i i.-i e EMERGENCY IK CHIEA Tr.^PTT POTT Class T 2>Y3 4/6" Book 7F. r T^ Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. FORWARD MISSION STUDY COURSES EDITED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE MISSIONARY EDUCATION MOVEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA THE EMERGENCY IN CHINA Leaders' helps, to accompany each text-book in the Forward Mission Study Courses, and special denominational helps, may be obtained by corresponding with the secre- tary of your mission board or society. YUAN SHIH KAI [Frontispiece] THE EMERGENCY IN CHINA BY F. L. HAWKS POTT NEW YORK Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada *9»3 * \)S w Copyright, 1913, by MISSIONARY EDUCATION MOVEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA New York /.J^> CI.A350095 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Telegram ix Preface xi I Introductory — Historical Review of China's Inter- national Relations 3 II Results of the Recent Revolution 37 III Industrial and Commercial Developments 81 IV Social Transformation 109 V New Education 143 VI Religious Conditions 181 VII The Influence of Christianity 215 VIII Present and Future of the Christian Church 245 APPENDIXES A The Orthography and Pronunciation of Chinese Names 279 B Bibliography 281 C Area and Population 286 D Dates of Important Events in Modern Chinese History 288 E A Table of Chinese Dynastic Dates 290 F Opium 291 G Unoccupied Fields 293 H Railway Systems 294 I Statistics of the Work of Protestant Missions in China for 1910 297 Index 299 ILLUSTRATIONS Yuan Shih Kai Frontispiece Empress Dowager Page 24 Sun Yat Sen " 40 Map of Chinese Empire " 46 First Republican Assembly " 56 Interior of a Legislative Assembly " 56 Railway Map of China " 83 Train on Shanghai -Hangchow Railway " 88 Soochow Station, Shanghai- Nanking Railway " 88 Interior Hanyang Iron and Steel Works " 98 Hill Sixty-five Per Cent. Iron Ore C1 98 Poppy Field of the Past " 114 Burning Opium Pipes " 1 14 Chinese Cadets " 134 Chart Showing Educational System " 151 Government Normal School, Canton — 800 Students. . " 154 Ancestor Worship at the Grave " 188 Paper Horse, Cart, and Slaves to Burn at the Grave " 188 Temple Converted into Christian School " 200 Temple Converted into Government School " 200 St. John's University, Shanghai " 218 Martin Hall, Canton Christian College M 218 Dr. Arthur Jackson " 222 Methodist Publishing House, Shanghai " 232 Shanghai Mission Press, Shanghai " 232 Ding Li Mei, Chinese Evangelist M 250 Temple of Heaven " 254 Self-supporting Church, Yu Yao, near Ningpo " 254 Colored Map End TELEGRAM Peking, April 19, 1913. Secretary of State, Washington, April 19, 9 A. M. Your telegram of April 18, 11 A.M. The following message adopted by the Cabinet was sent yesterday by the Chinese Government to the provincial authorities and leaders of the Chris- tian churches in China: "Prayer is requested for the National Assembly now in session ; for the new Government ; for the President who is to be elected; for the Constitution of the Republic; that the Government may be recognized by the powers; that peace may reign within our country; that strong and virtuous men may be elected to office; and that the Government may be established upon a strong foundation. Upon receipt of this telegram you are requested to notify all churches in your province that April twenty-seventh has been set aside as a day of prayer for the nation. Let all take part." WILLIAMS. Charge d'affaires. IX PREFACE The promise to write this book was given before the Revolution broke out. It seemed comparatively easy when the task was first undertaken to give a brief summary of present conditions in China, and to point out some of the currents of thought which sooner or later would produce startling results, but the difficulties increased a hundred fold after China had been shaken to its foundation by the sudden political tempest. To write of present conditions seemed somewhat like attempting to describe the transitory images produced in a kaleidoscope, inasmuch as everything was in flux, and nothing was permanent for any length of time. One felt that the writing of some of the chapters must be postponed as long as possible, in hope that a state of partial equilibrium might be reached be- fore they were penned. As a matter of fact Chap- ter II on the "Results of the Recent Revolution" was the last one taken in hand. Although everything is changing and it is be- yond human ken to know the final result, yet there are certain great forces at work which will not dis- appear. The surface may be stormy, but the waters beneath are still. Believing as we do in a God of xi xii Preface history, we can await in patience and faith the working out of his plan in regard to this country. We know that progress could only come by the break-up of the old conservative and corrupt regime, and that in the end something better and higher will be produced. It is a transition period, and this is what we have tried to emphasize. It would be foolish to give way, as some do, to feelings of undue exulta- tion. The destructive work has been accomplished, but the constructive has only begun, and it must extend over a long period of time. Because it is a transition period, the opportunity to influence China is all the greater. Before the new civilization crystallizes, now, during the time when everything is in solution, the most determined effort should be made to win China for Christ. We have tried to write soberly and to state facts. We have pointed out the many encouraging features of the situation and at the same time its dangers and difficulties. Our hope is that the book may help to rouse interest in one of the most important move- ments the world has ever seen, and inspire the Church to greater missionary activity so that China may be more powerfully influenced by the spiritual and moral forces of the religion of Christ. F. L. Hawks Pott. Shanghai, China, February 15, 1913. INTRODUCTORY— HISTORICAL REVIEW OF CHINA'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY— HISTORICAL REVIEW OF CHINA'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS No other nation with which the world is acquainted has been so constantly true to itself; no other nation has developed a civilization so completely independent of any extraneous influences; no other nation has elab- orated its ideals in such absolute segregation from alien thoughts; no other nation has preserved the long stream of its literature so entirely free from for- eign affluents; no other nation has ever reached a moral and national elevation so high above the heads of contemporary states. — Captain Frank Brinkley, quoted by William T. Ellis Ideas of the Orient Reversed. Formerly writers of history were very positive in their statements as to the impossibility of higher national and social development on the part of Eastern peoples. They maintained that these nations had already reached the summit of their evolution, and no further prog- ress in the future was to be expected. Such theo- rizing has been sadly upset by what has already transpired in Japan and China. The Island Empire was the first to prove the possibility of the rejuve- nation of an Eastern people by the assimilation of 3 4 The Emergency in China elements of Western civilization. She emerged like a bright new star of the first magnitude, and in an incredibly short period of time won for herself a place among the great powers of the world. Now we are witnessing a similar movement in the old civilization of China, and are still rubbing our eyes with astonishment. In years to come, when his- torians review the story of the twentieth century, they will point out as the most remarkable events of modern times the appearance of China and Japan upon the stage of the world's drama, and will show how it influenced the whole course of future civilization. Review of China's Foreign Relations. In this chapter we shall attempt to review briefly the his- tory of China's foreign relations, and trace out the political causes which have led her to abandon her old policy of exclusiveness and to modernize her government and social institutions so as to take her rightful place in the family of progressive na- tions. Character of China's Civilization. We are famil- iar with the fact that China reached a high stage of civilization long before the beginning of the Christian era, but perhaps we do not sufficiently bear in mind that it was a civilization developed in isolation from the rest of the world. The geographi- cal position of China cut her off from being influ- enced to any appreciable extent by other races and nations. There were ancient trade routes to India and Persia, and the outlying provinces of the Rck Review of China's International Relations 5 man Empire, but they did not serve as highways by which new forces found their way into the em- pire. The greatest external influence was that exerted by the Buddhist missionaries who came from India in 62 A. D., in the reign of the Emperor Ming-Ti, and this foreign element has undoubtedly modified Chinese civilization to a certain extent. China, however, is like a sea which renders salt all the waters which flow into it, and Chinese Buddhism has been so transformed that it differs in many respects from the original cult. Thus the civilization of the East and the West were de- veloped independently of one another, and China was as little known to the West as the West was to her. Visit of Marco Polo. In the thirteenth century Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveler, made his journey to China. During his long sojourn he learned much about Chinese civilization, and upon his return to Europe he astounded the people of the West by the stories he told in regard to what had been up to that time almost an unknown part of the world. Early Attitude of China. The attitude of China toward foreigners throughout the Middle Ages was quite different from what it became at a later pe- riod. "The imperial government placed the aliens practically on the same footing as its own subjects: it opened to them public employments and ex- tended to them the fullest protection. Olopun, one of the Nestorians who entered China in the Tang 6 The Emergency in China Dynasty, was raised to the rank of high priest and national protector by Emperor Kautsung. Marco Polo, though a Venetian by birth, was appointed to the office of prefect of Yangchow, which he held for three years. John de Corvino, a Romish mis- sionary, was given an imperial audience, and al- lowed to build a Catholic church with a steeple and bells, preach the gospel, and baptize, even in the capital of the empire." 1 Coming of the Portuguese. The first people from Europe to come knocking at the door of China asking for permission to trade were the adventurous Portuguese. In 1517 Fernao Peres de Andrade entered the Canton River with two ships and de- manded the privilege of commercial intercourse. The Chinese received these strangers from over the seas in a kindly spirit. In a short time however the feeling of amity was turned into one of deadly hatred, on account of the high-handed manner in which the Portuguese acted toward those with whom they entered into business relations. The disorderly conduct of the Portuguese colonists, who had settled at Ningpo, caused the generally pacific Ming Emperor in 1545 to give orders that they should be attacked by land and sea. As a result an assault was made on the colony in which, accord- ing to report, 12,000 Christians, including 800 Por- tuguese, were massacred. Coming of the Spaniard. Next the Spaniards 1 V. K. W. Koo, The Status of Aliens in China, 19. Review of China's International Relations 7 made their appearance in 1575, but they failed to restore the prestige of Westerners in the eyes of the Chinese. They made a settlement in the Philip- pine Islands which they held until the recent war between the United States and Spain. The Chinese emigrated in large numbers to Manila, the capital of the islands. The Spaniards, fearful lest all the trade should fall into the hands of successful Chi- nese merchants, and alarmed lest they should lose their control of the islands, instituted a barbarous massacre, in which some 20,000 people were put to the sword. Reasons for Adoption of "Closed Door" Policy. From this time a marked change took place in the attitude of the Chinese government toward foreign- ers. Vigorous measures of surveillance and restric- tion were adopted, and to a large extent alien mer- chants and missionaries were excluded from the empire. The causes of this new attitude may be briefly summarized as follows: In the first place, the reports of the conquest of the East Indies, and the forcible occupation of parts of India and the Malay Peninsula by Portuguese adventurers awakened the suspicions of the Chinese as to the ulterior motives of the foreigners rapidly flocking to their shores. They feared this aggression, espe- cially at a time when there was much internal dis- order in the empire. In the second place, from her own experience China did not receive favorable first impressions of Europeans, and the cruelty of Portuguese and Spaniards had not a little to do 8 The Emergency in China with the formation of the opinion that all West- erners were barbarians. Divergent Ideals. Furthermore, we should bear in mind the divergence of the ideals of Western and Eastern civilization. The word "progress" sums up the spirit of Western civilization. It is full of restlessness, desire for change, and looks forward to better conditions. On the other hand, the East longs for rest, peace, and the maintenance of the equilibrium. The one is characterized by as- piration, the other by the desire to conserve the past. It is easy to see how difficult it has been for the two civilizations to understand each other and to harmonize. Until recently they have had entirely different view-points. Embassies from Russia and Holland. In the reign of Kang Hsi (1662-1723), the second of the Manchu emperors, two European embassies ar- rived at Peking for the purpose of opening up com- mercial relations. One came overland from Russia by way of Siberia, and the other from Holland by sea. Neither met with success in obtaining the privileges they sought, for the Chinese considering their own emperor superior to all other barbarian nations refused to treat on terms of equality with their representatives. This contemptuous attitude toward other nations accounts for the insistence on the part of the Chinese that the kowtow x should 1 The word kowtow means the knocking of the head on the ground. The ceremony consists of three kneelings and nine prostrations with the head touching the ground. Review of China's International Relations 9 be performed before his imperial majesty by all for- eign envoys who visited the court. They regarded them as coming from countries standing in the rela- tion of tributary or vassal states to the great Middle Kingdom. The envoys, realizing the real signifi- cance of this lowly act of obeisance, persistently refused to comply with the demand for its perform- ance. The Dutch submitted, but did not gain any- thing by their compliance. Beginning of Commercial Relations with Eng- land. Commercial relations between England and China began in 1635, during the reign of Charles I. A charter was at that time granted to a company of merchants desiring to promote commerce with China, and Captain John Weddell sailed for the East with a small fleet of vessels. The Portu- guese who had by this time settled at Macao viewed with jealousy the arrival of these new aspirants for trade, and stirred up the Chinese to resist their de- mands, reporting them to be rogues, thieves, beg- gars, and what not, so that they became suspicious of the real meaning of the English. Consequently, when the English fleet was passing the Bogue forts on the way up to Canton, a Chinese battery suddenly opened fire. The British ships retaliated, and after silencing the guns of the battery, landed a party of sailors, took possession of the forts, and hoisted their colors. Then proceeding to Canton, Captain Weddell disposed of his cargo, loaded his vessels with Chinese merchandise, and returned to England. After this beginning, trade gradually 10 The Emergency in China developed between the two countries, until in 1715 the East India Company decided to establish a fac- tory, that is, a trading post, at Canton, with a per- manent staff, and to send out ships at stated sea- sons for the exchange of commodities with the Chinese merchants. Wholly a Response to Pressure. We have dwelt in some detail upon the beginnings of European intercourse with China, because it is important that we should bear clearly in mind China's former attitude toward the people of other nations. She never desired to enter into closer relations with them, and only yielded to their demands on ac- count of the pressure which they brought to bear upon her. Mission of Earl of Macartney. Two missions were sent to China from Great Britain for the pur- pose of arriving at a better understanding in regard to the trade between the two countries — one under the Earl of Macartney in 1793, and the other under Lord Amherst in 1816. The vessel upon which the Earl of Macartney proceeded up the Peiho River to the capital displayed a flag bearing in Chinese the inscription, "An envoy bearing tribute from England." When he reached Peking a con- troversy took place in regard to the kowtow. He consented to perform this ceremony, provided a Chinese official of equal rank with himself, dressed in robes of state, should do likewise before a por- trait of his Britannic majesty. Ultimately it was ar- ranged that, on approaching the emperor, he should Review of China's International Relations n bend one knee — the mark of respect which he would show to his own sovereign. As far as con- cerns a settlement in regard to trading privileges, his visit proved entirely fruitless. Mission of Lord Amherst. Lord Amherst in 1816 met with even ruder treatment. On his way to the capital the Chinese officials wrangled with him upon the subject of the kowtow. When he reached the summer palace at Yuen-min-yuen at five o'clock in the morning, his Chinese escort insisted on tak- ing him to an immediate audience. Lord Amherst pleaded fatigue, and the non-arrival of his court dress and of his credentials, and asked to have the audience postponed. Thereupon the Chinese au- thorities informed him that he was to start at once upon his return journey. Thus his mission ended in a humiliating failure. Appointment of Lord Napier. The next chapter of commercial relations between Great Britain and China began in 1833 when the control of the British trade at Canton passed out of the hands of the East India Company, and Lord Napier was ap- pointed as Commercial Superintendent of the Brit- ish government in China. In the letter of instruc- tions received from Lord Palmerston there was the following short paragraph, which "acted as a fuse to fire the petard" : "Your Lordship will announce your arrival at Canton by letter to the Viceroy." This virtually implied that his status was that of a royal envoy and not of a mere superintendent of trade, and surpassed all former precedents in of- 12 The Emergency in China fending Chinese prejudice. As is well known, he was never able to carry out these instructions and surmount the obstacles placed in his way. The Chinese carried on their trade with the British merchants through a company of Chinese mer- chants, known as the Co-hong, and the British mer- chants had no direct access whatever to the Chinese authorities. The Chinese could not understand why the British government had the temerity to demand that there should be communication on terms of equality between an official representative of Great Britain and the viceroy of Canton. Sooner than consent to what appeared to be a great indignity, for a time they put a stop to all intercourse, and it was not until Lord Napier had withdrawn to Macao that the embargo on trade was removed. China was unwilling to remove the restrictions on commerce, or to receive envoys except as tribute bearers. It was impossible to obtain concessions from her on these points except by force of arms. Opium Question and Appointment of Commis- sioner Lin Tse-su. Very unfortunately the armed conflict arose over the question of the importation of opium. The Emperor Tao Kwang, who suc- ceeded to the imperial throne in 1820, determined to enforce the law for the prohibition of opium in China. "His motive was pure, and his earnestness unquestioned," but owing to the dishonesty of the native officials he found the measure hard to carry out. He appointed Lin Tse-su Imperial High Com- missioner to investigate and deal with the situation Review of China's International Relations 13 at Canton, where the foreign merchants with the connivance of the native authorities were carrying on an extensive trade in the drug. A short time after his arrival at Canton he demanded from the foreign merchants the surrender of all the opium in their possession, and a pledge that their govern- ment or governments should enact that the "mer- chants are to pay implicit obedience to the prohib- iting laws of the celestial court, must not again introduce opium into the inner land, and will no longer be allowed to manufacture opium." The foreign merchants were kept confined in their fac- tories and pressure was brought to bear upon them. Finally, acting on the advice of Captain Elliot, at that time Chief Superintendent of British Trade, 20,291 chests, valued at $306,840, were delivered up to Commissioner Lin Tse-su and were com- pletely destroyed (June 3, 1839). Other Causes of Friction. Further difficulties soon arose. Although after the surrender of the opium permission to trade again was granted by the Chinese authorities, yet it was hedged about by many vexatious restrictions. On July 1, 1839, a party of sailors while on shore on the Kowloon side of the Hongkong anchorage became involved in a shameful riot attended with unmanly outrage upon men, women, and children, and the loss of in- nocent life. A Chinese named Lin Wei-hi was killed in the fracas and the officials immediately insisted that the murderer should be handed over to them by the British authorities, although Cap- 14 The Emergency in China tain Elliot repeatedly protested that it was impossi- ble to discover the guilty person. Furthermore, Commissioner Lin Tse-su still brought many charges of opium smuggling against British mer- chants. Causes of First Anglo-Chinese War. Such was the train of events leading up to the first war be- tween Great Britain and China. It is always re- ferred to in China as the Opium War and the Chi- nese can never be convinced that the British fought for any other reason than to retaliate for the opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin Tse-su and because they were loath to relinquish this lu- crative source of profit. In the famous letter writ- ten by Commissioner Lin Tse-su to Queen Victoria he is entirely silent as to any other cause of dis- pute. Without in the least condoning this im- moral and illegal trade, we can clearly see that sooner or later there was bound to be a clash be- tween the two countries. The first war with China was but the beginning of a struggle between the extreme East and the West — the East refusing to treat on terms of equality diplomatically or com- mercially, with Western nations, and the West insisting on being so treated. We can sympathize w r ith the Chinese on account of their ignorance, but we must remember at the same time that it was an ignorance which refused to be enlightened except by force. Treaty of Nanking. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. The is- Review of China's International Relations 15 land of Hongkong was ceded to Great Britain, an indemnity was paid for the opium destroyed, offi- cial correspondence was to be carried on on equal terms, and Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to foreign trade as treaty ports, where foreigners could reside. The Chinese had yielded to force, and the terms of the treaty were most unpopular, especially in Canton and the South. No real change of attitude on the part of China toward foreign nations had been effected. Further Causes of Friction. There were many causes of friction between the Chinese and the British merchants. The former were determined to evade as long as possible the carrying out of the agreement in the Treaty of Nanking consenting to the opening of the city of Canton to foreigners. Even the British consul was unable to hold com- munication with the Chinese officials within the city walls. This extreme state of tension was bound sooner or later to lead to serious difficulties, and in October, 1856, an event occurred which precipi- tated hostilities and led to the second conflict be- tween Great Britain and China, usually called the Arrow War. Dispute Over the Arrow. The dispute arose over the hauling down of the British flag from the mast of a lorcha (a vessel with European hull and Chinese rigging) named the Arrow in the har- bor at Whampoa, and the removal by force there- from of twelve Chinese sailors by Chinese officials. The British government at Hongkong in order 16 The Emergency in China to facilitate the trade of the Chinese colonists of the island, granted under certain restrictions sailing letters to Chinese vessels, giving them the protec- tion of the British flag. The vessel in question had been registered at Hongkong. Counter-claims. The British claimed that their national flag had been insulted, and that treaty arrangements had been violated. Mr. Harry S. Parkes, the British consul, demanded that the crew should be returned to the Arrow in the consul's presence, and agreed that if charged with any crime they would then be conveyed to the British con- sulate, where in conjunction with proper officers appointed by the Chinese officials the case should be investigated. The Chinese claimed that the British flag was not flying when the vessel was boarded, and insisted that they had a right to act as they had done because* they were in search of a notorious pirate, who had recently committed an act of piracy. Furthermore, they stated that the Arrow had no right to fly the British flag, in- asmuch as the time of her license had expired. This fact however could not have been known to them at the time when the vessel was boarded. As far as we can get at the evidence, there was no just cause for war, but hostilities were brought about by predisposing causes. Two Remaining Barriers to Intercourse. In ad- dition to the pride of the Chinese, which made it impossible for them to treat on terms of equality with men of other nations, there were reasons Review of China's International Relations 17 which led the Chinese to regard with disfavor the increase of foreign intercourse. In the first place, there was the coolie traffic of Macao. Chinese coolies were constantly kidnaped., taken to Macao, and thence sent off on the forced contract svstem to work in Cuba, Peru, and California. In this ne- farious traffic the Portuguese were the greatest of- fenders. In the second place, there was the open sore of the continuance of the smuggling of opium, although the trade was illegal ; and it was often carried on by ships of the class to which the Arrow belonged. Alliance between Great Britain and France. The French government, actuated partly by the desire to seek reparation for the massacre of a missionary in west Kwangsi, and partly by the spirit of im- perial aggrandizement which had manifested itself during the reign of the Emperor Xapoleon III, joined with the British in hostilities against China. The allied forces of the two nations captured Can- ton, and then carried the war to the North. The Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho River were taken and the Chinese were forced to sue for peace. Treaty of Tientsin. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Tientsin (June 26. 1858). Among the articles of the treaty were the following: The right of residence by foreign ministers in Peking, the opening up of five additional treaty ports, and the toleration of the Christian religion. At this time Russia and the United States, as well as Great Britain and France, made treaties with 1 8 The Emergency in China China, although they had played no part in the conflict. There was a clause in the British and French treaties agreeing to the exchange of the ratifications at Peking. Difficulties in Regard to Ratification. Later on the Chinese tried to evade the carrying out of this provision, for by yielding to this demand they would go a long way toward recognizing the equal- ity of Western powers with China. When the al- lied fleet of Great Britain and France arrived at Taku they found that the forts had been strength- ened, and that the mouth of the Peiho had been blocked by barriers consisting of large stakes bound together with heavy chains. When they attempted to force the passage they met with vigorous resist- ance and were forced to retire. Expedition to Peking, This led to acts of re- prisal on the part of the British and the French and the despatch of an expedition to Peking. In this expedition, unfortunately for the good name of the West, the Summer Palace was destroyed as a punitive measure on account of the cruel death of some prisoners who had fallen into the hands of the Chinese. It was an act of vengeance more in keeping with the ethics of the country invaded than of the religion professed by the invaders. Effect of Machinery. It is interesting to remem- ber that one of the causes leading to the expansion of Western trade in the East was the introduction of machinery into England in the early part of the nineteenth century. The home market was unable Review of China's International Relations 19 to consume the increased production, and an outlet was sought in foreign trade for the surplus com- modities. Treaty of Peking. After China had been humbled by the occupation of the capital, the Treaty of Peking was signed on October 22, i860. In addi- tion to the terms of the Treaty of Tientsin, Kow- loon was ceded to the British government and Tientsin was opened as a treaty port. Foreign envoys took up their residence at the capital, Sir Frederick Bruce representing Great Britain and the Hon. Anson Burlingame representing the United States. Painful Lesson Learned. So ended a struggle which had lasted for twenty-five years. The Chi- nese had been forced to learn the lesson that, whereas formerly China dictated the conditions under which international relations were to be car- ried on, now it was the Western nations which im- posed their will on China. Burlingame Mission. In 1867 the Chinese gov- ernment sent its first embassy to foreign countries. This consisted of three envoys, two Chinese, and one foreign, the latter being the Hon. Anson Bur- lingame, who had completed his term as United States minister to Peking. The object of the mis- sion was to win for China more favorable treatment from Western nations, and to represent the Chi- nese government as desirous of entering upon a course of progress on the lines of Western civiliza- tion. Much was expected at the time from this 20 The Emergency in China tour, but the result was hardly commensurate with the anticipations. Riot at Tientsin. The antiforeign riot at Tientsin in 1870, in which the orphanage and cathedral be- longing to the Roman Catholic Church were burned, was an evidence of the great cloud of ig- norance and prejudice which still blinded the eyes of the masses in China in regard to foreigners. The rioters were incited by their belief in the ru- mors that the Sisters of Charity were in the habit of kidnaping children, and of taking out their hearts and eyes for the purpose of making medi- cine! First Imperial Audience. It was not until 1873 that the first imperial audience for foreign ambas- sadors was held in Peking. Although on the sur- face this appeared to be a great step in advance, yet the fact that the audience took place in the "Pavilion of Purple Light/' a hall used for receiv- ing tributary nations, showed that in reality the pride of China was as strong as ever. Dr. Yung Wing and the Educational Mission. One of the first to see the imperative necessity of adopting a more liberal policy and of learning from the West was the late Dr. Yung Wing. He re- ceived his early education at the Morrison school in Hongkong, and was taken as a lad in 1847 to the United States by the Rev. S. R. Brown. He was the first Chinese student to study at Yale Uni- versity, and graduated in the class of 1854. On his return to his own country he at last succeeded, Review of China's International Relations 21 after many disappointments, in persuading the Chi- nese government to send a party of young Chinese boys to the United States to be educated in the schools and colleges of that country. He believed that they would be the disseminators of the new learning in their own country, and that much might be expected from their influence. Unfor- tunately for the experiment, the conservative party in Peking becoming alarmed at the disastrous ef- fects which they believed would result from these denationalized Chinese young men when they re- turned to spread radical ideas in the empire, per- suaded the government to recall them just as most of them were on the eve of entering college. After they reached China their lot became a most un- enviable one, for they were treated by Chinese of- ficialdom with scorn and contumely. Some of them survived the period of their fiery trial, and in re- cent years have risen to positions of great impor- tance — notably Tang Shao-yi, the first Premier of the new Republic, Sir Chentung Liang Ch'eng, K. C. M. G., the recent minister to Berlin, H. E. Liang Tun-yen, ex-President of Board of Foreign Af- fairs, H. E. Jeme Tien-yu, the "Father of railways in China," Liu Yuk-lin, Minister in London, and Tong Kaison, representative of China at the Hague Conference. Reforms after War with France. After the war with France (1884-5), there were signs of a more progressive policy. There was a further extension of the telegraph system and a modification was 22 The Emergency in China introduced in the time-honored system of govern- ment examinations. 1 Originally confined entirely to the classics, an attempt was now made to add mathematics and elementary science. Owing to the fact that the literary chancellors who conducted the examinations were themselves ignorant of these subjects, the reform was more on paper than a reality. As may well be imagined, this innova- tion was exceedingly unpopular with the literati, a class which up to a recent date has been the back- bone of conservatism in the country. They did not want the introduction of new knowledge and were thoroughly convinced that their own ancient books contained all the wisdom that was of real value. Yangtze Riots. The riots against foreigners along the Yangtze River in 1891 were largely in- cited by this class. For a short time central China was the scene of acts of violence and incendiarism, two British subjects, one a missionary and one an officer of the maritime customs, were murdered, and much damage was done to the buildings belonging to the missions. War with Japan. In the year 1894-5 China measured her strength with Japan. The cause of the war was a dispute in regard to Korea. The Island Empire had long been anxious to obtain a footing on the mainland, and was able to find a pre- text for hostilities because the Chinese government, 1 In Chapter V will be found a full account of the old civil service examination system as it existed in China pre- vious to the days of reform. See pages 143-150. Review of China's International Relations 23 without giving formal notification, violated an agreement by sending troops to Korea to quell a disturbance. Consequences of the War. The consequences of the brief struggle were for China disastrous in the extreme. She was brought under the searchlight, and the weakness, the ignorance, and the corrup- tion of her government were revealed to the world more clearly than ever before. The immediate re- sults of the war were the loss of Korea, and the pay- ment of a large indemnity, but the subsequent re- sults were much more grievous. From that time there began on the part of Western nations a strong policy of aggression. It was as if the eagles had gathered about the carcass, for China was ut- terly helpless and unable to offer resistance to the demands made upon her. Foreign Aggression. In 1897 Germany seized Kiaochow, on the south of Shantung Peninsula, taking as a pretext the murder of two German Roman Catholic missionaries, in the southern part of the province of Shantung. Russia viewed this move of Germany with an unfavorable eye, inas- much as it brought another European power into the sphere of influence in northern China which she coveted for herself. Consequently she demanded a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan from China on the same terms as those under which Germany held Kiaochow. In the surrender of Port Arthur, China lost one of the strongest naval bases in the world. Great Britain put in a claim for the lease 24 The Emergency in China of Wei-hai-wei, France claimed and obtained the lease of Kwangchow in Kwangtung. In 1899 Italy demanded the cession of San-Mun Bay in Chekiang Province, but at last the Chinese government, de- spite its former ready acquiescence, offered a stren- uous resistance. The Empress Dowager who had assumed the control of affairs was determined to put a stop to further filching of territory. What- ever her faults, she saw that something must be done, or the days of China as an independent na- tion were numbered. Reforms of Emperor Kuang Hsu. In the spring of 1898, the Emperor Kuang Hsu, powerfully in- fluenced by a band of young reformers, the chief of whom were K'ang Yu-wei and Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, entered upon a program of radical reform, for he was convinced that only in this way could the ship of state escape foundering on the rocks. Among the reforms was the complete revision of the ancient examination system. Being anxious to modernize China without further delay, he also took steps to reorganize the government, doing away with a host of useless officials. Coup D'Etat of Empress Dowager. The Em- press Dowager alarmed by the sweeping changes, and believing that the foundations of the Manchu dynasty would be undermined, seized the reins of government by a coup d'etat, placed the Emperor in confinement, and instituted a reign of terror against the reform party. Reaction became the or- der of the day, and everything reverted to its Photograph, Under-wood and Underu-ood EMPRESS DOWAGER Ip2i] Review of China's International Relations 25 former condition. The Emperor and the reformers, impressed by the strength displayed by Japan, had been anxious to see China follow in her footsteps and assimilate elements of progress from Western civilization. The Empress Dowager became the champion of the old conservative party and strenu- ously opposed all innovations. Boxer Outbreak. It was largely due to her that the Boxer outbreak became possible, for this move- ment could never have gained the strength it did unless the government had secretly sympathized with its aims. In that wild outburst of bigotry, frenzy, and ignorance, of the year 1900, we see gath- ered to a focus all the elements in China opposed to progress. Incited by acts of foreign aggression and spoliation, and convinced that foreign inter- course had only resulted in the repeated humilia- tion of China, they attempted to get rid of foreign domination and to throw off the yoke which galled them. In their blindness they thought it could be done by the Chinese rising in their might and sweeping the Western barbarians into the sea. Root and branch must be destroyed, and every vestige of foreign influence exterminated. The storm vented its fury in the northern provinces, and Christian missions, because they were asso- ciated with foreigners, felt the full force of the blast. Confined to the North. As an evidence of the fact, however, that the leaven of enlightenment had already made itself felt, it is to be noted that the 26 The Emergency in China outbreak was confined to the North. Many of the officials of China, especially the viceroys of the central and southern provinces, saw with clear vision the tremendous mistake of the North, and by refusing to join in the movement saved the nation from utter ruin and chaos. Reform Movements. When at last China had been humbled and peace restored, the program of the reform party was again adopted, and the Em- press Dowager, always an opportunist, advocated the very measures she had formerly so vigorously resisted. Among the most far-reaching reforms was the abolition of the ancient government exam- inations, and the introduction of a new system of schools and colleges throughout the empire. In 1905 a special Board of Education was appointed, and the new education advanced by leaps and bounds. Great activity was displayed in railroad building, and in the development of new industries. The government put into force stringent regula- tions for the suppression and final prohibition of opium. Large numbers of students were sent abroad to be educated, especially to the United States. Steps toward Popular Government. By an im- perial decree of 1908 a constitutional form of gov- ernment was promised, to be put into effect in 1917. Later on, in answer to frequent memorials, the date of its adoption was brought down to 191 3. During the revolution, before the abdication, the throne agreed to the immediate assembling of a Review of China's International Relations 2J Parliament with legislative authority, but the offer came too late. Advisory Provincial Assemblies were opened in 1909, and the first National Assem- bly was held in Peking in 1910. Each city was allowed to elect a Municipal Council to act as an advisory body to the magistrate and to relieve him of some of his duties. Effects of War between Russia and Japan. Nothing stimulated the reform movement more than the war between Russia and Japan. The Chi- nese were chagrined by the fact that they were on- lookers in a contest for the possession of territory belonging to the empire, and that it was fought out contrary to the regulations of international law on neutral soil. They were also astounded by the prowess displayed by Japan, and realized as never before that the yellow man was a match for the white man in warfare. They were convinced that Japan, in learning from the West, had adopted the right policy and they became eager to imitate her in this respect. Influence of Japan. The influence of Japan has been incalculable. For a time the Chinese looked upon Tokyo as a Mecca, and thousands of students went there for education. At one time the num- ber reached 15,000. Most of these young men be- came inoculated with radicalism in the extreme form. The reform leaders in China who were fugi- tives from their own country seized the opportunity of influencing their minds, and men like Dr. Sun Yat-sen carried on an active propaganda among 28 The Emergency in China them. Thus, the Chinese student class in Japan became a hotbed of sedition, and returned to China with a firm determination to drive out the Manchus and to establish a republican form of gov- ernment. Throughout the length and breadth of China, returned students from Japan founded secret societies for the carrying out of their program and for the spread of revolutionary ideas. Effect of Western Impact. Owing to the steady impact of the West upon the East, there has been born a national consciousness, previously non-ex- istent. China for the Chinese has become the great ideal which powerfully stirs the hearts of the masses in China. Conservatism of Manchus. Notwithstanding the fact that the Manchus seemed to be in favor of a progressive policy, yet in reality they were very fearful of the movement for modernizing China. They yielded only reluctantly to the demands of the people for a representative government, and some of them foresaw the inevitable result — the overthrow of the dynasty. Deaths of Emperor and Empress Dowager. The sudden death of the Emperor Kuang Hsu, a few days before the Empress Dowager breathed her last, has given rise to many surmises. It is thought by some that the masterful woman, knowing that her own end was near, made sure that her nephew should first depart this life, and that the imperial power should never revert to his hands. Inefficiency of Prince Regent, The succession of Review of China's International Relations 29 the infant Hsuan-Tung was most unfortunate, for although the Prince Regent was well-meaning, yet he proved utterly incapable of filling the difficult position in which he was placed, and the imperial court was rent with factions. More and more the Chinese became convinced that the weakness and decline of China were attributable to the inefficiency of the Manchu government, and the determination to get rid of it increased in strength. Mistakes of Manchu Government. We may summarize the mistakes of the Manchus as fol- lows: 1. They never completely identified them- selves with the Chinese, but continued to rule them as a conquered people ; 2. They were always secret- ly opposed to progress and only consented to re- forms as the result of pressure; 3. By their selfish- ness, corruption, and disregard for the welfare of the people they lost the confidence and respect of the body of the nation. Four Nations Loan and Nationalization of Rail- roads. Among the causes which precipitated the national uprising were the Four Nations Loan x and the Nationalization of the Railroads. The former was unpopular because the Chinese feared that the nations which advanced the money would obtain internal control over the affairs of the country. The latter met with disfavor because they looked upon 1 The Four Nations Loan has now become the Five Nations Loan. Originally the loan was to be financed by British, German, French, and American capitalists. Later on Russian and Japanese capitalists were admitted into the group, and the United States withdrew. 30 The Emergency in China it as a breach of faith on the part of the govern- ment as it necessitated the rescinding of conces- sions to private companies, and because they sus- pected that the real reason for the government wishing to obtain control of the railways was to use them for military purposes in keeping the peo- ple in subjection. Another reason for the unpopu- larity of the proposal was the spirit of provincial- ism. Each province was desirous of constructing its own railroads and of making out of them what- ever profit there might be. Success of the Revolution. In the face of the uprising at Wuchang and in the Province of Sze- chwan, the Manchu government showed its weak- ness. The success of the revolutionists encouraged the patriotic party all over the country. In a short time all the southern provinces revolted and many of those in the north followed their example. The central government was paralyzed and the one strong man of China, Yuan Shih-kai, was recalled from retirement in the hope that he might cope with the situation. After some attempts to carry out the imperial will, realizing the hopelessness of endeavoring to keep the Manchus on the throne, he urged them to abdicate, and came over to the side of the republican party. In the uprising there was much that was similar to the French Revolu- tion, but on the whole it was carried out with much less bloodshed. The student class, who were un- doubtedly the instigators and prime movers of the revolution, have been successful far beyond Review of China's International Relations 31 expectation, and China has become a republic as the result of the upheaval. New Chapter in China's History. This great people now enter on a new chapter in their his- tory, and a most critical one. The sleeping giant has been aroused and has felt his strength. The supreme question is what will he do with it? Will it be for the weal or wo of mankind? If the giant be a godless and soulless giant, he will be a menace to the future civilization of the world. This is the real yellow peril. Call for Christian Altruism. In this chapter we have laid emphasis upon the attitude of China to- ward the rest of the world. It might appear as if our object had been to whitewash the West and lay all the blame for the misunderstandings and conflicts upon the proud and ignorant East. This would be manifestly unjust. Indeed it is hard to defend from an ethical point of view much of the treatment meted out to China by Western nations. It is doubtful how far in the first instance we were justified in compelling China to enter into commer- cial and diplomatic relations with the rest of the world. Our policy has been largely that of su- perior power, actuated by the principle that force makes right. It has been the aggression of the strong upon the weak, and there is much in the story which is sordid and unchristian, and much of which we cannot feel proud. The result as we know has been that the door has been forced open, and the question arises to what purpose? Is it $2 The Emergency in China merely for our own advantage? Is China to be exploited in the interest of Western nations with a land-grabbing tendency? Are her resources to be developed merely for our own benefit? Is she to derive good or evil from the impact of the West? We have helped to create the present sit- uation, and it is our duty to see that we give of our best to China. Christianity stands for altru- ism. Modern diplomacy and commerce are too often actuated by the spirit of selfishness. Which principle shall be paramount in our future deal- ings with China? IMPORTANT QUOTATIONS The extracts at the close of each chapter are intended to indicate various view-points, mainly those of recent articles and addresses. The author of the text-book is in no way responsi- ble for them, and they do not necessarily represent the opin- ions of the editors. When we study China's intercourse with the modern powers, as recorded in the nineteenth century, we find that it has not been a happy one. Portions of her territory and some of her most valuable ports have been lost. Important places like Shanghai, Hankow, Tientsin, Kiaochow, Macao, and Man- churia are more or less under foreign control. China has also to pay enormous indemnities to European countries, out of all reasonable or just proportion to the alleged injuries inflicted. From her painful past experience in international dealings, China has come to the only conclusion possible to deduct from the scandalous wrongs inflicted upon her, — that the great powers are seeking to get all they can from her, and she also realizes perfectly well now that the fact of these nations being civilized and so-called Christian does not insure either right or just treatment. — Cheng Chang-lu, in the World's Chinese Students' Jour- nal, September, 191 1. There are many who place the most implicit confidence in international law, but these are as stupid as the individuals Review of China's International Relations 33, who depend on the Disarmament Society for peace. If coun- tries are equally matched, then international law is enforced; otherwise, the law is inoperative. . . . We have never heard of international law controlling the issues of war between unequal states. . . . China is not on an equal footing with the West. This is perceived in the fact that the duty on imports is fixed by Western governments. Not so in China. Merchants engaged in business abroad are subject to the laws of the country in which they reside. Not so in China. Foreign commerce is confined to seaports in the West. Not so in China. The murder of a foreigner by a Chinese is a very serious matter, but the killing of a "Chinaman" by a foreigner is a trivial thing. — Chang Chih-tung, in China's Only Hope, written in 1898. There is one department in which uniform taxation exists for all China, namely, in the Imperial Maritime Customs Service. On all goods coming in by sea, the customs, or tariff duties, are the same for all China. But how are they collected? By the organization established and carried on for many years by Sir Robert Hart, an admirable organization,, the service perfectly performed with honesty and accuracy, and the receipts applied exactly where they should be applied in accordance with existing treaties. But what is the applica- tion? To pay the interest on bonds which represent debt China was forced by Western powers to incur, in order to pay indemnities to Western powers, and to _ pay the Western powers the war expenses of those powers in carrying on war against China. No Chinese official to-day, or at any time within a generation in China, can bear to think of this uniform tax for all China, the customs. When I spoke to three of the members of the present government about this tax, my refer- ence to it was received with visible impatience and dislike. They simply hate to think they have mortgaged their entire customs revenue to pay the interest on debts and reduce the principals of debts which China incurred in consequence of wars which Western powers waged against her. . . . — President Charles W. Eliot, in the Journal of Race Development, January, 1913. "Compensation" and "indemnity" are two words the # Chinese have learned to hate, and some day they may build an immense navy and equip a large army to interpret these words in the way the Occidental interprets them, when they are synonymous with injustice and "grab." . . . — John Stewart Thomson, in the Journal of Race Develop- ment, January, 1913. 34 The Emergency in China They can tolerate anything and everything but further grabbing of their land. Therefore, by permitting or coun- tenancing these powers to take an unfair advantage to slice territory from China, the civilized nations might drive the Chinese to revenge in such a way as to turn what is soon to become a great "hive of commerce" and prosperity into a cursed land of carnage and "Boxerism," as well as to en- danger the peace of the world and paralyze the advancement of mankind ; while, by the exertion of a due amount of effort to maintain international justice to China during this period, they may enable the Chinese people soon to be able to take care of themselves and to contribute a great share to the promoting of honorable peace among nations, as well as to the advancement of general human happiness. — Ching Chun- wang, Ph. D., Assistant-Director of the Peking-Mukden Railway, in the Journal of Race Development, January, 1913. The evils of Western civilization have already found their way into the East. The pagan elements that still linger in our Western, nominally Christian, civilization we have forced upon them. Our military spirit, our rudeness of manner, our contemptuous disregard of the rights and feelings of others who are less aggressive, our habits of intemperance — by these the Western nations are already well known in the East, and there is no prospect that we can at once abate their evil in- fluence. The open question is whether we shall, with our worst, give our best ; by the gift of our best atone for the evil we have done in sending our worst, and at length displace the evil with the good. — Ernest D. Burton, in the World's Chinese Students' Journal, September, 191 1. RESULTS OF THE RECENT REVOLUTION CHAPTER II RESULTS OF THE RECENT REVOLUTION The one thing certain is that whatsoever nation en- ters on the path of revolution in our own day it will be heir to all our forefathers have done in France, The blood they shed was shed for humanity; the suf- ferings they endured were borne for the entire hu- man race; their struggles, the ideas they gave to the world, the shock of those ideas, are all included in the heritage of mankind. All have borne fruit and will bear more, still finer as we advance toward these wide horizons opening out before us, where, like some great beacon to point the way, flame the words: Lib- erty, Equality, Fraternity. — P. A. Kropotkin Quick Result of Long Preparation. The revolu- tion of China was accomplished in the remarkably short period of four months. When a sudden cata- clysm occurs in nature, we know that secret forces have been at work for a long time, and so it is with political upheavals. The outbreak was bound to come sooner or later, and the fact that it took us by surprise only shows that we were ignorant of what was transpiring. On the surface all appeared calm and quiet, but revolutionary ideas had been 37 38 The Emergency in China working for a long time in the minds of the more intelligent part of the population. Time of Outbreak. As is well known, the revolu- tion broke out on October 9, 191 1, before the ap- pointed date. This was due to the fact that, by an accidental explosion, a secret bomb factory was discovered in the Russian settlement in Hankow. Papers implicating the revolutionists were found, and in order to save their heads they were com- pelled to act quickly, and to start the rebellion be- fore their plans had been perfected. They were successful beyond anticipation, and found them- selves supported by public opinion. Very for- tunately, they were able to induce General Li Yuan- hung, much against his own will, to accept the position of leader. He soon proved himself entirely worthy of their selection, and showed himself to be the man of the hour. First Undecisive Movements. Owing to pro- crastination and indecision the court at Peking per- mitted the rebellion to assume formidable propor- tions before attempting to quell it. When the troops from the North really began their operations, it soon became apparent that the revolutionary forces, largely composed of raw volunteers, were no match for the army which had been trained by Yuan Shih-kai. Although they fought bravely and were inspired by true patriotism, yet, as is usually the case, discipline and better equipment proved superior on the battle-field. In the latter part of October Hankow was recaptured by the im- Results of Revolution 39 perialists under General Yin Chang, and destroyed by incendiary fires. The burning of this immense city was one of the most tragic events of the revolu- tion. With the fall of Hanyang, it looked as if the revolution would be crushed, for it would have been an easy matter for the imperialists to have driven General Li and his forces out of Wuchang. Spread of Revolution. In the meantime, how- ever, the revolution had spread all over the country, and city after city went over, for the most part with- out serious resistance, to the side of those who were bent on the overthrow of the Manchus. Fourteen out of the eighteen provinces declared themselves in favor of the establishment of a republican form of government. As an offset to the fall of Hanyang, Nanking after some serious fighting was taken by the army of the revolution, and was made the capital of the new government. Reappearance of Dr. Sun Yat-sen. At the psychological moment, the great reformer, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, arrived in China and was inaugurated on January 1, 1912, as the first President of the pro- visional government of the new republic. The man who had spent his life in plotting for the liberation of his country from the rule of the Manchus, who had been exiled with a great price on his head, and who had undergone innumerable hardships and dangers, appeared on the scene to see the success of his lifelong endeavors. The most hated enemy of the Manchu dynasty came back to triumph over* Its downfall. 40 The Emergency in China Sketch of His Career. The story of Dr. Sun Yat- sen reads like a romance. He began his career as a medical student at Hongkong in the College of Medicine. Dr. Cantlie, the Dean from 1889 to 1896, was much impressed by him, and in the biography recently written speaks of him as "a nature that draws men's regards towards him and makes them ready to serve him at the operating table or on the battle-field; an unexplainable in- fluence, a magnetism which prevails and finds its expression in attracting men to his side/' He be- came the founder of the Ko Ming Tang (Revolu- tionary Society), and, after an unsuccessful at- tempt at revolution in Canton, was forced to flee the country. While in England he was kidnaped by the Chinese officials and locked up in their Le- gation. Through the efforts of his friend Dr. Cant- lie he regained his liberty and then traveled about from place to place gathering funds from his coun- trymen scattered over the world and laying plots for the revolution. His undoubted courage, mod- esty, patriotism, sincerity, and intelligence have made him trusted and looked up to by all his com- patriots who were hoping for a better day for their country. What greater contrast could there be than Dr. Sun, the arch-conspirator, and Dr. Sun, the ex-provisional President entertained at Peking by Prince P'u Lun, at a feast at the palace of one of the Manchu high officials? Yuan Shih-kai. The Manchu government was obliged to recall Yuan Shih-kai, who had been liv- SUN YAT SEN [p-iOj Results of Revolution 41 ing in retirement for some time, as the only man strong enough to cope with the rebellion. Complete power was vested in his hands, and for a time he attempted to bolster up the tottering dynasty. His greatest difficulty was lack of funds, for he found it impossible after all the foreign powers had declared their neutrality to raise a loan for the support of the northern army. He was sagacious enough to see that he was dealing with a revolutionary move- ment which could not be suppressed by mere force. As supreme commander of the northern army, and as absolute dictator at the court, he might have plunged China into a civil war which would have meant years of bloodshed, and which might have resulted in a split between the North and the South, and in all probability in the intervention of foreign powers to safeguard their commercial interests. It is greatly to his credit, that he did not adopt such a course of action. It was due to him that the advantages gained by the imperialist forces at Hankow were not pressed, and that the troops were withdrawn. He probably felt that the burning of Hankow by the imperialist army had been a terrible mistake, and had only increased the animosity in the minds of the Chinese against the old regime. Peace Negotiations. Seeing that the only hope of peace for his distracted country lay in compro- mise, he consented to enter into negotiations with the revolutionary government. Tang Shao-yi was sent as his representative to Shanghai to meet Dr. Wu Ting- fang, and on December 18, 191 1, the peace 42 The Emergency in China conference began. After long consultation, and in spite of great reluctance on the part of Yuan Shih- kai, the chief demands of the republican party were conceded. Election of Yuan Shih-kai as President. In order to cement the North and the South more firmly to- gether, President Sun Yat-sen decided to retire from office in favor of Yuan Shih-kai, who was duly elected by the National Assembly in session at Nanking. Probably at the suggestion of Yuan Shih-kai, the Manchu dynasty finally decided to abdicate, and favorable conditions as to pensions y dignities, and titles were guaranteed to the imperial house. The following is the text of one of the edicts issued by the Empress Dowager: Edict of Abdication. ''To-day the people of the whole Empire have their minds bent upon a Re- public, the southern provinces having initiated the movement, and the northern generals having sub- sequently supported it. The will of Providence is clear, and the people's wishes are plain. How could I, for the sake of the glory and the honor of one family, oppose the wishes of teeming millions? Wherefore I, with the Emperor, decide that the form of government in China shall be a Constitutional Republic, to comfort the longing of all within the Empire and to act in harmony with the ancient sages, who regarded the throne as a public heritage." Presidential Oath. Yuan was prevented from coming to Nanking for his inauguration, owing to a Results of Revolution 43 mutiny among the troops in Peking, and the oath of office was taken in the old capital. Ac- cordingly on March 10, 1912, he took the follow^- ing oath : "Since the Republic has been established, many works have now to be performed. I shall endeavor faithfully to develop the Republic, to sweep away the disadvantages attached to absolute monarchy, to observe the laws of the Constitution, to increase the welfare of the country, to cement together a strong nation which shall embrace all five races. When the National Assembly elects a permanent President, I shall retire. This I swear before the Chinese Republic." Coalition Cabinet. One of President Yuan's first duties was the appointment of his cabinet, and thus what is known as the Coalition Cabinet came into existence. His idea was to appoint men both from the North and the South so as to do away with the rivalry between these two sections of the country. Tang Shao-yi was made Premier. It was found im- possible to establish the capital in Nanking, and it was decided to keep the seat of government in Peking, the members of the National Assembly re- moving from the South to the North. Lack of Funds and Mutiny of Soldiers. Since the establishment of the republic, one of the gravest sources of danger has been in connection with mutiny and disorder among the troops, due to ar- rears in their pay. The new government is con- fronted with a most serious financial situation. The revolution has been a costly one, and the finances 44 The Emergency in China of the country have been so greatly disturbed that it has been impossible to pay off and disband the troops. The long program of reform promised by the new government cannot be undertaken until large sums of money have been secured. China's liabilities in the way of paying annual instalments on indemnities and the expenses of the government were in excess of the amount of revenue raised from taxation, and it became necessary for her to raise a large foreign loan. Five Nations Loan. Negotiations were entered into for raising the Six Nations loan. For a long time there was a deadlock owing to the fact that China was unwilling to submit to foreign super- vision in regard to the use made of the money borrowed. Naturally great fear was felt of adopt- ing a policy which appeared similar to the Egyp- tianizing of the country. She has been compelled to submit to a certain amount of supervision owing to the urgent need of funds. The unpopularity of the Four Nations Loan was one of the causes lead- ing to the revolution, and it is certainly strange that among the early acts of the new government was the securing of a loan from the five nations of larger proportions than the one formerly contem- plated. Of course, it was unpopular and may lead to trouble in the future, but the necessity was so urgent that no other line of action seemed possible. Final Arrangements. The negotiations were pro- tracted for a very long time. They have been broken off and resumed several times. The raising Results of Revolution 45 of a loan known as the Crisp Loan only helped to complicate matters. Finally a contract was signed by the representatives of the five nations, and by the Premier and the Ministers of the Board of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Finance. The amount of the loan was $125,000,000. The funds were to be used for seven purposes: 1. The liabilities of the Chinese government; 2. The re- demption of outstanding provincial loans; 3. The payment of losses arising from the Revolution ; 4. The disbandment of troops ; 5. The redemption of other specified provincial liabilities ; 6. The current expenses ; 7. The reorganization of the Salt Admin- istration. 1 China undertook to establish a Loan Department, an Audit Department, and a Salt In- spectorate, in which three foreign advisers were to be employed. The provisional government has been established, and on the eighth day of April, -1913, the National Convention assembled. Then steps were taken to adopt the new Constitution and to choose the President of the republic. In the mean- time there was much debate as to whether the new government would prove a success. Outer Mongolia and Russia. On New-year's day, 1912, came the announcement that the head of the Buddhist hierarchy in Outer Mongolia had declared the independence of the country, and an- nounced himself as autocratic ruler. Shortly after- 1 The security of the loan is the salt gabelle, or impost on salt in transition, salt always having been a government monopoly in China. 46 The Emergency in China wards the Russian government advised China that she must respect this declaration and, while still exercising suzerainty over Mongolia, must abstain from sending troops or colonists into the country. On April 9, 1912, Mongolia definitely refused Presi- dent Yuan Shih-kai's invitation to join the republic. On November 3 of the same year, at Urga, a special Russian envoy signed with the Mongolian princes a Russo-Mongolian Convention. The agree- ment extends the amplest privileges to Russian traders, forbids China to interfere in any way with the administration of Mongolia or to send troops or colonists into her territory, allows Mongolia to contract treaties with other countries, subject to Results of Revolution 47 Russia's approval, and permits China to retain suzerainty of Mongolia, provided she first recog- nizes the Convention. The Urga Convention has raised a great outcry in China. Many see in it the deliberate attempt on the part of Russia to gain complete control in Mongolia, and clamor for war. This is one of the black clouds which has gathered since the inception of the republic, and apparently the beginning of the new regime is not to be free from national humiliations which will sorely try the hearts of all sincere patriots. Eastern Inner Mongolian Unrest. Eastern Inner Mongolia has been in a turmoil as well as Outer Mongolia. This portion of the country has also attempted to assert its independence of China. After some fighting between the Chinese army and Mongolian raiders, a conference was held at Chang- chun, on October 25, 1912, and China extended the olive branch, promising various reforms and privileges. Whether Eastern Inner Mongolia will follow the example set by Outer Mongolia at Urga time alone can show. War in Tibet. With the outbreak of the revolu- tion, Tibet saw her opportunity to throw off the Chinese yoke. Under the old regime the mis- government was characterized by such cruelty and injustice that Chinese rule had become exceedingly unpopular. The Chinese garrisons were besieged, and compelled to retire from the country. In June, 1912, the Chinese gathered a force to subdue the country and 10,000 men were dispatched on an 48 The Emergency in China expedition into eastern Tibet. A strenuous re- sistance has been made to their advance, and the attempt thus far has proved a failure. Embarrassing Complications. On August 17, 1912, the British government presented in Peking a memorandum, protesting against Chinese hostili- ties as a violation of the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of 1906, and calling on China to respect the status quo as Great Britain was doing. The Chinese replied to this note after a considerable lapse of time, pointing out that from the Chinese point of view Tibet was a portion of the Chinese Empire and hence natur- ally belongs to the Republic, and that she claims a right to maintain her sovereignty over it. The Tibetans have declared their independence under the rule of the Dalai Lama and have already entered into a treaty with Outer Mongolia, whereby both countries agree to become allies. It is most un- fortunate that the new republic should be called upon to enter on a course of hostilities against these outlying dependencies, especially at a time when her finances are strained, and she has so many in- ternal problems to solve. Russian and Japanese Hold on Manchuria. Af- fairs in Manchuria remain in a very unsatisfactory condition. Although China retains her sovereignty, Russia and Japan continue to strengthen their hold on the country. These two nations have entered into an agreement by which their claims have been adjusted, and by which each can go on with its policy of aggrandizement at the expense of China. Results of Revolution 49 The possibility of an alliance between China and Japan seems very remote, and the Chinese begin to look upon Japan as their most dreaded enemy. One of the results of the admission of Russia and Japan into the Five Nations group controlling the loan is that China will be unable to use any of the money for strengthening her position in Man- churia, or of doing anything that might appear to threaten Russian and Japanese influence in that quarter. Prevalence of Disorder. During the trying and critical period of transition it is not surprising that there has been a good deal of lawlessness and dis- order throughout the country. Robber bands have seized the opportunity to plunder and loot. In addition there have been attempts on the part of those who were discontented w T ith the new regime to overthrow it and set up a government for them- selves. One of the most serious storm centers has been in Wuchang. Two officers of high standing, Huang Hui and Chang Chin-wu, entered into a plot against the Vice-President, General Li. The Presi- dent, Yuan Shih-kai, invited them to Peking, and then had them arrested and summarily shot. By his firmness, a serious outbreak was averted. Political Parties. In some places it has been necessary to institute a reign of military despotism. Among the revolutionists there have been serious factions and a great lack of unity. The two prin- cipal political parties are the Kuo Ming Tang or the radicals, and the Kung Ho Tang or the con- 50 The Emergency in China servatives. At first the members of the Tung Meng Hui 1 tried to dominate everything, and at Peking blocked all legislation of which they did not approve. They were brought to their senses when the military governors of the provinces tele- graphed to them, threatening that if they did not behave themselves force would be used. Foreign Advisers, The new government has recognized the necessity of securing the best ex- pert advice on the many problems by which they are confronted. The President, Yuan Shih-kai, secured the appointment of Dr. G. E. Morrison, formerly Peking correspondent of the London Times, as Political Adviser. The choice was a wise one, and will probably prove of great benefit to China. Professor Frank J. Goodnow, of Columbia University, New York City, has been appointed Expert Legal Adviser for framing the new Con- stitution, because of his intimate knowledge of the Constitution of the United States and that of France. Constructive Work. The National Council im- mediately after the revolution was busy with various measures. A Provisional Constitution was drawn up, a Penal Code promulgated, the Gregorian calendar adopted, and the Parliament Regulation Bill and the Franchise Bill passed. Progress and Retrogression. The primary elec- tions began to be held early in December, 191 1, and 1 A party which has since been absorbed into the Kuo Ming Tang. Results of Revolution 51 Parliament was convened early in the spring of 1912. During the last part of its tenure of office the National Council did not have much heart for its work, and the executive business of the govern- ment proceeded without its assistance. The Presi- dent was obliged to rule more like a dictator than like the chief executive of a democracy. An Auspicious Year. China was blessed with bounteous harvests during the first year of the new regime, and this has been conducive to the preser- vation of peace among the people. On October 10, 1912, the anniversary of the founding of the re- public was held throughout China, and from the general rejoicing it was evident that the better educated classes were in entire sympathy with the ideals of the new government. Arguments against Establishment of a Republic. Some are quite pessimistic, and believe that it will be impossible for the Chinese to organize an effi- cient and stable republic. They are of opinion that a great mistake has been made and that it would have been far better if China had been content to establish a constitutional monarchy. They advance the following arguments to show that a republic is impracticable : Size of Country and Population. 1. China proper lias an area of 1,532,420 English square miles, and it has a population about four times as great as that of the United States. The transportation facilities are not as good as obtained in the United States and Canada in the days of the canal and stage- 52 The Emergency in China coach period. "The party machine operating under such disadvantages would break with its own weight. There could be no intelligent expression of public opinion. Not only in political affairs, but in every other field, it is impossible to develop an alert, quick-changing public opinion in a nation of over four hundred millions when medieval means of communication are supplemented only by a few thousand miles of railroad and telegraph. China cannot become a popular republic without an im- proved system of communication." 1 Lack of General Education. 2. There is the lack of general education. The masses of the people are not intelligent enough for self-government. It will be a long time before China's educational system will be completely modernized and some generations must pass before enlightenment will be disseminated among the peasants. The struggle for existence is so severe that the poor have little leisure for education. China cannot afford to estab- lish a national system of education which will pro- vide schools for all her children. Compulsory edu- cation will not be possible, owing to the heavy ex- penditure it involves, and owing also to. r fche fact that the children of the lower classes must be- come wage-earners at a very early period in their lives. Poverty of China, 3. China is in reality a poor 1 Professor Chester Lloyd Jones, "Republican Government in China," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, 1912, p. 33. Results of Revolution 53 country, and will remain such until her tremendous economic resources are unlocked and wealth is more widely distributed so that the majority may possess more than the minimum of subsistence. Popular governments are expensive governments. Elec- tions cost money and it is extremely doubtful whether China at present could bear the necessary expenses connected with them. In all probability the affairs of the government would soon fall into the hands of an oligarchy who could manipulate them according to their own w r ishes. Dr. Arthur H. Smith says, "They may have something which they call a republic and which may ultimately develop into such. The intermediate Stages must be those of an oligarchy under republican form and titles. " 1 Size of Electorate. 4. The enormous size of an illiterate electorate would lead to corruption far beyond anything with which we are familiar in the West Loose Federation. 5. The country never has been closely knit together. Each province has been more or less an independent entity. The policy of centralization favored by the late Manchu dynasty has not been popular, and it is extremely doubtful now whether the Chinese will favor a close federa- tion. There is sectional jealousy and much bitter feeling between the people of the different provinces. The line of cleavage between the North and South is clearly defined. The clan spirit still prevails, and until a stronger national spirit has 1 Chinese Recorder, January, 1913, p. 10. 54 The Emergency in China been evolved a republican form of government will prove impracticable. Arguments for the Establishment of a Republic. On the other hand, many are extremely optimistic and feel sure that in the end the wonderful experi- ment now being tried will turn out a success. They base their belief on the following considerations: Democracy of China. I. A democratic form of government is not a novelty in China. Mr. H. B. Morse describes the old government of China as "an autocratic rule superimposed on a democracy." The Chinese have always exercised a large amount of local self-government. "American government stands firmly on the town meeting. This was generally true in DeTocqueville's time (except for the county system of the Southern States), was passably true at the time of Bryce's inquiry, and is true to-day of the country village communities. It is also relatively true of village communities in China to-day, following the precedent of many cen- turies. The village elder or Tipao is appointed 'with and by the advice and consent' of the villagers, and represents them in all official and governmental matters, being also the ordinary channel of communication of official wishes or orders to his fellow villagers. The American citizen has few direct dealings with any but his township officials, so long as he pays his taxes, and is law- abiding, and officially hardly knows of the existence of the federal government, unless he has to deal with the custom-house, or wishes to distil whisky. Results of Revolution 55 This may be said also of the Chinese villager, and, moreover, few civil suits are brought before the official tribunals in China, while the government exercises no control over distillation." 1 Absence of Hereditary Aristocracy. 2. China has no hereditary aristocracy. She passed out of the feudal system many centuries ago. The only class which has enjoyed exceptional privileges was the literati, but its ranks have been constantly re- enforced by those of humble birth. In theory the highest office in the government is open to those of lowly origin. The avenue to advancement lay through scholarship. The son of the farmer was eligible to compete in the civil service examinations and if successful might expect to rise step by step until he became prime minister. Many stories are told of the wonderful achievements of poor peasant lads in the way of obtaining high official positions. China Always Ruled by Will of People. 3. China has always been ruled by the voice of the people far more than is generally supposed. There have been no representative assemblies in which their voice could become articulate, but nevertheless it has made itself heard. The officials have not dared to resist strong public opinion, and have been com- pelled over and over again to yield to the desire of the people. Strikes, mobs, and rebellions have been of frequent occurrence, and have generally been effective in getting unpopular governmental 1 H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration of the Chi- nese Empire, 46, 48. 56 The Emergency in China measures modified or repealed. Even the emperor held his office by consent of the people. When he proved himself incapable or tyrannical, he was often deposed by a successful rebellion, and his losing his throne was regarded as a manifestation of Heaven's displeasure. Vox populi vox Dei is an idea quite consonant with the Chinese way of regard- ing government. New National Consciousness. 4. Furthermore two forces are now manifesting themselves which tend to weld the people together. These are the new national consciousness and the fear of foreign intervention. The former serves as a strong centripetal force in opposition to all centrifugal tendencies. It has been able to keep the country from disruption during the period of transition. "China for the Chinese" is a strong enough senti- ment to overcome sectional and factional jealousies. It has held the North and the South together during the revolution in spite of the fact that the relations between them were strained almost to the breaking point. Fear of Foreign Intervention. 5. The fear of foreign intervention is a constant nightmare in the minds of the Chinese. They know that if a stable government cannot be established, and that if in consequence the country is thrown into disorder, there is danger lest Western powers, as a pretext for interference, seize on the harm done to com- mercial interests and the destruction of foreign life and property, and they are anxious to suppress FIRST REPUBLICAN ASSEMBLY INTERIOR OF A LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY [p56] Results of Revolution 57 all disturbances and to bring about as quickly as possible the reign of law and order. Precedent of the United States. The situation is most interesting, and we wonder what the future will bring forth. It would be foolish to prophesy. When the United States gained her independence there followed a period somewhat similar to that through which China is now passing. The con- flicting interests of the colonies and their loose federation seemed to make it impossible for them to become a strong united nation. Many predicted the speedy disintegration of the new republic, and looked forward to seeing the European powers step in and divide the spoils. The pessimists were doomed to disappointment, and the unexpected hap- pened. China confronts innumerable difficulties and obstacles, but she may be able to surmount them all, and to establish a stable constitutional form of government. Interest in Political Matters. When we come to consider the outcome of the recent revolution, there are certain results which stand out in bold relief. The first may be expressed by saying that Chinese society has become political. "Hitherto it has lived from generation to generation by custom, with no consciousness of political aims or purposes; nor has the government itself been influenced in its action by definite policies. Secure in its authority, it has selected its servants on the basis of examina- tion tests, reenforced by such favor as promising candidates might be able to obtain through bribes 58 The Emergency in China of various kinds. Now all of a sudden, the political impulse is strongly awakening in the breast of the Chinese people. . . . The intellectual and re- sponsible among the Chinese people are feeling a deep need for a conscious expression of national policy, and for the use of careful reason and long- headed foresight, as well as calm firmness, in the management of their national affairs." x Demands of the People. This accounts for the demand for parliamentary government. The people were not satisfied to leave the administration in the hands of the officials. They argued that all efficient countries are provided with parliaments, and they pointed to Japan as an example of a country be- coming strong by creating such an institution. The Manchu government yielded reluctantly, and a de- cree was issued on September i, 1906, favoring the adoption of a constitution, and promising to permit the people to participate in the government. By a decree in September, 1907, the summoning of a National Consultative Assembly to be known as the Tsecheng Yuan was authorized. It was to be composed of delegates partly nominated by the government itself, and partly selected by the Pro- vincial Assemblies. Advisory Provincial Assem- blies began their sessions in 1909, and the first Tsecheng Yuan was opened in Peking in 1910. Real Constitutional Rule Sought. These edicts did not meet with a very enthusiastic reception on 1 Paul S. Reinsch, Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East, 225, 226, Results of Revolution 59 the part of the intelligent portion of the people. They wished to see a sovereign parliament or- ganized, and looked upon the advisory bodies as an evasive method of giving them the shadow without the substance. The promise of the grant- ing of a constitution in 1917 and then in 1913 seemed to be indications that the Manchu government was attempting to put them off with fair promises and was not really in favor of the new policy. During the revolution the Manchu government granted all that had been asked for, but then it was too late, for the people felt that at last they were masters of the situation, and could carry out their own wishes. Parliamentary Government. The people have perhaps regarded the parliament as a panacea for all their ills. They forget that such an institution brings with it "new difficulties, party controversies, the introduction into political life of personal ambi- tions, although on a far higher plane than that of court intrigue. So the difficulties of China will not vanish by the creation of this organ. China will, indeed, have endowed herself with an instrument that may be used toward bettering her general condition. But the real work of reform must be done in the administration. There the confidence of the people must be won. The corrupt methods which have obtained in the past must give way to strict accountability, and to the maintenance of just and legal charges. ... If these institutions can be so adjusted that they will constitute the 60 The Emergency in China expression of a true union between the govern- ment and the people, the solution of the other difficulties and problems will have been rendered far easier than it would have been in the hands of an administration working at cross-purposes with an independent public opinion." * Transfer of Power to Young Men. Another re- sult of the recent revolution is the shifting of the power from the hands of the old official class to those of the educated young men. Under the old government, for the most part, the highest political positions were divided up among a clique who ran the government. It was hard for an outsider to gain admission; in fact, the only method possible was by the expenditure of large sums of money. China was in reality ruled by an official oligarchy, and this oligarchy was utterly corrupt and rotten. At the present critical juncture, the educated young men have been brought into prominence. They have been the backbone of the revolution, and are playing an impQrtant part in the new provincial government. Time has shown that it was im- possible to convert the old officialdom, and that even those officials who adopted progressive measures lacked the integrity and knowledge to carry them out successfully. Frequently the re- forms which they advocated were merely superficial, and beneath the surface the same old evils con- tinued. Dr. Wu Ting-fang at a banquet of students 1 Paul S. Reinsch, Political and Intellectual Currents in the Far East, 270. Results of Revolution 61 held about a year and a half ago, before the out- break of the revolution, made the startling state- ment that there was no hope for China until the government was in the hands of enlightened young men such as he was addressing. He was thoroughly acquainted with the old officialdom, and he knew that a process of complete house-cleaning must be instituted before matters could be improved. Their Time of Testing. The young men of China are now on trial, and the eyes of all are riveted upon them. That they will make mistakes is only to be expected. Full of new ideas and theories, they lack experience in statecraft, and it will take some time before they can learn. They have put their hands to a task of great dimensions — nothing less than cleansing the Augean stables of political corruption in China. The question of supreme importance is, Will they prove themselves to be men of integrity and high character? Although the transfer of power and responsibility into the hands of young and inexperienced men is attended with many dangers, yet if they are incorrupt and public- spirited, we may well believe that a new day has dawned for China, and that the future of the new government is assured. Rapid Spread of Education. We may also expect, as the outcome of the revolution, a more rapid dis- semination of general enlightenment. Popular government can only be successfully carried on where the people are intelligent. The Chinese are fully aware of this, and as soon as the government 62 The Emergency in China has been organized and the funds secured, we may- expect to see great activity in the spread of educa- tion. In a future chapter we speak of the educa- tional reform in China, and here we need only say that the revolution has given the new education a great impetus. The old education of China used for the most part the deductive method. The in- troduction of the scientific inductive method will work as marvelous a change as it did after its in- troduction into the West by Francis Bacon. Economic Development. Undoubtedly one of the great results will be economic development. The Chinese realize that the poverty of the country is one of the sources of its weakness. Under the former corrupt government but little was done in the way of utilizing the great natural resources of the country. Private capitalists had little oppor- tunity of investing their money. The government was anxious to retain a monopoly over all the mines and restricted private enterprise. Undoubtedly one of the causes of the revolution was the economic factor, the desire for a more equal distribution of wealth and the demand for a share in the de- velopment of the resources of the country. The people were bitterly opposed to the granting of concessions to foreign capitalists, and clamored to be allowed to build and control their own rail- roads, and to open and develop their own mines. Religious Liberty. The revolution has as one of its fruits the removal of all religious disabilities. President Yuan Shih-kai has been most explicit Results of Revolution 63 in his statements on this subject. A meeting of more than 2,000 Christians was held in one of the churches in Peking on February 26, 1912, for the purpose of congratulating the country on the rapid change to a republican government, to welcome the new President, and to consider the question of religious liberty. Owing to pressure of business Yuan Shih-kai was unable to be present, but he sent as his representative H. E. Yen Hui-ching, who addressed the meeting and spoke as follows: Position of the Republic. "We can thank God that such a body of Christians of every denomina- tion in this city has met together to welcome the first President of the new republic and to rejoice in the comparatively bloodless outcome. I am directed by him to thank you and to tell you how much he would have enjoyed being here, but the demand of urgent affairs of state precluded his attendance. The Christian religion was brought to China from the West more than a hundred years ago. Until recently it has not proved successful in reaching the people. This may be accounted for by the fact that the people were ultra-conservative, and society in general was unaccustomed to new things, or that the message of the foreign mis- sionary was misunderstood and to a large extent a wrong interpretation was put on the Church, its object, and its functions. In the last few years, however, our educated men have zealously bent their minds to the study of Western education and have found out the intent and purport of the 64 The Emergency in China Christian religion in its aspects of mercy and educa- tion. The result of this investigation has also been a clearer understanding of the character, genesis, and motive of the Church. Heretofore the treaties allowed the Chinese to accept Christianity, but now- such agreements will be put aside, for New China will grant religious liberty of its own accord to all its citizens without the treaties; and, on behalf of the President, I wish to say that certain clauses will be introduced into the new Constitution that will allow all the Chinese the freedom to worship in their own way/' A Further Declaration. Shortly after the revolu- tion, General Li Yuan-hung gave utterance to the following sentiment : "Missionaries are our friends. Jesus Christ is better than Confucius, and I am strongly in favor of more missionaries coming to China to teach Christianity and going into interior provinces. We shall do all we can to assist mis- sionaries, and the more missionaries we get to come to China, the greater will the republican govern- ment be pleased." Value of New Attitude. We of the West realize the importance of freedom of thought in religious matters, and know how closely it is connected with the progress of a country. The history of the inquisition in Spain furnishes us with an example of the disastrous effects of the policy of limiting religious liberty. While China has not been as intolerant as other countries in questions of re- ligion, yet undoubtedly Christians have suffered Results of Revolution 65 certain disabilities, and it is good to think that these will now be removed. The attitude of Chinese officialdom toward Christianity in the past has not been friendly and they have made a distinction be- tween the "people" and the "Church people." We may now expect to see this harmful division dis- appear. Financial Reform. The new government promises many reforms, and we are filled with a sense of bewilderment when we Contemplate all the things that must be put right. If we are not mistaken, however, one of the first matters to be taken in hand is the question of finance. A uniform and standard system of currency must be intro- duced, and the taxes must be levied in such a way as to bring into the government an adequate revenue. Such matters will occupy the attention of the Tsecheng Yuan * for many months to come. Hamilton saw the necessity for putting the financial credit of the United States on a firm basis, and Americans owe him a great debt of gratitude for the wise financial measures which he introduced. China stands sorely in need of statesmen of similar spirit and ability in her days of constitution making. Outlying Dependencies. Another very serious problem during the time of reorganization arises in connection with her outlying dependencies — Tibet, Sinkiang, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The five colors of the new flag are explained as meaning that the five peoples are to be united firmly to- 1 National Assembly. 66 The Emergency in China gether in one republic, but the undertaking is one that bristles with difficulties. The civilization of Tibet, Sinkiang, and Mongolia is much lower than that of China proper, and it requires a great stretch of imagination to believe that the people of these territories are capable of taking part in a demo- cratic form of government. Chinese rule has never been popular in them. At the present time, as we have already stated, 1 there is a revolt in Tibet against the Chinese resident, and Mongolia has attempted to set up an independent government. Imperiled Situation of Manchuria. As regards Manchuria, Russia and Japan have obtained so firm a hold on it that it would appear impossible for China ever to regain full control. If lost to her, one of her richest possessions will have been taken away. It will require great wisdom to devise a way to include these vast dependencies in the new republic, and to bind them firmly to the central government. Attitude of Western Powers. The ultimate out- come of the revolution depends not only on China herself, but also upon the attitude of Western powers. Will foreign nations intervene, or will they allow China time to work out her own destiny? The temptation to exercise control will be strong. International ethics are as yet far from measuring up to the Christian standard. The loan negotiations show only too clearly that Western financiers can hardly be called disinterested friends. 1 See pages 46, 47. Results of Revolution 67 There is altogether too much indication that there is a strong inclination to take advantage of China's weakness. Something more is sought than mere security for the loan. The desire to exploit China is still a great factor in the situation. It may sound like an exaggeration, but we are of the opinion that certain nations would prefer to see China remain weak in order that their own selfish policies may be carried out successfully. Christian Policy of Non-interference. We would plead as strongly as we can for a policy of non- interference. We base our plea in the first place on the high grounds of Christianity. Here are a people awakening to national aspirations and strug- gling to improve their conditions. They are eager to win for China a place among the progressive nations of the world. "We who are strong should help to bear the infirmities of the weak." The West should seek to help in every way and should sym- pathize with the endeavors of the Chinese to build up a strong and stable government. If we are guided by a self-seeking policy and take advantage of China because she is powerless to resist our de- mands, we shall be acting In a way that gives the lie to the religion we profess. Danger to Be Avoided. But we may also base our appeal on grounds of expediency. We have come to one of the great turning-points in the world's history. The East and the West ha\ e come face to face, and have been brought into close con- tact, and the future civilization of the world de- 68 The Emergency in China pends in no small degree upon the sort of relation- ship they will establish with one another. The career of Japan shows us the latent strength of Oriental peoples, and what it is possible for them to achieve by adopting elements of Western civiliza- tion. Asiatic nations have been inspired with new life and hope, and are eager to imitate the Island Empire. To conquer them now will be a different task from what it was formerly. If hostile relations with the East become the adopted policy of Western nations, the world may see wars more sanguinary and conflicts of larger dimensions than any that have taken place in the past. It is impossible to be- lieve that the East will ever finally submit to be governed by the West. More and more the East will demand to be treated on terms of equality and to be admitted into the family of nations. Ex- pediency dictates that we should enter into amicable relations with these nations and place no hindrance in the way of their natural development. If this policy is adopted, the future peace of the world may be secured. If not, a struggle too dreadful to contemplate may be the result. Christianity Essential. The future results of the revolution depend finally upon the spread of Christianity in China. A moral and spiritual refor- mation are the greatest needs of the people. China must become Christian before she can develop into a great republic. Results of Revolution 69 IMPORTANT QUOTATIONS It cannot be too much considered that democracy as it now exists, if in one aspect the freest, is in another aspect the severest form of government; less than any other form does it permit the natural man to do as he likes; and a community composed of individuals who have no other ideal than doing as they like will not only refuse to be governed, but fail to produce men who are capable of governing. — L. P. Jacks, in the Hibbert Journal, October, 1912. The continued national existence of the Yellow Race may be regarded as assured. But that the empire which in the past fifty years has lost Siam, Burma, Assam, Tongking, part of Manchuria, Formosa, and Korea, which has already seen a foreign army in Peking . . . ; whose standard of civil and political perfection is summed up in the stationary idea ; which, after half a century of intercourse with ministers, missionaries, and merchants, regards all these as intolerable nuisances, and one of the number with peculiar aversion; which only adopts the lessons that they have taught her when the surrender is dictated by her necessities or her fears ; and which, after a twenty years' observation of the neighboring example of Japan, looks with increasing contempt upon a frailty so feeble and impetuous — that this empire is likely to falsify the whole course of its history and to wrench round the bent of its own deep- seated inclinations, simply because the shriek of the steam whistle or the roar of cannon is heard at its gates — is a hypothesis that ignores the accumulated lessons of political science and postulates a revival of the age of miracles. — Lord Curzon, Problems of the Far East (written in 1896). Young China, as at present constituted, will pass, the shadowy fabric of a restless dream. An inevitable reaction will restore the ancient ways, the vital Confucian morality, and that enduring social structure whose apex is the Dragon Throne. But Young China, at its passing, will not have been in vain. Something of the Utopia of its visions will remain, to renovate and modify that ancient structure. . . . But, despite China's disastrous experiences of the past fifty years, and the fore-doomed failure of her present political experiments, it is difficult for any student of her history and people to doubt that the splendid qualities and instinctive com- mon sense of the masses will assert themselves in time to avert the worst consequences of Young China's headlong icon- oclasm. Despite every fresh proof of inertia in the masses and incompetence in their self-constituted leaders, we are 70 The Emergency in China impelled instinctively to hope against hope that, from out of all this trouble and turmoil of new forces, the ancient weather- beaten structure will presently emerge, modified and strength- ened, to adapt itself to its changing environment ; that the col- lective intelligence of the race will perceive and understand that "all laws and institutions and appliances which count on getting from human nature, within a short time, much better results than present ones, will inevitably fail. 91 . . . Sir Valentine Chirol, in the Quarterly Review, for April, 1912, has reproduced the substance of a conversation held with Prince Ito at Tokyo in the spring of 1909, on which occasion the Japanese statesman unhesitatingly expressed his opinions concerning the destructive and disruptive tendencies of Young China, and the reasons which make it impossible to hope that, following their lead, the Chinese people can ever hope to emulate the political and material successes of Japan. . . . "So far, also, it must be regretfully confessed that there is in China no class of the community which seems competent to take the lead in a great national movement. The official class, in spite of some brilliant exceptions, is as a whole no- toriously incompetent and corrupt. The merchants may be taken as the nearest equivalent to a middle class in China, and in business they have acquired a considerable reputation for honesty and intelligence, but they have always held aloof from public affairs, which, with the Chinese talent for special- ization, they regard as entirely outside their own sphere of activity. The great mass of the population ' is probably even more inert in China than in most Oriental countries. It is thrifty and extremely industrious, and has been accustomed for so many centuries to be treated by its rulers as the 'stupid people' that it may be held now almost to justify its nickname by its supreme indifference to everything beyond its own nar- row horizon of narrow toil. The young students who have returned from abroad form a very vocal and not unimportant body of agitators, many of whom are animated with excellent intentions, but they have hardly any roots in the country, and they can hardly be said to form a class capable of directing and controlling any practical course of action. As for the Chinese army, it would seem extremely improbable that in such a country as China, so completely bereft of all military traditions, an army could be organized that would possess both the efficiency and the discipline required by such an emergency." . . . —J. O. P. Bland, Recent Events and Present Policies in China. Results of Revolution 71 When a year or so ago the surprising intelligence began to be bruited abroad that there was to be a "republic" in China, it is probable that there were many warm friends of China, who, like the writer of these lines, felt and said that the notion that China in its present state of evolution could be- come a republic was "the quintessential essence of bottled moonshine." There is still substantial truth in this view, and will continue to be for an indefinite period. But in the light of the events of the past twelve months it needs modification of statement by the qualifying clause that, although the Chi- nese cannot possibly have a "republic" at present, they may have something which they call a republic, and which may ultimately develop into such. The intermediate stages must be those of an oligarchy under republican forms and titles. The pressure of a common danger has welded the Chinese into a theoretical unity never before known. The new phrase, "Four hundred millions of our brothers" — while, as yet, only a phrase — has within it the promise and potency of united action such as China has never experienced. Once gained, this cannot be lost, for the causes of its evolution are deep- seated and permanent. China is now feeling the mighty in- spiration of a great hope. The Chinese have accepted the conception of China for the Chinese, and as never before are suspicious of each and every foreign design. Many manifestations of this feeling are child- ish, while others are dangerous to China's best welfare, but they show — as nothing has ever before done — the new national alinement. It is a great asset to young China to have before them the example of a man like Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who has persistently and unselfishly given himself to the deliverance of his country, and who, having received the highest honors, resolutely declined to keep them. Can any other republic afford an example like this? Dr. Sun's visits to Peking and to the leading northern cities have brought the northern and the southern parts of China into new and harmonious rela- tions. Whatever may be the surprises of the future, there is in this land a new spirit. There is a new respect for personality as such, a conception for which we have until recently had no word, nor need for any word. The potential liberation of the women of China is one of the greatest facts in contemporary history, the import of which is beyond human estimation. It means radical changes, far- reaching and permanent. — Dr. A. H. Smith, Chinese Recorder, January, 1913. J2 The Emergency in China We shall fail to grasp the fundamentals of the situation in China if we suppose that the triumph of the revolutionary cause was a triumph of ideals. So far as leadership is con- cerned, it was that. Those responsible for the outbreak— Sun Yat-sen, Li Yuan-hung, and their comrades — were consistent advocates of progress and reformation, and the leaders of government to-day are convinced believers in the need of reform. But the rank and file were with them, and were as tow to their fire, from merely negative causes. They were oppressed and afflicted under the Manchu rule, the soldiers were unpaid, the people were overtaxed and underfed and* were ready for any enterprise which promised relief from present and persistent ill. . . . So, too, the common people — farmers, artisans, and small shopkeepers — with the illegal exactions of the tax-farming officials ever in mind, had for a brief season the dream that the republic was a happy world in which government was carried on without revenue raised by taxation. The result was that for a while the taxes did not come in, and the new order of things in Peking was brought almost to a standstill through lack of the all-needful cash. . . . — ReVo Nelson Bitton, The East and the West, October, 1912. I landed at Hongkong, and after a short stay there went to Canton. . . . Having a good opportunity there to ask what is for me a fundamental question with regard to any people, I asked the then governor-general, himself a soldier by profession, and recently in command of a division of the republican army, "Will the Chinese coolie make a good soldier, brave, obedient, and patriotic?" . . . The governor-general reflected for a time, and then made the following answer : "The Chinese coolie will fight well, provided he knows what he is fighting for, and that thing interests him." . . . Think how little the Manchu empire, which has been gov- erning China for centuries, left to the republic! No elements of a strong government were transmitted from the empire to the new government; no army, no navy, no school system, no national system of taxation, no courts or police of national equality. Indeed, the Manchu empire transmitted to the re- public no government organization whatever. It was not a real government in a modern sense. It has not been for cen- turies. If the republic, or the revolutionary movement, had done nothing else except to rid China of the Manchus, it would have fully justified its coming into existence. . . . I have never seen anywhere better evidences of a widespread and intense sentiment of patriotism than I saw in China. . . . Results of Revolution 73 What ground is there for supposing, or imagining, that a republican form of government can be set up in China and be made stable? To my thinking, there is in the quality of the Chinese people as a whole strong ground for holding that hope. The Chinese people have come through every possible struggle with adverse nature, and every possible suffering from despotic government; they have come through recurrent floods, droughts, and famines; they have been subject without defense not only to the sweeping pestilences like smallpox, cholera, and the plague, but to all the ordinary contagious diseases, to tuberculosis, and to all the fevers. Yet here they are by unknown hundreds of millions, tough, industrious, frugal, honest, and fecund. . . . — President Charles W. Eliot, Journal of Race Develop- ment, January, 191 3. The Canton artillery sang a rugged song of Liberty. It is worth quoting, not only because it has poetical merit, but because it shows the spirit that was and is working in the souls of men: "Freedom will work on this earth, Great as a giant rising to the skies, Come, Liberty, because of the black hell of our slavery, Come enlighten us with a ray of thy sun. Behold the woes of our fatherland. Other men are becoming all kings in equality. Can we forget what our people are suffering? China, the widest and oldest, is now as an immense desert. We are working to open a new age in China ; All real men are calling for a new heaven and a new earth. May the soul of the people now rise as high as Kwangtung's highest peak; Spirit of Freedom, lead, protect us." — John Stuart Thomson, Journal of Race Development, January, 1913. As they appear to the writer, there is, on the one hand, a strong body of conservatives to whom the new order of things is anathema from beginning to end. On the other hand, are the farmers and laborers, who make up some eighty per cent, of the population, and for whom the struggle for exist- ence is enough. A good harvest or food enough to eat, with security in which the fruits of their laborious toil can be en- joyed, suffices. The former, the conservatives, are certainly to be reckoned with ; but the latter, the great mass of the populace, have always been followers rather than leaders, and 74 The Emergency in China there is no reason to suppose they will not continue to follow the leadership of whatever party is in power. We have left, then, as the real leaders of to-day: i. the new literati; that is, graduates from foreign universities and mission or govern- ment colleges, and the whole student body, male and female, to whom the scholars in the secondary schools may be added ; 2. the majority of the mercantile class, including shopkeepers and their numerous assistants ; and 3. a considerable part of the army and navy. Most of those who make up this minority are enthusiasts and are committed body and soul to the new order. More than this, they are carrying with them the chil- dren also, and these are the makers of the next generation. Readers and thinkers, editors and authors, students and scholars, merchants and men of affairs, stand in the front rank, whilst behind them are the passion and ambition of the youth of China. — Rev. G. H. Bondfield, Chinese Recorder, January, 1913. Our Ningpo correspondent writes: "The republican anniversary has been celebrated with much enthusiasm here. The principal thoroughfares of the city pre- sented an appearance of gaiety probably never before equaled, and in many places of beautiful effect. In the evening, lantern processions, representative of the commercial guilds and prin- cipal schools, paraded the streets. "One has to go but a short distance into the country, how- ever, to find how little the rural population has as yet been affected by the momentous change. The overwhelming major- ity have not yet discarded the cue, and there is little expres- sion of enthusiasm for the new regime. The prolonged stag- nation in trade has been felt far and wide, and has called forth many repinings. Rumors are continually recurrent of imperialist risings in distant places. The country folk are evidently slow to believe that the Manchu rule is really at an end. "Happily, good crops have done much to mitigate discon- tent, and fairly general good order prevails throughout the district." «^News item from the North China Herald, October 19, 1912. The great question now is, "Will the republic succeed?" The answer is that it ought to succeed, if the conflicting inter- ests of the Japanese, European, and American governments and commercial bodies can refrain from creating complications and difficulties. It must be remembered that the disappear- ance of a ruling house in China is very far from being the Results of Revolution 75 same thing as in Europe — as, for instance, what happened at the French Revolution, or what would happen in a highly centralized and minutely organized country like Germany, if the Hohenzollerns, Wittelsbachs, etc., were suddenly replaced by a set of socialist-republican governments in the various fed- eral states. Chinese dynasties, and particularly the Manchu dynasty, have practically done nothing but maintain order and collect money. The virtue of the Manchus has lain in the maximum of order with the minimum of imperial rapacity. Cities, municipalities, villages, all aggregations in China, gov- ern themselves; trade governs itself; shipping governs itself; families and communities ^ govern themselves. The money taken from the people is in no way spent upon the people. Thus, even in the heyday of Manchu rule, if every mandarin in the Empire had been suddenly and simultaneously smitten with paralysis, no great harm would have been done to the general activities of popular life, so long as there were no breaches of the public peace. Anarchy, in its best and freest sense of "no government," exists throughout China ; the official body, from the emperor down to the police satellite, might have been raised into space like a canopy or a curtain from the theater of popular life without in any way checking the active course of the stage performance. In fact, the suspen- sion of "government" is often an unmixed good in China; for so much the more money remains in circulation unsqueezed from the people ; so much the more is trade stimulated through being unhampered by obstructions and exactions ; and so much the less do the unpaid police and soldiery batten on the industrious people. — Prof. E. H. Parker, World's Chinese Students' Journal, November, 1912. The people are looking for great changes along all lines — a new government of the people, for the people, and by the people — universal franchise, just laws, equal taxation, liberty of speech and liberty of conscience — all those precious con- comitants of free, popular government that are so highly prized by the free peoples of the favored nations of the West. In short, the people are looking for a new heaven and a new earth. That they will not get all that they have hoped for goes without saying, human nature being what it is. Whether or not the failure to get all that the leaders have promised to the people will cause widespread discontent and reaction against the government may well cause deep concern. But, on the whole, the outlook along this line is more of a hopeful character than otherwise. The Chinese are a patient, peace- 76 The Emergency in China loving people. They have a wonderful genius for organization. They are noted for their ability to affect a compromise be- tween conflicting interests, and to reach a settlement of a given situation to the general satisfaction of all parties. They will, I firmly believe, reach a fairly reasonable and satisfactory solution of their problems in due course of time. . . . — Rev. A. P. Parker, D.D., China Mission Year Book, 1912. Washington, D. C, March 19, 1913. The following statement was issued from the White House to-day : We are informed that at the request of the last administra- tion a certain group of American bankers undertook to par- ticipate in the loan now desired by the government of China (approximately $125,000,000). Our government wished Amer- ican bankers to participate along with the bankers of other nations, because it desired that the good-will of the United States toward China should be exhibited in this practical way, that American capital should have access to that great country, and that the United States should be in a position to share with the other powers any political responsibilities that might be associated with the development of the foreign relations of China in connection with her industrial and commercial enter- prises. The present administration has been asked by this group of bankers whether it would also request them to par- ticipate in the loan. The representatives of the bankers through whom the administration was approached declared that they would continue to seek their share of the loan under the pro- posed agreements only if expressly requested to do so by the government. The administration has declined to make such a request, because it did not approve the conditions of the loan or the implications of responsibility on its own part which it was plainly told would be involved in the request. The conditions of the loan seem to us to touch very nearly the administrative independence of China itself; and this ad- ministration does not feel that it ought, even by implication, to be a party to those conditions. The responsibility on its part which would be implied in requesting the bankers to undertake the loan might conceivably go the length in some unhappy contingency of forcible interference in the financial, and even the political, affairs of that great Oriental state, just now awakening to a consciousness of its power and of its obli- gations to its people. The conditions include not only the pledging of particular taxes, some of them antiquated and burdensome, to secure the loan, but also the administration of those taxes by foreign agents. The responsibility on the part Results of Revolution jj of our government implied in the encouragement of a loan thus secured and administered is plain enough and is obnox- ious to the principles upon which the government of our people rests. The government of the United States is not only willing, but earnestly desirous, of aiding the great Chinese people in every way that is consistent with their untrammeled development and its own immemorial principles. The awakening of the people of China to a consciousness of their possibilities under free government is the most significant, if not the most mo- mentous, event of our generation. With this movement and aspiration the American people are in profound sympathy. They certainly wish to participate, and participate very gener- ously, in opening to the Chinese and to the use of the world the almost untouched and perhaps unrivaled resources of China. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOP- MENTS CHAPTER III INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOP- MENTS The triumph of the industrial arts will advance the cause of civilization more rapidly than its warmest advocate could have hoped and contribute to the permanent prosperity and strength of the country more than the most splendid victories of successful war. — Babbage Material Progress a Standard. In a superficial way a country's progress in civilization is measured by her material wealth and by those things which facilitate its production. Accordingly the introduc- tion of railways and activity in their extension are regarded as indicative of an advance in civilization. In the recent development of China nothing is more remarkable than the story of railroad building. Thirty-five years ago there was not a mile of rail- way in the whole country. To-day there are about six thousand. First Railway in China. The first attempt at con- struction was made in 1875, when a few foreign merchants in Shanghai put their heads together and determined to see what could be done on 81 82 The Emergency in China modest lines. They bought up land for a road be- tween Shanghai and Woosung at the mouth of the Whang-poo River, a distance of about twelve miles, and the line was formally opened at the end of May, 1876. The Chinese authorities were much opposed to the innovation and claimed that they had been grossly deceived. Their contention was that permission had only been granted for the con- struction of "a road," and that all along they had understood it was to be "a horse road," and not "an iron road." After considerable friction and heated controversy, the foreign merchants were finally obliged to sell the road to the Chinese government. The rails were then torn up and shipped off with the rolling stock to Formosa. "Where the Shanghai railway station had stood there was built, as a peace offering, a temple to the Queen of Heaven." Thus ended the first chapter of railway building in China. The objection of the Chinese was almost entirely based on super- stition. The introduction of the railway would disturb the feng shut 1 and this would undoubtedly lead to some dire calamity. Kaiping Railway. The second attempt proved more successful. It was in connection with the Kaiping Coal Mining Company at Tongshan in the Province of Chihli. These mines were twenty-nine miles distant from the nearest seaport, and the con- 1 Genii that control winds and waters, especially subter- ranean waters, according to superstitious Chinese views that have prevailed. Industrial Developments 83 veyance of the coal was attended with many diffi- culties. In 1880 a small tramway of seven miles RAILWAY MAP OF CHINA I scale or mica 100 o mm ^ m ^e&* = ' := T?^^~ jio ' ►JT Railways Opea toTraffic um Railways under Construction " Proj e cted Railways li nni Proposed Railways 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 was built connecting the mines with a canal leading to the sea. At first wire traction was used, but in 84 The Emergency in China 1881 a locomotive, locally constructed, called "the Rocket of China" was actually running on the line. At the close of the war between China and France, progress was in the air, and the prejudice against railways began to weaken. Out of the Kaiping Tramway grew the Kaiping Railway. The road was extended from Tongshan to Tientsin, and by the end of 1887 two trains a day were running be- tween these places. Growth of Railways. Such was the beginning of the construction of railways in China, and it has been dwelt upon at some length, because the story of beginnings is always full of interest. From that time the development has been rapid and, except for a few checks now and again, continuous. The estimated mileage of Chinese railways (includ- ing those in Manchuria) open to traffic was, in 1908, 3,000 miles; in 1909, 4,500 miles; and in 1912, 5,886 miles. The Five Systems. For the sake of convenience we may divide the present and prospective railways of China into five systems. The first or Northern System includes the line extending from Peking toward Mongolia on the northwest, and through Manchuria to the northeast. The second or Central System embraces the country lying between the Peiho River on the north and the Yangtze on the south. The third is made up of the railways in the Yangtze Valley itself. The fourth or Southern System includes the lines centering about Canton, Hongkong, and the tributary branches in Kwangsi. Industrial Developments 85 The fifth or Southwestern System includes the rail- ways in the provinces bordering on Burma, India, and French Indo-China. 1 Effects of Railways. One can readily understand what a tremendous change railways will produce in China. One of the greatest hindrances to progress undoubtedly is the poverty of the masses. In the densely populated districts the vast majority are very close to the border-line of starvation. When the usual crops fail and famine occurs, they die by the thousands. It must always be remem- bered that agriculture is the main occupation of the people, and that they support themselves en- tirely from what they raise from the soil. Railroads will open up mines and render the development of manufacturing industries possible. It will in time bring about a great change in the occupations of the people. Purpose of Sun Yat-sen. The Chinese are eager for the development of railways because they have become convinced that it means the creation of greater wealth in which all hope to have a share. Economic factors always play a large part in the development of a country. Dr. Sun Yat-sen is so convinced of the necessity of railway building that he is now devoting his energy to the organization of the Central Railway Company of China. He hopes to be able to borrow large amounts of capital from Europe and America, and to cover China with 1 For more complete details relating to these five systems., see Appendix I, p. 295. 86 The Emergency in China a network of railways in an incredibly short space of time. Steps toward Unification. Among other effects will be the greater unification of the people by breaking down barriers of separation, and making intercourse easier. In the United States the people of the East, the West, the North, and the South have local peculiarities, and we can tell where a man comes from by his accent. This gives us, however, only a slight idea of the wide chasm be- tween the people of the various sections of China. In many ways their characteristics are different, and there is so much variation in the languages which they speak that they cannot understand one another. The people of Shanghai laugh at the people of Foochow and say they talk a bird lan- guage. At St. John's University in Shanghai the student body is drawn from a wide area. It is absolutely impossible for those from the South to understand the language of those from Central China, and when they converse they fall back on their knowledge of English. In course of time rail- ways will have a great influence in leading to the adoption of one language throughout the whole country. Instead of dialects and variations of dialects incomprehensible except to the people of the districts where they are spoken, there will be developed a form of Mandarin, which will serve the purpose of a common tongue, and which will be understood by all. Progressive Benefits. The provincial and clan- Industrial Developments 87 nish spirit are due in no small extent to the lack of intercommunication. Railways will lead to the building of roads, and, after roads, there will come cheap motor conveyance, and China more and more will be knit together until she becomes a united nation instead of a loose confederation of provinces. Again railways will enable the government in time of famine to rush the surplus in one province to feed the starving in another, and thus there will be a mitigation of the suffering which takes place at such a time. Great Aid to Evangelization. We know that one of the great means by which the gospel was carried rapidly throughout the length and breadth of the Roman Empire was the wonderful system of well- built roads, many of which survive even to the present day. With the development of the railway system in China, the great difficulties of travel will disappear, and the ambassadors of Christ will be able to penetrate into regions hitherto largely in- accessible. Many examples might be cited of what has already been accomplished in this way. For instance, the journey from Shanghai to Wusieh, a distance of a little over a hundred miles by canal, formerly took three days, and now can be accom- plished in as many hours. The English missionaries working in Szechwan spend more time in traveling from Shanghai to their station than they do on the voyage from England to China. They must en- counter the danger of shipwreck in the rapids of the upper Yangtze, and are in perils by land and 88 The Emergency in China perils by water. When the railway is completed, the journey will take less than a week. Opposition to Railways. Railroads have not made their way into China without causing serious disturbances. The ignorance and superstition of the people have not been the only obstacles, but the securing of concessions for building the roads by foreign syndicates has caused much friction, and has stirred up an antiforeign spirit. Although the lines constructed by foreign capital are redeemable by Chinese after a definite period of time, yet there has been considerable doubt as to whether they would be delivered up when the time arrived. This has led to a determined effort to buy back con- cessions already granted, to resist further foreign •loans, and to build the railroads of China with native capital. The former government, however, realizing the difficulty of raising sufficient capital in China for the speedy construction of the lines, favored the policy of raising foreign loans, and pursued this course in spite of its unpopularity with the people. Attempt to Bring the Railways under Govern- ment Control. As we have already stated in the first chapter, just before the revolution, the govern- ment undertook to bring all the main trunk lines under national control. This scheme was proposed by Sheng Kung-pao and he was entrusted with the task of carrying it out. It was impossible to con- vince the people of China that the policy of the nationalization of railways had much in its favor, TRAIN ON SHANGHAI-HANGCHOW RAILWAY SOOCHOW STATION, SHANGHAI-NANKING RAILWAY [p88] Industrial Developments 89 for they suspected the government of a desire to gain control for their own selfish purposes. They preferred to have the matter in the hands of each province. The attempt to force the people to sub- mit to the wishes of the throne was one of the causes leading up to the revolution. When too late, the Manchu government realized its mistake, and rescinded the measure. In order to appease the angry multitude, Sheng Kung-pao was made a scapegoat and cashiered. So bitterly was he hated that he was forced to flee for safety to Japan. Cotton Mills. In the past quarter of a century there has been a marked and steady development of new industries. The cotton mill for making yarn was the first to make its appearance, and it was found that Chinese cotton, although of very short staple, yet when mixed with other cotton, answered the purpose admirably. China is a great cotton growing country, and the acreage under cul- tivation increases every year. We can readily un- derstand this when we bear in mind that the clothes of the people are for the most part made out of cotton cloth. Only the rich can afford to wear silk, and it is no exaggeration to call China the land of the blue cotton gown. It has been esti- mated that the annual consumption of cotton cloth is worth about $1,000,000,000, and of this large quantity four fifths is produced by the Chinese themselves and manufactured by crude machinery. The cloth made by the native loom is so much stronger than that made by machinery that it is 90 The Emergency in China preferred by the peasants, and it will be a long time before the foreign commodity will take the place of the native article. In China itself but little cloth is manufactured, and the mills for the most part make the yarn which is converted into cloth on the native looms. Operation and Wages. There are at the present time some twelve mills, the principal ones being in Shanghai and Wuchang. The largest one, situ- ated in Shanghai, has 65,000 spindles, employs 6,000 hands — 1,000 men, 4,500 women, and 500 chil- dren ranging from twelve to thirteen years of age. The average wage is 30 cents Mexican 1 per day for men, 27 cents Mexican for women, and 12 cents Mexican for children. The labor in this mill is entirely Chinese with the exception of the super- intendent of the mill and the superintendent of boilers, who are Englishmen. Six hundred looms are operated, having an output of 1,200 pieces daily of plain, unbleached sheeting which sells for $4.50 per piece of forty yards, weighing fourteen pounds. Silk Filatures. China has always been famous for its silk, and one of the features of the land- scape in Central China is the grove of stunted mul- berry trees raised for the purpose of obtaining the leaves upon which the silkworm feeds. Formerly the whole process of making silk from beginning to end was by hand, but recently silk filatures have been erected for the purpose of spinning the silk thread by means of machinery, and employment is 1 A Mexican cent is worth about half a cent gold. Industrial Developments 91 given in them to a vast number of women and young girls who attend the bobbins. There are at least forty-eight filatures in operation at the present time, and, as the prospect of the silk business is very bright, we may expect to see rapid advances* in this industry. Machinery Introduced. The Chinese have come to see the advantage of machinery, and it is being employed for the manufacture of glass, soap, paper, and other articles. Flour mills have been erected, and even a factory for making woolen goods. Consequences of Introduction of Machinery. The introduction of foreign machinery into China has come, and it is natural to speculate upon the con- sequences. Owing to the fact that labor is so cheap its application to many industries will proba- bly be more gradual than it was in the West, and hence it will not produce such sudden economic disturbances. In farming, for instance, there is little likelihood for a long time to come that the machine will replace the man. This is due not only to the cheapness of labor, but to the fact that in China we have the system of peasant ownership, each family owning a few acres of land. Harmful and Helpful Phases. Machinery brings a new element into the social system, and until factory laws have come into operation it will pro- duce serious evils. In the first place the health of the women and girls, accustomed to an outdoor life in the sunshine, will be injuriously affected by the close confinement in artificially heated and 92 The Emergency in China densely thronged factories. Child labor, which has caused in the past so much harm in the West, will produce like physical and mental deterioration in the East. At the present time twelve hours labor a day is frequently demanded of these children, and often there is no Sunday holiday. The freer intercourse of the sexes, so alien to Chinese social customs, is bound at first to give rise to much im- morality. Machinery will be by no means an un- mitigated blessing to China. There is, of course, a brighter side to the picture. It means a greater production and a wider distribution of wealth, and will eventually lead to an elevation in the standard of living. All this, of course, has far-reaching ef- fects in the advance of civilization. China as a World Competitor. To the world at large, China supplied with machinery — a great man- ufacturing country — is an interesting problem. Owing to the density of her population, the cheap- ness of her labor, the diligence, sobriety, and clever- ness of her people, and the low standard of living, she will become an important competitor and one that cannot be overlooked. The markets of the world are open to her and she may become the source of supply for many manufactured com- modities. Effects Probably Delayed. Some have referred to the coming industrial competition as the real Yellow Peril. The fear is perhaps somewhat ex- aggerated. As has been well said: "It is not likely that the march of industrialism in China will Industrial Developments 93 be so rapid and triumphant as many have antici- pated. Jealousy of the foreigner, dearth of capital, ignorant labor, official squeeze, graft, nepotism, lack of exports and inefficient management will long delay the harnessing of the cheap labor of China to the machine. Not we, nor our children, but our grandchildren will need to lie awake nights. It is along in the latter half of this century that the Yellow man's economic competition will begin to mold with giant hands the politics of the planet." * When, however, we reflect on the mo- mentum with which China is now moving, we may well believe that the day of her becoming an im- portant factor in the industrialism of the world is not quite so far off as the writer we have quoted imagines. Christian Leaven Essential. We are well aware of the evils of our own industrial system. It is only because we are influenced to a certain extent by the Spirit of Christ in our legislation and in our competition that these evils are moderated. We are forced to ask the question, How will it be with China if the leavening influence of Christianity is left out? If we give China only the materialistic side of our civilization, will not the last state be worse than the first? Must Have New Ethical Basis. We heard some Chinese merchants a short time ago bemoaning the fact that the type of trader produced in China by the new conditions created by modern industry was 1 E. A. Ross, The Changing Chinese, 136, 137. 94 The Emergency in China so inferior to that of days gone by. The Chinese have been proud of their high reputation for com- mercial integrity, but they stand in danger of losing it. The old ethical ideals are losing their force, and nothing is taking their place. One has always felt grieved at the lack of the finer feelings of sympathy and pity among the masses of the people, and their callousness in regard to the value of human life. If we imagine the new age of in- dustrialism coming into China among a people who have not developed a great regard for others and at a time when the moral ideals are being under- mined by skepticism and materialism, we can realize the danger of the situation. Only the ideals of the Christian religion can quicken the consciences of the people and promote honesty, justice, and sym- pathy among them. It may sound startling, but we believe that the new industrialism will be a curse to China unless the religion of Christ comes with it. We may go even further: it will be a menace to the world. If China adopts low standards in her commercial and industrial life and becomes one of the greatest competitors for trade, she may drag the rest of the world down with her. The world is becoming one, all barriers are being leveled. If the West does not influence the East by her spiritual life, the East may demoralize the West. The cold blast of materialism may chill the spiritual and moral atmosphere of the whole world. Development of Mines. In recent years there has been increased activity in the development of Industrial Developments 95 mines. The principal coal supplies in North China are derived from: 1. The Kaiping district; 2. The neighborhood of Mukden; 3. The Shansi and Honan districts ; 4. Shantung. The Shansi and Honan coal measures are of vast extent. The coal is princi- pally anthracite, but bituminous is found in many- places, and all that is needed to make these mines wonderfully productive is the further extension of railways and means of communication. Hitherto the state of Pennsylvania has been given as leading the world with its 20,000 square miles of coal lands. Richthofen after careful investigations carried on through North China states that the Province of Shansi will take the palm from Pennsylvania. 1 The principal anthracite mines now operated belong to the Shansi Company, a purely Chinese concern, and to the Peking Syndicate Limited, a British cor- poration. Coal is found in many other places in China. Indeed there is some in almost every province, and Hunan and Kiangsi especially have very extensive deposits. Hindrances to Opening of Mines. China is only held back from becoming one of the greatest coal producing countries in the world by lack of capital and her unwillingness to secure the capital by foreign loans. The government has yielded to pressure and granted many valuable mining con- cessions to foreign companies, but this policy has always been unpopular among the people. In the 1 Later investigations indicate that this estimate may be ex- aggerated. But in any event the deposits are immense. 96 The Emergency in China new China more wholesome views will be enter- tained in regard to the wisdom of development of China's resources by making use of foreign capital, and we may expect to see the adoption of a saner policy. The people of Shansi actually paid the Peking Syndicate two and a quarter million of dollars to relinquish an undeveloped concession. Government Monopoly. The former government also committed the mistake of making the right of mining a government monopoly, and has repeatedly prevented private capital from being used in this way. The monopoly, however, was not to be em- ployed for the advantage of the people, but merely for the increase of the wealth of the rulers. Thus the incalculable and almost inexhaustible treasures liave been left locked up in the earth, and China has continued to be poor. "Terrestrial Astrology." Another reason in the past for the neglect of mining has been the hoary superstition to which we have already referred — the feng-shui — which has been somewhat aptly called "terrestrial astrology." The dragon and tortoise lying beneath the hills have had to be taken into consideration. Even when left alone they are not always well disposed, but when disturbed they may manifest their anger through earthquakes and other calamities. "The Chinese have found their minerals, foreigners have discovered theirs. The former trusted to accident, the latter to science. ,, With the spread of knowledge these difficulties and obstacles will disappear, and the one crux will be Industrial Developments 97 the matter of capital. When there is an honest administration in the government, native capital will be forthcoming. Loans will be regarded in the right light, and the Chinese will perceive that the money borrowed can easily be repaid as soon as the mines produce a regular output. Mineral Wealth of China. Much might be said about the other mineral wealth of China. It has by no means as yet been thoroughly explored, but the results of the investigations thus far conducted show without doubt that China is one of the richest countries on the face of the globe in mineral re- sources. There is an abundance of iron, and it is found in close proximity to the coal needed for its smelting. Copper, which has always been a govern- ment monopoly, is already mined on a large scale in the Province of Yunnan. Manufacture of Iron and Steel. China has begun to use her own iron in the manufacture of steel rails, and at the outbreak of the revolution the Hanyang Iron Works, situated on the Yangtze near Hankow and Wuchang, was busily employed in this way. These works are supplied with the best modern machinery and employ over 5,000 hands. Fortunately during the fighting about Hankow, although in the danger zone, they were not injured to any great extent, and now the valua- ble plant is again in full operation. Importation to United States. Only a few years ago China imported all her steel and iron from foreign countries, now she is able to export pig 98 The Emergency in China iron and lay it down on the western coast of the United States at so low a price that she is able to undersell the American product. The Hanyang Iron Works contracted a short time ago with an American syndicate to furnish annually for fifteen years from 36,000 to 72,000 tons of pig iron, to a steel plant building at Irondale on Puget Sound. Arsenals. China has been quick in learning an- other lesson from the West, very different from the peaceful industries to which we have referred. She has been busily arming herself, and has established arsenals for the manufacture of the implements of war. The largest ones are at Tientsin, Shanghai, Nanking, Wuchang, Chengtu, and Canton, and there are smaller establishments at other centers. At some of the arsenals, heavy guns, rifles, and' ammunition, including smokeless powder, are manu- factured in large quantities. Dockyards have been constructed in Shanghai, Foochow, and Tientsin, at which small steamers and cruisers have been built. Growth of Militarism. It has often been re- marked that the Chinese are not a warlike people, and they have been held up as an example in this respect. The former absence of the military spirit may be attributed to the teaching of Confucius, the ascendancy of the literati, and the general contempt with which soldiers were regarded. There is a proverb that "good men are not made into soldiers, nor good iron into nails." In view of recent events, the statement calls for some modifica- INTERIOR HANYANG IRON AND STEEL WORKS HILL SIXTY-FIVE PER CENT. IRON ORE Only sixteen miles from steel works [p98] Industrial Developments 99 tion. Associated with the new national conscious- ness there has been an ebullition of the spirit of militarism. This is perfectly natural, for we can well understand China's desire to defend her terri- tory and to resist further spoliation. In the past she has made a poor show in warfare because so badly officered. General Gordon's remark is worthy of remembrance: "Given proper leadership, there are no better soldiers in the world than the Chinese." During the recent revolution some splendid fighting was done by the volunteers as well as by the soldiers of the regular army. Constitutes a Danger. This spirit of militarism is a danger, and it will be sad for future civiliza- tion if by any chance it should increase to such an extent as to constitute a menace to the peace of the world. Napoleon's warning in regard to stirring the sleeping giant is still to be heeded. If China learns only the art of modern warfare from the West, we are sowing the wind and will surely reap the whirlwind. The Telegraph System. The rapid development of the telegraph system has been very remarkable. The inauguration dates from December 24, 1881, when the land line between Shanghai and Tientsin — a distance of about 1,000 statute miles — was opened. In the beginning a great many obstacles had to be overcome on account of native prejudice, and in order to make it popular with the Chinese public, the administration allowed every one to telegraph gratis for a month. Even now when the ioo The Emergency in China ignorant countrymen hear the singing of the wires from the vibration caused by the wind they fancy it is the noise of the messages in transmission. Middle Period. From 1881 on, new lines were constructed, linking up different centers of the country. Up to 1884 Peking, with her old conserva- tive dignity stood outside of the net which was gradually being woven, and all telegrams from the capital were sent down to Tientsin by special cour- ier. When, however, the war broke out with France, she yielded to necessity, and a telegraph station was opened within the walls of the city. Present Status. In 1910 there were 28,124 miles of aerial lines and 50,000 miles of aerial wires, with 1,001 miles of submarine cables and 102 miles of underground cables. Now the most distant confines of the country are in imme- diate communication with one another. One can readily understand something of the significance of this change, when he remembers that in former days rebellions might break out in some distant corner of the empire, and not be heard of at the capital until many weeks had passed. Postal System. ' Very commendable progress has been made in the development of the postal sys- tem. The Chinese have always been a nation of letter writers, and for the transmission of epistolary correspondence they established a very efficient sys- tem of couriers as long as three thousand years ago. Upon the waterways and canals a fleet of swift boats, rowed bv the feet, plied to and fro Industrial Developments 101 carrying the mail. Postal hongs were opened in every city, town, and village which undertook to convey letters and small packages by the quickest route at the lowest possible cost. They were en- tirely the result of private enterprise, and were a good example of the organizing ability of the Chi- nese. In 1896 the imperial post was established as a department of the maritime customs. In a period of four years the increase in the amount of mail handled was extraordinary as is shown by the following statistics: Agencies in 1906, 1,574; in 1910, 4,572. Articles dealt with in 1906, 113,000,000; in 1910, 355,000,000. The private post-offices have very largely been put out of business, and the new service is furnishing a revenue to the government. Probably in a short time China will become a mem- ber of the Postal Union. Foreign Trade. 1 The Foreign Trade of China has steadily increased since the beginning of com- munication with the Western world. Imports gen- erally were valued in 1867 at $112,083,082, and in 1905 at $325,265,827. Exported goods were valued in 1867 at $93,598,069, and in 1905 at $165,788,665 — a much smaller development than is shown in the case of imports. Although on the surface it ap- pears as if the balance of trade were greatly against China and as if she must be drained of her precious metals, yet a careful study of the situation made by Mr. H. B. Morse, formerly Commissioner of Cus- *H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration of the Chi- nese Empire. 102 The Emergency in China toms and Statistical Secretary, shows that there are many other sources by which money flows into China, which constitute invisible assets. Among them he calls attention to the large sum remitted annually to China from Chinese laborers in foreign countries and to the annual income from missions said to be $10,000,000 per annum. As the result of his calculations, he shows that China's liabilities and assets just about balance one another. Nanking Exposition. In concluding this chapter we cannot give a better idea of the industrial trans- formation now in progress than by referring to the National Exposition held at Nanking in the fall of 1910. It was China's first attempt in this line, and although compared with the great world fairs with which we of the West are familiar, much seemed primitive and on a small scale, yet taking every- thing into consideration, it was a wonderful ex- hibition of progress, and to the visitor could not fail to be full of significance. The large grounds were well laid out, and the grouping of the buildings was picturesque. At night there was the usual scene of fairyland, the white buildings being illu- minated by many-colored electric lamps. As one passed from the streets of the city into the borders of the exposition, it was like stepping out of the fifteenth into the twentieth century. Range of Display. Altogether there were thirty- eight buildings, fourteen of which represented as many provinces and contained exhibits of their chief productions. One saw gathered together for Industrial Developments 103 the first time what was representative of the whole of China, specimens of the old arts and industries alongside of what was new and recently developed. There were buildings devoted to Education, Liberal Arts, Agriculture, Fine Arts, Arms and Ammuni- tion, Machinery, and Transportation. Perhaps one of the most interesting was that containing educa- tional exhibits, for it was a striking object-lesson of what had been accomplished in a short time in the transformation of the old educational system. Impression of Startling Change. A miniature train ran round the grounds on narrow-gage rails much as if China had always been accustomed to this mode of travel. The holding of the exhibition was a sign of growing unity and increasing co- herence in the country, and showed the breaking down of barriers of separation. As one walked about from building to building, he was over- powered by a sense of coming change, and felt as if great latent forces were at work, bound to pro- duce startling manifestations in the neai; future. Real Problem of Progress. The development in industry and commerce is all a part of the modern- izing of China. She has been influenced by the spirit of the age, and moves forward on the path of material progress. Her greatest danger is lest she forgets that "Man does not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God." 104 The Emergency in China IMPORTANT QUOTATIONS China is now and for forty centuries has been an agricul- tural nation. Much of her mountainous surface, naturally ill- adapted to cultivation, has been transformed by a stupendous amount of human labor into food-producing, fertile fields. To the minerals hoarded in these mountains she has paid little attention, never dreaming of the vast potential wealth locked far beneath her soils, awaiting but the magic touch of modern industry to release it To her present agricultural industries these resources of coal and metals, once developed, will supply new raw materials and mechanical power, which ultimately will make possible, in the hands of her enormous population, the development of a manufacturing industry of almost incon- ceivable magnitude, and will lay the foundation of a world- wide commerce. — Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January, 1912. On the Hankow-Peking Railway in 1904. From places many hundreds of miles away cargo by the thousand ton is pouring in, the native merchants seizing only too eagerly the opportunity now being offered to them for conveying their goods to the great markets with a rapidity which has never before been possible. And this is but one little corner of Honan, which, with the exception of one or two other provinces, probably possesses the richest soil in China. . . . Right up to the end of the rails there were ample signs that the Chinese are showing their appreciation of this new means of communication; for at every station near a town of importance native inns are going up, and godowns and sheds are being constructed in great numbers, thus making a new semi-foreign settlement flanked by railway embankments. Even on the construction trains crowds of Chinese manage to find places, and it is amply clear that the dividend-earning capacity of this line would turn European railway companies green with envy. Everything points to the fact that it is communica- tion, and communication alone, which is needed to bring about great developments in the interior of China; and once taxa- tion of goods in transit — the detested likin — is removed, an expansion will take place of a phenomenal nature. — B. L. Putnam Weale, Reshaping of the Far East, Vol. I. Side by side with the new education is the new industry. In nations where industrial efficiency and, in consequence, the Industrial Developments 105 standard of living have been low, and the resulting poverty, suffering, and, in many cases, death pathetically prevalent, a new industrial order is appearing. Along Western lines, often under Western leadership, the factory system is entering; and the teeming millions of Asia, with their boundless patience, tireless industry, and ability to work hour after hour and day after day for a pittance, are beginning to compete with the laboring classes of Europe and America. This is not the place to dwell upon the possible consequences to the West, but from the point of view of the missionary several points are to be noted : 1. The inoculation of the East with Western materialism. The Oriental peoples have been idealists and, with the partial exception of the Chinese, have placed little value upon mate- rial wealth. In this soil the idealism of Christianity has found root. Now, however, education is breaking down old beliefs, and industry is teaching these people to see in the acquisition of wealth the chief end of life. 2. The introduction into the East of the industrial prob- lems of the West Asia has known congestion, but has never faced "slum problems/' in our sense of the phrase. The new industry is leading to the rapid growth of cities, with their problems of housing and sanitation. Japanese women are leaving their homes to enter factories. In short, one finds springing up all the industrial conditions which have been a blot upon Western Christianity all these years, and which even our Christian public sentiment has failed to solve. With the low value placed upon the life of the individual by the Orient, the new spirit of an agnostic materialism actuating the lead- ers, and the absence of a vigorous Christian public opinion, the possibilities of exploitation and suffering are appalling. Noth- ing but intelligent and Christian leadership will avail to avert this danger. 3. At the same time, it is to be noted that the poverty of the East would have rendered impossible the establishment and maintenance there of those educational and philanthropic institutions which embody the spirit of Christ. The new in- dustrial development, and nothing else, can change this situ- ation, lift the incubus of abject poverty, and make possible a full, rich life for the masses of the people. . . . — Dr. E. W. Capen, The East and the West, April, 191 2. m Plans are in view for improving and beautifying the provin- cial city [Canton]. The old wall is to be taken down and a boulevard made in its place, and parks are to be laid out for the people. Finer buildings are being constructed and some 106 The Emergency in China what in foreign style with verandas in front. Prosperity in trade seems to be coming. All through the city are newly- opened shops, tailor shops, shoe shops, hat shops, etc., to meet the demand for foreign styles of dress, and department stores for general supplies. The influence of all this passes on to the rest of the province. The revival of trade will gradually relieve the government from its present financial distress. — Dr. H. V. Noyes, Chinese Recorder, January, 1913. When the new government is established, it will be neces- sary that all land deeds shall be changed. This is a necessary corollary of the revolution. If we desire to forward the revo- lution of society then when the change is made a slight alter- ation should be introduced into the form of the deed in order that the greatest results may be achieved. Formerly, people owning land paid taxes according to the area, making a dis- tinction only between the best, medium, and common land. In the future, taxes ought to be levied according to the value, not the area, of the land. . . . The valuable land is mostly in the busy marts and is in the possession of wealthy men: to tax them heavily would be no oppression. The poor land is mostly in the possession of poor people in far back districts : nothing but the lightest taxes should be levied on them. . . . Let us take time by the forelock and make sure that the unearned increment of wealth shall belong to the people and not to private capitalists who happen to be the owners of the soil. — Extracts from the # speech of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, at the farewell banquet given in his honor by the Revolutionary As- sociation, Shanghai, April 18, 1912. Chinese Recorder, May,. 1912. SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION CHAPTER IV SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION Seldom do we find that a whole people can be said to have any faith at all, except in things that it can see and handle. Whensoever it gets any faith, its history becomes spirit-stirring, noteworthy. — Thomas Carlyle Radical Alteration. Among all the changes transpiring in China, not the least important is the social transformation. It is not a mere ruffling of the surface but is caused by deep and hidden forces which have produced a radical alteration in the minds of the people. Patriotism and Individualism. They have im- bibed new ideas bound to exert revolutionary ef- fects, chief among which are a national conscious- ness, and a new valuation of the individual. The patriotic spirit of the Japanese has been infectious, and their triumphs in war have stirred the hearts of all Orientals, causing the present spirit of un- rest in the East. Individualism has supplanted the old conception of the family as the social unit. In the past a man dared not act contrary to the wishes of the family of which he was a member. He was bound not only by the filial piety due to 109 110 The Emergency in China living parents, but could make no new departure displeasing to his dead ancestors. Initiative and progress were stifled, and his duty was to go on in the old, beaten track without introducing un- seemly innovations. With the reaction against such ideas, we find in its place individualism run mad. Liberty, equality, and fraternity are on the lips of every one. Some Definite Effects. These two new concep- tions help to account for the rapid social transfor- mation. We see their social effects: I. In the struggle against opium; 2. In the new attitude to- ward foot-binding; 3. In the advent of the new woman ; 4. In the modification of social customs ; 5. In changes in costume and etiquette; 6. In the introduction of physical culture. 1. The Struggle against Opium A Surprising Reform. If ten years ago a mis- sionary had prophesied that China would in the course of a short period of time get rid of the curse of opium, he would have been regarded as a fanatic. The habit of opium smoking had gained so strong a hold upon a large percentage of the population, the vested interests were so great, and the revenue de- rived by the government from the tax on opium so large that it seemed absolutely impossible to expect any immediate reform. Extent of Evil. Indeed, as we look back over the history of the opium traffic, we find that all Social Transformation ill along the Chinese have been conscious of the havoc which it wrought, and more than once edicts for the suppression of the trade and the prohibition of the use of the drug have been issued. China how- ever was so weak in moral fiber that nothing was accomplished. It has been estimated that $2,100,- 000,000 has been the price paid for this commodity above the cost price between the years 1773 and 1906. Four years ago the Chinese were using sev- enty times as much opium as in 1800. There were perhaps 25,000,000 smokers, and 22,000 tons were consumed annually. In Szechwan one half of the men smoked, and a fifth of the women. In Kansu three out of every four were smokers. Some Possible Causes. If one inquires why the Chinese have been so victimized by this habit, he finds a partial explanation in the Report of the Philippine Opium Commission, drawn up in 1904. "What people on earth are so poorly provided with food as the indigent Chinese, or so destitute of amusement as all Chinese both rich and poor! . . . Absolute dulness and dreariness seem to prevail everywhere. As these two demons drive the Cau- casian to drink, so they drive the Chinese to opium. . . . If the Chinese seem more easily to contract such evil habits than other nations, and are more the slaves of them, is not that due to the dulness of the lives of the well-to-do, and to the painful squalor of the indigent?" Prohibition Edicts. "The first prohibitory edict was issued by Yung Cheng in 1729, enacting severe H2 The Emergency in China penalties on the sale of opium, and the opening of opium divans, and for the time being dealing in opium became a crime. ,,1 It was still imported, however, and in 1800 the prohibitory edict was is- sued anew. The only result was that smuggling became organized by detailed arrangements be- tween the importers and the officials at Canton, and elsewhere along the coast. Mr. Morse says, "The edicts never were enforced; for forty years there was no pretense of enforcing them in the spirit, and the restrictions of their letter had only the ef- fect of covering the traffic with a veil of decency such that the importing merchants might engage in it, the officials might not have it thrust under their eyes, and the dealers might get their supplies with more trouble, and at considerably more cost." 2 Even after Commissioner Lin Tse-su confiscated the 20,291 chests of opium at Canton, in 1839, "the local trade was only checked for a time; the de- mand remained, new supplies came forward, and the trade went on." Thus, all efforts to stay the evil seemed ineffective, and on the other hand it gained legal recognition. Legalization of Opium Traffic. Article XXVI of the British Treaty of Tientsin provided for the ap- pointment of a commissioner to revise the customs tariff, and in November, 1858, the opium trade was legalized by opium being inserted in the tariff at a 1 H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire, 328. 2 Ibid., 331. Social Transformation 113 duty of 30 taels per picul, 1 with the full consent of the Chinese negotiators. Home Production. The high tariff on foreign opium stimulated the production of the native ar- ticle, and as years went on the amount of land given up to the cultivation of the poppy in China steadily increased. It was grown in almost all the provinces, and in Yunnan the poppy fields con- stituted a third of the land under cultivation. Slight Effect on Importation. There was a slight decline in the amount of foreign opium imported,, but it was not as great as might have been ex- pected for the reason that the Chinese preferred the flavor of Indian to the native-grown opium. It is safe to say that at one time the production of opium in China was sixfold, and perhaps eightfold the amount of imported opium. Attitude of Missionaries. From the beginning, missionaries have carried on an active campaign against this great curse, and have always taken the stand that opium-smokers could not be admitted in- to the Christian church. The Anti-opium Society, founded by the missionaries, was vigorous in stir- ring up public opinion, and in memorializing the government. The name of the late Dr. Hampden C. Dubose will always be remembered in connec- tion with this movement. As originator and presi- dent of the Anti-opium Society, he agitated the mat- ter without ceasing when it seemed to those of less faith that a reform was a forlorn hope. 1 A tael has the value of about $1.40, and a picul is a com- mercial weight of 133^2 pounds. 114 The Emergency in China Influence of Philippine Workers. The weighty re- port drawn up in 1904 by the Philippine commis- sion appointed by the United States government for the careful investigation of the opium question was translated into Chinese and widely circulated throughout the country. Its findings, which were very different from the commission appointed some years previously by the British government, were startling and did not fail to produce an effect upon public opinion. This report was based on the ob- servations of Bishop Brent, Dr. H. C. Stuntz, and Dr. Hamilton Wright, and to them belongs the honor of having given great impetus to the anti- opium crusade in China. Edict of 1906. In 1906 China seemed to awake suddenly to the ruin which opium was working among her people, and on September 20 the Em- press Dowager issued a stringent edict in regard to it. This edict did not meet the same fate as preceding ones of the same character. The growth of national consciousness opened the eyes of the Chinese to the fact that the nation could never hope to be strong until this evil was abolished. We find the vast majority of the people consenting to the enforcement of drastic measures and approving of the imperial will. International Commission at Shanghai, 1909. Out of the strong anti-opium movement thus in- itiated in China there grew a direct appeal to the President of the United States from repre- sentative missionary societies and from commercial POPPY FIELD OF THE PAST BURNING OPIUM PIPES [P 1U] Social Transformation 115 and reform institutions in the United States to the effect that the American government, considering its previous attitude in regard to the opium traffic in the far East, should undertake to assist China to secure the gradual prohibition of that traffic by the concurrent action of the powers concerned. "In the autumn of 1906 the Department of State ad- dressed a circular letter to the powers having ter- ritorial possessions in the far East, the object being the investigation of the opium problem by an in- ternational commission." As the result of this let- ter an international commission met at Shanghai on the first of February, 1909. Before adjourning on the 26th of February, this commission unanimously adopted nine fundamental conclusions, condemning the opium evil on both economic and moral grounds. Agreement with Great Britain, 1908. In 1908, an agreement was entered into with Great Britain, ac- cording to which the British government consented that if the Chinese government should duly carry out the arrangement on their part for reducing the production and consumption of opium in China, the importation of Indian opium would be curtailed every year by one tenth, and should entirely cease after ten years. The Chinese government asked for a shortening of the period, so the agreement con- tained a proviso that if after three years the Chinese government should have proved itself really in ear- nest, the question of the period should be reconsid- ered. To the surprise of all familiar with the meth- Ii6 The Emergency in China ods of the Chinese government, the edicts for im- mediate suppression were not only issued, but vig- orously enforced. It was decreed that opium dens throughout China should be closed and that there was to be no more smoking in public resorts. At the same time it was enjoined upon viceroys and governors to put a stop to the cultivation of the poppy in the provinces over which they ruled as speedily as possible. All officials using opium were ordered to get rid of the habit on pain of dismissal from the public service. Although the difficulties of suppression were great, and innumerable at- tempts were made to hoodwink the government, yet in three years' time a marvelous change took place. The number of opium-smokers decreased rapidly, and the cultivation of the poppy was more and more restricted. Travelers reported that ex- traordinary progress had been made*in dealing with the problem, and the British government was as- sured by Sir John Jordan, his British majesty's min- ister at Peking, of China's sincerity in promoting the reform. Agreement of 191 1. A new agreement between the United Kingdom and China was signed at Pe- king on May 8, 191 1, according to which Great Britain consented that the export of opium from In- dia to China should cease in less than seven years if clear proof was given of the complete absence of the production of native opium in China. And so rapidly did the movement go forward and the at- titude of Great Britain change, that in May, 1913, Social Transformation 117 the British Parliament passed the measure by which the importation of opium into China was brought to an end. International Conference at the Hague, 191 1. The unity of opinion of the powers represented on the international commission which met at Shang- hai opened the way for the United States to pro- pose that an International Conference with full powers should meet to conventionalize the declara- tions of the International Opium Commission and the essential corollaries derived therefrom. Ac- cordingly on September 1, 1909, the United States in a circular letter to the interested governments proposed that there should be such a conference, to assemble at the Hague, to devise measures for mutual protection against the illegal opium traffic. The Hague Conference representing twelve powers met in the latter part of 191 1, and its decisions have recently been made public. It dealt not only with the evil of opium-smoking, but with the more in- sidious form of the opium habit, the use of morphia and cocaine, and it recommends a strict embargo upon them except for medical purposes. Appeal of Tong Kaison. H. E. Tong Kaison, one of the Chinese commissioners to the Hague, Voiced the sentiment of a great number of his fellow coun- trymen in the eloquent appeal made to the English people at a reception given at the Hotel Cecil. He concluded his speech in the following words: "Therefore for the sake of your national righteous- ness, for the sake of your fame, for the sake of Ii8 The Emergency in China humanity at large, and of the Chinese people in particular, and for the sake of our Lord Jesus Christ, in whose sight we are all God's children, and who has taught us to love others as ourselves, we invoke your continued cooperation in this opium question until the last shipment of Indian opium has been landed in China, until the last opium pipe has been burnt, and until the last acre of poppy shall have been uprooted, and the opium evil has disappeared not only in China, but throughout all the world." Revelation of the Race. We can thank God for this wonderful change of public opinion. In wit- nessing China's struggle to master the giant evil, one gets a new idea of the race. The description "phlegmatic" is hardly applicable to a people who have held great holocausts of opium pipes and the utensils used in the preparation of the smoke in centers like Foochow and Shanghai. Moral Basis Required. During the transition pe- riod which followed the revolution, in some of the provinces there has been a recrudescence of the cul- tivation of the poppy. The profits of the trade are so large and the people are so poor that the tempta- tion to engage in it is always great. As the cen- tral government becomes stronger, a more de- termined attempt is being made to carry out the policy of complete suppression. Still, we know that legislation, however drastic, cannot of itself eradicate an abuse like this. "There is no law that cannot be defeated by the clever wicked." Moral Social Transformation 119 reform alone can save China from the curse of opium, for only in this way can she learn the true principle of reverence for the body. Danger from Strong Intoxicants. We cannot be blind to the danger of China's substituting one vice for another. In relinquishing opium she may turn to strong intoxicants. Indeed, in a place like Shanghai, the young men are taking to strong drink in a startling manner, and drunkenness in China is on the increase. It used to be said that one seldom met a drunken man on the street of a Chinese city. The nation had reached a high stand- ard of sobriety in regard to the use of alcohol. There is reason to believe that this will no longer be true unless a new power of self-restraint is de- veloped. The moral fiber of the race must be strengthened by the power that comes from the Christian religion. Strenuous Home Methods. The following story illustrates the determination of a large part of the people in the struggle with opium. A Chinese was guilty of infringing the law, but was afraid of his wife, and patronized a sly den. One day he re- turned to his home thoroughly saturated. His wife who had been waiting for him pounced upon him, took his pipe from his pocket, and broke it in pieces. Then seizing the ear of the unhappy man, she gave him a tremendous lecture, and ended her attack by dragging him into a darE room, where she kept him for ten days. At the close of that period, she let him loose, but he was a wreck. She 120 The Emergency in China conquered him, and during the painful days he con- quered the habit. 2. New Attitude toward Foot-binding A Social Evil. In recent years China has made good progress in her battle against another social evil — foot-binding, — and we see the evidences of a new public opinion in regard to the practise. Origin of the Custom. The custom is at least two thousand years old, but its origin is shrouded in obscurity. The most natural explanation of the cruel custom is that it was due to female vanity, and was an attempt to enhance natural beauty by artificial means. In the imperial harem the concu- bines vied with one another in compressing their feet so as to gain the favor of the emperor and the people naturally followed the custom of the court. There is no evidence that it arose because once in the dim past, some ill-starreH empress had club- feet, nor because the husbands desired to keep their wives from gadding. In proof of its antiquity, we find frequent allusions to it in ancient poems. The poets of the Tsin Dynasty (265-420 A. D.) refer to it, and we find such expressions as, "With little steps her feet stir, up the dust" ; and again, "My shoes are embroidered, my feet are as delicate as the buds of spring; but there is no one who pays special attention to me, except myself, who knows the pain." Tyrannous Cruelty of the Custom. There is no Social Transformation 121 more striking instance of the tyranny of custom than foot-binding affords. We need not describe the process again or enlarge upon its cruelty, for the Chinese proverb that "A pair of golden lilies costs a jar of tears" is sufficient evidence of their own realization of the pain and misery which it costs. Kang Hsi's Edict. The Manchu women do not bind their feet, and during the last dynasty no small-footed women were admitted into the palace. The Emperor Kang Hsi (1662-1723) attempted to put a stop to the practise and issued an edict against it. Public opinion was, however, too strong and the edict led to so much trouble that he was obliged to rescind it. The Chinese argued that it was an ancient custom, that it helped to distinguish their daughters from large-footed slave girls, and that it gave their daughters a better chance in the mar- riage market, inasmuch as the taste of men ran strongly in the direction of wives with small feet. Edict of the Late Empress Dowager, 1902, After her return from her flight to Sianfu, the late Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi adopted the role of a reformer, and in 1902 issued an edict discouraging, but not absolutely forbidding foot-binding. This pronouncement from the throne was important, in- asmuch as it made it possible for the high officials throughout the empire to lend the weight of their influence in opposing the custom. Work of the Missionaries. The credit of carry- ing on an active crusade against it belongs, how- 122 The Emergency in China ever, to the Christian missionaries. Here, as in many other things, they have been the pioneers of reform. As far back as 1870 we find mission schools for girls forbidding the practise, and in 1874 the first anti-footbinding society was estab- lished in Amoy. Natural Foot Society. The Natural Foot Society (Tien Tsu Hui) was organized in Shanghai in 1895 by ten ladies of different nationalities, and it was fortunate in having as its secretary, Mrs. Archi- bald Little, the wife of an English merchant, w r ho was indefatigable in her efforts to extend the move- ment. She traveled throughout the country, mak- ing addresses on the subject and interviewing high officials. Literature was circulated broadcast, and Peking was bombarded with memorials. By nu- merous mass-meetings attention was called to the subject and public opinion was aroused. The move- ment had its origin just at the time when the tide had turned in China, and the people were receptive of new ideas. At present the management of the affairs of the society is entirely in the hands of the Chinese. Branches have been established at many centers, and a monthly paper is issued to keep the question before the minds of those who read and think. The Changed Fashion. It is a social practise now on the wane, and is destined in course of time to disappear. The women of the new China are op- posed to it, and the young men who have received an enlightened education want wives with natural Social Transformation 123 feet. Instead of being proud of her little golden lilies as formerly, the modern Chinese girl strives to conceal the fact that her feet have been bound, by wearing large shoes and padding the extra space in them with cotton. You will sometimes see groups of women comparing their feet to see who can boast of the largest ! Dr. Morrison's Opinion. Still we must be sober in our statements, and we must not think of the battle as already won. Dr. Morrison, formerly the correspondent in Peking for the London Times, and now adviser to the Chinese government, after a journey through the interior calculates that ninety-five per cent, of the females still have mu- tilated feet. He says : "Speaking broadly, the re- form has not reached further than the cities, and the higher classes. Much of the open country is not yet aware there is such a movement. ... It is safe to say that at the present there are in China seventy million pairs of deformed, aching, and un- sightly feet — the sacrifice exacted of its woman- hood by a depraved masculine taste. ,}1 3. The New Woman Beginnings of Her Emancipation. We are now face to face with the advent of the new woman in China. Much has been written about the seclusion of the women of the East. While not as strict in China as in other Oriental countries, yet the at- 1 Quoted from E. A. Ross, The Changing Chinese, 182. 124 The Emergency in China titude of the stronger toward the weaker sex has been much the same. The wife was referred to as "the little stay-at-home," and she was not supposed to be concerned with anything outside the family life. Polygamy, one of the curses of China, has done more than anything else to degrade woman, and to keep her the slave or the toy of man. Her education was generally neglected, and her only functions were considered to be child-bearing and home-keeping. Her life was one ceaseless round of obedience first to father, then to husband, and then in her widowhood to her eldest son. Emptiness of Her Life. A visit to the house of a well-to-do Chinese family reveals the emptiness of the life of women in China under the old regime. The writer was once entertained for three days by a wealthy silk merchant in an inland city and during all that time never laid eyes on any of the ladies of the household. As he walked in the garden, however, he was conscious that they were peeping at him from behind the blinds, for some had prob- ably never seen a foreigner before. Only a woman could gain access to the women's apartments. Such a female visitor would find quite a number of ladies, living in the one household, the mother, her daugh- ters and her daughters-in-law; for, according to the old custom, when a son married, he did not set up a new home but brought his wife back to his father's house. There would also be a large number of children and many women servants to look after them. The ladies of the household have little to Social Transformation 125 occupy their attention, for the children are cared for by the nurses. To while away the time they indulge in novel reading, if they can read, and in gambling with dominoes. They seldom go out and then only in sedan chairs to pay a visit to female relatives. Private theatricals are the great diver- sion at the holiday periods, when traveling compa- nies are hired to give performances. It is a life utterly devoid of large interests and ideas, and it results in mental and moral stagnation. Influence of New Ideas. All this is rapidly chang- ing, the new ideas as to the equality of the sexes, the importance of female education, and women's rights are exerting a great influence in China. Struggle between Old and New Views. It is in- teresting to note the struggle between old inherited conceptions and the new ideas. As an example, we may cite the following instance. A short time ago, the wife of a young educated Chinese teacher, in her grief at the death of her husband determined to commit suicide, but before doing so, she wrote a paper beseeching her parents-in-law not to squan- der any money upon her funeral ceremonies, but to use all she left, and what might be obtained from the sale of her jewels as a fund to assist the new schools recently founded for enlightening her countrymen. The act of suicide on the part of a widow, according to old ideals, was most merito- rious, for by so doing she accompanies her lord and master to Hades, to wait upon him there, and she shows that her grief is so great that she cannot 126 The Emergency in China longer bear to remain in the world of the living. On the other hand, her expressed wish to have her property used for the benefit of educational insti- tutions was an evidence that she had been influ- enced by the new patriotic conceptions now spread- ing in China. Dangers of the Movement. Of course, the new woman is inclined to go to extremes. Boldness and boisterousness often take the place of the gentle- ness and modesty for which she has always been renowned. Unaccustomed to the free intermingling of the sexes, there is grave danger lest her liberty may not too often lead to her ruin. All transitions of a sudden nature are full of peril. Nowadays we find young girls making patriotic speeches at crowded meetings of men, and their advocacy of reforms has had a great influence on the other sex. Extreme or Striking Features. During the revo- lution an Amazon corps was formed, comprised of young girls, and they were anxious to take part in the fighting. They have adopted as their model Jeanne d'Arc, and quite a number of them have been martyrs in the cause of liberty. Chinese suf- fragettes waited upon the provisional government in Nanking demanding the vote for women, and resorted to the same violent methods of window smashing as their sisters in the British Isles. One of the most striking signs of the times is the editing by a woman in Peking of a daily newspaper for women in colloquial Mandarin. The women are active in the formation of various societies. One Social Transformation 127 is for curbing the undue authority of the mother- in-law, noted for tyranny and harshness. Another has a very comprehensive aim, and is called "The Chinese Women's Enlightenment Society." Ambitions of Schoolgirls and Musicians. Schools have been started for girls, and the pupils in them are all radicals in regard to reform. Many of them ran away and joined the revolution. Foreign mu- sic has become all the rage, and the new Chinese woman is desirous of learning to play the piano and to sing foreign songs. The story is told of a Chinese lady entertaining her friends at a re- ception by playing and singing "Waltz Me Around Again Willie. " "The mental vision of a dignified Chinese lady, solemnly singing that ridiculous rag- time to a roomful of equally dignified and ceremoni- ous guests, would be irresistibly funny if it were not so pathetic." 1 Need of Christian Teaching. Confucius was si- lent as to women. From his point of view they were a negligible quantity and were to have no personality of their own. Christianity has given the world the noble type of Christian womanhood. In her days of change, one of China's greatest needs is the gospel of Christ which gives woman her rightful place, and at the same time ennobles her character. "All the railroads that may be built, all the mines that may be opened, all the trade that may be fostered cannot add half as much to the happiness of the Chinese people as the cul- 1 Margaret E. Burton, Education of Women in China, 185. 128 The Emergency in China tivation of the greatest of their undeveloped re- sources — their womanhood." 1 4. The Modification of Social Customs A Cruel Type of Slavery. Slavery has existed in China for a long period of time and until recently the people have been utterly callous in regard to its evils. In the families of officials and the wealthy gentry you will always find several slave girls. They are the absolute property of their owners and when treated cruelly have no redress. This pernicious social custom has given rise to the kid- naping of little girls, and they are often enticed away from their homes and sold as slaves to well- to-do families or to the keepers of brothels. The fiendish cruelty sometimes practised on these chil- dren is almost incredible. Founding of the Slave Refuge. Recently, through the efforts of some missionaries and the ladies of the foreign settlement, a slave refuge has been established in Shanghai, which has as its object the rescue of these girls and giving them a com- fortable home and a useful education. A Sad Incident. A well-known missionary tells of a little girl of seven who had been sold by her father to a wealthy family in Nanking. "The mite was with some other little girls set to wait in at- tendance at night on the Tai Tai to whom she had been sold. Because she fell asleep she was beaten 1 E. A. Ross, The Changing Chinese, 2x5. Social Transformation 129 and then burned with red-hot opium needles. These measures having failed to overcome the law of na- ture, her hands and feet were tied crosswise, and she was left to starve. Ultimately she was rescued and taken to a hospital, but gangrene set in and she had to lose both feet at the ankles, one hand at the wrist, and all the fingers on the other hand. No native court outside of Shanghai takes cogniz- ance of such cases, for in the opinion of the Chinese the slave girl is the absolute property of her mis- tress to torture and to kill if she so wishes. Slav- ery in China finds its victims not in the strong and robust, but in the bodies of helpless and hopeless little children." Agencies of Relief. Public opinion is being aroused in regard to the matter. A short time ago a play given by some students of St. John's Col- lege for the benefit of the Slave Refuge depicted the evils of the system so graphically that many in the audience were moved to tears. The new valua- tion now placed on woman is helping to direct at- tention to this great blot in China's social life, and as time goes on we may hope to see it wiped out. 5. Change in Costume and Etiquette Philosophy of Clothes. Carlyle was fond of des- canting on the philosophy of clothes. Social changes always produce new fashions in wearing apparel, and so it has been in China. The Oriental has in the past been known for his loose flowing 130 The Emergency in China garments, which give him a far more dignified ap- pearance than that of the Westerner with his tight- fitting costume. Bret Harte has humorously de- scribed the number of things the Chinese cook could conceal in his capacious sleeves. The Orien- tal was never in a hurry, and did not mind the hin- drance to rapid locomotion caused by his long gown, but in the new China time begins to be of value. The East has begun to hustle and in consequence we see a change in raiment. Tight-fitting garments and sleeves are now the order of the day. The old shoe made of satin with the toes sticking out well over the sole has been discarded, and in its place one made of leather, well adapted for walking, has been introduced. The new costume is not nearly so picturesque as the old, and this is especially the case with the apparel of the women. Ugly tight trousers and close-fitting upper garments have taken the place of a dress which was both sensible and beautiful. Cue-cutting. We are also witnessing the passing of the cue. For a long time past the student class has been anxious to get rid of this appendage, and many of them did so by adopting the European dress. Since the revolution, however, cue-cutting has become a common practise. The hated sign of Manchu domination had to go, and before long it will be impossible to speak contemptuously of China as the land of pigtails. Strangely enough, many of the laboring classes refuse to part with their long hair, and a good deal of trouble was Social Transformation 131 caused when the new government attempted to make cue-cutting compulsory. After the cutting of the cues there was great demand for foreign caps to take the place of the round silk hat formerly- worn by all. It is said that Japan did an enormous trade in foreign hats sent to China in the first few months after the revolution. Change in Etiquette. The old Chinese etiquette was cumbrous in the extreme. No people ever laid more emphasis on the importance of ceremony. One of the favorite text-books in the old system of education was the Book of Rites, with rules and regulations for the whole conduct of life. At the present time, in place of extreme politeness, a brusqueness and rudeness of manner are often in evidence. There was so much that was hollow and artificial in the old ceremonial etiquette that a strong reaction against it has set in and for a time there is a lack of manners. The natural suavity and dignity of the Chinese will doubtless reassert itself, but during the period of transition one some- times misses the old-fashioned courtesy for which the Chinese were noted. New Marriage Customs. The new marriage cus- toms of China are significant of a transition period, and we find that much of the old ceremonial has been discarded. Among the progressives the bride no longer wears the red veil, and the contracting parties make their promises to one another face to face in the presence of the invited guests. Accord- ing to ancient Chinese custom the bride was treated 132 The Emergency in China like a puppet pulled by strings and remained speechless throughout the whole ceremony. The woman who accompanied her not only acted as her spokesman, but moved her arms up and down for her when she was saluted. In the bridal chamber, the male guests were allowed great license in criti- cizing and making fun of her appearance, her own personal feelings not being regarded to the slight- est extent. It is good to see such customs passing away, for they were the expression of the low re- gard in which woman under the older standards has been held. Workings of Individualism. With the freer in- termingling of the sexes, marriages are now often made as the result of personal choice on the part of the contracting parties, and the power of the go- betweens is on the wane. The educated young man demands the right to see and know the girl who is to be his life partner, and the new independent young woman insists on being consulted before she is disposed of in the matrimonial market. Formerly what was for the good of the family was the only consideration, and so the wills of the young people were subordinated to those of the elders. The rise of individualism now places the emphasis on the likes and dislikes of those who enter into the union. Of course, in the treaty ports where the civiliza- tion of the East and the West meet, the Chinese are more progressive than in the interior, but through the influence of the press, and the freer communi- cation between different parts of the country, the Social Transformation 133 new ideas in regard to marriage are spreading rapidly. Spirit of Radicalism. In the work of reform, young China is imbued with a spirit of radicalism. It is as if they would say to the rest of the world in a defiant spirit, we will adopt no half measures. Some preach openly that China is to be an example to other nations by going further in social develop- ment than any of them have dared to go. Out and out socialism and many of the ideas of the revo- lutionary period in France are advocated. Looser ideas in regard to marriage are gaining in favor with the most advanced reformers, and divorce is to be made easier. The wildest notions are readily assimilated, and all restraints are cast aside. At such a time she is like a ship without a compass and appeals strongly to the sympathy of those who know what she needs to guide her safely in her new social development. Civilization may be said to be at the crossroads in China, and now is the time to determine whether it is to be Christian or unchristian. 6. Introduction of Physical Culture Former Absence of Athletics. The last feature in the social transformation w r hich we shall mention is the introduction of physical culture. In years gone by one of the great contrasts between the youth of the East and the West was the lack of athletic sports and outdoor exercises among the 134 The Emergency in China former. The children of the East have always been fond of play and have many excellent games, but when they passed from childhood and entered on the life of the student all vigorous forms of exer- cise were discontinued. It was considered undigni- fied for the student to appear without his long gown. His school hours were long, leaving him lit- tle time for recreation, and his teacher frowned upon anything that looked like levity. The result was to make him a little old man, and to suppress in an unnatural way all his instincts for physical activity. He generally grew up weak and anemic, and developed no biceps to which he could point with pride as the Western boy does. Instead of being manly, he was apt to become effeminate. A Difficult Start. The writer well remembers his first attempt to introduce sports into St. John's College. When a notice had to be written urging the students to take part, the Chinese scribe was at a loss how to word it until the brilliant idea struck him that in the days of the ancient worthies the young men of China had actually competed in arch- ery. A good deal of coaxing was necessary to in- duce the lads to doff their long gowns so that they might be less trammeled in the running of races. Growth of Sports. A wonderful transformation has taken place within the last few years. We now find that in almost every school in the country, a place is found for athletics. In the larger insti- tutions, the authorities sometimes grant a three days' holiday when the annual date for sports comes CHINESE CADETS Tug of war At work on the bars [P 134] Social Transformation 135 round, — one for preparation, one for the contest, and one to enable the wearied athletes to recup- erate from their exertions. On the day of the field and track meets, the Chinese youth may now be seen clad in the light raiment of the athletes of the West. Some of them take these sports very seri- ously, and go through a long period of training, and some very creditable records have already been made. Football, baseball, basketball, and tennis are growing in popularity, and are entered into with great zest. National Athletic Meet. In connection with the Nanking Industrial Exposition, a national athletic meet was held, and young men assembled from all parts of China to compete with one another. It was the first occurrence of anything of this nature, and marked a new era in China's attitude toward physical culture. Cause of the New Interest. A simple explanation accounts for the change, for it is very closely con- nected with the rise of the national spirit. China must be strong in order that she may resist her enemies, and to accomplish this the rising genera- tion must be improved physically. Of course the young men have found pleasure in this new form of recreation, but the moving cause has been the philosophy of the survival of the fittest, and a de- sire to increase the virility of the race. For some- what the same reason, in girls' schools calisthenics and physical drill have assumed a regular place in the curriculum. 136 The Emergency in China Results. While this new departure of course is advantageous from a hygienic point of view, it also produces valuable moral results, and is certain to have a most beneficial effect upon the characters of the young men and women. In February, 1913, the first Far Eastern Olympic sports were held in Manila. Among those who competed was a team from China made up of college students. They made a very creditable showing, and their appear- ance on such an occasion showed that China was at last awake in regard to the necessity of physical training. A National Amateur Athletic Association has recently been formed, and hereafter we may confidently expect greater interest in manly sport. This is most desirable, for in the past a large pro- portion of the young men have spent their leisure hours in feasting, gambling, theater-going, and gen- eral dissipation. A New Type Developing. From this imperfect review of some of the important social changes now taking place, one can perceive how everything has been thrown into the melting pot. As the out- come of it all, we may expect that the Chinese of the future will differ in many ways from the Chi- nese of the past. Books describing social customs in China will soon be out of date, and we shall be obliged to modify many of our ideas in regard to Chinese characteristics. Social Transformation 137 IMPORTANT QUOTATIONS Typical Arguments by a Supporter of Business Interests In 1910, however, stimulated by the misguided zeal of fanat- ical enthusiasts, Young China proceeded to organize a violent agitation for the immediate suppression of the Indian trade. . . . The agitation organized against the Indian opium trade by well-meaning but short-sighted missionary bodies con- cerned itself frankly with moral glory and righteousness, to the exclusion of all other considerations. . . . As a stimulant and narcotic, under certain conditions of climate and labor, opium taken in moderation is not only harmless but directly beneficial. The Straits Settlements Re- port, which embodied a systematic attempt to render a "com- plete and impartial account of the question of opium-smoking/' emphasizes the important fact, which the Anti-Opium Socie- ties generally ignore, that the vast majority of opium-smokers are, and remain, moderate consumers. It has been objected by the Anti-Opium Societies that the Singapore Commission's Report embodies the opinion of a colony whose ill-gotten gains of revenue are threatened at their source; but, even admitting that it may reflect bias of class, its views are based on methodical procedure of evidence and therefore entitled to respect. . . . If the analogy [with alcohol] be recognized as valid, the complete suppression of opium-smoking in China becomes, humanly speaking, impossible. To achieve it, the suppression of poppy-growing will not suffice : we must exterminate the Chinese race. For the poppy, "flaunting her immoral beauty in the light of high heaven/' is not to blame for man's abuse of one of the most beneficent products of nature's laboratory. The thing to be rooted out is not the flower of the field, but the original sin in human nature. . . . —J. O. P. Bland, Recent Events and Present Policies in China. • Our home life is too self-satisfying and self-contained. Our average man lives content if he can find happiness in his own home. As a rule he does not give a thought to the well-being of his fellow townsmen, his fellow countrymen, and his own motherland. In this indifference lies the danger of our na- tional life. It is the duty of every citizen who is educated and who belongs to the higher and middle class to take inter- est in the civic life of his town. If every one of our country- men hitherto had taken certain interest in the government we would not have to deplore the present condition of our coun- 138 The Emergency in China try now. The majority of our people do not take an iota of interest where our country is drifting to. This is why we have been charged with the lack of patriotism. Any new theories, ideals, and system that involve the inter- est of the common weal and of future generations are either totally ignored or violently opposed. Conservatism is so deeply rooted in us and petty self-interest so caressingly cher- ished that they amount to obsession. The cause of this indif- ference, which amounts to a crime, is the lack of social and political organizations planned and carried out in the same manner. The absence of these institutions to formulate public opinion and direct concerted action has given rise to so many mushroom growth associations, each of which has a visionary at its head with a certain number of followers who preach in many instances a false doctrine; with the result that at every step the politician finds his path strewn with sharp stone chips. — Editorial in the World's Chinese Students' Journal (writ- ten by a young Chinese). A third significant fact is the emphasis given in current Chi- nese thought to individualism on the one hand and altruism on the other. The unit of the nation is no longer the family, but the indi- vidual. Personal rights and liberties are talked about and claimed for men and women in a way that is enough to make the sages turn in their graves. Among the students and young politicians in Peking and other cities there are many ardent socialists, whose ideas of equality and fraternity are most pronounced, and who refuse to use or accept distinctive titles. Ministers of state and pastors of churches are addressed as Mister, whilst girl students are ladies equally with the wives and daughters of the oldest and proudest families. — Rev. G. H. Bondfield, Chinese Recorder, January, 1913. But let us look more directly at the present position of women in China. They are being emancipated after centuries of serfdom, ignorance, and derogatory treatment. They have new and great perils confronting them, and if they are not wisely guided now their freedom will mean disaster. Old restraints are removed, and of the restrictions of Western etiquette they are totally ignorant. Take, for example, the question of betrothal. From the barbarous custom of buying and selling a girl bride by means of a money-loving agent, the pendulum is inclined to swing to the other extreme. Not long ago a young student went to the headmistress of a large girls' Social Transformation 139 school in an American mission and questioned her as to the qualifications of one of the pupils, explaining that the girl had written to ask him to marry her. When the^ mistress ex- pressed surprise, his answer was, "But is not that what you do in America ?" Or, again, some girls in Shanghai determined to follow the methods of Western ladies in raising money for charitable purposes, and held a sale of work and an evening entertainment in certain gardens; it was sad indeed to learn afterwards that most of those girls were morally ruined that day. One hears of girls' schools giving entertainments to mixed audiences, and of young men and women^ together get- ting up fetes, smoking cigarettes, and traveling in trains, and when one remembers that only a few years ago boys and girls might not even see each other unless they were closely related, one trembles for these unmothered and undisciplined girls who have no knowledge of Christ and his teaching. — Miss Lambert,, The Christian Education of Women in the East. There can be no doubt as to the immense influence of the daily paper. I will refer to a specific case. About four years ago some enthusiastic Confucianists suggested the erection of a temple in Hongkong, to be consecrated to the sage. The Chung Kwok Po opposed the idea, and wrote three slashing articles in defense of its attitude. The result was that the enterprise was abandoned. There is no doubt that the press has assisted mightily in the revolution that is now progressing. It has worked with tremendous energy to create a solidarity, and the repeated assertion that the Chinese are 400,000,000, and that they are uterine brothers, has been hurled at the people till the Chinese have come to feel the magic of conscious strength. The papers have constantly kept before the people that the great powers have seized portions of the country, though latterly the officials have been more blamed than foreigners for this national disgrace. In China readers rule. It matters little that few can read. Those who can read are quick to inform those who cannot, and sooner or later the masses know what the classes have learned. The influence of the paper is felt in the inland cities. Every mail delivers its parcel, and so the events of the Middle Kingdom, as well as the doings in Western lands, are all known. I believe it is impossible to appraise fully the influence of the daily paper, or accurately gage the mass of information, ranging from the revolutions in Turkey and Portugal to the strikes in England, that is brought to the minds of their readers. — Dr. A. P. Parker, Chinese Mission Year Book, 1912. NEW EDUCATION CHAPTER V NEW EDUCATION As link after link is added to that chain of com- munication which brings China nearer to us than Europe was before the rise of steam navigation, it is interesting to know that a mental awakening is tak- ing place among the people of China, by which the Chinese mind will be brought proportionally nearer to our own. — W. A. P. Martin The Old Education. To appreciate fully the magnitude of the task which China has undertaken, and to get some adequate idea of the difficulties to be overcome, it will be necessary to sketch in out- line the old educational system as it existed before the reform movement began. We must bear in mind that until a few years ago there were no government schools, and that education was left entirely to private enterprise. Examination System. The part played by the government was the establishment of a series of examinations, corresponding in many ways to the civil service competitive examinations of the West. One of the chief aims of the private schools was to train scholars to pass these examinations success- 143 144 The Emergency in China fully, and thus render them eligible for service in the government. The examination had the effect of standardizing the educational system, and for the most part the same subjects were taught, and the same text-books used in all the schools. Any one could set up as a schoolteacher, and a great many scholars who had secured the first degree in the government examinations and a host of those who had tried and failed were attracted to this pro- fession. The pupils paid small fees, and the life of a teacher was both penurious and laborious. The course of study pursued in the schools was divided into three grades. First came the commit- ting to memory the canonical books (the Four Books and the Five Classics), and the learning to write characters. Then followed a period when the text-books were explained to the pupils, and they received their first lessons in the art of com- position. Lastly, they were taught to read more widely, especially collections of essays of famous scholars, and to compose the sort of essay and poem which they would be required to produce at a gov- ernment examination. Many of the pupils never advanced beyond the first or second stage, but those ambitious of passing the examinations were bound to take the whole course. First Degree. The government examination sys- tem began as far back as the Tang dynasty, 618 A. D., and was continued from that time until about six years ago. The examinations for the first de- gree were held annually in district cities. About New Education 145 one per cent, of the candidates was successful and obtained the degree of Siu-tsai (Budding Talent) equivalent in some ways to the Western A. B., but not signifying at all the general range of knowledge possessed by a graduate of a Western college. Second Degree. The examinations for the second degree were held triennially in the provincial capi- tals, and only those who had obtained the first were eligible as candidates. These were much severer tests. The candidates were immured in the little cells of the examination halls for three periods of three days each, and were put to a physical and mental strain often greater than human nature could endure. From time to time of a morning one or more would be taken out dead. Here again the percentage of those who passed was low, only one out of a hundred gaining the coveted degree of Chii-jin (Deserving of Promotion). Bearing in mind what we have said about the first degree, we may compare the second to the A. M. degree of an American university. Third Degree. The examinations for the third degree were held triennially in Peking. Those who had secured the second were eligible as candidates, and if they could pass the third test received the degree of Chin-shih (Fit for Office). The highest on the list were admitted into the famous College of the Hanlin (the Forest of Pencils), and some- times were appointed to high posts in the govern- ment. Nature of the Education* From this brief out- 146 The Emergency in China line it will be seen that the whole system was in- tended to train men for public service. The idea of knowledge as a thing to be pursued for its own sake was obscured. The possibility of rising to be influential officials stirred the ambition of a host of youths, and induced them to submit to this long process of intellectual training. The old education was concerned entirely with Chinese history, poetry, ethics, and government. There was no science, nothing of the history or geography of other nations, and no mathematics. The result was to turn out young men thoroughly versed in the Confucian ethics, Mencian politics, and the history of China, with ability to write an elegant literary style and to compose stiff and stereotyped verses. Having formed a most exaggerated estimate of the value of their own classics, they remained ignorant of the vast stores of knowledge acquired by other nations. High Regard for Scholars. The high esteem in which the scholar of this type has been held has also been most injurious. The four classes have always been rated as follows: Scholars, husband- men, artisans, and merchants. It accounts for the fact that for ages there have been no new discov- eries in science, no useful inventions, and no new developments in industry. A people who proudly claim that in the past they gave the world the art of printing, the mariners' compass, and gunpowder, have become sterile largely through their mistaken ideas as to education. New Education 147 Amount of Illiteracy in China. The Chinese are referred to as an educated people. The statement is very misleading. It would be true to say that the Chinese hold what they have considered to be education in the highest esteem, and that they look up to the scholar with the greatest respect and reverence, but the system which has prevailed for all these centuries only resulted in giving education to the chosen few. Among the masses there is a large amount of illiteracy. It would be a fair esti- mate to say that only one in twenty of the male sex can read understandingly. The education of girls was almost entirely neglected, except among the wealthier classes, and the woman who could read with intelligence and write an essay or a poem was regarded as a very rare phenomenon. Among artisans and small shopkeepers the amount of edu- cation possessed was only sufficient to enable them to read a few characters and to keep accounts. Nothing like the knowledge making it possible for them to read newspapers has been acquired by the vast majority. Outcome and Call for Change. The inadequate system of education has left the majority in appal- ling ignorance and helps us to understand one of the reasons for China's former opposition to prog- ress. Having this picture as the background, we can now proceed to describe the successive steps in the introduction of the new education. The de- sire for reform first showed itself in connection with the course of study. Contact with Western coun- 148 The Emergency in China tries opened the eyes of the Chinese to the fact that those who aspired to be the future officials of the empire were not receiving the sort of training to make them most efficient. Something more was needed than the ability to write eight-legged * es- says and to compose lines of poetry. Reforms in Examination System, 1884, 1885. Among the reforms suggested after the war with France (1884, x 885) was the introduction of mathe- matics and elementary science in the government examination system, but owing to the fact that the literary chancellors who presided over the examina- tions were themselves entirely ignorant of the new subjects, very little was actually accomplished in the way of broadening the old curriculum. Dr. Yung Wing's Educational Mission. As has already been stated in another chapter, in 1872 a detachment of Chinese students was sent to the United States under the direction of Dr. Yung Wing. It was proposed to give them a thorough education in American schools and colleges, and it was hoped upon their return to their own coun- try they would be influential in the promotion of progress and reform. Unfortunately the experi- ment was never carried out to the end. The con- servatives in Peking raised the cry that these young men were in danger of becoming denational- 1 The essays were so called, because divided into eight heads in an artificial manner. The style was stilted, sentences of four or six characters alternated, and each pair of ten characters had to be antithetical. New Education 149 ized, and that they would become leaders of rebel- lion in China. Accordingly all were recalled, just as they had reached the stage when they were ready to enter college. Reforms of 1898. The next step in the change of the educational system was in connection with the reforms instituted by the late Emperor Kuang Hsu, in 1898. The young emperor was eager to modify as far as possible the old classical examinations, and he issued a decree that henceforth those com- peting for degrees must have "a knowledge of an- cient and modern history, information in regard to the present-day state of affairs, with special ref- erence to the governments and institutions of the countries of the five great continents, and a knowl- edge of the arts and sciences thereof." Service of Mission Schools. In the proposals of 1885 and 1898 nothing was said about the estab- lishment of new schools, but the emphasis was laid upon the importance of recasting the examination system. Military and naval academies were founded, and a few government colleges, but there was no thought of a system of schools for the whole country from the primary grade to the uni- versity. Up to a comparatively recent period the only schools in China offering a liberal education were those established by missionaries. In the in- tellectual enlightenment of China as in many other things the Christian missionaries may justly claim to be the pioneers. The Decree of 1905. After the Boxer outbreak, 150 The Emergency in China upon the return of the court from Sianfu to Pe- king, the reform measures so strenuously opposed only a few years before, were vigorously advocated, and in 1905 we find the Empress Dowager issuing an edict abolishing in toto the ancient system of government examinations. Memorial to the Throne. This was in reply to the Memorial presented to the throne by H. E. Chang Chih-tung, at that time viceroy of Hupeh and Hunan. This venerable statesman had previ- ously written a book which created quite a furore, and which has been translated into English with the title of China's Only Hope. Its title in Chinese were the characters meaning An Exhortation to Learn, and it was a clarion call to the people of China to sit as disciples at the feet of the West so that they might discover how to save their coun- try. biiNew System Adopted. In his memorial he pro- posted the establishment of a central university in ©eking, affiliated colleges, technical and normal Sfcb&obte-rdn each provincial capital, high schools in ^ddriqbrefectural city, and middle and primary ^Ctodfitinjeach departmental city and village. He iM^vfeoarpcpctnrses of study, regulations as to disci- p4^M9nimlIir©commendations as to the method of ^^jilshing.^cbools. His work when printed ex- %Aite- What of the future? . .' . It is with doubt and hesitancy that the following forecast is made: 1. As soon as law and order are restored, Christianity may be regarded with greater favor than before. The native religions, which long ago lost a great deal of their moral power, will suffer still more as the nation passes from the old civilization to the new, abandon- ing by the way many ancient customs, superstitions, and ob- servances more or less associated with the old religions. As the Chinese people must attempt to satisfy the deep religious needs of their nature, they may be willing to try Christianity, especially if they are under the impression that it is indissol- ubly connected with Western civilization. 2. Later, the pen- dulum of change will swing in the other direction. The vices and weakness of Western civilization will be more clearly seen, and the Chinese will know that Christianity does not dominate our national life to the extent they supposed. A movement will then begin in favor of retaining all that is best in the old civilization and religions, purifying and strengthening the latter, so that many of the arguments now directed against them will be useless. 3. No longer associated in the minds of 276 The Emergency in China the Chinese with foreign power, the Christian Church will then become stationary, or even lose in membership, for those who have not strong and true convictions will fall away. In its struggle with the spirit of this world, and with what is false and imperfect in religion, Christianity must then stand in its own inherent strength. Its propagation will depend almost entirely upon the purity, earnestness, and intelligence of the native church. Foreigners will not then be in the front as they are now. 4. Chinese patriotism, almost defunct a few years ago, is now intense. The burning desire of all classes is to make their country invulnerable to the attacks and mach- inations of foreign powers. To meet the foreigners with their own weapons, the arts and sciences of Western civilization will be learned. Students will come in large numbers to the mission schools, which at the present time are the best in the country. Later, with one of her surprising leaps, China will inaugurate a thoroughly modern educational system, in all probability modeled on that of Japan, which includes all that is technically the best in the systems of other countries. This will mean the exclusion of religious teaching from the schools, its place being taken by the inculcation of the solitary virtue of patriotism. 5. These changes may all occur within the next twenty or thirty years. — Edward M. Merrins, Spirit of Missions, May, 1912. APPENDIXES Appendix A 279 APPENDIX A The Orthography and Pronunciation of Chinese Names There is no entirely satisfactory method of representing all Chinese sounds in roman letters. Furthermore, in different parts of the empire many of those sounds materially vary. Early writers on China adopted the French spelling and pro- nunciation. Those who have followed have too often written — as travelers still do — every man that which is right in his own ears. Within the last forty years, however, the system of romanization of Sir Thomas Wade may be said to have become definitely established, and is indeed the only standard. As with any system, there are infelicities, but its general adop- tion in China renders advisable its use out of China as well. It should be studied by the aid of the appended key to pronunciation borrowed from Professor Beaches Dawn on the Hills of Tang. The vicious and intolerable mispronunciation of Chinese names now generally current ought thus to be gradually corrected. A few observations should be made on some exceptions to the use of Wade's system, and on the division and hyphenation of Chinese names. The names of a few Chinese cities have a well-recognized notation which it would be affectation to attempt to alter. It is as out of place to insist upon writing Kwangchow Fu for Canton, or T'ien-ching for Tientsin, as to set down Napoli and Bruxelles for Naples and Brussels. There are other words in which it is likewise inexpedient to sacrifice intelligibility to mechanical uniformity. In central China a final letter is often dropped, and thus grew up the notation Pekin and Nankin, instead of Peking and Nanking, which should always be used. There is an aspirate usually marked by an inverted apostrophe, as Ch'ien. The names of cities should not be written as one word — e.g., Paotingfu, but separately with or without capitals, either Pao Ting Fu or Pao-ting f u ; never Pao-ting-f u. The first two syllables are related in meaning (Guarding Tranquillity), while the third shows the rank of the city as prefectural (governing a group of county-seats). 28o Appendix A The surname precedes the name and should always be separately written without the hyphen. If the personal name has two characters they may be written separately, or better connected by a hyphen. These principles may be illustrated in the three syllables connoting the designation of China's best modern statesman. Do not write Lihungchang; or Li-hung- chang; or Li-Hung-Chang ; but either Li Hung Chang, or (better) Li Hung-chang. a as in father ai as in aisle ao as ow in now *ch as j in /ar ch' as in change e as in p^rch e in eh, en, as in yet, when ei as ey in whey *hs as hss in hissing, when the first * is omitted i as in machine, when it stands alone or at the end of a word i as in pin, when before n and wg ia as eo in geology iao as e ou in me out ie as in siesta *ih as er in over iu as eu in jehu, when h is omitted *; as the first r in regular *k as g in game k' as k ng as in sing *o as oa in boa-constrictor ou as in though *p as b p' as p rh as rr in burr ,w as in hiss *t as a* f as * *ta as ds in pads to' as in edits *tz as a\r in paa\y tz" as to in cats u as oo in too ua as Q NOPO 4f to\o Q\Q CM 00 0\Q\t-* CM 55? COVO s. \m \m HH s» 3*3 G 8 p^ ^.g | ■8 .a * rt fi %i ►O a; .-3 el Co *>•< 3-i CO *> ote v./ ■m Jj r> ^» h/>'~ G bo G H u bcU J s J g sin CO pH P^ u. G QpQQgsS = . u+i 9, o.g s s5s« (U 4).Q) > eg C3 -m i m hJU^U.>coH^.B IU ^ /j J3 ^3 XI rC ^^JG J5 -G «-« Xi ^5 tn G CO ^-> CO bo G G in C^i 3 ^.2i: 52 3 S3 w j« §W G 3 G q£ q p q cu cu O tU CU HhHHH Appendix F 291 APPENDIX F Opium Opium Edict, 1 September 20, 1906 1. Farmers are forbidden to plant new ground to poppies, and the area now used for that purpose must be diminished ten per cent, each year, and cease entirely at the end of the tenth year. 2. All persons who use opium are required to register their names with the police and obtain permits which will allow them to purchase a given quantity of the drug at cer- tain periods. All persons over sixty years of age may con- tinue its use as at present, but all persons under that age will be required to reduce their consumption by twenty per cent, yearly, and cease to use it entirely at the end of five years. The permits are to be renewed annually, and the allow- ance indicated upon^ them will be reduced twenty per cent in time and in quantity. At the end of the five years, persons under sixty-five years of age who continue to use opium will be compelled to wear a distinctive badge which will advertise them publicly as opium fiends. 3. All government officials, even princes, dukes, viceroys, and generals, less than sixty years of age, must give up the habit within six months or tender their resignations^ 4. All teachers and students must abandon the habit within one year. 5. All officers of the army and navy must abandon the habit at once. 6. Dealers in opium are required to take out licenses, and to report all purchases and sales to the police. Their pur- chases of stock must decrease annually at the rate of twenty per cent., and at the end of five years must cease altogether. 7. The number of licenses issued will decrease in the same proportion, so that the opium shops will be abolished gradually. 8. The sale of pipes, lamps, and other smoking appliances must cease within the year. 1 The Baptist Missionary Magazine, April, 1907. 292 Appendix F 9. All places of public resort for opium smoking are to be closed, and those who are addicted to the habit must prac- tise it at their own homes. 10. Violations of this law are to be punished by the im- prisonment of the offenders and by the confiscation of all their property. 11. The importation of morphia and other medicinal forms of opium and hypodermic syringes is permitted under most stringent regulations, and the sale limited to practising physi- cians. 12. The government will establish dispensaries at which medicines to counteract the craving for opium will be furnished to the public free of cost. The Revolution and Opium 1 The Revolution proved a serious set-back to the cause of opium suppression. In a number of provinces where poppy cultivation had previously been stamped out or was rapidly disappearing the plant reappeared, sometimes under official encouragement. The republican government, however, adopted the same attitude toward the opium question as its predecessor, and endeavored to enforce the regulations against opium- smoking and the cultivation of the poppy. Its efforts were not invariably successful. But while a large opium crop was being harvested in many parts of China, the foreign opium trade was systematically obstructed. On September 16 seven chests of Malwa Opium were seized at Anking by the military governor's orders and were publicly burnt. After making strong representations on the subject, the British Consul- General at Shanghai proceeded to Anking on a British man- of-war for a personal discussion with the governor. In Shanghai the obstruction placed in the way of the trade led to the accumulation of stocks of Indian opium of a value of £11,000,000. The matter was referred by the consular body at that port to the diplomatic corps in Peking, and on Decem- ber 15 the British minister "warned the Chinese government that, unless unequivocal assurances were immediately forth- coming that it was the intention of China to observe the Agreement (of May, 1911), he would be compelled to advise his government that remonstrances were ineffective. ,, Opium merchants in India petitioned the Indian government toward the end of December for the immediate stoppage for the present of sales of opium for export to China. A Presidential Mandate issued on December 25, 1912, dealt with the subject of opium, but without offering a direct reply to the representations made by the British minister. 1 China Year Book, 1913, p. 644. Appendix G 293 APPENDIX G Unoccupied Fields Statistics relating to Missionary Occupation of the Chinese Republic. Popu- Mission Mis- Number of Area in Number of lat. per Sta- sion- People per Province sq. miles Inhabitants sq. mile tions aries Missionary Anhwei 54,8io 23,670,314 432 22 123 192,458 Chekiang 36,670 11,580,692 316 30 301 38,472 Chihli 115,800 20,937,000 180 26 277 75,6oo Fukien 46,320 22,876,540 494 42 378 60,503 Honan 67,940 35,3i6,8oo 520 33 165 214,041 Hunan 83,380 22,169,673 266 19 184 120,484 Hupeh 71,410 35,280,685 492 31 280 126,000 Kansu 125,450 10,385,376 82 17 70 148,371 Kiangsi 69,480 26,532,125 382 37 169 156,994 Kiangsu 38,610 13,980,235 362 19 503 47,674 Kwangsi 77,200 5,142,330 67 8 50 102,840 Kwangtung .. 99,97o 31,865,251 319 56 471 67,654 Kweichow ... 67,160 7,650,282 114 6 23 332,609 Manchuria . . . 363,610 16,000,000 44 24 107 149,523 Mongolia 1,367,600 2,600,000 2 4 10 260,000 Shansi 81,830 12,200,456 149 35 145 84,138 Shantung 55,970 38,247,900 683 32 343 111,510 Shensi 75,270 8,450,182 in 27 95 88,947 Sinkiang 550,340 1,200,000 2 3 18 66,667 Szechwan 218,480 68,724,800 314 47 386 178,044 Tibet 463,200 6,500,000 14 Yunnan 146,680 12,324,574 84 9 39 316,014 Total ...4,277,170 433,635,305 101 527 4,137 104,818 294 Appendix H APPENDIX H Railway Systems /. Northern System Manchurian Lines. — There are 2,430 miles of railway in Manchuria, already completed and in operation. About 338 miles are under construction, and 4,760 are projected. Since the war between Russia and japan, the control of the railways in Manchuria has almost entirely passed out of the hands of the Chinese. About two thirds are Russian and Japanese. Shansi-M ongolian Line.- -In this system a line of 125 miles has been built from Peking to Kalgan. It was constructed without foreign assistance by Jeme Tien-yu, an able and effi- cient Chinese engineer, educated at Yale University. The work has been well done, and is an evidence of the ability of the Chinese to build their own roads. This line is to be extended through the Province of Shansi, and eventually will pass through Mongolia and connect with the Trans-Siberian Railway, "which will reduce the transit period between Europe and the Chinese capital by about two days travel, bringing Peking within ten days of Paris." //. Central System Peking-Hankow Line. — The most important road in this sys- tem is the Peking-Hankow line of 755 miles, which has been in operation for about five years. It was constructed by Belgian engineers, but is now owned and controlled by the Chinese government. Tientsin-Pukow Line. — Another line connecting the North with the Yangtze is the Tientsin-Pukow Railway, which joins Tientsin with Pukow, a city on the Yangtze opposite Nanking. The northern half, 2^2, miles, was built by the Germans and the southern half, 240 miles, by the British. The line has been recently completed and is now in operation with regular train service. A traveler may leave Shanghai by the Shanghai-Nan- king Railway, and then crossing the river to Pukow may pro- ceed on his journey by the Tientsin-Pukow Railway to Tientsin, whence he may travel by rail through Manchuria and Appendix H 295 take the Trans-Siberian train to Europe. Thus Shanghai and Calais are now connected by rail. As the line passes through those districts of the country most often visited by floods and famines, it will be a means of bringing more speedy relief to the suffering people when these calamities occur. The capital has been rendered far more accessible for it is possible now to reach Peking from Shanghai in 36 hours. Other Proposed Lines. — Many other lines are in process of construction in this system, and the Chinese are anxious to build branch lines in connection with the trunk systems, so that local industries may be developed. The former govern- ment contemplated the construction of a line 1,250 miles long to connect Ilifu. on the western frontier, with Peking. This would call for a vast expenditure of capital and it may be some time before the project is again taken in hand. Summary of This System. — The railways now in operation in this division aggregate 2,038 miles. Up to the time of the revolution 680 miles additional were in process of construction, and 3,095 miles had been surveyed or projected. The map on page S3 will show how much this system will be de- veloped. 777. The Midland or Yangtze Valley System m Two Constructed Lines. — In this system the Shanghai-Nan- king Railway, 193 miles, and the Shanghai-Hangchow Railway, 125 miles, have already been constructed. Projected Hankow-Chengtu Line. — Of the utmost importance will be the Hankow-Ichang-Chengtu line, which will span a distance of 800 miles and will make access to the wonderfully rich Province of Szechwan far easier than it is at present. The rapids in the Yangtze gorges have all along been the great hindrance to the development of trade in this part of China. Thus far but a short portion of the road has been completed and many difficult engineering problems will have to be met and conquered by the Chinese engineers who have the work in hand. As the cost is unusual, the Chinese have found difficulty in financing it, and the use of a portion of the Five Nations Loan for this purpose is contemplated. Problems and Results. — Owing to the splendid waterways in Central China, especially in the lower Yangtze Valley, it has not been easy for the railways to compete with the boat traffic. This is largely due to the fact that goods are taxed in transit at various likin x stations along the line. If the likin barriers 1 Likin stations are small customs barriers erected along the waterways of China where commodities in transit have to pay toll or excise duties. 296 Appendix H were done away with, the railroads would undoubtedly pro- duce a handsome profit. Altogether this system has 328 miles in operation, 300 miles actually in course of construction, and some 1,300 miles surveyed or projected. IV. Southern System Three Important Features. — The three important features of this system are: 1. The slow advancement of the work on the Canton-Hankow Railway, the great north and south line which will connect with the Peking-Hankow Railway and thus unite Canton with the capital ; 2. the construction of a large number of small lines connecting Canton, Hongkong, and Macao; and 3. the proposed system of railways in the Provinces of Kwangtung and Kwangsi to join the Canton-Hankow Railway with the interior and eventually with the railways on the western and southern borders. American Initial Relation and Summary. — It will be remem- bered that the concession for building the Canton-Hankow Railway was first granted to an American syndicate, and that, owing to mismanagement far from creditable, it was finally sold back to China. This system has 314 miles in operation, 384 miles in actual course of construction and some 2,000 miles surveyed or projected. V. Southwestern System Lines Toward French Territory. — In this system the French have completed the Yunnan- Anam Railway from Laokai on the China-Tongking frontier to Yunnan, the capital of the province by that name, a distance of about 310 miles. The Yunnan- Szechwan Railway has been surveyed and a large amount of capital has been raised for its construction. This line from the south may be the first connecting the rich Province of Szechwan with the sea, through French territory. It will tap a marvelous country, and the mines in Yunnan of tin, antimony, iron, and coal will find an easy outlet to the sea. Prospective British Connections and Summary. — Of the projected lines the most interesting are those that will connect the Province of Yunnan with the British lines in Burma. Only one railway is in operation — the Laokai- Yunnan, but about i;573 miles have been projected and partly surveyed. Statistics of the Work of Protestant Missions in China for 1910 From the China Mission Year Book, 1912. OF SOCIETY FOHEIGN Ml' .in .11 Total Staff. Educational Work. Day 01 Primary Schools. Chinese Christian Church. HR1TISH SuCIKTlES. Baptist Missionary Soelel S' l,,.,l,n i Zi ii:iiiy Mission . . chirm Inline! Mission 01) ( 'In Isliun M isslons ill 11111111 Brlllnl \. mil i'ly of Scotland Colonial and Continental Societies. Educational Societies. Allgemelnos Evancellschc Protcstantischer (anion Medn < nilcee and I nlvrrsity Moliiul Schools Totals Y. Totals Y. I'll CD Including Boarding Scl Is ( '" ""iiw. 1 ' ',.: IS '■ "'III. W) Student ■ ' Association. t.90 1.500 1,322 5.14-1 7 1.379 4.02S 64S 5.3114 502 7.2S1 "I, I I ,-. 3,64 ! 8.708 14.782 2.5.57 10.027 15.215 10.537 751.00 150.00 ' 780.01 l l. If,,: hi '- ,vi so 170111.1 50.00S.03 18,157.50 167,075 177.942 480.00 I 2.3(12.8(1 I'.l. I. Ill I !..,,, (Ill .'.(111 11(1 142.00 .. ...l,n no 8,(14(1.67 I/,, I. ,11. Ill) 200.00 105.55 320.900.62 297.976.63 :S3S "3.118 15.568 91.414 29,696 H3.648 20.000 ' '3.000 37.116 1,272.066 151 312.480 1,021.002 Statistics Included In A.P.M. Report. ' ' hlnese contributions. ividows. The R.T.S. has supervision of the Tract Societies of China at nine dlefcrenl centers. Including dispensary patients. Incomplete returns. Including * Returns not to 1 Church Mission, Mrs. Kerr of atistlcs for West With the China Inland Mission following Societies: Finland Fre Tleheio'cU 'm Isslon. Norwegian Mission. Norwegian Mir-'— ' ' Ceriomi ' 'liltm China Alliance Mission. Mission In China, and Swedish 1 INDEX (The variation in the pronunciation of words, such as Tangf(rang), Tao (Dow), comes from the presence or absence^of the aspirate mentioned on page 270. The tendency is not to indicate this in the English printing.) Abdication, edict of, 42 Address to Christians by H. E. Yen Hui-ching, 63 Advisory Provincial Assem- blies, 27, 58 Aggression, foreign, 23 Agnosticism finding entrance, 169, 191 Agriculture the main occupa- tion, 85 Aliens in China, 7 Alliance of Great Britain and France, 17 Alphabet needed, a Chinese, 153 ; ideographs, a problem, 165 Altar of Heaven, 185 Altruism, beneficent, of med- ical missions, 221, 222; need of Christian, in dealing with China, 32 American and Chinese citizen- ship compared, 54, 57; early finances, 65 American Bible Society's work, 230 Amherst, Lord, mission to China, 10, 11 Amoy, is, 231 An Exhortation to Learn, book by H. E. Chang Chih- tung. 150 Ancestral worship, 183, 185 ; and Christianity, 192; indi- vidualism and, 193 Andrade, Fernao Peres de, re- ferred to, 6 Animism, 182, 187 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, quoted, 52, 104 Anti-opium Society, 113, 219 Appeal of the gospel, 239, 240 Area and population : Chinese Empire, 51, 286; early esti- mates of population, 287; Provinces of China, 286 Aristotle, 164 Arrow war, the, 15-17 Arsenals, 98 Athletics, 133; cause of in- terest in, 135 ; training, 135 Attitude toward Christianity, 201 Awakening of China, causes of, 215 B Baptist Missionary Magazine t quoted, 291 Barbarians, all Westerners viewed as, 8 Benevolence, book by Tan Sze-tong, referred to, 198 Bergen, Dr. Paul D., quoted, 176 299 3oo Index Bible Societies, 230, 232 Bibliography, country and people, 281; missions, 284; religions, 283; special sub- jects, 282 Bitton, Rev. Nelson, quoted, 72, 271 Bland, J. O. B., quoted, 70, 137, 209 Blind, asylums for, 223 Board of Education appoint- ed, 26 Bogue forts, 9 Bondfield, Rev. G. H., quoted, 74, 138, 211 Book of Rites, 131 Boxer outbreak, 25, 26, 149; use of the indemnity fund, 159 Brent, Bishop, 114 Bret Harte, referred to, 130 Brinkley, Captain Frank, quoted, 3 British and Foreign Bible So- ciety, 230 Brown, Rev. S. R., 20 Bruce, Sir Frederick, 19 Buddhism, 181, 187, 189, 198, 199, 229; influence of its early missionaries, 5 Buddhist ruler in Outer Mon- golia, 45, 46 Burlingame, Anson, 19 Burton, Ernest D., quoted, 34 California, coolies in, 17 Calls from the Head of the Church, 268-270 Canonical books, the Chinese, 144 Cantlie, Dr., dean of Hong- kong College of Medicine, 40 Canton, a treaty port, 15, 17; English at, 9; opium com- missioner at, 13 Canton Christian College Notes, quoted, 177 Canton's Christian Commis- sioner of Education, 158 Capen, E. W., quoted, 105, 174, 241 Carlyle, Thomas, quoted, 109 Centenary Mission Conference resolution, 236 Chang Chih-tung (Jang Jer- doong), quoted, 33, 150, 173 Chang Chin-wu (Jang Jm- woo), 49 Chang-chun (Jang-joon), 47 Chang Pin-lin (Jang Pin-lm), 199 Changes, in China, 4; in Japan, 3 Changing Chinese, The, quot- ed, 93, 128, 217, 228, 240, 252 Character the object in edu- cation, 166 Charles I of England, 9 Chekiang (Jegeang), 248. Cheng Chang-lu (Jung Jang- loo), quoted, 32 Chengtu (Jungdoo), 98, 274 Chentung Liang-Cheng (Jungdoong Leang-Chung), 21 Chihli (Je-le), 156 Child labor, 92 China and the powers, 32 China Mission Year Book, 191 1, 1912, quoted, 76, 139, 261, 262, 267, 287, 292 China Year Book, 1912, 1913, quoted, 76, 210, 218, 220, 246, 287, 292 China's civilization, character of, 4; early attitude to for- eigners, 5; later, 6 China's Only Hope, quoted, 33, 150, 173 Index 301 Chinese classics and moral teaching, 164; new educa- tion and agnosticism, 169 "Chinese Oxford Movement," 197 Chinese Recorder, quoted, 53, 71, 74, 106, 138, 175, 176, 177, 209, 211, 240, 242, 271, 2p, 275 Chinese students in United States, 148, 149, 159, 160 Ching Chun-wang ( J 1 n g Joon-wang), quoted, 34 Chin-shih (Jin-she), 45 Christ. See Jesus Christ Christian Education of Wom- en in the East, The, quoted, 139 . Christian Literary Society, 220 Christian Missions in China. See Missions, Protestant Christianity, advocated by prominent men, 63, 64 ; need for, 68, 93, 94 Christians, massacre of, 6; meeting of in Peking, 63; service in revolution, 202 Chungking (Choong-king), 231 Church control of schools, 170 Church in the Mission Field, The, quoted, 249, 251 Church unity, 257, 260-263 Civil service examinations, old-time, 22; abolished, 26 "Closed door" policy, 7 Clothes, philosophy of, and changes in, 129, 130 Coalition cabinet, 43 Coal districts, 95 Coal mining company, 82 Co-hong, the, 12 College degrees, old style, 144, 145 College of the Hanlin, 145 Commercial dealings with England, 9-12 Common tongue to be devel- oped, 86 Confucianism, 181, 184-186, 196, 197 Confucius, teachings of, 98; worship of, abolished in schools, 158 Constitutional government promised, 26, 42, 58 Constructive work of new government, 50 Converts, changed lives of, 228, 229 Coolie class, marked early Chinese in United States, 160 Coolie traffic, the, 17 Cooperation in educational work, 169 Copper ore, 97 Corvino, John de, 6 Costume and etiquette, no, 129-133 Cotton, 89 Crisp loan, 45 Criticism of missions, 233- 238; Chinese approval, 235 Cruelty to prisoners, Chinese, 18 Cuba, coolies in, 17 Cue-cutting, 130 Curzon, Lord, quoted, 69 D Daily paper, the, 170 Dalai Lama, the, 48 Darwin widely read, 191 Dates relating to modern Chinese history, 288 Deaf mutes taught, 224 Deaths of Emperor and Em- press Dowager, 28 Degrees, old-time college, 144, 145 302 Index De Groot, J. J. M., quoted, 181, 202, 208 Demonology, Chinese, 188 Disarmament Society, 33 Dockyards, 98 Dubose, Dr. H. C, referred to, 113 East and the West, The, quot- ed, 72, 105, 174, 241, 265, 271 East India Company, 10, 11 Eastern and Western civiliza- tions contrasted, 5 Eastern Inner Mongolia, 47 Eclecticism, tendency toward, 199 Economic development looked for, 62 Edict of abdication, 42 Edinburgh World Missionary Conference Report, quoted, 173, 249, 251 Education, chart, 151; Chi- nese, 143-146; effects, 146, 149 ; need for the new, 147 ; recommendations for na- tional assembly, 163; West- ern system adopted, 150 Eight-legged essays, 148 Eliot, President C W., quot- ed, 33^ 73, 240 Elliot, Captain, 13, 14 Ellis, William T., 3, 270 Empress Dowager, 24, 26; action on opium traffic, 114; edict on new schools, 153 England and China, 9 English ^ language, 86 ; liter- ature in schools, 155 Ethical basis, China's, 93 Etiquette, ancient and mod- ern, changes in, 131 Evangelistic work, 224; re- sults, 225-227 Evil spirits, belief in, 206 Evolution finds acceptance, 191 Exclusiveness abandoned, 4 "Father of Railways in China," 21 Feng shui (Fung-shooe), 82, 96, 187 Fenn, Dr. C. H., quoted, 272 Financial, difficulties in school work, 152, 158; problems of the Republic, 43"45> 49 ; re- form, 65 Five Railway Systems, Na- tions Loan, 84, 86, 87 Fong F. Sec, quoted, 177 Foochow, 15 Foot-binding, no, 120-123 Foreign loans, 95-97; money for buildings, 254; trade statistics, 101, 102 France, 24; war with, 21 Freedom of the press, 171 Fukien (Foo-jeen), 247, 259 Germany, 23 Gibson, Dr. J. C, quoted, 255, 259, 267, 275 Giles, Professor H. A., quot- ed, 193, 223, 290 Goodnow, Professor Frank X, 50 Gordon, Gen., quoted, 99 Government examination sys- tem, 22, 24, 144, 145; re- forms in, 148, 149; sup- planted by Western meth- ods, 150 Government policy toward railways, 82-88 Index 303 H Hankow bomb factory, 38, Hankow-Peking Railway, 104 Hanyang (Han-yang), 39; iron works, 97, 98 Harada, Tasuka, LL.D., quot- ed, 264 Hart, Sir Robert, work of, 33 Hibbert Journal, quoted, 69 Holland, embassy from, 8 Honan (Honan), 156 Hongkong, ceded to England, 15; Morrison school at, 20; rioting sailors in. 13 Hsu (She), General, 202 Hsuan-Tung (Shooan- Toong), infant emperor, 29 Huang Hui (Hooang Hooe), 49 Huang Hsing (Hooang Shmg), 210 Hunan (Hoo-nan), 150 Hupeh (Hoo-ba), 150, 156, 248 Huxley's works read, 191 Iconoclastic tendencies, 199 Ideals, divergent,^ Ideas of the Orient, change in, 3 Ignorance persisted in, 14 Illiteracy, 147 Imperial audience, first given to foreigners, 20 Imperial Maritime Customs Service, Sir Robert Hart's work in, 33 Importation of pig iron to United States, 97 Income, China's, 102 Indemnity, 15, 235, 237 India, trade routes to, 4; Buddhist missionaries from, 5 India's educational mistakes, 163 Individualism, workings of, no, 132, 193, 194 Inquisition in Spain referred to, 64 Insanity, 224 Intellectual and Political Cur- rents in the Far East, quot- ed, 58, 60, 197 International Review of Mis- sions, quoted, 264 Intoxicants substituted for opium, 119 Investigation of Christianity, 201 Iron, 97 Isolation of China geograph- ically, 4 Italy, "24 J Jacks, L. P., quoted, 69 Jackson, Dr., tribute to, 222 Japan, an object lesson, 264; changes in, 3; disastrous results of war with, 22, 23 ; influence of on China, 27, 28 Japanese as translators, 192 Jeme Tien-yu, 21 Jesuits in China, 217 Jesus Christ, 201 ; compared with Confucius, 64, 186; statements of Chinese Mul- lahs, 208 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, re- ferred to, 171 Johnston, Mr. Leslie, quoted, 266 Jones, Chester Lloyd, quoted, 52 Journal of Race Develop- ment, quoted, 33, 34, 73, 74, 240 304 Index Julian the Apostate, referred to, 206 Justice, missionary interfer- ence with, 203 K Kaiping coal-mining railway, 82 Kang Hsi (Kang She), Man- chu emperor, 8 Kang Yu-wei (Kang Yoo- wa), 24 Kautsung (Gaoot-zoong), em- peror, 6 Kiaowchow (Keao-jo), 23 Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 239 Koo, V. K. W., quoted, 6 Korea in dispute, 22 Kowloon, rioting sailors at, 13 Kowtow, the, 8, 10, 11 Kropotkin, P. A., quoted, 37 Kuang Hsu (Gooang-she), emperor, 24, 149 Ku Hung-ming (Goo Hoong- m i n g)> quoted, 197 Kung Ho Tang (Goong Ho Dang), 49 Kuo Ming Tang (Goo-6 Ming Dang), the, 49 Kwangchow (Gooang-jo), 24 Kwangsi (Gooang-se), mas- sacre of a missionary at, 17 Labor problems, 92 Lambert, Miss, quoted on education of women, 139 Laotsze (Low-dse), 187 Laundryman, the Chinese, 160 Leper homes, 223 Liang Chi-chao (Leang Che- chow), 24 Liang Tun-yen (Leang Toon- yun), 21 Li Hung-chang (Le Hoong- jang), in United States, 160 Li Yuan-hung (Le Yooan- hoong), Gen., 38, 39; plot against, and plotters, 49 Lin Boon King, Dr., referred to, 192 Lin Tse-su (Lin Dse-se), Commissioner, 12, 14; let- ter to Queen Victoria, 14 Lin Wei-hi (Lin Wa-he), killed in riot, 13 Liu Yuk-lin (Leoo Yook-lm), 21 Loans : Combined nations, 29, 44; Crisp, 45; disclosures, 66, 67; statement of Pres- ident Wilson, j6 Lorcha, Chinese-European vessel, 15 M Macao, coolie traffic, 17 ; Lord Napier at, 12; Portuguese at, 9 Macartney, Earl of, 10 Machinery, related to manu- factures, 91, 92; causes Western trade expansion, 18 Macnaughten, W., quoted, 211 Magazines^ 172 Manchu conservatism, 28 ; mistakes, 29, 30, 89 Manchuria, Russia and Japan in,48, 65, 66 Manila, Chinese in, 7; Olym- pic meet, 136 Marco Polo, 5; made prefect of Yangchow, 6 Marriage customs, old and new, 131-133 Martin, W. A. P., quoted, 143 Martyr Christians, 258 Massacre of Chinese in Man- ila, 7; of Christians, 6 Index 305 Materialism a menace, 195 Mayer, W. R, quoted, 290 Medical work, 220-222, 297 Men and Missions, quoted, 276 m Mencius and Confucius, 164 Merrins, Edward M., quoted, 276 Metempsychosis and eternal peace, 189 Middle Kingdom, the, 9 Mileage of railways, 84 Militarism, growth of, 98, 99 Mills, 90 Mills, Mrs., 224 Mines, hindrances to develop- ment, 94, 95 ; undeveloped, 85 Ming-Ti (Mmg-Te), emper- or, 5 Ministry of Education, 157 Mission schools, 165-169, 297 Missionaries, and opium, 113, 114; influence of in educa- tion, 149, 166-170 Missions, Protestant, general summary of, 216-232; re- view of criticisms of, 2^3- 238; statistical table, 297 Mistaken missionary policy, A, 203, 204 Modernizing, chief danger of rapid, 103 Mongolia, 65, 66 Morrison, Dr. G. E., 50 Morrison, Robert, 217 Morrison school, the, 20 Morse, H. B., quoted, 54, 101, 112, 204 Murray, Mr., institution in Peking, 224 N Names, orthography and pro- nunciation of Chinese, 279 Nanking Industrial Exposi- tion, 102, 103, 135 Nanking, for a time made the capital, 39; treaty of, 14, 15 Napier, Lord, 11, 12 Napoleon III, 17 National athletic meet, 135 National Bible Society of Scotland, 230 National consciousness of China aroused, 56 National Consultative Assem- My, 58 Need, of Christian evangel- ists, 267 ; of literature, 266 ; of schools, 264, 265 Nestorians, the, 5 New Testament, primary aim of, 231 New woman, the, no, 123- 128, 139 Newspapers, Chinese, 171 Ningpo, Portuguese in, 6; treaty port, 15 Non-interference policy, 67, 68 North China Herald, quoted, 74 Noyes, Dr. H. V., quoted, 106, 242 O Oath of office of new Presi- dent, 43 Olopun, early Nestorian, 5 Opium, 12-17, no; agreement at^ Peking, 116; Great Bri- tain's attitude, 116 ; indem- nity, 15 ; _ prohibited, 26, in; prohibition edict, 291; reasons for using, and sta- tistics, in; the Hague ap- peal, 117; the revolution and, 292; traffic legalized, 112; traffic terminated, 116, 117; Opium War, 14 306 Index Opportunities and problems of Christianity in China, 205, 206 Optimistic viceroy, an, 172 Oriental possibilities, 68 Orphanages, 222 Palmerston, Lord, 11 Parker, Rev. A. P., D.D., quoted, 76, 139 Parker, Prof. E. H., quoted, 75 ; opinions of, on Chinese tolerance, 202 Parkes, Harry S., 16 Parliament, Manchu conces- sion too late, 27, 59 Pastor Hsi (She), referred to, 258 Patience and charity needed, 258 "Pavilion of Purple Light," the, 20 Peiho River, 10, 17, 18 Peking, 17, 18, 27; continues as capital, 43, 150; National Consultative Assembly in, 58; ratification of treaties at, 18 Peking Gazette, the oldest newspaper, 171 Peking Syndicate, Limited, 95 Pennsylvania coal lands com- pared with Chinese, 95 People, The, a revolutionary organ, 199 Peru, coolies in, 17 Pettus, W. B., quoted, 209 Philanthropic work, 222-224 Philippine Opium Commission Report, quoted, in; United States Government Report, Philippines, Spaniards and Chinese in the, 7 Physical culture, no, 133-136 Picul, the, 113 Piracy alleged, 16 Political parties, 49, 50 Poppy fields of Yunnan, 113 Population, 286, 287 Port Arthur, 23 Portuguese, in China, 6; dis- orderly, 6; in coolie traffic, 17; jealous of England, 8 Postal system, 100, 101 Poverty in China, 53, 62 Prayer request from China, ix Preparatory schools, 158 Presbyterian mission in Man- churia, referred to, 222 Press, an educational force, the, 171, 172 Pride of Chinese, a barrier, 16 Primary schools essential, 163, 164 Primitive Culture, quoted, 194 Primitive religion of China, 182 Prince Regent inefficient, 29 Problems of the Far East, quoted, 69 Procter, J. T., quoted, 176 Progressive West, conserva- tive East, 8 Protestant Episcopal mission in Shanghai, 22^ Puget Sound, Irondale, on, 98 Putnam Weale, B. L., quoted, 104 Q Queen Victoria, letter to, 14 Railways, 81 ; effects of, 85 ; growth of, 84; nationalized, 29; superstition concerning, 82; systems, 294 Index 307 Recent Events and Present Policies in China, quoted, 70, 137, 209 Reform and reaction, 24, 25 Reinsch, Paul S., quoted, 57, 59, 197 s _ Religion in China, quoted, 200 Religious toleration now com- plete, 62-65 Republic, arguments against and for its success, 51-54 Reshaping of the Far East, quoted, 104 Revelation xxii, 1, 2, quoted, 215 Revivals, accounts of, 259 Revolution, the, 26, 30, 36, 38 Rhodes, F. Herbert, quoted, 209 Richard, Dr. Timothy, 220 Richthofen, quoted, 95 Robinson, Canon C. H., quot- ed, 181, 245 "Rocket of China," the, 84 Roman Catholic orphanage and cathedral burned, 20 Roman Catholic Church, pol- icy of, 203 Ross, Professor E. A., quot- ed, 93, 128, 216, 228, 240, 252 Russia, 8, 45; jealous of Ger- many, 23; treaty with em- bassy from, 17; war with Japan, 27 Russo-Mongolian convention, 46 S St. John's College, Shanghai, 129, 134 St. John's University, 86, 219 Salt, a monopoly, 145 San-Mun (San-Moon), Bay, 24 Scholarship, advancement only by, 55 School, grades, 152; statis- tics, 156-158, 160-164 Schools, government, 150-165; mission, 149, 165-170 Self-government, 255, 257 Self-support, 253, 254 Shanghai, 15; International Council in, 114, 115, 236 Shanghai and Woosung Rail- way, 82 Shansi (Shan-se) Company, the, 95 Shantung (Shan-doong), 23 Sheng Kung-pao (Shung Koong-bow), 88 Sianfu (Sean-foo), 150 Siberia, an early route from Russia, 8 Silk, 89, 90 Sinkiang (Sm-geang), 6^ f 66, 248 Sisters of Charity misunder- stood, 144 Siu-tsai (Seoo-tsi), 20 Sixth National Convention of Y. M. C. A., at Peking, 273, 274 Slave Refuge, 128; benefit in St. John's College, 129 Slavery in China, 128, 129 Smith, Dr. A. H., quoted, 71 Smuggling opium, 14 Smyth, Dr. Newman, 261 Social customs, changes in, 109, no, 128, 129 Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge, The, 220 Spaniards in China, 6 Spencer's works widely read, 191 Sports have become popular, 134, 135 Steel rails, 97 Stuart, J. Leighton, quoted, 274 3 o8 Index Students sent to United States, 26 Stuntz, Dr. H. C, 114. Summer palace at Peking de- stroyed, 18 Sun Yat-sen (Soon Yat-sun), Dr., 2J) a Christian, 204; becomes provisional Presi- dent, 39; quoted, 106; striking career, 40-42 \ working to develop rail- ways, 85 Superstitions, barrier to ear- lier railway building, 82, 88, 96, 188 Szechwan (Se-chwan), 30, 87, in, 247 Tael, the, 113 Taiping, Rebellion, referred to, 201 Tai Tai (Ti Ti), the, 128 Taku (Da-Koo), forts, 17, 18 Talienwan, 23 Tan Sze-tong (Tan Se-tong), referred to, 198 Tang (Tang) dynasty, 6, 144 Tang Shao-yi (Tang Show- ye), 21 Tao (Dow), 183, 206 Tao Kwang (Dow Kwang), emperor, 12 Taoism, 181, 183, 186-188 Teachers and text-books, 155 Telegram from Peking, ix Telegraph, 99; Peking sta- tion, 100; statistics, 100 "Terrestrial Astrology," 96 Thomson, John Stuart, quot- ed, 33, 73 Tibet, 46-48, 65, 66 Tientsin (Teen-tsin), 98-100; anti-foreign riot in, 20; treaty of, 17, 19 Times, London, 50 Tipao (De-bow), 54 Tokyo schools for Chinese youth, 27 Toleration, religious, 17, 202- 205 Tong Kai-son (Tong Kl-son), 17, 21, 117 The Trade and Administra- tion of the Chinese Empire, quoted, 55, 101, 112 Tract societies and work, 231, 232 Treaty, of Peking, 19; of Tientsin, 17, 19 Treaty ports, 15, 17, 19 Treaties with United States, Great Britain, France, and Russia, 19 Tributary nations, 20 Truthfulness, new spirit of, 228, 229 Tseng (Dsung), Marquis, re- ferred to, 201 Tseheng Yuan (Dshung Yooan), the, 58 Tung Men Hui (Toong Mun Hooe), the, 50 Tyler, quoted, 194 Tzu Hsi (Tsoo She), 121 U Unification needed, 86 Union University planned at Foochow, 169 United States, 114 United Universities, 265 Universities planned, 157, 169, 265 Unoccupied fields, 241, 293 Unrest, social, 109 Urga, 46 V Varied characteristics in China, 86 Index 309 Vassal states, 9 Vice increasing, 119 Virgin Mary and the goddess of mercy, 190 Voice of the people heard, 56, 58 W Wang (Wang), 274 Wang Yang-min ( W a n g Yang-min), quoted, 197 War, first Anglo-Chinese, 14; growing out of Arrow con- troversy, 15; implements manufactured, 98 Weddell, Captain John, 9 W r ei-hai-wei (Wa-hi-wa), 24 Western languages in univer- sities and schools, 157, 158 Westerners all barbarians in early view, 8 Whampoa harbor, 15 Whangpoo River, 82 Wife and opium-smoker, 119 Williams, Charge d'affaires, ix Williams, S. W., quoted, 290 Workers needed, 248; partic- ularly natives, 249; perils to be faced, 252 ; qualified leaders, 250 World's Christian Students' Journal, quoted, 32, 34, 75; referred to, 92 Women, education of, 147; emancipation of, 131-133; new regard for, 229, 230 Woosung, 82 Wright, Dr. Hamilton, 114 Written language, Chinese, 165 Wuchang, 30, 39, 157 W^u Ting-fang (Woo Ding- fang), 41; referred to, 60 Wyclif, 2^2 Xavier, Fr., referred to, 27 Yale University, Chinese stu- dents at, 20; recalled, 21 Yangchow (Yang-jo), 6, 202 Yang (Yang) and Yin (Yin), the, 182, 183, 191, 198, 205- 207 Yangtze (Yangtse), riots, 22; River, 22, 84, 87, 97 Yellow Peril, the, 92 Yen (Yun), W. W., 205 Yen (Yun), Y. K., M. A., 219 Yen Hui-Ching (Yun Hooe- ching), quoted, 63 Yin Chang (Yin Chang), Gen., 39 Young men in power, 60 Yuan Shih-Kai (Yooan She- ki), 30, 38, 40-42; Presi- dent, 42, 43; toleration statement, 205 Yuen-min-yuen (Yooun-mm- yooun), 11 Yung Cheng (Yoong Jung), in Yung Wing (Yoong Wing), 20, 148, 219 Yunnan (Yoon-nan), poppy fields, 113 JUN 20 1913 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Oct. 2005 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (7?d\ 77Q-91 1 1 Ill LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 016 062 520 A