution of the monotonous inquiry connected 
 w ith reflection in mirrors ; for the thorough understand- 
 ing of which, however, it is particularly necessary that 
 his own observation and judgment should be exercised. 
 
 Relative Distance of the Olijert and of the Mirror. 
 — What has been said, under the subject of Perspective, 
 to prove that the ingenuity of the artist ought, as far as 
 possible, to furnish the observer with the means for re-
 
 4^(5 rEHSPECTIVK or iikklections. 
 
 cognising his true point of sight, applies particuhirly with 
 regard to those paintings in which is iiitrocluced the 
 reflection of a figure, or of other conspicuous objects, in a 
 mirror ; for it is on the supposed distance of the observer 
 from the mirror, compared with that of the object, that 
 its size relative to that of its reflection depends. To an 
 observer situated at a considerable distance from the 
 mirror, the reflection of an object placed near it, must 
 evidently appear nearly as large as the object itself: 
 whereas, if the observer approach so near that the object 
 becomes situated half-way between him and the mirror, 
 its reflection will appear reduced to one-third of the size 
 of the object ; and, if the object be situated at only one- 
 fourth of the distance between himself and the mirror, 
 the image will appear to him seven times smaller than 
 the object. 
 
 The principle on which the apparent reduction of the 
 image takes place, may here be considered with ad- 
 vantage ; as it leads at once to the definition of the pro- 
 portions of the reflected image with regard to those of 
 the object. The apparent dimensions of an image, seen 
 in a plane mirror, are the same as would be those of the 
 object, if its distance from the fiice of the mirror were 
 added to that of the mirror from the observer, in a 
 straight line ; so that if the distance of the object from 
 the mirror be the same as that of the spectator, the ap- 
 parent dimensions of the image will be those of an object 
 situated at a distance equal to twice that of the reflector. 
 Supposing the object to be a sphere, that portion of its 
 rays which is transmitted by the mirror to the eye of the 
 observer, forms an elongated cone, gradually tapering
 
 REFLECTION IN PLANE MIKKOUS. 4l^ 
 
 from the object to the mirror, and iVom thence back to 
 the eve of the observer ; and the imawe discernible in the 
 former, is a section of the cone, more or less near to its 
 apex or to its base, according to the relative distance of the 
 observer and of the object from the mirror. Hence the 
 appearance more or less diminished of the image, accord- 
 ing to the greater or less extent traversed by the rays, 
 in their double transit from the object to the mirror and 
 from thence back to the observer ; the difference between 
 the apparent dimensions of the object and of its image, 
 being exactly proportionate to the difference between the 
 distance traversed by the rays which meet the eye of the 
 observer in a direct lino, and those which reach him onlv 
 after having been reflected l)v the mirror. If a series of 
 mirrors be so distributed that an object is reflected suc- 
 cessively from one to another, and ultimatelv to the ob- 
 server, the image in the last mirror will seem to him to 
 be reducinl in proportion to the whole amount of space 
 comprised between the diffi'rent mirrors, and may thus 
 appear to be at a considerable distance, although the 
 object itself be close to the observer. 
 
 Since round balls, jugs, and plaster casts, though 
 common objects, are reflected with a clear and distinct 
 image, in an ordinary looking-glass, why should not the 
 eye of the drauglitsmaii who is not careless with regard to 
 precision in art, be frequently exercised in observing the 
 appearance of the like objects as reflected under various 
 circumstances? He would soon bo able to ilotormine 
 the effects which would result from any oliango in the 
 relations of the miriDr to tlic ])osition of the object or to 
 his own ; espociallx il he wcic lu diroot his attention to
 
 I>,'S 
 
 rEKSPECTIVE OF REFLECTIONS. 
 
 the circumstance, that the apparent diniiiiutioii u\' tlie 
 image is in every case exactly relative to the length of 
 the <;onc or fasciculus of rays, which, enianatini;- from 
 the object, is reflected back to the eye. He might 
 observe, in the first place, that as he moves from a 
 position at some distance from the mirror, to one still 
 further off, the image of an object wliich is situated near 
 its surface, continues to maintain nearly the same relative 
 proportions (see Fig. 18): and secondly, that when he 
 
 Fi^. 18. 
 
 'J'/ie observer is situated at some distance frmit the nh/rcl, 
 which itself is near the mirror. 
 
 himself remains stationary, but causes the mirror to be 
 moved backwards, the I'csult is a very rapid diminution 
 of the reflected image ; for, bv the removal of the 
 mirror, the fasciculi of rays which convey to the eye the 
 reflection of the object, become lengthened simultan- 
 eously both before and after being reflected by the 
 mirror (see Fig. 19). In this case, the perspective 
 change is confined to the image ; and by comparing its 
 proportions with those of the object, which remains sta- 
 tionary, it will be seen to have undergone a very decided
 
 HEFI,BCTION IN Pr,ANE MIIUJORS. 429 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 The inin-nr hiis hei'ii moued barkward; the ohserrer and 
 the object reinniiiiiig xtiiliojiari/. 
 
 dimimition. \\'hen, the observer and the mirror beinsr 
 stationary, the object is moved away from tlie latter and 
 toward tlie observer, although the diminution of the 
 reflected image is less rapid than when the mirror itself 
 was removed, tln^ diflPerence between the apparent size 
 of the image and that of tlie object, becomes decidedly 
 greater than in cither of the two former cases ; for al- 
 though the removal of the object from the mirror 
 lengthens the cone of rays at one end onlv, yet, as the 
 same motion of the object l^rings it nearer to the ob- 
 server, it is seen by him closer at the same time that 
 its image appears more distant ; and an excessive differ- 
 ence in their apparent dimensions ensues (see Fig. '20). 
 
 M'ith rt'oard to the perspective of an apartment con- 
 tainiTig various objects, that of the reflection appears to 
 correspond exactlv, in an upright mirror which is pa- 
 rallel with the observer or with the j)lane of the picture 
 if it be a representation. The point of sight is situated 
 exactlv opposite the point of sight of the same objects in
 
 4.30 
 
 FERSPF.CTIVE OF REFLECTION'S. 
 
 tlie reality, and follows the eye of the observer as he 
 moves sidewards before the glass, fixinjr itself imme- 
 diately in front of his eye. In the reflection, however, 
 the vista seems lengthened, as compared witli the 
 scene reflected ; the various objects appearing to be 
 removed from a near position to a more distant one. 
 This does not prevent the perspective principle which 
 governs the real subject, from prevailing in the re- 
 flection ; as will at once become obvious by a glance 
 at any upright mirror. There are, however, some 
 few differences between the reflection and the realitv, 
 which, if not pointed out, might easily be overlooked 
 in a representation of the effects here referred to. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 The object has been moved toward the observer ; the distance 
 of the mirror being the same as in Fis;. 18.
 
 RKFI,F.CTION IN !•[, \Nr, MllUiOItS. KSl 
 
 In the first instance, an observer who faces the end of a 
 room, obtains, by simply turning his head to the ri<rht 
 or to the left, a front view of the objects which are on a 
 line with him on cither side ; whereas, in the reflection, 
 he discovers these objects situated on the side of the 
 room at some distance before him, and thus obtains a 
 more or less side or profile view of them according to the 
 extent of their apparent removal, which is determined bv 
 the distance of the"'glass from the observer. 
 
 Relative Position of the Object and of the Mirror. 
 — Let us consider some other points with regard to this 
 subject. Supposing that I have before me on the table, 
 an object — a plaster cast, forjnstance — and behind it a 
 looking-glass : let us observe to what changes the object 
 and its reflection will become subjected with reference to 
 one another, when I move sidewards. If the cast, which 
 I suppose to be that of a head, be situated between me 
 and the surface of the glass, so as to be seen in i)rofile (as 
 in Fig. ^3, p. 431), a sideward motion, which would afford 
 me a three-quarter view of the head, would not liavi- the 
 same result with regard to its image ; of which my 
 change of position would enable me to discover very 
 little, beyond the jjortion of the face seen with a ])rofile 
 view. A diagonal view enables me to see round the 
 plaster figure to a point equal to one-eighth of its cir- 
 cumference ; whereas (supposing it to be situated half- 
 way between the eye and the mirror) the same change in 
 iiiv position would only j)roduce a difference of one- 
 twenty-fourth, with regard to the point discoverable on 
 the circumference of the reflected image. (Observe, in
 
 43'2 
 
 PERSPECTTVK OK HF.FI.F.C'TION'S. 
 
 Kig. '21, tlio outline of tlic reflected image compared witli 
 that of the figure). It is therefore necessary, in drawing 
 a three-quarter view of a figure placed before a mirror, 
 to mark the situation of the point of sight, and to make 
 such perspective arrangements as will show that the 
 three-quarter view of the head is owing to the sideward 
 position of the observer, and not to its being partlj- 
 turned round ; for if the three-quarter view of the figure, 
 instead of being due to the sideward position of the ob- 
 server, resulted from the turning of the object towards 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 ^tji-iijljm.iJ>u.LL.ijUUUujL:uu.- 
 
 Thn figJire looks in a direclion trhic/i i.<s nearly pariillel tiil/i tin- mirrnr. 
 hilt i.s seen hi/ the nhscrrer frnm a (tingonnl pii^ilinii.
 
 KEFI.KCTION IV I'l, WT. NriRHOli^. 
 
 IS.-i 
 
 liini, till- rt'Ht'ffed imago would be tiini('(i romid in the 
 contrary direction, showing partly the back ol the liead 
 and shoulders ; as is seen in Fig. 18. 
 
 But the direction of the mirror is a point of still 
 greater importance; for the least deviation of its plane 
 causes, at once, a marked and striking difference in the 
 appearance of the ohjects there reflected : in fact, for 
 every degree of deviation in the position of the mirror 
 from its parallel direction, the ohjects reflected in it 
 appear turned round exactly twice that amount. A 
 glass which is turned rnjmd, if I may so express myself. 
 
 Fig. 2-2. 
 
 The position nf the minor being diagonal, an object which is seen «V/i «iiy«, or 
 in profile, appears full in the reflectinu. 
 
 V V
 
 434 
 
 I'ERSPF.CTIVI'. OK HKI-IECTIONS. 
 
 one-sixteenth of tlie compass, presents a three-quarter 
 view of the same objects of which the reflection afforded 
 a side view when the direction of tlie mirror v\ as parallel ; 
 whereas, a mirror placed diagonally, or turned toward 
 the observer one-eighth of the circle, affords a side 
 view of those objects which, with the parallel position of 
 the mirror, would be seen in front, and a front or full 
 view of those which would be seen sidewards. (See, 
 preceding page. Fig. 22, the position of the large figure 
 reflected in the glass, as well as that of the small image). 
 It will be seen by Fig. 23, how a slight inclination of the 
 glass forwards, amounting to only 16°, produces a consi- 
 derable slant in the appearance of the figure reflected, as 
 well as of the walls of the room. Had the inclination 
 of the mirror been increased to 45°, the level table, &c. 
 would have assumed a vertical position, and the vertical 
 walls would have taken a horizontal direction over-head. 
 
 Fis;. 23. 
 
 The fig^ire, being situated between tlii^ observer and the mirror, its reflection is 
 secii' profile. The inclination of the reflected image forward is equal to twice 
 that of the mirror.
 
 lil-.ri.r.C'I'ION IN' I'J.ANT, .MIHKOHS. 4'^.1 
 
 An inclination of the mirror upwards, to tbc same amount, 
 l)r()(luces exactly the converse of this effect. This double 
 amount of change produced in the images reflected, for 
 every single turn of the mirror, cannot bi^ overlooked 
 without producing great discrepancies in the imitation. 
 
 False attitudes and positions are of frequent occur- 
 rence in representing objects which are reflected in 
 oblique mirrors ; and in many cases, although the repre- 
 sentation be correct, the effect appears false to some 
 persons, owing to their little habitude of judging of the 
 various circumstances which influence reflections in 
 mirrors. What is chiefly wanted with regard to the 
 reflection of rounded forms is, the tuition of the eye by 
 observation ; in the same manner as experience and 
 practice are required, more than any thing else, with 
 regard to the perspective of all forms in nature which, 
 without being quite symmetrical, have a certain degree 
 of regularity. It should especially be borne in mind, 
 that such changes in the position of the observer as 
 enable him to see the object itself under very different 
 aspects, but slightly influence in most cases the outliiie of 
 the reflected image ; and that any striking difference 
 between its appearance and that of the object, denotes at 
 once a direction more or less slanting (ir oljliciuc in the 
 plane of the mirror. 
 
 With rcjjard to the mistake, rather too clunisy to l)t> 
 common, of causing an object to appear reflected when 
 the size and position of the mirror are such as not t<i 
 allow of its bi>ing visible, no rules, perhaps, can super- 
 sede the tuition of experience. Technically speaking, 
 however, no object can be seen reflected, unless the plane
 
 480 I'l'.nsi'K.cTivF. OF UF.ri.r.rTioNs. 
 
 of reflection comprised between a line drawn from the 
 eve to the object and a line drawn from the eye to its 
 image, is perpendicular to that of the reflecting surface. 
 An object which is above the eye, cannot be seen re- 
 flected in a vertical mirror the top of which is below or 
 on a level with the eye ; because on no part of such 
 mirror could the plane of reflection be perpendicular to 
 its own plane. The same rule applies to an object 
 having any corresponding position relatively to the 
 mirror and to the observer. Another consideration is, 
 the similarity of the angles of incidence and reflection ; 
 and it need only be added, tluit no object can be seen 
 reflected in a mirror, owing to the position or smallness 
 of which, this equality of the angles of incidence and 
 reflection would not take place on its surface. A little 
 exercise in adjusting objects so that they might be seen 
 reflected in a small mirror, or on a given part of a large 
 one, would soon accustom the eye to these truths, and 
 render them far more practically useful (ban woidd do 
 more precise definitions. 
 
 RF.FLECTION ON SMOOTH WATER. 
 
 The perspective of objects which are reflected on 
 water, docs not present the circumstantial difficulties 
 which attend the representation of the features, or of 
 the whole figure, reflected in a looking-glass. The scene 
 affords, it is true, a variety of objects receding one 
 behind another ; l)ut their inverted reflection on smooth 
 w ator has the same point of sight, and the same points
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 ir. 
 D 
 
 O
 
 REFLECTION ON S.MOOTII WATEK. I'SJ 
 
 of distance, as the real objects. In fact, we see in the 
 reflection but the complement of the reality : it forms as 
 it were part of the same whole in the vanishing pro- 
 gression of the scene. The outline of the real objects 
 being always planned the first, the perspective of the 
 reflection becomes in a manner already determined : and 
 the simple method of drawing a perpendicular from the 
 foot of the object on or bordering the water, downwards 
 to a point situated at a distance equal to the elevation of 
 the object above its level, will serve, in almost every 
 case, to mark the true extension and position of any 
 object reflected on the water. (See, in the accompanying 
 Plate, the perpendiculars, c, d,f, and g.") 
 
 Having thus obtained the position or downward ex- 
 tension of the leading points, the ])erspective of the 
 horizontal divisions is easily found, by tracing thence 
 lines to the common vanishing point of the object and of 
 its reflection. Or the process of carrying on the hori- 
 zontal lines to the vanishing point may be altogether 
 avoided: for if the extension of perpendiculars, such as 
 c and d, or such dsf and g belonging to the foremost 
 house, be first marked, lines, such as / and m, from one of 
 the points thus determined to the otlier, give the true per 
 spective inclination of the horizontal parts and divisions 
 of the buildings to wliicli they belong, without its being 
 necessarv to continue any of these lines to the vanishing 
 point in order to find out their true convergence. 
 
 It is true that the depth of vertical objects reflected, 
 cannot always ix' determined by measuring it from tin- 
 edge of the water. This can only be done wlicn I lie 
 object stands on the very l)onler. If it l)e >ituated as it
 
 438 PEKSPECTIVE OF REFLECTIONS. 
 
 were inland, it is necessary to measure the length of the 
 reflection from the point at which the \e\e\ of the water 
 would meet the foot of the object, supposing that it were 
 to extend so far. M'lion the house, of which I am 
 drawing the reflection, is situated on a bank or quay, 
 and removed to some distance from the edge of the 
 water, I do not perceive at once to what point the base- 
 ment of the house would reach if the water were ex- 
 tended to its foot. In this case, I should recur to the 
 method indicated by the dotted lines for finding out 
 what would be the edge of the water if it were to extend 
 right under the foot of the house ; tracing, from this 
 removed position of the bank, the perpendiculars h and 
 k downwards, till they corresponded with the elevation 
 of the house, or of any portion of it, added to the height 
 of the bank on which the house stands. 
 
 It may be observed that much is seen of the under- 
 side of the flooring of the little boat-house to the right in 
 the reflection ; whereas it is not seen at all in the same 
 object out of the water. The exact amount of the 
 under-surface of this boat-shed which is visible in the 
 water, is, however, easily determined ; its form being 
 indicated by the meeting of the horizontal lines drawn, 
 as before said, to the point of sight, with the vertical 
 lines of the sides : and the view of the flooring in the 
 reflection is conformable to the limits which have been 
 thus determined. In the cuse of the bridge which is 
 seen a little further ott", I have no such guide for finding 
 out its apparent width in the reflection : but I might 
 suppose the unseen portion of the arch itself to be con- 
 finnod, as shown bv the dolled line , and having thus
 
 KEFLECTION ON SMOOTH W ATEH. 439 
 
 satisfied myselt' as to the position ot the further bouudarv 
 of the real arch, I draw a corresponding curve on the 
 surface of the water, the space included between which 
 and the nearer curve of the inverted arch, gives the exact 
 width in the reflection. 
 
 Where the usual means for determining the re- 
 flection of objects variously inclined are wanting, the 
 draughtsman obtains some general assistance in tracing 
 them, if he can, without really quitting his position, 
 fancy himself viewing the object, of which he intends to 
 draw the reflection, from the very spot at which he sees 
 its image on the water. For instance, I put the ques- 
 tion, " How much should I see of the slope of the roof 
 (j, if 1 wore to take a position on the water at the point 
 where I see its reflection according to the present distri- 
 bution of the objects in the plate?" I am aware that 
 from that point the roof would appear very much fore- 
 shortened, — consequently, that I should see very little of 
 it. Supposing, therefore, that I liad not at my disposal 
 the means afforded by the intersections of the \wr- 
 spective lines, I should allow myself to be guided, in 
 executing the reflection of the roof, by the degree of 
 contraction which I am aware the roof itself would pre- 
 sent to the eve if observed from the spot alluded to. It 
 is therefore not immaterial to consider at what point the 
 incidence and reflection of the rays takes place on 
 |)olislied surfaces. In fact, the reflected image corre- 
 sponds, in every case, whether it be in a looking-glass or 
 nil the water, with that view nf the ol)jcrt wliiili would 
 Itc i»l)taiiic(l could I lie observer transport liiniself to
 
 no I'KllSPECTIVE OF REFLECTIONS. 
 
 the very point wliere its image appears to liiiii to be 
 reflected. 
 
 Very little, it may be perceived, is seen of the re- 
 flection of the steps on the right, under the house. 1 
 suppose the slope of the steps to be about 40° ; and I 
 likewise suppose that the observer looks down in nearly 
 the same angle at the point where the steps sink into the 
 water. It is evident that at that point, the angle of re- 
 flection corresponds with that of incidence of the whole 
 flight of steps. An observer there situated, could see 
 nothing of their plane or general surface : and an ob- 
 server situated at any point, above the level of the water, 
 at which the angle of reflection would be the same, would 
 consequently see nothing but the first step reflected ; 
 and yet, from any such point, if considerably elevated, 
 a full unforeshortened view would be had of the steps 
 themselves. 
 
 If the plane of the object, instead of sloping away 
 from the observer, is inclined towards him, the relative 
 appearance of the reflection becomes reversed. For 
 instance, if the observer look down upon the surface of 
 the water at an angle of 45°, it is when the object is 
 inclined toward him with the same angle, and is conse- 
 quently so completely foreshortened as to show neither 
 surface, that its reflection appears fullest. The in- 
 clination of the boarding which supports the boat s, to 
 the left of the plate, is supposed nearly to correspond 
 with the plane of the observer's eye. It therefore ap- 
 pears to him nmch foreshortened ; whereas in the re- 
 flection it appears nearly full.
 
 UEKI.F.CTION ON SMOOlII W XTF.II. 441 
 
 But tlie L'xtoiit which is seen reflected of the surface 
 of niiy object, is influenced at the same time hy the 
 position of the observer, and by the remoteness or prox- 
 imity of the object reflected. It may be stated, in 
 general terms, that with a near view the reflection ap- 
 pears to differ much more widely from the object, than 
 with a distant view. Thus, with regard to the boat 
 which is situated on a near part of the canal — almost 
 in the foreground of the scene, — you sec a good deal of 
 the flat bottom reflected ; whilst in the boat itself, you 
 see the upper surface of the same boarding : but had I 
 placed a similar boat in the distance — beside the bridge 
 for instance, — its appearance and that of its reflection 
 would have assimilated more. The gables of the houses 
 G and Q are similar ; but it mav be observed that with 
 regard to the house designated G, much less is seen of 
 the inclined roof in the reflection, in proportion to the 
 roof itself, than with regard to the house Q, which is 
 situated at a greater distance. The same princi])le of 
 foreshortening influcTuing iiiiequallv the form of nn 
 object and tliat of its reflection, is shown hv tlic a])- 
 pearancc of a swan compared with that of its reflected 
 image. At a distance, the appearance of the swan and 
 that of its reflection seem almost to correspond ; but as 
 tlicr l)ird ajiproaches, and shows more fully the white 
 plumage of the back, proportionably less is seen in the 
 reflection ; and when close, little more than the neck 
 and licad ni' tlic Miiiinal appear in tlie water. W'lieii 
 there is a gi'iidiial ascent from llic edije nt' llie water, 
 tlie less elevateil the position ni' the ol)>erver, or the 
 fiu'thei" the int lined slope is situated, the more he sees
 
 44Q PEIISPECTIVF, OF IIKFT KCIIONS. 
 
 reflected of its surface. Even such slopes as are very 
 slight, as the gentle ascent of a hill, or of a rising- 
 ground, may be partly seen, when the observer is situated 
 at the same time near the surface of the water and at a 
 very great distance from the object. 
 
 It may be asked, whether the reflection of vertical 
 objects is likewise influenced by their position, or by that 
 of the observer. Their length becomes indeed consider- 
 ably modified by such circumstances as these ; the view 
 which in nature is obtained of the reflection of a near 
 object, being by no means a full one, but much more 
 foreshortened than the view of the object itself. Never- 
 theless, the reflections of upright objects on smooth 
 water are drawn, whatever be their distance, exactly as 
 long as the objects are high. With regard to this point 
 it should be remembered, that the object is drawn on a 
 part of the canvas which is situated exactly opposite the 
 eye, whereas the reflection of the same object extends 
 downwards over a portion of its plane which is seen 
 much foreshortened ; and as this result takes place on 
 the surface itself, exactly conformably to nature, it be- 
 comes quite unnecessary to account for any perspective 
 influence by shortening the reflection. 
 
 Casting a general glance at the images which we see 
 reflected on the surface of water, they call but slightly 
 our attention to the fundamental principles of perspective 
 under whose influence they are included ; since they 
 present but the repetition, under a different and modified 
 form, of the same phenomena the explanation of which is 
 more appropriately connected with the objects them- 
 selves. Softness, and the delicacy of the eff'ect, here
 
 UEFLKf'TION ON SMOOTH \V ATKU. 448 
 
 chiefly engross our attention ; and the varying and j)layt'id 
 influence of winds and currents tends still further to 
 bring those appearances which are characteristic of re- 
 flection on water, from the dominion of rule, under the 
 gentler sway of taste. It is not my object to enter here 
 into those effects peculiar to agitated water, which are 
 more properly included in the subjects treated of in my 
 work on the Picturesque ; wishing for the present to leave 
 my bark at rest on the tranquil stream, and content if, 
 whilst I have induced some to explore with me the trea- 
 sures of the visible world, I have rendered more clear to 
 their understanding, those signs of the beautiful and of 
 the marvellous, which, throughout all natur(>, are so 
 forcibly impressed on the imagination. 
 
 THE END 
 
 l,l)NI>l)N: 
 I'liiit. .1 liv (i. IUri I.AV. tn>illo St. r.oircMor S<1-
 
 V" 
 
 1?.
 
 ;., VI 
 
 ) > 
 
 
 
 
 >/. 1 X>->>J 
 
 m 
 
 A^'/ C"' |# li;# V