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 AESTHETICS 
 
 OF 
 
 USICAL ART; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE BE A UTIFUL IN MUSIC. 
 
 BY 
 
 DR. FERDINAND HAND. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER E. L A W S O N. 
 
 MI'S. BAG. CANTAB., ETC. 
 
 BOOK THE FIRST. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 WILLIAM REEVES, 185, FLEET STREET 
 
 fOgir- <>j " RH:(I* Musical Directory" and " The Miixiccl Stuihi-ml.") 
 l88o.
 
 LONDON : BOWDEN, HUDSON AND CO., PRINTERS, 
 23, RED LION STREET, HOLBORX.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE vii 
 
 PREFACE xi 
 
 INTRODUCTION i 
 
 BOOK THE FIRST. OF THE NATURE OF Music . . 17 
 
 CHAP. I. Of the music of Nature in general . . 19 
 
 Of Tone 25 
 
 Rhythm . . . . . -33 
 
 The relation of tones in acuteness and gravity 45 
 
 The music of Nature beyond the human 
 
 sphere 48 
 
 CHAP. II. Of the music of mankind 61 
 
 Music the product of free self-activity of the 
 
 mind ....... 62 
 
 Music the immediate representation of the 
 
 activity of the feelings .... 96 
 
 2091,'5,'il
 
 vi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER J I. continued. 
 
 Music the product of the spirituality and of 
 
 the totality of the powers of the mind . 127 
 
 Melody . ." . . . , 132 
 
 Harmony . . . . . . .149 
 
 Free play in tone-pictures . . . 177 
 
 Modification of expression . . .182 
 
 Subordination to the idea of Beauiy . .187
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 ^ESTHETICS is the name originally given to the 
 philosophical theory of the Beautiful by the 
 German philosopher Baumgarten, who derived 
 it from- the Greek word aisthetikos, signify- 
 ing, I begin to perceive, or I am sensible. 
 That this term is quite inadequate to express 
 the nature, or object of the science, is obvious, 
 although, from an entirely different point of 
 view, it may not seem ill-chosen, seeing that 
 even at the present day, we are but becoming 
 sensible of beauty as a given property of objects. 
 Esthetics has not long ranked as a separate 
 science, but since Baumgarten's attempt at an 
 exposition (sEsthetik, Frankfort, 1750), nume- 
 rous works of the kind have appeared in
 
 viii TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. 
 
 Germany. It must be admitted that the subject 
 is peculiarly congenial to the German intellect, 
 and that the German language is vastly rich in 
 words suited to the expression of this and 
 kindred subjects. The paucity (absence ?) of 
 works of this nature in our own tongue is 
 remarkable, and is perhaps only to be accounted 
 for on the supposition that the English, as a 
 nation, are more practical, and less speculative, 
 than their Teutonic brethren. 
 
 The present work is, I believe, generally 
 regarded as being the best amongst those which 
 treat of /Esthetics with exclusive reference to 
 musical art, and we may naturally feel surprised 
 that, as such, it should be the production of an 
 amateur. Yet it is so. Dr. Ferdinand Gotthelf 
 Hand, privy councillor, and professor of Greek 
 literature, was born at Plauen, in Saxon Voigt- 
 land, on the i5th February, 1780. He studied 
 philology at the University of Leipzig, and pro- 
 ceeded to his degree in 1809. In 1817 he was 
 nominated professor at the University of Jena, 
 and not only attained to repute in the pursuit of 
 his avocation, but also as the. director of the 
 Academy Concerts held in that town. He died 
 in Jena on the i/j-th March, 1851.
 
 TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. ix 
 
 Since the publication of Dr. Hand's treatise, 
 but few works on the ^Esthetics of Music have 
 been given to the world, notwithstanding the 
 fact that the, now, well-sifted critical disquisi- 
 tions into the peculiarities and artistic value of 
 the poetic compositions of Schumann, Chopin, 
 Sterndale Bennett, &c., have rendered a further 
 development of the science possible and even 
 necessary, at the same time securing to us, by 
 virtue of the reaction, a deeper insight into the 
 works of the classical period of Beethoven and 
 Mozart. There is ample scope for a further 
 treatment of the subject from a more modern 
 point of view, which would, doubtless, necessitate 
 a reconstruction of the old system. 
 
 This work now passes out of my hands into 
 the hands of those who are more competent 
 than I to judge of its merits and demerits. Such 
 being the case, I would merely ask that those 
 persons who are indebted to me for its reproduc- 
 tion under the altered circumstances of language, 
 will not be too severe in their criticisms of my 
 modest effort, seeing that I was thrown entirely 
 upon my own resources for an intelligible Eng- 
 lish terminology, having no native work to guide 
 me ; I would further remind them that a trans-
 
 x TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 lation, even when more conscientiously per- 
 formed than that now before the reader, must 
 ever fall short of the original ; and lastly, I 
 trust that no one will charge me with assuming 
 too much when I say that, with the exception of 
 certain lectures delivered at South Kensington 
 by Mr. Ernst Pauer, the present attempt is the 
 first that has been made to popularize the 
 science of /Esthetics in this country. Weak as 
 I now feel my endeavours at a translation to 
 have been, and vividly conscious of the pithy 
 remark of a certain poet, I would still beg the 
 indulgent reader to place my good intentions in 
 the balance with all crudities of composition. 
 
 WALTER E. LAWSON. 
 BRIXTON.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 HAD a general concurrence enforced the opinion 
 advanced by Nageli to the effect that it is 
 hardly permissible to the Dilettante to speak on 
 matters appertaining to musical art, I should 
 have laid this attempt before my readers with 
 a greater show of diffidence than I do under 
 the existing circumstances. As it is, I can 
 meet the reproof with the conviction that, 
 should the undertaking fail in my unskilful 
 hands, the blame will attach to the artists by 
 profession, who, being more directly concerned, 
 should have taken up the subject, and not have 
 tacitly committed it to the hands of an Amateur. 
 Our literature does not as yet include a work
 
 Xll PREFACE. 
 
 upon Musical /Esthetics, and the information 
 upon the subject which is to be gleaned from 
 treatises on General /Esthetics is not sufficient. 
 The necessity for such a work became daily 
 more manifest, for in the periodicals, works were 
 judged from an sesthetical point of view, and 
 were referred to principles which, if existing, 
 were, at all events, nowhere clearly explained. 
 The readers of these periodicals will agree with 
 me, that a thorough confusion of language pre- 
 vails in them, consequent upon the many 
 different views taken of the matter ; while, not 
 seldom, a vague manner of expression, in which 
 a leading principle was wanting, was the cause 
 of a failure in the result. 
 
 This state of things called loudly for redress, 
 and promises of an /Esthetics of Music came 
 from many quarters, but none of them were ful- 
 filled. After a few attempts at a representa- 
 tion on a scientific basis, a fundamental idea 
 would at length prevail, and the gain to artistic 
 productiveness would not be wanting. An 
 earnest commencement must now be made. 
 
 No one can tell me so emphatically as I 
 myself, of the weaknesses under which this work 
 labours its foundation does not appear suffi-
 
 PREFACE. xiii 
 
 ciently comprehensive, the references to exam- 
 ples should be more abundant, as a composition 
 it lacks fluency and elegance ; but should any- 
 one say that this book contains much that is 
 already known or recognised as uncontrovertible 
 truth, it can hardly be construed into a reproach, 
 seeing that it was simply intended to collect 
 that which is already generally received, and 
 reconstruct it upon a more solid foundation. 
 Every particular shall be systematically arranged. 
 
 There is yet one thing that I am candid 
 enough to admit, it is, that that which is here 
 laid before the reader, without arrogance and 
 destitute of polemical tendencies, is a product of 
 the warmest and purest love for the art. As 
 such, may it meet with a friendly reception, and 
 be the means of inducing others, more intelligent, 
 soon to supply a better. 
 
 The order which I have adhered to through- 
 out the investigation is explained in the Intro- 
 duction. The book itself I wish to be regarded 
 as an educational work, that no one may expect 
 to find in it a means of delightfully amusing 
 himself, but, rather, be induced thereby to think 
 more deeply, and to aim at the further develop- 
 ment of the hints which it contains.
 
 XIV PREFACE. 
 
 The second part, which will contain the 
 ^Esthetical Rules of Composition, will follow the 
 present volume as quickly as the leisure time at 
 my disposal will admit. 
 
 F. HAND. 
 JENA, \2th August, 1837.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1- 
 
 O speak of music, and to judge musical 
 works according to a certain fixed standard 
 of legality, is in many respects difficult, and 
 where the understanding is not quite clear, 
 far more hazardous than the majority of 
 those who allow themselves freedom in this 
 respect are wont to imagine. The subject regarded in 
 itself, does not fall within the province of the under- 
 standing and the ideas, and is sometimes difficult to 
 convey by means of words ; rather must it be drawn 
 within the province of the imagination, and gained 
 therefrom by abstraction. 
 
 Vain would be the attempt to demonstrate to a man 
 of understanding only, a property which requires an 
 ear and a heart for its thorough comprehension. 
 The supposition that ^Esthetics consists of formal 
 
 B
 
 2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ideas, sometimes leads to an unsuccessful attempt to 
 teach that which can alone be grasped by the whole 
 Soul. 
 
 On the other hand, every person draws a standard 
 of judgment from the sphere of his individual feelings, 
 and thus forms an opinion in accordance with the 
 principle, that within the province of the feelings, no 
 call is made for general arbitration. In the endeavour 
 to arrive at some rule the majority of writers are apt 
 to lose themselves in unclear thoughts, buried beneath 
 the empty forms and inaccurate definitions of a fan- 
 tastic language, and, for all the number of words used 
 and their florid character, nothing is propounded, or 
 at least nothing is proved. 
 
 Indeed, the way in which a judgment of a musical 
 work is formed, itself increases the difficulty. The 
 painting and the statue are visible to the eye, and can 
 be observed with quietude and with a fixed regard ; 
 but a work of musical art passes over, and scarcely 
 leaves us a moment for thought. A simple reading of 
 the notes, although often considered sufficient by the 
 art critic, can never answer the purpose of an imme- 
 diate perception of living tone. 
 
 Nevertheless, these difficulties and the danger of 
 misconception, must not render us fearful of making 
 an attempt. We should also have to preserve a 
 silence on such themes as Religion and Love, and the 
 Beautiful in general, were it denied us to search 
 thoughtfully into the innermost and most secret re- 
 cesses of the Soul for the law by which the creative
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 power of genius originates works of art. And by 
 whom, in the ordinary paths of life, has not the want 
 of an explanation of the nature and value of art- 
 works been felt, more particularly from a desire to 
 become clear as to what musical Beauty -is, and how 
 it operates, what may constitute the boundaries of this 
 art province, and in what forms the musical art creates 
 and asserts itself. 
 
 The purpose of the elucidation is only to be at- 
 tained under a twofold condition. 
 
 In the first place let it be taken for granted that in 
 the vast region of the Soul's activity, not everything 
 comes home to the ideas, and not everything receives 
 confirmation from the deductions of the understand- 
 ing, but requires, from a vivifying belief, a something 
 final and undemonstrable, which may be recognised 
 and grasped as an actuality. 
 
 One such thing is the recognition of Truth, another 
 the immediate perception of the Beautiful, inasmuch as 
 these phenomena of existence contain a finality, rising 
 beyond the region of the ideas, which is given to the 
 belief in an Infinity, and of which we, in our feelings, 
 become sensible. Here the hint must suffice. 
 
 The second condition which helps to render an 
 understanding possible, lies in the participation in the 
 establishment of a fundamental principle. Until all 
 are agreed as to the general nature of music, conflict- 
 ing opinions will preclude the possibility of a true and 
 sufficiently comprehensive assessment of the Beautiful 
 in music, nor will any person who has not made clear 
 
 B 2
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to himself such fundamental principle, be in a position 
 to form a correct estimate of, or even to fully compre- 
 hend, a single work of art. 
 
 Nowhere do we find, so daily experience teaches us, 
 such undigested observations, and empty utterances, 
 often hidden beneath a fantastic and brilliant lan- 
 guage, as in matters belonging to musical art. The 
 majority pretend to feel that which cannot possibly 
 be felt, and from poverty of clear ideas, make use 
 of representations and comparisons to explain that 
 which they assume to be unutterable, without in 
 the slightest degree clearing up the subject. 
 
 No doubt we must allow that everyone has a right 
 to speak on human affairs, if it be done without arro- 
 gance ; and if the aesthetical criticism of musical 
 works falls principally within that circle distinguished 
 by the name of Dilettante, and musicians by profession 
 are not seldom disdainfully overlooked, on the other 
 hand it may be observed that but few artists are 
 competent with respect to art-philosophy, or able to 
 enlighten us on matters of canon. 
 
 These considerations may serve to enlarge our 
 sphere of observation. 
 
 11. 
 
 IN this investigation we must not neglect to take into 
 consideration the music prior to and distinct from the 
 art-work. The Primitive and the Universal we must 
 regard as a basis, resolve it into its elements, and seek
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 to discover the one nature which it exhibits under all 
 forms. Intellectual life in its relation to the sensuous 
 phenomenon of tone must be clearly explained, and 
 the secret of the soul's innermost existence receive an 
 interpretation ; the province of art, to which Beauty 
 first attaches itself, must be brought within more defi- 
 nite boundaries, and its laws explained with sufficient 
 validity. 
 
 In the accomplishment of this task the question 
 naturally arises whether our enquiries shall be directed 
 to the music which sounds and is sung, or to that 
 which is appreciable and is heard ; whether the object 
 of music consists in its being expressed or sung, or 
 whether it exists simply to delight when listened to. 
 Is the performance of a musical work only a copy of 
 the art-work or the art-work itself ? Or are musical 
 works, without performance, like badly hung paint- 
 ings ? Is, to one who plays or sings in the absence 
 of other listeners than himself, his own perception by 
 hearing, or the expression of his individual feelings, 
 the principal matter ? If these questions remain un- 
 answered misunderstandings can but result. 
 
 In former times Athanasius Kircher, and at a 
 more recent period Nageli, wrote concerning music 
 which is heard, which produces effect. Others, on 
 the contrary, have addressed themselves solely to 
 that which is composed, to the product of the mind. 
 If an art- work exists that it may be grasped by the 
 ideas, and may please, or that it may convey to the 
 mind an ideal satisfaction, then music may be said to
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 strive, in the first degree, after utterance, and to desire 
 to express in song and play that which moves the 
 heart. 
 
 In it we observe the Subjective and Objective 
 united, inasmuch as the performance of an unknown 
 composition is but a reproduction of the original, and 
 the person who performs regards as his own the 
 feelings which he has but adopted, while he who 
 listens feels the same excited within him. 
 
 111. 
 
 THE aesthetical treatment of music is, in all cases 
 where a systematic foundation, and the derivation of 
 art rules are concerned, rendered difficult by the 
 absence of previous efforts. From a remote period, 
 the system of general aesthetics has been cautiously 
 added to, v and securely based, so that for every suc- 
 cessive investigation a rich store of information was 
 available ; the special Poetik found its elaborators ; 
 music, alone, shared with painting the lot to be kept 
 back, to the great detriment of the subject in general. 
 If aestheticians had carried their arguments into the 
 province of musical art, they would have become 
 aware of the unsatisfactory nature of many of 'their 
 theorems. 
 
 Long since had music developed into an art, and 
 had contained the Beautiful, but for all that it re- 
 mained but an object of enjoyment or veneration,
 
 INTRODUCTION. / 
 
 without being drawn within the sphere of aesthetical 
 observation. The philosophers despised it, or at least 
 did not trouble to ask themselves whether a science 
 of musical art were also possible. Scientists busied 
 themselves only with the technical and mathematical 
 contents. Until the development of a science of the 
 Beautiful, and of the Fine-arts, by Germans, a founda- 
 tion was wanting. In the musical works which have 
 been handed down to us from ancient times, the aes- 
 thetical always forms the weakest part. 
 
 To what extent Pythagoras was acquainted, in 
 music, with the law of well ordered ratios, and the 
 mathematical basis, pointed out its parallel in the 
 laws of moral life, and practically studied the educa- 
 tional influence of the art, is only known to us in a 
 general way. Plato, from a more elevated point of 
 view, recognised in music the expression of the inner 
 life, as a representation of the various conditions of 
 the mind, and regarded the idea of the Beautiful as its 
 foundation, which as moral beauty combined with 
 that which is good emanates from God, and there- 
 fore leads to unison with God. 
 
 He raised the purpose of music beyond that of 
 mere sensuous enjoyment, and censured those who 
 valued it only in proportion to the amount of amuse- 
 ment which it provided for them. Inasmuch as he 
 condemned, as being too artificial, the use of instru- 
 ments independently of poetry, he doubtless wished 
 to withdraw music from the part which it took in the 
 mere gratification of the senses, to a higher world of
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 thought, for he also saw in it a fountain of the purest 
 harmony of life, and a revelation of the Divine idea. 
 Herewith a notion of the intellectual character of 
 music was gained, and of the great scope which was 
 offered for developing the unity of the idea of the 
 Beautiful and Good. 
 
 Aristotle did not differ from these views to any 
 material extent. He, also, ascribed to music an intel- 
 lectual and divine character ; beheld in it a free art, 
 which neither served a useful purpose nor as a pas- 
 time ; and recognised its influence in the noble occupa- 
 tion of the mind, and as a means of moral education. 
 Poetics alone developed his aesthetical views more 
 thoroughly. 
 
 To the Pythagoreans, who were called Canonici, 
 and their mathematical theory, Aristoxenus opposed 
 himself with the assertion, that in musical matters not 
 only the understanding but also the ear judges, and 
 thus led up to the question, What part do under- 
 standing, perception, and feeling simultaneously take 
 in music? But he failed to arrive at any definite 
 results. 
 
 Among the remaining writers on musical subjects, 
 who for the most part treated only of the tonal sys- 
 tem, Claudius Ptolomaeus can alone be mentioned as 
 having, at a later date, without reference to any other 
 authority secured the science of Harmony on a firmer 
 basis, and while tracing the origin of music to the 
 feelings, expounded clearer views with regard to key 
 characteristic.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 However valuable may be the acute views and re- 
 flections of the ancient writers upon the significance 
 of music, and its influence upon life, still a general 
 fundamental view, and a theory, were not to be 
 thought of while music was but regarded as a hand- 
 maid of Poesy. Art here also was in advance of 
 theory. This we learn from the History of Music in 
 the Christian era, which also makes known to us the 
 fact that the theoretical matter treated of up to that 
 time, was confined to the grammar, or the mathema- 
 tical-technical part of the art, to Thorough-bass and 
 the Art of Composition. Concerning what pleases us 
 in tones, and how it pleases, but few troubled them- 
 selves. Still music was not regarded as a fine art, in 
 which a deeper penetration into the nature of the 
 Beautiful was taken for granted ; this only became 
 possible as the whole province of the psychological 
 was defined and arranged. 
 
 To the school of the philosophers Wolf and Baum- 
 garten belongs the credit of having again drawn the 
 Beautiful into the province of philosophical discussion, 
 and of having set up, side by side with Logic, and 
 Ethics, an ^Esthetic, as science of the Beautiful and of 
 the Fine Arts. The Beautiful, however, was regarded 
 as equivalent to the Perfect, and the conditions under 
 which anything pleases, were derived from the idea of 
 Perfection ; on the other hand, the recognition of the 
 Beautiful as sensuous, was held to be a confused and 
 indistinct view of the matter. The other arts, how- 
 :ver, soon found their sesthetical elaborators : Painting
 
 IO INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in Hagedorn and Mengs, Sculpture in Winkelmann, 
 and Poetry in Lessing. Music alone remained dis- 
 regarded, and no one saw in it more than " the repre- 
 sentation of passionate emotions." The Beautiful was 
 either left wholly unnoticed, or but casually men- 
 tioned. And thus it remained, until Kant, by tracing 
 the limits of the spheres of the soul's activity, became 
 the founder of an art-philosophy. Music he regarded 
 indeed as but a pleasing play of the emotions excited 
 from without, but he failed to make clear to himself 
 whether a mere sensuous impression, or the effect of a 
 discernment, of form prevailed in that play. 
 
 No contents make a claim upon our consideration, 
 where the tones contain in themselves both Means 
 and End, and only aim at exciting the sensuous per- 
 ceptions. As Kant did not allow music to be the 
 language of the emotions, and a means of awakening 
 aesthetical ideas, all that was left to him, to associate 
 with a fertility of thought, was the mathematical form 
 made use of in amalgamating the sensations ; and in- 
 asmuch as with regard to charm and the power of 
 animating the feelings, he ranked music below poetry, 
 so he assigned to it, from an intellectual point of view, 
 the lowest position amongst the arts, seeing that it 
 merely affects the sensations. 
 
 The later investigations of the Idealists and Natural 
 Philosophers led to an important change, inasmuch as 
 through them an art-science resulted, in which the arts 
 were arranged as members of a great Whole. Some 
 insisted upon the recognition of a higher significance
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 in music, and claimed for it a participation in an ideal 
 Beauty ; others associated Nature, and the Mind, and 
 pointed out the unity which exists between them, and 
 explained the relation which Art bears to Nature, all 
 of which had a considerable influence upon the 
 special /Esthetics. Still no one attempted a work 
 upon the /Esthetics of musical art. That which has 
 been given out under this title in Schubert's papers 
 contains much valuable matter ; that which Wilhelmj 
 Mliller (Leipzig, 1830) has termed musical aesthetics, 
 is far removed from scientific investigation. Greatly 
 to be esteemed are Seidel's contributions to CJiari- 
 noinos, and those of certain writers to the Musikalische 
 Zeitung and Cacilia. Much that is acute and ex- 
 cellent is to be found scattered through other aesthe- 
 tical papers. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE scientific endeavours to secure a foundation for 
 the views regarding the Beautiful and Art, never 
 failed to exert an influence upon art-culture, though 
 it would be difficult to show how the theories of the 
 schools thus became effective. Art strikes its own 
 path, preceding theory ; but in cases where the doc- 
 trines of philosophy pass into, and become funda- 
 mental ideas of life, their influence upon art products 
 can be shown. This is confirmed by the History of 
 Music, and proves the value of aesthetical observation
 
 12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in relation to the progressive development of art. 
 Leibnitz guided by his own philosophical views of 
 things, could but complain of the too artificial 
 character of the music of his time. Richardson's 
 Romances were expressive of the principles of 
 English moralising aesthetics, Schiller's Tragedies 
 are the fruit of an idealistic soil ; and the principles 
 maintained by Rousseau, by which music has only to 
 please the ear, have asserted themselves throughout 
 a lengthened period. On the other hand, the great 
 compositions in the strict and earnest style of Handel 
 and Bach, could only have been the produce of a time 
 when there was neither necessity for a soft sentimen- 
 tality, excited by fictitious affections, nor for art, 
 originating in a fantastic philosophy of life, but 
 rather, when the feelings bore in themselves a strong 
 belief in religion, and the understanding maintained 
 the balance of healthy reflection. Mozart, seizing 
 directly upon the Beautiful, strove after contents 
 and perspicuity. Beethoven was an Idealist, and 
 having the power to lend an ideal beauty to the 
 most minute and seemingly unimportant matter, 
 strove after universal harmonies. 
 
 Even with regard to the value of music, and of 
 its kinds, opinions have, from a remote period, been 
 at variance. Some will only recognise music when 
 it is associated with poetry, and declare, with Hegel, 
 that instrumental music is empty and incompre- 
 hensible; others approve only of the ancient and 
 strict church style; and close the list of original
 
 INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 writers with Handel and Bach. Not even where 
 the Nature of music is called into question, have 
 they been able to avoid the dangers of extremes ; 
 and one altogether denies to it intellectual import, 
 another sees in it the language of an earthly felicity. 
 In more recent times, the disputants have divided 
 themselves into two parties, of which the one sees 
 in music only a play of well sounding tones, and 
 even goes so far as to assert that the more empty it 
 is, the better it fulfils its purpose ; the other bases 
 all upon a predominating significance. The former 
 do not consider that a work of fine-art in which an 
 idea is invariably present, is quite out of the question 
 where tones are simply sported with ; the latter over- 
 look the fact, that Beauty can of itself satisfy, without 
 borrowing a prop from the province of the under- 
 standing and reflection. Where such differences 
 exist, nought but an enlightened rudimentary idea 
 of the nature of music, and of the Beautiful in 
 musical art, can be the means of securing a firm 
 judgment, and of making its theoretical influence 
 felt. On many points all are agreed, and a mutual 
 explanation alone is necessary, while even where 
 opinions are divided, the truth is usually present, 
 although it may be somewhat obscured. This may 
 serve us for consolation and comfort.
 
 14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 v. 
 
 ^ESTHETICS is the name given to the Science of the 
 Beautiful, or to the contemplative existence governed 
 by the idea of the Beautiful, in contradistinction to 
 the Sciences of the True and Good, or Logic, Meta- 
 physics and Ethics. Its general foundation and posi- 
 tion in the province of philosophical discipline, we 
 may assume to be explained elsewhere, and we need 
 be under no concern because the name does not 
 precisely express its purport, seeing that it can 
 neither be exchanged for that of Science of the Taste, 
 nor, without still greater ambiguity, for Science of 
 Art. . 
 
 If the purpose of general aesthetics be to determine 
 the nature of the Beautiful, and to consider its forms 
 theoretically, to describe the faculties of the mind 
 called into activity by the Beautiful, and to explain 
 the position which it occupies with regard to life ; and 
 if it proceed in the second degree to consider the laws 
 of the representation of the Beautiful in Art ; then a 
 special aesthetics should treat of the same subjects 
 with reference to a particular sphere of art. There- 
 fore we possess the ./Esthetics of musical art, as of the 
 plastic arts and poetry, according as the Beautiful is 
 expressed in tones, or forms, or in thought-pictures 
 and words ; and explanation shall be given as to 
 what constitutes the pleasing and the ideal in tones, 
 and how the musical artist imparts to his works an 
 aesthetical contents.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 VI. 
 
 THE Science of tones may be divided into three 
 branches, the physical, the mathematical and the 
 sesthetical. The physical nature of tones, how they 
 are produced and become perceptible, is taught by 
 Acoustics. The Canonic treats of the value and 
 mutual relation of tones ; and their combinations, and, 
 in the science of composition, gives the rules for their 
 treatment. 
 
 The science of Esthetics regards the fine-art music 
 as an object of investigation, in order to ascertain how 
 the Beautiful is made apparent in works of this art, 
 and what it is that makes a musical product a work 
 of art. Far removed from it is formal technic, which 
 in a work of musical instruction, remains the subject 
 of treatment only as far as it may be unassociated 
 with a higher intellectual significance ; and even that 
 which is formal in respect of Melody and Harmony, 
 and constitutes the scientific part of composition, does 
 not wholly come under consideration. But inasmuch 
 as it makes the Intellectual a subject of investigation, 
 and treats of the Beautiful in musical works, it cannot 
 proceed securely, until an understanding is arrived at 
 as to what music may represent, and how such repre- 
 sentation is made. Consequently we may not forego 
 to speak of the Nature of Music generally, or to re- 
 gard the whole tone-world, even as it is, without the 
 perfect impress of Beauty; for we should but erro-
 
 1 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 neously ascribe to tone itself, a Beauty which does 
 not primarily dwell within it. If we may allow our- 
 selves the definition, such a science is a Philosophy 
 of Music. 
 
 VII. 
 
 IN the following investigation we shall endeavour to 
 complete, in four books, the tasks here briefly 
 mentioned. The first of these books will treat of the 
 Nature of music ; the second of the Beautiful in 
 musical art ; the third of the laws of musical art works 
 in general ; the fourth of the rules relating to indi- 
 vidual musical works. We shall commence by fixing 
 the boundary line which divides the province of 
 Nature from that of Art, and by following the 
 aesthetical element in its separation from the natural 
 material, and in its gradual development to perfect 
 Beauty. Arrived at the Art-work we shall then have 
 to seek out the universal art rules for the invention of 
 a musical work, and to explain the peculiarities and 
 legality of the various kinds of art forms hitherto 
 invented and made use of.
 
 BOOK THE FIRST. 
 
 OF THE NATURE OF MUSIC. 
 
 IN a certain sense, as the following investigation will 
 show, music falls to the lot of mankind only, who 
 regards it from the province of intellectual life, wherein 
 the word and the idea have a narrow signification and 
 only become perfectly valid when used in reference to 
 art. In a broader and more universal sense, music 
 inclusive even of the Beautiful which pervades it 
 belongs to the whole of Nature, and to every being 
 possessing intelligence. The Beautiful does not con- 
 fine itself within the limits of human art, but is not 
 less apparent in the creations of Nature, and indeed 
 earlier than and before all art, although it perhaps 
 exists for mankind alone. Therefore our first obser- 
 vations must be directed to the Music of Nature in 
 general. It forms the foundation of all that which is 
 to follow, and must be made to take in the full import 
 
 C
 
 1 8 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 of the presence of an intelligent, and, in many different 
 grades, efficient existence. 
 
 This investigation shall not proceed from a defi- 
 nition which could only pass current as the explana- 
 tion of a term, but shall rather, by the progressive 
 discussion of particulars, secure such a grasp of the 
 whole subject that a general principle must of itself 
 result.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 
 
 1- 
 
 HEREVER life is found, it appears, 
 however various the spheres of its exist- 
 ence may be, as Motion. Active forces 
 make themselves known, for a rigid 
 restraint gives place to free movement, 
 the fetters of an outer necessity are 
 broken, and Rest is converted into Motion. All life 
 has motion. The phenomenon of life presupposes 
 and is thus far independent of outer conditions an 
 inner power, which asserts itself in the same, and of 
 itself unknown, thus becomes recognisable. Therefore 
 wherever in Nature we perceive life, it is always a 
 Manifestation, the result of an inner force, a motion 
 derived from within. 
 
 The nature of this phenomenon is twofold. In the 
 first case it is observable in the works of Nature, 
 
 C 2
 
 20 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 where the active, and, as far as we are concerned, 
 hidden powers, strive after and attain to a definite and 
 settled form, from the crystallization of stones, to the 
 conception and animation of animal bodies. This is 
 life, or the motion of life in Space. It also exists in 
 Time, where the motion itself constitutes life, from the 
 beating of the heart to the periodical revolution of the 
 planets in Space. Here and there an inner power ex- 
 presses itself externally, and becomes visible, whether 
 this be when in the act of perfecting itself, or when 
 recognisable as an already perfected product seem- 
 ingly in a state of constant quiescence. 
 
 Motion in Space is visible and exists for the eye ; 
 that in Time, on the contrary, is audible; and wherever 
 life is present in Time it is perceived, as far as may 
 devolve upon the sense, by the ear. Thus something 
 dwelling within makes itself known in the Visible and 
 Audible, and for the reason that that which becomes 
 manifest is not the body itself, but the active forces 
 within it, and an invisibility which we term Spirit, this 
 manifestation is Spiritual. This spirituality operates 
 through form, inasmuch as it fills Space, and also 
 through tones, inasmuch as it renders possible a con- 
 templation of Time. This latter constitutes the tone 
 life of Nature, which, although perhaps not always 
 perceptible to the human ear, is still a revelation of 
 the inner spiritual existence, which pervades every- 
 thing and is itself the Spirit of Nature.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 21 
 
 n. 
 
 THIS is the spiritual principle of all life, inasmuch as 
 it is given to every single creature in unchangeable 
 mutual relationship with every other ; and because it 
 suffers and imparts influences, it is termed Sensibility, 
 whether it be the pure sensibility of plants and ani- 
 mals, or that associated with reflection in mankind. 
 The life which obtains in the creations of Nature, is, 
 therefore, always full of sensibility ; Death alone is 
 without it. 
 
 Through this we have gained a closer view of the 
 matter, for it follows from that which has already 
 been said, that in living Nature generally wherever 
 life is present an inner power arising from Sensibility 
 becomes manifest. Although we cannot precisely 
 define, or even comprehend the peculiar spiritual ex- 
 istence of each and every form of Nature, still it is 
 everywhere present where life appears, and produces 
 motion, or is implanted within it, and it expresses 
 itself in sound and tone. The great Whole and all its 
 parts sound in the same without being perceptible 
 to our limited senses everywhere and for ever where 
 life stands out through sensibility, and thus an inner 
 spiritual condition becomes manifest through motion 
 in Time. If a living creature, moved by others, and 
 influencing them in return, attains to the expression 
 of inner conditions, it also becomes perceptible in 
 Tones.
 
 22 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 111. 
 
 IT will perhaps be remarked that the erroneousness 
 of the above statement is quite obvious, seeing that 
 Tones are nothing else than Motion in Space, either 
 direct or resulting from air-waves produced by oscil- 
 lating bodies, these merely being conditions of Space. 
 And true it is that air in vibration constitutes the 
 medium through which the Time-life of Nature is 
 made perceptible to us, and that it exists in space ; 
 still, that which an inner life makes known to us, in 
 these conditions of space, by means of the senses, is, 
 as far as the sense of hearing is concerned, only tem- 
 poral, and we regard as the spirit of the same not the 
 moving air, not the corporeal air-waves, but through 
 them the progressive motion in Time. Even the 
 existence of such vibrations has been recognised by 
 the eye only, and the science of Physics teaches us 
 that the individual impressions only become percep- 
 tible by their frequent repetition. 
 
 If therefore the physical analysis of tone refers it to 
 the vibrations of elastic bodies and of the air, so, from 
 a metaphysical point of view, to tone is given an inner 
 life, in which the accumulative corporeal tones are 
 incorporeal, and effect more than the mere excitation 
 of the nerves. Even, may we say that the life of 
 sounds and tones tears itself from the body and 
 becomes the purest of phenomena. From the point 
 of view from which we now regard the matter, only
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 23 
 
 the purely audible, which is temporal, is taken into 
 consideration. The wind murmurs, the wheels of a 
 coach rattle, a pistol-shot resounds simply as a con- 
 cussion of the air ; for not every sound is to us the 
 expression of an independent life, although it must be 
 confessed that a free Spirit, elevated above the human 
 sphere, may regard as being animated, and as taking 
 part in the universal harmony, an infinite number of 
 Nature's phenomena, which we are accustomed to 
 regard simply as mechanical productions, and are 
 unable to refer to spiritual animation. When we 
 speak of the tones and music of Nature, we under- 
 stand thereby a direct or indirect manifestation arising 
 from self-energy. 
 
 IV. 
 
 HAVING seen that in tones and their motion an 
 inner life expresses itself, and constitutes the tone life 
 of Nature, we are next led to inquire more closely 
 into the character of Tone and Rhythm, having already 
 anticipated, by hinting that tone is not regarded by us 
 simply in the light of an External. It being foreign 
 to the subject in hand, the reader must seek elsewhere 
 for an explanation, in accordance with physical laws, 
 of the nature of the disturbed air and its motion ; 
 here only the result of such investigation will be made 
 use of, in order to show how the Temporal element of 
 life melts into the Spacial, and the Spacial into the 
 Temporal, and that they both obey similar laws ; how
 
 24 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the motion of the air becomes the expression of the 
 moved Soul, and again operates upon the nerves, in 
 order to be recognised in its similar and continuous 
 motion. Sounds and tones are, to us, not merely 
 arbitrarily selected signs, but the direct expression of 
 inner life, and are products of Nature bound by a law 
 of inner necessity. We must not overlook the fact 
 that the nature of music may be regarded from two 
 different points of view, either as produced, or originat- 
 ing within us, or as received and reaching us through 
 the sense of hearing. In the one case the effect of 
 music has to be taken into consideration, in the other 
 the cause and origin of the same. In both respects 
 the Visible forms an antithesis. Light illumines the 
 world and discloses to us all visible existence, so that 
 being enticed by objects, we draw nearer to them and 
 comprehend them. Tone, on the contrary, brings the 
 world to us, and causes it to penetrate within us, and 
 to continue to live there. Both, by a power of com- 
 prehension, are perceived and appreciated, although 
 language has but one word to express the two relations, 
 describing as contemplation, the comprehension of both 
 Spacial and Temporal forms. 
 
 From what has already been said it appears that that 
 which we perceive in tones does not wholly depend 
 upon corporeal contact, nor is the ear the ultimate 
 resort. An inner susceptibility of spirit constitutes the 
 perception, and a spirituality constitutes that which is 
 perceived. And thus we have to consider a temporal 
 existence, in which the change the variation in rising
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 25 
 
 and falling proceeds from an inner principle, and 
 strives to attain to the unity of ideal contemplation. 
 
 V. 
 
 OF TONE. 
 
 THOSE things which, from the observations of man- 
 kind, it was found necessary, at an early date, to 
 distinguish one from another, language has fixed by 
 a varied nomenclature ; but ordinary usage by failing 
 to observe the precise properties of words, and by con- 
 founding them, has placed considerable difficulty in 
 the way of a clear comprehension. Therefore, in order 
 to enable us the more readily to explain the various 
 phenomena of the province of tones, and also to avoid 
 misunderstandings, we must proceed to define certain 
 related ideas. 
 
 Definite and indefinite sounds* are in a general way 
 the effects perceived by the ear, and we thus describe 
 that which, by the motion of air-waves, affects more 
 or less powerfully the nerves of the body, and more 
 particularly those of the ear. We thus speak of a 
 
 * In order to maintain the necessary distinctions, it was con- 
 sidered advisable to translate certain words which occur in this 
 and the following sections thus : 
 
 Laut definite sound. 
 Schall indefinite sound. 
 Klang musical sound. 
 The English language contains no equivalents.
 
 26 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 dull sound, of a piercing or clear sound. Whether the 
 vibrations are regular or irregular does not here come 
 under consideration, nor does the great variety of 
 sounds, arising from the differences of composition in 
 the bodies which produce them, affect this general 
 idea. To distinguish between definite and indefinite 
 sounds by reasoning that the former are assigned to 
 an organic voice, does not affect the main issue, nor 
 does it find confirmation in an universal usage. 
 
 Sound, when considered with reference to the vibrat- 
 ing body and its more or less regular vibrations, is 
 called musical, and we rightly say a string sounds 
 musically, and regard a pure or impure musical sound 
 as a sound whose vibrations are, or are not, ordered by 
 rule. A tone is necessarily a musical sound, but not 
 every musical sound is a tone. When indefinite and 
 definite sounds are heard, but, by reason of their 
 uncertainty and irregularity, cannot be comprehended, 
 but appear confused and unclear, we call the effect 
 noise, just as noisy music may be spoken of as in- 
 comprehensible. This effect when greatly enhanced 
 becomes clamour and uproar. 
 
 Tone is a musical sound by self-energy, and with 
 certain relations. Thus definite and musical sounds 
 may become tones if, being produced by self-energy, 
 they enter into certain relations one with another ; and 
 even a single definite sound becomes a tone if we 
 imagine it in relation to others, and to all tones, for 
 instance, as being high or low, or as distinguishable 
 by name.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 2? 
 
 Herein lies the essential character of tone, and not 
 in the simultaneously sounding harmonics, as Rameau, 
 and others before Chladni, took for granted ; this 
 admixture, on the contrary, robs the tone of its higher 
 determinate character. Of these distinctions, the usage 
 of ordinary life takes no account, and thus people 
 speak of the good tone of an instrument, of a chord 
 composed of three musical sounds (Dreiklang), and 
 so forth, but thereby the matter is but little prejudiced. 
 In scientific language, however, we must demand 
 greater precision. 
 
 VI. 
 
 DEFINITE and musical sounds result from the vibra- 
 tions of elastic bodies, or elastic masses; these vibrations 
 being conveyed to the ear by the air and air-waves. 
 In a space devoid of air no sound can be heard or 
 produced. Upon the variety of the spacial properties 
 of bodies depend the peculiarities of their vibrations, 
 and consequently of their sounds ; this is taught by 
 that branch of natural science termed Acoustics, whose 
 province it is to explain the laws by which vibrations 
 are produced and made known to the ear ; whereby a 
 relation between the vibrations and this perceptive 
 organ becomes apparent. But an inner quality is 
 ever prominent, which forms itself to an external phe- 
 nomenon in Time, as it were tearing itself free from 
 the corporeal. Then every vibrating body exhibits 
 its own peculiar power of producing musical sound,
 
 28 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 inasmuch as a particular elasticity gives rise to a 
 particular modification of the vibrations, just as, on 
 the other hand, the comprehension of a certain motion 
 is possible to the ear, or, by reason of imperfect for- 
 mation, is denied to that organ. If then the whole of 
 Nature exists in motion, and in vibrations which are 
 sometimes perceptible, and sometimes incomprehen- 
 sible to the human ear, we must acknowledge the 
 existence of an universal tone-life in the great Whole 
 and all its parts, and also, that every thing that lives 
 has its own sound and its own voice. To a higher 
 Spirit, which may be able to perceive more than man, 
 the whole world must sound ; and thus Pythagoras 
 could speak of the music of the spheres, and Jean 
 Paul, the poet, could hearken to the enchanting sounds 
 of the blossoming trees, and the melody of the open- 
 ing buds. Only in lifeless Nature does silence prevail, 
 and the rest of Death knows no sound. In the sounds 
 of Nature many different properties may be distin- 
 guished, in the illustration of which we may make 
 use of analogies from the perceptions of the other 
 senses, and speak of a clear, dull, thick, thin musical 
 sound. But this we need not here take further into 
 consideration ; rather must we employ ourselves in 
 elucidating what it is that converts musical sound into 
 a tone. If we prosecute our inquiries with regard to 
 the creation of tone, three points for consideration 
 will arise.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 29 
 
 VII. 
 
 (i.) A MUSICAL sound, which always constitutes a 
 manifestation of inner properties, is either excited 
 from without, or proceeds immediately from an inner 
 spontaneity ; although in life the boundary which 
 divides the two is not clearly defined, and therefore 
 a precise distinction is impossible. In the above 
 distinction we recognise the first important token 
 according to which we described Tone as a musical 
 sound resulting from Spontaneity. This we fix by 
 means of language. We obtain from a string a mu- 
 sical sound, but the human voice gives tone, and so 
 does an instrument voluntarily excited by us. Man- 
 kind fashions the musical sounds of the twitched 
 string or the blown flute into a succession of tones, 
 and expresses his feelings therein ; then from the 
 instrument human tones are heard, a human voice ; 
 on the other hand, the gusts of air midst the strings 
 of an ^Eolian harp produce now musical sounds, now 
 an analogy to melody. 
 
 (2.) All sound belongs to time, and whatever of a 
 spacial nature may cleave to it is not comprehended 
 by the sense to which sound is given, but is gained by 
 reflection, or by comparative observations of different 
 kinds, and by combinations with that which is really 
 perceptible to the sense of hearing. The ringing bell, 
 the vibrating string, set in motion by the hand of 
 man, are consequently not recognisable in their sounds
 
 30 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 as visibilities. Only the Temporal falls within the 
 sphere of the Audible, and Chladni's sound figures 
 represent nothing more than the moving segments of 
 the sheet of glass between the nodes of rest. If a 
 certain fixed relation of time is associated with the 
 rhythm, and a regularity appears, then the sound be- 
 comes tone. Every tone depends, as phenomenon of 
 life in Time, upon the fixed relations of a regular 
 rhythm, and the laws of rhythm are, as later investiga- 
 tions have shown, identical with those of tone forma- 
 tion. Here we shall in nowise be embarrassed by 
 the question whether the rhythmical is not also obser- 
 vable in Space, seeing that the flight of a bird, the 
 motion of a galloping horse, have been termed rhyth- 
 mical. The eye sees nothing more than spacial 
 relations, and whatever of a temporal character is 
 attached to, or blended with them, is merely the result 
 of reflection. If in the gallop of a horse, or in a 
 dance, rhythm shall be perceptible, then the sounding 
 beat of the pulse, or the sound of the footstep must 
 be added, or if this term shall also hold good for 
 spacial motion we must accept a double meaning of 
 the word. The vibrating string is in itself no tone, 
 nor does it give tone until it audibly vibrates in a 
 certain time, and the vibrations similarly succeed one 
 another, when, in short, the objective precision is 
 maintained in the subjective comprehension. 
 
 Though the power or weakness of a tone may be 
 dependent upon the greater or less degree of the 
 elasticity of the body, and its vibrations, and though
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 31 
 
 a bell standing with its mouth upon the ground may 
 sound as little as lead, yet this will not define the tone 
 as such, for here we have nothing to do with spacial 
 relations, and do not seek for the tone in something, 
 but, rather, regard it as a manifestation independent 
 of the corporeal. In such a case the body which is 
 moved or vibrates comes no longer under consideration, 
 but only the life which moves within it, which becomes 
 a temporal phenomenon. This phenomenon is so 
 independent in character that we do not inquire after 
 the body which is visible to the eye, but believe in an 
 existence which is not merely confined to space. 
 
 (3.) Sound is perceptible as a Difference and thus 
 becomes Tone. As light in its indifferent condition is 
 not recognisable as such to the eye, but becomes 
 colour, and thus must enter into a Difference, and an 
 Antithesis, so is it with Sound, which as Indifference 
 is not recognisable as Tone. We perceive and com- 
 prehend a tone when the relations of acuteness and 
 depth, of strength and weakness are added. Even a 
 single tone maintains this difference, both with regard 
 to a second tone, and to the tones which sound with 
 it (overtones), the existence of which has long been 
 acknowledged in the case of strings and is undeniable 
 as regards wind instruments. In the music of mankind 
 the different tones combine again in unity and form 
 harmony. Height and depth, strength and weakness, 
 constitute the third important point for consideration, 
 which in so far coincides with the second, that the 
 rhythmical laws are at the same time the laws for the
 
 32 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 various vibrations in a certain time. We call a tone 
 high when the vibrations or air-motions are many and 
 follow one another rapidly, and low when they succeed 
 each other but slowly. The character is modified by 
 the length of the body, and in such a manner that the 
 acuteness of tone is in inverse ratio to the vibrating 
 body, as the long and short strings of the pianoforte 
 show. Two strings of equal substance vibrate and 
 sound differently when their lengths are different. But 
 the tension and thickness must also be taken into 
 consideration, for a tightly strained and thin body 
 vibrates quicker and sounds more acute ; also by the 
 strength of a body a greater rigidity and thereby more 
 rapid vibrations can be produced ; thus, for instance, a 
 thin and not too stiff oboe reed gives the lower tones 
 more readily than does a thick one. 
 
 A tone is called strong or weak when, through the 
 various degrees of elasticity, a greater or less extent 
 of vibration is induced, whereby it appears that an 
 increase and decrease of motion in a certain ratio, is 
 observable in the successive air-waves, to which we 
 have an analogy in the case of colour ; we therefore 
 call it colour of tone. 
 
 The Difference, however, in which a tone appears 
 must be definable and susceptible of an unity. Even 
 in the case of musical sounds we distinguish purity as 
 the unity of similar vibrations, for the reverse of this 
 is noise.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 33 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ON these particulars depends tone, which we regard 
 as the spontaneous manifestation of an inner life, in 
 rhythmical relations, and in difference to a diversity. 
 It would not suffice were one to limit the nature of 
 tone to the regularity of vibration, for by this alone a 
 spiritual life could never become manifest. On the 
 other hand, it may be well to offer a word of warning 
 against attributing to the nature of tone that which 
 the human mind develops from it by reflection, and 
 then discovers in music ; an error through which some 
 have been led to regard the phenomenon of tone in 
 such an abstract light, that not only all connection 
 with the corporeal basis of sounding objects is dis- 
 regarded, but it is made a purely ideal phenomenon, 
 and is volatilized. We must not lose sight of the real 
 foundation, however strongly we may attach ourselves 
 to a spiritual importance. Before we turn to regard 
 the boundary line which separates that which is human 
 in the world of tones, we must more closely define the 
 nature of rhythm and the ratio of differences in tones. 
 
 IX. 
 
 RHYTHM. 
 
 BUT few words have, by their improper use, led to so 
 many misconstructions as has the word Rhythm, which, 
 
 D
 
 34 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 derived from a foreign language, should have enjoyed 
 the positive application of a technical term. It will 
 therefore be necessary to explain the various uses of 
 the word. But we must observe beforehand that 
 rhythm is not peculiar to human art, but belongs to 
 the whole tone world, and that it is observable in the 
 simplest phenomena of Nature, before all art, in which 
 it becomes Beautiful rhythm. 
 
 Numerous have been the later attempts to explain 
 in a definition the nature of rhythm, and it appears 
 that almost every one has been successful in grasping 
 the truth from his own point of view, without having 
 secured for himself the right of rejecting the opinions 
 of others. It was readily agreed that rhythm falls to 
 time and its accomplishment, for by the generally 
 accepted signification of the word, we understand the 
 accented division and continuance of time by some- 
 thing perceptible, as illustrated, for example, by the 
 sound of footsteps or the tick of a pendulum. A pro- 
 portional recurrence of the sound causes the progres- 
 sive time to become perceptible ; and if this term has 
 been applied to spacial motion it has always been so 
 in an improper sense. The province becomes nar- 
 rower when we speak of musical rhythm and distinguish 
 it from the metrical, however similar the laws of both 
 may be. The former belongs to sounding nature and 
 art, the latter to the human art of language. Both 
 are based upon similar principles, for that which forms 
 the metrical rhythm constitutes merely the musical 
 element of language.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 35 
 
 If we regard together the most important signs by 
 which rhythm, in the strict sense of the word, becomes 
 distinguishable to us, it will appear, as it always has 
 appeared, that rhythm converts to an unity the com- 
 bined sums of certain and various divisions of time, 
 whereby it must be taken for granted that the time is 
 filled and not empty, for void time cannot be per- 
 ceived. Whatsoever appears in time must present 
 itself under the form of divisions of time, and only 
 in its divisions is time intuitively comprehended. 
 Different parts, whether they are such by length or 
 shortness, or by strength or weakness, form in rhythm 
 a whole, as does proportion in space, wherefore the 
 typical term time-figure, borrowed from spacial con- 
 templation, may not be unsuited to its expression. 
 That which it is here necessary to comprehend may 
 be thus illustrated for clearer contemplation. 
 
 The roar of a waterfall and the ^Eolian harp, have 
 for us little or no rhythm, although it cannot be 
 denied to either but soar above the province of 
 human comprehension, not carrying sufficient decision 
 within them. Still variety is requisite. A single 
 musical sound offers no rhythm ; to develop this at 
 least a pause must occur between the sound and its 
 repetition. Two tones form a rhythm within the 
 narrowest bounds ; several sounds a complete rhythm. 
 But even multifariousness is not sufficient. Perfectly 
 equal divisions of time in continued succession, as 
 produced by the blows of a hammer, or the swings of 
 a pendulum, evince observance of law, and if it be 
 
 D 2
 
 36 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 found convenient to regard these equal motions, by 
 reason of their separate parts, as rhythmic, and thus, 
 for instance, to speak of the rhythm of a pendulum, 
 then, at least, the coercion must be recognised ; on the 
 removal of which at the entry, or rather at the return, 
 of a diversity of rhythm, this latter attains to perfect 
 validity. This rigid observance of rule is only 
 observable in life that is not free, or in an imposed 
 necessity, such as is nowhere found in Nature, or 
 at least only in cases where the mechanical predomi- 
 nates. We must not, therefore, assume, as is too 
 frequently done, that diversity develops itself from 
 similarity, for it is a primitive condition. Never- 
 theless we may speak of a primitive agitation which is 
 so constituted that, the divisions of time being equal, 
 the one makes itself intensively prominent and the 
 other recedes. If diversity be wanting in this coerced 
 equal division of time, it is intensively gained by the 
 heightened power, that is by accent, or whatever we 
 may choose to term the differences of enhanced or 
 greater power, expressed by musicians as strong and 
 weak divisions of time, or Thesis and Antithesis, and 
 by writers on metric as Arsis and Thesis. 
 
 The questions which now arise are : What may the 
 principle of this arrangement of the various divisions 
 of time effect in rhythm ? How does this variety 
 become an important requisite of rhythm ? How can 
 we explain the origination of a Thesis after, or out of 
 an Arsis, and the combination of the two? These 
 discussions have been so disunited and so directly
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 37 
 
 opposed to one another by scientific enquirers, who, 
 as already stated, were for the most part agreed upon 
 that which has hitherto occupied our attention, that 
 this province may well be likened to a battle-field. 
 However, more misunderstandings than errors have 
 obtained on these subjects, or, at all events, the latter 
 have resulted from the former. Almost all have, to 
 a considerable extent, grasped the truth, and each 
 individual has busied himself in denying it to others. 
 Mutual respect and assistance would have brought the 
 goal nearer than has a polemic which has often dis- 
 regarded the right. 
 
 The first scientific foundation was laid by Hermann, 
 who pointed out the principles of rhythm in a reciprocal 
 operation, or rather in the relation of cause and effect. 
 This was misunderstood and misinterpreted, for some 
 denied the reciprocal operation because the divisions 
 of time do not operate from both sides positively and 
 negatively upon one another, a simple causal relation 
 alone being in force ; others pointed out the perfect 
 accordance of cause and effect, as though an equality 
 of the time-divisions could be demanded, which would 
 entirely destroy the character of rhythm. Truly the 
 idea of cause and effect appears too universal, and the 
 expression reciprocal operation errs against the usage 
 of language by which it applies only to a simultaneous 
 presence : but even Apel himself, after a not exactly 
 thorough refutation, was forced to recognise a causal 
 relation. This learned man attempted a more precise 
 explanation and laid down the proposition Rhythm
 
 38 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 is the sensuous contemplation of the unity of a succes- 
 sion of moments of evolution ; but thereby advanced, 
 in the main, nothing more than did Hermann's 
 Causality, although the indications may be of a more 
 general character, for in Evolution, and in the 
 Generation and Generator alluded to we perceive 
 nothing further than a cause arising from an effect. 
 Where the process allows us to recognise a progression 
 into some state or condition, the mind naturally 
 conceives a relation of cause and effect. 
 
 Through Apel a substantial indication, not tho- 
 roughly grasped by himself, was obtained of an 
 existence appearing in temporal form. But the pro- 
 blems to what extent the diversity in the coerced 
 divisions of time, which by no means first makes its 
 appearance in association with Beauty, may become 
 an essential of rhythm ; and how, in the constant 
 progressive development, an increase and diminution 
 of power is possible : remained unsolved. At a more 
 recent date errors again arose from a belief that 
 rhythm, in its primitive condition, contained the Beau- 
 tiful, disregardful of the fact that not every rhythm 
 is beautiful, nor wholly a matter of art. All were 
 content to see in this beauty nothing further than 
 variety and its unity, through which alone, however, it 
 cannot be produced. A solution of the problem was 
 arrived at by deliberating as to what is afforded by a 
 beautiful rhythm, which is doubtless a freedom from 
 monotony and flatness, but as to how such variety 
 exists, and is attained to, whether arbitrarily, or by
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 39 
 
 rule, they did not trouble themselves. That which at 
 a recent period was advanced by Hoffmann (Science 
 of Metrik, Leipzig, 1835) as a fresh foundation, did 
 little more than give other names in place of those 
 which had been hitherto adopted. According to his 
 theory, rhythm, which in its very nature is beautiful, 
 consists in the alternation, in accordance with the law 
 of exertion and recovery, of consecutive divisions of 
 time, in which a strong and a weak exertion may be 
 distinguished. All this Fries (" Philosoph. ^Esthetics; 
 or, Practical Philosophy," part ii. p. 236) had already 
 taught, and if only by indications, still much more 
 thoroughly. From the afore-mentioned theory we do 
 not learn what occurs if, after an exertion, recovery 
 does not immediately follow, but instead of it a further 
 or enhanced exertion, neither are we told what it is 
 that forms and arranges the various longs and shorts, 
 nor what the prime reason for it all may be. Truly, 
 the latter is pointed out in the necessity for antithesis 
 which appears throughout Nature, but hereby we gain 
 nothing more than an empty formula of the most 
 recent school of philosophy. 
 
 X. 
 
 WE have already seen that in tones an inner motion 
 of life expresses itself, through that which has motion 
 in Time. Time takes up the tone as a Continuum, and 
 this would constitute an ever-sounding Continuum, if
 
 40 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 an inner life did not assert itself, and if the form of 
 the tone-motion were not also the form of the inner life 
 motion. The inner life, however, consists, inasmuch 
 as one effort determines the other, in the reciprocal 
 operation of active forces, and, indeed, not altogether 
 in manifold agitation, but in the alternate play of 
 excitement and calm, which latter, however, by no 
 means constitutes absolute rest. Expression and 
 image of this inner life are the tones which become 
 audible, which rhythmically unite and arrange them- 
 selves, inasmuch as they fill time in perceptible 
 alternation, just as the inner life, as a Temporality, 
 exists in rhythmical relations. The prime free reason 
 for the rhythmical motion of tone is consequently con- 
 tained in the inner life ; from it the excitement proceeds ; 
 it determines the commencement, the change, and the 
 expiration of the motion. The form of the phenomenon 
 and of the manifestation is throughout of a temporal 
 nature, and is a combination in which the subsequent 
 is always dependent upon the antecedent, the present 
 determined by the past. At the same time, however, 
 both an alternation of activity and varying degrees of 
 power are requisite, for if the former be wanting, a 
 monotonous rest results, which may be compared with 
 death, and progression is only possible by renewed 
 excitement. An equal motion, like that of a pendulum, 
 allows, as already observed, only a coerced life to be 
 supposed, and is therefore only to be observed in the 
 mechanical ; it offers regularity, but no rhythm. When 
 therefore some assumed, in respect of this, a Causality,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 41 
 
 others considered the one effect to be produced by the 
 other, it remained unexplained how this connection 
 could arise from the effects themselves. That which 
 here constitutes the operative, is the activity of the 
 spiritual life which exists in collective Nature, as in 
 mankind, the expression of which occurs in rhythm. 
 In life, from strain and exertion proceed relaxation 
 and rest, and the second result of activity cannot be 
 greater than the first. That Causality which obtains 
 in our own inner life is also observable in tones, and is 
 the modifying principle. 
 
 XL 
 
 THE simplest excitement of living motion consists, by 
 equality of time divisions, in an intensive concentration 
 of power, whereby one part is made prominent. This 
 gives accented rhythm, in which the one equal part 
 stands out through intensity of force, and the concen- 
 tration repeats itself, thus : _L. '_ f _ L or 
 
 _^ '_ But accent must not here 
 
 be confounded with pitch of tone, but only the 
 marked tone forming the boundary point of the 
 time-figure must be understood. This concentration 
 of power may appear in a double form, inasmuch 
 as in the equality of parts, several, and in certain 
 grades different, accents may exist and consequently 
 
 a rhythm with various accents be produced " _/ 
 
 or LL L . This diversity becomes greater
 
 42 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 with the change of the duration of the time-divisions, 
 or through the extensive relations of tones, which 
 can give rise to a multitude of even and uneven 
 divisions ; thus, for instance, a long may be of equal 
 value with two shorts, or with three or four shorts, 
 and may be resolved into the same. The duration 
 of these longs and shorts is not regulated by any 
 law, and the sub-divisions may be carried to any 
 extreme that their perception by the human ear 
 admits of. That which extends beyond the natural 
 capacity of that organ may well exist, but it is 
 lost. 
 
 Although the understanding cannot find out and 
 express the quantities, the feelings comprehend the 
 unity of the rhythmical relation. Still for the human 
 mind a limit is fixed, represented by the quadruple 
 quantity, whether it be expressed musically by 
 crotchets or semiquavers. Even that which exists 
 immediately beyond this quantity in the number five, 
 although still comprehensible to the feelings, is not 
 pleasing, and it is difficult to obtain, by the accentua- 
 tion of the first division, a balance between one and 
 five, or to realize the unity of five divisions. A 
 septuple arrangement is still more objectionable to 
 the feelings, and rhythms of 1 1, 13 and 17 divisions are 
 quite disagreeable and useless. Therefore Leibnitz 
 was justified in asserting that the human ear can only 
 count up to five. The relations 1-2 and 1-3 are the 
 most natural and most usual. 
 
 It does not appear necessary to enumerate the
 
 OF THE. MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 43 
 
 various forms of the association of longs and shorts, 
 for even though the combination should evince a 
 greater or less degree of freedom, still the character- 
 istics of rhythm remain in each case the same. Let it, 
 however, be remarked, how vain was the contention 
 between writers on metric and musicians when the 
 latter bitterly complained that the former, starting 
 from the assertion that a long is equal to two shorts, 
 confined themselves to the long ( ) and short ( u ) and 
 did not point out in the newly-invented notation a differ- 
 ence of various shorts : J . J J^J J or J . ^ ^+ ^- 
 for example. The relative proportions of length do not 
 induce an alteration of form as far as metrists are con- 
 cerned, and as rhythm (metric) associated with language 
 only presents itself in art productions, it must be ad- 
 mitted that a proportion of 1-3 is therein only permis- 
 sible conditionally and in transition. Recently metrists 
 have conceded a duple rhythm, with which musicians 
 may rest content, and recognise with the ancient 
 rhythmists the existence of an irrational long, which 
 does not quite contain two divisions, and admits that 
 a long syllable may be lengthened by a half, thus : 
 u u u which is equivalent to j . j""J"2 When 
 however, they are disinclined to regard with musicians 
 the triole J~^] as equivalent to J . , the justification 
 exists in language which is Confined to the simpler 
 and more easily comprehended relations.
 
 44 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 XII. 
 
 IF a rhythm contain a Whole, this, although divided 
 into moments of time, has an end, but no break. 
 But during the undisturbed progress of time, a break 
 may occur in the tones which fill it, and thus a 
 moment void of tone may occur. Through this, how- 
 ever, the rhythmical relation is not disturbed, inasmuch 
 as the time unfilled by tone is also included in the 
 time series. This is the pause which at certain points 
 prevents the filling of time, but does not destroy the 
 rhythm. The duration of the pause may be equal to 
 that of a long or a short, and it obtains to rhythmical 
 importance through the rhythm, which is in the main 
 apparent, and in which it takes part. It has been 
 asserted that within a rhythmical succession a pause 
 cannot occur, but only between two rhythms, which 
 unite to form a single series ; yet within the series, 
 there is an interval which falls to the recovery suc- 
 ceeding the exertion, and which, although void of tone, 
 s still of importance, and does not occasion a break. 
 What are so-called staccato, or briefly sustained notes 
 J^ ~1 J*~\ J^ ~] but a rhythm with pauses interspersed ? 
 Such do not destroy rhythm. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 No one has ever doubted that rhythm belongs to Time, 
 and consequently to Tone-life ; it has, however, often
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 45 
 
 i>een questioned whether tones and music occur abso- 
 lutely under the form of rhythm. Gottfried Weber 
 has declared rhythm to be a not wholly indispensable 
 property of music, giving an illustration of music 
 without rhythm. This assertion, however, arises from 
 a misunderstanding, by which rhythm is mistaken for 
 musical time, or the strictly preserved norm of equal 
 rhythm, and when Weber quotes, as an illustration, 
 and compares with recitative, the ordinary choral 
 song of the community, in which the longer or 
 shorter duration of tone does not strictly conform to 
 musical time, but is, so to say, arbitrary, it is evident 
 to us that only time is absent, and not rhythm. Of 
 musical time we shall have occasion to speak else- 
 where. It is evident that a sound, in itself, is wanting 
 in rhythm, but when it participates in certain relations 
 it becomes tone, and when combined with others in a 
 series, exhibits rhythmical form, and thus wherever 
 tones exist in combination, the law of rhythm obtains. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 THE RELATION OF TONES IN ACUTENESS AND 
 GRAVITY. 
 
 BETWEEN tones, by reason of the various degrees of 
 rapidity of the vibrations, a difference arises, which is 
 termed Interval. The length of the vibrating body, 
 its substance and tension, determine the number of
 
 46 /ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 air-waves which, striking upon the organs of hearing, 
 constitute acute or grave tone. How it is brought 
 about that the sounding body vibrates, and that the 
 air-waves act upon the organs, and excite the sensa- 
 tions, is for that part of Physics termed Acoustics to 
 determine and explain. If the vibrations follow one 
 another at equal intervals, then, instead of mere sound, 
 a tone is produced which has a certain pitch. In a 
 certain sense the deeper tone, resulting from slower 
 motion, can be regarded as the compact unity of the 
 diverging higher tones, so that we may say, these 
 proceed from the deeper fundamental tone. But, on 
 the other hand, the more acute tone is equal to the 
 graver, for the reason that by increased motion, it 
 gains in number what it loses in fulness. Thus the 
 octave is equal to the prime, and yet different from it. 
 The compass within which tone exists, must be 
 regarded as of infinite extension ; even within the 
 limits of the human comprehension it is still very 
 large, extending, according to Wollaston, over ten 
 octaves. The 32 feet C of the organ, which vibrates 
 32 times in a second, and the C which vibrates 16,384 
 times in the same length of time, may be regarded as 
 the extremes; but Weber has shown that air- waves of 
 all kinds produce -sound, when not less than 15 and 
 not more than 30,000 vibrations reach the ear in a 
 second. The proportions of the successive tones recur 
 again in an enhanced state, but still the same, in the 
 octave, so that within an octave we can comprise all 
 intervals. But as acuteness and gravity are only
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 47 
 
 relative ideas, and the difference of tones is infinite 
 and scarcely definable, so it occurs that from a desire 
 for a fixed starting point, we proceed to judge all 
 tones in accordance with the organisation of the 
 human ear, and to arrange their relations. It is not 
 for us to discuss whether a differently constituted 
 organisation, and another manner of comprehension, 
 may not be able to appreciate other tone relations 
 which with us have no value. We are not in a position 
 to judge of the Nature beyond ourselves, otherwise 
 than as it exists for mankind. Even where the Pleas- 
 ing and the Beautiful are in question, we know that 
 in the human province of tones, different periods and 
 individuals are opposed to one another, and the rela- 
 tions which were recognised in ancient times, and in 
 which the Asiatic and Northern races delighted, are 
 perhaps useless to us, and displeasing to our ears. 
 Man, as soon as he has attained to mental develop- 
 ment, perceives and determines, in the relations which 
 he is able to calculate by means of figures, a certain 
 succession, such as is offered by the scale. This 
 finds its application in Art. We shall return to it 
 further on. 
 
 XV. 
 
 FROM what has hitherto been said, it will appear that 
 everywhere, where tone becomes perceptible as the 
 expression of an inner life, rhythm and the relation 
 of acuteness and gravity forms the basis, and that
 
 48 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 therefore, these are present throughout sounding 
 Nature, even when they cannot be estimated by the 
 rules adopted in the music of mankind. In this form 
 the Spiritual, which pervades the whole of the exist- 
 ence around us, is exhibited temporally, so that 
 Nature, in the broadest sense of the word, lives and 
 appears in tones, and we may thus speak of the music 
 of the world and of every single thing. But we may 
 go still further in this investigation, and enquire 
 How is music made known in the circles of the living 
 productions of Nature beyond the human sphere ? 
 What is the tone-life of Nature in contradistinction 
 from human Art ? Can we regard musical art as an 
 imitation of Nature ? 
 
 XVI. 
 
 THE MUSIC OF NATURE BEYOND THE HUMAN 
 SPHERE. 
 
 IN regarding the vast range of the living productions 
 of Nature, and enquiring in individual cases into the 
 tone-producing faculty, and the capacity for music in 
 the same, we must not fail to take every precaution 
 against the possibility of error, for only too easily do 
 \ve transfer human nature to other beings, and ascribe 
 to Nature, from a poetical regard, as peculiarity and 
 spontaniety, that which has a foundation only in our 
 imagination ; thus the poet hears songs in the murmur
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 49 
 
 of the wind, and melody in the ripple of the brook. 
 Even the assertion that the greater the power of a 
 being to produce tone, the higher it stands in the 
 scale of earth organisations, does not apply in general 
 and in every case, for numerous well-founded expe- 
 riences militate against it. This mystery of creation 
 is concealed beneath a veil which we can raise only 
 in certain places, and our glance never penetrates 
 deeply enough into alien natures. Who would rank 
 the docile and affectionate dog far below the not 
 particularly intelligent nightingale ? In general it 
 will be found that the nature beyond mankind pos- 
 sesses only definite and indefinite sound, although 
 its participation in the development of tones cannot 
 be denied. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 THE world of the inorganic we do not call dead ; it 
 hides within the predominating mass of the body 
 a slumbering life, and the forces which are able to 
 create sounds and tones are not yet awakened ; the 
 tones themselves remain hidden in the immobile 
 mass, to be awakened by a foreign impulse, when 
 man makes it a means of his free purposes. The 
 bodies of this sphere, which lack the power of pro- 
 ducing notes spontaneously, are distinguishable one 
 from another, by the greater or less degree in which 
 they serve the purpose of producing human tones. 
 
 E
 
 5O AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 The noble metals distinguish themselves also in this 
 respect, for they are better adapted to tone than are 
 those which we regard as the inferior metals. In 
 less dormant life the activity for tone production is 
 enhanced. Truly, we are not in a position to com- 
 prehend by means of the organs of hearing the motion 
 of the temporal plant life, which, without doubt, 
 expresses itself in musical sounds, but we observe in 
 the instruments derived from the vegetable kingdom, 
 that the property which adapts them to the produc- 
 tion of tone, is given to them in a higher degree 
 of perfection than it is to those constructed of metal- 
 This possibility of receiving spiritual animation points 
 at least, to a kindred nature : still, to the, in itself, 
 passive instrument we cannot ascribe anything further 
 than the subordinate part above mentioned. If we 
 pass upwards through the scale of living things, we 
 find in the lower regions, at first, neither any apparent 
 power of producing sounds which are perceptible to 
 us, nor susceptibility to tones. The organs for both 
 are wanting. Noises produced by outer portions 
 of the body, as in the case of bees, crickets, and 
 other insects, must not here be taken into con- 
 sideration. Tone-life appears in the least degree 
 of activity in fishes, amongst which a few species 
 (Cottus cataphractus, Cobitis fossilis) produce soundst 
 Of animals of this low class authentic observations 
 have been communicated which cause astonishment, 
 for in the susceptibility for melody evinced by fishes 
 and crabs, which followed a strain of music, a re-
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 51 
 
 production of that which was heard must be taken 
 for granted. With the Amphibia, owing to the 
 presence of the lungs, a development of voice and 
 note commences, without, however, attaining to 
 musical importance, for however various in this 
 respect the individual species of animals may appear 
 and a number of the class Mammalia occupy a low 
 position others by a participation in music that 
 becomes audible to them, distinguish themselves in a 
 remarkable manner, as was observed in the well- 
 known concert for two elephants at Paris (vide 
 Musikalische Zeitung, 1799, No. 19) still it is gene- 
 rally recognised, that, in the voice of the bird, which 
 amongst animals alone sings, we first meet with that 
 which may be regarded as music. Here again a 
 poetical conception, not seldom causes persons to 
 ascribe to Nature that which is quite foreign to it, and, 
 for instance, to hear in the notes of the quail the 
 words Lobe Gott, (syllabically rendered in English 
 " Praise the Lord ") and in the trill of the lark a hymn 
 in celebration of spring, and otherwise to interpret 
 symbolically the sounds of Nature. It is not every- 
 thing in this sphere, which, possessing a voice, can 
 produce music. Where the power of self-energy does 
 not make itself known, nor that which is inward and 
 spiritual express itself, tones are but the result of 
 external circumstances, or of a corporeal, but not free 
 activity. Just as the flute clock, by means of a 
 mechanism which in itself is dead, performs even 
 works of art, the action which mechanically repeats 
 
 E 2
 
 52 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 them being but the product of human ingenuity, so 
 the song of birds lacks the expression of a free inner 
 life, for they sing mostly at a time when they are 
 influenced by sexual instinct. We can, therefore, 
 ascribe tones to them only as the product of a condi- 
 tional spontaneity of low grade, in which perfect 
 freedom is wanting, and consciousness, by choosing 
 for its representation a fixed and distinguishable sign, 
 does not operate decisively. Herein we may only 
 recognise the product of instinct. But even when 
 more closely regarded, these tones are, from a musical 
 point of view, in many respects distinguishable from 
 those of mankind. It is quite impossible to adapt 
 them to our musical scale, and in vain do we attempt 
 to express in notes, the song of birds, while all the 
 laborious attempts from Athanasius Kirscher to the 
 present time have led to no results. Although, in a 
 certain sense, mathematically determinable propor- 
 tions cannot be denied to it, still it oversteps the 
 harmonic conditions which regulate human music, and 
 which cannot be regarded as accidental. The variety 
 and contrasts are great, inasmuch as from the funda- 
 mental tone much finer proportions are developed 
 than our scale exhibits ; they are, however, useless for 
 the music of mankind, and cannot even be grasped 
 with certainty by the human ear. What we perceive 
 are but analogies. 
 
 The song of the bird is by no means deficient in 
 rhythm, although it is not human or musical rhythm, 
 but deviates from the laws which are valid with us,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 53 
 
 and oversteps our naturally arranged proportions. 
 In particular the import of the pause is wanting, and 
 although, for instance, the cuckoo may, in his song, 
 repeat correctly the minor third, that person deceives 
 himself, who with Busby (History of Music, part i, 
 p. 6) and others, maintains the existence therein of 
 a precise accentuation, and strictly preserved pause. 
 Also that, which in human music, produces as spiritual 
 element the initial note (initial imperfect bar), must 
 be looked for in vain, if we do not find in song, that 
 is not human the application of the initial note, for 
 not every anticipatory note can be regarded in* this 
 light. Blumenbach was therefore right when he said : 
 " Birds do not sing, but merely whistle." It may be 
 termed a species of music, but not human music. We 
 cannot expect the latter where a perfect activity of 
 the free spirit and of the feelings does not obtain. 
 From the scream, as an expression of bodily suffering, 
 to the song without words, the transition is not so 
 easy as it appears ; between them lies a power of 
 spirit which must first be acquired, and which demands 
 more than the mere play of physical powers. The 
 experiences which have been adduced with reference 
 to these matters lend no small interest to the confir- 
 mation, although, perhaps, they are not sufficiently 
 explicit to lead to any decided results. 
 
 The song of the thrush consists of five or six parts, 
 and the last note of each part is a sort of after-note 
 (nachschlag) without harmonic close, such as cannot 
 be made use of in music. The blackbird has a decided
 
 54 .ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 rhythm, which may be variously regarded, but it 
 cannot, without alteration, be adapted to our metrical 
 system. However admired the song of the nightin- 
 gale may be, and however delightful its lively play of 
 tones, still it moves in no musical rhythm, and after 
 long sustained notes, not seldom a number of short 
 notes follow, or an irregular shake, which is apt to 
 degenerate into a scream. 
 
 The mocking-bird (Turtus polyglottus), native in 
 America, is regarded by naturalists as the most excel- 
 lent of all singing birds, as master of his art. Accord- 
 ing to J. Renunie (Magazine of Natural History, 
 No. 5, 1829, compare Frioreps' Notizen, 1829, No. 519), 
 and Audubon (Ornithology of America, compare Mor- 
 genblatt, 1832, No. 84), it possesses on the one hand, 
 a large compass, and much variety in a full voice that 
 modulates with remarkable ease, resembling the song 
 of the nightingale, but without the long sustained 
 tones, and on the other hand, a power, developed to 
 an extraordinary degree of facility, of imitating the 
 sounds of Nature, such as, for instance, the murmur of 
 the leaves, and of the brook, and the songs of other 
 birds, blending them with its own, so that one 
 imagines to hear, first a linnet, then a partridge, then 
 an owl, a duck, or a hen ; but all this does not consti- 
 tute musical discernment, and the mocking-bird may 
 be likened to a man who has the gift of imitating the 
 sounds produced by all kinds of animals.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 55 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 THE tones of beings other than man are, therefore, 
 not musical. This is confirmed by all observations 
 adduced by naturalists, according to which certain 
 rhythmical musical relations are recognisable, but 
 are in nowise fit to be classed among the fundamental 
 forms developed by the human mind. If we cannot, 
 strictly speaking, call this music, neither can we speak 
 of the music of Nature. Nevertheless, that which 
 moves in such irregular intervals and which cannot 
 be referred to the strict rules of musical time and 
 harmony, is a song, and does not displease us ; on the 
 contrary it is charming and interesting. We can only 
 form a judgment on this point, when we remember 
 when and under what circumstances music appears. 
 This only happens when spiritual freedom is sponta- 
 neously exhibited, and governs the expression of an 
 intellectual life. Freedom carries with it its own laws, 
 with which it dominates, freely creative, over the 
 Necessitated and the Restrained ; therein a spiritual 
 life manifests itself, which stands forth from within as 
 a free nature, and makes known the self-efficient com- 
 prehension and clear consciousness of an independent 
 existence. The tones of Nature are, therefore, not 
 music in the sense accepted by mankind, for freedom 
 does not exist therein, and the kind of self-energy 
 which is exhibited is invariably coerced. They are
 
 56 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 either created by an unconscious chance, and without 
 spiritual activity, and combined without choice and 
 arrangement, as in the case of the yolean harp, con- 
 cerning which one cannot say that the wind makes 
 the music, or they express a sensuous perception of 
 the instinct in which the necessity of Nature rules and 
 compels. This perception Nature allows mostly to 
 become audible in cry and shriek, for the reason that 
 she is not master of it in consciousness. Then we 
 perceive simply an analogy of feeling, such as is 
 generally observable in the animal world. It is then 
 physical impulse, sensuous desire arising from sexual 
 instinct, that causes the bird to sing, not the expres- 
 sion of a purely spiritual condition, not of a conscious 
 inner contemplation. When the lark mounts singing 
 to the sky, and the finch and nightingale give note 
 midst the foliage, is it not their delight and enjoy- 
 ment of life that they make audible ? Certainly it is 
 the expression of a perception of life, but merely that 
 of an ordinary life emotion bound by physical laws, 
 the expression of corporeal enjoyment and of desire. 
 In this respect the chirping sparrow, and the nightin- 
 gale are alike ; during the brooding season they are 
 silent Naturalness is evinced, but not intelligence. 
 Luther judged quite correctly respecting the celebrated 
 J osquin, in the following words : " His composition is 
 right joyful, flows willingly, mildly, and charmingly, 
 not forced and necessitated like the song of the finch, 
 and, for all that, is quite according to rule."
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 57 
 
 XIX. 
 
 IF only that in which Spirit and Freedom prevail 
 can give satisfaction to mankind, so we are informed 
 as to what it is that in the tones of Nature pleases 
 and satisfies us. We must, however, first separate that 
 which is simply the result of imagination, as, for 
 instance, the pleasure found in the shrill cries of a 
 canary. As regards the rest, in which man finds 
 himself referred to a more definite succession of tones 
 and a more regular rhythm, it is the analogy to that 
 which is free which delights, in the same way that the 
 analogies of reason in animals of other sorts, obtain 
 to human interest. Therefore either the purity of 
 tone may delight, or the resentment of a free power 
 to the restraint of Nature, or the resemblances which 
 mix themselves therein without attaining to that 
 which is human. We attribute to it also a spiritual 
 animation, and confer upon the song of the night- 
 ingale the feeling of longing, or hear in the notes of 
 the quail a religious utterance. In this symbolization, 
 Nature, according to our ideas, serves us, but the 
 image in alien Nature, which we grasp and draw 
 nearer to us, is that of ourselves alone. 
 
 XX. 
 
 BUT here we stumble upon an assertion that is often 
 repeated in the History of Music, and upon a law
 
 58 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 often adduced in Art- Philosophy, both of which seem 
 quite antagonistic to that which has been stated above. 
 History tells us that man doubtless received his first 
 musical instruction from birds, and by imitation 
 developed his song. Art-Philosophy proceeds from 
 the fundamental law that man, as artist, is referred to 
 Nature, and must imitate her in his works. That which 
 man himself possessed there was no occasion for him 
 to obtain by borrowing, and even if he did receive his 
 tones from Nature, it was his nature, in the original 
 possession of which, and in accordance with whose 
 innate laws, he formed a representation for the expres- 
 sion of his inner life, so that the means which he 
 grasped served him to exercise his intellectual faculties. 
 Wherever in outer Nature he becomes aware of free 
 motion, or even only of its resemblance, he sees in the 
 same, living pictures, aye, copies for his representations. 
 In that which is apparently unrestrained by law, or 
 which deviates from rule, as, for example, the song of 
 birds, he recognises a kind of free form, and can re- 
 gard it as the expression of a freedom, which, however, 
 he himself first attributes to it, although in itself it is 
 but the product of an imposed necessity. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 Music, if we do not yet subordinate the idea to that 
 of Art, but m erely avoid extending it indefinitely, is 
 the property of man, and is of his creation. But
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF NATURE IN GENERAL. 59 
 
 Nature has constituted him the creator. Music, there- 
 fore, no less than Poetry and Painting, is a product of 
 the human mind, although it enjoyed an earlier exist- 
 ence, before reflection had created rules and theories 
 to which art is subjected. The truth of these assertions 
 is proved in a twofold manner. The so-called savage 
 races, and even those which are simply uncultivated, 
 show us that music is first attained to with the fuller 
 development of the intellectual faculties, and is not to 
 be found where the preponderance of the physical, 
 detracts from the activity of the mind. A second 
 proof is offered in the effect of music upon beings not 
 human, and upon the uneducated. Many animals 
 cannot endure music, others hear it without pleasure. 
 But those animals that are more nearly associated 
 with mankind, although perhaps, of apparently inferior 
 type, are enchained by music as by the magic of 
 another world. Doubtless the experiments upon 
 spiders (Musikalische Zeitung, 2nd year, p. 653), and 
 other animals left much to be desired in the way of 
 completion, and foundation, but still, even a collection 
 of that which is scattered, naturally leads to more 
 decided results. 
 
 Uncultivated nations are pleased partly by mere 
 sound, and the sensations of life which induce them to 
 cry out, even although the delight be derived only from 
 the corporeal vibrations which the strongly moved air 
 produces upon their bodies, and partly by rhythm alone, 
 as is the case with the Scotch Highlanders, in whom 
 the now roughly grating, now softly humming tone of
 
 60 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the bagpipe, awakens encouragement or compassion 
 simply by means of rhythm. But that cannot be 
 termed music which merely sensuously arouses and 
 affects us. Only in the efficiency of pure intellectual 
 organization rests the possibility of perfect compre- 
 hension. 
 
 END OF CHAPTER THE FIRST.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 
 
 1- 
 
 THE contemplation of the nature of tones, and of the 
 peculiarities of the tones of Nature, makes apparent 
 to us a line of demarcation, by which, in the great 
 Whole of the life which becomes audible, a certain 
 sphere of humanity is separated from the rest. To 
 this we are referred when we speak of music in the 
 strict sense of the word, and subject it to aesthetical 
 judgment. But before all the following questions 
 must be answered : In what does music, which we 
 have termed a creation of mankind, consist ? and 
 what is purely human in the formation, order and 
 combination of tones, such as are made use of by 
 mankind in life and art ? We will answer them by 
 analysing the character of music and by pointing out 
 the peculiarities of its separate features. The charac- 
 teristic is threefold. We possess in music a product 
 of free self-activity which was attained to by the 
 progressive development of the reflecting intellect ; we
 
 62 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 recognise in it the immediate representation of the 
 activity of the feelings, and a Totality in which the 
 activity of all powers of the soul combines for the 
 representation of an A rt-Beautiful. 
 
 II. 
 
 MUSIC THE PRODUCT OF FREE SELF-ACTIVITY 
 OF THE MIND. 
 
 No blind instinct causes man to sing and to play 
 music, as it is sung and played by him. In the period 
 of development when he was merely given to natural 
 pursuits, and had not attained to independent powers 
 of mind, he possessed either no music at all, or an 
 .extremely poor music. It is reported of the Patago- 
 nians of South America, who are represented as being 
 men of large stature, and great bodily strength, and 
 adroit hunters, that they do not evince the slightest 
 aptitude for music, and do not sing. Where culture 
 has broken the fetters of a preponderating sensuous - 
 ness, and the mind with spontaneous activity invents 
 and arranges, there music steps in, and mankind with 
 reason awakened, selects the sounds of Nature wherein 
 to express the true likeness of his innermost life. 
 Therefore our children sing, even in the cradle, better 
 than grown-up savages and the uncultivated. When 
 Guide d'Arezzo arrived in Bremen to instruct the 
 people in church song, he wrote back to say that it 
 was not in his power to advance music in the slightest
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 63 
 
 degree, for the inhabitants sang like asses. The edu- 
 cational influence of society penetrates in an extra- 
 ordinary degree. Isolated man possesses in his 
 narrowed circumstances only sounds for his require- 
 ments, and the gratification of his longings ; he is on 
 the whole more dumb or less loud than are animals. 
 Entered into the relations of sociability, where an 
 intellectual existence in love, and mutual elevation to 
 a world of ideas, is held out to him, he develops the 
 life which is peculiar to him, and soon his inner nature 
 in active spontaneity, seeks expression, and requires 
 that another being equally animated shall comprehend 
 it ; is such a being not present, he enters into cross 
 intercourse with himself and sings solely for the sake 
 of singing and of being heard. In the paths of 
 Nature he pursues intellectual purposes ; the proffered 
 means of expression and the expression itself are at 
 the same time necessary and arbitrary. Here also 
 reflection becomes the creator of that which is human. 
 However, a methodical manner of thinking, and well 
 ordered projects must not be taken for granted, for in 
 life mankind reflects much, and for the most part 
 undesignedly, and without becoming clearly conscious 
 as to the purpose, and follows securely the promptings 
 of his inner nature. Consequently mankind does not 
 acquire music by the imitation of Nature, nor did the 
 birds, as Ernst Wagner asserted, teach him to sing ; 
 nevertheless he tarries, while constructing and creating 
 with his powers of mind, within the bounds and under 
 the conditions of Nature, and receives from her hands
 
 64 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the material for elaboration. Excited from without, 
 mankind has in this respect also, developed the germ 
 within him to a full and beautiful blossom, and has 
 spontaneously created music his music. This acquire- 
 ment and the ability of production, occurs variously 
 developed, according to the different grades of cultiva- 
 tion. Races, periods, and individuals, endowed with 
 different talents, diverge from one another, differing in 
 inclination, but always the same in one respect, namely, 
 that an inner life with self-determination attains to 
 expression, and a rule is laid down as a foundation. 
 
 111. 
 
 IF in music we regard more closely this self-energy of 
 reflecting man, it first becomes apparent to us in the 
 succession of tones. The formation and arrangement 
 of tones, which we term tone-succession or tone-system, 
 is determined by reflection, is a product of the human 
 mind. This becomes evident to us in two ways ; 
 firstly, because such an arrangement is not to be found 
 in Nature, and secondly because we can trace its 
 development in history. No other creatures of Nature 
 have sung previous to mankind, nor do they sing after 
 the manner of humanity, and the harmony of Nature 
 is not the harmony of human art. However variously 
 the organs are formed, still the relations of tones 
 might be universally the same ; but even among the 
 nations of the earth, we find equal capacity and apti- 
 tude, but not equal development. Although men may
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 65 
 
 imitate with considerable skill the songs of birds, still 
 it never becomes human music ; moreover, we are 
 mostly deceived with regard to that which we imagine 
 to be the same, for being accustomed to our own 
 system of tones, we unknowingly transfer it to natural 
 song. Similarly, the songs of savages are not adapted 
 to our succession of tones, and freely developed races 
 cannot make use of them external to the art work, 
 and not even then should they in themselves not per- 
 mit of it. Some nations have never succeeded in 
 attaining to the fourth and sixth. The Scotch High- 
 landers, in common with the Indian and Chinese races, 
 lack the fourth and seventh, and arrange their scale 
 c d e g a c. If the musical scale existed in a fixed 
 form in Nature, every one would be able to sing, and 
 always in tune. The impure tone is also a perfect 
 tone, but is an incongruity, and that which constitutes 
 the relation of tones, one with another, is not taught 
 by Nature, but is gained and adopted by reflection. 
 The Swiss and Tyrolese possess in their song both the 
 fourth and seventh, but when uneducated in our music 
 seldom intone them purely, but sing the fourth too 
 high and the seventh too low for our ears. When the 
 difficulty of these intervals, which every teacher of 
 singing has opportunity of observing in the case of 
 children is accounted for by some (vide Seidel, in 
 Charinomos, Part 2, p. 85,) in the supposition that they 
 contain something not completely in accordance with 
 Nature, an error obviously obtains. They are quite in 
 accordance with Nature, but are the products of acute 
 
 F
 
 66 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 reflection, and are, consequently, only to be found where 
 the finer development of the intellect, directed thereto, 
 renders them possible. The fourth occupies a position 
 on the confines of the tonal arrangements, and is drawn 
 now to the higher, and now to the lower region, if 
 sagacity does not remove this vacillation. Amiot, in 
 speaking of the music of the Chinese, relates that 
 European melodies sounded so disagreeable to them, 
 that they held their hands to their ears. On the other 
 hand, it is useless to attempt to represent in our notes, 
 with strict accuracy, the melodies of the Chinese and 
 of the Scotch Highlanders. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE range of tones in Nature is of unbounded extent, 
 and is composed of infinitely small parts, a pliant 
 material, but one which requires elaboration before it 
 can be of use to mankind. In Nature, as the mono- 
 chord shows, a number of proportions present them- 
 selves, with regard to which usefulness comes under 
 consideration before all. To these proportions man- 
 kind lays down the bounds, according to the condition 
 of his mind, which is also effective in fixing the 
 audible, and arranges that of which he can make use ; 
 and thus the natural succession of tones becomes the 
 musical, and although derived from Nature, is nowhere 
 found in the same in its prepared and definite form. 
 The right of man thus to regulate Nature requires no 
 justification ; it is primitive, and was conferred upon
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 67 
 
 him with mind itself. On certain points no small 
 difficulties stand in the way of the attainment of an 
 unity, which is absolutely essential to the mind, and 
 as, in this respect, a progressive development has 
 become historical, that which is at present adopted, 
 although owing its continued existence to general 
 acceptation, must not be regarded as a perfect, and the 
 only tone system. That which lies beyond the limits 
 of the comprehensible (and the human ear cannot 
 comprehend the proportions of all numbers) must 
 remain for ever shut out. Yet how freely mankind 
 chooses and regulates within this circumscribed pro- 
 vince, the history of his development throughout the 
 vastly productive existence of nations, teaches us. 
 We find that at different periods, different systems of 
 tones were developed according to the position taken 
 up by the reflecting mind in the province of sensuous 
 contemplation. By degrees the law of proportions 
 obtained to decided power, until it became universally 
 recognised ; and if the historical records were not so 
 faulty, it would be easier to point out the way in which 
 the reflecting mind attained to the height from which 
 music now asserts its laws. Before a theory was 
 developed, the scale was constructed upon no firmer 
 basis than a natural, more or less cultivated sesthetical 
 judgment, the truth of which was afterwards confirmed 
 by mathematical proof. We are accustomed to 
 oppose our modern system of music to others, and 
 more particularly to that of the ancient Greeks, and a 
 modern writer (Kiesewetter, in his " History of the 
 
 F 2
 
 68 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 Origin and Development of our existing Music,") has 
 not only denied the historic probability that modern 
 music had its origin in that of ancient Greece, or was 
 formed after it, but has even gone so far as to declare 
 the latter to be quite contrary to Nature, as Chladni 
 had done before him. But ancient music was in no 
 wise contrary to Nature, and could not be so, although 
 it was less musical, just as the song of birds or the 
 song of Nature must, as far as we are concerned, be 
 regarded as unmusical in a greater degree, that is, 
 insufficient for the representation of intellectual life. 
 Although it must be admitted that modern music first 
 began to prosper when it became separate from the 
 Grecian system, still it remains undemonstrable that 
 our system of music did not and could not grow out 
 of that of the Greeks. Our insight into that which 
 antiquity possessed and practised will always remain 
 much obscured, still no one can boast of possessing 
 historical information as to the beginnings of Chris- 
 tian music, and it is an undeniable fact that in the 
 development of the great Whole of the matters of 
 humanity, no leap has taken place, and in no case 
 can we perceive a second commencement without a 
 previous gradual development of the elements. 
 
 Only a reformation, improvement, or remodelling, 
 distinguishes a new period from a more ancient. Who 
 could entertain doubts as to the possibility of the 
 further development of our modern music, or choose 
 anew the paths for the period of commencement ? 
 Dreiberg alone could maintain (in his remarks upon
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 69 
 
 the music of the Greeks, p. 1 5) that everything that 
 does not coincide with the Grecian music is erroneous 
 and objectionable. But even that which, in the music 
 of the ancients, some are accustomed to regard as 
 arbitrary, finds sufficient justification in the free deve- 
 lopment of the reflecting intellect, and an error observed 
 at a later date cannot be denounced as a fault. 
 
 Historians, by carefully following the course of 
 development, can point out the validity and even the 
 necessity of the individual progressions, provided that 
 they cautiously distinguish between the simple reflec- 
 tions of life, or matters of custom, and the doctrines of 
 theorists which, in their subtlety, frequently find no 
 application in life. 
 
 V. 
 
 THE Tetrachord which served the Greeks as a basis 
 for their tone system, constitutes a natural foundation. 
 No blind veneration for the Pythagorean quadruple 
 quantity however often the Pythagorean doctrine of 
 numbers may have given rise in more recent times, 
 and in the more detailed parts of the science of music, 
 to objectionable definitions was the cause of the in- 
 vention of the Tetrachord, or as Chladni has it, of the 
 confinement of music within unnatural limits. The 
 Greeks by a mode of reflection which was, in itself, 
 by no means incorrect, arrived at proportion through 
 melodic, a method which experience confirms even at 
 the present day. On this point the reader may com- 
 pare Nageli's system for the cultivation of singing.
 
 /O AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 In the Tetrachord rests the element of melody, which, 
 however, cannot be regarded as sufficiently satisfactory 
 when the harmonic attains to validity or predominates. 
 In ancient times the fourth was termed <rvXXa/3^ be- 
 cause it contained the first combination of consonant 
 tones (Trpwrtj cruXX^^t? <f>$6<y<ya)v av/Jiffxbvwv) whereby 
 we may observe in what a simple and natural way the 
 investigation commenced. Further, no one can deny 
 that the determination of the three genera, the diatonic, 
 chromatic, and enharmonic, was correctly carried out 
 as far as was possible, and to a conclusion hereby, of 
 course, we take not its exclusive usefulness into con- 
 sideration. All must admit that the diatonic scale of 
 the Greeks was laid down with perfect correctness, 
 and has consequently always been retained ; that 
 within the compass of the fourth, four notes are 
 included, which, seeing that the difference between 
 the fourth and fifth is equivalent to , or a pure second, 
 comprise two tones and a half. 
 
 A foundation-stone for the erection was obtained by 
 the determination of the octave I : 2. The whole was 
 represented at first by seven tones in the Heptachord, 
 and at a later date by the complete octave in the 
 Octachord, in which the fourth was expressed by 3 : 4 
 and the fifth by 2 : 3. Inasmuch as the Greeks, in 
 order to secure an absolute measurement of the tone, 
 i.e. of the whole tone, chose |, which represents the 
 difference between the fourth and the fifth, whereby 
 the semitone amounted to 243 : 256, they obtained 
 pure fourths and fifths such as we do not possess, but,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. /I 
 
 on the other hand, their thirds were less pure ; still, the 
 major third of 64 : 81 although 80 : 81 higher than ours 
 of 4 : 5, has not been rejected in our modern systems 
 of temperament, as, for instance, in the case of Kirn- 
 berger and others. Therefore it must not, without 
 consideration, be described as contrary to Nature, and 
 improperly are the tones of trumpets and horns 
 referred to, in proof thereof, as giving only pure thirds 
 of 4:5, for it is well known that upon these instru- 
 ments the sixth tone in the two-lined octave a, when 
 compared with_the interval we recognise, is too deep, 
 while the tone/ is too high, in fact just as they occur 
 in folks-song, for instance, in those of the Swabians. 
 Nor can the acceptation of the whole tone 8 : 9 be 
 regarded as contrary to Nature merely because there 
 exists a smaller whole tone of 9 : I o. With thought, 
 mankind sifts and arranges for his own purposes that 
 which Nature proffers him. In the determination of 
 the remaining genera, viz., the chromatic and enhar- 
 harmonic, we may also recognise a free-minded com- 
 bination, and the result of progressive reflection. 
 The transformation of the one whole tone into a half 
 tone so that | i i succeed one another as the chro- 
 matic genus, and the splitting of the half tones into 
 the quarter tones of the enharmonic genus, was not 
 displeasing for the same reason that these intervals 
 are now displeasing to us, nor, in so far, accidental 
 and groundless that only the preservation of the Pytha- 
 gorean quadruple quantity, in the idea not to tolerate 
 more than four tones in the Tetrachord, had led to it. 
 Here then was presented to the Greeks a fixed
 
 72 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 system in an usable condition, and in a then existing 
 music far removed from all artificial theory, upon 
 which never having heard any antique music we 
 are not in a position to deliver a verdict of total rejec- 
 tion ; while that which is erroneous, wherever it occurs, 
 can only be ascribed to the imperfection or excessive 
 subtlety of theoretical doctrines. Even the modern 
 Greeks, at the present day, make use of nicer tone 
 proportions than we are accustomed to perceive. 
 Obviously it cannot be our intention to explain fully, 
 or deliver judgment upon the old and new systems of 
 the Greeks ; our object was rather to show that the 
 former had its foundation in Nature, that it constituted 
 a fine combination of the reflection, and that regarded 
 from the then existing point of view, it does not appear 
 worthy of condemnation. These acknowledgements 
 so often denied in one-sided arguments, could not be 
 withheld in one of the latest attempts at a restoration. 
 When Kretzschmer attempted : whether satisfactorily, 
 or in detail worthy of approbation need not be taken 
 into consideration the development of tones by pro- 
 gressions of fourths, and the critics, with substantial 
 reasons, defended the temperament of our music, they 
 could not deny that this construction was based upon 
 a fact of Nature, and carried out with sagacity. 
 
 VI 
 
 IF we follow the progress of development, it will 
 appear that here also practice preceded theory, and
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 73 
 
 did not accommodate itself to the demands of the 
 same without mature consideration. To the strict 
 canonicans, the harmonists opposed themselves, and 
 moved for that which gives satisfaction to the ear. 
 Both calculated, but the harmonists not without 
 regard for the principle which governs the representa- 
 tion of human feeling. Amongst Grecian theorists 
 Lasus is mentioned as having ascribed to tones a sort 
 of temperament which he termed the breadth of the 
 same, apparently in that sense, by which tone admits 
 of an expansion according to the relations of the 
 various keys. Didymus recognised the validity of 
 the thirds of 4 : 5 and 5 : 6, and adopted for the small 
 semi-tone the proportion 9 : 10, for the semi-tone 
 15 : 16 and 24 : 25. This fundamental improvement 
 necessarily commenced as soon as the want of an 
 adequate harmony was felt. Even the deviations 
 of Ptolomeus, if we except a few errors, are not to 
 be regarded as disfigurements, but as the prepara- 
 tion for a future reformation. The keys which had 
 already been fixed, as various forms of the octave, 
 were retained ; for the scales of the Holy Ambrosius, 
 differing in the situation of the semi-tone, are really 
 only the ancient Greek scales ; the first or Dorian 
 mode (d e f g a b c d) contains the Phrygian, the 
 second, Phrygian (e f g a b c d e) contains the Dorian, 
 the third, Lydian, (f g a b c d e f) contains the 
 Hypolydian, the fourth Mixolydian (g a b c d e f g) 
 contains the Ionian arrangement of tones, although 
 the sizes of the intervals were not quite equal. The
 
 74 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 province was extended towards the end of the sixth 
 century, by Gregory the Great, who added to these 
 four ecclesiastical modes, which were termed authentic, 
 four others the plagal modes in the fourth below. 
 For the choral of several parts which had become 
 customary in the churches, the adopted keys were not 
 sufficient as they were wanting in the subsemitonium, 
 or the semitone below. History shows us for what a 
 length of time the people hesitated between the adop- 
 tion of a new system and the maintenance of the old, 
 and inasmuch as freedom of thought could not be 
 restrained by the rules adduced in theory, and as the 
 productions of artists lay before them in esteemed and 
 satisfactory examples, the theoretical rules were re- 
 modelled in accordance with the same. Harmony 
 developed itself, and, with it, artistic invention, as the 
 result of an investigation which attained to even greater 
 perspicuity. In addition to the use of the octave, 
 fifth, and fourth, that of the third and sixth which if 
 not wholly rejected by the ancients, were at all events 
 disregarded by them became, before all and with 
 justice, perfectly valid ; and thus a new system was 
 attained to, which, if not laid down with strict mathe- 
 matical accuracy, still, on the one hand, coincided 
 with the use of the instruments which had been in- 
 vented, and on the other adapted itself to the expres- 
 sion of that which was pleasing to the ear. A natural 
 progress of development is also here apparent. 
 Whether Guido d'Arezzo or a later theorist, perhaps 
 one of Guide's pupils, constructed the Hexachord, or
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 75 
 
 whether the doctrine was gradually developed under 
 the co-operation of several, remains a question ; it is 
 however undoubtedly a fact that a new grand epoch 
 for music, and one of continuous development, com- 
 menced with the establishment of successions of chords, 
 and the proper appreciation of thirds and sixths. Then 
 the dissonances were added, and were used in transi- 
 tion, whence originated the more ancient kind of 
 counterpoint (contrapunctus floridus). We must not 
 overlook the fact that Guido greatly improved the 
 method of notation, which in the I2th century first 
 attained to the necessary decisiveness and facility of 
 application, and thereby promoted, in no small degree, 
 the study of music. 
 
 VII. 
 
 THE reflecting mind proceeded further. Until the 
 1 5th century music was confined to the octave, and 
 knew no modulation into another mode, as the old 
 melodies, " Herr Jesu Christ dich zu uns wend " by 
 Huss (1400), "Nun ruhen alle Walder" by Isaac of 
 Prague (1480), remind us. Variety in melody and 
 harmony was wanting. Centuries elapsed ere man- 
 kind allowed the structure of the collective tone system 
 to rest upon the basis of the major and minor modes. 
 The octave was divided into twelve degrees, so that 
 there were twenty-four keys. But every tone could not 
 be rendered perfectly pure, unless for every pure major 
 and minor third, fourth, and fifth, a number of
 
 76 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 secondary strings were made use of, amongst which 
 the quarter tones would also have found place. The 
 tones presented by the monochord could not suffice 
 for the requisition of such equal proportions, for even 
 though it were tuned to the pure fundamental tone, 
 the remaining tones did not produce amongst them- 
 selves pure proportions. Therefore, for the sake of 
 simplicity, a temperament was chosen, and variations 
 from purity of interval were allowed, that each of the 
 twelve tones might be used as the fundamental tone of 
 both major and minor, whereby, with purity of the 
 remaining proportions, the minor third was represented 
 by 27 : 32 instead of 5 : 6, and the fifth by 27 : 40 
 instead of 2 : 3, being consequently too small by 80 : 81 
 or the syntonic comma. Further, the major whole 
 tone or major second appeared in a duple proportion 
 of 8 : 9 and 9 : 10, a difference of a comma. Hence 
 appeared the necessity for a compensating division, 
 for an equal temperament, in which the fifths were 
 tempered the twelfth part of the comma lower, the 
 fourths higher, and the purity of the thirds and sixths 
 was affected to the extent of a third part of the comma 
 (diesis), but in such a manner that, with the greatest 
 possible exactitude in the distribution of the difference, 
 the purity of the octave was preserved. In order to 
 spare the simpler consonances, Kirnberger chose an 
 equal temperament by which only the fifths d a, a e, 
 and f fy qf lose in purity. Others acted upon different 
 principles, for instance, Keppler, Euler, and Stanhope. 
 When therefore Chladni compares this temperament
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 77 
 
 and the new tone-system with the ancient arrange- 
 ment of tones, as that which is natural and secure, 
 compared with that which is arbitrary and vacillating, 
 he labours under a misconstruction, seeing that the 
 elasticity of tone, and the pliancy of the sense of 
 hearing which accepts an approximate resemblance 
 to perfect purity, destroys mathematical proportion, 
 while unity of opinion with regard to that which 
 sounds well, cannot lay claim to universal validity. 
 We can only admit that for instruments and for 
 human voices cultivated in accordance with them, a 
 canonic purity is not practicable, and that therefore 
 temperament becomes necessary. For us the propor- 
 tions represented by whole numbers, from i to 6, are 
 consonant intervals, their proportions being readily 
 comprehended, still they differ according to the degree 
 of approximation (the fifth is more consonant than 
 the third, the fourth inclines more towards dissonance) ; 
 on the other hand, the variety is not quite reduced to 
 an unity in the proportions which lie over 7 (minor 
 seventh diminished fourth |) ; dissonant to us is the 
 greater difference, in which unity is not clearly per- 
 ceived, thus 9 and 1 5 (second f and V major seventh 
 y). Accordingly the relations of 7 degenerate, and 
 with regard to these intervals many doubts have 
 arisen. Tartini, Euler, and Kirnberger argue for the 
 usefulness of this proportion and call it i\ Chladni, in 
 the 35th part of Cecilia, regards it as useless, because 
 every tone would necessarily receive its i, and the 
 pianoforte, the flute and other wind instruments, toge-
 
 78 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 ther with the notation, would require alteration, 
 reasons which are of no great weight, and which can- 
 not even struggle against a " groundless speculation 1 ." 
 
 Fasch, on the contrary, in a Mottett allowed the 
 chord, c, e, g, i to pass into that of g, d, g, h without 
 displeasing, and violoncellists make use of the flageolet 
 tone beyond g, which is perceptibly higher than a, and 
 deeper than b flat. However much we may be inclined 
 to recognise as sufficient that which we possess, to 
 wonder at the peculiarly acute combination, and to 
 reckon our arrangement of tones amongst the most 
 successful results of human thought, yet the belief in 
 the perfectibility of the tone system, has a foundation 
 in the fact that it can but be regarded as a creation of 
 the human mind, and that progressive sagacity will in 
 the future still be able to evolve new ideas. In vain 
 do acousticians struggle against the opinion that the 
 scale which is valid with us, is the product of arbitrary 
 selection, seeing that its basis is to be found in Nature 
 rather ; for upon this undeniable basis, reflection, 
 without having previously perceived the foundation, 
 raised a structure, the proportions of which could be 
 afterwards pointed out. That, which in our tone 
 system, has been arranged to the satisfaction of the 
 ear, and with facility of application, evinces neither an 
 inner necessity nor strict consequentiality ; and the 
 limitation to the two modes of major and minor, 
 cannot be regarded as positively necessary ; or as 
 though amongst the seven tones other positions of the 
 semitone were not possible. If therefore the restora-
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 79 
 
 tion of the ancient ecclesiastical modes cannot, in 
 respect of our ears, be entertained, still the question 
 arises, whether in fulfilment of the requirements of 
 mankind after further centuries of development, a 
 transformation of the ancient and modern systems, 
 may not lead to results, in which dignified simplicity, 
 and significant vivacity unite, nay, whether a belief in 
 the constant and unrestrainable progress of mankind 
 will not accept this as a certainty. 
 
 Plutarch complained long since, in his essay upon 
 music, chapter 17, that the people neglected the en- 
 harmonic song ; and although a large number of 
 practical men hinder the acceptation of the enhar- 
 monic of quarter notes, still it is certain that by 
 means of the same the representation of the most 
 refined expression in simple melodic music would 
 be gained, perhaps without detracting from the de- 
 cisiveness of harmony. Far too hastily do persons 
 deny the ability of the human ear to comprehend 
 proportions finer than our semitone, for a much 
 greater degree of acuteness falls to the lot of this 
 sense than to any other ; and there is no reason 
 for supposing that the perception for euphony was 
 wanting in the ancients. That we can content our- 
 selves with the present system of temperament, the 
 continued existence of our music shows, which would 
 require to be re-arranged in the event of a finer 
 development of the hearing or stricter demands 
 upon purity. Have we not already admitted that 
 the minor semitone (c c$) and the augmented
 
 80 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 fourth (b ett) are larger intervals than the major 
 semitone (c db) and the diminished fifth (b f), 
 and was not the difference of the small comma 
 (cb b fb e) perceptible to the Greeks ? Why 
 may we not with Kretzschmer give ourselves up to 
 the expectation that the independence of the chords 
 of the seventh and ninth will be referred to more 
 positive rules, and instruments and performers be 
 empowered to treat the finer intervals ? Already the 
 minor seventh ab f d b, which is resolved into c minor, 
 ceases to be regarded as equivalent to g$ f d b, which 
 is resolved into a minor. 
 
 In all these matters we decide through the capa- 
 bility of the ear, and the feeling of pleasure, which 
 is based upon the cultivation of our collective powers 
 of soul, and which advances through the indefinite to 
 the definite, inasmuch as through the more and more 
 quickened acuteness of consciousness, the number of 
 varieties is reduced and unity is grasped. Still the 
 sense of pleasure is strengthened by the freedom 
 which is often recognisable in the indefinite and 
 vacillating, and we can, therefore, also explain the 
 unpleasantness of canonically pure music from an 
 sesthetical point 'of view, which we shall take into 
 consideration hereafter. 
 
 Art-philosophy rejects much that is possible. Thus 
 the enharmonic genus would undoubtedly be a gain 
 to the characteristic, but would it also be so to pure 
 formal beauty? This question cannot be answered 
 a priori. Equally difficult would it be to explain
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 8 1 
 
 why the ear cannot pass beyond the number seven, 
 and recognises but impurity in the proportions of 1 1 
 and 13. The human organization will, however, have 
 it so. When, finally, with regard to all temperament, 
 mathematical inconclusiveness awakens doubt as to 
 the correctness of theory, the human mind finds satis- 
 faction and enjoyment in that which is unfettered by 
 numbers, and which operates aesthetically in its un- 
 coerced state. Guided by the hand of Nature, the 
 mind advances securely, although not always for- 
 tunate in the solution of the problems which arise. 
 The later attempts at explanation, or systematization, 
 as for instance the division of the scale into two 
 trichords, with the semitone attached below the funda- 
 mental tone and its octave (c d e f g a b c), or the 
 attempted regeneration of the tetrachord system by 
 Kretzschmer, afford proofs of the restlessly progressive 
 understanding, which strives to arrange and enlighten 
 in newly opened provinces. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 HAD the usable thirds been fixed upon, and had chords 
 been discovered and theoretically recognised, Har- 
 mony would have resulted. Yet how limited was the 
 extent of this province to the ancients we learn from 
 history. But only those who have not considered 
 that the use of octaves, fifths and fourths, might serve 
 harmonic purposes, have dared wholly to deny their 
 knowledge of harmony. Harmony is the invention 
 
 G
 
 82 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 of mankind alone, is his acquired property. The 
 Greeks developed melody to a state of perfection 
 whose powerful effects have been proved, and to an 
 artistic structure no longer comprehensible, and it is 
 hardly possible that that should be entirely wanting 
 with them which forms an important element of 
 human music ; for man alone sings and composes 
 in harmonies. 
 
 The development of the science was reserved for 
 the days of Christianity, and even then not until ten 
 or eleven centuries had elapsed. The period of rapid 
 progress commenced with the twelfth century, the 
 names of the promoters are lost ; two centuries were 
 spent in preparatory labours, during which a very 
 faulty Discant and a rigid counterpoint appeared. To 
 the Netherlanders is due the credit of having, in the 
 1 4th century, established a pure harmony, and of 
 having made proper use of the dissonances. But it is 
 not our purpose here to consider the importance and 
 value of harmony, but merely to show that the general 
 arrangement of tones, as a basis for the construction of 
 chords, is a product of human reflection, and that 
 therein the nature of music becomes recognizable. 
 
 IX. 
 
 IN a like manner does the creative spontaneity of the 
 reflecting spirit assert itself in the determination of 
 rhythmical relations. Exclusive of the unrhythmical 
 arrangements of sounds in Nature, in which an unity
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 83 
 
 of the diverse parts is wanting, the regular distribution 
 in time of the changing tones appears peculiar to the 
 music of mankind, in which it attains to a legitimate 
 and definite form as musical time. We not only 
 distinguish musical time from free rhythm, in which 
 various divisions of time and of tone mix together 
 in certain relations without forming a well ordered 
 whole, but we also distinguish a coerced time from a 
 free time, and call the former time by preference. It 
 makes its appearance in two different stages of 
 musical development, in the earliest and in the 
 latest. In the former it expresses the narrow law 
 of rigid homogeneous forms, where an outer limita- 
 tion holds the contents together in sharper outline 
 in the latter it brings the freest movement within 
 regular and comprehensible form, without operating 
 restrictively, and it is the property of art. It is there- 
 fore wrong to abnegate the evidences of a real art 
 activity which are made apparent by its invention 
 and use. 
 
 The uncultivated races, amongst which we find 
 merely beginnings of music, construct their primitive 
 melodies with regard to the vigorous relations of time, 
 particularly in the accompaniment, in which instru- 
 ments of rhythm, such as drums and cymbals, are 
 employed. Here then already is Nature subordinated 
 to a law of intelligence, which however operates ex- 
 ternally, or as an extra. Whether the time proceeds 
 unequally, as in ancient Bohemian songs, which 
 Dionys Weber communicates in his School of Ele- 
 
 G 2
 
 84 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 mentary Music, or whether it continues equal, does 
 not in the main constitute a difference. The divisions 
 do not exist for themselves, as in free rhythm, but the 
 whole is measured up and divided into equal parts, 
 the external form predominates. But when man 
 attains to intellectual freedom, in which his feelings 
 acquire depth and breadth, and at the same time to 
 the consciousness of a state of legality, the expression 
 of his inner emotional life takes, in music, that defin-ite 
 rhythmical form which we do not call time in the 
 strict sense of the word, but in which we recognise a 
 measurement of time according to rule,' in suitable 
 relations. 
 
 Therefore, the Grecian music certainly possessed 
 time, but not such as our coerced time, which certain 
 metrists have vainly attempted to foist upon the 
 ancients ; for even by the insertion of pauses, no con- 
 formity is arrived at. In the varying movement an 
 inner suitability prevailed, but the proportions were 
 not ruled by so strict a conclusion that the contents 
 became bound by a fundamentally maintained equal 
 measurement : on the contrary, in such free time 
 unequal rhythms (for instance * * * * * * * f * *) 
 were associated with one another. Individual forms, 
 as the dactylic, iambic, anapaestic, approximated to 
 strict legality, still the further development of time 
 . was foreign to ancient music. The higher develop- 
 ment of the rhythmical element is attained to by art, 
 when it subjects the freest movement to the unity of 
 a firmly sustained equal measurement, and thus, on
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 85 
 
 the one hand, preserves unimpaired the freedom of the 
 condition of activity, and, on the other hand, subjects 
 it to a law of intelligence, and treats it, not only in 
 detail, but as a whole. Then criticism falls to the lot 
 of the more acute reflection, and, as we shall see 
 further on, aesthetical judgment is called into play. 
 Then also human music is perfected. To this state 
 of cultivation it struggled through a slow course of 
 development, for as late as the 1 2th century, mankind 
 had no knowledge of time proper, but only of the so- 
 called Mensur, in which, however, the three and two 
 part divisions lay concealed. That which was taught 
 with regard to augmentation, diminution, and altera- 
 tion, by the mensural theory, between this time and 
 the 1 5th century was arrived at in part by acute com- 
 bination, although perhaps too artificially; a simpler 
 theory elucidated the procedure in art. The invention 
 of musical time cannot be referred, as Ernst Wagner 
 maintained (Musikalische Zeitung, vol. 26, p. 199), to 
 the requirements of the Duet, or to a simple conven- 
 tional agreement, rather did it of necessity make its 
 appearance in the progress of the development of art, 
 when a definite delineation and characterization was 
 required to associate with the unity of representation. 
 Equally difficult would it be to prove that musical 
 time was first introduced with complete harmony, and 
 was tied to the same. Harmony and its succession 
 existed and exists without a strictly measured time. 
 Again, musical time cannot be accused of hampering 
 the free movement, rather does it sustain the most
 
 86 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 lively movement in a condition of symmetry, and 
 preserves its comprehensibility : within the limitation 
 of rhythm, the freedom of beauty rules undiminished, 
 and the formless attains to form. But this only 
 becomes possible by selection and separation, and 
 appears essentially effective for aesthetical purposes, 
 inasmuch as it serves for the representation of pro- 
 portional beauty. 
 
 If the rhythm of tones accords with the rythmi- 
 cally moved activity of the feelings, and if therein a 
 spirituality asserts itself in varied emotion, then the 
 power of the intellect rules over it, arranging and 
 moderating, and brings about the creation of an art- 
 work. In this manner the definite effect is produced 
 which music practises by means of time ; but time 
 must not be confounded with tempo, as in the fre- 
 quently quoted narrative of Pythagoras, which philoso- 
 pher, it is related, endeavoured to calm an intoxicated 
 youth, who, to the music of flutes, endeavoured to set 
 the house of a rival in flames ; Pythagoras succeeded 
 in subduing his passions by causing the musicians to 
 play more quietly. Herein, however, we can only 
 recognise the difference between a passionate and a 
 subdued tempo. The full effectiveness of time can 
 only evince itself in modern music, wherein it appears 
 in a state of development.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 8/ 
 
 OUR observations here have to do with that which 
 music possesses in fixed rhythmical form and in time. 
 The similar proportion \vhich bar division establishes 
 amongst the divisions of time regarded as a whole, is 
 based upon the simplest numerical arrangements, for 
 only two species of time, the equal and the unequal, or 
 duple and triple, are in use. To these we subordinate 
 equal and unequal divisions ; to the latter belong the 
 triplet and the sextuplet. The inner value of the divi- 
 sions which is not given in the signature, but in the inner 
 structure, and in the manner of performance, so that 
 the smaller notes have a lighter and more lively effect, 
 (the reader will call to mind the so often falsely de- 
 noted f-time, where it should be f) belongs to the 
 characteristic, while the similarity in the proportions 
 of the regulated tones, which differ in length and 
 brevity, assists in the representation of proportional 
 beauty. But this value has merely relative importance. 
 The semibreve was regarded as a basis, and by its divi- 
 sion were obtained the various kinds of time which 
 we express by numbers. 
 
 As long as music moved in simple melody like the 
 choral, musical time was given by the melody itself, 
 without the necessity of external determination ; but 
 when it became figured and polyphonic in structure, 
 and the progress of the melody more artificial and in- 
 tricate, a boundary point became requisite, and a sign
 
 88 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 which, while apparently unimportant, allowed a view 
 of the whole, and rendered it possible to keep a com- 
 plete orchestra together, and to define an entire per- 
 formance. Thus human meditation has arranged a 
 complicated affair in the simplest manner, and how- 
 ever unimportant the outer shell may appear, still 
 notation and time signature have in many ways pro- 
 moted an essentiality. The use of T 2 g- and y 3 F in 
 ancient times, finds an explanation in the then slower 
 progress of the melodies, and we must not complain 
 if in fugue the minim appears of the value of the 
 crotchet, seeing that the intensive contents, or the 
 forcibly concentrated continuity predominates. The 
 rhythmical law of Arsis and Thesis asserts itself, inas- 
 much as a strong and a weak division of time is dis- 
 tinguishable, both with respect to extensive character 
 and intensive contents of the tones or notes. With 
 regard to this the doctrines of theorists are mostly at 
 fault, while the praxis grasps that which is correct ; 
 for insufficiently is it taught that the strong division 
 on the first beat should be accented, and that the 
 contrary of this constitutes an exception ; for hereby 
 the stronger accentuation is confounded with the time 
 contents. From the nature of rhythm proceeds the 
 characteristic which, for instance, allows a distinction 
 between y and f in triplets, and -f.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 89 
 
 XI. 
 
 THAT which we term initial imperfect bar (Auftakt) 
 seems to be peculiar to the music of mankind. Its 
 explanation has been variously attempted by metrists, 
 inasmuch as we can only recognise the beginning of 
 a rhythm in the strongly accented Arsis,* therefore, 
 some have accounted for it on the supposition of a 
 previous and ideal Arsis, others as a premature onset 
 of power. Only one intelligent being man alone 
 makes use of the initial imperfect bar, and it exists in 
 the feelings which find their expression in music. In 
 the feelings the movement or emotion exists before 
 the manifestation thereof, and the outward expression 
 of the same may commence in the middle, and may 
 form part of an unexpressed melody, and be merely 
 that portion of the same which is made prominent. 
 
 Thus the Arsis belonging to the Thesis which forms 
 the initial note, may exist in the feelings, and in the 
 presumption of something which preceded it, and is 
 therefore to be regarded as a continuation of a succes- 
 sion already commenced, by which an infinity of the 
 spiritual existence is made known. 
 
 * Dr. Hand after the manner of certain metrist, uses the terms 
 Thesis and Arsis in the opposite sense to that universally recog- 
 nised by musicians.
 
 90 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 XII. 
 
 THE recent investigations of Oppelt show that the 
 laws of tone relation are also the laws of rhythm, 
 and that mankind knows but one condition for the 
 two. In rhythm, also, the ear can only calculate within 
 certain limits. The relations of the number 2 give a 
 quieter expression than do rhythms of the number 3, 
 and as with the number 6 consonance ceases, so also 
 the combination of divisions in rhythm. The seven 
 part bar can in itself produce but a disturbing effect, 
 and is not susceptible of free treatment, and the 
 combinations of 1 1 and 1 3 are incomprehensible, and 
 sound unpleasant, for the reason that an unity cannot 
 be perceived, nor the contents be arranged and divided. 
 Even in the bar of five divisions four parts are op- 
 posed to one, and the Thesis stands in an incongruity 
 with the Arsis, and in the combination of f and f sym- 
 metry is wanting, although it admits of separation 
 into 2 and 3. Therefore roundness and symmetry 
 have been falsely ascribed to this species of time, and 
 that which Seidel advanced to prove that it contains a 
 more beautiful symmetry than is to be found in the 
 number 3, for the reason that in the case of 5 the 
 centre is smaller than the sides, which gives greater 
 variety, was advanced without any regard for accent^ 
 or we do not comprehend what in this case the word 
 centre means. To the use by the Greeks of paenoic 
 and cretic measurement no reference need be made,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 91 
 
 for it is well known that it was but occasionally intro- 
 duced in comedy, and for comic effects. Amongst the 
 Turks and less cultivated races we certainly observe 
 the use of the bar of five divisions, but we are not 
 equally successful in the discovery of an advanced 
 state of art. Teleman certainly composed several 
 pieces in five part bar, and later attempts of the sort 
 are to be found in the Musikalische Zeitimg, Vol. xii., 
 2nd supplement, Vol. xiv., No. 10 ; but let no one 
 be deceived with respect to these attempts as their 
 authors were. 
 
 After the model of Scotch songs, Abeille in his 
 Operetta of Peter and Aennchen (vide Musikalische 
 Zeitung, I2th year, 3rd supplement) and Boildieu in 
 " La Dame Blanche," have made use of a combination 
 of f and f time, but the effect is merely delusion, in- 
 asmuch as, with regard to Abeille's attempt, of the 
 three preceding quavers the second has the accent so 
 that merely a derangement of time is recognizable. 
 Schultz wrote the song " Hier steh ich unter Gottes 
 Himmel," in y time, and intended thereby to/aise his 
 hearers above the earth; but the presumptive art work 
 is no less based upon a delusion, inasmuch as deranged 
 2 time is at the bottom of it ; for instance, in the first 
 part of the bar two quavers are metamorphosed into 
 two crotchets. 
 
 Steuber, the champion of the five part bar (Musik- 
 aliscJie Zeitung, Vol. xii., p. 116), admits that this 
 species of time is not natural, and is therefore difficult 
 to play ; it may, however, with greater reason, be
 
 92 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 called natural than artistic. Art cannot make use of 
 this time except in cases where the dissonance lends 
 to the pleasing effect, or in ornamenti which serve 
 for transition ; as the continued rhythm of a whole piece 
 it produces merely an unbearable monotony, and 
 leaves us, as does the dissonance, unsatisfied. Our ob- 
 jection to its employment might certainly result from 
 force of habit, or, as in the case of the five part bar, 
 from a dislike of the extra trouble and attention in- 
 volved ; still that which, in attempts of this kind, dis- 
 pleases us or leaves us unaffected, rests in the forcible 
 extension of the limits laid down for mankind. 
 Immediately beyond this boundary is the five part 
 bar, further removed are those of many divisions 
 which are quite useless. The advertised invention in 
 V time can certainly not hope for recognition. The 
 fact that Nature here and there counts and produces 
 in five and seven, creates no ruling principle for human 
 art. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 To mankind rhythm is a well-defined organic struc- 
 ture, capable of receiving the animating contents of 
 melody and harmony. We call that form organic in 
 which all particulars are valid in themselves, and 
 which, united, form a Whole, in such a manner, that 
 part to part, and part to the whole stands in well 
 regulated proportion. Such an organism we recognise 
 in the .combined rhythmical periods composed of bar
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 93 
 
 groups, in which the separate parts are bounded by 
 segments and cesurae. The understanding, with deli- 
 beration, organises this structure ; which as mere 
 calculation would be abstract and dead, if animation 
 were not added, and if an ideality the Beautiful did 
 not obtain. But this only occurs in human art. Time, 
 therefore, must not make music rigid, although we 
 must admit that but seldom does performance retain 
 the free movement within limits : while, on the other 
 hand, through neglect of time the melodic proportion 
 is not seldom disturbed, and indeed much more fre- 
 quently than through deviation in tempo. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 A THIRD point for consideration with regard to the 
 peculiar character of intellectual spontaneity in music 
 is the invention and use of musical instruments. It is 
 generally taught that instrumental music is not an 
 original product of mankind, but was attained to 
 partly through imitation, partly through its forerunner 
 and creator vocal music, and that it first makes its 
 appearance amongst the more recent developments of 
 art. Did we desire to make these assertions a matter 
 of dispute, we might with good reason take up the 
 opposite position. It must be admitted that in song 
 we possess an immediate interpretation, which allows 
 no mistake to creep in between the inner emotion and 
 the means of expression ; still, between the song and
 
 94 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the instrumental performance lies nought but the 
 reflection, which makes a foreign thing its organ, and 
 allows it to take the place of that given by Nature. 
 Therefore, instrumental music is not wanting in origin- 
 ality of invention, and it was given to us immediately 
 with the powers of reflection ; consequently, although 
 song may have preceded it, it was not given later than 
 VOcal-mustc. Man can never regard his voice other- 
 wise than as an instrument, and he possesses in it the 
 means for the immediate expression of his inner life, 
 as, on the other hand, he lends His tone to the manu- 
 factured instrument. Even uncultivated races possess 
 musical instruments, and practise them more easily 
 and better than they do song ; but it is invariably man 
 who possesses them, and who is able to produce tones 
 from things that, in themselves, appear soundless. He, 
 alone, is the creator of musical instruments. He rules 
 over Nature, for he awakens in passive bodies a motion 
 and a life, which serves for a token of his own inner 
 life. The sounds belong to the flute and violin, but 
 the tones into which they are metamorphosed are the 
 tones of the human heart, and not so much are they 
 produced in imitation of the human voice, as they are 
 chosen as its representatives. Self-efficient, mankind 
 progresses and creates for its own sake music, 
 which must the more clearly be regarded as an 
 original creation, because it presupposes free reflection, 
 and man does not receive the prepared means imme- 
 diately from the hand of Nature.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 95 
 
 XV. 
 
 WITH the invention of instruments, art was introduced ; 
 while, on the other hand, the development of art led 
 to the improvement and multiplication of instruments. 
 Whether instrumental music was first used to accom- 
 pany song, or whether the shepherd, as soon as he had 
 discovered the tone of the flute, played without song, 
 cannot be historically determined. Where an artistic 
 application obtains, the instrument first serves for 
 accompaniment, and not until later does this music 
 become independent, and undertake the principal part. 
 We observe a further progression when mankind 
 expresses his inner self by means of many simul- 
 taneously sounding voices, and possesses instrumental 
 music of many parts. This was attained to imme- 
 diately upon the development of harmony in music, 
 and we may take for granted that mutual mediation 
 was the means of securing the whole, for the combina- 
 tion of many voices necessitated a fixed rule of 
 harmony. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 EVERY instrument is the voice of man, and whatever 
 the performer makes audible, whether it be of his own 
 creation, as in improvisation, or in the representation of 
 an art work, it is ever that which exists within himself 
 or within the composer. Therefore, from the instru-
 
 96 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 ment of a good performer who does not merely play 
 at random, the soul speaks, and he who simply 
 manipulates his instrument as though it were some- 
 thing foreign, however great his executive ability, 
 ceases to be a musical artist, and becomes himself an 
 instrument, or a machine. When we take into con- 
 sideration the comparative effects which vocal and 
 instrumental music produce, we shall fail to form a 
 correct judgment, for the reason that song includes 
 the co-operative power of speech, while the music of 
 instruments first becomes perfectly valid in ripened 
 art. Still, the ancient traditions of Orpheus and 
 Amphion are doubtless based upon facts, which bore 
 with them the incontestably powerful effectiveness of 
 instrumental music. Instruments give tone more 
 purely and more correctly than does the natural 
 human voice, and consequently serve as a pattern for 
 the same. Everywhere in this province we observe 
 the free reflection of mankind, and we see this self- 
 energy create, govern, and arrange. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 MUSIC THE IMMEDIATE REPRESENTATION OF THE 
 ACTIVITY OF THE FEELINGS. 
 
 THE music of mankind makes itself known, in the 
 second place, as the immediate representation of the 
 activity of the feelings. As being especially impor- 
 tant, we must consider this subject acutely and
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 97 
 
 thoroughly, for the results here attained to, form a 
 basis for a collective fundamental view of music, and 
 we obtain a firm foundation for the rules of musical 
 art, and even refine and fix securely, by the removal 
 of heterogeneous demands, the enjoyment of music. 
 From this point we shall be able to mark, more pre- 
 cisely, the boundaries of the province of music, and 
 even to protect it from the disfigurements entailed by 
 the degenerate luxuriousness of sensuous excitement, 
 under which that which is spiritual vanishes, and also 
 to ward off that false claim of the understanding 
 which is here subordinate, even though certain rights 
 may attach to it. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 MANKIND, as we have seen, sings and creates music, 
 impelled by no blind instinct, which, bound by the 
 corporeal existence, receives external impressions 
 without reacting upon them with spiritual freedom. 
 Not even to the sensations can we attribute the 
 material of music, inasmuch as they only comprehend 
 the sensuous existence, and live only in the outer 
 senses ; the animals have them in common with man. 
 In a higher sphere mankind develops the sum of his 
 powers of soul, which, in order to secure unity and a 
 comprehensive survey, we are accustomed to arrange 
 and classify according to the characteristics of their 
 effects. We learn through psychological investigation 
 that the active powers of the soul allow themselves to 
 
 H
 
 98 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 be distinguished as intellect and feeling, or head and 
 heart; we know that the activity of the disposition 
 appears as emotion and longing or inclination, and we 
 learn from the science of psychology in what manner, 
 and according to which laws of Nature, the emotions 
 become affections, the inclinations develop into pas- 
 sions. Thus, in order to comprehend the conditions 
 of soul which lie at the bottom of these phenomena, 
 we are referred back to the simplest activity of the 
 feelings, and recognise therein the foundation of 
 musical representation. If, in the science of psycho- 
 logy, all were agreed with . respect to that which we 
 term feeling, there would be no necessity for further 
 discussion, a^nd adhering to the, in other respects, 
 determinative usages of language, we might rely upon 
 an equally certain comprehension as when we speak 
 of the fantasy, and of the understanding. But the 
 case is otherwise. Even now the literati and in- 
 vestigators have not been able to agree in the com- 
 prehension of the idea, and nowhere does such a 
 confusion of language prevail as where the feeling is 
 in question, for sometimes the independence of this 
 faculty of the soul is denied ; sometimes feeling is 
 confounded with other activities of the soul. There- 
 fore we cannot be exempted from a general investiga- 
 tion, but we will first stipulate that, in speaking of 
 various faculties of the soul, only various manifesta- 
 tions and activities of the one faculty thereof, only 
 various forms of manifestation shall be understood.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 99 
 
 XIX. 
 
 FEELING is not representation, with which it is often 
 confounded or identified, for representation has to do 
 with the unity of an objective diversity ; feeling is 
 itself subjective unity, and exists, considered for itself, 
 without representation, and before or after the same, 
 and one and the same representation can excite quite 
 opposite feelings. Feeling is, further, not judgment, 
 not even the immediate manifestation of critical 
 powers of thought, indeed, rather do idea and reflec- 
 tion dissipate feeling or weaken it, as in the case of 
 criticism applied to art works ; and even when an 
 union of the two takes place, and we observe a reflec- 
 tion of feeling, feeling must be distinguished from 
 sensation, or from the potency of sensuous pleasure, 
 for this confines itself to comprehension through the 
 instrumentality of the senses, and has to do with an 
 external. They are more nearly related, for sensuous 
 and spiritual existence melt into one another, and if 
 in the contemplation of music we find ourselves at the 
 same time referred to the sensations, and if, for the reali- 
 zation of the effect of music, healthy organs of hearing 
 are necessary, and, further, if the production in this 
 respect is essentially determined by the condition of 
 the sensuous comprehension, we rightly keep the two 
 spheres separate from one another in order that we 
 may be able to point out, in the province of intellectual 
 self-energy, the peculiar nature of music. 
 
 H 2
 
 IOO AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 Feeling is the faculty by which man, immediately 
 and without ideas, inwardly grasps the spiritual exist- 
 ence, and inasmuch as the external becomes internal, 
 the alien becomes peculiar, so that which is presented 
 lives spiritually. We feel within us all that which 
 affects us or is otherwise presented, as being our own 
 spiritual condition, we feel immediately that which is 
 presented to us, whether it belongs to earthly con- 
 ditions or is derived from the world of ideas, and we 
 feel ever a spirituality, and therefore also the sensuous 
 in its spiritual import. Feeling also comprehends 
 within it the contemplative existence of the spirit, 
 and as all spiritual life is subordinate to an idea and is 
 governed by the same, feeling consequently falls under 
 the idea of the Beautiful, opposite to the ideas of the 
 True and Good, to which the provinces of the 
 understanding, and of the endeavour, or the will, 
 belong. We define this contemplative soul life as 
 being aesthetic, inasmuch as an immediate conscious- 
 ness and comprehension takes place. The True and 
 the Good are also felt, but always aesthetically, that is 
 when they are presented to us as something which 
 can be immediately comprehended, and which is not 
 merely representation : consequently it not seldom 
 occurs that the True and Good are called Beautiful in 
 ordinary language. What I feel, I feel under and 
 according to the fundamental idea of the Beautiful, 
 just as all thought takes place under and according to 
 the idea of the Truth. Hereby, however, is not said 
 that all that I feel is beautiful ; but in all that which
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 10 1 
 
 is felt, something immediately comprehensible is con- 
 tained which constitutes the primary foundation of 
 the Beautiful ; and we directly comprehend the spiri- 
 tual existence, and in a manner that is foreign to the 
 understanding ; the form of appearance of the spiritual 
 is the Beautiful, which becomes prominent in Nature, 
 in Art, and in the beautiful Soul. But we cannot 
 regard feeling as the mere humour of good or bad 
 health, or of pleasure and displeasure; rather does 
 energy exist within it, for I feel something inasmuch 
 as I become immediately conscious of it and possess 
 it as my existence. Feeling melts with desire and 
 passes into affection, and a feeling lies at the bottom 
 of every desire and passion. But both feeling and 
 affection constitute the power of the spirit, which, by 
 reason of this relationship, can be regarded as a whole. 
 In it unite the ideas of the Beautiful and the Good, 
 and the pleasingly Beautiful becomes valuable, wins 
 our affections, and is desired and appropriated. As 
 long as love consists of pure feeling it has but Beauty 
 for its object, and confines itself to the contemplation 
 of the same; as affection it strives after something 
 valuable and gratifying and makes demands upon 
 enjoyment. 
 
 XX. 
 
 THIS activity of the feelings stands in collateral rela- 
 tionship with the activity of thought, and without 
 being abruptly separated from it (for nothing exists
 
 102 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 separate in the soul of man, and we cannot by means 
 of words and ideas divide the Whole of the Spirit into 
 chambers) forms an antithesis. Contemplation, and 
 reflection, and feeling, act and re-act upon one another, 
 and mutually exchange places ; still they are distinct 
 energies which predominantly restrain and supplant 
 one another, therefore we may assign to their effec- 
 tiveness certain peculiar provinces. By many persons, 
 feeling is regarded as being little more than a negation 
 of the understanding, and the restricted man of under- 
 standing cannot perceive anything more therein than 
 obscure representations and unclear ideas ; there is 
 nevertheless a spiritual life, and a world without ideas, 
 which cannot be rendered comprehensible by general 
 representation, and of which we become clearly con- 
 scious in the moments which raise us above the visible 
 world. He who has felt his heart moved by an 
 invisibility beat more strongly in joy and in sorrow, 
 in the contemplation of the Beautiful, in the ecstasy of 
 love, or in the elevation of devotion, bears the evidence 
 within him ; he merely feels ; and thoughts which 
 preceded are not present, not even a thought of 
 himself. Consequently language fails him, and he 
 describes that which lives within him as unutterable. 
 From this fact springs the by-no-means slight diffi- 
 culty of an explanation, inasmuch as in order to be 
 able merely to speak thereof, we must subordinate 
 the feeling to an idea. Language, in such cases, has 
 recourse to analogies or to allegorical representations, 
 similarly as in matters appertaining to music we speak 
 of thoughts which arc not thoughts.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 103 
 
 XXI. 
 
 As the outer senses of the eye and ear immediately 
 comprehend sensuous impressions and contact, and 
 previous to all reflection the existence of the pheno- 
 menon is thus determined, so the inner sense of the 
 soul comprehends its own spiritual existence, and with 
 it, not only that which addresses itself to the soul and 
 affects it, but also that which is intuitive. He who 
 feels, stands, therefore, in immediate relation with a 
 spiritual world, with the insensuous, which also lies at 
 the root of sensuous phenomena, with the Pure and 
 Holy and with God. He lives the life, and is as certain 
 thereof as of his life. That 'from which the ideas of 
 thought develop themselves, described by philosophers 
 as an d priori, and which constitutes a primary 
 possession of the soul, creates feeling directly from 
 the source of inner contemplation. All investigation 
 in the province of Truth, ends ascending in the ulti- 
 mate unqualified recognition of the Truth. Elevation, 
 animation, joy, limitation, pain and other denomina- 
 tions, serve the more closely to define the nature of 
 the activity of the soul. But we shall carefully avoid 
 the system by which psychologists refer all feelings to 
 the heads of pleasure and displeasure; they are unable 
 to interpret those feelings in which neither that which 
 is really pleasant nor unpleasant is to be found, and 
 which, nevertheless, exist, from the fact that, setting 
 aside pleasure or pain, they immediately and without
 
 IO4 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 ideas become conscious of an existence. Thus we 
 feel Truth and Consonance for themselves, and only 
 afterwards can that which is pleasing in them come 
 under consideration, when that which is True accords 
 with our spiritual requirement and satisfies it. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 THE activity of the feelings is in reality life, whose 
 form is made known in inner emotion. Excited by 
 sensuous impressions or moved by ideal objects, feeling 
 busies itself, and grasps in Nature and human life, in 
 the real and ideal, the spiritual which is related to it. 
 Therefore to the term emotion of feeling, to which 
 custom lends special significance, we may ascribe a 
 broader meaning. This motion of the inner life 
 appears in visible form, spacially in the expression of 
 the mien and the motion of the body, or in mimicry ; 
 temporally through tones in music. Tones are in 
 themselves moved life, and become the expression of 
 an inwardly moved existence. Representation and 
 idea choose the words of language for their tokens, 
 but where the feeling attains to expression without 
 further mediation, musical sounds serve it, as we may 
 perceive in the interjections ; or language and tone 
 become one, as in song. Rousseau, therefore, rightly 
 asserted, although his words have been misunderstood, 
 that music speaks the language which is spoken by the 
 child at its mother's breast, before it understands words.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 10$ 
 
 This explanation of the expression of the feelings 
 by means of tones, leads us securely to the recogni- 
 tion of the condition and boundaries of music. As 
 life is immediately comprehended by the feelings, so 
 also music immediately makes manifest the feelings 
 without the help of any other means, we recog- 
 nize feeling as having become sound. But here, 
 perhaps, it will be remarked that not all music can be 
 regarded as the language of the feelings, for often it 
 is rather a mere play of tones. How this play of 
 tones may occur will hereafter appear ; but it remains 
 undeniable that purely human music (and not all can 
 be regarded as such) always emanates from the spirit 
 as the innermost sphere of life, and is the manifesta- 
 tion of life itself, whether it be through the human 
 voice, or through the instrument which supplies its 
 place. In both self-energy obtains, and the tones 
 drawn from, and lent to the voiceless object, are the 
 tones of mankind. The breath of man lends anima- 
 tion to the rigid, but musically capable wood of the 
 flute, and that which he corporeally breathes into it is 
 spiritual emotion, as those kinds of tones in which 
 spiritual life is easily recognized, must be considered 
 the most perfect. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 BUT when the activity of the feeling thus finds its 
 expression in music, and an inner impulse forces the 
 soul to this expression, we might naturally expect,
 
 106 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 whenever feeling is called into activity, to hear only 
 song and music, which is not, and cannot be always 
 the case. In the removal of this difficulty, we must 
 take two points into consideration. Feeling itself 
 becomes a tone-picture which the imagination is able 
 firmly to retain, although no communication may 
 follow, nor any expression by means of the sounds of 
 the voice appear necessary. In the same manner that 
 we think in words, and consequently exercise in 
 thought a soundless inner language, so also the feeling 
 moves in tones which are not audible. He who is 
 joyful not seldom sings and makes music within him- 
 self, without being heard, to a greater extent than the 
 world around him may surmise ; and men who cannot 
 sing a single interval correctly, or play any instrument, 
 sometimes bear the music within them, and live in it 
 more than many a musician ; indeed the real tone poet 
 or composer works for the most part within himself, 
 without touching an instrument. Therefore we are 
 fain to contradict the opinion advanced by certain 
 writers, amongst them Gottfried Weber (Ccecilia> Vol. i., 
 p. 325), to the effect that music owes its origin, not 
 to the feelings, but to the ear ; and that, in the first 
 place, the receptive power of the sense of hearing must 
 have been aroused to the beauty of tones before the 
 relationship of the heart and the ear could become 
 effective. The emotion of the inner life is the earliest. 
 The second point for consideration lies in the fact 
 that we seldom preserve the activity of the feelings in 
 a perfectly pure state, but allow the reflection to step
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. IO/ 
 
 in between very rapidly. The understanding then 
 changes all that which is within us into ideas and 
 words. But music distinguishes itself from language 
 by its exemption from intervening causes, and by the 
 natural expression through which feeling void of ideas 
 is portrayed. The greater part of language is based 
 upon conventional use and arbitrary selection. When 
 speaking man complains of the insufficiency of word 
 description, and of the poverty of language, or even 
 acknowledges that the object cannot be expressed in 
 words, it still remains possible to the tones of music, 
 to grasp immediately that which is felt, and to make it 
 perceptible. Thereby no small degree of decisiveness 
 falls to its share, but the rule for its measurement must 
 not be a logical one. Where the idea is not sufficient, 
 where no picture can be given to the eye, music 
 takes up the resigned function of representation, and 
 is more successful than any other artistic means. 
 
 Shortsighted was the judgment of those who 
 asserted that the task of music is to imitate language. 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 FROM that which we have already stated, the sphere 
 and boundaries of music may be determined. It re- 
 presents feeling, but not the objective matters of 
 feeling, and asserts, throughout, its subjective character. 
 Everything external must, for it, become internal, 
 which, however, cannot occur in all cases. However
 
 108 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 much the common understanding may require it, 
 music cannot and will not represent visible objects of 
 Nature, thoughts and ideas. The formative arts and 
 painting select the objects of Nature and their 
 diverse appearances, that in their representation they 
 may lay down the ideas of Beauty and Perfection. 
 Music, in and external to Art, gives only feelings and 
 inner emotions without signs that may be imme- 
 diately associated with an idea, and not imitatively, 
 whereby comparison may be made with an original. 
 The painter and the sculptor speak like the poet, com- 
 prehensibly, in a previously formed language, which 
 another may readily follow, while music brings its own 
 language, and, in its individual validity, lays no claim 
 to general understanding. That all this, notwithstand- 
 ing it may be recognised and appropriated, is provided 
 for by the power given to the human heart, and 
 indeed with nearer relationship than is given to the 
 head. And if the ultimate aim of the poet and the 
 painter be to speak to the heart, and affect it, this is 
 the first aim of music, and its most important ten- 
 dency. Limited to the innermost activity of the soul, 
 it possesses a greater abundance therein than the 
 outer world can offer, and if in the feelings no juxta- 
 position is to be found, and no objective difference 
 allows us to distinguish between the subjects, still, in 
 the succession of emotions and activities, lies an infi- 
 nity which is capable of a thousandfold relations to the 
 High and Highest, and secures immediate gratification 
 in an assured unity. Men have sung and made music
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 109 
 
 in all times, but when the Christian religion aroused 
 life into feeling, and filled it with the highest ideal of 
 existence, humanity could find in tones only, a sufficient 
 means of expression, and a new art, as a Christian 
 art was attained to. 
 
 XXV. 
 
 WE must not overlook the relation which exists 
 between thought and feeling which appears as a dis- 
 parity if we wish to be successful in answering a 
 series of questions which have a decided bearing upon 
 the knowledge of the nature of music. Firstly, we 
 may ask, When is thought representable in music? 
 Only when it is not mere thought, but has become 
 active inner existence, when it does not appear before 
 the soul as an object, but has entered into life itself. 
 Many have fallen into the error of regarding man as a 
 being that observes and thinks in ideas, without recog- 
 nizing his participation in the creation of a spiritual 
 world. Still, thought and idea have also a reality, and 
 this becomes life in us, inasmuch as we transform 
 thought into our spiritual existence. Therein the 
 truth of the sensuous world, and also the eternal idea 
 of faith, becomes our positive possession ; and that 
 which thus constitutes our inner life, thought trans- 
 formed into feelings we utter in moved tones, as the 
 moved life of the soul. 
 
 Therefore music without words is the purest and the 
 most primitive, and not only as regards instrumental
 
 IIO /ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 music, but also as regards song ; for collective Nature 
 sings and sounds without words. Its productions soar 
 most freely in their own flight. 
 
 Kant erroneously regarded it as the vehicle of 
 poetry ; but it by no means evinces more inner import 
 when combined with words, but simply becomes more 
 comprehensible, and attains to greater perspicuity, 
 and readily admits of judgment. Thus Haydn 
 treated the music in the songs of the " Seven words 
 of our Saviour," thus Vierey, Schmidt, and others 
 adapted suitable texts to some of the pianoforte com- 
 positions of Beethoven, as did Heinrich Schiitz to the 
 " Sehnsuchts Walzer," and Mendelssohn composed 
 songs without text. But we daily hear bitter com- 
 plaints of such singers as do not pronounce the text 
 distinctly, and we are expected to regard the words as 
 the chief thing. We should not consider that which 
 is good to be absolutely the best, but make nicer 
 distinctions. 
 
 Where understanding and perception are associated, 
 as in the Romance, or the action of an Opera, we 
 have, before all, a necessity for the text ; but where, on 
 the other hand, pure feeling is represented as, for in- 
 stance, the delight in awakened Nature, or melancholy, 
 tone and its symbolic power are sufficient, and we 
 require nothing more than the purely musical. No- 
 thing occurs more often than that a scene or action of 
 life is adopted as a text for a musical work, whereby 
 feeling is translated into idea. But we soon observe 
 the insufficiency, for instance, in the Overture of
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. Ill 
 
 Beethoven, Op. 115, wherein some persons imagine to 
 hear, in the diverging parts, a war of words that 
 gradually becomes louder, in which the speakers move 
 into opposition, but which at length passes into sub- 
 dued murmurs and jeers, and resolves itself into the 
 most perfect unity. This would be the musical repre- 
 sentation of a constitutional assembly, which could 
 only be derisively represented in music. Similarly 
 our judgment must have regard for circumstances, 
 when we are inclined to take offence at the insuffici- 
 ency of all narrations concerning music, or in the 
 criticism of musical works. The language of the un- 
 derstanding cannot suffice, and the assistance which 
 we receive from typical representation is not satisfac- 
 tory, for the reason that its comprehension pre-supposes 
 an agreement as to the validity of the figures used ; 
 but we cannot justify the style of the musical daily 
 papers, which continually speak of the Incompre- 
 hensible, and, in vague and empty phrases, largely 
 puffed out with allegories, express nothing. The 
 necessity for a thorough work on Esthetics becomes 
 more apparent in the fact that we have not yet attained 
 to a fixed musical terminology. Demonstration will 
 never suffice, as we observe in the sphere of sensuous 
 perception, where we cannot positively describe in 
 what manner blue and red differ from one another, or 
 how it is that certain things have a pleasant taste or 
 smell. With this fact before us, we shall considerately 
 avoid blaming those, who, on hearing music, comprise 
 various effects under the general denomination of
 
 112 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 beautiful, or excellent, and, unconcerned as to the 
 finer distinctions, satisfy themselves with the general 
 effect ; or who describe as high that which others call 
 deep. The activity of the understanding also affects 
 the spirit, when it brings about conditions, and we can 
 portray musically, the vacillation of the soul in doubt, 
 its absorption and meditation, the inner strife of the 
 will, &c., &c., but hereby we ever remain within the 
 sphere of subjective life-relations. Here we may esti- 
 mate the value of the assertion as to the apparently 
 meaningless character of music, which led Nageli to 
 deny that music had any contents, and that the 
 more meaningless it is, the more excellent does it 
 become. Such is music merely to the understanding, 
 to which indeed it does not immediately offer a 
 contents. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 THE agitations of desire, affection, and passion have 
 their origin in the feelings, and although they may 
 supplant and weaken, or even entirely remove pure 
 feeling, still the coveted object must first be presented 
 to the feelings in order to be striven after, or avoided 
 as pleasant or unpleasant. Therefore they also fall 
 within the province of musical representation. That 
 which, in desire and affection, constitutes the state 
 of activity, that effort to appropriate and struggle to 
 obtain the desired good, becomes audible as a surging 
 and striving, as a changing and blending of the feelings
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 113 
 
 in tones. Still even here the object of the passion or 
 affection cannot be described, and we cannot compre- 
 hend what the wished-for good may be, but merely 
 the "condition of soul excited and maintained by the 
 same. This distinguishes itself characteristically ac- 
 cording to the nature of the desire, of which a par- 
 ticular feeling always forms the basis; and love, 
 revenge, and jealousy, express themselves differently. 
 All that which is added in ideas by the understanding 
 is borrowed and foreign. 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 No one will deny to feeling the legality which is 
 unconditionally admitted with regard to thought. 
 The laws which Nature has laid down for the feelings, 
 apply also to music, inasmuch as the representation 
 should and does accord with the contents which are to 
 be represented. Every feeling and every condition of 
 the spirit has in itself, and also in music, its particular 
 tone and rhythm, just as every idea has its particular 
 word. This modifies the musical representation gene- 
 rally. But hereby the expression of art does not come 
 under consideration, but only the law of Nature by 
 which the manifestation accords with that which is 
 within us. Not only do the vehement and soft, the 
 strong and weak, find in high and clear, deep and dull 
 tones, their suitable expression ; but this is also the 
 case with the particular conditions and activities of 
 
 I
 
 114 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the spirit. Therefore hope, despair, fear, the blessing 
 of faith, and love, possess their peculiar expression in 
 tone and rhythm, even although this tone and rhythm 
 cannot be theoretically assigned. In Romberg's 
 music to Schiller's " Glocke " not only the idea or 
 words " and hopes " demanded the high open tone, 
 but this was required also by the feeling. 
 
 Psychology in its course of observation describes, 
 successively, the various kinds of feeling, and divides 
 them into pleasure and displeasure, joy and grief, 
 traces their development to the highest degree of the 
 affection, and points out the transitions into endeavours 
 and passions. With respect to the limiting feelings, a 
 great diversity and a great number of gradations are 
 offered, between displeasure and dejection, through 
 all grades of sorrow and sadness, to depressing melan- 
 choly and acute grief. The province of pleasure com- 
 prehends all gradations from lightly moved joy, 
 through the more or less free emotion of gaiety, to 
 dithryambic wildness. Thereto attach themselves the 
 feelings of power, courage, and daring. The feelings 
 of love and hate, from the first emotion of awakening 
 inclination and longing, to passionate impetuosity, 
 and the revel in enjoyment, comprehend the richest 
 province, and thousandfold modifications. 
 
 It is however difficult for philosophy to separate, 
 and describe exactly, each particular condition, and 
 still more difficult is a theoretical semiotic of music. 
 For the most part, the chief heads, only, can be deter- 
 mined, in illustration of the rules ; the particulars
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 115 
 
 are left to Nature, which, if undisturbed by foreign 
 admixture, always strikes its mark. Of the passions, 
 those generally cannot attain to musical represen- 
 tation which are associated with particular reflections, 
 as, for instance, greed and veneration, while the more 
 general pride and arrogance, find more easily their 
 expression. 
 
 On regarding that which we have hitherto advanced, 
 it would appear that the so-oft-repeated assertion as to 
 the indefmiteness of the feelings, has not been taken 
 into consideration. When, however, considered more 
 closely it will appear that merely a misunderstanding 
 obtains. The indefiniteness exists only in the under- 
 standing, inasmuch as it is not possible to the same to 
 subordinate the particulars to ideas, or to treat all 
 signs as logical. Therefore that which bears within it 
 its own peculiar definiteness, appears, to the under- 
 standing, to be indefinite, and this recognises an 
 unutterable condition of the feelings. The indefinite- 
 ness of the feelings stands thus in an inverse relation 
 to comprehensibleness, and, for this reason, many 
 persons have denied to music the power of representing 
 definite feelings, and Hoffmann accredited it merely 
 with the expression of unutterable longing. Such an 
 opinion every good musical work will refute, for 
 therein neither tone nor rhythm can be changed. 
 
 Truly it is impossible to perceive in Beethoven's 
 Funeral March whether a father mourns his children, 
 or a lover his mistress, still, unmistakably is expressed 
 therein the grief of life, in which such differences of 
 
 I 2
 
 Il6 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 outer relations vanish, but the heart is quite certain of 
 its grief. Beyond the earth, that is beyond the sphere 
 of ideas and of sensuousness, the love of the child and 
 the love of the enamoured are but one, and do not 
 appear different through finite circumstances. The 
 object which has excited the feeling, and to which the 
 latter is directed, does not attain to nearer definition, 
 but the feeling is in itself the more definite. 
 
 Truly those who have condemned the modern 
 nomenclature of musical works, such as " Farewell to 
 London," " Recollections of St. Petersburg," &c., have 
 sufficient grounds; but with the justifiable rejection of 
 all empty terms, the fact of giving names to the expres- 
 sion of particular feelings, must not also be forbidden. 
 We shall see further on, within what limits this 
 practice becomes perfectly justifiable. 
 
 We can ascribe to music a much greater degree of 
 definiteness of representation than falls to the lot of 
 any other art, for it is not only impossible to the 
 painter, to represent feelings in so definite a manner, 
 paintings offering but a trace of the same, but even 
 the mimic exhibitor cannot, by means of expression, 
 speak to the heart as it is possible to do so by means 
 of tones. 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 THE nature of feeling asserts itself no less in rhythm 
 than in melody. Feelings are inner excitements in 
 time which pass more or less quickly and which are
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. Iiy 
 
 uniform, or of changing form. Therefore they contain 
 a rhythm within themselves. Music immediately grasps 
 this inner rhythmical life, and represents it in her 
 forms, without being prejudiced by reason of the fact, 
 that thought often finds something indefinite therein. 
 In this activity of the inner elements of life, a law 
 of continuity (Stetigkeit) obtains, and we can observe 
 therein a beginning, growth, decline, and transition ; 
 the feelings pass into one another, are never broken by 
 a leap ; this could only occur through the accidental 
 operation of an external. Graduality is the form of 
 its growth and the related attaches itself to the re- 
 lated ; where antitheses meet together, the influence of 
 contrast acts mediatingly. Therefore every change 
 occurs in accordance with the laws of connection, 
 similarly as this takes place in the association of 
 pictures and representations. Everywhere appears 
 diversity united by an inner coherence; and unity 
 which has its origin in the soul's entirety. 
 
 And thus it is with music also which is not absolved 
 from the laws of continuity, for it exists in a state of 
 coherence, in constant change, in decline, in rising and 
 falling. A mere aggregation of diverse representa- 
 tions of feeling does not constitute music, and even 
 when antitheses occur, or in baroque contrast appear 
 as a disparity, still the hypothesis of continuity is not 
 destroyed. The reason why much in our existing 
 music displeases or embarrasses us lies partly in the 
 neglect of this law of continuity.
 
 Il8 ^THETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 THE province of music is immediate time present, for 
 even as I feel when affected by an influential existence, 
 and grasp the same, inasmuch as it becomes my own, 
 so also I represent. The past, then, can only be 
 treated as the present, and every historical relation 
 vanishes. By this presentiality is explained, on the 
 one hand, the great power which music has asserted 
 at all times. It proceeds and operates with a certainty 
 unknown to any other art, for that which exists 
 within it also penetrates immediately, as the nearest 
 Present, into the spirit of the hearer, without ambiguity 
 and without illusion. It excites similarity of feeling, 
 without standing in need of explanation by language, 
 and the hearts of men being nearer allied than their 
 heads, this coincidence is thereby much more readily 
 brought about. Through this presentiality music 
 speaks more forcibly to the heart ; and more lasting is 
 the pleasure, for a frequent repetition does not so 
 readily fatigue, or render indifferent, as it does in the 
 case of productions of the art of painting, or even of 
 poetry. On the other hand, the province in which 
 musical art operates is limited, for it cannot treat of 
 the past in its remoteness, nor represent that which is 
 foreign to it in an objective picture, 
 
 For music everything external must become 
 internal.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 1 19 
 
 XXX. 
 
 BUT not alone is the world of the finite, and of the 
 sensuous, given to the feelings ; the contemplative 
 activity of the soul, touches and grasps also a higher 
 world. How it is that our spiritual existence is filled 
 and moved by that which is presented to the contem- 
 plation, is readily explained, and every one knows how 
 joy and serenity, sadness and grief, despair and hope, 
 excited by that which we have experienced, raise and 
 stir, check and depress our spiritual powers ; how 
 therein alien nature blends with our own and becomes 
 our own. Still, how feeling may receive within it some- 
 thing general or ideal, and how music may represent 
 the same, does not become clear to every one in the 
 daily experiences of life. There is, however, an ideal 
 feeling which originates in a higher province than 
 that of the ideas, and which allows man to pass into 
 immediate contact with a world which is not attained 
 to by the ideas, for he thinks the eternal and infinite 
 in ideas, and feels it as his life in ideas. From all that 
 is finite and conditional, the spirit of the Unconditional, 
 the Eternal Truth, the Infinite Freedom, the Godhead 
 speaks to his heart, and as this spirit becomes one 
 with his own spirit, and he bears it within him, and is 
 penetrated, raised, and blessed by it, this constitutes 
 the contents of his feeling which then expresses itself 
 in tones. Thus music truly cannot represent ideas 
 themselves, but it attests the existence of the idea
 
 120 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 within us, and excites it, raises us above the finite, and 
 secures to us the participation in a life which operates 
 beyond and above the limitations of Space and 
 Time. That which, in majestic and beautiful music, 
 affects our profounder soul, we term unutterable and 
 indefinable. It is the Infinite itself which receives us, 
 and which we bear within us. In this elevation above 
 all earthly things, into a region wherein words are no 
 longer sufficient, a magic peculiar to music operates. 
 It makes us free, and tears us from the limits which 
 ideas draw around us : the spirit then feels itself freed 
 from the conditions of a poor earthly existence. 
 Therefore it also makes man happy, and he can speak 
 of it as a blessing, although the cold worldly man of 
 understanding may smile at it, or he who is enchained 
 by mere sensuous enjoyment, may regard it as empty 
 and void. 
 
 On listening to a performance of Mozart's Zauber- 
 flote however trivial may be the import of the in 
 part tasteless text he who grasps the music purely 
 and deeply, and gives himself up, unprejudiced, to that 
 which is ideal in the same, will find in the end that 
 nothing further remains than that state of blessedness 
 which culminates in a desire to be removed entirely 
 from everything worldly. This is regarded by many 
 as mere enthusiasm, and that which is rightly regarded 
 as the language of longing, and as a manifestation of 
 the Insensuous, they call the expression of obscure 
 feelings. But they are the clearest and brightest con- 
 templations in which we become conscious of our God,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 121 
 
 of our future freedom and blessedness. The formative 
 arts give body to ideas, and strive thus to humanize 
 the Divine ; but music, on the contrary, seeks to change 
 the Sensuous into the Spiritual, and to transform the 
 Human into the Divine : therein it is assisted by the 
 finest and an invisible material, with which it creates 
 ethereal forms, that no eye may perceive, but which 
 the soul, as it were, exhales ; it resolves the Spacial 
 into Temporal, the Passive into Activity, and leads to 
 ideal life and freedom, in which finer spirits are given 
 over to the enjoyment of Infinity. But even grief 
 leads us thereto. We should not find pleasure in sad 
 and pathetic music, if, besides the limiting impression, 
 it did not represent the Infinite, and waken an idea of 
 faith in eternal love, and the victory of spiritual free- 
 dom. In the activity of the spirit there are central 
 points from which music proceeds in the purest, 
 greatest abundance, and, being heard, penetrates the 
 most deeply and excites the most powerfully. These 
 are Religion, and Love in its diverse forms. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 NOTWITHSTANDING the extensive compass of this 
 effectiveness, and the great importance of the music 
 of mankind, many persons have raised complaints as 
 to the poverty of the same, and have imagined to 
 discover a prop to its worth in its association with 
 poetry. Music, they say, lacks the means of awaken-
 
 122 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 ing a complete picture in the soul of the listener, and 
 can only represent ideas in general, and reproduce a 
 general effect (vide "Greipenkerl's ^Esthetik," page 371). 
 Such complaints may be reasonable, if, in the activity 
 of the soul, nothing further than representation exists. 
 This we may certainly find sufficient for this life, but 
 beyond it we shall not endure with ideas of the under- 
 standing, and even with our present existence a purer 
 and loftier foreknowledge is associated. He who 
 demands merely prosaic thought, moves here, un- 
 doubtedly, in a foreign province. Not in the imitation 
 of representations does music busy itself (in vain 
 would it attempt the same), but that which it offers in 
 great riches, unites that which is general and particular, 
 and includes that which is significant. We do not wish 
 to perceive individual things, which, for the most part, 
 fall to the lot of sensuous contemplation, nor does the 
 real listener to music seek for a translation into ideas ; 
 but clearly and completely the individual feeling 
 addresses the soul as an universality, and at the same 
 time preserves its ideal character. The power of 
 thought may appear rich when it combines, in one 
 derived picture, the thousandfold diversities to unities ; 
 but still feeling, and therefore music cannot be termed 
 poor, because the former immediately comprehends 
 life without a picture, and the latter immediately 
 makes life known in similar emotion. If we survey, 
 without prejudice, the province of music, we shall 
 observe that which is the greatest and most com- 
 prehensive therein. Everything high and low which
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 123 
 
 a condition of soul is capable of producing lies 
 within it. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 WE have already referred to Niigeli's opinion which 
 denies a meaning to music. He added that it only 
 offers form, a combination of tones, and successions of 
 tones according to rule. That which is true in this 
 assertion shall be considered hereafter, but at present 
 only that which is untrue will occupy our attention. 
 Without expression of an intellectual contents, music 
 ceases to be human and beautiful. We cannot there- 
 fore imagine it as mere empty form, nor place it on an 
 equality with the song of birds. What it is that con- 
 stitutes empty music we shall elsewhere have oppor- 
 tunity of observing, but, in itself, it cannot be called a 
 mere play of form. The world which is present to 
 mankind, penetrates into the spirit, and returns from 
 thence again to the visible forms. The form of my 
 inner existence is my existence itself. All thought 
 and will, all participation in a spiritual existence, and 
 the reception of the supersensuous, becomes a condi- 
 tion of the soul, which the understanding can again 
 denote in abstract pictures ; all this the feeling imme- 
 diately grasps, and with the external activity of life, 
 which accords with the inner emotion, represents every 
 condition in its own peculiar manner. This is not 
 mere form, but life expresses itself in life, and he who 
 then requires more than tone and rhythm may be
 
 124 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 compared with a person who denies meaning to a 
 painting because the characters in the picture do not 
 move and speak, and the bubbling springs do not 
 murmur. Truly we cannot expect objective repre- 
 sentations in music, but only inner conditions of life, 
 and even these not in abstractions, but in immediate 
 appearance, and for direct transmission into other 
 souls. The excited and moved life of him who sings 
 and produces music, propagates itself, exciting and 
 moving, into the soul of the listener, and a more 
 intimate conformity and blending is not possible. A 
 misunderstanding cannot occur, and soul penetrates 
 into soul. But we err (again we repeat it) when our 
 demand for contents is only directed to ideas. The 
 Allegro of a Symphony has been interpreted as the 
 destiny of a man who enjoys life, who sits among his 
 children, or who actively passes to and fro in life's 
 market ; the Adagio as the anxiety of a maiden who 
 has not for a long time received a letter from her 
 beloved. Music cannot and will not give such mean- 
 ings for representations, and he who takes upon him- 
 self the right of demanding the same, need not be 
 angry when others banter him with creations of the 
 imagination, and, for instance, point out in Men- 
 delssohn's Overture to the Midsummernight's Dream, 
 the particular bar at which the moonlight appears, and 
 the elfs dance.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 12$ 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 As the representation of the activity of the feelings, 
 music cannot take up that which is passive and rigid, 
 for in the activity of the human soul a continuous 
 series of emotions is contained, in which diversity 
 develops itself throughout time, inasmuch as to a 
 particular fundamental feeling, related emotions attach 
 themselves, near or remote transitions transpose into 
 new conditions, and the degrees of activity are now 
 heightened, and now diminished. Relation and con- 
 trast operate together to form combinations, and not 
 seldom unite that which appears quite heterogeneous, 
 Thus music chooses tone and rhythm, and tempo for 
 both, and with them it passes through time and 
 bounds into life. Before a picture the spectator stands 
 silent, and buries himself in the same, while that which 
 is lasting in music, such as sustained tones and chords^ 
 is disquieting and may become burdensome to the 
 spirit. But this manner of seizing upon one and 
 bearing one along with it, which is characteristic of 
 music, has the effect of making the soul free from all 
 that is foreign, of lightly removing from the soul all 
 that which disturbs and checks it, and by the freedom 
 of its flight of also securing the delight which free 
 spirits enjoy. Herein lies the healing and strengthen- 
 ing power of music, which is far too little regarded by 
 those sanative artists, who do not merely restore the
 
 126 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 body by means of that which is corporeal, that we are 
 able to speak of any decided results. And yet a 
 proper use of this means would doubtless lead to 
 satisfactory effects. Of the great influence of music in 
 creating a friendly disposition, and in calming or 
 appeasing the excited or exasperated, we are in 
 possession of many memorable facts. Laborde, in his 
 " Essai sur la Musique " relates the following anecdote 
 of Alessandro Stradella, a master of the violin in the 
 middle of the seventeenth century. While staying 
 in Venice he won by his music the heart of Hortensia, 
 a Roman lady, who sped with him back to Rome. 
 Her guardian, enraged at this abduction, persuaded 
 a young man, whose destined bride she was, to 
 revenge the insult with the blood of the seducer. 
 The bridegroom hastened to Rome. He ascertained 
 that Stradella would perform in a certain church, 
 and betook himself there, with a dagger concealed 
 beneath his cloak. From Stradella's performance 
 spoke love, heavenly love, and the jealous lover's 
 desire for revenge was pacified, so that he wrote back 
 to Venice to say that he arrived too late, and that 
 Stradella had already flown, and he even went so far 
 as to offer Stradella the means of escaping the 
 attempts at revenge. Of an artist of the name of 
 Palma, who lived in Naples, in the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, Martinelli, in his critical letters, 
 relates the following story : An usurer, to whom 
 Palma was indebted for a considerable sum of money, 
 came roughly into his house to cause him to be arrested
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. I2/ 
 
 Instead of making answer to the insulting remarks 
 levelled at him, Palma sang with hoarse voice an 
 Ariette. On perceiving that the old miser became 
 interested, he sat himself down at the pianoforte, 
 and sang a second Aria, with accompaniment. He 
 observed that certain chords produced a great effect 
 upon his creditor, and his efforts, in the end, were so 
 successful that the usurer no longer made demands for 
 payment, but on being asked by Palma for a further 
 loan, granted him the same. Upon gems, the ancients 
 represented Amor, riding on the back of a lion, and 
 playing the lyre, a thoughtful allegory of the power 
 of music. 
 
 XXXIV. 
 
 MUSIC THE PRODUCT OF THE SPIRITUALITY AND OF 
 THE TOTALITY OF THE POWERS OF THE MIND. 
 
 WE have hitherto described the nature of music as 
 the representation of the feelings, and have justified 
 its subjective character, inasmuch as we have separated 
 
 it from the world of ideas. This is the natural music 
 
 / 
 
 of man, who, however, when operating intellectually 
 and freely, is active with his whole soul, and, in 
 advanced development, makes demands for the com- 
 plete gratification of the spirit. As the mere repre- 
 sentation of the feelings, music would not therefore 
 completely unite within itself the spiritual interests
 
 128 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 and consequently would not gratify them. We should 
 indeed secure in it, and through it, an elevation above 
 the confines of the Sensuous, convert the sensations 
 into feelings, and become conscious of a participation 
 in an ideal world, but all this would readily lose itself 
 in the Irregular and Indefinite, and the connection in 
 which our spiritual existence stands with the objective 
 world would be lost to us. But in the feelings, there 
 is but subjective definiteness, and still the demand of 
 our spiritual life is for an objective certainty. We ever 
 strive to attain to this, and a product can only gratify 
 both the creative and contemplative spirit, when it 
 makes demands upon the whole being of the soul. 
 An object which the soul feels, and thinks, and con- 
 templates, and which thus calls all powers equally 
 into activity, allows us to become certain of our 
 spiritual freedom. We cannot and will not be mere 
 creatures of feeling, and every predominating disposi- 
 tion becomes a disagreeable partiality. But this does 
 not occur in music when it addresses itself to art 
 cultivation, for then the unity of the employed powers 
 of the soul is associated with it, inasmuch as feeling 
 and reflection penetrate one another, and the power of 
 the imagination, as the property of the picture and of 
 the comprehensible representation, is called into play. 
 To define this third character, a word is wanting ; 
 but as we use the word Spirit to describe that power 
 of the soul which is opposed to feeling, we will here 
 make use of the term Spirituality or Totality. The 
 collective spiritual powers immediately become active
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 1 29 
 
 when music-practising man touches the province of 
 art, or even only approaches it. Then, man not only 
 feels and hears, but he also thinks and contemplates 
 ideas, and creates pictures of the fantasy. Were 
 music only a representation of the feelings and that 
 which is associated therewith, were it only an acci- 
 dental association, then Kant would have had right on 
 his side, when he asserted that in the province of 
 reason, but little value attaches to it. Still, that which 
 exists in the feelings, and which, being grasped by the 
 same, attains to musical representation, acquires 
 through the concurring participation of the under- 
 standing or the reflection, and the power of the 
 imagination, even the possibility of representation, 
 order, comprehensibleness, and objective importance, 
 and through the participation of reason a clear 
 subordination of ideas. Through this co-operation 
 music becomes universal in character, and it becomes 
 an art. But it is the intellect which lays open the 
 ideal world to the feelings, and which converts that 
 which it grasps into thoughts and contemplations, 
 which subjects the representation to rule, and which, 
 consequently, when the inner life attains to expression, 
 exerts its ruling power in the creation of a musical 
 art work tones and movements being decided upon 
 by the spontaneous reflection with the same degree 
 of activity which it evinces in the comprehension of 
 the same. 
 
 K
 
 130 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 IN enquiries concerning the nature of music, as in 
 psychological investigation generally, the abrupt divi- 
 sion of the faculties of the soul will not suffice ; we 
 are therefore led to recognise many separate points in 
 the collective effect of these powers which never exist 
 in a divided state. Still, at the onset, it appears neces- 
 sary to point out the relation in which these faculties 
 stand to one another. The understanding stands 
 partly in antithesis, partly in alternating relation to 
 the feelings ; but we must here guard against a com- 
 mon error, by which we assume antithesis where only 
 an increased activity gains the ascendancy, as similarly, 
 the assumption that feeling is circumscribed and 
 weakened by thought, is mostly based upon the fact, 
 that the soul, which gives itself up entirely to medita- 
 tion, cannot at the same time lend its power to feeling. 
 We shall, further on, find a confirmation of this in the 
 rules for composition. On the other hand, that which, 
 at the same time, employs the understanding, can 
 enhance the activity in a condition of feeling, similarly 
 as the connoisseur of music hears more than the 
 dilettante, inasmuch as he, at the same time, sets his 
 understanding in activity, although, perhaps, without 
 preserving a so powerful or pure state of feeling. 
 Through reflection, feeling gains in extension, although, 
 perhaps, at the cost of intensive strength. The feeling
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 131 
 
 becomes the image of the fantasy, and thereby, on the 
 one hand, gains, not only by becoming more compre- 
 hensible, but also by acquiring enhanced vivacity, form, 
 and colour ; on the other hand, it readily loses itself in 
 forms, and levels the general import. This finds in 
 no instance more positive proof than in musical pro- 
 ductions. The vivacity of the feelings is enhanced, 
 and enduringly maintained, if the fantasy associates a 
 richer sum of images, and thus not only engages the 
 soul through diverse interests, but awakens new feel- 
 ings, which unite with the original feelings, and strive 
 with them for the ascendancy, and perhaps supersede 
 them. The clarity of the powers of imagination is 
 associated herewith to advantage, for the reason that 
 a clearly defined picture is well adapted to receive the 
 truth of life, and the magic of beauty, and with these 
 speaks to the heart, in such a manner that no misunder- 
 standing, still less indifference, can result. 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 THE collective efficiency of our powers of soul, which 
 react upon one another, and the spiritual character of 
 music are made known (i) in Melody and Harmony ; 
 (2) in the free play of musical pictures ; (3) in the 
 modification of expression ; (4) in the subordination to 
 the idea of Beauty. Herein the entire nature of music, 
 in all its elements, is disclosed, and we recognise there- 
 
 K 2
 
 132 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 in, in the province of art, one of the purest and freest 
 productions of human creative power. 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 MELODY. 
 
 TONES being given, and a suitable succession of tones 
 having been fixed upon by aesthetic judgment, in the 
 further progress of cultivation ; by theoretic rule, on 
 the introduction of art and rhythm having acquired a 
 legal definiteness, the possibility of the representation 
 of the feelings was objectively grounded. The com- 
 bination of tones to a whole was next required, and 
 thus the representation itself was brought about. As 
 a thought develops itself in representations and words, 
 and by these means the contents of the same are 
 wrought out, so that we can speak of thought pictures, 
 and forms of thought, so a feeling and its tones 
 become a picture and a phenomenon, and we describe 
 the combinations of tones with regard to their succes- 
 sion and association as tone pictures. Language, in 
 accordance with its acknowledged right, has recourse 
 to a terminology which, emanating from the ideas 
 associated with vision, is transferred to the sense of 
 hearing, therefore it must not be regarded as an offence 
 if, in that which follows, we speak of contemplation in 
 the province of the Audible. This can only mislead 
 those who are but little practised in abstractions, and
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 133 
 
 truly in this respect, no slighter errors of judgment 
 have been induced than, for instance, when in speaking 
 of thoughts, it has been assumed that music has to 
 represent the real and immediate thoughts of the 
 understanding. 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 IN the elucidation of the nature of music, no point 
 can be more important than the enquiry as to what it 
 is that we call melody. All theoretical treatises pro- 
 ceed from the assertion that the combination of tones 
 may be regarded in a twofold manner, that when 
 sounding successively they form melody, and when 
 simultaneously they form harmony ; and thus a duple 
 science of Melody and Harmony becomes practicable. 
 Nevertheless, for Melody, or the Science of Melodic, 
 but little has been done ; and if, in respect of the value 
 and laws of melody, sundry ideas have been advanced, 
 still a free and deep investigation has not been possible, 
 for the reason that men are not agreed or clear as to 
 what it is that constitutes Melody. Writers lost them- 
 selves in discussions concerning the validity of melody 
 and harmony, and the subordination of the one to the 
 other, and vainly- built without a foundation. There- 
 fore, in order to avoid increasing the confusion of 
 language, it is before all necessary to elucidate a 
 fundamental idea ; having at the same time regard 
 for that which has hitherto been attempted on this
 
 134 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 subject. As an ancient truth we find recorded in 
 treatises, and generally accepted, that Melody is a 
 pleasing or agreeable succession of tones. But it will 
 at once appear that the idea of that which is pleasing 
 is far too general, and has merely been afterwards 
 adapted to the nature of the subject, for not every 
 pleasing succession of tones can be regarded as melody, 
 and we also meet with melodies that are displeasing 
 and not beautiful. We do not attain to more definite 
 results when Sievers terms melody a definite motion 
 or flowing succession of feeling tones, for we are 
 naturally led to enquire into the signification of the 
 word feeling, and are rather inclined to imagine that 
 a definition of music in general is intended. Another 
 error arises from the confusion of melody with expres- 
 sion. This occurs in the case of Sulzer who finally 
 understands nothing more than characteristic delinea- 
 tion, which, surely, attaches itself to melody in a 
 secondary degree, but does not primarily constitute 
 the same. The best of melody may be produced, and 
 yet not attain to characteristic life and beauty in 
 representation ; and to how many melodies must 
 expression be denied.. Not a few, with the intention of 
 avoiding the admixture of foreign ideas, held fast to 
 the word Succession, and placed melody in antithesis 
 to harmony, reasoning that the latter represents the 
 constancy, or the enduring condition of the spirit, 
 while the former represents progressively the varia- 
 tions of the inner emotions. But progression is not 
 excluded from harmony, nor is this confined within
 
 OF ThE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 135 
 
 itself, for there are a vast number of harmonies which 
 demand a progression, without which they could not 
 be accounted as dissonances. And does not melody 
 exist at the root of all harmony ? On the other hand, 
 the ascending and descending scale would, on this 
 supposition, constitute a melody. Krause and others 
 imagined to have discovered a way out of these 
 difficulties, when they taught that melody speaks the 
 feeling of a single heart, the voice of a single indi- 
 vidual; whereas harmony contains a number of voices. 
 This opinion, however, can only mislead still further, 
 for, in the first place, there lies in each representation 
 but one individuality, and the song of many parts can 
 only be regarded as the union of several individualities; 
 then again the polyphonic song and music in chords 
 always follow the laws of harmony, consequently we 
 again return to the unsolved point of commencement. 
 
 Just as little was gained by insufficient comparison, 
 as, for instance, in the case of Wagner, who wrote 
 (Musikalische Zeitung, 1823, p. 719), 'Melody is the 
 material of music as colour is of painting.' Thus men 
 lost themselves in the Indefinite, and even Gottfried 
 Weber stated in the Encyclopedia ii. 2, p. 299 : " If the 
 succession of tones be in accordance with the rules of 
 art, that is, if it have a musical meaning, it is called 
 melody and as we thereby imagine a person a 
 voice." 
 
 With a closer proximity to a correct definition, but 
 with an evident absence of mature consideration, 
 melody was described as that which can be sung, and
 
 136 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 this feature was ascribed to melody as its most impor- 
 tant characteristic. From this idea emanated the 
 general and oft-repeated demand that composers 
 should adapt their musical productions to vocal per- 
 formance, and obtain, from instruments, effects similar 
 to those of the human voice. But its import was 
 not expressed by the idea of that which is singable, 
 which is too ambiguous and vacillatory. What, may 
 we ask, is in general to be understood by this suitability 
 to vocal performance ? Surely not that which it is 
 easy for mankind to sing? How can we reconcile 
 herewith the oft-repeated observation, that harmony 
 effects nothing without melody? How could it be 
 remarked, as has not seldom been the case, that 
 melody is obscured by too great fulness of harmony ? 
 When in ancient times church songs existed without 
 melody, were they not suited to vocal performance ? 
 These and other questions are unanswerable by the 
 theory of Cantabile. 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
 IN order to solve the problem now before us, we must 
 regard another searching, and, in music, essentially 
 effective faculty of the soul. The inner life which is 
 comprised by the feelings, in other words, that which 
 is felt, must, in order to attain to expression, become a 
 picture and suited to contemplation. Without this 
 adaptation to contemplation, no representation,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 137 
 
 which requires an elaboration into a definite form 
 can be attained to ; and it is, if not Beauty itself still 
 the forerunner and basis of Beauty. The force of the 
 imagination lends this comprehensible imagery for the 
 inner and outer senses. Tones, then, or a succession 
 of tones in which feeling asserts itself in a manner 
 suited to contemplation that is, in definite form, 
 clearly and purely we call Melody, which, in the case 
 of the formative arts, is in general described as suit- 
 ability to contemplation, and constitutes the primary 
 aesthetic form. Melody is, therefore, the successive 
 combination of tones in an aesthetic, that is, in a com- 
 prehensible form. This is, however, contained both in 
 tonal and in rhythmical relations, for, in both, the 
 power of the imagination arranges and forms a pic- 
 ture, which, by according with the feelings, can and 
 must awaken the same feeling in the listener. The 
 rhythmical relations must not, however, be regarded 
 as of less importance, and if those who speak of the 
 effectiveness of rhythm in the representation of the 
 Beautiful are silent as to how rhythm acquires this 
 power of representing the Spiritual, or feelings, or 
 aesthetic ideas, it would be well that they should give 
 particular attention to the point which now comes 
 under consideration. 
 
 XL. 
 
 SIMILARLY as in the poet, and the poem of his pro- 
 duction, the representation of a thought, if it shall not
 
 138 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 obliterate itself, must become a comprehensible picture, 
 and give birth to thought pictures and word pictures ; 
 so the power of the imagination converts a feeling into 
 pictures of feeling, and tone pictures, and lends shapes 
 to the same, in purely developed forms and their 
 unity. Thus even tones, as the expression of the 
 feelings, acquire objectivity, and may be compared 
 with the representations of the lyric poem. By reason 
 of the intuitive nature of music, it occurs, greatly 
 to its advantage, that the inner tones of the spirit do 
 not require, for their elucidation and definition, to be 
 previously converted into visible forms, nor, as in 
 poetry, does an elaboration of the subjects of the 
 feelings take place, but the inner life immediately 
 presents itself in a form, and the motion of tones 
 expresses, without any mediation, the emotion of the 
 soul. Such suitableness to contemplation renders it 
 possible that the truth of the feelings may be 
 expressed, and that Beauty may be attained to. The 
 unity which the definite and pure forms bring about 
 in the Comprehensible retains firm hold of that which 
 exists in the feelings, and thereby a definite expres- 
 sion of the inner condition of the Soul is attained to, 
 through which the inner emotion in its veracity 
 becomes so prominent that it can penetrate into every 
 alien spirit and excite similar feelings therein. We 
 follow the melody as it passes from tone to tone, and 
 with facility grasp it in its purity. This appropria- 
 tion is assisted by the naturalness and definiteness of 
 the same, and thus we immediately recognise the
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 139 
 
 language of the human heart. Still melody does not 
 in general contain only the expression of the soul, but 
 expresses also individuality; its simplicity adapts it 
 to the representation of particularities, and only the 
 definite form of the melody grasps the peculiarity of 
 an individual human heart. Comprehensibleness is 
 such an essential condition of, and foundation for, 
 beauty that it is very often confounded with the 
 Beautiful itself. We shall hereafter consider what 
 position it occupies with respect to Regularity, and to 
 what extent the Beautiful is based upon the Compre- 
 hensible : here we have merely to remark that music 
 without melody cannot under any circumstances be 
 beautiful, and that melody is by no means lacking in 
 beautiful combinations of harmony. Men speak of 
 that which is pleasing in melody ; and require to find a 
 pleasing form therein. This is nothing more than the 
 Comprehensible, which, however, does not always offer 
 that which is pleasant of sound or delightful to the 
 ideas. For a melody may stand the test, and conse- 
 quently be genuine and good, and yet not flatter the 
 ear, and men may even content themselves with that 
 which is easy of contemplation, and consider it to be 
 beautiful. This finds confirmation in Russian folk- 
 songs, if one hears them sung naturally and not from 
 notes. Even the Ugly may be suited to contempla- 
 tion and thereby become aesthetically useful. From 
 these premises we are able to explain the common 
 idea of the subject, for when melody is described as 
 that which is adapted to_ vocal performance, or that
 
 140 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 which is vocally rich, only the pure and therefore 
 easily comprehended form, in which feeling speaks 
 immediately and truly to the heart, can be meant. 
 
 XLI. 
 
 FROM the nature of melody, we perceive the founda- 
 tion of the demands which are made upon it, and its 
 highest perfection, by Art. We here specify them, in 
 order that it may become quite clear that in melody 
 is contained that which is comprehensible in musical 
 representation ; still we adhere firmly to the statement 
 that in melody, regarded for itself, neither Beauty nor 
 Characteristic Expression must be pre-supposed, for 
 these appear later. Consequently, it is not easy to 
 give illustrations from existing art works, which aim 
 at beautiful representation. That which musical 
 treatises observe on this head, is, for the most part, 
 confined to the treatment of several voices proceeding 
 parallel to one another ; while that which concerns the 
 formation and development of melodic figures, is left 
 to the taste which decides, without grounds, whether a 
 melody sounds well or otherwise. With respect to 
 that which melody on the whole -should offer, theory 
 has not concerned itself, nor has it taken into con- 
 deration such individual progressions as appear correct, 
 or, at least, not unpleasant, and yet when combined 
 as a whole do not please. Comprehensibleness exists
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 141 
 
 by outer and inner unity, through the definite and 
 clear development of sensuously comprehensible 
 forms. Melody must therefore (i) contain a diver- 
 sity combined to an unity. Two tones produce no 
 melody, but three may, as Rousseau has shown in 
 his well-known air de trots notes. Diversity of tones 
 is suited to the reception of Beauty ; unity arranges 
 the whole for more certain comprehension. It will of 
 course be understood that the compass may be very 
 various. Short melodies confine themselves to the 
 sphere of a single key (ton}, or interchange only with 
 near keys. That which here binds and unites is the 
 relationship of nearer or remoter kind. It is (2) pre- 
 supposed that an inner condition of agreement is in 
 force, whereby, from a so-called fundamental tone, the 
 successsion of related tones develops itself. This in- 
 duces an inner cohesion, an organic formation. Both 
 diversity and inner cohesion are united in Modulation, 
 which admits of transition into other keys, but still 
 always in accordance with the rules of relationship. 
 Here one key serves for a basis, from which the progres- 
 sions modulate, now upwards and now downwards, but 
 return again to the original key. This key is at the 
 same time the point of rest for the beginning and the 
 end. Therein the definite outline of the tone figure is 
 produced, in which the free motion of Beauty finds 
 more or less room. If the Characteristic be added 
 through the key or other means, the melody becomes 
 expressive. Franklin tells us that the Scotch songs 
 are for the most part excellent melodies, and have
 
 142 . AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 been retained so long in remembrance for the reason 
 that they preserve a very strict modulation in con- 
 nected consonances. On the other hand, melodies 
 which, without any particular motive, contain foreign 
 admixture, and are wanting in modulation, are to be 
 rejected. We also find it difficult to play or sing them. 
 But no elaborate proof is required of the falsity of the 
 notion which regards modulation as being opposed to 
 melody, seeing that this must move freely, for without 
 modulation no melody can endure. (3) In the for- 
 mation of tonal successions, rhythm obtains and lends 
 keeping to the melody. From the fact that the suc- 
 cession of tones is definitely divided in time, and that 
 to every part its place and external conditions are 
 allotted, comprehensibleness is attained to. The com- 
 pass of the melody must accordingly be rhythmically 
 defined, and the time must mark out definite bound- 
 aries for the melody. We may compare herewith the 
 outlines of a painting. Halting melodies are not 
 seldom such as fail to please, because they are not 
 properly arranged, and are therefore wanting in com- 
 prehensibleness ; improve them rhythmically and they 
 will pass for good melodies. Writers of Fugues some- 
 times imagine that all things must accommodate them- 
 selves to harmonic relations, and consequently give no 
 attention to the parallel progressive melodies. The 
 result is that their products are unwieldy and incom- 
 prehensible, and as such fail to gratify or displease. 
 (4) Melody must offer Completeness, and must unfold 
 that which lies within it. There are melodies which
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 143 
 
 seem to be wanting in something ; add but a few notes 
 thereto and that which is censurable vanishes. The 
 comprehensibleness labours under detriment when indi- 
 vidual parts are wanting in the organic Whole, or do 
 not stand out. If the melody shall serve for the 
 representation of inwardly moved life, or for expres- 
 sion, it must be adapted to receive within it the thereto 
 applicable expedients, and also to preserve thereby its 
 completeness. (5.) From what we have already stated 
 it will and must appear that a melody capable of 
 standing a test is comprehensible. In ordinary lan- 
 guage this is termed singable, and adapted to the human 
 voice, or performable, and not borne down with tech- 
 nical difficulties. It is, however, obvious that that 
 which cannot be sung or played does not and cannot 
 exist in music. That which is merely relative need 
 not here trouble us. The prohibitions of narrow 
 theories, as, for instance, that against overstepping the 
 octave, find no application in instrumental music, and 
 the vocally practicable has been greatly extended and 
 is always relative. We might, with greater show of 
 reason, describe the property here spoken of as audi- 
 ble (Jiearable), That which is comprehensible and 
 consequently easy of performance is the Intuitive 
 and Pure. Where the ear, and consequently the voice 
 also, cannot comprehend the unity, or where admixture 
 renders comprehension difficult, where a clear con- 
 struction of periods is wanting, there fails the so-called 
 adaptability to vocal performance. The Whole of the 
 melody must therefore have a thoroughly transparent
 
 144 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 organisation, and the parts must be so arranged that 
 the mind is able to overlook the whole from points 
 of rest, and to connect every single part of the whole. 
 Everything indefinite or indistinct increases the diffi- 
 culty of comprehension, and diminishes its intuitive 
 character, or even entirely destroys it. 
 
 XLII. 
 
 MELODY has been termed the most essential element 
 of music, and truly it is so, for without comprehensible- 
 ness, and without pure form of movement, no musical 
 representation is sufficient, or is even possible. There- 
 fore no opinion can be more thoughtlessly advanced, 
 than, when in speaking of a composition, people say it 
 contains melody also, as if this were merely an orna- 
 mental or accidental addition. Modern treatises, on 
 the other hand, speak of the subordination of melody 
 to harmony. From this arose the dispute which 
 divided the Melodists from the Harmonists. The 
 latter deny to melody a primary importance, and the 
 former term purely melodious music paltry. Compare 
 Ccecilia, Vol. vii., p. 269. According to this view of 
 the matter, the representation of varying situations of 
 the feelings, falls only to the part of successions of 
 harmony, for people regard harmony as the mainspring 
 of the whole, and even look upon melody as a dis- 
 jointed harmony. On regarding the opinions which 
 were advanced concerning the compositions of Paisiello,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 145 
 
 Pleyel, Sterkel, and, at a more recent date, those of 
 Rossini and Auber, it will be seen that the critics 
 admitted their melodies to be clear, flowing, and 
 excellent, but objected to the want of value in the 
 whole, without considering that that which lessened 
 its importance lay by no means in the melodies 
 themselves, but in the nature and treatment of the 
 same. The advocates of melody, of whom, by the way, 
 not one has yet expressed himself as to what it is, 
 remark, on the contrary, that the decisive effect of 
 music rests almost always, and primarily, in melody, 
 and that only in certain cases is it possible for 
 harmony to attain to true and great effects, although 
 its laws affect melody. See Allgemeine Zeituug, 
 28th year, p. 135. A greater uncertainty and con- 
 fusion of language is nowhere more apparent than 
 in this case. And yet it is possible to obtain a firm 
 basis by means of a few fundamental definitions, which 
 have in general been negligently overlooked. 
 
 XLIII. 
 
 MELODY was the earlier form of music, and, before 
 developed art, music existed without harmony. To 
 this day we possess melodies which deeply affect us, 
 and to which no accompanying harmonies could be 
 added without detracting from the pure effect. Certain 
 songs do not require the assistance of harmony, while, 
 on the other hand, no small number of modern songs 
 
 L
 
 146 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 depend wholly upon the predominating harmonies, 
 and without them are meaningless, or at least too 
 simple and transparent. It may readily be admitted 
 that music which is wholly confined to melody, cannot 
 satisfy us in ripened art, if the whole soul shall parti- 
 cipate therein. With whatever truth it has been 
 asserted that all melody follows the laws of harmony 
 however hidden they may sometimes appear, with 
 equal truth has it been said that harmony can only 
 exist subject to the conditions and rules of melody. 
 
 Thus men have vacillated between unsolved pro- 
 blems ; and the arguments which Niigeli advanced 
 far from impartially against the theory of cantabile, 
 can only be estimated from a point of view where a 
 fundamental idea serves as a basis. Against the widely 
 spread opinion that instrumental music is the imitator 
 of the human voice, and that cantabile is the most 
 essential requirement of all music, Nageli advanced the 
 paradoxical assertion, that the further instrumental 
 music diverges in its turns, springs, augmentations, 
 and diminutions, from cantabile, the more does it pre- 
 serve its genuineness and perfectness. But neither 
 experience nor theory confirms this view. In all music, 
 whether it be that of instruments or of song, a pure 
 comprehensible form must develop itself in the mo- 
 tion, and even instrumental music cannot dispense 
 with definite, bounded, and naturally combined forms. 
 It is not necessary that this form should be of such a 
 character that the voice may follow it, but it should 
 produce in the soul however rich the grouping
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 147 
 
 may be a clear outline of a transparent picture for 
 the contemplation of the senses. With all the arti- 
 ficialities of musical learning-, a contrapuntally correct 
 idea cannot attain to life if it lack the power of 
 receiving in pure form the fulness of the soul. 
 
 From a less prejudiced point of view, melqdy and 
 harmony were regarded as mingling with one another, 
 inasmuch as the former gives comprehensiveness to 
 the representation, which is also required by the pro- 
 gressions of harmony ; on the other hand, the laws of 
 harmony also contain the rules by which single succes- 
 sion of tones are constructed ; still, this mutual pene- 
 tration first made its appearance when music was 
 constructed upon successions of chords, which merely 
 hold the melody together and cause it to become 
 comprehensible. Harmony is the Passive in music, 
 and is set in motion by the melodic element ; the single 
 chord occupies the understanding in the combination 
 of relations, but becomes, when subordinated to the 
 comprehensibleness of melody, the expression of the 
 feelings. In this respect the one-sided development of 
 theory has obviously impaired the fundamental view. 
 The laws of comprehensible representation, which are 
 adhered to by music without harmony, should have 
 been found ; as, in the formative arts, the laws of 
 delineation precede all others. But theory commenced 
 with harmony without making the melodic element 
 which it contains at all prominent, and consequently 
 continued to build upon the laws of harmony alone, so 
 that at last it was believed that melody was subject to 
 
 L 2
 
 148 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 the laws of harmony. From this fact we observe why 
 theorists openly confess that in laying down rules for 
 melody, they are able only to proceed negatively, and 
 not positively, for at the most it is only possible to 
 show which progressions are displeasing to the ear, 
 and then indeed only with regard to the individual 
 progressions of the parts, and not with respect to the 
 delineation of the whole. Had they divided from the 
 primary nature of melody that which constitutes the 
 Beautiful, the Characteristic, and the Expressive in 
 the same, they would also have been in a position to 
 lay down rules for comprehensibleness and the rest 
 A melody may be empty and meaningless, and still 
 offer a contemplatible Whole ; while, whatever of a 
 higher nature attaches to it belongs to the province 
 of the Beautiful. 
 
 XLIV. 
 
 THE task of Melodic is to establish, arrange, and derive 
 the pure forms of musical representation as they 
 appear in simple and combined successions of tones, 
 and consequently to point out in a science of form of 
 musical representation the law of comprehensibleness, 
 and to define the relationship and combination of the 
 pictures. We do not as yet possess such a treatise, 
 and great are the difficulties which place themselves in 
 the way of its production, for the reason that the forms 
 of the pictures appear before the imagination in a
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 149 
 
 state of freedom which seems to defy all rule, but 
 which, for all that, cannot exist without legality. Logic 
 describes the fundamental forms and laws of thought, 
 a science must do the same for the powers of the 
 imagination and thus deliver up to us the foundation 
 of melody. As regards tonal relations, the province is 
 of great extent, inasmuch as melody passes into more 
 distant relations than does harmony. The boundaries 
 or fundamental relations, which it is necessary to 
 define, may doubtless be reduced to numbers, as in 
 harmony, and a vast number of problems still require 
 solution which, if our ears may judge, will receive 
 mathematical confirmation, Thus, for instance, the 
 number four here also plays an important part. It is 
 a rhythmical limit, and the dances of all nations are 
 linked together in 4, 8, 12, 16 bars. 
 
 XLV. 
 
 HARMONY. 
 
 THE faculty which creates melody was referred to the 
 power of the imagination, which forms the feeling to 
 a comprehensible tone picture, and thus represents in 
 tones. But the understanding also obtains and takes 
 part in the general activity of the spiritual powers in 
 the production of music, and creates Harmony. In 
 order that we may not be misled, as many others have 
 been, we shall not regard the word harmony as mean-
 
 150 ^ESTHTICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 ing euphony, or the unity of a musical work, but 
 merely the arrangement and accordance of simul- 
 taneously sounding tones. Consequently harmony has 
 a similar purpose to melody, viz., to establish the unity 
 of a diversity of tones, but it attains to this result in 
 another manner, not in the combination of a succes- 
 sion, but of simultaneous tones. Harmony is con- 
 tained in a single chord, but that which combines 
 diverse harmonies, blends them one with another, and 
 is thus the means of producing a musical Whole, 
 originates elsewhere, it is melody which combines 
 tones to a picture. Therefore we may regard a suc- 
 cession of harmonies as a combination of parallel 
 melodies, or as a development of melody, whether it 
 be that several voices in a chorus represent several 
 individuals pervaded by the same feeling, but each in 
 his character, or that various inner excitements arc 
 expressed in several voices. Even in the latter case, 
 where different melodies may proceed with or against 
 one another, melody holds them together, and forms 
 their unity. Music, it is true, may, and did for a long 
 time, consist of melody alone, when the man of nature 
 found pleasure in expressing his feelings simply, in 
 contemplatible tone pictures. But music became art, 
 and combined, either by means of instruments or 
 voices, that which was susceptible of combination, or 
 a single time-form, and created, according to law and 
 rule, the harmonic form which occupies amongst the 
 inventions of the reflecting mind no inferior position. 
 Rousseau alone was able, in his paradoxical partiality,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 151 
 
 to call it a barbarous Gothic invention, and to point 
 out its origin in a want of appreciation for natural 
 music. We, however, know historically that it consti- 
 tutes a naturally progressive art development, and has 
 grown with the human mind itself. The art of paint- 
 ing may serve for a comparison, which, for a lengthened 
 period, was limited to mere successive representation 
 and line perspective, until grouping admitted of a 
 fuller arrangement, and the expressive delineation 
 could operate with the perfected chiaro-oscuro. 
 Through the above we .have disposed of the question 
 whether harmony is to be regarded as a concentrated 
 melody, or melody as a diffused, and dismembered 
 harmony. If the latter were true, everything which 
 sounds well in succession would also sound well 
 simultaneously, w r hile only the reverse of this is the 
 case, for not all melodic intervals adapt themselves to 
 the pleasing unity of chords. Even though our exist- 
 ing music continues to build upon an harmonic basis, 
 and to make use of harmonies melodically, so that the 
 freely moving melodies may be referred to certain 
 harmonic relations and forms, still we recognise there- 
 in a result of cultivated art> in which we judge of the 
 relations which obtain amongst simple tones, according 
 to fixed familiar forms. 
 
 XLVI. 
 
 IT has often been questioned whether harmony has 
 its foundation in Nature, or is a product of the freely
 
 152 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 selecting human mind, appearing first in art. For 
 instance, Knecht, acting upon Rameau's suggestion, 
 endeavoured to show, in an essay which appeared in 
 the MusikaliscJie Z titling, I Year, p. 129, that every 
 tone bears within it its related tones, and that those 
 sound simultaneously with it which stand in the 
 nearest relation, so that with c, the fifth g and the 
 higher third e are recognisable, or a piece of pine 
 Avood gives the large G, together with the small d, and 
 b, similarly as upon the violin two tones produce a 
 third, the so-called flageolet tone (Zeugeton). From 
 these facts, and because there are natural bodies which 
 produce chords, from which others are produced, men 
 endeavour to prove that harmony has its foundation in 
 Nature. But these facts are so uncertain, that Chladni, 
 on finding that various bodies produce various modes 
 of vibration, and consequently do not generate similar 
 overtones, directly denied the general validity of a 
 principle, and all knowledge tends to show that the 
 production of musical harmony, by means of natural 
 tones, is quite possible. If certain bodies, such as plates 
 of glass and metal, contain, at the same time, diverse 
 vibrations, and consequently produce several sounds 
 simultaneously, it is then Nature that teaches us, and 
 not human music, which was not derived from natural 
 objects or creatures, for it is inadmissible to speak of 
 a concert of birds in any other than a poetic sense. 
 If a variegated admixture of high and deep tones 
 produce a kind of wild harmony, then the wind 
 whistles in harmonies through broken window-panes.
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 153 
 
 Nature possesses only melodic development. But in 
 natural tone an unity of simultaneously sounding 
 parts may occur, and this kind of harmony may be 
 the natural, but we can only regard this as an element 
 of tone. Whatever the natural tone may contain in a 
 small way, and confined within itself, the human mind 
 develops to a state of maturity, and thereby lends to 
 music the clearly developed character of a co-operation 
 of intellectual powers. Harmony appears in music 
 under the enhanced participation of the understanding, 
 which inspects, arranges, and balances, and is there- 
 fore only to be found in the more advanced periods of 
 musical art cultivation. This assertion is not contra- 
 dicted by the experiences which travellers relate to us 
 concerning the savages, who make use of a second 
 accompanying voice. This is a visible trace of 
 awakening intellect. We indeed but seldom find in 
 the songs of our lower classes that the accompaniment 
 is placed in a deeper bass, or tenor voice, which, by 
 advanced cultivation, is accounted as almost natural. 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 DID the ancient Greeks understand harmony ? This 
 question, so often investigated, has become a veritable 
 bone of contention, and must still lack a definite 
 answer, for the reason that we have diverged from the 
 path of history. Conclusions as to the possibility of 
 the matter prove nothing, and even the supposition
 
 154 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 that if less cultivated races accompany their songs in 
 simple harmonic relations, probability is decidedly in 
 favour of the highly cultivated Greeks having done so 
 to, is wanting in a firm foundation, and is liable to 
 deceive. Even the word itself has misled many, inas- 
 much as with the ancients the term harmony had a 
 -different signification to that which we are accustomed 
 to attach to it. It is probable that for a long time the 
 Greeks only made use of one-part music, in which 
 many singers performed the same melody on the same 
 tone or at the octave : the former our unisono they 
 termed symphony, and the combination of different 
 octaves antiphonies ; but the ratios of the octave, fifth 
 and fourth being fixed, and consequently a tone system, 
 however faulty, being attained to, harmony resulted, 
 for upon it this system is based. This the Greeks also 
 termed symphony, which constituted a song of several 
 parts, in addition to the combination in octaves. In 
 strings tuned according to the tetrachord, the conso- 
 nant intervals were present and were free to the per- 
 former. Moreover, it cannot be denied that the ancients 
 possessed also a kind of figurate song, which could 
 only be constructed upon an harmonic basis, although 
 the latter was, perhaps, not theoretically established 
 and developed. With this we may couple the asser- 
 tion that the application of harmony was known to 
 the Greeks, but that it was extremely simple and in- 
 complete in character, and that harmony as a system 
 was not established amongst them. We refrain from 
 taking advantage of this opportunity to suggest, with
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 155 
 
 certain philosophers, that the reason of this lay in the 
 incompleteness of the not yet ripened feelings, for 
 doubtless the ancients felt purely and deeply, and in 
 ideal inspiration, but still in a different manner to 
 Christian humanity. Here it will suffice to draw 
 attention to the fact that in the remaining provinces, 
 art forms have proceeded from simple and meagre 
 beginnings to breadth and richness. But the cultiva- 
 tion of musical art proceeded but slowly, unlike the 
 rapid development of the objective arts. This is con- 
 firmed by the imperfect instruments of ancient times, 
 which being struck or twitched served merely for 
 the rhythmical accompaniment of song. If, before the 
 establishment* of a definite succession of tones and of 
 intervals, no complete harmony was possible, then the 
 invention of instruments of the pianoforte kind, or of 
 the organ which were themselves the results of a 
 craving for harmony must have acted as a lever to 
 the science of harmony. The organ of two octaves 
 which was in use in the sixth century, perhaps afforded 
 the first extensive survey, and whatever may have still 
 appeared imperfect, became, on the introduction of 
 temperament, a system of which the ancients, who 
 made no use of thirds and sixths regarding them as 
 dissonances could have formed no conception. With 
 the tempered tone system, harmony also appeared in 
 a practicable state. When, in the tenth century, or per- 
 haps later (for every assumption as to an earlier origin 
 is wanting in positive proof), the song of several parts 
 was introduced by the English Bishop Dunstan, in
 
 156 /ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART 
 
 place of the unisono, which was performed without 
 fixed time measurement, unknown chords were pro- 
 duced, and, without the use of instruments, the vocal 
 choir, which accompanied the song in several parts 
 for fourths and fifths were added attained to a kind 
 of harmony, which led to the establishment of chords, 
 and their successions. They possessed these chords 
 when, in the twelfth century, the thirds and sixths were 
 adopted as a basis for the Pleasing, and the seconds 
 and sevenths, and the augmented fourth were, at least, 
 made use of as passing notes. The mensural or 
 figurate song developed by Franco, of Cologne, could 
 not have existed without harmony, and as also the 
 method of combining the accompanying voices may 
 have been acquired, the elements were present which 
 first became important on the introduction of a theory. 
 The age of harmonic music does not, consequently, 
 extend beyond the thirteenth century, and the produc- 
 tions were highly incomplete. Even in the fourteenth 
 century, musical works were constructed according to 
 the rules of a theory of counterpoint, and were not 
 likely to please upon performance ; and as in every art 
 obedience to authority had the effect of confining and 
 limiting, the free development of theoretical music 
 was delayed, until the Netherlanders, and amongst 
 them Zarlino (1565), completed the foundation, by the 
 establishment of the ratios of the major and minor 
 thirds, and Palestrina confirmed the acquired theory 
 by practical demonstration. And yet how timidly 
 was the chord of the seventh introduced, of which the
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 157 
 
 rules were first elucidated at the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 XLVIII. 
 
 IN discussing these historical facts, it was our intention 
 merely to prove the truth of the assertion that har- 
 mony is the product of the comparing and arranging 
 intellect, which selects for the representation of the 
 feelings definite fundamental forms which it estab- 
 lishes after mature consideration. With the feelings 
 and the imagination, a regulated activity of the under- 
 standing is associated in the course of progressive 
 musical development, so that the complete inner man 
 becomes active both in hearing and creating music- 
 This activity of the understanding does not treat of 
 objects in ideas, but compares, combines, and arranges 
 relations ; the understanding counts and calculates in 
 music as Leibnitz tells us. Many attribute this to 
 the feelings, which, however, cannot count, but merely 
 comprehend unities. Others limited the assertion by 
 stating that this activity of the understanding occurs 
 without consciousness, or in the obscurity of an un- 
 certain condition of the spirit. Certainly the con- 
 sciousness which here obtains may be termed weak or 
 obscure, but only for the reason that the understanding 
 is subordinate to the feelings, or is overridden by the 
 same, which make demands upon the entire con- 
 sciousness. We comprehend that which is regular or
 
 158 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 concordant without becoming, at the same moment, 
 conscious of the grounds and the procedure. There- 
 fore we shall properly refer the proposition of Leib- 
 nitz (Epist. ad Divers., Tom. i., ep. 1 54) to the simulta- 
 neous activity of the understanding and feelings, and 
 observe the same in the case of harmonic music, nor 
 shall we fail to understand the words of Maria Weber 
 " Pure four part writing is the Cogitative (Denkende) 
 in musical art." 
 
 Reichardt asserted, in opposition to Emanuel Bach, 
 that the real art of music consists in becoming con- 
 scious of the inner and secret calculation of the soul ; 
 but Bach would not enter into this idea, perhaps 
 because he imagined his maxim, " music must move 
 the heart," to be endangered, And yet no small 
 number of facts find their explanation in the assertion. 
 We shall merely draw attention to the following : 
 (i) The reason that the most ancient music, as men- 
 tioned in the fables of Orpheus, Amphion, and Arion, 
 produced such an incredibly powerful effect not- 
 withstanding that we can merely suppose thereby 
 a simple melodic music lies in the fact that the 
 participation of the understanding was then but very 
 trifling, if not entirely wanting, and consequently no 
 limitating influence was exerted upon the feelings and 
 powers of imagination. With mighty force, music 
 bore the spirit with it in its course. Pythagoras was 
 the first to regard, as essential, the activity of the 
 understanding. (2) Is it not remarkable that the 
 harmonic development of music falls precisely within
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 159 
 
 that period in which the activity of the feelings pre- 
 dominated, and the subjective world of Faith and of 
 Love rose into the broad light of day, namely, in the 
 era of Christianity ? But even then the understanding 
 was drawn in to serve the one purpose. The ideas of 
 religion, of devotion, or of love, taken up by the 
 feelings, or converted into the same, required expres- 
 sion, and the totality of the powers of the soul was 
 called into action ; not a single spirit, but the union 
 of many, the representatives of humanity, praised God's 
 power and love. From this the understanding could 
 not be excluded. Through it music became independ- 
 ent and acquired harmony, while no limitation was 
 imposed upon the rights of the feelings. (3) Wherever 
 feeling predominates, and the imagination asserts its 
 freedom, melody prevails, even in compositions which 
 might be considered learned. Italian music is dis- 
 tinguishable from German music, from the fact that, 
 in the latter, intelligent harmony prevails, and we are 
 so educated and accustomed to it that Italian music, 
 by reason of its predominating melody, appears empty, 
 notwithstanding its alluring sweetness. When there- 
 fore Italians justify the meagreness of Italian scores 
 with the remark that music is not for the eye but for 
 the ear, they should rather say that it is not for the 
 understanding. (4) Men of feeling have but little per- 
 ception for harmony; we may particularly observe this 
 in the case of women, who seldom hear a fully scored 
 symphony with pleasure, and turn from the strict style 
 of ecclesiastical music as from an arid desert. On the
 
 160 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 other hand, we not seldom hear an inaptness to 
 comprehend elaborate harmony excused by persons 
 representing themselves as not being connoiseurs. 
 He who speaks without possessing a knowledge of 
 himself would do better by saying that his under- 
 standing is unsuited thereto. (5) Where the under- 
 standing is occupied too much, or solely, with music, 
 apathy results, and compositions originating under 
 such conditions are called dry, powerless, like com- 
 positions of Homilius. Thus the more modern music 
 was, for a lengthened period, merely the product of the 
 mathematically combining intellect. Double counter- 
 point may, doubtless, sober or render apathetic a 
 sparkling fantasy, or an enthusiastically inspired tem- 
 perament ; but, on the other hand, a fugue, which 
 originates in thought, may bear within it a peculiar 
 charm. The listener follows the simultaneously pro- 
 gressive, the diverging, and meeting voices, compares 
 and combines to an unity that which seems to be 
 wanting in connection, or contrasting, and finds en- 
 joyment in the varied activities of the thoughtful 
 soul. (6) Harmony is acquired by study, and by 
 means of it, works are created in which no single 
 spark of genial inspiration exists ; while the true 
 masters of art in their ascent cast off the trammels of 
 rule. Schicht said, respecting a Quartet of Beethoven 
 at the same time shaking his head, "All is good, only no 
 logic," and he was both right and wrong. We possess 
 with respect to harmony a sufficient theory, while 
 melodic has neither been independently elaborate
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. l6l 
 
 nor has it progressed beyond a number of negative 
 cautions against certain errors. The older treatises of 
 Baron and Nichelmann, who attempted to subject 
 melody to a theory, are based upon harmony. The 
 latter endeavoured only to show that those passages 
 more particularly please in which, not only the melody, 
 but the harmony, also, expresses the intention of the 
 composer, support it, and cause it to be felt. (7) 
 From a simple melodic thread, art has developed a 
 complicated tissue, which may easily become entan- 
 gled. It is quite natural that men should wish to 
 return from these artificial combinations to the sim- 
 plicity of Nature ; therefore, in the progressive develop- 
 ment of artificiality, a contention between Naturalists 
 and Rationalists is inevitable ; and we may be allowed 
 the hope of seeing, at a future period, the attainment 
 of the highest purpose, the gratification and elevation 
 of the feelings. 
 
 XLIX. 
 
 ALTHOUGH we may now acknowledge that Harmony, 
 as such, constitutes a product of the understanding 
 and excites in the listener the activity of the under- 
 standing, still it has been stated, in that which we 
 have laid before the reader, that we had no intention 
 of asserting that it alone serves the understanding, 
 unconcerned as to the primarily requisite expression 
 of the feelings. He who makes use of it with the 
 
 M
 
 1 62 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 understanding alone, as is the case in scientific works, 
 will not find his feelings affected, and he who regards 
 composition as an arithmetical task has to do with 
 musical numbers only. But if a connected succession 
 of harmonies be really music, then a melodic develop- 
 ment of the activity of the feelings is at the root of it. 
 No combination of harmonies can be musically valid 
 if it do not contain melody and progression in com- 
 prehensible forms. This even in the Choral. Vogler 
 denied, but without reason, that melody could be at- 
 tained to in the middle voices. Melody and Harmony 
 penetrate one another, and their blended natures may 
 be divided by abstractions, but in life they ever appear 
 as an united whole, as long as arbitrary selection 
 does not occur to disturb them. Harmony, therefore, 
 melodically combined, may express feelings, and 
 may become beautiful representation, and receive the 
 ideal within it. That which falls to the lot of the 
 faculties of proportion, must not prevent melodic 
 effectiveness. If harmony were a combination of 
 heterogeneous parts, the possibility of the representa- 
 tion of an individual feeling w r ould be wanting, but it 
 constitutes a combination of that which is related, and 
 is consequently well adapted to express the unity of 
 the feelings. A large sum of means is required to 
 make the complete condition of soul comprehensible. 
 But a strict definition of the idea is here necessary to 
 guard against incorrect explanations. 
 
 In the Gcecilia, Vol. xii., p. 245, the following 
 remarks occur : Music does not only represent the
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 1 6$ 
 
 inner occurrences by means of melody, but represents 
 also, by means of harmony, a condition in which 
 several feelings, as secondary feelings, are developed, 
 which stand in some degree of relationship to the 
 predominating feeling. In this distinction between 
 occurrence and condition, the supposition that together 
 with one feeling, which, for example, a song expresses, 
 the accompanying harmony makes known, in the same 
 moment of time, a number of other feelings which 
 exist simultaneously in the soul, would be pyschologi. 
 cally and musically incorrect, for the conditions which 
 gradually attach themselves one to the other, never 
 occur but in change and succession, and not every 
 individual tone in harmony expresses a particular 
 feeling. But in such cases people ordinarily confound 
 the polyphonic and accompanying music, which is 
 subject to the laws of harmony, with harmony itself. 
 In this kind of music it is quite possible tq express a 
 diversity of feelings in combination, or one and the 
 same condition of spirit in several parts, and each in 
 its individual manner, but the melodic law obtains 
 therein ; while the connection, as a matter of relation, 
 falls to the part of the understanding. The unity 
 which combines within it a great number of diverse 
 tones can operate with greater effect, and by its 
 greater breadth, increase also the amount of enjoy- 
 ment. Thus harmony comports itself : both when it 
 follows a melody by way of accompaniment, and 
 when jt operates independently and contains melody. 
 The former occurs when a principal voice is given, to
 
 164 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 which others serve for closer definition and enforce- 
 ment. Through harmonic accompaniment and deve- 
 lopment melody gains (i) in definiteness. In every 
 key there are successions of tones which are also to be 
 found in other keys. Consequently they are ambi- 
 guous. But if that be introduced which removes this 
 ambiguity, and which definitely refers a succession of 
 tones to a key, we attain to decisiveness which is 
 necessary for a pure, comprehensible representation. 
 Truly the melody itself may effect this, inasmuch as, in 
 its further progress, it decides that which is ques- 
 tionable, but the picture is readily lost in such cases,, 
 and can never quite escape indefiniteness. A musical 
 phrase may belong to C major or G major, to A minor 
 or E minor, which it is quite evident cannot be a 
 matter of indifference, by reason of the difference of 
 expression. Then harmony is added, and, inasmuch 
 as it limits the boundaries, it secures definiteness, and 
 consequently the possibility of a particular expression 
 results. We may also add different harmonies to one 
 and the same melody, and give it other meanings ; 
 a song thus altered often appears to be an entirely 
 different one, although the melody remains the same. 
 Thus by means of harmony we attain to correctness 
 of delineation and stricter definition of the tone- 
 picture. And this even occurs with regard to the 
 feelings, for therein ambiguity not seldom obtains, and 
 we may ascribe to one and the same melody two 
 different feelings. Harmony, then, to a certain extent 
 brings thought to bear upon it, and removes that which
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 165 
 
 is doubtful. (2) But harmony also secures fulness, both 
 by quantity in the sum of the parts which are asso- 
 ciated together, and by quality in expression. The use 
 of a large mass of means to the same end must neces- 
 sarily have an important effect. Although the feeling 
 which expresses itself in, or is excited by, the melody 
 may remain the same, still its delineation is more 
 strongly marked by the unity of a combined mass of 
 related tones ; its power is enhanced, the delineation 
 of the tone-picture rests upon a basis and obtains 
 colour, and light and shade. Every song accom- 
 panied by harmony teaches us this, which, by reason 
 of being richer in tones, also appears more expressive. 
 It would be going too far to assert that a one-part 
 song, or the performance of a single instrument in- 
 capable of producing chords, is unable to produce a 
 sufficient effect, but it is certain that such effect would 
 not be equal to that of an art-work in which several 
 means are brought into operation. Harmony, how- 
 ever, is much more effective in an independent state. 
 The sum of the related, although different voices, which 
 are combined to an unity, compel, on the one hand, the 
 activity of the combining understanding, and on the 
 other hand gratify the heart, as much by the general 
 concordance, as by the progressive motion under many 
 modifications. The impression may become powerful 
 when many voices combine to one fundamental feel- 
 ing ; ideal significance is attained to if the harmonies 
 appear to be derived, not from the near reality, 
 but from a higher world. This is peculiar to four-
 
 166 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 part music, which only exists through harmony. If we 
 compare a movement of one of Beethoven's sym- 
 phonies which does not represent a single feeling^ 
 but a large tone-painting with a painting like 
 Raphael's School of Athens, or the Parnassus, we shall 
 see that forms and motions associate themselves toge- 
 ther in groups, to represent a fundamental idea, each 
 separate item operates for a total impression, and yet 
 each part asserts its individual value. Remotely or 
 nearly related tones, which often appear to strive with 
 one another, combine nevertheless to an unity, whose 
 entire effect falls to the feelings, but whose relations 
 are only comprehended by the intellect. If we adhere 
 firmly to the fundamental idea, and do not permit our- 
 selves to be led astray by the ordinary usages of lan- 
 guage, the question, so often proposed since Rameau's 
 time, whether melody or harmony be the most excellent 
 or important, will find an immediate answer. A succes- 
 sion of harmonies becomes beautiful music only as a 
 melodic succession, and notwithstanding the comple- 
 tions which have accrued to music through harmonic 
 development, in the extension of its province, in the 
 increase of the activity of the intellect, in a heightened 
 independence, the primary basis ever remains the com- 
 prehensible and clear delineation of tone pictures. 
 The prerogative of modern music is one that has been 
 striven for, and rests upon the old unmoved basis. We 
 combine several melodies, weave them together, resolve 
 them, again combine them, and thus obtain extensive 
 and diversely grouped tone-pictures in melodic move-
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. l6/ 
 
 ment for the expression of the moved inner life. 
 Harmony and melody, which in this manner unite, 
 stand not seldom in a relation of disparity. For in- 
 stance, a work or phrase of melody may be esteemed 
 excellent from its pure comprehensibleness, and may 
 contain the Beautiful, while the succession of har- 
 monies may be incorrect, or ordinary, or meaningless. 
 We call to mind, many instances in the newer French 
 operas. In works of more ancient date, the harmonies 
 are interesting, while the melodies which form the 
 basis of the same possess neither sufficient clearness 
 of outline, nor depth of meaning. The reason of this 
 is apparent in the fact, that, as regards the first case ; 
 the powers of the composer are not sufficient to produce 
 further development, or fuller grouping, while in the 
 second case, clearness of representation is wanting, 
 and the understanding predominates or operates alone. 
 This kind of music is termed learned, and may be 
 understood or composed after a long course of study, 
 but it fnay still be unadapted to the reception of 
 Beauty, and may be based upon mathematically deter- 
 minable relations. Fasch composed a sixteen-part 
 Mass, in which each of the four-part choirs goes its 
 own way, and yet form not only in themselves but 
 conjointly, a grand unity elaborated in the minutest 
 details. Such master works demand from the listener 
 great facility of musical comprehension, consequently, 
 universal comprehension can hardly be presupposed 
 in such cases.
 
 1 68 ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 L. 
 
 SINCE Rameau's time, it has been repeatedly attempted 
 to define the province of Harmony, and not only to 
 include all possible combinations, but to arrange them 
 systematically, according to the laws of their relation- 
 ship. Truly, the combinations of tones must be 
 regarded as numberless, but still their relationship 
 may be determined and their proportions fixed. These 
 endeavours gave rise to a science of chords (Accor- 
 denlehre) if a combination of certain notes may be 
 termed a chord which we have also to regard from 
 an aesthetical point of view. The province itself must 
 also be known to us. Rameau, proceeding from the 
 acceptation of simultaneously sounding tones, arranged 
 the sum of the chords to a system, upon a basis of 
 third and fifth. Marpurg, following up his efforts, 
 divided the consonant and dissonant fundamental 
 chords into two varieties, of first and second rank. In 
 the first rank he placed the consonant and dissonant 
 triads, in the second, the fundamental chords of the 
 ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth, whereby a number of 
 inversions were discarded as quite useless. Vogler, 
 Kepler's tutor, attaching himself to Marpurg's theory, 
 made use of the divisions of the monochord as a 
 basis, and thus obtained the relations I, 3, 5, and, by 
 inversion, eight consonances. Chladni, on the other 
 hand, arranged them according to the system estab- 
 lished by Leibnitz and Descartes with regard to the
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. l6p 
 
 number of vibrations, and obtained, as consonances, 
 three fundamental chords, the triads in major and 
 minor, and the chord of the dominant seventh, with 
 minor seventh (c, e, g, bb) ; as dissonances, the chord 
 of the major seventh, which combines the major triad 
 with the dissonance of the major seventh, that is, with 
 the minor triad of its third. Gottfried Weber based 
 all chords upon triads and chords of the seventh, 
 which, being susceptible of inversion, developed new 
 forms ; and he thus accepts seven varieties, to which 
 all the tone combinations which occur in music may 
 be referred. Hiifer, finally, attained to a simpler 
 arrangement, inasmuch as he referred all chords to 
 the combination of thirds, and accepted four species, 
 the triads, and chords of the seventh, ninth, and 
 eleventh. The various fundamental harmonies or 
 chords are referred to the major and minor keys, or 
 are defined by the size of the third, while those chords 
 are peculiar to a key which may be constructed from 
 the tones of its scale, whereby ambiguity obtains, in- 
 asmuch as the same chord may belong to various keys. 
 In progression, the diversity increases to an extraor- 
 dinary degree, so that Weber calculates the collective 
 number of harmonies at 6,888, while Maas pointed 
 out no less than 9,312 successions. How the division 
 and establishment is proceeded with, and in what 
 manner the various grades of relationship are deter- 
 mined a succession with two notes in common, is 
 nearer related than is a succession with only one need 
 not here concern us, we shall merely regard the aesthetic
 
 I/O ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 contents, and show how, in a combination based upon 
 comprehensible relations, there exists the possibility 
 of expressing feelings, and of securing inner gratifica- 
 tion by means of beautiful representation. We shall, 
 consequently, have less to do with the formation of 
 single chords than with successions of chords, for a 
 chord is doubtless musical, yet when regarded for 
 itself is still no music, unless it be used between pauses, 
 and consequently with relation to a succession. That 
 which is musical in a single chord forms the unity, 
 which is called consonance, and which may in itself 
 please. 
 
 LI. 
 
 BUT what, may we ask, is a Consonance ? This has 
 ever been a difficult problem for theorists. Harmonies 
 were divided into consonant and dissonant : to the 
 former, were classed the major, minor, and diminished 
 triads ; to the latter, the chords of the seventh, and 
 every other chord which contained a note foreign to 
 the harmony ; but the chord of the dominant seventh, 
 with minor seventh, was regarded as a consonance. 
 These dissonances were explained as that which, in 
 music, sounds unpleasant, or at least not wholly 
 pleasant, the consonances as that which sounds agree- 
 able ; but it was by no means clearly explained why 
 music does not exist without such unpleasant sounds 
 or dissonances, or why fine art does not endeavour to 
 effect their removal. It was further found necessary to
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. I/ 1 
 
 accept a species occupying a position between the two, 
 and Fries called the dominant seventh (c, e, g, bb) 
 the characteristic seventh ; it was also found necessary 
 to recognise in the dominant chord, the combination 
 of the consonance with the dissonant second and 
 seventh, g b, d f. Weber adopted a contrary opinion, 
 and denied the dissonance altogether, while amusing 
 himself at the expense of the old theory, but he 
 thereby engendered further disputes. Dissonance 
 doubtless exists in accordance with conditions which 
 have their foundation in the human organization, but 
 not in music, that is, not in the progressive movement 
 of tones, but only in the individual tone and the 
 individual chord which is not pleasantly combined. 
 Consonance and dissonance are effective harmonically, 
 and are therefore both useful, and consequently pleasing 
 after their manner. But all harmony either is, or 
 strives to attain to, perfect unity, and in a chord several 
 tones combine to the unity of one tone, which may be 
 distinguishable in its several parts, yet forms but one 
 collective tone. Consonance is the positive attainment 
 of accordance and unity complete in itself, from which 
 further unities may be derived. Dissonance is a pro- 
 spective accordance, a still incomplete unity, in which 
 it is not easy for the understanding to arrange the 
 disparity of the relations. Therefore it cannot gratify 
 of itself, but strives after completion and equalization. 
 A transition into consonance is required, a so-called 
 resolution is necessary, and in such development that 
 which is unsatisfactory ceases to be so. Consequently*
 
 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 a dissonance or that which sounds unpleasant, can 
 only occur in detached parts, or single chords, not in 
 progressive music, wherein that which is antagonistic 
 and unsatisfactory is always equalized, and the prin- 
 ciple of unison is exhibited in a comprehensible man- 
 ner, in difference and its removal. That which theorists 
 advance as dissonance in progressive music, is either 
 valid as consonance, or is intentionally made use of in 
 a composition as characteristic expression. We have 
 seen how the chords of music are also the chords of 
 the soul, and their characteristics are gratifying and 
 definite motion, however excessive and ungratified 
 striving^nd unequal motion. Our moved inner life, 
 and consequently the feelings, consists of an uninter- 
 rupted alternation of antitheses of freedom and con- 
 straint, of elevation and depression, of gratification or 
 non-gratification. Therefore harmonic music can only 
 consist of combinations of chords suited to such 
 expression, and must, for this reason, unite within it 
 both consonant and dissonant elements, without ceasing 
 to be pleasant of sound, and without being, in itself, 
 disharmonic. Herewith, the old dispute as to what 
 may be allowed and is useful is disposed of. Men 
 may still assert that certain forms please the ear more 
 than others, just as elliptical or circular forms are more 
 pleasing to the eye, and may refer us to a peculiar 
 organization of the ear, so that we are finally led to 
 the conclusion that we are unable to decide a priori as 
 to the usefulness of intervals and chords, but only after 
 gaining experience of them ; but the understanding
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 173 
 
 invariably judges as to the propriety of the relations, 
 although we may be unconscious as to the mode of 
 procedure, and determines their forms according to 
 an unknown law of Nature, and according to the state 
 of intellectual cultivation, and has ever determined the 
 same during the whole progress of intellectual de- 
 velopment. Had the ancient Greeks possessed thirds 
 and sixths, which they discarded as dissonances, in 
 such purity as we now possess them, they would as- 
 suredly not have rejected them ; but by reason of the 
 then existing impurity, they were not unjustifiably 
 set aside, and the Grecian ear had become so accus- 
 tomed to the ratios then established that they did not 
 desire an alteration. But when finally the ratios of 
 the major and minor thirds were fixed by Zarlino, a 
 greater degree of definiteness in general was attained 
 to, notwithstanding the fact that the school of Pales- 
 trina avoided the thirds in cadences. The ear and the 
 understanding follow the ratios of the tones and 
 arrange them. Where the power of the ear for com- 
 prehension and distinction ceases, by reason of its 
 national or individual difference of organization, the 
 determination of tone ratios also ceases, and we are 
 not in a position to determine the infinitely small 
 variations. A long deliberation has measured out the 
 whole province, and a fixed tone system has been 
 established and its relations reduced to rule, within 
 which not only the sense of hearing is sufficient, but 
 the understanding, also, refers that which it is possible 
 to determine to numbers, according to the vibrations
 
 174 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 which form the basis of all tones. Wherever the under- 
 standing is able to comprehend the simple ratios, the 
 soul is gratified, and where, on the other hand, the 
 feelings are in a state of gratification, or reflections 
 whether it be through joy or grief, they select for their 
 expression, music in comprehensible relations, and this 
 becomes harmonic consonance. But a long succes- 
 sion of equal consonances would be an untrue picture, 
 and therefore unnatural, for the reason that all spiri- 
 tual existence consists of the alternation of Becoming 
 and Become (Werden und Seyn), of striving after and 
 attaining to a certain condition. But the activity of 
 the understanding always obtains ; and erroneously 
 should we dispute as to whether the foundation of 
 dissonance should be considered an intellectual, or 
 an aesthetic, when it is certain that the comprehension 
 of the ratios (either with regard to the vibrations of 
 air, or of the nerves, or of numbers) can only be 
 accredited to the understanding. But, before all we 
 must not forget that the understanding seizes upon 
 much that it cannot develop to a perfect idea, or 
 become clearly conscious of. It counts, calculates, 
 and compares in the formation and comprehension of 
 harmonic relations, without expressing itself. But 
 we must seek for the reason of the use of dissonances 
 not only in contrast and variety, but in the naturalness 
 of the soul's activity, which attains to representation. 
 When this exists in a state of simplicity, as in men of 
 Nature, who are not uncultivated, we shall find that 
 dissonances are used more seldom ; and the human ear
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 175 
 
 must rather become accustomed to the same that it 
 may not find therein that which is antagonistic to 
 Nature. 
 
 THE sphere of the consonances which 'are now 
 valid with us, lies within the ratios I to 6 and 
 their duplication, and division into halves, and 
 the limit is the number seven. Whatever extends 
 beyond these numbers, as, for instance, n, 13, 17, 
 etc., we call dissonance. When Kepler attempted 
 to discover the reason of this line of limitation, and 
 showed that the exclusion of the large prime numbers 
 arose from the fact that the delineation, in a circle, 
 of equilateral and equiangular figures, of the numbers 
 n, 13, 17, is geometrically impossible, he could not 
 have imagined that Grauss, after the lapse of years, 
 would prove that the circle may be divided into 17 
 equal parts. All that remains for us to do, is to 
 content ourselves with the law of Nature, which, 
 through the organization of the ear, imposes upon 
 the comparing and arranging intellect a limit to its 
 comprehension of unity. But in the chord, not only 
 the single tone comes under consideration, but the 
 relation of all combined tones, and thus a large 
 sum of differences of degree arises, the analysis 
 ot which is left to theory, for two tones, which in 
 themselves are consonant, may enter into a relation
 
 1/6 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 of disparity, when one or two others are added, 
 that is, are combined to one chord. It will readily 
 be perceived how falsely many formerly took for 
 granted, that the higher or highest note contained 
 the particular which causes the dissonance, for 
 another note frequently is the cause of it. We 
 may here omit a specification of the consonances 
 which theorists divide into perfect and imperfect, 
 or fundamental and derived, and the dissonances 
 which are distinguished as essential or accidental 
 The relation is in all cases merely relative, inasmuch 
 as the approximation, through definite relations of 
 vibration, to the most perfect consonance consists 
 only of a difference of More or Less. A mitigation 
 of dissonance is secured through preparation, and 
 this is the more becoming, the more difficult the 
 combination of the dissonance may be ; it is neces- 
 sary in the case of suspensions. Similarly, the 
 necessity for progression is obvious, and the craving 
 for a resolution increases, in various degrees ; in the 
 case of different chords, so that we are able to 
 classify them according to these degrees ; the free- 
 dom of passing into other near or remote chords is 
 various, being greatest in the case of consonances, 
 and small in that of dissonances. But the pro- 
 gression of harmonies is most naturally limited to 
 the circle of near relations, and that which is remote 
 can only be introduced by means of mediatory chords. 
 To what extent the degree of dissonance may be en- 
 hanced without becoming inadmissible, is taught by
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 1 77 
 
 the fundamental law of characteristic beautiful repre- 
 sentation, of which we shall have occasion to speak 
 hereafter. An extension of this sphere could only 
 take place in the later periods of art development. 
 On the other hand historians err, when they make 
 the use of dissonances dependent upon the invention 
 of means to resolve them, for with dissonance the 
 means of its resolution is given by Nature. The com- 
 bination of notes to a chord, we know by experience 
 to be limited to a certain number. There are no 
 chords of six parts, and when six different tones 
 sound simultaneously one or more is always so dis- 
 sonant, that the ear can only tolerate it as a transitory 
 suspension. Five-part chords can be used indepen- 
 dently. Still the ear is able to grasp correctly 16 or 
 20 parts at the same time, so that a strict distinction 
 is possible, as may be proved in the case of good 
 music directors, who are able to detect an error of a 
 single part. But the reason thereof does not lie in 
 the ability of the ear to comprehend a great deal, but 
 in the perception of the relations of unity. 
 
 LIII. 
 FREE PLAY IN TONE-PICTURES. 
 
 FROM the observations which we have hitherto 
 made, it appears that in music, and through the 
 same, while the inner activity of the feelings 
 
 N
 
 i;8 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 becomes a tone-picture, in successions of tones, 
 and in groups of harmonies, the powers of the 
 imagination are rendered active in the production 
 of comprehensible forms, and the understanding! 
 likewise .in the comprehension of the proportions 
 of the same. Herewith, however, the nature of 
 music is not finally exhausted. When we regard a 
 feeling as a condition, it might be thought that 
 a single tone or a single chord is sufficient for 
 its delineation ; but feeling knows no state of 
 rest, and is continually kept in a state of excite- 
 ment ; it is not even exhaustible ; it therefore 
 chooses for its representation a number of suitable 
 tones, or delineates the moved living picture by 
 means of a number of combined tones in free 
 motion, similarly as the painter represents passive 
 forms by means of lines and colours. When man, 
 in representing his inner self, rises to art, and en- 
 deavours to create a musical work, the first thing 
 which operates to this end is the free play of the 
 fantasy, which evolves tone-pictures for the expres- 
 sion of the feelings. Music becomes a play of 
 tones, and therein the character of the spirituality 
 is wrought out, inasmuch as in the representation 
 of the feelings, the creative fantasy takes part, and 
 resolves the one feeling which fills the spirit into 
 numerous picture forms. It then elaborates the 
 material of the inner condition of soul, which is 
 presented to it in a play of tones, and by reason 
 of its free spiritual activity, delights and satisfies
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND, I/O, 
 
 if it causes a similar play of the powers of soul in 
 the listener. 
 
 LIV. 
 
 THE troublesome question as to the import of music 
 is thus disposed of. We truly cannot tell what every 
 individual tone in a piece of music says, as is possible 
 in the case of the words of language, or even what 
 feeling is expressed in particular harmonies ; but in 
 the condition of the feeling which in itself is not 
 indefinite the fantasy operates, and creates and com- 
 bines melodic and harmonic tone-pictures, which not 
 only represent that condition, but are also, in them- 
 selves, valid as representations. Thus, for instance, 
 the feeling of perfect enjoyment of life, or of sadness, 
 becomes a picture in a Rondo, or in an Adagio, in 
 which all individual successions of tones, and forms of 
 tones, are in unison with the fundamental feeling. 
 Such free play was considered by Niigeli to be the most 
 important element of music, but thereby he was led to 
 adopt a one-sided opinion, and to deny the definite ex- 
 pression and character of music. Play (Spiel) is indeed 
 its nature, but not its only nature, or, as Nageli says, 
 its ultimatum. After such an opinion we need not 
 wonder at the assertion which he subjoins (see page 
 33 of the Lectures), that a Prelude, a Waltz, and a 
 Symphony, all say and effect the same thing, and 
 that Art plays everything out of the soul instead of 
 
 N 2
 
 180 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 into it. We must admit that music in its pure forms 
 is but a play of tones, which certainly does not ex- 
 press the ideas, or that which is definite in thought, 
 but nevertheless allows a moved inner life to become 
 comprehensible. Let us take, for example, a compo- 
 sition of Meyerbeer, say his Sixth Quartet, Op. 33, 
 or his Variations for Violoncello and Pianoforte, in 
 which latter the fundamental feeling of a perfect 
 delight in life expresses itself, and even continues 
 to be heard through a softer strain of sadness, and 
 attests the peace of the soul, but all in a free play 
 of the fantasy, in which but little demand is made 
 upon the understanding. This effect lies in the 
 whole which consists of manifold tone-pictures 
 and not in the individual parts of the psychological 
 contents, which become contemplatible ; and we do 
 not crave after comprehensible import, for the play 
 of tones transplants us into the same state of feeling, 
 and thus verifies the contents. But music may de- 
 generate and become mere empty play, serving only 
 for sensuous excitement. It then lacks meaning. 
 This is the kind of music which Nageli described in 
 a general way as having no contents. He had in his 
 mind's eye instrumental musical works in which we 
 find nothing further than a superficial play of tones, 
 which are constructed and held together in accord- 
 ance with certain rules of composition, without a trace 
 of a requisite foundation in the feelings. Our time 
 produces numerous examples of the same, works 
 without power and life, partly in mere hashed-up
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. l8l 
 
 which Mozart was in the habit of saying 
 " there's nothing in them." What were the greater 
 part of the compositions of Gelinek and Hofmeister 
 than this ? What the recently published quartets 
 of Rossini ? to say nothing of the heartless and soul- 
 less compositions of our own manufacture (Variations, 
 Potpourris, &c.), with which so-called virtuosi travel 
 from town to town. They can only be called players 
 (Spielleute) and their performances play (Spiel). 
 France has provided us with this kind of music 
 in great abundance. The connoisseur turns from 
 such emptiness with disgust, and even he who 
 merely desires entertainment cannot tolerate such 
 music at all times. Compositions of this kind only 
 remain in favour for a time by reason of their fashion- 
 able titles, or the dexterity which is required in their 
 performance. We may compare herewith the poetry, 
 which not seldom offers a mere empty play of the 
 fantasy, such as was in vogue amongst us Germans 
 during the period of the trifling of Jacobi and Glenn, 
 and of the meaningless Romance of the school of 
 Schlegel. If a play of tones shall gratify, it must 
 be intellectual. What this may mean art-philosophy 
 must explain. We require, namely, in a musical art- 
 work a play of tones, which even in the freest motion 
 bears within it a meaning, and an animation of an 
 intellectual kind. With such high demands, that 
 which merely excites the sense of hearing and, being 
 soulless, does not address the soul, is condemnable. 
 But with less strict requirements, we may admit the
 
 1 82 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 validity of music, which, in the development of me- 
 lodic forms, gives itself up to the sportive fantasy. 
 Thus, for instance, folks melodies even although 
 they offer no marked characteristic expression, are 
 to be esteemed, and may be likened to the folks 
 songs such as are collected in the " Boy's Magic 
 Horn " (" Des Knaben Wunderhorn "). 
 
 On the other hand, Mozart and Haydn, Bach 
 and Hasse, each plays after his own intellectual 
 manner. Sebastian Bach, if we may place one of 
 them before the others, is rich in sport of the fan- 
 tasy, particularly in his pianoforte works, but he does 
 not content himself with sensuous gratification, nor 
 aim at mere flattering allurement, but invariably 
 allows the activity of the understanding to play its 
 part, and, without necessarily becoming dry or cold, 
 conveys gratification to the spirit. 
 
 LV. 
 MODIFICATION OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 FREE activity of the spirit not only makes itself 
 known in the play of tone-pictures, but also mani- 
 fests itself in the varied increase and diminution of 
 force, whereby a modification of expression becomes 
 possible. The human tone, whether it be from the 
 throat of a man, or from an instrument, possesses 
 although in a less degree in the case of twitched
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 183 
 
 instruments and instruments of percussion an elas- 
 ticity which becomes apparent to us in the growth, 
 or in the strengthening of a tone, or in the decrease 
 or weakening of its fulness and power. This is the 
 dynamic property of tones. Through the same, 
 that is, through a rising and falling, not only the 
 involuntary ebb and flow of the inner life is made 
 known, but an arbitrary arrangement of the expres- 
 sion becomes possible to the free intellect. Thus 
 a double operation is in force ; firstly, the musical 
 accentuation and articulation of tones, and, secondly, 
 the increase and diminution of tone. We will em- 
 brace the opportunity here offered for a general 
 explanation, in order to secure a firm basis for 
 our entire theory : namely, in no case does greater 
 ambiguity and confusion prevail than with regard 
 to the idea and definition of accent. Sometimes 
 the quantity of the rhythmical length has been er- 
 roneously drawn into the idea, while no regard- has 
 been given to the difference which exists between 
 
 ^ and ; or that which falls to the part 
 
 of comprehensibleness has been confounded with that 
 which constitutes the expression and colour ; and 
 for the most part the accent, which in song accords 
 with the word accent, has been kept in view.
 
 184 /ESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 LVI. 
 
 THE More or Less, the Stronger or Weaker, or the 
 intensive character of tones, serves in musical repre- 
 sentation a threefold purpose, which we shall here 
 distinguish as twofold, inasmuch as the increase of 
 strength may occur in the case of a single tone, or 
 of a succession of tones. In both cases, the increase 
 of strength, which in a broader sense we term 
 accent, offers a means of clearly delineating the true 
 expression of the inner life, and for the production 
 of Beauty. The comprehensibleness is enhanced, for 
 through this difference of weakness and strength, 
 individual parts of the tone-picture may be rendered 
 prominent, or be thrown into the shade, and thus a 
 clearer arrangement be attained to. This unites 
 itself with the Rhythmical, in which already the 
 alternation of length and brevity of time duration 
 operates effectively. In this alternation the increase 
 of strength occurs in the case of certain successions 
 of tones, both at the beginning of definite rhythmical 
 members and forms, and in free melodic accentua- 
 tion. Thus it occurs that individual parts, members, 
 and figures of the tone-painting are distinguished, 
 whereby the rhythmical proportions are more easily 
 measured, and the arrangement of the whole com- 
 prehended with greater facility. If the accent as 
 caesura opposes various members one to the other,
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. 185 
 
 if it causes contrast, and gives to various parts light 
 and shade, then the greatest effect of music is 
 attained to. Thus the accent of rhythmical mem- 
 bers gives to dance music an animation which 
 continues without a check, notwithstanding the 
 symmetrical nature of the time. A second result 
 attained to by the increase of tone, is the true 
 expression of the feelings, in which certain parti- 
 culars affect us more strongly than others, and take 
 firmer hold, while others are limited in strength, 
 or excite but slightly. We shall regard this subject 
 more closely in our investigations concerning ex- 
 pression. Finally, accentuation is serviceable in the 
 representation of formal and characteristic Beauty, 
 inasmuch as through its various grades, a free 
 motion is sustained, while that which is peculiar 
 becomes prominent in proportion to the extent of 
 its intensive value. Of this also we shall treat 
 more copiously elsewhere. 
 
 LVII. 
 
 THE increase and diminution of tone, the porta- 
 mento of the voice, the slurring and sustaining of 
 tones, and whatever else men are accustomed to 
 term the forms of a performance, in which the 
 connection and blending of tones conveys a true 
 impression of the inner emotion, are peculiar to 
 the music of mankind, for the reason that they
 
 1 86 AESTHETICS OF MUSICAL ART. 
 
 result from free intellectuality and ideality. Simi- 
 larly, as we regard the play in tone-pictures as a 
 free play, which is animated by the spirit, so the 
 modification of tone appears as a free domina- 
 tion over tones. Man alone animates tones, and 
 breathes into them a higher life, and we say of his 
 music that it is full of soul ; we should rather define 
 it by the word ideal, for, in the combination and 
 blending of tones, ideality is evinced, both in the 
 represented continuity, and in the softening down 
 of the sharp lines of demarcation. The growth 
 and cessation of tones does not operate as the sum 
 or compass- of the increased or diminished tone, for 
 in this case the strongest and weakest would be the 
 most perfect, but it operates symbolically. Through 
 the same, is represented the striving after infinity, 
 and the cohesion of all details through infinitely 
 small parts, and a faint notion is excited of that 
 which is not attained to by the strongest, and does 
 not disappear in the weakest tone. Thus it is a 
 reflection of the idea which delights us, and our 
 reasoning powers are excited to ideas by the anima- 
 tion of tones, while the feeling which thus becomes 
 audible, and echoes in the listener, is an ideal feeling. 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 THIS leads us immediately into a larger and higher 
 province, and to the third particular, in which the
 
 OF THE MUSIC OF MANKIND. l8/ 
 
 spirituality of music evinces itself, viz., TO ITS SUB- 
 ORDINATION TO THE IDEA OF BEAUTY. In this IS 
 united all that has been hitherto advanced, for that 
 which we have termed the expression of the feelings, 
 the activity of the powers of imagination, the partici- 
 pation of the understanding, and the co-operation of 
 reason, appears now in the full light of Beauty, as that 
 which is pleasing to the mind, and ideal. It may 
 be that either the comprehensibleness of melody, or 
 the proportionableness of harmony, or the free play 
 of the fantasy prevails, and determines the character 
 of the musical work, and gratifies us more or less ; 
 but for all that the general requirements for an art- 
 work remain the same, viz., that it shall be a beautiful 
 work, and that that which is spiritual within it must 
 immediately address the spirit. Herewith the art- 
 work is produced and completed. How this occurs 
 we will endeavour to show in the following book. 
 
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 Important Critical Contribution. 
 
 CHOPIN : THE MAN AND HIS MUSIC. 
 
 BY JAMES HUNEKER, 
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 . . . . Mr Huneker is a Chopin enthusiast. He accords ad- 
 miration to Brahms, to Wagner, to Tscha'ikovsky : his worship is 
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 Si tibi placeat, Mihl con displicet 
 
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 CHARLES Hunt, 
 
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 i. POOTI.UDK nG FREDERICK W. HOLLOWAY,F.CX> 
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 No. 3, TOCCATA - LAURENT PARODI (Genoa 
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 JACOB BRADFORD; Mus. D, OBOH 
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