7^1 Concise Dictionary OF Religious Knowledge AND Gazetteer EDITED BY REV. SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, M.A. ASSOCIATE EDITORS : REV. TALBOT WILSON CHAA^BERS, D.D., LL.D., Of the ColUgiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, New York Cityi AND ' REV. FRANK HUGH FOSTER, PH.D., Professor of Church History^ Theological Seminary, Oberlin, Ohio. SECOND AND REVISED EDITION. NEW YORK: THE CHRISTIAN LITERATURE COMPANY. 1891. Copyright, 1889, by The Christian Literature Co. Advertisenient to Second Edition. This second and revised edition of Tlie Concise Dictionary of Religions Knmdedge, we believe, furnishes the best single volume work of reference extant in the field of religious knowledge. The gazetteer feature is quite a new and valuable addition to the first edition, and will greatly increase the usefulness of the work. All Bible students and Sunday-school workers have here under one cover both atlas and dictionary, facilitating their labors very much. The maps herewith given are prepared expressly for this work at great expense, and embody the results of research in the countries represented to date. Some typographical errors in the first edition also have been corrected and do not appear in the second. We also furnish now the patent marginal reference index to all copies without additional charge. These new features we feel sure will be found of lasting value and usefulness. The Publishers. New Yokk, October 1, 1891. PREFACE. The Editor-in-cliiof returns his lieartfelt tlia ks to his associates, the Rev. Dr. Chambers and the Rev. Professor Foster, for tlieir co-operation, which has enabled him to produce a book characterized by accurate scholarship and adaptability to present needs. He also thanks the Rev. F. M. Bird for his numerous biographical sketches, and Mr. Clemens Petersen, who has been the office editor, and whose labors appear on well-nigh every page. IS'or would he forget to thank, in this connection, the gentlemen who have contributed the denominational and other leading articles. For its typographical correctness it is indebted to the care and skill of the readers of the Burr Printing House. The object of the book is to fnrnish, in concise form, information upon biblical, arch«ological, ecclesiastical, and historical topics. Hence the vocabu- lary has been purposely made very large, and most of the articles very condensed. In order to save valuable space, and also to present readable sketches, those denominations which belong together have been brought under one head, and such articles have been entrusted invariably to a representative man. The editor would here call attention to some minor features which he be- lieves the reader will find it convenient to have herein united. These are, first, the syllabification of Bible names, with careful indication where the stress of voice falls ; second, the pronunciation, by respelling phonetically or by other means, of foreign names likely to be mispronounced ; third, the giving of the distance and direction from Avell-known cities of the places of birth or death of the subjects of the biographical sketches wherever such places were obscure ; fourth, the source and date of honorary and other degrees and titles immediately after the mention of such at the beginning of the article ; fifth, the denomina- tional position of the subject, especially wherever such could not be at once perceived from the article itself ; sixth, the mention at the close of the article of such literature (author, title, place, date, and number of volumes) as would enable the student to pursue his investigations further ; seventh, the signing of every article (except those Avritten by the editor or his assistant, all of which are unsigned) either by the full name or by the initials of its writer. Samuel Macauley Jackson. New York, Mav •2:5, IS'.tl. EXPLANATION OF CONTRACTIONS. b. = born. d.=died. C. or T. W. C. =T. W. Chambers. F. or F. H. F. = F. H. Foster. F. M. B.=F. M. Bird. C. P. = C. Petersen. C. H. A. B.=C. II. A. Bjcrrcgaard. LEADING ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS. ADVENTISTS. By Rev. Daniel Thompson Taylor, Hyde Park, Mass. ANABAPTISTS. By Rev. Prof. Benjamin Osgood Tkuh, Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. ASSYRIOLOGY AND THE BIBLE. By Rev. Prof. Francis Brown, D.D., Unioa Theological Seminary, New York City. BAPTISTS. By Mr. Henry C. Vedder, Editor of the Baptist Quarterly Review, New York City. CHINA, RELIGIONS AND SACRED BOOKS OF. By Prof. Winfred Robert Martin, Ph.D., Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. CHRISTIAN UNION (Denomination). By Rev. Henry J. Duckworth, Centreburg, O. CONGREGATIONALISM AND CONGREGATIONALISTS. By the late Rev. Henry Martyn Dexter, D.D., LL.D., Editor of the Congr^gationalist, Boston, Mass. COREA. By Rev. William Elliot Ghiffis, D.D., Author of " Corea, the Hermit Nation," Boston, Mass. DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. By Rev. Benjamin B. Tyler, Pastor of the Church of the Disciples, New York City. DODDRIDGE, PHILIP. By Rev. Frederic Mayer Bird, the Hymnologist, South Bethlehem, Pa. ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. ] EPISCOPACY. By Rev. Prof. Alexander Virts Griswold Allen, D.D., EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. J FRANCE, REFORMED CHURCH OF. By Rev. Prof. Henry Martyn Baird, D.D., LL.D., Uni- versity of the City of New York. FRIENDS. THE RELIGIOUS SOCIETY OF. By President Isaac Sharpless, Haverford College, Pa. GRUNDTVIG. By Mr. C. H. A. Bjerrkgaard, one of the Librarians of th« Astor Library, New York City. HENOTHEISM. By Prof. Winfred Robert Martin, Ph.D., Hartford, Conn. HUS, JOHN, HUSSITES. By Rev. Prof. J. Taylor Hamilton, Bethlehem, Pa. HYMNOLOGY. By Rev. Frederic Mayer Bird, South Bethlehem, Pa. INDIA, RELIGIONS OF. By Prof. Winfred Robert Martin. Ph.D., Hartford, Conn. JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST. By Rev. Prof. J. Taylor Hamilton, Bethlehem, Pa. JAPAN. By Rev. William Elliot Griffis, D.D., Author of " The Mikado's Empire," Boston, Mass. JERUSALEM. ) JEWS. V By Rev. Selah MERRIL^ D.D.. LL.D., Andover, Mass. JOSEPHUS. ) JUDSON, ADONIRAM, ANN, SARAH. AND EMILY. By Mr. Henry C. Vedder, New York City. KIERKEGAARD. By Mr. C. H. A. Bjerregaard, Astor Library, New York City. LUTHER, MARTIN. I By Rev. Prof. J. W. Richard, D.D., Lutheran Theological LUTHERAN CHURCH, THE. ( Seminary, Gettysburg. Pa. McALL MISSION. By Mrs. Louisk Seymour Houghton, N. Y. MENNO AND THE MENNONITES. By Rev. Prof. B. O. True, Baptist Theological Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. METHODISM, METHODIST CHURCHES. By Rev. Prof. C. W. Bennett, D.D., Theological Seminary, Evauston, 111. MoIa.MMED, MOHAMMEDANISM, l^y ^^^^ P™^" "• '^- Hulbbrt, Marietta College. Ohio. MORAVIANS. By Rev. Prof. J. Taylor Hamilton, Bethlehem, Pa. MORMONISM. By Rev. Prof. W. H. Whitsitt, D.D., LL.D., Baptist Theological Seminary, Louis- ville, Ky. NEW CHURCH. By Rev. Prof. John Worcester, Boston, Mass. PALESTINE. By Rev. Selah Merrill, D.D., LL.D., Andover. Mass. PARKER, THEODORE. By Rev. S. J. Barrows, Editor of the ChrisiiaK Remitter, Boston, Mass. PERSIA, RELIGIONS OF. By Prof. Winfred Robert Maetin, Ph.D., Hartford. Conn. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES. ( By Rev. Prof. W. H. Roberts, D.D., LL.D., Lane Theological PRESBYTERIAN SYSTE.M. ( Seminary. Cincinnati, Ohio. PSEUDEPIGRAPHA AND APOCRYPHA. By Rev. E. C. Richardson, Ph.D., Librarian of the College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J, REFORMED (DUTCH AND GERMAN) CHURCH. By Rev. E. T. Corwin, D.D.. New Brunswick, N. J. SALVATION ARMY. By Commissioner Ballincton Booth, New York City. SCHWENKFELD AND SCHWENKFELDERS. By Rev. President C. D. Hartbahft, D.D., Theo- logical Seminary, Hartford. Conn. SPURGEON. By .Mr. Henhv C. Vedder. Editor of the Baptitt Quarterly Review, New York. SWEDENBORG. By Rev. Prof. John Worcester. Boston, Ma;.s. UNITARIANS. By Rev. S. J. Barrows, Editor of the Christian Register, Boston, Mass. UNIVERSALISTS. By Rev. R. Eddy, D.D.. Editor of the Universalist Quarterly, Boston. Mass. WAVLAND, FRANCIS. I By Mr. Henry C. Vedder, Editor of the Baptist Quarterly Review, New WILLIAMS. ROGER, f York. WESLEY FAMILY. By Rev. Prof. George Richard Crooks, D.D., Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETIES. Christian Endeavor, by Rev. Dr. F. E. Clark ; King's Daugh- ters, by Mrs. M. Bottome ; Epworth Lkagle, by Rev. Robert R. Dohertv; St. Andrew- Brotherhood, by Mr. H. A. Sii.i. ; Lend-aHand Cn'ns, by Rev. Dr. E. E. Halb. 2EISBERGER, DAVID. By Rev. Prof. J. Tavlor Ha»iilton. Bethlehem, Pa. CONCISE Dictionary of Religious Kiowledge. System op Pronunciation.— The acute accent (') denotes the accented syllable ; the grave accent C)over a, e, and i denotes that those vowels are pronounced like a in " far," e in " they," and i in " machine," respec- tively. The Roman letters in parenthesis immediately after the name give either the pronunciation of the corre- eponding portion of the name or of the entire name ; italics give the translation. Aachen (pronounced a-ken ; Latin, Aquis- (jrantaii; French, Aix-la-Chajjelle), in Rhenish Prussia, 40 m. w.s.w. of Cologne. It was a Roman city, favorite abode of Charles the Great, and the crowning-place of the Germaa emperors, 803 -1558. It was the seat of sev- eral important synods. 1. a.d. 789, the Apoc rypha were separated from the Chtu-ch canon. The clerical discipline was revised. 2. 798, Felix of Urgel (q.v.) renounced his adoption- ism. 3. 801 and 803, regulations for clerics and monks passed. 4. 809, Insertion of the Filioque (q.v.) in the Nicene Creed. The Ref- ormation got a foothold in it only after a long struggle. Aa'-ron (enlightened), eldest son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, elder brother of Moses and younger brother of Mir- iam, and drst high-priest of the Jews (Ex. vi. 20. 33 : xl. 13, 13). He was Moses' spokesman (Ex. iv. 16) and efficient ally. His character was. however, weak, as his conduct showed in making the golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 4), and in joining Miriam in murmuring against Mo.ses (Num. xii. 1), and Mo.ses in disobedience to Je- hovah's commands at Meribah (Num. xx. 8). He married Elisheba, of the tribe of Judali. Of his four .sons, all priests, Nadaband Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar, the first two were slain for olfering uncoramunded fire (Lev. x. 1, 2) and Eleazar succeeded him H(i died on Mt. Hor, on the borders of Edom, in the presence of the people (Num. xx. 24 sqq.). A-bar'-ba-nel, Isaac, Jewish financier and author ; b. at Lisbon, 1437 ; d. at Venice, 1509. Alphonso V., of Portugal, Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain, and Ferdinand I. and Alphonso II., of Naples, successively employ- ed his services. In 1503 he removed to Ven- ice. Besides commentaries, he wrote in He- brew Tfte Herald of I'ydixition, which is an ex- amination, in a bitter tone, of the principal Me-ssianic prophecies, in order to refute the Christian doctrine of the 3Ie.ssiah.ship of Jesus. It was lirst published in 1526, and in Latin dress, Frankfort, 1711.— His son, Jiulnh ben Isaac (commonly called Leo JFe/jnpm), b. at Li.«;Dou about 1460 ; d. probablv at Ferrara about 1520 ; wrote in Italian the' famous Dia- logue on Love, which is a presentation of the Platonic and Neo-Platouic views upon love, Rome, 1585. It enjoyed great popularity, and was translated into French, ISpanish, Latin, and Hebrew. Ab'-ba (Aramaic, father), in Mark xiv. 36 ; Rom. viii. 15 ; Gal. iv. 6 ; in Oriental eccle- siastical usage, a title, first of all monks ; later restricted to bishops, patriarchs, and heads of monasteries. At present the more usual desig- nation for the last is " archimandrite" or " hegumen. " Ab-ba-die (dee), Jacques (or James), D.D. (Sedan, 1680 Vj, dean of Killaloe, Ireland ; b. at Nay, near Pau, 1654 ; d. in Marylebone, Lon- don, Sept. 25, 1727. He studied at the Uni- versity of Sedan, became pastor of the French Church in Berlin, 1680 ; of the French Church in the Savoy, London, 1689 ; dean of Killaloe, 1699, and produced several works which had a remarkable reputation, the best known of which is The Truth of the Christian Religion, original French, RoUerdam, 1684, 2 vols. ; English trans., London, 1694, 2 vols. ; 6th ed., 1711. This is a standard work on apologetics in French literature, although written by a Protestant, and has been repeatedly repub- lished, reprinted, and translated into ceveral languages. Abbat, same as Abbot, which see. Abbe, the French term for abbot, but now commonly used as a title of courtesy in ad- dressing tho.se who have given themselves to the study of divinity and literature. During the 16th and subsequent centuries to the French Revolution, the title was given to young ecclesiastics, whether ordained or not. As such persons were seldom really abbots, and often not in receipt of any part of the revenue of abbeys, they employed themseUe.s in teaching and literature, and many of tiiem played an important part at covirts and in no- l)le houses as advisers and tutors. They wo.io black or dark violet clothes, the coat having a narrow collar, and their hair Wiis arranged in a round curl over their foreheads. They were, as a class, not spiritually helpful. Abbess (abbreviation of the Latin Ahha- tiKnif). Tlie mother superior of a nunnerv ; elected by a majority of the nuns, and with ABBEY (2) ABBOT duties and rights corresponding to those of an abbot, except that, on account of sex, she can- not give the veil, excommunicate, or ordain. If elected from among the nuns of her cloister, she must be at least 40 years old, and have been a nun at least 8 years ; if from another cloister, she must be at least 30 years old, and have been a nun 5 years. Sec Abbot. Abbey signities both the corporate body of monks or ziuns under an abbot or abbess and the buildings in which they live and worship. There were royal abbeys, which were under the patronage of kings, and episcopal abbeys directly controlled by bishops. In course of time their wealth became very great. In Eng- land there were in Henry Vlllth's day 190 of them. He suppressed them, and confiscated their property, which was reckoned at £2,850,- 000. See Monastery. Ab -bo of Fleury, Benedictine, saint (com- memorated Nov. 13), and monastic reformer ; b. near Orleans about 945 ; killed in a monk- ish rising against his rigorous reforms in the priory of La Reole, in Gascony, Nov. 13, 1004. He was abbot of Ramsey, Eng. , 985-87 ; of Fleury, 988, till death ; and liis writings prove him a forerunner of scholasticism. Cf. his life by Aimoin and his works in Migne, Pat. Lat. CXXXIX. Abbot, the head of a monastery ; a term in present R. C. usage supplanted by prior, su- perior, provost, etc., except in the Benedictine and Cistercian orders. There are two princi- pal kinds of abbots. 1. Secular abbots, who have a benefice with the title of an abbey, but exercise no jurisdiction themselves ; 2. Regu- lar abbots, who are true prelates, although the titles of some are derived from abbeys no longer extant. ' Abbots must be either exempt or unexempt. If exempt, they are under the direct control of the pope ; if unexempt, under that of the diocesan bishop. There are also abbots who, besides a particular abbey, govern those of an order, congregation, province, or those dependent upon their abbey. The abbot of Monte Cassino is styled " abbot of abbots," but he has no authority beyond his own abbey. Some abbots are elected for life, and some for a term of years, according to the constitution of the monastery. In Germany a distinction is made between princely abbots, e.g., Fulda, St. Gallen ; those subject to imperial control ; and those who arc under the control of a par- ticular lord. Abbots are commonly elected by the monks. They must be monks 25 years old, and priests. But certain very rich abbeys are in the imme- diate bestowal of the pope and of princes. The titular abbots are papal appointments. After election, consecration by the bishop fol- lows. Besides the control over their monas- teries, which is absolute, they have quasi-epis- copal jurisdiction. They can consecrate, and give the tonsure to their monks, consecrate churches and cemeteries, ecclesiastical vest- ments, etc., which are for use in their own monastery ; and many abbots wear the pontifi- cal insignia, mitre, staff, and ring. They have the right to vote in general councils and to be called to provincial synods. Besides the abbots named, there are com- mendatory abbots, who have no jurisdiction, although they have a share in the revenue of an abbey iii commendam (i.e. , in trust). These may be laymen. Sucli were very numerous in France and Italy. There are even Protestant abbots (e.g., Dr. Uhlhorn is abbot of Lokkum, in Hanover), who have income from a former abbey, or stand in a position analogous to an abbot's. Abbot, Ezra, S.T.D. (Harvard, 1872), LL.D. (Yale, 1869; Bowdoin, 1878), Unita- rian layman ; b. at Jackson, Waldo Co., Me., April 28, 1819 ; d. at Cambridge, Mass., March 21, 1884. He was educated at Phillips (Exe- ter) Academy and at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1840) ; taught in Maine and at Cambridge un- til in 1856 he became assistant librarian of Harvard University ; from 1872 till his death he was Bussey professor of New Testament criticism and interpretation in the Divinity School of Harvard University. He was from the beginning to the end (1871-81) the leading critic in the American New Testament Revi- sion Company, as he was the greatest master of New Testament textual criticism in Amer- ica. In his singular modesty he was willing to put his best work into other people's books, thereby robbing himself of popular reputation, but greatly increasing the value of the books whose proofs he dealt Avith so painstakingly. His Literature of t?i6 Doctrine of a Future Life is a unique feature of Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future Life (Boston, 1864) ; his corrections and bibliographical additions to Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (N. Y., 1867- 70, 4 vols.) render the American reprint pref- erable to the English original ; his assistance given to Dr. C. R. Gregory's Prolegomena to the eighth edition of Tischendorf's Greek Testament put that scholar under constant obligation, as he was glad to acknowledge ; his papers upon textual criticism prepared for the use of the American New Testament Revi- sion Company were always listened to with great eagerness, and shed a flood of light upon obscure passages ; his work of correction and addition upon Hudson's Greek and English Concordance of the Neto Testament was invalu- able. Yet he spent so much time in these un- selfish labors that his list of original publica- tions apart from articles in reviews only in- cludes one book. The Authorshij) of the Fourth Oospel: External Evidences (Boston, 1880, 8vo, pp. 104), reprinted with other critical essays of his, edited by Prof. Thayer, Boston, 1889. See Ez?'a Abbot (a memoir edited by Rev. S. J. Barrows), Cambridge, 1884. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury ; b. at Guildford, Oct. 29, 1562 ; d. at Croydon, Aug. 4, 1033. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, 1578 ; became B. A. 1582 ; probationer fellow, 1583 ; M.A., 1585 ; B.D., 1593 ; D.D., 1597 ; master of University College, 1597 ; vice-chancellor of the University, 1600, 1603. and 1605. His church appointments followed in rapid succession. He became dean of Win- chester, 1600 ; bishop of Coventry and Lich- field, Dec. 29, 1609 ; bishop of London, Feb. 12. 1610 ; archbishop of Canterbury, April 9, 1611. He owed his rise first to his patrons. Lord Buckhurst (d. 1608), and later the Earl ABBOTT (3) ABELARD of Dunbar (d. 1610) ; who introduced him to thu kiug, to whom he commended himself by lirs theological learning and his enthusiastic advocacy of episcopacy in Scotland, a pet scheme of the king's, accompanying thither for tliis purpose his patron (1608). Abbot was one of King James' translators of the Bible (1604- 11), and w*as one of eight to whom tlie New Testament, except the Epistles, was assigned. In theology he was a Calvinist ; in ecclesiasti- cal matters a Puritan ; in both respects the op- posite of Laud, a fact whicih gave him much (rouble. He was a faithful, conscientious, fearless, honest prelate, but his moroseness joined to strictness made him unpopular, and "his position at court was not uniformly pleas- ant. On Jul}' 24, 1621, while on a hunting party on Lord Zouch's estate, BramshillParli, Hampshire, he accidentally shot Peter Haw- kins, a gamekeeper. The king protected him from the pecuniaiy consequence, for by com- mon law his estate was forfeit ; but his ene- mies, especially Laud, demanded the enforce- ment of the canonical consequences, that he should be declared incapable of exercising ec- clesiastical jurisdiction. This Avas not done, but he never recovered from the effects of the unhappy accident. Charles I. favored Laud, who brought about Abbot's sequestration for a year (1627-28) for refusing to license a sermon of Dr. Sibthorpe's which saactioned an unlaw- ful attempt by the king to raise money. After this Abbot lived mostly in retirement. His chief publications were, A Brief Deficription of the Whsle TFrt/'W (contains an account of Amer- ica), London, 1599, 5th ed., 1664 ; Exposition on ths Prophet Jonah, 1600, reprinted 1845, with memoir, which see. Abbott, Jacob, D.D. (Amherst, 1874). Con- gregationalist ; b. at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803 ; d. at Farmingtou, Me., Oct. 31, 1879. He graduated at Boudoin College, 1820 ; studied in Andover Theological Seminary, 1822-24 ; was professor of mathematics and natural pliilosophy in Amherst College, 1825- 29 ; principal of the Mt. Vernon school for girls, Boston, 1829-38 ; but after 1839 he de- voted himself to literature, and produced numerous storybooks which have deservedly had a very wide circulation, and through their Christian teachings have done much good. (See memoir in n. ed. of The Young Christian. N. Y., 1882.) Abbott, Lyman, D.D. (New York Univer- sity, 1877), Congregationalist ; b. at Koxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835 ; B.A., University of New York City, 1853 ; practised law, but gave it up for theology, and was pastor at Terre Haute, Ind., 1860-65; in New York City (New England Church), 1866-69 ; and in Brooklyn (Plymouth Church), 1888 to date. Fiom 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedmen'.s) Commission ; from 1871 to 1876 editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly (New York) ; and since 1876 of Th€ Christian tfnion. New York. His best known books are Jesus of Xnzareth, N. Y., 1869, n. ed., 1882 ; Old Testament Shadoirs of New Testament Trut/is, 1870 ; A Dirtionart/ of Re- liqious Knmr>yd(ie, 1873 ; Henry Ward Be'erhtr, a Sketchof his Career ; and Commentary upon Matthew and Mark (1875), Luke (1877), John (1879), Acts (1876), Romans (1888). Abbreviators, a college of prelates in the papal chancery, so called because they prepare by means of traditional abbreviations a short minute of the decision on a petition or reply to a letter given l)y the pope, and afterward expand the minute into official form. They owe their origin to Pope Pius IL (1458-64) ; were dissolved because of their venality by Paul II. (1464-71) ; but revived by Sixtus IV., in 1471. Originally they were of two ranks {ahbreriatori di parco maggiore e minore), the first of 12 members, who were prelates, the second of 22, who belonged to the lower clergy. For a long time there were 72, the greater part being laymen. But now there is only one grade of ahhreviatori di parco {i.e., of the cabi- net), and the number is 11. They revise the papal bulls and sign them in the name of the cardinal vice-chancellor. They also decide questions relating to the phraseology of the bulls aud similar documents. Two of the popes, Paul V. (1566-72) and Urban VIII. (1623-44), were once abbreviators. The cardi- nal prodator, his substitute and his secretary, are called tdtbreviatori di curia, and deal with the bulls which relate to papal law and con- stitution, the canonization of saints, and the announcement of a year of jubilee. Ab-di'-as, reputed author of a history of the Apostles, particularly of their miracles, in 10 books. He pretends to have been one of the 70 ; later first bishop of Babylon, and to have written in Hebrew. In reality, the history was written in Latin about 550. Some of its sources are still extant. It has no historical value. For the text, seeFabricius, Cod. Apos. N. T., pp. 388-742. Abecedarian Hymns. See Acrostic. A Becket. See Becket, Thomas. Abeel, David, D.D. (Rutgers College, 1838), Reformed (Dutch) Church missionary ; b. at New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804 ; d. at Albany, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He studied first medicine and then theology, and gradu- ated at the New Brunswick Theological Sem- inary, 1826 ; was missionary at St. Thomas, West Indies, 1828-29 ; chaplain of the Sea- men's Friend Society at Canton, 1830 ; w-as transferred to the American Board that year, and sent to visit the mission fields in Eastern Asia, so that he might report their condition to the Board. Broken in health, he returned home in 1834, but went back to China in 1839, and founded the Amoy mission, 1843. Health again compelled his return in 1845, and he died the next vear. (See memoir by G. R. William- son, N. Y., 1848.) Ab'-e-lard (an assumed name, either from aheille, a bee, or hail, a tutor), Peter, philoso- pher ; b. of noble Breton parents at Pallet (Palais), near Nantes, France, 1079 ; d. in the Priory of St. Marcel, near Chalons-on-the- Soane, April 21. 1142. Contrary to the wishes of his father he studied philosophy, first under Roscellinus, at Locmenach, near Vannes. in Brittany, then under William of Ciiampeaux in Paris (1095). He soon after began Icctur- ABEIilTES (4) ABSRCROMBIE ing, himself, at Melun, Corbeil, and later in Paris, and that in opposition to his teachers. His fame rapidly spread and hundreds flocked to hear him. In 1113 he turned to theology and became the pupil of Anselm at Laon. But he was as little inclined to accept the tra- ditional theology as he had been the tradi- tional philosophy, and so his philosophical and theological lectures, which he began in 1114 in Paris, though a brilliant success in point of numbers (among his pupils was Peter Lom- bard, q.v.), awakened constant suspicion. While at the height of his fame, Fulbert, a canon of the Cathedral of Paris, intrusted to his instruction his beautiful, learned, and ac- complished niece, Heloise, then (1118) about 17 years old. Abelard shamefully abused Ful- bert's confidence, and Heloise bore him a son, Astrolabius, in his sister's house at Palais. They then were secretly married, in order to satisfy Fulbert. But when Abelard brought Heloise, at her own urgent request, to the Benedictine nunnery at Argenteuil, near Paris, Fulbert, conceiving that he only sought in this way to get rid of his wife, one night with some assistants broke into his lodgings in Paris and mutilated him (1119). Abelard retired to the monastery of St. Denis, in Paris, and be- came a monk. He resumed teaching, but his strict life, his denial of the identity of Diony- sius the Areopagite with St. Denis, the patron saint of the monastery as of France, and his independent views, made him intensely dis- tasteful to the monks. After many trials, in- cluding his compulsory burning of his treatise on the "Divine Unity and Trinity," by the Council of Soi.ssons, il21, he retreated to a desert place near Nogent, in Champagne, and lived as a hermit, but pupils gathered about him, and tents and huts went up on everj- hand. There his enthusiastic pupils helped him to build an oratory which he named The Paraclete; and this in 1128 he made over to Heloise, who lived there until her death. Be- set by new fears, he accepted (1125) the invita- tion of the monks of the Abbey of St. Gildas- de-Rhuys, in Lower Brittany, to be their ab- bot, and for 10 years struggled vainly with their insubordination and savagery. He left them at last, and is lost track of for a time, until he turns up at the Council of Sens (1141), to meet in dialectical contest Bernard of Clair- vaux. Foregone was the condemnation of the suspected heretic, Abelard, but ere sentence could be pronounced he appealed to Rome and at once set out thither. Broken down in body and sick of soul, he reached the Abbey o"f Cluni. The abbot, Peter the Venerable, kind- ly received him, but sent him for his health's sake to the Priory of St. Marcel, and there he soon after died. His body was carried secretly to the Para- clete for Heloise's reverent keeping, and when in 1164 she died, her body was buried in the same grave. The bones now arc in the same sarcophagus in the cemetery of Pere Lachaise in Paris, under a baldachan built of stone taken from the ruins of the Paraclete. Abelard was the first rationalist. " In his Iiitnxliiction to Theology [he] lays down the principle that rational insight must prepare the way for faith, since without that faith is not sure of its truth. In opposition to the trithc- ism of Roscellinus, and by employing the Au- gustinian terminology, he gives to the doctrine of the Trinity a monarchian interpretation, explaining the three persons as being God's power, wisdom, and goodness, and yet not denying the personality of those attributes. He interprets the Platonic world-soul as mean- ing the Holy Ghost or the divine love in its re- lation to the world, in so far as this love be- stows good on all men, Jews and heathen in- cluded. In ethics, Abelard lays stress on the state of the heart ; it is not the act as such, but the intention, on which sin and virtue de- pend. Whatever is not in conflict with the conscience is not sinful, although it may be faulty, since conscience may err ; the harmo- ny of the will with the conscience is then only a sulflcient evidence of one's virtue, when the conscience holds that to be good or pleas- ing to God which in reality is such." (Ueber- weg. Hist. Phil., Eng. trans. I., p. 387.) Abelard's most famous compositions are, (1) Historia Calamitatum (" history of sufier- ings"), which, together with Heloise's three letters, constitutes a history of his roman- tic, genuine, but calamitous love-affair ; (2) Sic et Nan (" yes and no"), contradictory pas- sages from the fathers, with hints how they might be reconciled, but leaving the impres- sion that they cannot be ; and Scito te ipsinn (" know thyself "), an epoch-making work on ethics. Best ed. of his works by Cousin, Paris, 1849-59, 3 vols., and Onvi'ages inedits d' Abe- lard, Paris, 1836. In Migne, Pat. Lat. CLXXVIIL, col. 118 sqq. The classical biography is by Charles de Remusat, Abelard, Paris, 1845, 2 vols. ; 2d ed., 1855. Cf. Wight, Romance of Abelard and Heloise, N. Y., 1853. Abelites, or Abelonians, a small North African sect, mentioned by Augustine {de hares, c. 87) as extinct, which pretended to imitate Abel in maintaining virginity, although married. That he did so was a current, wide- spread belief. Each couple adopted a boy and a girl, and made them their heirs on condition that they married each other, but likewise re- strained themselves. The idea was not to spread original sin. Abelonians. See Abelites. Abenare. See below. A'-ben-Ez'-ra, or Ibn Ezra, also called Aben- are or Evenare, the ordinary name for the He- brew Abraham ben Meir Xben Ezra ; b. at Toledo, Spain, about 1100 ; d. on the island of Rhodes about 1175. He was a poet and philosopher, but is chiefly famed as an excel- lent biblical scholar, and the first who inter- preted the text according to the grammatical sense, and illustrated it from cognate lan- guages. See in English his Commentaries on Proverbs (London, 1880), Canticles (1874), and Isaiah (1873-77, 4 vols.). The last contains Friedlander's essay on him. Abercrombie (ab'-er-krum -bee), John, M.D., b. at Aberdeen, Oct. 10, 1780 ; d. at Edin- burgh, Nov. 14, 1844. He was for many years the foremost physician in Scotland. His works. Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth, Edin- ABERNETHT (5) ABRAHAM burgh, 1880, and The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, London, 1833, reached in 1869 their 18th and 14th editions, respectively. They are written in an interesting and edifying style, but have no scientific value. Abernethy (ab'-er-neth-ee), John, Presby- terian ; b. at Coleraine, Co. Londonderry, Ire- land, Oct. 19, 1680 ; d. in Dublin, Dec. 1740. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh uni- versities, and he was pastor at Antrim from 1703 to 1730. and at Dublin from 1730 till his death. In 1717 he refused to obe}' the general synod's decision that he should accept a proffered pastorate in Dublin. That any one should dare disobey the general synod was un- heard of. His firm stand had, however, its defenders, and led to his heading a party, failed " non-subscribers, " which split the Irish Tcsbyterian Church. In 1726 they were cut off, and formed a separate presbytery. Their motto was resistance to " the tyrannical exer- cise of ecclesiastical power." In 1731, on the occasion of the Test Act, Abernethy again showed his independence and progress by his stand " against all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country." "(See his life by Duchal prefixed to his Posthumous Sermons, 1763, 4 vols. Cf. Stephen, Did. Nat. Biog., s.v.) Ab'-gar, a name, like Pharaoh or Cresar, borne by the kings of Edessa, a small king- dom in the s.w. of Mesopotamia. Eusebius {Ch. Hist, i., 13) gives the reputed correspond- ence between [the fifteenth] Abgar and Jesus, relative to the cure of the former's leprosy. Jesus promises to send, after his crucifixion, one of his disciples to heal him. Thaddeus was sent, and Abgar and his subjects were converted to Christianity. A later legend is that Jesus sent Abgar his portrait. Cf. Moses of Chorcne's account, trans, in jhite-Nicene Fathers, Am. rep., viii., 703 sqq. On Abgar legends, see Lipsius (Braunschweig, 1880), Matthes (Leipzig, 1882), and Tixeron (Paris, 1888). Ability. See Inability. A-bim'-e-lech (father of the king). 1. The name of Philistinian kings of Gerar, who came in contact with Abraham and Isaac through their wives (Gen. xx., xxvi.). 2. The natural son of Gideon, made king of Shechem, reigned three years, put down a rebellion, but shortly afterward was killed by a piece of millstone thrown on his head by "a woman (Judges ix.). Abjuration of heresy is, in the Roman Catholic Church, " required in the canon law as a preliminary to baptism, or, when there is no question of that (as in the case of converts from the Eastern Church), before the convert makes his confession of faith." In English- speaking countries it is taken for granted, since the converts must accept the creed of Pius v., and thus renounce the principal her- esies, so-called. Addis and Arnold, s.v. Ablution- In the Roman Catholic Church the name given to the wine and water which are separately poured b}- the server into the chalice over the thumb and index finger of the olficiatiiig priest after cominunioii, wiiu drinks it before going on witli the closing prayers. In the Greek Church the ceremony of washing oft" the unction of the chrism seven days after baptism is called ablution. Abrabanel. See AnAiin.\NEi.. A'-bra-ham (father of a multitude), pro- genitor of Israel ; b. at Ur, in Chaldca, modern Mugheir, probably of an idolatrous family ; moved with them to Ilaran (G«n. xi. 28, 31), but when 75 years old, by divine command left them, and went with Sarai, his half-sister ancl wife, into Canaan, and settled at Shechem, un- til famine led him to make a tenqwrary so- journ in Egypt, where at first his wife's beauty made him trouble ; but he was finally dismiss- ed by the king, greatly increased in wealth (xii. ). He then lived by the oak of Mamre, at Hebron (xiii. 18). On his victorious return from his pursuit of the captors of his nephew Lot, he met Melchisedek, who blessed him, and to whom he paid titlus (xiv. 20). Sarai gave him Hagar as concubine, and by her he had Ishmael when he was 86 years old (xvi. 16). God shortly after changed his name from Abram (father of elevation) to Abraham, and Sarai's (my princess) to Sarah (princess), and instituted circumcision (xvii. 10). Later, God told him that the cities of the ])lain, wherein Lot dwelt, were to be destroyed. Ilis touch- ing plea for them was accepted, but there were too few righteous to come into its terms (xviii. 16 scjc].). He moved to Gerar, and there Isaac, the child of so many hopes, the object of such wonderful prophecies, was born when he was 100 and Sarah 90 years old (xxi. 2), the trouble with Abimelech ended by a treaty (xxi. 32), and Hagar and Ishmael' by divine permission, sent away at Sarah's request (xxi. 14). He journej'ed once to ]\It. !Moriah, in order to offer tip Isaac his son, but the divine command which he obeyed was only a test of his faith, and he was sjjared the sacrifice (xxii.). Sarah d. at the ase of 127 years, and was bur- ied in the cave of 3Iachpelah (xxiii. 19). Abra- ham married again and had several sons (xxv. 1), and d. at the age of 175, and was buried beside his first wife (xxv. 10). The epithets, " Fatiier of the Faithful" and "Friend of God," by which Abraham isconimonly callt-d, attest his high charactc r and llic (!(•<■]> impres- sion he made upon his (•ontcinporarits and tlu'ir descendants. Faith was his great cliaractcris- tic, and by it he has won a deathless name, so that by Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans alike he is honored and beloved. (See H. J. Tomkins, Stvdies on t/ie Times of Abraham, London, 1878.) Abraham a Sancta Clara, monastic name of Johann Ulrieh ^Megerle (or Megerlin), Ro- man Catholic ; b. at Kreenheinstetten. IJaden. June 2, 1644 ; d. in Vienna, Dec. 1. 1709. He entered the order of tlie Barefooted Augus- tinians. 1662, and preached to great crowds in their diurch in Vienna from 1668 till his death ; became court preaclier(1677). and defi- nitor prorinciiT, (1697). He is witty, humor- OU.S, and outsjioken. but often grotestjuc, trivial, and even coarse. His chief work in JuiUis (hr Erzschdm (" Judas the arch-wug' ). ABR AH AMITE S (6) AOACIUS a satirico-religious romance, Salzbvirg, 1688- 95, 4 parts. (See his collected works, Passau and Lindau, 1835-54, 21 vols., and a selection, Heilbronn, 1840-44. 7 vols. Also life by T. von Karajan, Abraham, Wien, 1867. ) Abrahamites. 1. A "widespread Syrian Paulician sect of the 9th century, which de- nied the Godhood of Christ ; established by Abraham of Antioch. 2. A short-lived Bo- hemian deistic sect (fl. 1782) which, pretend- ing to have the Abrahamic religion, rejected the Trinity and most of the other Christian doctrines, but accepted the Ten Command- ments and the Lord's Prayer. They were suppressed. Abraxas, or Abraxar, a Gnostic mystic and secret name, which probably is the concrete expression for the 365 kingdoms of spirits, which, according to Basilides, emanated from the hidden God. It is a word very frequently found on precious stones, known as ' ' Abraxas gems, ' ' and its Greek letters have the value of 365. Thus : A = 1, B = 2, R =r 100, A =1, X = 60, A = 1, S = 200. See Gnosticism. Ab'-sa-lom {father of peace), son of David (2 Sam. iii. 3), remarkable for beauty, and especially for his hair (xiv. 25, 26) ; fled, after killing his half-brother Amnon, for violating his sister Tamar ; recalled after 3 years (xiii. 38 ; xiv. 28) ; rebelled against David, but was defeated and killed by Joab (xv. 1-xviii. 33). His " pillar" (xviii. 18), so-called, is shown in the Kedron valley. Ab'-sa-lon, or Ax'-el, Danish prelate, states- man and warrior, b. at Fjenneslevlille, Seeland, 1128 ; archbishop of Lund and primate of Scandinavia (1178) ; papal legate ; founder of Copenhagen ; patron of Saxo-Grammaticus, historian of Denmark ; converter of the Riigen islanders ; d. in the Cistercian Abbey of Soroe, March 21, 1201. (See Estrup, Absalon, Leip- zig, 1832.) Absolute, the, philosophical expression for God, as ])eing without any of the finite limita- tions and conditions. Absolution. 1. The ecclesiastical forgive- ness of sins. (See Confession.) 2. The Ro- man Catholic prayer at a burial for the deliv- erance of the soul of the departed from pur- gatory. It has neither sacramental nor canon- ical character, but arose in the Middle Ages. 8. In the Roman Catholic breviary the title of some prayers before the lessons in matins, and before the " brief reading" at prime to show that it closes the service ; so called probably because some of these prayers imply a petition for forgiveness of sin. Absolution, Day of, is Good Friday, so called from the ancient practice of emphasiz- ing forgiveness upon this day. Abstinence, in the Roman Catholic Church, is distinguished from fasting, and means ab- stention not from all but only from certain kinds of food. On fasting days only one meal IS allowed in 24 hours ; on abstinence days flesh is forbidden, but an evening meal is allowed. The days of abstinence are all Saturdays and Sundays in Lent (unless exempted), Saturdays of Ember week and vigils (all Sat- urdays are so properly, but a papal dispensa- tion, renewed every 20 years, exempts the rest), and all Fridays except that on which Christmas may fall. Abstinents, name given to (1) the heretical Encratites ; (2) the Priscillianists ; (3) the As- cetics. (See those arts.) Abuna. (See next art.) Abyssinian (or Ethiopian) Church, was founded about tlae middle of the 4th century by the Syrian Frumentius, who with his brother ^desius had been a prisoner at the Abyssinian court at Auxumis (modern Axuni). Released after a time he went to Alexandria, where he was consecrated bishop by Athanasius, and sent back to Christianize the Abyssinians. He received the titles Abuna {our father) and Abba Salama {father of peace), which are still used by his successors. The Abyssinian Church has always been dependent upon that of Egypt, and its abuna, or head, who is titular bishop of Axum, is chosen by the Coptic pa- triarch of Alexandria, and never is an Abys- sinian. Like the Alexandrian, the Abyssinian Church became, and still remains, monophy- sitic (see ar t. ). It exhibits a curious admixture of essentially Jewish ideas — e.g., circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, the distinction of clean and unclean foods, and the levirate law ; all of which probably shows that the Abyssinians had early contact with Judaism, perhaps as far back as Solomon's time. Jews are very numerous there now. (See art. Fa- LASHAS.) The Bible is in Ethiopic, now a dead language, and is read aloud by priests who commonly cannot translate the text. It in- cludes the Apocrypha and several pseudepi- grapha ; indeed, the pseudo-apostolic writings are highly esteemed. Baptism of adults is by trine immersion, of infants by aspersion, fol- lowed by the Eucharist ; in which ordinance grape juice and not wine is used. But con- firmation, extreme unction, transubstantiation, purgatory, crucifixes, and image worship are all rejected. Secular priests can marry once. There are 180 festival and 200 fast days. Vain attempts have been made to Romanize the Abyssinians. Missionaries were first sent thither by popes Nicholas IV. (1288-92) and John XXII. (1316-34) ; and by later popes down to Gregory XVI. (1831-46), who started in 1838 a vigorous mission, which for a while was most promising ; but in 1854 the mission- aries were driven from the country, and the work has not since been resumed. Nor have Protestant missions been any more successful. Gobat and Kugler (1826), Isenberg (1835), and others worked there heroically, but in 1843 reluctantly abandoned the field. In 1888 Rus- sia sent a missionary expedition into Abys- sinia. It remains to be seen if the Greek Church will do any better. Acacians. See below. A-ca'-ci-us (she-us), Acacians. Acacius, d. at Cajsarea, 366, succeeded Eusebius as bishop of Csesarea, 340 ; became head of the courtly Arian party ; assisted in consecrating Cyril of Jerusalem," 351 ; but, later, deposed and ex- pelled him for pretended heresy, 358 ; and was able in 360 to have him sent into exile. Aca- ACATHOLIOI (7) ACROSTIC cius was prominent in the theological contro- versies and intrigues of the time. He was " a man of great intellectual ability and little honesty, ready in action, eloquent in speech, subtle in argument, and unscrupulous as to the means by which he secured his ends ; with no deep convictions on the great subjects of contro- versy, concealing his real views with skilfully chosen ambiguity of language, and adroitly changing them when it waslo his advantage to do so." Thus he rejected both terms Homoousion and Homoiousion at the synod of Seleucia, 359, and confessed the lilieness of the Son to the Father, but interpreted it as in will alone. But when deposed by the ortho- dox council at Rimini, he got a council called at Constantinople, and accepted the creed of Rimini and kept his place. He changed sev- eral times, but was at last deposed for good. Cf. Smith and Wace, s.v. F. Acatholici {not catlwUc), name formerly applied to Protestants in Austria. Accad, or Akkad. See Assyriology, p, 52. Acceptants, name given to those French prelates and clergy who accepted uncondition- ally the bull Cnigenitus condemning Jansen- ism, 1713. Appellants were those who did not, but desired that the matter should be re- ferred to a general council. Access, the approach of the priest to the altar to celebrate the Eucharist. Accidents, " the non-essential qualities of a suKstance, such as taste, appearance, or color, any of which change or cease to exist, and yet the substance itself remains." In Roman Catholic theolog}', it is said that in transub- stantiation the accidents of the bread and wine remain the same, but the substance has been changed into the veritable body and blood of Christ. Ac -cho, Ac -co (R. V. , Judges i. 31), 80 m. n.n.w. of Jerusalem ; unimportant Phoenician coast town in Old Testament times ; came into notice in connection with Alexander's conquests ; was called Ptolemais. after Ptolemy Soter ; is frequently mentioned in the Book of the Maccabees and in Joseph us ; also by this name in Acts xxi. 7, and there was an early Christian church. The Kalipli Omer took the town (678) as the key to the Holy Land, and under Mohammedan rule it regained its old name Acco ; experienced various fortunes during the Crusades ; was finally destroyed by the Saracens, 1291. Here the Turks success- fully defended themselves against the French, 1799 ; it was bombarded by the British. 1840 ; since under Turkish rule. It was at one time a splendid city, but there is little left to tell the tale. It is now known as Acre. Accommodation, a technical term in theol- ogy, sometimes used to denote the rationalis- tic'theory that Chri.st fell in with certain errors of his time, such as, e.g. . the belief in demo- niacs, etc., and thus accommodated himself to the mental and moral condition of the Jews ; a theory justly repudiated as undermining alike our Saviour's character and the autlior- ity of the Gospels. The term was also em- ployed to explain the dissonance between cer- tain passages of the Old Testament and their application by the writers of the New, on the ground tluit altliough there was no mutual re- lation between the'two tilings, tlie writer ac- commodated the earlier to the later in order to make his narrative more impressive. A more sober view of the case denies this opinion, and insists that each quotation can be justified either by a larger view of the original context or by a reference to the purpose for which it was made— that is, simply as illustrative, not predictive, of what is said. The term is also used of the unwise practice of some modern preachers to take texts of Scripture and acc/mi- modate them to the subject in hand, without the least regard to the natural meaning of the passage or the reason for which it was put on record. C. Acephali {headless), name given, 1. To me- tropolitans and bishops who have no eccle- siastical head over them. 2. To certain chisses of heretics : {a), those who rejected the Chalce- donian Council ; (6) the P^utychian adherents of Peter Mongus, who refused to subscribe the Henoticon, as he had done ; ('•) tlie undecid- ed bishops who, at the synod of Ephesus (431), held neither with the party of Cyril nor that of John of Antioch. 3. To the clergy belong- ing to no diocese. 4. To the Flagellants. Achery, D'. See D'AcnEUY. Acoemetae {sleepless), an order of monks of the 5t]i century, who received tlieir name from the perpetual divine service held in their clois- ters. Their chief seat was the famous convent Studium at Constantinople. A similar society was founded in Burgundy in 515. F. Acolyths {attendants), an order of the clergy in the Roman Church before the Reformation and at the present day, ranking as the highest of the minor orders (see Okdkks), whose duty was to perform certain inferior sersices in the ritual, particularly that of the presentation of the elements to the consecrating priest. In the earliest times the acolyths were the cleri- cal servants especially attached to the bish- ops. F. A-cos-ta, Uriel, noted apostate, b. of Portu- guese noble parents of Jewish ancestry, at Oporto, 1594 ; passed in Amstertlam from Romanism to Judaism, where. l)ecause of his denial of immortality and contempt for cere- monial law, he was put out of the synagogue, and died, probablv by his own hand, 1647. Cf. life by Jellinek,' Leipzig. 1847. Eng. trans, of his autobiography, London, 1740. Acre. See Accno. Acrostic {extremity — verse), a comjwsition of wliich the first letters of the several lines form the name of a person or thing. One of the most familiar is IXOTi. which, as a word, means fish, but is also a combination of 'lijaovq XfHcrii Oeov T/of lurz/p ("Jesus Christ, Son of Gofl, Saviour"). We have iu the 119th Psalm an acrostic containing all tho letters of the Hebrew alphalK't. each r(p«-ated 8 times in as manv lines. Hymns were con- structed on that "principle. Otlnrs. callejl Abecedarian hymns and psalms, in wliich each line began with a different letter, according to the order of the alphabet, have been pretjc-rved. i ACTION (8) ACTS Action Sermon, the Scotch name for the one preached immediately before the celebra- tion of the Lord's Supi^er. Act of Faith (Spanish, Auto-da-fe), proper- ly only the open, solemn reading of the judg- ment of death passed upon a heretic, as the result of the Inquisition set up in Spain, 1481 ; but as the execution by the civil power imme- diately followed, the term was transferred to the execution. In order to enhance a high feast day, many heretics w^ere executed to- gether upon it. Immense numbers attended, and royalty often. The most brilliant auto-da- fe was at Madrid, in 1680, before Charles II. During the 18th century auto-da-fes decreased, and the last one probably took place in Mex- ico, 1815. In Spain alone, from 1481-1808, ac- cording to the accounts published in 1834, 34,- 658 persons were publicly or secretly executed, and 288,214 sentenced to imprisonment for life or to the galleys. The victims wore a yel- low coat like, a sack {sanbenito — saco bendito) with pictures of flames on it. Those who ap- peared in the procession, but were to be re- leased, had a similar coat with the cross on it. Acta Martyrum and Sanctorum, terms used to describe the lives of the early martyrs and of later saints in the early Catholic and the Roman Catholic Church. The origin of these was the natural and commendable desire to preserve the memory of those who had borne witness to the truth at the cost of their lives, and to incite later generations to imitate their example of self-denying devotion. The earli- est specimens are found in the '' Martyrdoms" which have come down from the period of the first persecutions, those of Polycarp, of the Christians at Lyons, and Vicnne in Gaul, of Justin, etc. That of Polycarp describes, in a style appropriate to the times and circum- stances, the various incidents of his apprehen- sion, trial, and death, wdth the addition of sev- eral miraculous particulars which have the air of later additions. Cyprian's Letters give other information about martyrdoms of the most valuable character. The custom of cele- brating the memory of the martyrs upon the day of their death led to the formation of cal- endars in which simply the names of the mar- tyrs were recorded at the proper dates. To these were added subsequently accounts for purposes of edification, sometimes read in the churches. Such accounts were amplified with little regard for the exact historical truth, till in the Middle Ages the legends of the saints became the repositories of the poetic fancies of the day. Still, the historical spirit of the earli- est records had not at any time wholly disap- peared. Pope Gelasius (1118-19) complained of the condition of the accounts of his day, and others sought, with a literary purpose rather than a religious, to describe worthily the lives of many great men of the Church. Such were many Greek lives of the chief heroes of early monasticism. And when the revival of learn- ing came, and the models of classical antiquity were studied, there arose a new style of treat- ing the martyrologies, which culminated in the great undertaking of the Jesuits, John Bol- land (b. at Julemont, near Liege, Belgium, Aug. 13, 1596 ; d. at Antwerp, Sept. 12, 1665) and his associates, to describe the lives of all the saints, grouped under months, according to the day of their death or festival, which has resulted in the series known as the Acta Sanc- torum, comprising now 63 folio volumes, which was begun in the year 1643 at Antwerp. The resources of the order were all employed to gather the most complete collection of materials, and an institution was established at Antwerp, which perpetuated itself and labored at its task for more than 100 years, till the dissolution of the order brought the work to a temporary close. In this period the work had been prosecuted to Oct. 7, and oc- cupied 49 volumes. It was characterized by a great degree of historical faithfulness. The dogmatic position of its authors was not so rigidly maintained as to lead them to conceal or distort the manifest truth. The freedom and the lofty pride and independence of the Jesuit Order in its relations to the Catholic Church co-operated to render it somewhat careless of the prejudices and doctrines of some theologians, and of some rival orders in the church. Thus, -it disclosed without com- punction the worthlessness of the Carmelites' claim to date from the time of Elijah. Learn- ed introductions and commentaries added to the value of the work. It is and will remain one of the greatest sources of the history of the Middle Ages in particular. In 1837 the work was resumed by the re-established order, but it lacks the freedom and value of the earlier series. F. Acts of Pilate. See Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of the New Testament. It purports to have been written by the author of the third gospel, of which it is a continuation. Its theme is the founding of the Christian Church among the Jews by Peter, among the Gentiles by Paul, and it extends from the Ascension of our Lord to the first imprisonment of the apostle in Rome. It is not a complete narrative, as is shown by its omission of many occurrences of which we learn from the epistles, yet it is quite full enough to effect its purpose of setting forth the development of the church from the metropolis of Judaism to the capital of the world. Its credibility was powerfully sus- tained by Dr. Paley's original work, IIotcb PaulirM!, (1790), in which the existence of a va- riety of undesigned coincidences between this narrative and the Apostolic Epistles was made to show that the book could not possibly be a cunningly devised fable. During the present century it has been repeatedly attacked on the ground that it was not a colorless, impartial history, but composed for a purpose, being de- signed to bring Judaists and Paulinists into fraternal relations. Hence its date is put in the second century, when, in order to cement more and more the union of Judaizers with Gentile Christians, this book appeared, not only select- ing such existing materials as suited its aim, but even inventing them when they were not at hand. This theory was urged by Dr. Fer- dinand Baur, with vast learning and bound- less acuteness, and for a time seemed to carr^ all before it ; but it has been shown that it is ADALBERT (9) ADIAPHORA baseless, that many of the phenomena adduced in its favor are imaginary, while tlie others are for the most part susceptible of explanation, that exegetically it is untenable, and that its doctrine of " tendency" is pushed to extrava- gant lengths. The time and place of com- position are uncertain. As it extends to the second year of Paul's imprisonment at Rome, it could not have been written prior to A.r>. 56, and probably was composed soon after that date. The text is in a worse condition than that of any other book of the New Testa- ment, owing doubtless to the attempts of copy- ists to harmonize variant accounts and remove apparent difficulties. Instances of interpola- tion, removed in the Revised Version, may be seen in chaps, viii. 37, ix. 5, 6, xxiv. 6-8, xxviii. 29. The most useful commentaries re- main those of Alexander (N. Y., 1856) and Hackett (Andover, 1851 ; rev. ed. 1877). C. Ad'-al-bert (properly Woytech, the comfort of the host), b. at Prague about 956 ; became bishop there, 983 ; went as missionary to Prussia. 997 ; murdered . near Konigsberg, April 23, 997. He is called the Apostle of the Prussians. Ad'*am {red), the name of the first man, who ■was created by the direct act of God (Gen. ii. 7). After the vegetable and animal world he came into being as the crown of creation, not feeble and helpless, still less as diseased and dying, but mature and free from sin. He was made in the image of God— that is, a ration- al and spiritual loeing, free but responsible, a distinct and holy personality, endowed with righteousness and holiness of truth. This view of man's original state stands opposed alike to the Romanist doctrine that righteous- ness was a supernatural gift not belonging to liis nature, and to the Pelagian theory that he was created without moral character. Made of dust as to his physical organization, God breathed into him a living soul, and invested him with dominion over the creatures. Thus he became the representative of the divine ma- jesty, or, as the apostle says (1 Cor. xi. 7), "the glory of God." From him descended the whole human race— a point once hotly contested, but now universally admitted. From him, too, came the universal depravity of the world. God made man upright, but he fell, and in his fall the many were made sin- ners. In this fact all evangelical Cliristians agree, tliough they differ as to its groimd, some placing it in the realistic view tliat all men were seminally in Adam, others in the cove- nant relation by which he became the federal head of his posterity. C. Adam of St. Victor, d. in the abbey of St. Victor, Paris, about 1192 ; poetical works, which prove him the greatest Latin poet of the Middle Ages, first translated by Wrangham, London, 1881. 3 vols. Adam, Melchior, b. at Grotkau, in Silesia, 15— ; d. as professor in Heidi ll)erg, 1622 ; author of Vitiv fjermoiiontm theologontm, Heidelberg, 1620, a useful book, containing sketches of many theologians, mostly Protest- ants. His admired sketch of Luther was trans- lated, London, 1641. Adamites, or Adamiani, a Gnostic sect in the lirst lialf of the second century, which, as a manifestation of its superiority over the temptations of the flesli, had both sexes ai)pcar naked in its religious assemblies. Tliis suj)eri- ority attained, it permitted the most promiscu- ous intercourse. A similar sect appeared in Bohemia in the time of Ziska (1421), which has survived to our own day. F. Adams, Sarah Fuller Flowep: [Mrs. "Will- iam Bridges AdainsJ, 1). at Great Harlow, Essex, Eng., Feb. 22. 1805 ; married, 1834 ; d. in London of consumption, Aug. 14, 1848. She wrote considerable poetry ; her principal poem was Vivia jM'rpetva (London, 1841) ; her principal hymn, " Nearer, my God, to Thee." Adams, Thomas, Puritan, whom Southey pronounced to be " the prose Shakesi)eare of Puritan theologians ;" birth and death uncer- tain as to time and place ; rt. 1612-53 ; d. as rector of St. Bennet's, London. (See his Practical Works, w. Dr. Angus' Memoir, Edin., 1861-62, 3 vols. ; and his Ccmimentary on 2 Peter, cd. Sherman, London, 1839.) Adams, William, b. at Exeter (?), 1814 ; d. at Bonchurch, Isle of Wight, Jan. 17. 1848. Took double first-class honors at Oxford, 1836 ; became fellow and tutor of his college (Mer- ton), 1837 : vicar of St. Peter's in the Ea.st, 1840 ; at Bonchurch, 1843. He wrote The Shadow of the Cross, London, 1842 ; 18th ed., 1863 ; and other very popular religious works of the kind, collected under title, ISucred Alle- gories. London, 1849 (w. Memoir) ; Greek trans., Athens, 1877 ; rep., N. Y. Ad'-el-bert, or Al'-de-bert, a powerful op- ponent of Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, in his efforts to reduce France to obedience to the see of Rome. He was said to have the power to work miracles, but Boniface charges him with deception and with various errors and heresies, .some of which are inconsistent with each other. He was not strenuous in his observance of auricular confession, and erect- ed churches, etc., against the practice of Bon- iface. After a synodical condemnation at Soissons, 744, which Boniface could not get executed, he was condemned at Rome by council, but without a proper and fair trial. From tliis time he di.sapp<'ars from liistciry. He is said to have been imprisoned at Fiilda, and to have escaped. F. Ad -el-heid, St., daughter of King Rudolph II. of Burgundy ; b. 931 ; d. Dec. 16, 999. She was married" at 16 to Lothair (d. 950), sou of King Hugo, of Italy ; imprisoned by Be- rengar II., of Ivrea, because she refused to marrv hisson Adelbcrt, Inil escaped and found refuge at the court of Otto I., hiter cmi>eror of Germany, who married her 951. Her in- lluence wa's great and salutary during his reign and those of his son and grandson. Ad -e-o-da-tus. 1. The son of Augustine of lIipi)o. 2. A monk, Poix- in 672. d. (176. wlio zcakuisly defended the doctrine of llu-lwo wills in Christ. I*'- ! Adiaphora, things indifferent— /.r.. neillier I conunanded nor prohibited by the moral law. ' The notion originated among the Stoics, but { ADIAPHORI3TIO (10) ADORATION does not appear to bo recognized in Scripture. The questioQ whether such actions are possi- ble was much discussed among tlie schoolmen, Thomas Aquinas denying it, at least, in con- crete, but Duns Sco'tus affirming. Among Protestants the first Adiaphoristie Controversy (1548-55) turned upon points of doctrine, not of morals. In the next century a second con- flict arose between the Pietists and their oppo- nents, whicli touched the heart of ethics, since it was claimed that all secular amusements should be repudiated as sinful, but this led to no result. Most of the modern ethical writers deny the existence of adiaphora. Martensen, after quoting the words, All that is iwt of faith is sin (Rom. xiv. 23), adds, " All is sin to me that does not proceed from the fundamental conviction which is the determining motive of the unity of my life, and is not in harmony with it.'' C. Adiaphoristic Controversy. See above. Adler, Felix, Ph.D. (Heidelberg, 1873) ; b. at Alzey, Germany, Aug. 13, 1851 ; graduated at Columbia College, New York City, 1870 ; became non-resident professor of oriental languages and literature at Cornell University, Ithaca, N". Y., 1873 ; lecturer of the Society of Ethical Culture, New York City, 1876. Ad'-o-nai, a Hebrew word {iny master), ap- plied in Scripture, by way of eminence, to God as sovereign, and usually rendered Lord. The later Jews, through superstitious reverence, used its vowels to point the incommunicable name Jehovah, commonly rendered Lord. C. A-do-ni'-jah (tm/ Lord Jah), the fourth son of David (3 Sam. iii. 4). "When his father was near death, Adonijah endeavored to seize the throne as his successor, but the plot was dis- covered and thwarted. Although condition- ally spared by Solomon, he afterward renewed his attempt by seeking to marry Abishag, the virgin widow of his father, and was thereupon justly put to death (1 Kings i. 5 sqq. ; ii. 13- 25). C. Adoption is a term used in Scripture to denote the relation to God into which men are brought when they are renewed. Whereas before they were aliens and outcasts, now they are received into the family of God and en- titled to all the privileges and immunities of his children. They are freed from a servile spirit ; have filial confidence in God as their father and their portion ; have free access to him at all times and in all circumstances ; and receive the spirit of adoption— ^■.c., that which produces the feelings which children have, and which, along with this inward state, bears wit- ness directly to the sonship of believers, and thus assures them of their acceptance with God ; consequently they know that they shall have the care of a heavenly father throughout life (Matt. x. 29, 80) ; shall receive such cor- rection and discipline as may be needed (Heb. xii. 5-8) ; and finally, as joint heirs with Christ, the natural Son of God, shall enter upon an inheritance incorruptible and eternal. This view of adoption is now common to near- ly all branches of the Protestant Church, but is overlooked by the Romanists in consequence of their identifying justification and sanctifica- tion, and their denial that a man can ever be certain that he is justified and in a state of grace. C. Adoptionists, those believing that Christ is the Son of God, not by nature, but by adop- tion. Similar conceptions are to be found among many early writers during the forma- tive period of Christian Christology. But Adoptionism has its place in history from the controversy which arose in Spain and France at the close of the 8th century. In opposi- tion to a certain Migetius, who taught that there are three corporeal persons in the Trinity — a rough kind of Sabellianism — Elipandus of Toledo taught that the Trinity is an eternal distinction in the Godhead. But in teaching that the person of Christ is the eternal Logos, he also taught that Christ, according to his hu- manity, is Son by adoption. This is an act of grace, and unites the Son of Man so intimately with the Son of God that they are henceforth to be called one person. The object of the doctrine was to secure the proper emphasis upon the human nature of Christ, and it seems at times as if Elipandus meant only to express by adoption what has usually been expressed by assumption. Yet the doctrine is not clear, and the unity of the person of Christ is not properly protected. The result is a form of conception which approaches Nestorianism. The subject was treated in several synods, and Elipandus' doctrine was finally condemned at Rome in 800, after which time it gradually disappeared. F. Adoration is an importation from the East, where it is indigenous, and applied to princes and other grandees before whom inferiors bend the knee and touch the ground with their foreheads, or kiss the hem of their garments, or their feet. Alexander the Great was thus honored by the conquered Persians. The ori- ental custom was adopted by the Roman em- perors and the popes since the 9th century, who have demanded the kissing of the feet. From private life the forms "of ceremonial attention were taken into worship, especial- ly hftfore the images of Christ and the saints, and the honor paid to these was repre- sented as referred to the objects which they represent. The Roman Church makes a dis- tinction between, (1) dulia, " the secondary veneration to saints and angels as the servants and special friends of God ;" (2) hyperdulia, " which is only a subdivision of dulia, is that higher veneration which is given to the Blessed Virgin as the most exalted of mere creatures, though, of course, infinitely inferior to God, and incomparably inferior to Chi-ist in his hu- man nature ;" and (3) latreia, the " supreme worship due to God alone, and [which] cannot be transferred to any creature without the horrible sin of idolatry. " Addis and Arnold. S.V., Gultiis. Cf. Tridentine Canons and De- crees XXV. Sess. (Schaff, Greeds, pp. 199 sqq.). The Adoration of the Host— i.e., the kneeling before the upraised wafer which is said to have been transformed into the body of Christ— was introduced by Pope Honorius III. (d. 1227). Perpetual Adoration means that by arrangement some person is praying in the church all the time. A-DRAMMELECH (11) ADVENTISTS Ad-ram' -me-lech{ glory of Melecli—i.e., Mo- loch). 1. A deity worshipped by the inhabit- ants of Scpharvaim, who were transported to Samaria by the king of Assyria (3 Kings xvii. 31). It is supposed that lie represented the sun, while Aii(iinin€lech{i\\tn\iio\xci\ in the same verse) represented the moon ; and both wen; worshipped by the .sacrifice of living cliildren. 2. A son of Sennacherib who conspired with his brother Sharczer to kill their father, which they accomplished while he was in the act of worship. Afterward they escaped to Armenia, and E.sar-Haddou ascended the throne (Isa. xxxvii. 38). C. A-dri'-an, or Hadrian, noted popes of that name. 1. Pope 772-795. His life falls with- in the period of the contest with the Lombards and the establishment of the Frankish power in Italy. It was at his request that Charle- magne entered Italy, who, after conquering Desiderius, entered Rome, and in 774 renewed the document by which Pepin had given the pope the rights o'f territorial sovereignty in a portion of Italy. The pope's relations with the Frankish kings did not remain good, and in his transactions with the Eastern Empire and the patriarch of Constantinople lie did not suc- ceed in regaining the rights he claimed in Ca- labria, Sicily, and Illyria. 2. Pope 867-872. Carried the struggle with Lothaire II. of France to an unsatisfactory close. His at- tempts to mix in the affairs of the German Empire resulted only in humiliation, and thvyugh he secured from the Oecumenical Council of 809 a recognition of the primacy of the pope, he saw Bulgaria taken away from him by the same council. 3. (Agapetus), the first pope to change his came on his election. Pope 884-885. 4.'" Pope 1154-1159. An Eng- lishman, Nicholas Breakspeare, early intrusted with important missions for the papal chair. Created pope, he found the city of Rome under the control of Arnold of Brescia (q.v.), ■who was finally overcome only with the help of the German king Friedrich I., who was promised the imperial crown for this service ; but the pride of the emperor and the arro- gance of the iK)pe soon brought these allies into conflict. A misunderstanding as to a word employed by the pope in a letter nearly cau.sed the separation of the German from tlie Roman Church, and when Friedrich had come to Italy and established the imperial power there, the contest continued, and was only prevented from taking on a serious cast by the death of the pope. (See life by Richard Knby, Loudon, 1849.) 5. (Ottobono Fieschi) Pope 1276. 6. (Dedel?). Pope 1522-1523; b. in Utrecht, studied tlieology and canon law as well its philosophy at Louvain. He made him- self specially versed in Thomas Aquina.s and Peter Lombard. Professor at Louvain, he ad- vanced rapidly in ecclesiastical position, l)c came tutor to Charles, afterward the emperor, in 1507. and in 1520. after having become a Spanish bishop, he was made Itegcnt of Spain. Here he suffered much from tJie jealousy of those about him. and when transferred to' the papal chair found himself again among un- friendly surroundings. Tiiouah he had pro- nounced against Luther's writings and did not wish to effect any change in the doctrine of the church, he was gieeted by the friends of reform with anlic-ipations of" efficient ser- vice ; but though there was even a .'•mall party in the college of cardinals in favor of reform, all his efforts were wrecked by the steady opposition of his advi.scrs. He coidd not put an end to the iibuse of indulgences or to marriage dispensations, since to do the one would be to yield to the demands of heretics, and to do the other would be to invalidate the financial promises already made by his prede- cessor. When he addressed the Diet at Nu- remberg, in 1522, against the Lutheran heresy, his confessions of the need of reform rendered his exhortation.s unavailing. Even Charles did not listen to his former teacher, and Hadrian died without effecting anything, yet leaving the example of a pious and'honest man. F. A-dul'-lam, a very ancient city (Gcti. xxxviii. 1), the seat of one "of the petty kings smitten hj Joshua (xii. 15), famous for a cave in its vicinity in which David took refuge (1 Sam. xxii. 1). The traditional site of it is Khurei- tun, about 6 m. s.e. of Bethlehem, but modem geographers put it on a wady 13 m. west of Bethlehem. C. Adultery. See Marriage and Divorce. Advent, the time of the approach of the na- tivity of Christ. The first traces of the cele- bration of the birthday of the Christ are to be found about the year 360 in the Roman Church. The earlier church laid so much more stress upon the day of the death of Chri.st than upon his birth that the latter day obtained recognition only slowly. Since March 25 (the spring equinox) was taken as the day of the creation, and so of the Incarnation also, the natal day fell \ipon Dec. 25. The coincidence of the day with the feast of the sun was re- garded as of significance, since Chri.st is the Sun of Rightc'ousness. The heathen customs of giving presents to children upon that day easily passed over into the church. The period of " Advent " is now ob.served in the Greek Church from Nov. 1 1 , in other churches from Nov. 30, till Christmas. It was formerly observed almost as strictly as Lent, but the rule is not now enforced. F. Adventists. They arose out of the promul- gation by Rev. William Miller (q.v.) and his as.sociates (a minisfrv numbering 700), from 1833 to 1844, of the "belief that tiic return of Christ is personal, desirable, and near at hand. They accept the inspiration of the .sacred scriptures and take the Bible lus their creed, holding, in common with other Christians, to all the fundamental, cardinal, and evangelical ''octrines of the Christian system, but reject a millennial era and return of Israel prior to Christ's advent. The promised kingdom is literal and future ; tlie scheme of redemption includes the earth, which, refined by fire, with the holv citv Jeru.salem, forms the elcrnal a»>ode of the'saved. Tlu y iR'lieve in the evan- gelization but not in the conversion of the world prior to the end, p\ibiish over 50 i»erio/ ; h. at Ziesegar, Brandenburg, 1499 ; d. at Ilamburg, 1553. He embraced the Reformation, Wcame superintendent at Hamburg, 1532, and had a controversy with liis colleague, Garcaus, over the question whether Christ's descent into hell is to be reckoned an part of his humiliation (ho ^Epinus) or exaltation. GarcJlus and his fol- lowers were driven out of the city. A-e'-ri-us and the A§rians. Ar-rius. a pres- byter at Sebaste, in Armenia, opi)osed, about the year 360, the prevailing conception in tlie church of justification bv works. He disiip- proved prayers anfl oblations for the dead and compulsorv fasting, and cfindimiud tlie dis- tinction inVank between bislinps «ik1 priests. Persecuted and driven out fmni llif cliun-h, he and his followers resorted to the eaves »nd fastnesses of the forests. F. A-e'-tius, Aetians. See Anrus. Affections arc (iistinguislud from appetites and desires in that they go out toward other i AFFUSION (14) AGNSS sensiti^^e beings and inlluence our conduct toward them. They are the springs of action, but have no self-i-egulating power, and need to be controlled by reason and conscience. When thus controlled they are the life and power of religion— that is, -when they are fixed upon the appropriate objects, and in the right de- gree, and with such constancy as to become spontaneous. The chief duty of a Christian is to cultivate holy affections, so that under the guidance of the Holy Spirit they shall intui- tively spring forth as the free, unbidden effu- sions of the soul. C. Aflfusion. See Baptism. Africa, Church of, founded early in the 2d century. Its chief city was Carthage, where Cyprian was bishop. The church grew rap- idly, and in 258 a synod was assembled of HI bishops. Its end came with the conquest by the Vandals, at the same time that it lost its greatest man, Augustine, in 430. But mean- time it had wrought a great work for the church. Here the Latin language was first employed in the service of the church by Tertullian. Cyprian was a great organizer and a great defender of the equality of all bishops, as well as a martyr. The oldest trans- lation of the Bible into Latin was probably made in Africa. Minucius Felix and Arno- bius were Africans. And Augustine was born here, and here after his conversion he lived and performed his great and enduring labors. Here, too, some of the great controversies of the church were held, as that with the Do- natists (q.v.), and particularly that with the Pelagians (q.v.). (See Julian Lloyd, TJie North Africa Church, London, 1880.) F. African M. E. Church. African M. E. Zion Church. See Methodists. Africanus. See Julius Africanus. Ag'-a-pe (love-feast), a meal held by the early Christians as an expression of their love one for another. It was a substantial meal, and was often made the occasion of providing the poor with the supply of their daily wants. It was connected at first, even in the apostolic times, with the observance of the Lord's Sup- per (1 Cor. xi. 20, 21), and was often the scene of disorder. Hence, as early as the beginning of the 2d century the two services were sepa- rated, and the love-feasts often held in private houses. Yet the observances in different lands were quite diverse. The persecutions, which rendered the holding of so long services difficult, also had something to do with the separation of the love-feasts from the supper. Yet in Africa the connection of the two was maintained for a long time. But finally the love-feasts were gradually disused, and by the beginning of the 8th century seem to have dis- appeared. The Moravians and Methodists hold what they call "love-feasts," which are religious meetings, in which bread and water are distributed. F. _ Ag-a-pe'-ti, Ag-a-pe'-tae [beloved), " respec- tively, men who dwelt in the same house with deaconesses, and virgins who dwelt in the same house with monks, under a pro- fession of merely spiritual love, " Smith and Cheetham, s.v. The scandal was repeatedly condemned by church fathers and councils. Ag-a-pe'-tus. 1. Pope 535-536. He was sent by the Ostrogothic king to Constantino- ple to procure peace with the empire in 536. In this errand he was not successful, but ac- complished what was probably nearer his heart, the removal of the patriarch Anthimus from his episcopal olfice. Agapetus persuaded the emperor that Anthimus had deceived him, and that the theory of Monophysitism which he held was a heresy. Mennas was put in liis place and consecrated by the pope. The em- peror was also led to give Agapetus a confes- sion of his own faith, which the pope ap- proved. In the midst of these triumphs, how- ever, he died at Constantinople. 2. Pope 946- 955. Involved in the political affairs specially of France and Germany. F. Ag'-a-tha, St., a saint of the Roman Church whose very historical existence is a matter of great doubt. She is particularly venerated in Sicily and South Italy. Her day is set on Feb. 5. F. Ag'-a-tho. Pope, 678-682. He is particu- larly known for his part in the settlement of the Monothelitic controversy. He first ob- tained for himself a large support in the West by means of a number of local councils, and then sent in 680 a deputation to Constantinople with a letter preparing the way for a decision. In spite of all attempts, on the part of Eastern bishops, to prevent the condemnation of their doctrine, it was finally condemned, but in the list of heretical patriarchs was included that of the Roman bishop, Honorius. F. Agbar. See Aboar. Age, Canonical. According to the Council of Trent, no one can receive the tonsure under 7, nor can be ordained under 22 as sub-dea- con, under 23 deacon, under 25 priest, under 30 bishop. In the Church of England a deacon must be 23, a priest 24, and a bishop 30. In the Protestant Episcopal a priest must be 21. In the Greek Church a deacon must be 25, a priest 30, and a bishop above 30. Agenda is in common use among divines and philosophers to signify the duties a man is to perform in contrast with the credendn, the things he is to believe. Anciently, the term denoted both the mass and other parts of di- vine service. Thus it was applied to the morning and evening prayers, to the office for any particular day, and to the service for the dead. Afterward it was given to the book that prescribed the order of worship (now sup- planted in the Roman Church by the term rit- ual), and in that sense passed into the Luther- an Church, where it is still used to designate the service-book for the guidance of ministers in their ecclesiastical functions. C. Age-to-come Adventists. See Adven- TISTS. Ag'-nes, St., a martyr beheaded in the per- secution of Diocletian, about 304. The legend is that having early taken the vow^ of perpet- ual chastity, she refused the suit of the sou of the city prefect of Rome. To break down her opposition, she was carried into a brothel and stripped of her clothing, when her hair mirac- AGNOET^ (15) AGRICULTURE •ulously grew and covered her nakedness, and a heavenly garment of so brilliant glory was given her that the eyes of those wlio beheld were blinded. Condemned to the tlames as a sorceress, the tire had no power to touch her. Her day is Jan. 21. F. Agno&tae (from verb "to be ignorant"). 1. Followers of the Monophysitic Themistius, deacon of Alexandria (middle of the 6th cen- tury), who taught that Jesus in the days of his flesh was ignorant of many things (cf. Mark xiii. 33). The theory was revived in the 8th centarj^ by the Adoptionists. 2. Followers of the Ariaii Theophronius of Cappadocia (fl. 370), who taught that God knew the past by memory and the future only by uncertain prescience. Agnosticism, a term derived from the Greek nf/nostos ("unknowing"), is of recent ori- gin, having been suggested by Professor Hux- ley, in 18(i9, as an appropriate designation of the theological views of him and Ids associates. It diifers from absolute scepticism in that, while the latter denies all truth, the other says that truth cannot be found, especially in plii- losopliy and religion. The agnostic neither denies nor affirms. He says that there are matters pertaining to religion Avhich we not only do not know but have no means of know- ing, that the existence of any person or thing beyond and behind material phenomena is un- known, and with our present faculties never can be known. He maintains that he is not an atheist, for he saJ^s he does not and cannot know enough to enable him to deny the exist- ence of a God. The seeming modesty of this position makes it attractive to the immature and unthinking, yet it is open to the most se- rious objections. It is grossly inconsistent. The agnostic begins by a confession of igno- rance, and then proceeds to make an assertion that implies the possession of universal knowl- edge, for he assumes to say what will be the extent of man's knowledge in the future, yet what we cannot discover our successors may. Moreover, to say that God is unknowable is to say that the Creator cannot make himself intelligible to his creatures, and he who thus limits the Intinite implies that he himself is possessed of ab.solute knowledge. So that far from Agnosticism being modest, it is really the most arrogant form of Gnosticism. It de- nies ultimate and .self-evident principles, such as the relation of cause and ellect, the differ- ence between right and wrong, the freedom of man, the sense of responsibility, etc. These are tirst truths, and therefore tJie most certain of all truths, because not depending upon ar- gument, but themselves the necessary prem- ises of all argvunent, shining, like the .sun, by their own light. It paralyzes faith and hope, the mainsprings of human activity ; for if men know notliing of a divine ruler or a fu- ture state, they have no guarantee of (he stabil- ity of nature's laws, no foundation of human right, no supreme being in whom to (ru.st, no hereafter where the wrongs of the pre-scntwill be righted, but are .simply drifting upon a dreary and shorele-ss ocean. It destroys religion, which is communion with a personal God, and introduces the reign of despair. Pessimisjn is the natural result of Agnosticism, of which Carlyle said that it look- ed like tine flour which would make excellent bread, but if one fed \ipon it he found it to b(; powdered glass and a deadly poison. [See G hnstianity and Aqiwsticism — n Controrcrtty (various papers by Huxley, Waco and others), London and New York, 1889.] C. Ag'-nus Dei {Lamb of God), a senten(;{! based upon John i. 29, introduced into the Roman liturgy about the year G80. It appears sub- stantially, in its fullest Roman form, in the English liturgy, in the " Gloria in Excdsis," in the second sentence : " O Lord, the only be- gotten Son, Jesus Christ," etc. In requiem masses the form is somewhat changed, and for the phrase, " Have raercj^upon us," is substi- tuted, " Give them (eternal) rest." F. Ag'-o-bard, b. in Spain, 779 ; became arch- bishop of Lyons, 814 ; d. at Saintonge, June 6, 840. He was engaged in the manifold lit- erary, theological, and political movements of his time. He opposed ordeals, and in theol- ogy the Adoptionists and the doctrine of ver- bal inspiration. (See his works in Migne, Pat. Lat. CIV.) F. Agonistici {avengers), Donatist fanatics in Africa in the 4th century, who, as ascetics, went around in gangs bogging, and where they were refused got what thej' wanted by robbery and murder. Also called Gircuvi- celliones. Agostino da Montefeltro, Roman Catholic "padre;" b. in Italy about 1840; entered a Franciscan monastery about 1865, in consc quence, it is generally supposed, of his mur- der in self-defence of the brother of his hc- trothed ; emerged as a preachiu'' friar after a silence of 20 years, and preached tirst at Bo- logna, later at Florence and Rome, everywhere hailed as the "modern Savonarola." HLs sermons are reported in the Italian newspa- pers, and nianv have been translated into Eng- lish (London and New York, 1888-89, 2 .series). Ag-re(ray)-da, Maria [Coronel] de, Roman Catholic ; b. at A:;rcila, Spain. 1602 ; bicamc si.ster superior of tiie Franciscan convent of the Immaculate Conception of Mary there ; d. there, 1665. Her MlMica Giudad di Dios (Per- pignan [France], 1690, 4 vols.; Antwerp, 1692. 3 vols.; French trans., Brussels. 1729; Ger- man, Augsburg, 1768 ; Regensl)urg, 1853). after being called inspired by the Franciscans, was condenmcd as dangerous by the Sorbonue and the Inquisition, but allowed by the con- gregation of the Index in 1729, and declared by Pope Benedict XHI. and his successors correct in teaching. Agriculture among the Hebrews was the basis of the commonwraltli. K.icii family had its own piece of irround, whi( h could not be alienated, save for a limited period. The nn ritif S. Franrisri ad ritaniJi'iai Christi. i:{:«» (i)rinl<'d. Venice, n.d., 3 ed,, 14M). in wliich Francis of Assisi is compared to Jesus Christ. AilK-r en- riched his translation bv a mmilcss cxiK.sure of Albizzi's lies and exagireratimis and thus caused the Franciscans to reissue tlie book in an expurgated form and und( r n dilTerrnt title. Alber was also unsparing in his ndicufc of the doctrinal dilTerciic.s iM-lwr.n Ihr Prot- estant churches. 2. Matthaus, Lutheran, b. ALBSRT (18) 'ALEXANDER at Reutlingen. Wurtemherg, Dec. 4, 1495 ; introduced the Reformation there, 1524 ; left in consequence of the Interim, 1548 ; became chief pastor at Stuttgart ; then abbot of Blaubeuien, 1563 ; d. tliere Dec. 2, 1570. (See his life by J. Hartmann, Tiibiugen, 1863.) Albert of Riga, bishop of Livonia, whither, as canon of Bremen, he had led a crusade (1200). He founded Riga and the order of the Brothers of the Sword ; d. 1196. Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus), b. at Lauingeu, 26 m. n.w. of Augsburg, Bavaria, 1193 ; d. at Cologne, Nov. 15, 1280 ; " Uni- versal Doctor," founder of the most flourish- ing period of scholasticism. He studied in Padua, and there entered the Dominican order. Though his life was in general that of a scholar (1243, teacher in Cologne in the Dominican school ; 1245, niasterof theology at Paris ; 1248, again in Cologne as rector of the school), he filled many public offices (general of the Dominicans for Germany, 1254 -."bishop of Regensburg. 1260). He spent liis last 18 years principally in Cologne in his monastery engaged in writing. His chief service as a literary man was in the introduction of Aris- totle to the acquaintance of his age. Obtain- ing his own knowledge from the Arabic com- mentators, he reproduced Aristotle's ideas, supplementing them, and particularly in the department of natural science greatly improv- ing them. As a theologian he is noted for his writings upon general questions, such as the immortality of the soul, for his commentaries, upon the Scriptures, his ethical writings, and his more properly dogmatic works. The Christian system rests upon experience, but it stands in need of proofs to coulirm the believer, lead the inquirer to faith, and to 'Convince the unbeliever. The system is the Roman ortho- doxy of the Middle Ages. In the contest be- tween Nominalism and Realism, Albert is to be reckoned to neither party. He teaches that the universal is before the individual thing in the plan of God, in the thing and after the thing as the product of our thought. (See his colle'cted works, ed. Jammy, Lyons, 1651, 21 vols. fol. See life by Sighart, Eng. trans, bv Dixon, London, 1876.) F. " Albertus Magnus. See above. Albigenses. See Cathaui. Albright (original, Albrecht), Jacob, found- er of the Evangelical Association of North America (see Methodists) ; b. near Pottstovvn, Pa., May 1. 1759 ; d. at Miihlbach, Lebanon Co., Pa., May 8, 1808. He was a tile-maker when in 1790 he was converted and joined the Methodist Church. In 1796 he began preach- ing among the Germans, and was wonderfully successful. In 1807 he was ordained bishop of the church he had founded. Albright Brethren. See " Evangelical As- sociation" under Methodists. Alcantara, the Ecclesiastical Knightly Or- der of, founded in the 12lh century, in Al- cantara, Spain, primarily for defence against 'the Moors. For a time it had a brilliant mem- bership. In 1540 the knights were allowed by Pope Paul III. to marry. In 1808 Joseph Bona- parte deprived the order of all its property, part of which has been restored, however ; in 1835 it was changed from an ecclesiastical to a court order, and has been since 1878 a reward for military service. Alcuin (al'-kwin), b. at York, Eng., 735 ; d. at Tours, France, May 19, 804 ; the most prominent of the scholars whom Charlemagne gathered about his court. His education wa.s at his birthplace, York, where he subsequent- ly presided over the cathedral school, and later was made librarian. On a journey to Rome in 781 he met Charlemagne at Parma and en- tered his service. From this time on he culti- vated every department of science under Char- lemagne's patronage He mingled in the the- ological controversies of the times, such as the Iconoclastic (see art. Caroline Books) and the Adoptionist. In 796 he received the Ab- bey of St. Martin of Tours, where he made the monastery school the principal place of learn- ing in the empire. His chief writings are his Three Books upon the Trinity, and his com- mentaries upon various portions of tlve Scrip- tures. He is not an independent thinker, oc- cupies simply the theological position of his day, and is distinguished mainly for extensive reading and industry. Grammar, orthog- raphy, astronomy, and Latin poetry biLsied him also. Though not a monk, he favored monasticism, and could not distinguish be- tween the call of duty to a religious life in the world and the necessity of escaping it for spiritual safety. Yet at times this view of life was modified by his literary and scriptural studies. (See his life oy Lorentz, London, 1837 ; and J. B. Mullinger's The Schools of Charles the Great, London, 1877 ) F. Al'-e-an-der, Hieronymus, b. at Motta, Italy, Feb. 13, 1480 ; famed as a scholar, par- ticularly in Greek ; became librarian to the Vatican, 1517 ; later archbishop of Brindisi, 1524, and cardinal, 1538 ; d. at Rome, Jan. 31. 1542. He was papal legate at the Diet at Worms in 1521, and tried hard to manage it in the papal interest. (Cf. Theod. Brietrer, Ale- ander u. Luther, 1521, Gotha, 1884 ; Kalkotf, Die Depesclien der Nuntius Aleander, Halle, 1886.) Al'-e-si-us (see-us), Alexander (variants of name, Aless, Alesse, ab Ales, Alane), Lutheran divine ; b. in Edinburgh, April 23, 1500 ; edu- cated at the university of St. Andrew's, and became canon ; appointed to refute Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), he was shaken by him in hi>s Romanism ; in consequence persecuted and compelled to flee (1532) ; became a Lutheran and lived at Wittenberg ; returned to England (1535) ; lectured in divinity at Cambridge ; ]ater practised medicine in London ; returned to Germany, 1540 ; became professor of the- ology first at Frankfort on the Oder, then at Leipzig, 1543 ; d. there Nov. 29, 1560. " Hi.^ chief distinction is that while in his career as an advocate of the new learning, he was cour- ageous when courage was needed ; he possessed a flexibility of mind and a moderation of sen- timent rare among the reformers, and not least so among those of his native land." (Cf. Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v.) Alexander, popes of this name. 1. Bishop of Rome 109 (?)-119 (?) 2. (Auselm of Lucca), ALEXANDER (19) ALEXANDER Pope 1061-73, was raised to tlic papal see by Ilildebrand. The imperial party nomiuated an unti pope wlio took the name of Honorius II. By the efforts of Hanno, arehbishop of Cologne, Alexander was finally universally acknowledged, but Hanno did not receive proper gratitude from him. Tlie emperor, Henry IV., also received treatment which might serve as a foretaste of what he would suffer at the hands of Ilildebrand subsequcnt- 1}'. Invested bishops were compelled to give up their otBces upon charge of simony. This pope favored the attempt of William the Con- C|ueror upon England. He gave tli(^ Engli.sh bishoprics to Normans, and thus strengthened William's power. 3. (Roland), Pope 1159- 81, belonged to the anti-imperial party as cardinal. A personal conllict with Frederick I. of Germany, atBesangon, in llo?, where he liad defended the position of the pope, Hadrian IV., that the imperial power was a " benefi- cium" of the papac}-, led, when he had been elevated to the papal see, to great complica- tions. An anti-pope, Victor IV., was set up, whom two other anti-popes followed. Alex- ander was even compelled at one time to leave Italy and seek help in France. But finally the emperor was compelled to yield. The cam- paign which had resulted in setting Paschal III. upon the papal throne ended disastrously, (1166), the second expedition of Frederick into Italy ended in the defeat of Legnano (1176), and on Aug. 1, 1177, Alexander was ac- knowledged as pope. Still he did not occupy the high position which Hadrian IV. had claimed for the papacy. A still more striking victory was gained by Alexander over Henry II. of "England in the case of Thomas Becket (q.v.), who had maintained the interests of the church against the king. After his murder by agents of the king, Henry was compelled to do shameful penance, and to return to the church the property confiscated. (Life by Renter, Leipzig, 2d ed., 1860-64, 3 vols.) 4. (Rinaldo de Conti), Pope 1254-61, was also involved in a contest with the Hohenstauffen. Frederick II. had addressed him while j'et cardinal as a friend, and Conrad IV. intrusted him with the guardianship of his son Conra- diu. But he stirred up the Svvabiau princes 10 choose Alphonso of Castile as their duke, cxconununicated Manfred when he attempted to defend Conradin's rights in Sicily, and even gave awaj' some of Conradin's lands as a papal fief. He also interfered in the affairs of the German Empire. The trouble with the Ho- lienstauffen led to the appearance of the P'lagel- lants (q.v. ) iuRome. 5. (Peter Philargi), Pope 1409-10, was created pope by the Council of Pi.sa (q.v.) under the solenm promise to con- tinue the council till it should effect a thorough reformation of the church in head and mem- bers. But he immediately dismissed the council. Since the other popes did not submit to th'iir deposition, the council only made the scliism worse — three pojies instead of two. His chief official act was to increase the rights of the mendicant monks in hearing confes- sions. 6. (Rodrigo Lanzol), Pope 1492-1503, the most profligate of all the popes. As ; bishop of Valencia and cardinal he had at ^ least i children, of whom Ciesar and Lucretia (Borgia) have been most famous. As pope he continued Ins loose life, though besought by Savonarola, as well as by kings, to reform the papal court. He gave to Spain all the lauds to be discovered beyond 100 m. west of Cape Verd. His most characteristic deeds were wrought in comiection with his son Ca;sar, for whom he consented to every form of evil. Cjesar was cardinal as long as he liked, dur- ing which time he did not al)staiu from mur- der, and then (1498) married and became a secular prince. To obtain a princijiality , then duchy, and finally kingdom of " liomiigna," neither Casar nor the pope shrunk from any measiue. But ere the residt was reached Alex- ander was removed by tleath, being jn-obably poisoned. 7. (Fabio Chigi), I\ipe 1655-67. As cardinal he was engageci in the negotiations leading to the peace of \Vestphalia, but took a position of implaeal»le hostility to the. Protest- ants. In consequence of his representations the pope refused to conlirm the concessions made to them. As might have been expect- ed, as pope he favored the Jesuits especially and opposed the Jansenisls. Involved in war with France, he was obliged, in the peace of Pisa (1664), to submit to lumiiliating demands. 8. (Pietro Ottoboni), Pope 1689-91, eleva- ted by the influence of France to the papal chair. He succeeded in nullifying the four propositions mndc in 1682 as to the freedom of tiie Galliean Church. A real service to the cause of morals was rendered by his condem- nation of the Jesuit doctrine of a philosojjhic sin — i.e., one which was committed without conscious purpose to offend God, and wliich was therefore venial. F. Alexander, illustrious Presbyterian minis- tei-ial fanuly. 1. Archibald, U.D. (Princeton, 1810), b. near Timber Ridge, Augusta (now Rockbridge) Co., Va., April 17, n72 ; d. at Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1,S51. Ib^wasedu- cated at Lexington, Va. (Liberty Hall Acad- emy) ; became private tutor ; itinerant jiastor in Charlotte and Prince Edward counties, 1792 ; president of Hampden-Sydney College, Va.. 1796; pastor of the Pine street Presby- terian church, Philadel])hia, 1807 ; first pro- fessor in the Theolouical Senunarv, Prinoton, N. J., 1812. He did a great work in the la.«t position, leaving an indelihle impression. His writings Avere nimierous ; in book form ap- peared. I Jln'(f Outline of the Kridnirtu of the Chrixtiaii Jir/'if/ion, Princeton, 1S23 (later edd. trans, into foreign languages) ; The Canon of the Old and Js'nr 'J'(.'lor at Tren- ton, NT J., 1S29 ; editor of The Prmhyten- an, Philadelphia, 1832 ; professor of rhetoric in Princeton College, lf:<33 ; pastor of the Duane street Presbvterian cliurch. New "i ork City, 1844 ; professor of tcclestiaslicul history ALEXANDER (20) ALFORD in Princeton Theological Seminary, 1849 ; pastor of the Fifth avenue Presbyterian church, Neu- York City, 1851. He wrote the life of his father, and other volumes, of which Plain Woi'ds to a Young Communicant (New York, 1854) is perhaps best known. 3. Joseph Addison, D.D. (Uutgers College, 1844), an- other sou, b. in Philadelphia, April 24, 1809 ; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 28, 18G0. Gradu- ated head of his class at Princeton College, 1826 ; was adjunct professor of ancient lan- guages there, 1830-33 ; and of oriental litera- ture in the Theological Seminary, 1838-50, when he was transferred to the chair of bibli- cal and ecclesiastical history. He was a re- markable linguist, and did much to introduce and popularize German theological learning, his commentaries on Isaiah, New York, 1846- 47, 2 vols. , ed. Eadie, Glasgow, 1875 ; Psalms, 1850, 3 .vols. ; 3IattheiD, 1860 ; Mark, 1858 ; Acts, 1856 ; being much indebted to Hengsten- berg and other Germans. He was an ad- mired preacher. (See his life by H. C. Alex- ander, New York, 1869, 2 vols.) Alexander Nevski, a Russian prince and general, venerated as a saint in the Greek Church ; b. at Vladimir, Central Russia, 1219 ; d. at Gorodetz, Nov. 14, 1263. He gained a great victory over the Swedes near the Neva in 1240, and was equally successful against his enemies elsewhere. The pope hoped by these military and other efforts to bring the Russians over to the Roman obedience, but Al- exander resisted all his blandishments. F. Alexander of Hales, b. in England ; d. in Paris, Aug. 27, 1245 ; educated "in the Eng- lish monastery Hales, then at Paris, entered the Franciscan order in 1222. His only gen- uine printed work (e.g., Cologne, 1622) is his Summa Universm Theologies, whicii first ap- plies the entire range of Aristotle's philosophy to theology. It is a positive system, of mys- tical character, free in its treatment of the sacraments, Ijut strong in its support of the papal see and the mendicant monks. F. Alexandrian School, a distinct school of thought, which had its origin in an institution of Christian learning situated in the city of Alexandria in Egypt. The origin of the school is to be sought in the circumstances of the time and place. Alexandria vv^as the intellec- j tual centre where the learning and culture of the East and West met. Philosophers abound- ed there, and as some of them were from time to time converted, their condition called upon the church for regular instruction in the prin- ciples of the Christian religion ; hence the school, to which young Christians would resort when once it was established. Here, too, the future ministers of the church would be edu- cated, her future leaders, bishops, and theo- logians. Thus it was that in the earliest times (tradition says in the time of the evangelist Mark) a school was established in Alexandria, over which successively Panta?nus, Clement, Origen, Heraclas, and Dionysius, and then others presided, till about the end of the 4th century. It is said tliat among the later teachers of the school even Arius is found. The system of the school was like that of other schools of its day. Salaries were not paid the instructors, but wealthy pupils gave them hon- orar}^ gifts. The dwellings of the teachers were used as the places of instruction. The method of instruction was by conversations or more formal lectures. The spirit of the school was free and its attitude toward all learning friendly. It drew from the old Jew- ish theology of Philo and from the philosophy of Greece. Gnosticism was not blindly op- posed, but the effort was made to guide the labors of these speculators into more fruitful channels. Origen came to his deeper specula- tions from the standpoint of one trained from the beginning in Christian truth. To him is due the proposal of the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son, as well as the attempt to give the Incarnation an ethical foundation in the theory of the union of the Logos with one pure pre-existent soul. Athanasius was a product of this school, and maintained, in opposition to Arius, the true divinity of the Son. The tendency of the school from this time on was to deeper studies in the profound- est doctrines of Christianity, whence it took the lead in the formulation of the Christology of the church. Cyril, the leader in the con- test against Nestorius, saw clearly that the problem of Christology was to obtain a con- ception of a real union between the divine and human in Christ, whereby the unity of his historical person could be maintained. Hence, he insisted upon the one person after the In- carnation. This tendency of thought finally triumphed over that represented by the Antio- chian school, and determined tlie trend of Christian theology, not only in the early ages, but even in our own day. In the exegetical labors of this school there is, especially among its earlier writers, an abundance of ar- bitrary allegorical fancies. Origen's services as a commentator were as great as those in the line of Christian speculation ; but he was par- ticularly given to the allegorical method of interpretation. Gregory Nazianzon and Greg- ory of Nyssa, with Basil "the Great," con- stitute a group of the most important adher- ents and literary coadjutors of the Alexan- drian school. (See Charles Kiugsley, Alexan- dria and her Schools, London, 1854.) F. Alexians, from their patron saint, Alexius, a lay order in the Roman Cliurch ; also called Cellites, because they buried the dead in cellm (graves) ; founded in Antwerp by Tobias, about the middle of the 14th century, for the care of the sick, the dying, and the dead. The Black Sisters belong to this order. Alford, Henry, D.D. (Cambridge, 1859), Church of England, dean of Canterbury ; b. in London, Oct. 7, 1810 ; d. at Canterbury, Jan. 12, 1871. Educated at Cambridge, he became fellow of Trinity, 1834 ; vicar of Wymeswold, 1835 ; minister of Quebec Chapel, Marylcbone, London, 1853 ; dean of Canter- bury, 1857. " He was a man of various ac- complishments. He composed pieces for the piano and organ, and vocal music ; he both sang and played himself. He had consider- able mechanical skill, and he carved in Avood. He also was a water-color painter. . . . He had great facility in preaching, and adopted various styles. ... He adopted distinctly the ALFRED (21) ALLEN Protestant basis for liis religious and ecclesias- tical convictions, and took pains to recognize the leading Nonconformist ministers (not ex- cepting theUuity'.iians), by whom his generous feeling was full}' reciprocated. . . . His Greek Testament [London, 1849-61, 4 toIs. 6th ed., vol. 1, 1868 ; vol. 2, 1871 ; 5th ed., vol. 3, 1871 ; 4th ed., vol. 4, 1870] and other biblical works, liowever, constitute his chief claim to gratitude and fame." Diet. j\'at. Bioy., s.v. He was among the first to utilize German New Testament learning, and by so doing made an epoch. His other works include New Testa- ment for Emjlifih Readers, London, 1868, 4 vols. ; Book of Genesis, 1872 ; A Plea for the Queen's English, 1863, 3d cd.. 1870 ; Sermons and Poems, 5th ed., 1868. (See his Life, Lon- don, 1873.) Alfred the Great, king of the West Sa.xons ; b. at Wantage, in Berkshire, 849 ; d. at Win- chester, Oct. 28, 901. He succeeded his brother, 871, and was involved in incessant wars with the Danes. He made it his " busi- ness to be the spiritual and intellectual teaclicr of his people. ... He undertakes the humble office of a translator [Bcetius, Consolation (f Philosophy ; Bede and Orosius, History ; Greg- ory the Great, Pastoral Care] and turns into his native tongue such writings, religious, his- toricjil, and scientific, as he'thinks will tend to the instruction of his people. . . . He did all that he could for the advancement of learn- ing by planting the best scholars in the mon- asteries, which were the schools of the time, and by giving some of them high ecclesiastical preferment." (Cf. Freeman in Stephen, iJict. Nat. Biof]., s V. Thomas Hughes, Alfred tlui Great, Loudon and Boston, 1869.) Al'-ger of Liege, b. at Liege (?), 1055 (?) ; d. at Clugny, 1145 c?) ; known also as Alger of Clugny ; was a scholar who taught in various positions in Liege, and in 1121 entered the convent of Clugny. He left a number of writings behind'him, of which the most im- portant is his treatise upon the sacrament, which was edited by Erasmus, Ba.sel, 1530. (See Mi<MUn- ster uproar. Thoma.s MUnzer ((i.v.) was a man of learning and ability, but of extrava- gant and unbalanced views. HclMcarnioiii- ol the unfortunate leaders in the Pcasanls' War. This hopeless rebellion issued in fearful slaugh- ter and in MUiizer's capture and execution. The provocation wa,s gnat, and MUnztr's svmpathy for the oppres.xeil peasjinls was gen u'ine, but his prediction of miraculous deliver- ance was entirelv unjustitiable. l^fff""^' J'!'* death lie confessed bis error in incitiog rebel- ANABAPTISTS (28) ANABAPTISTS lion, but, at the same time he solemnly warned princes against the grievous oppression of their subjects. Munzer repudiated infant baptism in theory, but continued the practice until a few months before his death. There is no proof that Munzer was himself baptized as an udult, or that he ever administered the ordi- nance to any believers who repudiated infant baptism. Melchior Hoffman (q.v.) has been called the " evil genius of the Anabaptists. " lie became a Protestant in 1523, and after his rejection of infant baptism, about 1530, the Anabap- tists in large sections of country were greatly influenced by his belief in the impending sec- ond coming of Christ, by the doctrine that Christ derived his human body through, not of Mary, and by the claim of Holfman and others that they were inspired prophets. Hoffman died in Strasburg, in 1543, after an imprison- ment of 10 years. Some of his followers were infatuated fanatics, guided by pretended vis- ions and dreams. The excesses at MUnster, more than any other episode in their history, tended to bring Anabaptists of all classes into disrepute. The fanatical tendencies of Hoffman's teaching were doubtless a contributing, but by no means a sole cause of the Miinster uproar. In 1532 Bernard Rothmann, the popular Lutheran preacher, became an Anabaptist. The Prot- estants soon gained control of the city, drove out tlie Romanist bishop and clergy, and or- ganized an army for the permanent retention of the place. Malcontents and fanatics flocked to Miinster. Their leader, John IMatthieson, a baker of Haarlem, was slain, with 30 of his followers, in April, 1534. Under his succes- sor, John of Leyden (Johann Bockhold, b. at Miinster about 1509 ; tortured to death there, Januar}', 1536), there was a period of the wildest excesses and indecencv. J ohn claimed to be authorized and inspired from heaven. He sanctioned and practised polygamy. He beheaded one of his wives, and put to death the more reputable Anabaptists, who remon- strated against his practices and refused sub- mission to his assumed authority. The town was finally captured in June, 1535, and the leaders of the Miinster kingdom were put to death. II. Evangelical Ghristians. — The place of honor among the early evangelical Anabap- tists must be given to those of Switzerland and southern Germany. There were Anabaptist tendencies in Switzerland in 1523-24, and some declined to have their children baptized, but the first formal repudiation of their own baptism in infancy by persons who sought the ordinance on profession of their personal faith occurred in January, 1525, at Ziirich. From that lime Anabaptist views spread rapidly, and churches were formed at Zurich, ZoUikon, Hallau, St. Gall, and elsewhere. On account of persecution. Anabaptists were driven from place to place, and their views spread through- out southern Germany, Austria, the Tyrol, Poland, the Low Countries, and England. Prominent among the Anabaptists in Switzer- land were George Blaurock, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, who was an excellent Hebrew scholar, and Balthazer Hubmeier. Hub- meierwas pastor of a large Reformed church, and later of an Anabaptist church at Wald- shut, just across the Rhine from Switzerland, in Austrian territory. He disputed with Zwingli concerning infant baptism, wrote against intolerance, was imprisoned at Zurich, and under pressure made a temporary retrac- tion, which he entirely withdrew ; after which he w^ent to Moravia in 1526, where he formed a church. He was arraigned by the Austrian authorities, and burned in March, 1527, at Vi- enna, where, three days after his death, his wife was drowned in the Danube. His writings re- veal marked ability and a rare spirit of devo- tion and loyalty to Christ. He believed in the use of the sword for civil defence, but not for religious persecution. He was a man of pure character, and one of the most eminent schol- ars among the early Anabaptists. The Swiss Anabaptists have been unwarrantably charged with fanaticism and disloyalty. The famous case of the fratricide at St. Gall has been con- clusively shown to be attributable to either in- toxication or insanity. The Anabaptists sol- emnly disclaimed all sympathy with such ac- tion. The better class of Anabaptists in Switzerland and elsewhere believed in the sole and supreme authority of the Scriptures, in the separation of church and State, in the vol- untary system of choosing and supporting pastors, that baptism should be restricted to professed believers, and that churches should be exclusively composed of baptized believers. Besides these views, many refused to take oaths, to bear arms, or to act as civil magis- trates. Some of tliese tenets are now familiar as those which have been transmitted through the Mennonites to the modern Friends. Most Swiss Anabaptists held with Hubmeier that in this wicked world civil magistracy is neces- sary, and the laws of the state ought to be obeyed when they do not contravene the dic- tates of conscience. But these men anticipated modern views of religious toleration, and they could not act as magistrates iu the enforce- ment of laws which involved persecution for religious opinions. For this Hubmeier and others deserve to be honored as men who were in advance of their age, instead of being charged with want of patriotism or with dis- regard for social order. The Swiss Anabap- tists earnestly co-operated with the Reformers at Ziirich, in opposition to the errors of the old church. Yet the authorities at Ziirich, with the approval of Zwingli, determined to crush by force opposition to infant baptism and the growth of churches formed on the basis of a membership restricted to those who professed personal faith in Christ. The council declared drowning to be the penalty of the baptism of those adults who had been baptized in infancy. In addition to the large number who were im- prisoned or banished, not less than 6 persons were put to death at Ziirich as Anabaptists. George Wagner and Michael Sattler, in south- ern Germany, and Hubmeier, at Vienna, were put to death by Romanists, but Felix Manz and his fellows suffered martyrdom at the hands of Zwinglians. III. Mystics and Doctrin-al Errorists.— Among tlie speculative mystics who adopted Anabaptist views, John Denk and Lewis Hat- ANACHORITES (29) ANASTASIUS rcr were proiniuent. Their trauslatioii of tlie proplietical books of the Old Testament from the Hebrew original, published at Augsburg, in l/JST, several years before that of Luther, passed through several editions and was of acknowledged merit. From the rare works of Denk, it appears that he believed in an inner voice or illumination and a natural moral power common to all men, in the freedoni of the will in a more appreciable and emphatic sense than Luther's hold to freedom, in relig- ious toleration, and in the final restoration of all men. It has been claimed that Denk did not believe in the Deity of Christ. lie did not discuss the doctrine of the Trinity in technical terms ; but if w^e make proper allowance for the mystical vagueness of Denk's writings, and if we realize his profound personal loyalty to Christ, we shall find it ditiicult and even unjust to classify Denk with avowed Unita- rians. It must be admitted, however, that his writings do not contain any explicit statement of Trinitarian doctrine. Ilatzer shared Denk's mystical views, wrote several hymns of merit, and was " a model translator of the Bible, and one of the best poets of the old Protestant Church" (Beck). lie was charged with hold- ing Anti-Trinitarian views, but the charge is not proved (Keller). There were some Ana- baptists in wdiom the spiritual characteristics of evangelical Christians blended with one- sided views of either life or doctrine. It had been almost a miracle if, in the rejection of false authority, some persons had not become distrustful of truth as well as of error. Many Mystics, Kationalists, and Anti-Trinitarians agreed with evangelical Anabaptists in the opinion that the New Testament does not teach infant baptism. The spirit of Inquiry and the mental freedom which characterizetl these different classes gave them a mutual in- fluence over each other. While many L^nita- riaus rejected infant baptism and some omitted the ceremony of baptism altogether, the spec- ulative difficulties of Unitarians may have un- duly affected not a few reverent men like Denk and Ilatzer, and especially those Anabaptists who took refuge in Poland. The large body of carU' Swiss Anabaptists firmlv believed in the Deity of Christ. LiTEUATUKE. — Important collections of Anabaptist literature are in the libraries of the liochester and the Crozer theological sem- inaries. It is in German, as are also the best works on the subject, by Cornelius, Keller, and Dr. Joseph licck. 'in English the best book is H. S. Burrage, A JIist»ri/ of the Ana- haptixts ill Sw'izeiiaml, Philadelphia, 1«82 ; see also llie Iliistories of the Baptists bv Crosby (London, 1738-40, 4 vols.) ; Cramp (Philadel- phia, 1869); and Armitagc (N. Y., 1886). The last contains a translation of the Schleit- heim Confession, which is among the earliest and most interesting formal statements of doc- trine held by the evangelical Anabaptists. It is a letter of uncertain'authorship, dated Feb. 24, 1527, and addressed by " certain believing baptized children of God ... to the congre- gations of believing baptized Christians. " (See pp. 949-52.) B. O. Trit:. Anachorites. See ANcnoRiTES. An-a-cle'-tus, popes of that name. 1. Ro- man presbyter-liishop in the earliest times. His historical reality has been questioned, but tradhion is too clear in his favor. By some he is reckoned as the third, and by some as the second from Peter. 2. An unli-pope (Peter Pierleoni), Feb. 14, 1130— Jan. 25. 1138. De- scended from a powerful Jewish family, he was rai)idly advanced in the ]iapal court, be- ing created cardinal in llKi, and elected jiopc in 1180. The cardinals of the imperial fac- tion, however, hastily elected and inaugurated a certain Gregory as Innocent II. Anacletus compelled his ru-al to lly, but ])oiitical mis- takes which he made finally decided the em- peror against him, and at last he was forsaken by all his adherents, and was only saved from his adversaries by the hand of death. F, Anagnost. See Lector. Anagogical (Greek, to " lead " or " bring up"), a method of Scripture inter])rctation, very popular in the ]\Iid(llc Ages, by which the text is interpreted in its bearings on future and heavenly things and conditions. Analogy of Faith. See Faith, IIerme- NEUTICS. Anam'-me-lech, the name of an idol deity of Seplarvaim, introduced into Samaria by the As.syrian settlers (2 Kings xvii. 31). It repre- sented the females ])ower of the sun, as Adram- melech did the male power. C. An-a-ni-aa {Jcliorah is ffradous). 1. A pro- fessed convert of the Apostles at Jerusalem, who having sold his estate for the benefit of the church kept back a part of the jirice. Be- ing charged by Peter with his sin he fell down dc^ulon'the spot. His wife Sappliira after- ward having committed the same sin suffered the same doom (Acts v. 1-10). 2. A devout disciple at Damascus, who was commissioned to visit Paul after his conversion and restore to him his sight (Acts ix. 10-18). 3. A mrm appointed bv Herod high-priest A.i). 48, l)e- fore whom Paul was arraigned, and who after- ward became one of his accusers l)efore Feli.x (Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1, xxv. 2). lb; died mis- erably at the outbreak of the hist Jewish war. t-'. Anaph'-ora (raisin ff vp). 1. A designation in the Greek Churcli for the Eucharist, espe- cially the closing part. 2. Among tlie Copts the service book. 3. The cover of the chalice. An-as-ta'-si-us, popes of that name. 1. Pojw 398-402, took part in the controversy al)0ut Origen, condenming his writings nnarty in the Church of England. Anglo-Saxon.s, Conversion of. See Au- GrSTINE, El'ISCOIWL Clll lUII. Angus, Joseph, D.D. (Brown University, 1852). Baptist ; 1). at Bolam, IS'orthumlH rland. Enixland, Jan. 16. 1816 ; graduated 31. A. at Edinburgh ; since 1849 has been president of Regent's Park College. London. He wrote Bihle ] In lid-hook. London, 1854 ; Hand-book of EnglisJi JAterainrc, 1805. A-nl-ce'-tus, bi.shop of Rome 161 or 168 (?). known priinii)ally for having permitted Poly- carp when ]w came to Rome to celebrate llic commimion publicly, though lie did not re- ceive the Roman method of observing Ea.'-t- An'-imals in Hebrew Law. They were dis- tinguished into dean and unclean, a li.st of each of which is given in T>ev. xi.. and an ab- stract of the same in Dcut. xiv. But the dia- ANNA (32) ANSGAR tinction existed much earlier, being mentioned in the account of the deluge (Gen. vii. 2). Indeed, it is with reason asserted to exist in nature, since every tribe of mankind would discriminate between the sheep and the hyena, the pigeon and the vulture as articles of food. It is to be observed that in general, as to both quadrupeds and birds, the law resulted in excluding such as themselves fed on flesh. The exceptions to this rule, such as the hare, the ass, the camel, the swine, the serpent, and other creeping things, may b& accounted for partly OQ economic reasons so far as any of these were serviceable animals, partly on sanitary grounds as to the use of pork in hot climates, and partly on instinctive aversions, as the ser- pent was forever associated with the sad fall in Eden. Yet we cannot doubt that this dis- crimination rested on still higher grounds, since some creeping things Avere not only not allowed a? food, but by contact caused an un- cleanness that required purification. In truth they were educational in their effects, and made part of an extensive sj'stem by which the people were Incessantly reminded of their duty to be holy as God is holy, and to abstain from the least appearance of pollution. For sacrifice only such animals were taken as were most common with the people, and, generally speaking, most useful. Besides cattle, sheep, and goats of both sexes, pigeons and turtle- doves were permitted, and in cases of extreme necessity the last two might be substituted for the others. Whatever was offered must be without blemish, and at least 8 days old. Maiachi denounced (i. 8) in vehement terms the disregard of this rule in his day. The use of human -sacrifices was severely prohibited (Lev. xviii. 21, xx. 2). C. An'-na, a prophetess of the tribe of Asher, who after 7 years of married life became a widow and devoted herself to constant attend- ance upon the services of the temple. In her 85th year she heard the prophetic blessing of the aged Simeon upon the infant Jesus (Luke i. 36-38), and joined in giving thanks to God. C. An'-nas, appointed high- priest by Quirinus, A.D. 7, and removed hj Valerius Gratus, a.d. 23 ; he continued to hold the title after his dep- osition, and though his son-in-law Caiaphas Avas the actual high-priest, he was the ruling power, and retained his influence for 50 years, having 5 sons in succession in the office. Our Lord when seized was first brought before him (John xviii. 13), and he was mainly responsible for the crucifixion. He was also president of the Sanhedrin before whom Peter and John were brought (Acts iv. 6). C. Annates, or first-fruits, a certain portion of the revenues of vacant benefices which ought to be paid to the pope, but which now form " a scarcely appreciable portion" of the papal revenues. (Cf. Addis and Arnold, s.v.) Annihilationism, the doctrine of those who hold that the everlasting punishment of the wicked consists in their being literally de- stroyed. Its ablest recent expositor is the Rev. Edward White, of London {Life in Christ, London, 1875 ; 8d ed., 1878), and it has attained some prevalence, although it is against the let- ter and the spirit of the Bible, as well as against the consensus of Christendom in all ages. C. Annulus. See Ring. Annunciade, two nun's orders, founded (1) in 1500 by Johanna of Valois, the divorced wife of Louis XII. of France ; (2) in 1604 by Maria Victoria Fornari. Annunciation, the title given to the angel's joyful message to the Virgin Mary respecting the incarnation of the Son of God (Luke i. 26 sqq.). It is also used to denote a festival kept on March 25 in commemoration of this event since the 6th century. C. Anomoeans (from dissimilar), those radical Arians who htild that the Son was dissimilar to the Father and of a different substance ; also called Anomoiites. See Akius, p. 44. An'-selm of Canterbury, b. at Aosta, Italy, about 1033 ; d. at Canterbury, Wednesday, April 21, 1109. He came of a noble Lombard family. As a child he thought on religious things, and would gladly have entered a mon- astery. Later, he gave himself up somewhat to the follies of the world ; but recovered from this, and not in the best of relations with his father, he determined to carry out his childish idea, and selected Bee in Normandy on account of the fame of Lanfranc. Here his mind was roused, and he was at first inclined to a literary career ; but recognizing the vanity which was threatening to gain possession of his soul, he turned monk instead. The monastic life was good for him, and he became a very mild and gentleman, whose principal characteristic was the spirit of love. In 1063 he was elected prior of Bee, and in 1078 abbot. In these po- sitions he won great fame as a teacher. In 1098 William Iirof England determined, after long delay, to fill the s"ee of Canterbur^y, and selected Anselm for the post. His ideas of the relation of church and state were such that he foresaw conflict, and would gladly have been spared the responsibility. As archbishop he was involved in continual difficulty, but yet was able finally, through his compliant and friendly disposition, without sacrificing the rights of the church as he saw^ them, to bring about a peaceful solution. Yet in 1097 he had been exiled by the king. He was a truly noble character, of true spiritual pur- poses in his ecclesiastical labors. He is also equally or even more famous as a writer than a bishop. He was properly the founder of scholasticism. His writings are both philo- sophical and theological. Among the latter the most famous are'ihat on the Incarnation, Car Dcus Homo? (Eng. trans., n.e., London, 1887), and one upon Predestination. (In Eng- lish translation are his Meditations mid Pray- ers, London, 1872.) Complete works in Migne, Pat. Lat. CLV. See his life by Hasse, Leip- zig, 1843-52, 2 vols, (abridged trans., London, 1850) ; Church, London, 1875 ; Rule, 1882, 2 vols. ; cf . Freeman, William liufus. See Atonement. F, Anselm of Lucca. See Alexander II. Ans'-gar, b. about 800, near Amiens, Pic- ardy ; d. at Bremen, Germany, Feb. 3, 865 ; ANTEPENDIUM (33) ANTHROPOLOQT was the earliest missionary to Scandinavia. He was educated in tlie monastery of Corbie, and when an offshoot of that institution was formed in 622 in Westphalia, he removed thither. When King Harald, of Denmark, desired a missionary in 826 for his country, Ausgar was chosen and despatched with'Aut- bert. They worked some time in the vicinity of Schleswig, but were compelled with the king to leave the land. Meantime the request for a missionary had come from Sweden, and for more than a year Ansgar labored success- fully there, returning in 831. The same year saw' the erection of the missionary bishopric of Hamburg, of which Ansgar was the first incumbent. For some years this was the base of operations in Denmark, but in 845 the city of Hamburg was destroyed, and the church and library burnt. Ansgar fled, and was made the following year bishop of Bremen, where he ended his life in the exercise of the ascetic piety of that day. The missionary work was continued from this new centre as formerly from Hamburg. Life by Tappehorn, Miin- ster, 1863. F. Antependium, a hanging in front of an altar. Anterus, bishop of Rome from Nov. 21, 235, to Jan. 3, 236. Anthem (from Antiphon, q.v.), originally a hymn sung in parts alternately, but in ordi- nary usage a portion of scripture or liturgy sung to varied consecutive strains, admitting of every diversity of solo, verse, and chorus. Anthologion, the book in the Greek Church in which the hymns, prayers, and scripture readings to be chanted on the different feast and saints' da^'s are arranged according to the months. An'-thony, St., the reputed founder of mo- naslicism in Egypt. Our knowledge of him is derived from the biography attribixted to Athanasius. According to this, he was b. about 251, of Christian parents, at Coma, Egypt ; d. near the Red Sea, 356. He did not know how to read, but hearing the passage about the young man who was directed to sell all that he had and follow Christ, read in church, he imitated his example, and leaving only enough for the support of his sister, and finally selling even that, he gave all he had to tiie poor aod entered upon the life of an an- chorite. He sojourned in several places, ever removing farther and farther from mankind, and contented himself with the most meagre support. In the course of time he became very famous, and was much resorted to by younger men for instruction in the ascetic life. Twice he appeared again among men, in Alexandria; in 311, during the persecution, in the hope of gaining the crown of martyrdom, and again in 351 to bear witness to the orthodox faith in behalf of his friend Athanasius. Finally he died, 105 years old, and by liis direction the place of his burial was concx?aled, but wa.s afterward miraculously discovered. Many of his sayings are reported in Athanasius' life, and are full of common-sense and mucli Christian insight. Long discourses on mo- nastic ideals and other themes are given. Many miracles are also related of him, as well as many temptations victoriously sustained. But the researches of Weingarten {Dev Umpning des Moiichthtdits, Gotlia, 1877) seem to make it most probable that the book from whicli this story is drawn is not a production of Athanasius, and that St. Anthony is scarcely to be regarded as an historical personage. The style of tlic iiarrutive is beneath that of Atha- nasius' well-established writings, tJiere are in- consistencies with the genuine writings in it, the miraculous element discredits it, and the discourses contained are utterly vmhistorical. Such a monk as Anthony is represented to be would never be found quoting the Greek classics. F. Anthony, St., Order of, was founded in 1095, in consequence of the answer of a prayer made at the alleged grave of St. Anthony. There was a great sickness in that ])arl of France (the Dauphine), and the son of a rich nobleman had fallen sick. He vowed his whole property to the saint if his son should be restored. When this had taken place he erected a hospital and gave himself with his sons and eight companions to the care of the sick. These lay-brethren built a church (1208), became monks in 1228. and in 1297 regular canonicals with the rule of St. Au- gustine. They were mendicants, spread ex- tensively in France, German, and Italy, but declined in character, and in the period of the Refornfation were much in disfavor. F. Anthony de Dominis. See Domin'is. Anthony, of Padua, b. at Lisbon, Aug. 15. 1195 ; entered first the Augustinian, 1210, and then the Franciscan order, 1220 ; went as missionary to Africa, 1221 ; was later a pow- erful revival-preacher in Southern France and Upper Italy ; opposed the mitigations of the Franciscan rule introduced by the general Elias of Cortona ; d. at Padua. 1231 ; on the strength of his alleged miracles canoni/.ed 1232. His day is June 13. He is said once to have preached to the fishes, because men would not listen to him ; and hence is the patron saint of the dumb creation. (See his mystical and ascetic writings, ed. Horoy, Mcdii mvi biblioth. pat., vol. vi. sqq. ; 1880, sqq.) Life by Seebcick, Mainz. 1878. Anthropology {the doctrine of man), in the general scientific .sen.se means that branch of study which has man for its ol>je(1, and of course is very comprehensive, including anat- omy, physiology, i)syciiology, ethnology, etc. But in theology the term denotes tiiat part of the system which treats of man in distinction from God. In its full extent it includes man both a-s created and as fallen. It br-gins witli his creation as composed of body and soul, and then considers the soul as created in the image of God, and thus discu.s.ses the nature of holiness and the liappine.ss of an un fallen creature. But as man continued in his primi- tive condition but a brief time, his history is I mainlv made up of his apostiusy and its con- ' sequences, so that practically anthropology is chiefly concerned with such topics as original and actual sin. the free and the enslaved will. I the relation of the human to the divme efti- ' ciency in regeneration, and the affliiated doc- ANTHROP OMORPHISM (34) ANTIOCH trines. The subject, although treated by the early fathers, was not nearly so much canvassed as by their successors in the 5tli century, when the Pelagian and semi-Pelagian controversies arose, and afterward in the post-reformation period when there were liot discussions re- specting Arminianisra. The main points will be stated under their aiDpropriate heads. (See Hodge, Strong and Shedd's Theologies.) C. Anthropomorphism, or, as it is sometimes called, Anthropopathism, means the represen- tation of God under a human form or with human affections, or, more properly, the figu- rative application to God of terms that properly relate to human beings. This may be done in an imguarded manner and so lead to seri- ous error, as was the case with an ancient Syrian sect, the Audians ; yet it is impossible for us to think or speak of God save bj" anal- ogies derived from things cognizable by our C Anthropomorphites. See Audians. Anti-Burghers, those in the Secession Church of Scotland who denied on conscien- tious grounds the lawfulness of the oalh ad- ministered to burghesses iu Edinburgh, Glas- gow, and Perth. They formed a separate party in 1747. See Bukghers. Antichrist, a word that occurs only in the Epistles of John. The four passages in which it is found (I., ii. 18, 22, iv. 8 ; II., 7), when compared, point to various persons hojding heretical opinions as to the incarnation of Christ. And we know that there were among his contemporaries those who denied the union of the divine and the human in our Lord and resolved his history into a m}^!!!. There is no need and it is not wise to confound the anti- christ of John with the beasts from the abyss or the world-powers described in Daniel and the Apocalypse, or even with " the man of sin" in Second Thessalonians. C. Antidikomarianitae {adversaries of Mary), or Anti-Marians, the name given to those Arabian Christians of the 4th century who maintained that Mary had other children by Joseph after our Lord's birth. This is now the common Protestant belief, but it was then a novelty. Antidoron {rjift in return), the bread in the Greek Church given to the people after mass. Antilegomena {spoken against), a list of books of the New Testament whose canonical authority was for a time disputed — viz., the Epistle of James, Second Peter, Second and Third John, Jude, the Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. All the others were called Homo- legoumena-— ^■.e., acknowledged (Eusebius, Ch. Hist., iii. 25). The existence of this differ- ence, so far from being an argument against the existing canon, is in its favor, as 't, shows that the canon was not formed at haphazard or carelessly, but after severe scrutiny, and by the admission of only those writings which established their claim to be inspired. See C.A.NON. C. Antimensium {instead of table), in the Greek Church a silk cloth consecrated by the bishop for use where there was no altar, correspond- ing, therefore, to the portable altar of the Latin Church. Anti-Mission Baptists. See Baptists. Antinomianism, the doctrine that Christians are freed from obligation to keep the law of God. The thing existed from an early period, but the name was tirst used about 1527, when Luther applied it to the opinions of John Ag- ricola, who deemed the use of the law incon- sistent with the Gospel, but afterward retract- ed. The term sometimes denotes the rejection of the moral law as no longer binding, so that believers can do what they please without prejudice to their sanctitj^ ; which is simply monstrous. More commonly it represents the view which refuses to see in the Bible any posi- tive laws binding upon Christians, and consid- ers that they are left to the guidance of gospel principles and the constraint of Christian love. This does not arise from a dislike of morality, but from a mistaken notion of Christian lib- erty and a confounding of the moral law with ceremonial ordinances. Nothing is more cer- tain tlian that Christ came not to abrogate th° law, but to fulfil it. C. An'-ti-och, a city of Syria, upon the Orontes, the place where believers were first called Christians, a see of St. Peter's, seat of the pa- triarchate of Asia, is an important town in the history of early Christianity. The school of Antioch was not like that of Alexandria, orig- inally an institution for formal instruction, but rather a distinct style of thinking, or sys- tem of doctrinal views. In its earlier form it owes its origin to the martyr Lucian (d. 311). There exists some connection between him and Origen, the fruit of whose labors was accessi- ble ^o him in the library at Caesarea, and who gave an exegetical direction to the studies of the school. Origen 's tendency to allegory was, however, rejected by this school from the first. Some connection of the school with Paul of Samosata, the representative of pvire humanitarianism, is to be conjectured, and the head of the later Arian movement, Arius, with Eusebius of Nicomedia, was a pupil of Lucian. The views of these men have this in common with the later Antiochians, that they main- tained the separation of the divine from the hu- man with great firmness. Eusebius of Emisa and Eustathius of Antioch were also represen- tatives of this school. The later Antiochian school was in full sympathy with Niceue orthodoxy, but maintained the exegetical char- acteristics of the earlier. Its founder was Diodorus of Tarsus (d. 394), who when a presbyter in Antioch had become a famous teacher, and was one of those who formed the minds of Chrysostom and Theodore of Mop- suestia. The peculiarity of the later school appears in their position toward the Christo- logical controversies of their times, in which they taught the conjunction, rather than the union, of the two natures in Christ. Their purpose was to preserve the true humanity of Christ, but they were at least in constant dan- ger of sacrificing the unity of his person. Theodore of Mopsuestia is the greatest name of this period. He maintains the freedom of the will in opposition to Augustianism. His ANTIOOHUS (35) ANTONINUS efforts iu exegesis carried the school on toward the attaiumeut of a real historical and graui- maiical metliod, and he shows some traces of a tendency to biblical criticism, though not neglecting the peculiar contents of the sacred boolis. Polychronius, bishop of Apamea, was another representative of this tendency. The greatest product of the school among the prac- tical worliers of the church was Chrysostom. whose sermons are largely of an exegetical character, and worth reading to day by all. Theodoret gave up to a considerable extent the true character of the school. Dogmatically, as a whole, the school may be characterized as clear and sensible, but shallow. (See Ph. Her- genrotlier, Die Antiochenische Schiile und ihre Bedeatanrf auf exegetischem Gebiete, Wiirz- burg, 1853.) F. An-ti'-o-chus is the name of 1 2 kings of Syria, of whom se/eral have connection with thecove- nant. Aatioohus II. (B.C. 3(51-346) is su tposed to bj the king of the North, whom Dani^d mentions (xi. 6) as forming a marriage con- nection with the kiag of the South (Egypt). Antiochus HI. the Great (334-187), after being defeated at first (xi. 11), conquered Palestine and the adjacent countries, but afterward ad- vancing into Europe was defeated by the Ro- mans, and obtained peace only on severe con- ditions (xi. 18). After his death, which soon followed, came his brother, Antiochus IV., Epipliaues(jK«si/'iy«A)(17()-164), a manof over- weening pride (xi. 3o), who engaged iu an in- saue attempt to supplant Jewish institutions and usages by Hellenic arts and culture, and was guilty of the most cruel tyranny and the foulest sacrilege. At first he succeeded, and set up the abomination that maketh desolate in the temple (xi. 31), but in the end he roused the Jews to a successful insurrection under Mattathias, Judas Maccabaeus, and the other members of that heroic family. The nation achieved its independence, and retained it un- til with the rest of western Europe it became subject to Rome. The prominence given to Antiociius Epiphanes in Daniel is due to the fact that his attempt was the turning point in Jewish history, deciding whether Greek world- ly refinements were to stifle Israel's true faith. Persecution was God's method of saving his people from seductions which had well-nigh ma le them compromise their witness of his truth. C. Antipaedobaptista (against child baptism), those who object to the baptism of infants ; such as the various branches of the Baptists. See B.\PTisM. Antipas. See Herod Antipas. Antipascha (over against Easter), in the Greek Church a term for the Sunday after Easter, because it closes Easter vt-eek. Antiphon (a sound in turn). 1. A psalm, hymn, or prayer sung respousively. 2. A scries of Scripture ver-ses sung us prelude or conclusion uf a service. Antiphonarium, a Roman service-book con- taining the antiphons and responses for the whole vcar ; collection ascribed to Gregory the Great." Antipope (ttf/aiitst tJte pope), rivals to the popes, regularly chosen by some sovereign or by a minority of the cardinals. During the great schism, 137H-1409, pope and antipope or popes excomnmnicated each other. The fol- lowing is the list of antipopes : 1. Hippolytus, 218-223. 2. Novulianus, 251. 3. Feii.\ II., 35r,-3m. 4. Urs-inus, 300. 5. Eiiliiliu8. 418. 6. Lnnri'iitiiis, 498. 7. Diofcorug, MO. 8. Paschal, (;87-CU2. !). John, M4 10. AnaBtaBiuB. 855. 11. Boniface VII., 974. 12. Calabritiiniis (John XVI.), !»!»7-998. 13. Gregory, 1012. 14. Silvester III., 1044-104G. 15. Cadalou8(II<)norin8lI ), 1061. IG. Wibcrtus (Clement III.), 1080-1100 17. TheodoricuB, 1100. 18. AlbertUB, 1102. 19. MaginulfuB (Silvester IV.), 1105-1111. 20. Biirdinim (Gregory VIII.), 1118-11 21. TheobalduB Buccap«cua (CcluKtine), 1124. 22. .\nacletUB 11. ,1130-1138. 2:1 Gregory (Victor IV.), li:W. 24. Ociavianut' (Victor IV.), 11.5!»-ll(i4. 25. Guido Cniiieiifis (Pu8- chal HI.), Ilt54-11G8. 26. Johannes (!<• Sinium (Calixlus III.), 1168- 1178. 27. LandiiB Titinus (Inno- cent III ), 1178-1180. 28. Clement VII., 1378-1394. 29. Benedict XIII. (de- posed 140'J,, 1394- 30. Clement VIII., 1417- 1431. 31. Feli.x v., 1439-1449. Antistes, presiding office, especially of a temple ; an honorary title of Christian bish- ops, abbots, priors, etc. ; in some Swiss can- tons {e.g., Zurich) the title of the first minister of the Reformed city church and president of the church and school boards. Antitactae {set in opposition), an obscure Gnostic libertine sect of the 2d century, which advocated sinful practices on the ground that by them they avenged the Father by opposing the will of the second maker. Anti-Trinitarianism is a general name for all the ditfereut vienvs that oppose the doctrine of the Trinity. In the early church tiiere were those wdio tried to vindicate Monotheism, cither bv making the Son so different from the Father that he became a mere creature (as the Monarchians), or else by identifying him so closely with the Father that he was nothing but the Father incarnated, crucified, etc. (iis the Patripassians). Botii these errors were subdued by the Council of Nic^-a, but they reappeared at the time of the Reformation iu some of the Anabaptists, the llalian human- ists, and in Sociuus and his followers. Free- thinkers and rationalists are, of cour.'^e. anti- Trinitarians. The Swedenborgians admit a trinity in one person, but not of persons. C. Antonelli, Giacomo, b. at Sonnino, Italy, April 3, IWG ; studied in Rome ; made finance minister by Gregory XVI., 1845 ; cardinal by Pius IX., 1847; Wits his secretarv of state, 1850-70 ; d. in Rome. Nov. 6, 187B. His natural daughter, the Coimtess Lambertini, vainly sued for her .share in his estate of 1(K».- 000,000 lires. Antonians, a lilx-rtine Swiss sect founded by the Roman Catholic, Anton linternttiirer (b. at Schupfhcim, in Canton I.uzern. hepl. 5, 17011 ; d. in prison at Luzern. Junr 39, ls34i. in the earlv years of this century, and lasted about 45 years. It made the exercise of licentious- ness its religion. An-to-nl -nui Pi-us, Roman emperor (18ft- 161). adopted .son of Hadrian ; b. near Civita Laviua, Sept. 19, 86 ; d. at Castcl di Guido, ANTONINUS (36) APOLLONIUS March 7, 161. His reign was extremely peace- ful and prosperous, and tlie Christians were not generally molested, although Polycarp and the church at Smyrna were persecuted. See Polycarp. Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. See Marcus AURELIUS. Antrim, Presbytery of, Ireland, composed of those who refused (1727) to subscribe to the Westminster Confession, and adopted Arian principles. A-pel'-les, Roman Christian in the 2d cen- tury, a Marcionite, who taught that the hu- man soul was sent from a higher sphere into this world as a punishment ; but on request of the Demiurge, a lower a^on, God sent the higher aeon Christ to be Saviour, whose body was made of air. Apelles believed the revela- tions of a certain virgin, Philumine. See Marcion. A'phek. 1. A royal city whose king was slain by Joshua (xii. 18). 2. A city of Asher, supposed to be the same as Aphaea, noted for its temple of Venus (Josh. xix. 30). 3. The place of the Philistines' encampment before they took the ark (1 Sam. iv. 1). 4. Where the Philistines encamped before defeating Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 1). 5. A walled town on the road to Damascus (1 Kings xx. 26), now called Fik, about 6 m. e. of the Sea of Galilee. C. Aphthartodocetae. See Monophysites. Aph'-ra-a-tes, Syrian patristic writer of the 4th century, 23 of whose Homilies were pub- lished by W. Wright, London, 1869. A'-pi-on, a Greek grammarian of Egyptian descent, who wrote much and was noted for loquacious vanity. Tiberius called him cym- balummundi. Hehated the Jews, and headed the famous Alexandrian embassy against them. It was against him Josephus wrote in defence of his nation. C. A'-pis, the bull worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded it as a symbol of Osiris, the god of the Nile, the husband of Isis, and the great divinity of Egypt. C. Apocalypse. See Revelation. Apocalyptic Books. See Pseudepigrapha AND Apocrypha. Apocalyptic Number is 666 (Rev. xiii. 18), generally interpreted, according to its value in Hebrew characters, as meaning Nero. Apocrisiarius, the official title of the emis- sary from the patriarchs and popes to the Greek emperor. Apocrypha. See Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. Apokatastasis. See Restorationism. A-pol-U-na'-ris and Apollinarianism. Apol- linaris (d. 390) was bishop of Laodicea, where he had become lector as early as 335. His father was from Alexandria, and he him- self was brought into connection with Atha- nasius by writings in defence of the Nicene Creed. He became famous as a defender of this creed, and even suffered temporary ex- communication for its sake. But he was car- ried into error by his speculations upon the subject of Christology, which were anony- mously condemned in 362. Athauasius ap- peared against him in 371. In 375 he left the orthodox communion to form a sect of his own. His doctrine was finally condemned at the Ecumenical Council of 381. He began his system by the denial of the position that identity both with God and with man could be predicated of the nature of Christ. Per- fect God and perfect man cannot unite in one person. That would produce two sons of God, a proper and an improper [or adoptive] son. Again, a perfect man would necessarily be a sinful being, since sin inheres in the spirit {nous). Accordingly, Apollinaris puts this dilemma ; either must the humanity of the God-man have vne preponderance, in which case the indwelling of God in Christ does not differ from that in every good man, except in degree ; or the divine must have the prepon- derance, in which case the humanity is not per- fect. He accepts the latter alternative. Now, man is composed of spirit, soul, and body. In Christ the place of the spirit or mind {nous) was occupied by the Logos. Hence there is but one nature in Christ which has a human and a divine side, which are so perfectly united that it is ijroper to interchange their predi- cates. Thus Apollinaris takes a position ex- actly the contrary to that of the Antiochian school, which taught only a conjunction of the two natures. "The theory made a great stir, was opposed by all the principal writers of the Alexandrian school, and finally con- demned, as above said. F. A-pol-lo'-ni-a, an aged Christian virgin- martyr of Alexandria (a.d. 249), whose jaw was broken and teeth knocked out because she would not deny Christ. She subsequently burnt herself to death upon the fire her ene- mies had prepared. (Cf. Eusebius, Ch. Hist., vi. 41.) She is commemorated in the Roman Church on Feb. 9. In the Middle Age she was the patroness against the toothache. A-pol-lo'-ni-us of Tyana, in Cappadocia, was born about the date of the birth of Christ. His education was in the Pythagorean philos- ophy. At about the age of 40 years he began extended travels, in which he went as far as India. On his return he gave himself up to reformatory efforts, in consequence of which he was "for a time in favor with high officials at Rome, but was subsequently im- prisoned. Acquitted, he marvellously disap- peared, and finally, after spending some time in the temple at Olympia, where he had a multitude of scholars and was much venerat- ed, he departed from life in a mysterious man- ner. Such is the account of his biographer, Philostratus (wrote about 200, French trans.. Paris, 2d ed., 1862). The historical germ of the account is the man Apollonius, who was a rigorous ascetic, a philosopher, and a priest of Asklepios. The miraculous wisdom ascribed to him, the miracles wliich he wrought, his reforms and political infiuence, belong to the region of myth. He derives his chief impor- tance from the efforts made by opponents of Christianity to find in him a parallel to Christ APOLLOS (37) APOSTLES which should discredit the claims of the Chris- tian system. But there is no such parallel at- tempted by Philostratus, and the biography shows only the most general acquaintance •with the life of Christ. F. A-pol' los,an Alexandrian Jew, a disciple of John the Baptist, instructed at Ephesus by Aquila and Priscilla, who preached with abundant success in Achaia, and especially at Corinth, where a party called itself by' his name (Acts xviii. 24 sqq. ; 1 Cor. iii. 4). lie was an eloquent man and mighty in the Scrip- tures, probably more brilliant and learned than Paul. Some consider him the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, but the designation, however probable, cannot be proved. C. Apologetics, a modern term denoting the scientitic defence of Christianity. The (jues- tions at issue are always the same, but the form of contiict varies from age to age. Each generation has its own ditflculties which are to be met and removed. The Christian litera- ture of the 2d century was largely apologetic. The most prominent of the Greek apologists were Justin Martyr and the autlior of the Epistle to Diognetus, who were followed by Clement of Alexandria. Among the Latin defenders of the faith were Minutius Felix, Cyprian, Tertullian, and Lactantius. As the Greeks maintained the truth by logical reason- ings as philosophers, the Latins argued as ju- rists and appealed to the settled principles of the Roman law. In Alexandria, Origen main- tained the truth against the neo-Platonic scliool. The series of early apologues is closed by the Do Cicltate Dei of Augustin, who claimed the downfall of the Roman world as the fulfilment of a divine judgment in favor of Christianity. Little was done on the sub- ject in the Middle Ages, but Thomas Aquinas summed up the controversy in his work, De Vera Catfwlica Fide adcersus Gentiles. But with the Reformation a new phase appeared. The revival of letters brought forward not a few pagans in Christian clothes, and there was a call for such writers as Philip de Moruay and Abbadie, Grotius, Limborch, and Huet, and, above all, the great work of Pascal, Pen- sees Hur III Rcli(jii>n. which, though aphoristic throughout, furni.shes some of the profoundest suggestions in defence of the truth. In P^ng- land the Deistic sciiool of Herbert, llobbes, Collins, etc., called forth a series of impreg- nable defences by Baxter, Cudwortli, Stilling- fleet, Bentley, VVaterland, and the immortal work of Bishop Butler, which to this day holds its own. In France the attacks made by Voltaire and the encyclopajdists called forth energetic defences among both Roman Caliio- lics and Protestants ; among the former Clia- teaubriand was most prominent, and of the lat- ter Bonnet. The movement of the Englisli deists was transferred to Germany, where it gas'e ri.se to .some of the m )st learned, acute, and comprehensive as.saults ever made on the Christian faith. On one hand, Lessing and the Wolfonbultel fragments as.sailed the his- toric foundations of Scrii)turc, and, on the other, a ho'^t of scholars were applying criti cism to the interpretation of Srriptun- in such a way as to undtrmine its infallible authority. The mythical theory which evaporates the sub- stance of Christianity was skilfully presented by Dr. Straufss. Of late years the severe.st as saults have been made on the side of physi(-al science, presenting materialistic or paiUlu-is- tic views. (Two recent elaborate treatises on Apologetics are by Ebrard, Eng. trans., Edin. 1886-87, 3 vols., and P. Schanz [Roman Cath' olic], Freiburg, 1887-88, 3 vols. Small but good vols, are the Manuals of (Jiiristian Evi- dences, by C. A. Row, London and New York, 1887, and G. P. Fisher, New York, 1888). C. Apostasy in the Roman Church is f)f two kinds, either a revolt against a monastic or a clerical vow, or an abandonment of the faith. Only the latter kind is known among Protest- ants or was recognized in the early church. In time of persecution many were led to re- nounce the Christian faith, but after the .storm had passed wishcjd to return. Permission was refused, and for a long time they were treated with great severity. The proper treatment of Inpsii and tnulitores was frequently the subject of earnest controversy'. Under the first Chris- tian emperors aposta.sy was viewed and pun- ished as a civil crime, and the Roman Church at one time imposed severe penalties and sought the aid of the state to secure their in- fliction. In our day excommunication is re- garded as the only penalty which ought to be imposed in any case. C. Apos'-tle, a word meaning messenf/ev, in whicli sense it occurs in the New Testnment (Phil. ii. 25), but generallv applied to the twelve whom our Lord selected. The primary pur- pose of an apostle was to bear witness of the resurrection, the cardinal fact of Christianity, and therefore he must have seen the Lord. He had a universal commission, and was not tied down to any particular field. He enjoyed supernatural gifts, and he was made the sub- ject of special revelations. Other disciples had some of these qualifications, but only an apostle enjoyed them all. C. Apostle, The, an early ecclesiastical term for the volume containing selections from the epistles used in public worship Apostle-spoons, twelve iu number, in gold or silver, with ciligies of the ai)ostles on then), formerly commonly given by g<)d|)arents of the upper classes to their godchildren at bap- tism. Apostles' Creed. See Creed. Apostles, Feasts of— i.e., church festivals in their ineniorv. 1. (-)f the Twelve Apostles, in tiie (ireik Church on June 30. 2. Of the Division of the Apostles— j'.^., their final dis- persion from Jerii.'ialem, in the Roman Church on July M. 3. Certain apostles an- commem- orated in })airs ; thus. Philip and .I.ames. .May 1 ; Peter and Paul. June 29 (previouslv in liie Roman Church all the apo.sties on tills day) ; Simon and .Judas. Oct. 2«. TIk- first Sunday after Easter was once called " the Sunday of the Ajiosfles." Apostles, The Twelve. These were Simon Peter and .\ndrew his brother; James the son of Zelxrlee an.l .John his broih< many fertile valleys occupied by an agricultural popula- tion, while wandering liedouin roam o^er the mountainous districts. The northeastern portion was called DeserUi, a waste of burn- ing sand, where rain rarely falls and cultiva- tion is unknown. The third part, called Pe- trcea or Stony, is now generally known as the Sinaitic peninsula, lying between the two arms of the Red Sea. This small triangular region was the scene of the 40 years' wander- ing of the children of Israel. It is at present a desolate territory, held by Avanderin^ tribes who get a meagre support from the fesv val- leys that are productive ; hut the close observer finds everywhere indications that in ancient times the case was otherwise, and a skilful retention of the rainfall rendered possible an extensive and iirofitahle culture. Still so large a body as the Israelites vuider Moses could not have been su.stained without the special help of Providence. The connections of Arabia and its people with sacred history are numer- ous. The po.sterit_v of Nahor, of Abraham and Keturah, and of Lot formed a part of its popu- lation. Jol) is suppo.sed to have dwell in it. From it Solomon received gold (1 Kings x. 15), and Jehoshaphat Hocks' (2 Ciiron. xvii. 11). The prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah fre- quently refer to it. Some of its people were among the multitude at Jerusalem when the spirit was poured out at Pentecost. Paul re- tired thither after his conversion. The jx'ople were originally worshippers of the lieavenly host, sun, moon and stars, but after the rise of the prophet of Mecc^i, Sabeanism gave way to Mohammedanism, which ever since has been the universal religion. To the Arabs are due our arithmetical tigures. At one time thev took the lead of Europe in astronomv, chemistry, algebra, and medicine, but this priority "hiis long since departed. The lan- guage is the most developed of the Semitic tongues, and is remarkable for the richne-s of its vocabularv and the nmsic of its cadences. It was not ufitil a late ju riod that the Scrip- tures were translated into it, and then it was tlone in a rude way and very imperfect- Iv. In our own century and by Anurican scholars a classic version of great e.vcrllence ha-s been made, and is incn-ii.-ingly rircu- lated among the 80,000,000 who speak tho Arabic tongue. C. Arabic. Sec Arabia. ARABICI (40) ARCANI Arabic!, an Arabic sect of the 3d century, described by Eusebius {Ch. Hist., vi., 37), which maintained that soul and body died to- gether and were raised together. Origen's arguments induced them to recant. Arabs. See Akabia. A'-rad, a royal city of the Canaanites, on the southern border of Judah, whose king opposed the passage of the Israelites, and even captured some of them, for which the inhabitants were put under the ban and utterly destroyed (Num. xxi. 1-3). C. A'-ram, the elevated region northeast of Pal- estine toward the Euphrates, nearly identical with Syria. Aram-Naharaim (Gen. xxi v. 10), rendered Mesopotamia, means the highland between the Euphrates and the Tigris. This region was divided among several petty king- doms, as we read of Aram Dammesek, " the Syrians of Damascus," In 3 Sam. viii. 5 ; of Aram Zobahin 1 Sam. xiv. 47 ; of AramBeth- Rehob in 2 Sam. x. 6 ; of Aram Maachah in 1 Chron. xix. 6 ; and of Aram Geshur in 2 Sam. XV. 8. The country was conquered by Tiglath-pileser, and afterward became subject to the Chaldeans and to the Persians, but upon the death of Alexander the Great became in- dependent under the Seleucides. Pompey made it subject to Rome in B.C. 64. The language spoken belonged to the Semitic fam- ily, but was poorer and rougher than any of the others, owing, as is supposed, to the fact that the Aramaeans were surrounded by non- Semitic peoples, and often subject to foreign conquerors. It had two branches— one, tlie west Aramaic, originally spoken in Mesopo- tamia, developed into the Syriac, which pro- duced a rich literature in theology, philosophy, and history. Its most flourishing period was from the 4th century to the 7th. In the 8th and 9th it was overtaken by the Arabic, and in the ISth it disappeared. The other, called in Scripture the Aramaic (Dan. ii. 4, marg. of Revised Version), has borne since Jerome the name of Chaldee, although the old Chaldeans never spoke it. In the time of the kings it was understood in Jerusalem if not by all, at least by the educated (2 Kings xviii. 26), and it was "the business language throughout the Assyrian realm. The Persian government afterward issued its edicts, so far as concerned western Asia, in the Aramaic tongue. After the exile it became the popular language of all Palestine. Christ and the apostles spoke it, as may be seen from several words and jjhrases in the New Testament (ephphatha, abba, lama sabachthani). The only specimens of this dialect that have come down to us are sec- tions in the books of Daniel (ii. 4-vii. 28) and Ezra {\v. 8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26), and the 4 Chaldee paraphrase of the Old Testament, the so-called Targums. C. Aramaic. See Aram. Ar'-a-rat (lioly land or high land), a moun- tainous region of Asia, bordering on the plain of the Araxes, the resting-place of Noah's ark (Gen. viii. 4). The name was unknown to Greek and Roman geographers, as it is now to the Armenian. Tradition fixes upon a point called by the Turks "Steep mountain" and by the Persians Koh-i-Nuh, or " Noah's mountain," as tlie spot where the ark rested. This has two high peaks, one of which is cov- ered with perpetual snow. But as the phrase in Scripture refers to the entire range of ele- vated table-land, some lower part of this range is more likely to have been the place. C. A-ra'-tor, an Italian Christian rhetorician of tlie 6th century, who wrote a Latin hex- ameter poem in two books on the Acts of the Apostles, and prefaced it in elegiac verse to Pope Vigilius. His works are in Migne, Pat. Lat. LXVIII. A-ra'-tus, Greek poet of the 3d century B.C., from whose poem, the Phanomena, St. Paul is supposed by some to have quoted. (Cf. Acts xvii. 28.) St. Paul and he wx^re both natives of Cilicia, hence the former's acquaintance with the verse, according to the theory. But a similar idea is found in Cleanthes {Ilymns ill Jovem, 5) and Pindar {Nein. 6) , and in any case does not argue any study of the classics by St. Paul, whose Jewish training would for- bid the supposition. Arbues, Pedro, de Epila, Spanish inquisi- tor ; b. at Epila, Aragonia, 1441 ; became a canon regular in the Augustinian order at Saragossa ; first inquisitor under Torquemada, May 4, 1484, and won the reputation of being a tireless hunter after heresy ; was stabbed in the cathedral of Saragossa by two men, in consequence of a conspiracy on the part of the friends and relatives of his manv victims, and d. Sept. 17, 1485. Pope Alexander VII., in 1661, beatified him, and Pius IX., in 1867, canonized him. (Cf . life by Zirngiebl, Leipzig, 2d ed., 1872, and H. C. Lea, The Marhjrdom of San Pedro Arbues [in Papers of American Historical Association, 1888], New York, 1889.) Arcani Disciplina {secret teacMng). The earliest worship of the Christians was open to all who chose to take part. But with the in- creasing dilficulties wdiich surrounded the church from persecutions and the corrupting influences of the heathen world, it became more and more secret. In the 4th and 5th centuries there appear evidences of a distinct body of doctrines wlych were concealed from the general congregation. Chrysostom and Augustine often suppress some subject with the remark, " The initiated know." These mysterious subjects relate to the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, baptism, etc. It has, there- fore, been assumed that there was from the beginning a body of secret teaching, and Ro- man Catholic apologists have used the suppo- sition to explain why it is that many of the peculiar doctrines of their church are not men- tioned by the early writers. Hence some ex- treme Protestants have denied the existence of any such teaching. The truth seems to lie between the two parties. The worship of Christians in the time of Justin seems to have been held in seclusion, though he was ready to relate in full the forms used in celebrating the sacraments. Later, the course of church discipline, which made a sharp distinction be- tween the catechumens and the full members of the churches, forbade to the former partici- pation in the communion, and finally attend- ance upon it. As the rite itself was concealed AROHiEOLOCJY (41) AROHIOAPELLANU3 from them, so all teaching upon it was ab- stained from, and in the public preachin-^, where catechumens and also unbelievers were present, such subjects were passed over. The institution of a catechumenate was, therefore, the cause of this peculiar custom, and it neither was nor is any part of the essence of historical Christianity. F. Archaeology, Biblical, the name now given to what formjrly was known as the study of " antiquities." In its general aspect archajol- ogy has been and is daily growing in interest and importancaas the most trustworthy guide to a correct knowledge of the past. "This is also true of biblical archajology. It has made vast additions to what we know of sacred per- sons and places and times and things, and still more is to bj expected from the researches of the future. It has been dehned to bo a repre- sentation of the physical, geographical, statis- tical, economical, and social conditions of the nation in which the Bible originated. Its chief sources are, on one hand, the literature that exists of the Jews themselves and of all their neighbors — Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Roman, and of all modern travellers and explorers of whatever age or country — and, on the other, all monuments and build- ings, plastic representations, inscriptions and coins, whether in Palestine itself or in Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Phoenicia and Syria. The range is wide, and the literature of the subject is already very abundant, and yet must continually increase. The principal points of sacred archaeology will be noticed under their respective heads. (See E. C. Bissell, Biblical Antiquities, Philadelphia, 188S.) C. Archaeology, Ecclesiastical, that depart- ment of church history which deals with the external life of the church and the forms which it assumed. By general consent its period is now defined as terminating with the clo.se of the 6th century. It embraces the general topics of church worship, customs and con- stitution. Under worship it treats of the acts of worship, such as preaching, prayer, song, the administration of the sacraments ; and of sacred seasons, Easter, . etc. Here was f or- m?rly included also an account of the places where worship was held, churches, etc., and their decoration ; but this is now considered under the title of church architecture. Under customs it treats of discipline, marriage, bur- ial, etc. The department of church constitu- tion handles the development of the prie-sthood, the sepiration of clergy and laity, the rise of the orders of the clergy, and their legal and ceremonial rights and duties. The authorita- tive work in English on the whole subject for the first eight centuries is Smith and Cheet- ham's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. London, 1875-80, 2 vols. See also Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian vhurch, several edd., c.,7., London, 1878, 3 vols. F. Archangel. See Angel. Archbishop primarilv was, and in the Church of England and Ireland is, the metro- politan or chief bishop of a province. In Con- stantine's time he was really a patriarch, and as such ordained all the metropolitans of his diocese ; convened the diocesan synods and presided at them ; rcrcivc^.l ;i])pcals from mofro- politans and also tlicir suffra-aiis wiicii mdro- palitans were remiss in censuring them. But in t lie English Church he has his ancient place and function. There arc two archbi.shop.s— Can- terbury and York— appointed bytiiesovereign ; in the Irish Church there are also two— Armagh and Dublin— who are elected by the bishops from among their own number. Archdeacon, The, was since the 5th century the chief deacon and the assistant or deputv of the bishop in all duties which did not re- quire special episcop-.d ofliues. When the bish- oprics were divided into archdeaconries the archdeacons acquired still greater i)owers. But the abuses which crept in, and their as- sumption of episcopal j^rerogatives, led to a material curtailment of their powers in the 12th and 13th centuries, and to the substitu- tion for them of vicar-generals. The Council of Trent gave to the bishops the rights yet left to the archdeacons. In the Lutheran Church the archdeacon is simply the first pastor of the city's churches. In the Church of Englaml the office corresponds to that in the ancient church. The archdeacons are addressed as ■'Venerable," and have general oversight of portions of the diocese. Tiiere are 85 arch- deaconries in that church. In the Episcopal Church in the United States the office, with similar functions, has recently been instituted, and is now (1889) found in the following dio- ceses (figures in parenthesis give the number of archdeacons for each diocese) : Albanv (4), Chicago (1), Long Island (,'), Newark (2), New jersey (,2), New York (4), Springfield (3). Ar-che-la'-us (ruler of the people), a son of Herod the Great, who succeeded his father B.C. 4, and maintained his position against an insurrection raised by the Pharisees. Ilis heirship being disputed by his brother Antipas, he went to Rome, where his authoritv wits confirmed by Augustus, who made him eth- narch of JudWa, Samaria, and Idumea. Being cruel and revengeful, Joseph and Mary natu- rallv feared to live under his government, anil went to Nazareth (Matt. ii. 22). After 9 years' reign Archelaus was deposed by Augustus for his cruelty and banished to Vieune, in Gaul, where he died (i .v.d. C. Arche.9, Court of the, so called becau.se lield in Bow Church. Sancla Maria de Arcubus. is an ancient court of appeal, belonging to this Archbishop of Canterbury, where Ihe confir- mation of the election of 'l)islu)i»s of the prov- ince of C;anterburv still takes place. It now sits cither in the Lambeth Library or in one of the ro.nns in the Parliament House. Ar -che-vites, the name of a people tmns. planted bv the Assvrians into the d<'pr)pulat(Ml Samaria (Ezra iv. i)). They were inliabitanis of Erech, mentioned in Genesis (x. 10) as W- longing to the kingdom of Ninirod. Tiiis ban been of late identiticd in the ruins of Warka. on the left bank of the Euphrates. 82 m. s.e. from Babylon. ('• Archicapellanus (archchaplain), the liead of the theologians at tlie court of the old Knmk ish kings,' and of ecrlesia>< ARMINIA.NISM 46) ARNAUD reluctantly established among them the Evan- gelical Protestant Church. Robert College, at Constantinople, is one of the fruits of the movement. (See The Life and Times of S. Gregory the Illuminator, London, 1868 ; The Divine Liturgy of the Ai'menian Church, 1870 [both translated by S. C. Malan] ; for the mod- ern church cf. R. Young, Light in Lands of Darkness, London, 2d ed., 1884, pp. 114-168!) Arminianism. See Arminius. Ar-min'-i-us, Arminianism. Arminius, James (Dutch, Jacobi Ilarmensen), b. at Oude- water, Holland, in 1560 ; d. at Leyden, Oct. 19, 1609. After a preliminary training at Utrecht, he was sent, in 1575, to the newl}' founded uni- versity at Leyden, where he remained six years, and gained a high reputation. In 1582 he went to Geneva and studied theology un- der Theodore Beza. Here he gave offence by advocating the logic of Peter Ranuis in oppo- sition to tliat of Aristotle, and had to retire to Basle, but in 1583 returned to Geneva and continued his studies for three j^ars more. He then visited Padua and Rome, and on his return to Amsterdam, in 1586, was ordained. Soon after he was commissioned to answer the sublapsarian views of certain ministers of Delft, but, in studying the subject, became a convert to the opinions he was set to oppose. These new views found expression in his ex- positions of Romans, and provoked much con- troversy ; but in 1603 he succeeded Fr. Junius as professor hi theology at Leyden. Here he soon became involved in fierce disputes with Gomar, one of his colleagues, on foreordina- tion, but still, in 1605, was made rector mag- nificus of the university. The controversy becoming general, he asked that a synod should be called to settle it, but before this could be done he died. He was a man of acuteness and learning, not a profound scholar, but an excellent writer, of winning manners and an amiable spirit. (See Life, by Bangs, New York, 1843.) Arminianism. — A system differing from Calvinism as usually held by the Reformed churches on the five points — foreordination universal redemption, the corruption of man, conversion, and final perseverance. As slated by the Remonstrants, as the followers of Ar- minius were called, in 1610, it maintained : 1. That God had indeed made an eternal decree, but only on the condition that all who believe in Christ shall be saved, while all who refuse to believe must perish, so that predestination is only conditional. 2. That Christ died for each and every man, but only those who believe are really saved by his death. 3. That no man is of himself able to exercise a saving faith, but must be born again of God in Christ through the Holy Spirit. 4. That without the grace of God, man can neither think, will, nor do anything good ; yet that grace does not act upon men in an irresistible way. 5. True believers are able, by the aid of the Holy Spirit, victoriously to resist sin, but whether they may not by their own remissness fidl from grace is a question to be determined by a further examination of the Scriptures. On the last-mentioned point the later Arminians came to hold, as do now all who bear the name, that the regenerate may lose justifying faith, fall from a slate of grace, and die in their sins. It is understood that the holders of these views agree with other evangelical Christians as to the Trinity, the fall of man, the atonement, the obligation to holiness, and eternal retribution. Armin- ians are found more or less among all Protes- tants, but their leading representatives are the Wesleyans of Great Britain and the Meth- odists of America. (See Watson's Institutes, W. B. Pope's Christietn Theology.) C. Armitage, Thomas, D.D. (Georgetown Col- lege, Ky., 1855) ; b. at Pontefract, Eng., Aug. 2, 1819 ; becameaMethodistpreacher at 16 ; a resident in iVmerica in 1838 ; in 1848, a Bap- tist, and from that time to 1889 was pastor of the Fifth Ave. Baptist Church, New York City. He was a founder of the American Bible Union, 1850 (see Bible Societies), and its president, 1856-75. He published A His- tory of the Baptists, New York, 1886. Army, Armor, Hebrev?-. No representa- tions of the Hebrew weapons have been pre- served on vases, coins, or jewels ; so that our views of them must be drawn from remains of other ancient peoples or inferred from the words themselves. Of offensive arms, there were the sword, lighter than ours, carried in a sheath and suspended from the girdle ; the spear, a long wooden staff with a metal point ; the javelin, a shorter lance ; the dart, still smaller ; the bow, sometimes of steel, with arrotrs, often either poisoned or fiery ; the sling, the usual weapon of a shepherd, but also employed in regular warfare ; the battle- axe (Jer. li. 20\ the form of which is unknown. D fensive armor consisted of the shitld, one form of which protected the whole person, while another, smaller in size, was used for hand-to hand fight ; the coat-of-mail , which covered the breast and back ; the greaves, which protected the legs ; the helmet, covering the head. The term "' armor' ' and the various offensive and defensive weapons included in it are frequently used figuratively in the Bible, especially in Ephesians vi. 11-1?, where the graces of the Christian character are repre- sented as the panoply of God in which he clothes the believer and by which he is en- abled to fight victoriously the good fight of faith. The armies of Israel embraced the whole male population, and when occasion required the entire body could be assembled. Each tribe constituted a division, with a separate banner, and this, again, was divided into thousands and hundreds, under their respec- tive captains. The kings first established the custom of body guards (1 Sam. xiii. 2, xxv. 13), and in later times a standing army was maintained. But ordinarily the soldiers re- ceived no wages, but were armed and sup- ported (1 Kings iv. 27). Hence the campaigns were generally short, and often decided by a single battle. Horses were not used, it is sup- posed, till Solomon's time. The manner of declaring war and the character of exempts are minutely stated (Deut. xx. 1-14, xxiv. 5). See War. C. Arnaud (ar-no) Henri, b. at Embrun, Hautes ARNAULD (47) ARNOLD Alpes, Friince, Sept. 30. 1641; d. atSchonbcrg. Wiirtemberg, Sept. 8, 1721. He is fiiniousfor his succes,sful conduct of hi.s Waldeiisian co- religionists back into their native valleys, in the face of determined oppo.sition, 1689-90 (cele- brated Aug. and Sept., 1889). They were, liow- ever, compelled to leave again. lie served in the army of the Allies against France in 1703, but for the latter years of his life preached to the exiled AValdensians at Schonberg. He is the author of The Ohrious Recovery by the VaudoisofthnrVaUeysiovig. French, iVlO, n.e. Neuchatel, 1845 ; Eng. trans., London, 1827). AmaiUd (ar-no). The name of a Frencli family celebrated for their Jansenism. 1 . An- toine, the father ; b. in Paris, 1560 ; d. tliere, Dec. 39, 1619 ; advocate-general and member of parliament, Paris, Avhose speech, July 13, 13, 1594 (Eng. trans., London, 1594), against the Jesuists caused their temporary banish- ment. He had 20 children, of whom several became prominent. 2. Robert d'Andilly, his eldest son; b. in Paris, 1588 ; after his wife's death he entered the Cistercian convent of Port Royal, Paris, 1643, with five of his daughters, giving lip his influential position at court, and henceforward devoted himself to literature, on the side of Jansenism ; d. there, Sept. 37, 1674. He wrote Lives of the Fathers of the Desert (Eng. trans., London, 1757, 3 vols.) and other translations. 3. Henri, younger son ; b. in Paris, 1597 ; became bishop of Angers, 1649 ; d. there. June 8, 1693, respected by his theo- logical opponents and beloved by his flock. 4. Antoine, stvled " the Great," j'oungest son ; b. in Paris, Feb. 6, 1612 ; d. at Brussels, Aug. 8, 1694. He was the great leader of the Jan- senists. Turning from philo.sophy and law to theology, he became a priest, 1641, and the next year Doctor of the Sorbonue, and in 1643 the recognized head of the Jansenist party in France. From then on Jesuitism had no more learned or indefatigable opponent. To escape his foes, he retired to the convent of Port Roj-al, Paris. In 1656 his declaration, that it vsras not true that certain propositions alleged to be in Jansen's book Augustinus, and con- demned b}^ the pope as heretical, were found in it in the sense ascribed to them by his op- ponents, led to his expulsion from the Sor- bonne, but also to the composition by Pascal of the famous Proviiicinl Letters. From 1679 till his death he lived in Belgium, mostly in Brussels. Here he worked, in connection with Quesnel ((j.v.), upon the old themes— defence of Jansenism, opposition to Jesuitism. His writings make 45 vols., Paris and Lau.sanne, 1775-83 (with his Life by Majainville), but are entirely forgotten, except that prepared with Nicole. Ihe Port lloynl Logic (Eng. trans , 10th ed., Edinburgh, 1887). 5. Jacqueline Marie (religious name, Marie Angeliqne de /^te. Ma- deleine), second daughter ; b. in Paris, Sept. 8, 1591 ; d. there, Aug. 6, 1661. Her father by fraud secured her nomination as abbess of Port Royal when she was only 11 years old ! Quite naturally, she did not take her position seri- ously at first, but in 1608 she was converted, and at once began convent reforms which at- tracted wide attention, and led to her doing similar work in the convent of Maubuissou, near Paris, in 1618. In 1626 she laid down her office at Port Royal ; from 1633 to 1636 she was superior of a new community of nuns, but became prioress of Port Royal in the latter year. (See Miss Frances Martin, An;,eli(iii, Ar- nauld, London, 1873.) 6. Angelique de St. Jean, daughter of Robert ; b. in Paris, Nov. 24, 1624 ; with three other sisters became imn in the P.(!. L., at the Baltimore Conference, Dec. 27, 1784. " Coke suggested the use of the title bishop, and the conference agreed to constitute the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States of America." llin Journal (New York, 1852, 3 vols.) " shows him to have been a man of sim- ple and winning character, administiative power, and pith}' expression ; his piety is both frank and deep." He did a great work in upbuilding Methodism on the frontier at a time when the means of transportation were meagre and travelling not only dillicult but dangerous from the Indians. (See his Life by Strickland, New York, 1858. Cf. Stephen, Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v.) Ascension Day, Feast of, or Holy Thurs- day, in coinmenKjralion of Ciirist's ascension ; one of the primitive Christian festivals, and put on a plane with Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, and Whitsunday. Ascetical Theology, a technical term mostly in use by Roman Catholics, meaning, 1. Every edifying presentation of religious truths in sermons or books of devotions. 2. " The sci- ence which treats of virtue and perfection, and the means bv which thev are to be attained." (Cf. Addis and Arnold.) Asceticism, the extirpation of the passions. This hc-atlicn i)rinanil. In Assvria there was one deity not found in Babylonia, althomrh in almost every other ri'- spect their worshi|) was substantially the .same. This deitv. often r«-gardelaee years aftir Abraham we hear nothing of contact Ixtwicii th«' He- brews and their Slicinitic brethren on the lower Eupliratcs and the Ti-ris. For u con- .siderable part of that time the Hebrews were in Egypt, and for anotlur i)art there s<-em.s to have been a decline of power on the part o£ ASSYRIOLOGY (56) ASSYRIOLOGY both Babylonians and Assyrians. The recent discovery at Tell-el Amarna, in Egypt, of cu- neiform tablets from the 15th century B.C., with letters from Babylonian and other Asiatic rulers to Egyptian kings, gives us a hint of light that may yet be expected on the Hebrew history during this interval. In the 9th century B.C., however, the might of Calah and Nineveh began to reassert itself, and the kings of Assyria began, as of old, to reach out after the spoils of conquest. Ashurnnsir- pal (B.C. 885-860) was the first really formid- able monarch in this new era. It is from him that most of the alabaster slabs with bas- reliefs and inscriptions date, Avhich have found a place in many American museums. But it was reserved for his sou, SJiulman- asharid (Shalmaneser) II. (860-825), to make himself especially felt west of the Euphrates. He crossed that river repeatedly, and became a terror to the smaller kings and princes in the Orontes valley, down as far as Hamath, and even to the fierce and aggressive kingdom of Damascus. It was in the sixth year of the reign of Shul- Bianasharid II. — i.e., B.C. 854— that he came across the river, and encountered a league of kings, apparently under tiie leadership of Dad'idri of Damascus (= Benhadad) ; these had come to the aid of Irchulin of Hamath, against whom Shulmauasharid directed his main attack. It was really a common cause for these allied princes. Hamath was a kind of outpost. If that fell, they would all suffer. Shulmauasharid records the names of the allies and the amount of their contingents. Among them appears " Achn-abbu mat iiir- 'lai," who has been reasonably identified with " Ahab of the Israelitish land." The two personal names agree phonetically in He- brew and Assyrian, and although Sir'lai is not elsewhere found, and the first syllable of Tisrael (Israel) is lacking in Si'r'lai, this ab- breviation is a simple one, and in other re- spects the similarity is very close — ai being simply the adjective ending in Assyrian. Moreover, the probabilities are all in favor of Ahab's uniting with other princes, to the northeast of him, in order to keep the dreaded Assyriiin at a distance. It is true that, as the incursion of Chedorlaomer is known to us only from the Bible, so the campaign of Shul- manasharid II. is reported by the inscriptions alone. This does not make it unlikely that the reference is here to the biblical Ahab. The Bible tells us nothing at all of this As- syrian king, and yet we know that he fought with Benhadad and Hazael, and received trib- ute from Jehu. The biblical record is not exhaustive. There is, however, strong cir- cumstantial evidence in the Bible favoring the view here taken. The surprise one feels at "^ Ahab's lenient treatment of the conquered Benhiidad (1 Kings xx. 32-34) is certainly di- minished when we learn that both were threat- ened by Assyrian invasion, and had good ground to forget their quarrel and combine against the common foe. Perhaps, too, the large number of chariots assigned to Ahab in the Assyrian record— 2000— will .seem more credible when it is remembered that Ahab had twice defeated and despoiled Benhadad, and doubtless enriched himself thereby with all kinds of warlike equipments. It is to be observed that while Shulmauasharid claims a victory over the allies, he does not appear to have followed it up ; and this, too, is in con- formity with the silence of the books of Kings in regard to him. Indeed, the only real reason for doubting that Shulmauasharid here speaks of the biblical Ahab is that Shulmauasharid 's sixth year, when the battle against the allies (at Karkar) was fought, is b.c. 854, when, ac- cording to the traditional chronology of Kings, Ahab was long dead. In fact, this is one'of many instances in which the Ass3'rian dates enable us to correct the Hebrew. Shulmauasharid II. speaks further of having in his eighteenth year crossed the Euphrates for the sixteenth time, defeated Chaza-'ilu (Hazael) of Damascus, and received tribute from ''laua, son of Omri." Although it is noteworthy that Jehu, who destroyed the house of Omri, should be called his son, yet such was Omri's fame that " land of the house of Omri" is a standing designation of Northern Israel among the Assyrians, and these paid little attention to changes of dynasty among remote peoples. The term means no more than " successor of Omri." Serious objection cannot be made to the identification of these two princes with the Hazael of 2 Kings viii. sqq. and the Jehu of 2 Kings ix. sqq. The traditional chronology is again corrected, for the eighteenth year of Shulmanasharid was B.C. 842. This must have been at the very beginning of Jehu's reign, when internal affairs absorbed him, and he bought off the Assyrians by a handsome, if not quite voluntary, present. For the next important contact of which we know details we must come down 100 years. Tukulti - pal - esharra (Tiglath - pileser) III . reigned in Assyria B.C. 745-727. He is the first Assyrian king named in the Bible (3 Kings XV. 29, cf. 1 Chron. v. 26, 2 Chron. xxviii. 20). He is identical with " Pul, king of Assyria" (2 Kings xv. 19, cf. 1 Chron. v. 26), although the Hebrew writers seem to dis- tinguish them. Not only do Assyrian history and chronology leave no room for Pul as a separate king, but there is positive proof of the identity. Tiglath-pileser (Chron., less ac- curately, " Tiglath-pilneser") III. tells us in his own inscriptions that he conquered Vkinzir of Babylon (b.c, 731), and himself assumed the sovereign power of Babylon. Ptolemy's Can- on makes one Poros the successor of Ukin- zir ; the Babylonian list of kings (referred to above) calls him Pidu, while the Babylonian chronicle (also referred to above) calls him Tvklat-pal-esharra. This king was evidently known by two names. We learn from the inscriptions that he in- vaded northern Syria between B.c. 742 and 740, received tribute from Miniclnunni (Mena- hem) of Samaria in 738, devastated Gilead and upper Israel (Galilee) in 734, and matle ex- peditions against Damascus in 733 and 732. In the first'of these compaigns he speaks re- peatedly of Azariah of Judah as an ally of his foes, but not of any direct contact with him. This accords with what we know of Azariah and Jotliam, bis son and regent, who Avere powerful, efficient rulers (2 Chron. xxvi.. ASSYRIOIiOGT (57) ASSYRIOLOQT xxvii.). The campaign of B.C. 738 is the one referred to under the name of Pul {2 Kinj^s XV. 19, cf. 1 Chron. v. 36). That of a.c. 734 is the one undertaken at the request of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. 7 sqq., cf. 2 Chron. xxviii. 16 .sqq.). when he was threatened by Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel (see also Isaiah vii. 1 sqq.). Tiglathpilcser says that he re- ceiwd tribute from Iauch(i~i (Alia/) of Judah, and also that he killed Pakaclut (Pekah), the king of '■ the land of the house of Omri," and set A-iisi' (Iloshea) in his place. In other words, Tiglath pileser fuUilled his promise to Ahaz, at least in part, by fomenting civil dis- cord in Israel, and allying himself with con- spirators (cf. 3 Kings XV. 30). He turned to Damascus, and after two years conquered it and killed Kezin. Several of the foregoing statements involve modification in the biblical chronology, but do not therefore become un- trustworthy. Probably Pekah, an ambitious king, had discontinued the payment of tribute exacted from Menahem, so that Tiglath pileser not only was enriched b^'' Ahaz's tribute, but also, in fultilling the wish of Ahaz, was taking ven- geance on his own account, and securing a more tractable ruler for Israel. 3 Kinirs xvii. 4 seems to show that Hoshea paid tribute an- nually until well into the reign of Shulmau- asharid IV. In 3 King.s xv. we have the first mention of that common usage of the Assyrian kings, to secure thorougli conformity to their will on the part of subjugated peoples by means of exile (^rerse 39). It is more fully illustrated a little later. Tiglath pileser 's son and successor was Shul- manasharid (Shalmaneser) IV., mentioned in 2 Kings xvii. 3 as having difficulty with Hoshea. This king's reign was brief, and we know little of it. His successor was Sliar- ukin, or Shargiiia (Sargon), (b.c. 733-705), and his reign was fatal to the existence of the northern kingdom. We learn from his in- scriptions that while Shalmaneser began the siege of Samaria, the city did not fall until after Shalmaneser 's death. Sargon was not the sou of Shalmaneser, but he had the quali- ties of a ruler, and showed himself a powerful and skilful monarch. The deportation of the conquered Israelites, a practice already referred to in the case; of Tiglath-pileser, and the establishment of colo- nists from distant regions in tlu-ir place (3 Kings xvii. 6, 34), is amply coutirmed from the inscriptions. Sargon says : " The city of Samaria I besieged, 1 captured ; 37,3!S0 of his inhabitants I carried away ;" and again : " In their place I settled the men of the coun- tries I had coiKiuered." Tiiere are in his rec- ords other references to such transplantings. although the names of the cities given in 3 Kings xvii. 34 are not mentioned by him in this connection. He tdls us. however, that he transported captives from Babylonia to Syria (in 731), and that in 730 he conijuered liamath, so that Hamath. Sci)iiarvaim (ancient Sippum. modern Abu Hat)l)a, north of Baby- lon), and Cutha (modern Tel Ilirahim, east of . Babylon) are natural sources for such enforced colonies (of Aca we know nothing). The work of transplanting was not, however, done once for all. As late as 713 we tind Sargon bringing colonists to " the land of the hou.se of Omri," or, as it runs in a parallel inscrip- tion, to " the city Samaria." There is also indirect confirmation of the provision made by Sargon for the religious needs of the new s'ettlers in Samaria (3 Kings xvii. 35-38), in the statement made in one of his inscriptions that he sent priests to another body of enforced colonists, "to teach them the fear of God and king ;" tliis may well have been his practice, for the sake of making the colonists feel at home and .sale in their new surroundings. The seventeen years of Sargon 's reign were years of restless activity. Amoim- his campaigns we may notice that against Gaza (730), whose Egyptian allies under Sdbi i (So, better Seveh, 3 Kings xvii 4) he defeated, and captured the city, and particularly that against Ashdod (711), which gives occasion for the only men- tion of Sargon's name in the Old Testament (Isa. XX. 1). He fought with }f(irdiikp(il- iddina (Merodachbaladan) of Babylonia, in 731, 710, and 709, becoming final victor in this last year. He died in 705. Sargon's son and successor was Sin-nchiirba (Sennacherib), who reigned B.C. 705-681. Three points are liero of special interest : his campaign against Phamicia, Philistia, and Judah, his conquest of Merodachbaladan, and his death. 3 Kings xviii., xix. (cf. Isa. xxxvi., xxxvii.) relate the tribute paid by Hezekiah to Sennacherib, the sub.sequent ap- pearance of an Assyrian detachment iM-forc the walls of Jerusalem summoning the city to surrender, Hezekiah 's refusal, in accordance with the exhortations of Isaiah, the approach of the Ethiopian army, and the As.syrian re- treat after severe loss by wliat ap|X'ars to have been a pestilence. This campaign is reported at length in the inscriptions. It seems that the whole Phcenician and Philistine coiist, which had recognized the supremacy of Sar- gon, declined to submit to Sennaclurih. Sen- nacherib marched with a powerful army to Phujnicia, and thence down the coast, reach- ing a point some distance south of the latitude of Jerusalem. Padi. the king of Ekron, was friendly to As.syria, but had been rhposed bv the nobles and people, and .sent to Hczeki.ihat Jerusalem for .safe keeping. The neighbor- hood of the As.syrians. however, was loo tiireatening, Judah wjis devastated, and Jeru- salem blockaded. Accordingly Padi was sent back from Jerusalem and reinstated, while Hezekiah paid a h'-avy tribute. The com- biueil armies of Egypt and Ethiopia came <)Ul airainst Sennacherib, doubtless in league with th(! eoast cities, biit were defeated in battle, and the Assyrian army marched home with its spoil. Thus we .see that the campaign was not'di- rectly airainst Jeru.salem, and that Hezekiah him.self was jiartly accounlalile for beinu in- volved in it bv allowing hims-lf to \k' en tangled in the I'.olitical strifes of his neiiihbors. The approach of the Ethiopi.m army is ex- plained somewhiit more fully, and we are able to understand lx.'tter the refi-rences to Eu'vpt in the words of the Kabshak, when with the ASSYRIOLOGT (58) ASSYRIOLOGT Turtanu and the Rabsaris he was sent to de- maud the surrender of Jerusalem (2 Kings xviii. 17 sqq. These three words are titles of high Assyrian otticials, and not proper names). The payment of tribute is sufticieut evidence that Sennacherib had the advantage, but the inscriptions make no mention of any capture of Jerusalem, and thus silently agree with the Bible. The amount of the tribute is stated (2 Kings xviii. 14) at 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold. The Assyrian account makes it 800 talents of silver anil 30 of gold. It has been made extremely likely that the difference in the number of the talents of .silver is due to a difference in the talent, the Babylonian, in which the Assyrian reckoned, being to the Hebrew as 3 to 8. Difficulties greater than this, however, are presented at some points of the compari.son. The As.syrian account men- tions the tribute of Hezekiah at the very end, after the campaign is over, while the Hebrew puts it before the formal demand that Jerusa- lem surrender. Probably one of two explana- tions is to be adopted. Either the tribute was actually sent when the Assyrians first came, accompanied by Padi, the captive king of Ekron, and the Assyrian record put it last for greater effect, or the present position of verses 14-16 is not chronologically accurate. These verses are probably not an original part of the main narrative of 2 Kings xviii., xix.,aud while they certainly refer to the same campaign, may not have been inserted in the actual order of occurrence. Probably the former possi- bility accounts most easily for the facts. An- other difficulty is the absence from the As- syrian account of any mention of the pesti- lence (2 Kings xix. 35). But the inscriptions give no reason at all for the Assyrians' return without a following up of their advantage in the battle with the Egyptians. The pestilence is certainly more credible than Herodotus' story that the Assyrians were defeated by the Egyptians because field mice had eaten their bows and quivers. Another difficulty is chronological. 2 Kings xviii. 13 puts the cam- paign of Sennacherib in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah 's reign. Verses 9, 10 say that the siege of Samaria began in Hezekiah 's fourth year, and ended in his sixth year. The siege of Samaria took place B.C. 724-722. Accord- ing to this, Hezekiah 's first year would have been b.c. 727, and his fourteenth year B.C. 714. But Sennacherib did not ascend the throne till 705, and the Syrian campaign was in 701. It seems evident, therefore, that there is a mis- take either in " the fourteenth year" of verse 14, or in " the fourth year" and "the sixth year" of verses 9, 10. The latter are the more likely to be in error, the cross-dates, fixing an event in one kingdom by the year of a reign in the other kingdom, being more liable to confusion than those based on actual records of the kingdom concerned. In this case, Hezekiati's first year was b.c. 714-715. and he was not on the throne when Samaria fell. Other difficulties are removed by this view, such as the remarkable inference from 2 Kings xvi. 2 and xviii. 2, that Ahaz, dying at 36, left a son 25 years old ; and (in part ) the great excess of regnal years in Judah over those in Israti between Jehu and Hoshea (see above). It is hardly doubtful that Sennacherib was indirectly responsible for the embassy of Merodachbaladan to Hezekiah (2 Kings xx.). Marduk-pal-iddina, a restless, vigorous Baby- lonian prince, had given Sargon much trouble, and been at length defeated by him b.c. 709. One of the same name had paid tribute to Tiglath-pilcser III. in b.c. 731. Sennacherib had defeated him in b.c. 704. The final over- throw of his power was in b.c. 700. Now, it is evident that it was important for him to secure as many allies as possible, and it is quite prob- able that, hearing of Sennacherib's attitude toward Hezekiah, Mardukpaliddina tried, by pretending interest in his health, to gain his adherence in the desperate struggle he himself was making, or about to make, with the As- syrian king. The murder of Sennacherib (2 Kings xix. 37) is related in the Babylonian chronicle sev- eral times mentioned. Only one son is re- ferred to, and the name of this son is not given, but he apparently headed a rebellion. The language is : "In the month Tebet, on the 20th day, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, his son in a revolt killed." Evidently many persons were concerned, for Esarhaddon, who secured the throne after some weeks' struggle, pursued an army of the rebels and conquered them on the borders of Armenia ( Urartu = " land of Ararat," 2 Kings xix. 37). Asliur-ach iddina (Esarhaddon), who reign- ed B.C. 681-668, appears to have come little into contact with Judah, although he was an enterprising and successful monarch, who made his power felt as far as the Mediter- ranean, and even into the land of Egypt. Judah seems to have given him no occasion of hostilities. Manasseh was on the Judaan throne when Esarhaddon began to reign, and outlived him, and in a list of western kings tributary to Esarhaddon we read the name of " Minmhi, king of the land of Judah." The name Ashiir-bani-pal (son and successor of Esarhaddon) does not appear under this form in the Old Testament, and yet there are probably two or three references to his achieve- ments. One is in Ezra iv. 10, where " the great and noble Asnapper" (or " Osnappar" — a mutilated form of Ashurbanipal) is said to have brought captives from " the Elamites," among many other Eastern peoples ; Ashur- banipal was the conqueror of Elam. Another is in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 11, where it is said that " the Lord brought upon them the captains of the host of the king of Assyria, which took Manasseh in chains, and bound him with fet- ters, and carried him to Babylon." The sit- uation is most easily explained by what took place about the middle of the reign of Ashur- banipal. Babylonia was at this time subject to Assyria and governed by viceroys. The viceroy Shamash-skum-ukin, who was a brother of Ashurbanipal, had rebelled and tried to make himself independent. The rebellion was put down, and Ashurbanipal himself ad- ministered the affairs of Babylon thereafter, probably holding his court there, for a longer or shorter time. Shamashshumukin had en- deavored, like Mardukpaliddina before him, to enlist " the kings of the West land " in his cause, carrying on intrigues even with Ethic- ASSTRIOLOGY (59) ASSTRIOLOGY pia. Probably" Manasseh had been in some way implicated, aud c. B.C. 747 had been seized and brought to Ashurbanipul at Babylon. It is curious that we have a close parallel to the Assyrian king's mild treatment of him, in the way in which the same Ashurbanipal treated Necho of Egypt. We read that ISharludari aud Neclio were seized, bound hand and foot with iron bands and iron fetters, in consequence of supposed complicity in rebellion, and that, after they had been brought to Nineveh, Necho was sent back in honor, with every token of royal favor. Still another reference to Ashurbanipal's conquests is found in Nahum iii. 8-10, where the fall of No anion (Thebes), which Ashurbanipal accomplished, is portrayed in a few vivid lines. These refer- ences only hmt at the power of one of the most magniticent aud formidable monarchs of the ancient world. Quite apart from the military power and the luxury of Ashurbanipal, we owe him a debt of gratitude for his literary zeal, and all the more because this did not take shape so much in fostering original talent, as in tlie careful collection aud preservation, at least in copy, of the treasures of Babylonian lit- erature and science, many of them of very ancient date. He set apart vast rooms for libraries, anil the clay tablets found by thousands among the ruins of his palaces are one precious source of our knowledge con- cerning the history, the beliefs, the traditions, and the usages of the earlier centuries. Ashurbanipal's reigu did not continue later than B.C. 626, and perhaps ended sooner. Weak princes followed him. The empire was gradually and yet quickly disintegrated. In B.C. 607 or 608" Niueveli 'fell under the com- bined power of the Babylonians and the Modes. The rapidly developed strength of Baby!)a became suddenly a terror to (he world, as that of Assyria had been. Tlie first and principal name which we here encounter is that of Xabu-kudurri -usii r (Nebuchadrez- zar — less correctly Nebuchadnezzar), who reigned b.c. 604-561. Nabukudurri usur was the son of that Kdbu-palusnr (Naljopolassar) of Babylon wlio was one main agent in the ovcrtlirow of Nine- veh, and he was a proved soldier and general before his father died. Nothing interrupted his career of conquest after lie became king until the end of his reign. His energy, swift- ness and relentlessne.ss were as great as lho.se of Aslmrbanipal in his prime. He wtus also a great builder ; even Anti-Lebanon furnished him witli timber. He was indefatigable in the erection and adornment of palace and tem- ple. Almost all his inscriptions yet found are concerned with things lilie lhe.se. Tlius far no mention has been discovered in anv of them of the defeat of Pharaoh Necho (2 Ivings xxiv. 7), of the humiliation of Jehoiakim of Judah (verses 1 sqq ), of the first plundering of Jerusalem and the carrying away of Je- hoiachin b.c. 597 (verses 10 sqcj), nor of the final two-years' siege of Jerusalem in the time of Zedekiah, ending in its fall, destruction and loss of inhabitants, b.c. 586, although the historiail character of these events is beyond question. The Babylonian sound of his' gen- eral's name, Nebuzaradan {Nabu-zir-iddina), is too [)laiu to need comment. An historical fragment which has come into our hands from this reign aids in the inter- pretation of a prophetic pa.ssage. This frag- ment tells us that Nabukudurriusur was in Egypt in his thirty-seventh year (b.c. 563), and defeated a king whose name, though im- perfect, is probably the equivalent of " Ama- sis." It was to this campaign, probably, that Jeremiah's prediction refers (Jer. xliii."», 10), that Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, shall set up his throne upon the stones hid by Jere- miah " in the mortar, in the brickwork, which is at the entry of Pharaoh's house in Tah- panhes" — in the extreme northeast of Egypt. (Of. Egyptology and tiik Bihlk.) Nebu- chadrezzar's presence in Egypt is confirmed, also, by the discovery there of inscribed cylin- ders from his reign. His son and successor was Amil- (or AHl) Mdvdnk (Evil Merodach), who reigned b.c. 501-560, according to Ptolemy's Canon and dated tablets from his reign. 2 Kings xxiv. 27-80 relate bis kindness to the captive king, Jehoiachin of Jiulah. The last Babylonian king before the Persian conquest was iV«/>«-/ia-jVZ(Nabonidus), and he reigned b.c. 555-538. It is he who gives the date of Naram Sin, son of Saigon I., as 3200 before his own time. He was apparently neither very ellicieut nor very politic. The annals of his reign which we po.ssess, and a poem celebrating the victory of Cyrus over Babylon, indicate that especially b,y inatten- tion' to customary religious ceremonies he failed to conciliate the priests. He is not mentioned in the Bible, aud is of consequence here only because the inscriptions referred to explain the circumstances of Cyrus' victory, and becau.se Nabonidus was the father of Bii- «/(«/■ M5i/r (Belshazzar; of Dan. v. Belsharusur seems to have never been the formal king, but he was his father's g«;neral, and popular with the army. After Babylon had fallen and Nabonidus Avas taken ]>risuniT, he held out, in a fortified part of the city, for three or four months, until, on the night of the 11th of Marcheswan, ((Xtober-Noveml)er). B.C. 538, his citadel was taken and he him.self killed. The native Babylonian dynasty thus came to an end, and the 'Persian race took the lead in Western Asia. Kurmh (Cyrus) was the liereditary prince of Anzan, or Elam. and ascended the throne B.C. 558. Complications with Media filled several years, ending with the final concpiesl of that country, b.c! 550. But this could not satisfy so enterprising and ambitious a king. In B.C. 547 he had already marched westward to the extreme limit of Asi'a. conqueren Cra-sus of Lydia, and captured Sardis. plight years of uninterrui)ted vietorv in various (piarters followed, and at leUL'th, in 5:iS, he turned toward Babvlonia. His unol)struani.--hed to Treves (33.^). He was kindly receiveriests ; (^0 of the mass ; (d) of confession ; (c) of the distinction of meats, and of traditions ; (/) of monastic vows ; (7) of ecclesiastical power. In 1531 Melanchthon brought out a German aud a Latin edition ; in 1540 he altered the text, especially in the part relating to the Eu- charist. Hence the Lutherans distinguished between the Aagnsttna inpariata (" unal- tered," i.e., ed. 1531) and variata (" altered," i.e., ed. 1540). The Flacians (q.v.) were particularly strenuous for the former. [Cf. art. Tetr.vpohtan Confession ; and Schaff, Ch. Hist., \l, 695-700, 706-715 ; and text (Latin w. Eng. trans.) in his Creeds, vol. iii., 1-73.] Augsburg Confession, Apology of the, Me- lanchthon's refutation of the Roman confuta- tion, in 16 articles, of the Confession, Avritten by Eck, Faber, Cochlaeus and Wimpina, at command of the emperor, and read to the Protestants, Aug. 3, but not given to them. It was presented in its first draft to the em- peror, Sept. 22, 1530, but not received, and in its finished state published in Latin and Ger- man in 1531. It is now embodied in the Book of Concord. (Cf. Schaff. Ch. Hist., xl, 715- 718.) Augsburg Interim. See Interi.j. Augsburg, Religious Peace of, Sept. 25, 1555 ; assured the absolute ])rotection of the adherents of the Augsburg Confession in the empire from persecution by the Roman Catho- lics, and ^'ice versa. Augusti (ow-goostee), Johann Christian Wilhelm, German theologian ; b. at Eschen- berga, Gotha, Oct. 27, 1772 ;" studied at Jena, became professor of Orientalia tliere, 1803 ; of theology at Breslau, 1812 ; at Bonn, 1819 ; d. at Coblenz, April 28, 184:1. At first a ra- tionalist, he became a leader of orthodo.xy. Author of Lehrbuch der diristlichen Dnrjmen- geschichte, Leipzig, 1805 ; 4th ed., 1835 : Denk- wurdigkeiten. aus der christlichcn. Arckiiy>lor/ie, 1817-31, 13 vols. ; Ilnndbuch der christlic/uin ArcJuwlogic, 1836-37, 3 vols. Au-gus-tine (or Austin), d. at Canterbury, May 26, 604 ; the chief iuis.sionary .sent by Gregory I. to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianitv. lie landed in 596 upon the JNlaiid of Thanet, off the coast of Kent, witli 39 Bene- dictine monks, and announced his arrival to the king, Ethelbert. The queen was Bertha of Paris, and a Christian. The king was induced by her to give the strangers a friendly recep- tion, though still enough under the power of heathenism to cause him to adopt measures to counteract the spells which he thought they might attempt to cast upon him. He allowed them to engage in their missionary work in his capital city of Canterbury, and was liim- self converted" the following year. From this time the work of conversion went rapidly on. Augustine was made archbishop of Canter- bury at Aries, France, in 598. lie was a true son of the Roman Church. He took the ut- most pains to conform rigidly to the desires of Gregory in the minutest particulars, so that the conversion of England may be said to have been Gregory's work as much as Augus- tine's. The introduction of Cliristianity was the first .step toward the union of the dilTer- ent tribes into one English nation. Augus- tine continued to work in the mission till his death. F. Au-gus-tine, Aurelius, the great church father ; b. at Tairaste, Nov. 13, 354 ; d. at Hippo, Aug. 28, 430 ; both places in Xumidia, North Africa. When he was born his father was a pagan, but his mother, Monnica, was an earnest Christian, to whose prayers were granted in the end both husband and son, and who has become a type of maternal fuitlif ill- ness to the church. Possessed of sutficient means, the father had the son educated in all the learning of the time and place, and then (raiued to the rhetorician's profession. Thus he became acquainted with the principal Latin authors and was also somewhat read in Greek. During this period of education his religious life was far from what it should have been, and he plunged into the too common immorali- ties of the age, farming an illicit connection, the fruit of which was his son Adeodatus. He was also a frequent attendant upon the theatre, a practice which he afterward condemned. The reading of Cicero's .IIortt'n.tin.i (a book now lost) when he was about 19 first turned his mind to speculative subjects. Dissatisfied with his spiritual condition, he sought for peace in the various systems of the time, being first drawn into connection with the .Alaiii- chteists. He aspired to become one of their " elect," but a discussion which he had with their leader, Faustus, disappointed him, and he withdrew from them. About this time he proceeded to Rome for the purjiose of exercis- ing his profession, but was displeased with the life of the city as he saw it, and gladly accepted an invitation to Milan. Here he heard Ambrose the bishop. At first he at- tended to what ho said with regard only to the exercise of the rhetorical art, but the power of his words soon began to be felt by the hearer, and he devoted himself to the study of St. Paul. The long search for iK?ace which he had made in vain was now drawing to an end, but his agony wa.s at first incre:iseil. It became intolerable;, anrl there are in his ex- pressions the evidences of that very profound c.jnvietion of sin wliich Ini.s marked the ex- IKTiences of irreat saints in every age since, and often marks them to-day. At last a voice seemed to sav to him. in reference to the di- vine word, "Take up and read." He y the Lutherans and is practised in certain portions of th(! Anglican Church. C. Aurifaber (ow -ree-fi\-l)er), Johann, called fordisliiiclion .Johaniux Vinori, /mm .■ the Cut- nian faniilv name was Goldscinnidt ; b. in Mansfeld, 1519; educated al UitlrnlMrg; d. as preacher at Erfurt, Nov. IH. 1575. He wa.8 Luther's i>rivate secretary. 1545, and edited the German writings of Luther. EisleN-n. 1564-65, 2 vols.; added two volumes of Lu- AUTHORIZED (68) BAADER tiler's letters (Jena, 1550, Eisleben, 1565) and the famous Table Talk (1566 and often). He was a Flacianist. Authorized Version. See Bible Ver- sions. Autocephali. See Acephali. Auto-da-fe. See Acts op Faith. A-ve Ma-ti-a. This familiar prayer of Eo- man Catholics, called also the Angelical Salu- tation, consists of two parts : 1. The salutation of the archangel Gabriel (Vulgate of Luke, i. 28) : " Ave [Maria] gratia plena ! Dominus tecum, benedicta tu in mulieribus !" (Luke i. 28) joined to the words of Elizabeth to Mary (verse 43) : " et benedictus fructus ventris tui." 2. An unscriptural addition : " Sancta Maria, Mater Dei, ora pro nobis peccatoribus nunc et in hora mortis nostras." The whole prayer is this, in English : " Hail Mary, full of grace ! the Lord is with tliee ; blessed art thou among women ! and blessed is the fruit of thy womb. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death." The Scripture part did not pass into use as a formula before the end of the 11th century, nor the second part until the 15th, and is first autliorized by Pius V., 1568. Tlie " Crown of the Virgin" (date, 12th cen- tury) consists of 63 Ave Marias, with the Lord's Prayer after each tenth one. The " Rosary or Psalter of the Blessed Virgin" (date, 1210, author, St. Dominic ?) consists of 150 Ave Marias, with the Lord's Prayer after each tenth one. The " Angel us" (date, 1287, author, Buonvicino da Riva, of Milan) con- sists of 3 Ave Marias at the sound of the "Angelus" bell in the morning, at midday, and at evening — preceding the first one with, in Latin, ". The angel of tlie Lord \_Angelus Domini, whence the name] announced to Mary, and she conceived of the Holy Ghost ;" the second with, " Behold the handmaid of the Lord. Be it unto me according to thy word;" and the third by, "The word was made flesh and dwelt among us;" closing with a versicle and response with prayer. One of the most famous of modern paintings is J. F. Millet's The Angelus, which represents peasants praying in the field at the sound of the "Angelus" boll. (Cf. Sinith and Cheet- liam, s.v. " Hail Mary.") Angelus Indulgence, that for 10 days granted by Pope John XXII., in 1318, for saying an Ave Maria to the sound of a bell rung at night. Avignon is on the Rhone, 53 m. n.n.w. of Marseilles. There from 1309 to 1377. the so- called " Babylonian E.xile" of the papacy, the popes, and from 1378 to 1418 tlie French anti- popes, held court. The Reformation was in- troduced there in 1522. Avis Order, Portuguese, originally military for defence against the Moors, 1145 ; made spiritual and confirmed by Pope Innocent III.; but since 1789 it has been a military or- der of merit. It takes its name from the city Avis, where they had a fortress. A-vi'-tus, Alcimus Ecdicius, b. at Vienne, Burgundy, about 450 ; became bishop there, 490 ; d. there, Feb. 5, 523. He was in liis day the most important bishop in the Church, and very influential in checking the spread of Arianism in Gaul. He was also an eminent poet. (See his works in Migne, Put. Lat. LIX.) Avoidance " is where there is a want of a lawful incumbent on a benefice, during which vacancy the church is quasi mduata ["as if bereft"], and the possessions belonging to it are in abej^ance." (Hook, s.v.) Awakening, a term denoting that work of the Spirit by which a man is roused to the consciousness of his sinful condition before God, as were the hearers of the Apostle Peter on the day of Pentecost. But conviction of sin is not to be confounded with conversion from sin. The term is also applied to revivals of religion, the work of grace in the last cen- tury under the preaching of Whitefield, Ed- wards, Frelinghuysen and others, being com- monly known as the Great Awakening. C. Az-a'-zel. This is a transliteration of the Hebrew word (Lev. xvi. 8 ff.) rendered ' ■ scape-goat. " Its meaning is much disputed. One view takes it to mean the personal being to whom the goat was sent, in which case the idea is to send the sins home, to the being to whom they properly belong— z.e., Satan ; an- other is that it means simply removal— i.e., that the sins confessed over the living goat should be taken altogether away, far out of sight. C. Azymites, a name signifying users of un- leavened bread, applied to the Roman Church by the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cserularius, in 1058. Photius, a former patri- arch, had accused the Roman Church of sev- eral grave departures from orthodo.xy, and a decided breach had been made. But Caeru- larius had added new charges, as of the use of blood and of things strangled, and invented this nickname. Correspondence and negotia- tions followed, but the result was the excom- munication of the Greek patriarch and church in 1054, F. B. Baader (ba-der). Benedict Franz Xaver von, Roman Catholic ; b. at Munich, March 27, 1765 ; d. there. May 23, 1841. In early life he was an eminent nmiing engineer ; but from 1826 till his death was professor of philosophy and speculative theology in the university of Munich, and was the greatest speculatiye the- ologian of the Roman Catiiolic Church. He was himself greatly influenced by the teach- ings of Jakob Boehme. Among other things, he taught that, " in consequence of the fall of man, man was placed by God in time and space, in order that by accepting salvation in Clu-ist, he might recover immortality and sal- vation ; or, in case of his non acceptance of salvi^tion, be subjected to punishment for his purification, either in this life or in Hades, or in the pit of hell. Souls in Hades may still be redeemed, but not souls in hell. Time and BAAL (69) BACKUS matter will cease ; after the cessation of the 'region of time,' it remains still possible for the creature to pass from the eternal region of hell into the eternal region of heaven— but the reverse is not true. [He] was uiif ricndlj- to the papacy, but adhered to Catholicism, and censured 'the founders of Protestantism for having not been reformers, but revolution- ists." (Ueberweg, ii., 229. See his complete works, Leipzig, 1851-60, 16 vols.) Two of his best works are Fermenta C('r/n///oiu's, in which he combats modern philosophy and recommends Boehine, and ^pckii/afire Dog- matik. His biography is b}' F. . Hoffmann, Leipzig, 1857, and in his complete works. Ba'-al {lord, in the sense of owner), the name of the chief male deity of the Canaanites and Phoenicians, as Ashtoreth was their chief god- dess. They are commonly supposed to repre- sent the active (generative) and passive (recep- tive) powers of nature, or the sun and moon respectively, but some think that tiiey corre- spond with the Greek Zeus and Aphrodite. The plural form Baalim denotes the different aspects under which Baal was worshipped. Human victims were sometimes offered to him (Jer. xix. 5). High places were chosen for his altars, and in some cases the roofs of houses (Jer. xx.xii. 29). His priests and proph- ets were numerous. Baal worship prevailed often in Israel. It began as early as Moses' time (Xum. xxv.), reappeared under the Judires (ii. 11-13), became dominant under Ahal) (1 Kings xvii. 31), was renewed by Ahaz (2 Chron. xxviii. 2) and by Manasseh (2 Kings xxi. 3), and did not finally cease until after the exile. The name was often used in com- pounds, among which may be mentioned B.\AL Berith {lord of the covenant), wor- shipped by the Shechemites after Gideon's death (Judges viii. 33) ; B.\al Pegu {lord of the opening, alluding to the rites of worship), the licentious deity to whom Israel w^as joined in Moab (Num. xxv. 3) ; and B.\.\l-zebui5 {lord offlif'K), the form worshipped at Ekron, which Ahaziah sinfully sought to consult (2 Kings i. 2, 16). The term was also applied to places, as Baal- Gad, Baal-Meon, etc., but did not always de- note that Baal was worshipped there. C. Baal-bekj called by the Greeks Ileliop'olis (n't)/ of the, an n), a ruined Syrian town at tlie foot of Anti Libanus, who.se origin is lost in remote antiquity. Its extensive remains show three temples, two of them formed with im- mense stones and numerous columns and altars. The chief temple was erected by An- toninus Pius (150 A.D.), and was so large and stately as to be one of the wonders of the world. Some of the stones in its substruction are 64 feet long and 13 feet thick. It subse- quently became a Christiau church. The city continual to be a place of great importance down to the time of the Moslem invasion, when it was captured (636 a.d.), .sacked by the caliph of Damascus (748). anil finally pil- higed by Timur Beg (1-100). What the Arabs. Tartars", and Turks had sjiared was destroyed by an eartiuiuake in 1759. It is now an in- signilicant village. It cannot be satisfactorily identified with any place mentioned in the Bible. (J Baalim, Hi'brew plural of Baal (q.v.). Baanites. See Paulicians. Ba'-a-sha {irirked), third king of Israel. He reached the throne by conspiring against Nadab, son of Jeroboam", and destroyiiig all his house. He was abh; and warlike, and reigned 24 years (ij.c. !)55-932). The beauti- ful citv of tirzah was his capital. (Cf. 1 Kings XV. 27-xvi. 6.) C. Ba'-bel {ronfimon), Nimrod's city, Gen. x. 10. See Bahylon. Babi, a Persian Mohammedan sect, founded by Mirza Ali Mohammed, the Bab (('.<■., the gutc), at Sliiraz, in 1844. It grew raindly, but was suppressed wilh bJoodslieii, 1^50-52. It is now widely diffiised us a sort of secret .society. Its teaching is essentially Pantheism, and lays stress on a pure and hospitable life. It for- bids polygamy and concubinage, tlie u.se of the veil, and raises women to an equality with men. See Persia. Bab'-y-lon, situated on both sides of the Euphrates, 60 m. s.w. from the present Bagdad. It is now only a mass of ruins, but once, according to Herodotus, it included within its walls 200 sq.m. It is named 250 times in the Bible. Founded by Nimrod, it rose ultimately to great, glory under Nebu- chadnezzar. Thither tlie Jews were carried captive. Cyrus captured it (Dan. v.), as did also later, Alexander the Great, who died there. Its overthrow was frequently foretold (Isa. xiii. 4-22; Jer. xxv. 12; 1. "2, 3; li.; Hab. i. 5-10.) See Assyriology a.nd inv, Bible. Babylonia. See Assyriology and the Bible. Babylonian Captivity. See Captivity. Baccanarists, followers of Nicolao Jiaeca- nari, wiio founiled in 1773, at Borne, a society which was only that of the Jesuit.s— sup- pressed in that' year— in another form ; so it was united with them in 1814, when the Jesuits were re-established. Bach (bok), Johann Sebastian, musician ; b. at Ei.senach. .March 21. 16K") ; d. at Liip- zig, July 28, 1750. He became court organist at Weimar, 1708 ; musical conductor to the duke of Kiithen, 1717 ; cantor at the Thouum- nrhule, Leipzig. 1723. He had, by Ids two wives, 11 sons and 9 daughters, ife i)ecame blind in 1749. Posterity, thanks to Mendels- sohn, honors him lus the""' founder and falher of German nuisic," and his Christmas ora- torio. Passion nuisic to the words of St. Jolm. and that to St. Matthew's, his Mass in B minor, and his Mngnificat in D. not to speak of others, have given him immortality its a compo.scr of .sacred music. Backus, Isaac, Baptist ; b. at Norwich. Conn., Jan. 9, 1724 ; U-camo pastor of a S. p- arate or New Light society in .Middleborough (Titicut precinct), Ma.s.s.'. 1748 ; formed a Baptist church there out of his own mcml^ers. BACON (70) BAHRDT 1756 ; was a delegate to the federal constitu- tional convention of 1778 ; d. at Titicut, Nov. 30, 1806. He wrote A History of New Eagland, with Particular Reference to the Dc- iiominatioti of GhHstians called Baptists, Bos- ton, 1777-96, 3 vols.; n.e., David Weston, Newton, Mass., 1871, 2 vols, (an authority, though partisan). (See his life by Prof. A. Hovey, Boston, 1858 ; and Spragiie, Annals, vi., 54-58.) Bacon, Francis, English philosopher ; b. at Yoik House, London, Jan. 22, 1561 ; d. of bronchitis at Highgate, London, April 9, 1626. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and admitted to Gray's Inn, London, as student of law, 1575, and became barrister, 1582. In 1584 he entered parliament, and served continuously until raised to the peer- age. He soon showed himself a statesman of far-reaching views, and for the advancement of his schemes he allied himself first to Essex and later to Buckingham, but both disap- pointed him. He also assiduously cultivated the good will of his sovereigns, Elizabeth and James I. But it was his fortune to be long unrewarded. It was not until 1604 that he began to ascend in public office, being made one of the king's learned council. In 1603 he was knighted, in 1607 he became solicitor- general, in 1613 attorney-general, in 1616 a privy-councillor, in 1617 lord-keeper, in 1618 lord-chancellor, and a few months later Baron Verulam ; in 1621 Viscount St. Albans. But Ms somjwhat tortuous course, which requires defence at almost each step, although it can be defended, had an abrupt termination. His defence of the odious monopolies rendered liim unpopular, but his enemies could not at- tack hini on that score. They soon found out, however, that he had received bribes on three occasions, although he had decided against the persons whose money he had taken. Charged with this offence, he could m ike no defence. Ho was found guilty and his sentence was, to be fined £40,000, im- prisoned during the king's pleasure, disabled from sitting in parliament, and prohibited from coming within 12 miles of the court. The fine was, however, remitted, his imprison- ment in the Tower lasted only a few days, and the last disability was removed, but he never received a full pardon. As a p'.iilosopher, it was his glory to empha- size the importance of the inductive method — i.e., of deriving principles from wide and varied collections of facts, which yet are not mere accumulations. Ethics he considered as the " handmaid " of theology. His most popular book is his Essays, first published in 1597, but then there were only 10 of them, last issued by him in 1625, when their number had grown to 58. There are many modern editions, noticeably that by Archbishop "Whately. London, 1856, in which the annota- tions almost equal the text in quality. Best ed. of his works by Spedding, Ellis & Heath, London, 1857-59, 7 vols. ; 2d ed., 1870 ; select works. New York, 1877. 2 vols. ; biography by Spedding. London, 1862-74, 7 vols. ; by R. W. Cliurch, 1884, and by E. A. Abbott, 1885. (Cf . art. Diet. Nat. Biog, s. v.) Bacon, Leonard, D.D. (Hamilton, 1842), LL.D. (Harvard, 1870), Congregationalist ; b. at Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802; graduated at Vale College, 1820, and at Andover Theo- logical Seminary, 1823 ; became pastor of the First church. New Haven, 1825, and so continued until his death there, Dec. 24, 1881. From 1866 to 1871 he acted as pro- fessor of revealed theology in the theological department of Yale College, and thereafter lecturer on ecclesiastical polity and American church history. In his later life he was gen- erally considered the leading American Con- gregationalist. He was a copious writer and a tireless controversialist. He was one of the founders of the New Englander, reviesv, New Haven, 1843, and the Independent, weekly newspaper, New York, 1848. His views on the slavery discussion were important and were accepted by Abraham Lincoln. He wrote Genesis of the New England Churches, New York, 1874, and other books. Bacon, Leonard Woolsey, M.D. (Yale, 1856), D.D. (Yale, 1879), Congregationalist ; b. at New Haven, Conn., Jan. 1, 1830 ; gradu- ated at Yale College, 1850, and at Yale The- ological Seminar^', 1854 ; has been pastor and preacher in various places ; author of Life of Mrs. Emily Bliss Gould, New York, 1878 ; The Simplicity that is in Christ (sermons), 1886; 2d ed., 1889. Bacon, Roger, b. at Ilchester, England, 1214 ; d. at Oxford, 1294. He was of a wealthy family and studied at Oxford. He probably took orders in 1233, and soon went to Paris, where he remained till about 1250, when he returned to Oxford and entered the Franciscan order. Brought under suspicion of heresy, he was sent to Paris in 1257, and remained there in confinement for 10 years. Clement IV"., who was pope from 1265 to 1268, refjuested him to prepare a treatise upon the sciences for his private use, from which arose his principal works, the so-called Opera. On his release he returned to Oxford (1268), con- tinued his studies, and wrote, among other things, a book upon the study of philosophy, in which he inveighed against the monks as withstanding the progress of true knowledge, in consequence of which he was imprisoned for 14 years (1278-92). Bacon was a universal scholar whase writ- ings treat of nearly all the physical sciences, as well as of philosophy and theology. He seems not to have diverged so much from the Avell-established methods of his day as to have pursued these with great system and vigor. His fame for mechanical discoveries is greater than his deserts. He figures in English legends as Friar Bacon, the great necromancer. In theology he emphasized the necessity of con- forming our theology to the Scriptures, and did what he could to call the attention of men again to the Bible, as well as to give numer- ous suggestions as to the preparation for and methods of its study. (See his Opei'a, ed. J. S. Brewer, London, 1859. Best biog. , the French work of E. Charles, Paris, 1861.) F. Bahrdt (bart), Karl Friedrich, b. at Bis- chofswerda, 20 m. e.u.e. of Dresden, Aug. 25, BAIER (71) BALLOU 1741 ; (1. at Ilalle, April 23, 1792. He studied at Leipzig, became professor extraordinary of biblical philology there, 1766 ; professor of biblical auti(iuities at Erfurt, 1768 ; preacher and professor at Giessen, 1771 ; general super- intendent at Durkheim, 1776 ; being deprived ' of all ministerial functions in 1779, he removed i to Halle and started an inn. He was a ration- alist of the extremest type, and owed his fre- quent changes of position to the excitement caused by his speeches and numerous writ- ings. (Cf. life by Leyser, Neustadt, 2d ed., 1870.) Baler (by-er), Johann Wilhelm, Lutheran ; b. at Nuremberg, Nov. 11, 1647 ; became pro- fessor of theology at Jena, 1674 ; at Halle, ' 1694 ; d. as chief court preacher at Weimar, Oct. 19, 1695. His compendium of positive theology in Latin (1686 ; last ed., Berlin, 1864) was for a long time the favorite manual in that department in Lutheran universi- ties. Baird, Charles Washington, D.D. (Univer- sitv. New York city, 1876), Presbyterian ; b. at "Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828 ; graduated at the University of New York city, 1848, and at Union Tlieological Seminary, 1852 ; became pastor at Rve, N. Y., 1861 ; d. there, Feb. 10, 1887. He wrote History of the Huguenot Emigrntion to America, New York, 1st and 2d ed.. 1885, 2 vols. ; French trans., Toulouse, 1887. Baird, Henry Martyn, Ph.D.. LL.D. (Princeton, 1867, 1882), D.D. (Rutgers, 1877), Presbyterian ; b. in Philadelphia, Jan. 17, 1832 ; graduated at the University of New York city, 1850, and at Princeton Theologi- cal Seminary, 1856 ; became professor of Greek, University of New York city, 1859. He wrote History of the Rise of the Hugnenots of France, New" York, 1879, 2 vols. ; 2d ed., 1883 ; TTie Huguenots and Henry of ]Sacarre, 1886, 2 vols. Baird, Robert, D.D. (Jefferson College, 1842), Presbyterian (father of the two pre- ceding) ; b. near Uniontovvn, in Fayette co., Pa.. Oct. 6, 1798 ; d. at Yonkers, N. Y., Sun- day, March 15, 1863. He graduated at Jef- ferson College, Pa., 1818, and at Princeton (N. J.) Theological Seminary, 1822 ; for next 5t years was principal of the academy at Princeton ; hencefortli his life was spent in the service of different religious societies. He resided in Europe as agent of the French As.sociation, later of the Foreign p]vangelieal Society, from 1H35 to 1843, and' again 1846-47. and powerfully advocated Protestantism, total abstinence, and education. He was correspond- ing secretary of the American ..nd Foreign Christian Union, 1849-55. 1861-63. His elo- quence, his Protestant zeal, his lioly boldness cbmbined to attract much attention to him. His History of the Tempera nee S/irietiesi French orig.. Paris." 1836) and Religion in America (Glasgow, 184-1 ; New York, 1S44) were trans- lated into several languages and widely circu- lated. (See his life by his sou, H. 3L Baird. New York, 1866.) Bairut. See Beykovt. Baius (ba' yus), also Bajus, (properly de Bay), Michael, D.D. (Louvain. 1549), Komau Catholic, theologiiui ; b. at Mehu, BeiLdum 1513 ; d. at Louvain, Sept. 16. 1589. He .stud- ied and later became j)rofessor of theology at Louvain, 1551, and was sent bv the king of Spain as delegate to the Council of Trent, 1563. AVhen Pius V., in 1567, condenmed 76 proposi- tions alleged to be derived from his writings, he denied that he was the author of them, and the bull of excommunication was not executed. In 1587 he declared 34 propositions of the Jesuits to be Pelagian and imjnoral. His sys- tem of theology was derived from Augiistme and was the basis of Jansenism, wliich see. (Cf.*Linsenmann, ^f. B. vnd die Grundltgung des Jansenismus, Tiibingen, 1867.) "Ba -\adivn.{foreigner , or dtstroyer), a prophet of Jehovah, living in Pethor, a city of Meso- potamia, a proof along Avitli Melcliizedek, Jethro, etc., that knowledge of tlie true God was no*, confined to tjie se<'d of Abraliam. When Israel reached Moab, Balak, the king, sent for Balaam to come and curse Israel. At first he refused at God's bidding, but after- ward for gain consented to go. On the way he was rebuked by the voice of the a.ss (2 Pe- ter ii. 15), but still went on. When, how- ever, he undertook his task he uttered a bless- ing instead of a curse, and that in words of exquisite force and beauty. Yet what he could not effect in this way he .nought in an- other. He counselled the Midianites to .seduce Israel to idolatry by means of the Moabite and Midianitc women, which was done and for a time succeeded, but a war broke out in whidi Balaam was killed. He stands as the type of all who love the wages of unrighteousness, and it was fitting that a dumb beast slioidd be used to reprove his perversene.ss. (See Num. xxii.-xxv., xxxi. 8, 16; Micah vi. 5; Jude 11 ; Kev. ii. 14.) C. Baldachin (fr. Baldacco, Ital. form of Bag- dad, because the materials were originally brought from there), a canopy over the altar in Koman Catholic churches, cr the movable one carried over the host through the street.**. or over the pope on the occa.sion of his proces- sions. They are generally made of silk. Ballon, Hosea, Universalist ; b. at Bich- mond, N. 11.. April 30, 1771 ; originally a Baptist, )>ecame pastor of tlie Second Univer- salist Society of Boston, 1817 ; d. there, June 7, 1S52. He was foiuider of the L'nirtrsnlint Magazine, Boston, 1819 (now Ihe Christian /.coder), and of the Vnirersalist h'.rjkmitor (now tlie Vnircrsnlist Quarterli/), and wrote yotes on the Paraldcs, Haiulolph. Vt.. 1K(M ; Examination of the Doctrine f Dr. Dali'x Iiapriri/, New York, 1879 ; IL S.'Burrage (Baptist), The Act of Baptis)a in the Ilistori/ (f the Chri.-t to define the I Baptist practice in the matter of baptism, in i these words : " That tin; way and niaiuur of i the dispensing this ordinance is dijiping «'r ■ plumring the bodv uniler watei." It is ••. r- : tain that from the year 1640 or \M\ this was the uniform i>raelic"e of Enjilish Bajwists. In ' the former year Richard Blunt went to Hoi BAPTISTS (76) BAPTISTS land and received baptism at the hands of Jjhn Batte, and on his return baptized Sam- uel Blacklock, and they two baptized a large company of believers. Immersion was not a new idea to English Baptists in 1640, how- ever, for we find Leonard Buslier, " a citizen of London," as he describes himsQlf, writing as early as 1614 in his Religion's Peace : " And such as shall willingly and gladly receive it [the gospel], he hath commanded to be bap- tized in the water ; that is, dipped for dead in the water. ' ' The confession of the 7 churches also states the prevailing Baptist belief regard- ing the Lord's Supper, saying of disciples. " who upon profession of faith ought to be baptized, and after to partake of the Lord's Supper." The same teaching is contained in one of the fourfold confessions issued by the 8myth-Helw3^s church in Holland: ''The Hoiy Supper, according to the institution of Christ, is to be administered to the baptized." This continued to be the doctrine and practice of the English Baptists, General and Particu- lar, with insignificant exceptions, until the present century. During the civil war and the Common- wealth, the Baptists escaped persecution, and their numbers increased with great rapidity, so that the Independents and Presbyterians were greatly disquieted thereby, and made various attempts to restrain their growth. The Restoration was the signal for persecu- tion of a bitter sort, and a pretext was found for it in the insurrections of the Fifth Mon- archy men. These were chiliasts, who be- lieved that Christ was at once coming to set up his kingdom among men, and that they were to help establish it by the sword. A number of the Baptists, notably General Har- rison, the lieutenant of Cromwell, joined these enthusiasts, and this threw some suspicion upon the rest. The great bulk of the body, however, showed both by their actions and by their writings that they had no wish to over- throw the state, but were loyal subjects. Not ai single man known to be a Baptist is among the lists preserved of those who took part in these risings. Nevertheless, persecution on account of their alleged disloyalty and heresies was active and bitter, and \\ it did not cause many to fall away, it seriously interrupted the spread of Baptist principles and the growth of the churches. Among tliose cast into jail during this period was John Bunyan (q.v.), whose offence was that he would preach the gospel, not being an ordained minister of the Church of England. To his third and last imprisonment we owe the immortal allegory, Th6 Pilgrim's Progress, a book for all people and for all time — a book rendered into more languages than any other save the Bible itself, and which, next to the Bible, has been the teacher and comforter of the peasant and of the prince, of hoary age and of buoyant youth. The overthrow of the Stuarts ended this troublous period, and from the passage of the Act of Toleration, in 1689, though they were not placed on an equality wiUi the State Church, the worst disabilities of Baptists were removed, and of active persecution they suf- fered no more. The confessions issued by them at about this time show how cjuickly they felt the impulse of hope and how rajiid for a time was their development. In 1677 the Particular wing published a modified form of the Westminster Confession, reissued in 1689, which is still held by many of the churches, and which in this country, under the name of the Philadelphia Confession, is the system of doctrine approved by a large majority of the churches in the South and Southwest. The General brethren issued their confession in 1678, and it is noticeable that its Arminianism is of a type that can hardly be distinguished from the milder forms of Calvinism. But while the immediate effect of toleration was stimulating, its later result was unfavorable to sound growth. False doctrine crept in, centralizing tendencies mani- fested themselves, and there was a marked de- cline of spiritual power. The associations of the churches began to assume inquisitorial, judicial, and legislative powers, and the Gen- eral Assemblies that were established (of the Particular Baptists in 1689, of the General Baptists before 1671) fell more or less into this fault, particularl}^ among the General brethren. There were troublers of the churches who professed Antinomian doctrines and complete sanctification ; the results of which teachings were disputes and divisions that caused a great decline. Hyper-Calvinism was developed among one section of the Par- ticular churches, and everywhere proved a blighting doctrine. Among the General clmrches there was a very marked lapse from orthodoxy, resulting in the adoption of pro- nounced anti-Trinitarian views by a large number. Ail the Baptist churches, of both bodies, sympathized with the general religious state of the realm, which was deplorable, and there was no change for the better until the Wcsleyan revival. The Baptists of the 17th and 18th centuries had many curious customs, some of which were borrowed from them by the Friends and survive among the latter body to this day. The quaint garb of the Quaker is that of the 16th-century Baptist. In public worship men and women sat on opposite sides of the house, both participating in the exhorting and " pro- phesying" as the " Spirit moved." Whether singing was an allowable part of worship was fiercely disputed, and a salaried or " hireling" ministry was in great disfavor. The imposi- tion of hands was practised, in the ordination not only of pastors but of deacons, and in many churclies hands were laid on all who had been baptized — an act that has given place among American Baptists, at least, to the "hand of fellowship." Fasting was a com- mon observance, feet-washing was practised by many cliurches, though its obligation was earnestly questioned, and tlie anointing of the sick was so common as to be almost the rule. Pastors and deacons were often elected by the casting of lots, and love-feasts before tiie Lord's Supper were a common practice. The supervision of members' lives was strict ; marrying out of meeting, as among the Friends, was followed by excommunication, and the amusements that might be indulged in were carefully limited. Disputes between husbands and wives, between masters and ser- BAPTISTS (77) BAPTISTS vants, were made subjects of church discipline and adjudication, and such offences as covct- ousness, slander, and idleness were severely dealt with. To the Baptists of to-day this seems a meddlesome interference with per- sonal riiJS'hts and private alTairs, and such dis- cipline has fallen into disuse in all but a few loculilii's. In the general awakening in England re- sulting from the preaching of the Wesleys and Whiteticld tl'e Baptists participated, and from that time their growth was more rapid. Im- portant moditications, in both doctrine and practice, were made. A modilied form of Calvinism was taught by Andrew Fulfer and other divines. Many of the old, peculiar cus- toms were gradually dropped. " Open" com- munion—that is, the practice of inviting to the Lord's Supper all Christians, whether bap- tized or not — had always advocates and prac- tisers among Baptists, and at one time made considerable headway under the leadership of John Bunyan. Now, it was powerfully and successfully advocated by Robert Hall, one of the most eloquent preachers of modern times, and large numbers of Baptist churches became "open." This change has been followed by its logical result, the formation of churches of mixed membership. In many so-called Bap- tist churches of England the ordinance of bap- tism is seldom or never administered ; Pedo- baptists are received to membership, are chosen to office, and even in some cases to the pastor- ate. The same church is not infrequently claimed by both Baptists and Independents in their church statistics. The greatest development of Baptists during the last century has been in connection witli missions and education. In October, 1792, a missionary society was formed with 12 mem- bers, who contributed £13 2s. Gd. to its treas- ury. From this meeting dates the beginning of modern missionary enterprise. In the fol- lowing year William Carey sailed for India, and was soon after followed by Joshua 3Iarsh- man and William Ward. From the first the mission prospered, in spite of the obstacles thrown in its way by British ofhcials. The society has at various times extended its oper- ations, and independent missionary enterprises in Africa and Italy have been conducted by churches and individuals. In this work and in many other enterprises General and Par- ticular Baptists unite. The .society in 1888 had in India, Ceylon, and Burmah 806 churches. 249 missionaries and pastors, and 61, .541 mem- bers. Most of the English Baptists are affili- ated through the Baptist Union of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, a home missionary and social organization, for 1888 reporting 2742 churches, 1868 ministers, and 302,615 members, be- sides 25,000 (estimated) non-reporting Bap- tists. The Particular Baptists as such (tlieir churches generally practising "close" com- munion) sustain a tract and book socit-ty and a theological school at ^lanchester. Other theological schools, or " colleges," as they are called, are located at Bristol, Bawdon, Lon- don (in connection with the Metropolitan Tabernacle), Regent's Park, Pontypool, Haverford-West. Societies for Bible transla- tion, the support of aged ministers, and the like, are also well supported. In these enter- prises the Baptists of Scotland and Wales unite. In the latter country they have been a flourishing people from the middle of llic 17th century. In Scotland their numbers have always been small. Besides the General and Particular Baptists, there have been several organizations in Eng- land holding Baptist ]irinci[)hs in general, but adding to them somcMlistiiiguishingixcidiarity of faith or practice : Tlie ^t.i-Pniici/>lt' lUtp. tlxtK were so called from tlie special stress they laid on the "six principles" enumerated ia Ileb. vi. 1, 2 : repentance, faith, baptism, laying on of liands, the resurrection of the dead, and eternal life. In ^larch, KiilO, the churches holding these six princiijlcs formed an association, which contimied with varying fortunes for some years, when the Calvin'istic Baptists withdrew and the rest were aI)sorbed into the General Baptist body. The Sirnith- (htji Bapdxts (so called from their observance of the seventh day of the week instead of the first as the Sal)bath) were founded by the Rev. Francis Banipticld, in 1G76. It lias al- ways been a small body, and at the present time but one church survives, in Whitechapel, Lon- don. The Srntrh JiitptititH were founded l)v tlie R-v. Archibald :»IcLean, about 17G5. .AIcLean was originally a Presbyterian, then a (Jlasitc or Saudemaniaii, but linally adojited xUt'. Jiajv tist view of the constitution of the church. From many of his Saiidenianian views lie nev( r freed him.self, and the Scotcli Ba])lisls still insist on a plurality of elders in eacii church, on the weekly celebration of the Lord's Sup- per, and the like. They are Calvinistic in doctrine, lay much stress' on the duty of bap- tism, and ai'e strict comnmnioni.sts. The Knn Connection of General Baptists owed its rise to a protest against the anti-Trinitarian views that became common among the older body of General Baptists. Its founder was Dan Taylor, a Yorkshire miner converted under the Wesleyan preaching, a man of little edu- cation, but of great natural parts and a hard worker. Their theology is not strongly Ar- minian. In the matter of conmiunion tlieir practice is not uniform ; until late years all tlie churches practised strict communion, but tiie practice of inviting all Christians has grown, until probably most of the ciiurelies are " open. " They now report 203 churciies, 134 pastors and missionaries, and 27,2.">6 mem- bers. They maintain a theologicjil school at Nottingham, founded in 1797. Baptists in thk Umtkd Statks.— A few English Baptists are known to have come to America among the earlv emigrants ; llanserd Knollvs was one, and for a time lie dwelt at what IS now Dover, N. II. but soon returned to EnL'land. Individuals among tlie Puritans avowed Baptist principles ; such a case was tliat of Hdirv Dunstcr, the first president of Harvard College. Tlie liistory of American Baptists H'allv begins, however, with tlie ban- ishment of Roger Williams from tiie colony of Massachu-setts in OctoUr, 1635. for diny- ing the power of tlic civil magistrate to deal with matters of con.science and religion. Williams settled at Providence in June, 1636, and founded a colony which is now the Stat© BAPTISTS (78) BAPTISTS of Rhode Island. The foundation-stone of this new government was absolute religious liberty for every man, the first time in the his- tory of mankind that this principle was em- bodied in the organic law of a people. Will- iams was led to adopt the Baptist view of the constitution of the church, and to regard his baptism in infancy as invalid. There being no minister within the small colony, he was baptized by Ezekiel Holliman, who had been a member of his church at Salem, and then Williams baptized Holliman and some ten more. This occurred some time about March, 1639, and the Providence Baptist church was thereupon organized. Williams did not him- self remain long a member of it, not being satisfied with the validity of this baptism, and during his remaining years was a "seeker" unconnected with any church. It is uncer- tain whether it has had a continuous history since that date, but if this be admitted it is the oldest church among American Baptists. A church was formed at Newport in 1644 by John Clarke. His successor was Obadiah Holmes, who was publicly wliipped in Boston in September, 1651, for the heinous crime of denying infant baptism. The first church in Massachusetts was formed at Swansea in 1663 by John Miles and seven other brethren, and two years later a church was organized in Boston. A Baptist church was organized in New York City in 1669, but survived persecu- tion only a few months ; it was revived in 1703, and has had a continuous existence ever since. A church was formed in Kittery, Me., in 1683 ; one in South Carolina, near what is now Charleston, in 1683, that still survives as tlie First church of Charleston. The first church in Pennsylvania was organized in 1684 ; in New Jersey, 1688 ; in Connecticut (Groton), 1705 ; in Virginia, 1714. In 1770 there were only 77 churches, and the total membership cannot be estimated higher than 6000. The first trustworthy statistics are those of 1784, when there were 471 churches, 434 ministers, and 35,101 members. Thenceforth their growth was remarkable, and a century afterward there were reported" 28,599 churches, 16,678 ministers, and 2,507,753 members. The num- ber of members in 1889 was fully 3,000,000 (these figures are of the regular Baptists alone). The history of Baptists'in the United States is for many years mainly a record of the per- secutions suifered by them from the churciies established by law in the several colonies and states. Massachusetts banished and whipped them ; New York fined, imprisoned, and ban- ished them ; Virginia cast them into prison for preaching the gospel, and even for hearing it ; the first church established in Maine was so harried by violence, fines, and imprison- ment that it was broken up. Milder treat- ment was experienced in some of the colonies, notably in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina, and in the latter state Baptists in- creased rapidly. After the revolutionarv war the several .states speedily adopted toleration acts, that removed tlie chief disabilities of Bap- tists ; but it was not until 1833 tliat Massa- chasetts abolished the last vestige of the union of church and state, and perfect religious equality was secured to all faiths. A great impetus was given to the Baptists of America by their providential call to the work of foreign missions. In 1813 Adoniram Judson and his wife, Ann Hasseltine Judson, and Luther Rice, were appointed missionaries by the newly organized American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and sailed for India. On the voyage, from study of the Scriptures and without consultation with each other, they came to adopt Baptist views, and when they reached Calcutta were baptized on profession of their faith by an English Baptist missionary. They had thus voluntarily and from a sense of duty severed their "connection with the Congregational churches, and left themselves in a strange land without support. Mr. Rice returned to this country, and travelled among the Baptist churches, relating these facts and appealing for the support of himself and the Judsons in this work. In May, 1814, 36 delegates from 11 states and the District of Columbia met in Philadelphia and organized the Baptist General Convention, which afterward became known as the Triennial Convention, from its meeting once in three years. In the mean tinie the Judsoas had been driven out of Brit- ish India by bigoted English officials, and had established themselves, in July, 1813, in Ran- goon, where they began missionary work among the Burmese. In July, 1819, the first convert, Moung Nau, was baptized. The war between England and Burmah broke out just as the work began to prosper, and Judson was thrown into prison, and for three years he and his devoted wife suffered incredible tortures of body and spirit. After the war the mission was imder British protection and prospered. A mission to tJie Karens was begun about this time by Rev. George Dana Boardman ; and missions were successively established in As- sam, in Siam, among the Telugus in Southern Hindustan, in China, and in Japan. For thirty years all the foreign mission work of American Baptists was done through this one convention, but in 1844 the differences between the Northern and Southern churches growing out of the anti-slavery agitation then going on culminated in a separation. The ciiurches of the Southern states organized the Southern Baptist Convention in the follow- ing year, and this convention is their agent, through various standing boards, for all their general missionary operations. The conven- tion is a strictly delegated body, and its meet- ings are held for tiie transaction of business, not for platform oratory. The Home Mission Board emplo^ys 287 missionaries, who labor in 15 states and territories, supplying 1114 churches and stations, to which in 1888 their labors added 7496 members. The board also maintains a mission in Cuba and publishes a series of Sunday-school papers and lielps. It raised and expended in 1888, $178,953. The Foreign Board sustains missions in Mexico, Brazil, Italy, South Africa, and Northern China — in all 115 missionaries, who labor among 59 churches having a membership of 1967. The expenditures in 1888 were $84,- 848. The Southern Baptist Convention repre- sents the white Baptists of the South ; the colored Baptists have a separate organization BAPTISTS (79) BAPTISTS —the Baptist Foreign Missionary Convention of the United States. Tliougli very numerous in the South, they are poor, and tlieir cliief present enterprise is the maintenanee of a mis- sion in West Central Africa. The Baptists of the South, white and colored, are fully two- thirds of the 3,000,000 now reported by tlie " regular" churches of the United States. When the Soutliern Baptists withdrew from the Triennial Convention that body was suf- fered to die, and the Northern churches pro- vided for the carrying on of their foreign work by organizing, in 1846, the American Baptist Missionary Union, with headquarters at Bos- ton. Though this body is nominally com- posed of delegates appointed on a fixed basis, its meetings have been for many years mere mass-meetings, in which little business is trans- acted and most of the time is given to popular oratory. The real business isdone by a board of managers, of whom one-third are elected at each annual meeting, and by an executive committee chosen by this board. In spite of this loose and defective organization, the union has done a great work in the foreign field. Its chief labors liave been in Asia, but missions have also been maintained in Ger- many, France, Spain, Greece, Italy, and Sweden ; and within a few years an estab- lished mission in Central Africa has been turned over to American Baptists and is con- ducted by them. In the various missions of the union there are now 642 churches, 1477 missionaries and pastors, and 65,273 members. The union raised and expended in 1888 over $400,000. Two auxiliary organizations were formed in 1871. The Woman's Baptist For- eign Missionary Society has its headquarters in Boston, and supports 34 missionaries, 57 Bible women, and 109 schools containing 3850 pupils, raising for all these purposes in 1888, $74,433. The Woman's Baptist Foreign Mis- sionary Society of the West has its headquar- ters at Chicago, supports 30 missionaries, 26 schools having 1375 pupils, and raised in the same year $31,602. The work of home missions was begun by Baptists as soon as they had any existence in this country, but no satisfactory provision was made for its systematic; conliiuianee until 1832, when the Ainerican J5aptist Home Mis- sion Society was organized in New York City, where it has ever since had its headcjuarters. This society, in 188S, raised and expended $551,595, maintaining mi.ssionary operations in 45 states and territories, having in all 743 laborers, who cared for 1594 churches and stations, performed 24,715 weeks of labor and baptized 2886 persons. Missionaries in tlieir own languages are employed among the Ger- mans, Scandinavians, French, Boliemians, Poles, and Chinese, as well as among the colored race and the Indians. A ^Fexican mi.ssion is also supported, tlie society taking the whole of North America as its field of operations. ]\Iany of tlie most flourisliing churciies of the Central and Western states owe their existence to this society, than whirli there has been no other agency more effective in planting and nourishing Baptist churches in the various states as they have been settled and developed. The society has a Church Edifice Fund, from which gifts and loans are made to chiirclies in the newer parts of the country. By an expenditure of $53,000 in 1888, this fund .secured to the denomination property worth $200,000. The society has also done a valuable educational work "in the South and the Indian Territory, where it main- tains 18 institutions of academic and collegiate grade, in whicli there arc 135 teachers and 3661 pupils. The value of the property pos- sessed by these schools, or held by the society for their maintenance, is $772,000. Two Women's Home Mission Societies were organ- ized in 1877, one with headquarters at Chi- cago, and one located at Boston. Tlie West- ern Society maintains a training scliool at Chicago for missionary workers (women) and has in its employ 70 missionaries, mainly in the South and West. A beneficent feature of the work is the employment of experienced w:omen to work among the newly landed im- migrants at Castle Garden, and in several of the great Eastern cities. The Boston society is more auxiliary to the Home Mission Society, and its chief work is furnishing instructors for the schools among the negroes and Indians under the society's control. The Baptists early recognized the power of the printing-press for the propagation of the trutli, and in 1824 adenorninational Tract So- ciety was organizeil in "\^'aslliIl^■t()n. In 1826 it w^as transferred to Pliiladtlpiiia, and in 1845 the name was changed to Tlie American Bap- tist Publication Society, which it still bears. From small beginnings it has grown to be one of the largest publishing houses in this coun- try. It has net assets of over $700,000. and it did in 1888 a liusiness of over $500,(100. It maintains a missionary department, w hie h ex- pended during that year $90,280 in colporteur and Sunday-school work. It maintains also a Bible department for the circulation of tlie Scriptures, which expended nearly $40,000. Its chief work, however, is the publication of religious and denominational literature, including Sunday-school books, children's pa- pers, and lesson "helps. Ofthe.se periodicals, in 1888 it published 28,115,225 copies. The growth of Baptists in the United States has been much hindered by unfortunate de- nominational controversies, that liave resulted in divided counsels and counter elTorts. The elTect of the anti-slavery agitation has already been described. The Northern diurclies liad several experiences of this kind, only less di- visive in their results. The first grew out of (pie.stions relating to Bible work. When llie American Bible Society was first organized. Baptists co-operated lieartily, in proportion to their means, in the work of translating and circulating the word of (iod at home and abroad. Botli in this country and in England their missionary operations forced them to Ik: pioneers in this" work. Baptists liave liaii the lionor, in many instances, of being the first to give the iiibJe to a heathen people, in some ca.ses lieing the first to rcfluce the language to writim; and begin a literature. William Carey translated the New Testament into B( npalcc about 1800, which was the first version made in modern limes in a heathen tongue. He afterward assisted in translating the Scriptures BAPTISTS (80) BAPTISTS into no fewer than 24 different languages and dialects of India, and these versions (upon which he did far the largest share of the work) are said to be capable of being read by one- third of the inhabitants of the globe. The first version into Chinese was made by Joshua Marshman, Carey's fellow-laborer. Many vcr- sfons have also been made by American Bap- list missionaries : The first and only version in Burmese was made by Adonirara Ju:l- son ; the first and only version in Karen by Francis Mason ; the first version in Siamese by John Taylor Jones ; the first complete ver- sion of the Bible in both Assamese and Japan- ese by Nathan Brown, and the first complete version in Telugu was that of Lyman Jewett. Besides these, versions are at present projected or partially completed in the Garo, Naga, Congo, Bateke, and Balolo languages — the last three being languages spoken in Central Africa. For the publication and circulation of the earliest versions made by Baptist mis- sionaries, the American Bible Society voted appropriations. After a time objection was made to them that they rendered " baptizo" uniformly by a Burmese word signifying " dip" or " immerse," and in May, 1836, the society adopted a rule to "encourage only such versions as conform in the principle of their translation to the common English ver- sion ;" that is, versions that transliterated "baptizo" instead of translating it, whether according to the Baptist or the Pedobaptist view of the true meaning of the word. The Baptist members of the board vainly urged that the •society had already appropriated $18,000 for the circulation of Dr. Judson's version, with full knowledge of its nature ; that this was the only version in Burmese in existence, and that the alternative was either to circulate this or deprive the Burmese of the gospel ; and that the adoption of the rule in- troduced a new and necessarily divisive prin- ciple into the society's policy. On'the adop- tion of the rule, they felt constrained to with- draw from co-operation with the society, and in April, 1837, a convention held at Philadel- phia organized the American and Foreign Bible Society, to " aid in the wider circulation of the Holy Scripture in all lands." From the first there was a division of sentiment in the new society. Some were in favor of con- tinuing the circulation of the King James ver- sion, and confining the work of making new translations wholly to foreign tongues ; while another party insisted that the principle of faithful translation required the society also to revise the English Scriptures, or make a new translation. This conflict of opinion finally broke out into a violent controversy, and in 1850 a strong minority withdraw and formed the American Bible Union, whose ob- ject was declared to be " to procure and cir- culate the most faithful versions of the Scrip- tures in all languages throughout the world." The principle of translation adopted by the union was to render every word of the orig- inal Scriptures into that vernacular word which would mpst nearly represent its mean- ing, as determined by the best modern scholar- ship. A version of the New Testament, made on these principles, was issued in 1865, and from time to time parts of the Old Testament have been published, but no complete version of ft has been yet made. The Bible Union ver- sion, while it has a certain value as a literal and scholarly rendering of the New Testament in English, was a failure from the first as a version for popular circulation. It was stig- matized as a " sectarian" translation, and its use among Baptists themselves has never been large. Thousands of Baptists have never seen a copy ; many have never even heard of it. For a time these two Bible societies flourished and had devoted adherents ; but those who founded them for the most part passed away years ago, and a generation succeeded that was indilTerent to either or hostile to both. The work declined, but the controversies con- tinued. At length, in the year 1883, a Bible convention at Saratoga effected a settlement of the questions at issue ; recommending that the foreign Bible work be done by the Mis- sionary Union and the home work by the Publication Society ; and that the latter should circulate according to demand the Bible Union, King James and Revised versions. No controversy was more disastrous to the Baptist churches of the Middle states than the anti-Masonic struggle between the years 1826 and 1840. One William Morgan, a Mason, who had published a book purporting to ex- pose the secrets of the order, suddenly disap- peared in 1826 and was believed to have been foully dealt with. A body was discovered and identified as his, though the indentifica- tion has always been regarded as doubtful. Excitement against the Masons, and secret fraternities generally, rose high, until the dis- pute became a political issue in state and even national elections, and the churches took the matter up. In a large number of Baptist churches the majority opposed secret fraterni- ties, declaring them to be unscriptural and dangerous to the peace and liberties of the commonwealth. In many cases the minority were disfellowshipped, and not a few fiour- ishing churches were crippled or even extin- guished, while the growth of all was neces- sarily much retarded. The lessons of that period have taught American Baptists to be. chary of interfering through church discipline with questions not strictly religious, and to beware of attempting to settle by an authorita- tive rule questions of conduct that it is each Christian man's right and duty to decide for himself. Thus, wliile at the present time the majority of Baptists favor strongly total ab- stinence as a rule of personal conduct and prohibition as a practical policy, in very few churches is either made a test of fellowship. The Baptist churches of the South and West were much disturbed during the second quarter of this century by the agitation that culminated in the establishment of the Dis- ciples or Campbellites as a separate body. [See Disciples.] Under the leadership of Alexander Campbell the entire Mahoning Bap- tist Association of Ohio adopted tlie new views, and a large number of churches in other Ohio associations followed this example. The "reformation," as it was called, spread to Kentucky and Virginia, dividing churches and associations, and causing fierce religious con. BAPTISTS (81) BAPTISTS trovcrsy. It has always been aud still is a tk- batable question liovv far Alexander Camp- bell's views really differed from such as have always been tolerated, if not approved in Bap- tist churches, nor is it easy to apportion justly the blame of the schism that occurred. Men of strong wills, incisive intellects and groat controversial gifts ranged themselves on op- posite sides of the question. The first overt acts of separation Avero committed by the Bap- list rluirches, for what tlicy deemed not only sullk'ient, but controlling reasons. The Beaver A.ssociation of Oiiio about 1S29 issued a circu- lar denouncing the jNIahoning Association and Mr. Campbell as disbelieving many of the doc- trines of the Holy Scriptures. In the autumn of 1832 the Dover Association of Virginia, after careful deliberation, advised the churches constituting it, " to separate from their com- munion all such persons as are promoting con- troversy and discord under the specious name of ' Reformers.' " This advice was given on the avowed ground that the doctrines taught were " not according to godliness, but subver- sive of the true spirit of the gospel of Jesus Christ, disorganizing and demoralizing in their tendency, and, therefore, ought to be dis- avowed and resisted by all the_ lovers of truth and sound piety." TWenty years after. Rev. Jeremiah B. Jeter, one of the ablest Baptist opponents of the Disciple movement, and one of the authors of this resolution, published it as his belief tliat the report adopted by the Dover Association contained " some unguard- ed, unnecessarily harsh expressions," and par- ticularly acknowledged that this characteri- zation of the doctrines of Campbell as "de- moralizing in their tendency" was unjust. From this time those who sympathized with Mr. Campbell cither voluntarily withdrew from the Baptists or were disfellowshipped by them, and in a decade the separation was complete. To do this rent the denomination in twain in the West and South. Churches were split in two or completely dissolved, or even went over bodily to the new sect ; a few whole ' associations became Disciples ; and seeds of bitterness and discord were sown that have borne fruit in more than a genera- tion of unfraternal strife and disorganization. Still another fruitful source of divisions has been found in educational projects among American Baptists. The New England churches Ijave been happily free from this trouble. Very early in their history' a school was founded at Warren, R. I., to which the name of Rliodc Island College was first given. In 176.") James .Manning -was elected president, and the first commencement was held Sep- tember 7, 1769, when the degree of Bachelor of Arts was conferred on seven young men. In 1770 the college was r(!moved to Provi- dence, and in 1804 its name was changed to Brown University, in honor of a generous benefactor, Nicholas Brown. This, tiie oldest and best- known Baptist institution of learning, has a long and distinguished roll of alumni, and a property valued at $2,875,000. The Newton Theological Institution owes its origin to a meeting of ministers and laymen helil in Boston in 182o. Its early years "were marked by difficulties and debts," but at length a per- manent endowment was secured. It has grad- uated or instructed about 800 studentsrand among its alumni are many of the most viseful and distinguished preachers and teat-hers of the denomination. Another New England institution is Waterville College, Me., which was founded in 1818 by the Rev. Jeremiah Chaplin, as the outcome of a private school maintained by him at Danvers. Tiie colle- giate charter was granted in 1820. The early history of the institution was one of continual struggle with adversity, but of late years it has found generous friends. In recoixnition of the benefactions of one of these, fJanliuT Colby, the name was changed in 18G7 to Colby University. It is now generously endowed, and has three academies coimected with it. In the Middle and Western states, and to some extent in the South, there has not been this unity of action in educational matters. New York Baptists had a school for higher education as early as 1820, which in ]8;M dc;- veloped into the Hamilton Literary and The- ological Institution. In 1846 the "literary de- partment was chartered as a university, its name being changed to Madison University, the theological seminary being maintained as a separate institution, but in harmony with the college. The village of Hamilton was thought by many Baptists to be an \nisuital)le site for a denominational school, and in 1847 an elTort was made to remove it to a better location. The city of Rochester offered spec-ial induce- ments and was decided upon as the new site. But a party rallied to the defence of the old site, discussions grew warm, passionate feel- ings were excited, aud the end was a division — part of the faculty and supi)orters going to found a new institution, since known as the University of Rochester. The new institution opened its doors to students in 1850. For a time the collegiate and theological department.s at Rochester were maintained in close connec- tion, but since 1855 the Rochester Theological Seminary has been an independent school. It has a German department for the education of students to preach the gospel in that language to their own countrymen, and the general cata- logue of 1889 reports 979 students lus having been educated for the ministry during its his- tory. The division of the New York Baptist institutions has been marked by a correspond- ing division among the churches, part of wiiich have supported the one and part the other. The olil l)itterness ha.s somewhat sub- sided of late years, but it is in the higiust de- gree unfortunate that the present generation should seem willing to perpetuate clivisions caused by the unwisdom and contentioiisnesj i of their "fathers. This experience has been ! duplicated in several Western states, where I rival institutions have been founded in excess of educational needs, with the result of mak- ing all l)oor and ineflicient, whire a sinRle strong institution might have been established. The other principal schools founded or con- trolled bv liaptists jire : Baptist Union The- ological Seminarv. Morgan Park. III. (1^'67) ; Crozer Theolo-iical Seminary. Ufiland, Pa. (1868) ; Southern Baptist Theolo-ical Sem- inary, Louisville, Kv. (1858) ; Bticknell Uni- versity, Lewisburg,'Pa. (1846); Columbian BAPTISTS BAPTISTS University, Washington (1821) ; Richmond College, ilichmond, Va. (1832j ; Denison Uni- versity, Granville, O. (1832). la all there arc 7 theological schools and 34 colleges, besides 33 institutions of collegiate grade for young women exclusively. Of these Vassar College, founded in 1861, at Pv^ughkeepsie, N. Y., by the beneficence of Matthew Vassar, is the best endowed college for women in the world. There are also 42 academic institutions, most of which are unendowed, and 17 schools for negroes and Indians. In all. Baptists conduct 132 institutions, in which 17,552 pupils were instructed in 1888, and the value of the edu- cational plant (many institutions not reporting) is returned at $19,676,379. In 1888, besides un- reported gifts, $739,000 was given for educa- tional purposes. There was organized at Washington, in May, 1888, an American Bap- tist Education Society, which is expected to do much in the way of advancing and espe- cially of unif.^ing and consolidating the edu- cational work of Baptists. Local educationa' societies have for many years past done a good work in this line, but this organization is national in its scope. Besides the agencies already mentioned for uniting the Baptist churches in missionary work, the local and state associations demand notice. Local associations in the older states commonly follow county lines, but in the newer states embrace larger territories. These associations meet annually, and with the churches composing them, appoint delegates to a larger body, called the General Associa- tion, or State Convention. A good type of these bodies is the Baptist Missionary Conven- tion of the State of New York, whose object is declared to be " to promote the preaching of the gospel, and the establishment and main- tenance of Baptist churches in the State of New York ; to encourage the conunon educa- tional interests of the denomination within the state ; the general care and encouragement of denominational Sunday-school work ; to pro- mote denominational acquaintance, fellow- ship, and growth." Forty-three local associa- tions are found in the territory of this conven- tion, and the 873 churches composing them report 122,142 members, chunih property val- ued at $11,890,212, and $274,193 rai.scd for missionary and benevolent work, of which $13,520 was raised and expended by the con- vention itself in its special work. A good type of the local associations (of which there are 1312 in the United States) is the Southern New York, whose object is defined in its con- stitution as " the cultivation of fraternal sym- pathy, the promotion of each other's spiritual welfare, and the establishment and strengthen- ing of Baptist churches within its bounds." Its 61 churches have a total membership of 15,452, and expended over $46,000 for mis- sions in New York City. Besides the " regular" Bapti.sts, there are a number of bodies that agree witli them in the fundamental doctrine of the constitution of the church and the nature of baptism. The most important of these are the li'i-ecwill Bap- tists, or Free Baptists, as they now call them- selves. Their separate organi'zation dates from 1780, when Benjamin Randall organized the first church of this order at New Durham, N. II. lie had been converted under the preaching of W^hiteficld, and was at fiist a Con- gregatioualist, but adopted Baptist views and joined a regular Baptist church, by which he was disfellowshipped for rejecting Calvinistic doctrines. The Freewill Baptists, as their name im.plies, have been Arminiaa in theology, and practise " open" communion. In 1827 they organized a General Conference, which meets triennially. During the anti-slavery agitation they took strong ground in favor of abolition, and declined overtures for union made by about 12,000 Baptists of Kentucky, because the latter favored slavery. The Free- will Baptist Foreign Mission Society was or- ganized in 1833, and has a vigorous mission in India. A Home Mission Society was formed in 1834, and an Education Society in 1840. The denomination sustains Hillsdale College, in Michigan, Bates College, in Maine, besides numerous schools of academic grade. They also have a publishing house, formerly located at Dover, N. II., but now at Boston, Mass. They now have 1531 churches, 1314 ministers, and 82,686 members. The Separates or Free Communion Baptists rose in Rhode Island and Connecticut during the Whitefield revivals, organizing themselves into the Grotou Union Conference in 1785. Since 1841 they have been mainly absorbed by the Freewill Bap- tists, though there are still returned 43 min- isters and 5827 members of this persuasion. A few Baptists are known as the Cumberland Free Baptists, but they have no separate or- ganization and publish no statistics ; their numbers are estimated at 1000. Various other unassociated Baptist churches, holding Free- will doctrines, are said to exist, to the estimated number of 13,190. In 1822 a small denomi- nation, holding Arminian views, but practising strict communion, was formed in the West, principally in the states of Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Kentucky, under the name of General Baptists. They were estimated in 1888 to have over 2000 churches and 13,000 mem- bers. A considerable number of the regular Baptists in the early part of this century sep- arated from the other churches, on account of doctrinal and practical dilferences. Holding a hyper-Calvinistic theology, they were opposed to missions, Sunday-schools, and all "con- trivances which .seem to make the salvation of men depend on human effort. ' ' They have been known as Anti-Mission Baptists, " Anti- Effort," "Old," and "Hardshell" Baptists. In 1854 they had 66,500 members, but they have gradually decreased in numbers and in- fluence, though they are still strong in the country regions of Georgia and other South- ern states. They had in 1888 about 1800 churches and 46,000 members. The Screnth- Day Baptists had their origin in Rhode Island, a church being founded at Newport in 1671 by Stephen Mumford, an emigrant from Eng- land. A General Conference was organized early in the present century, which has met triennially since 1846. They formed a For- eign Missionary Society in 1842, and support a tract and publishing house. Their head- quarters are at Alfred Centre, N. Y. They have 110 churches and 9000 members. Ger- BAPTISTS (83) BAPTISTS man immigrants, settling at what is now Gcr- mantown, Pa., in 1723 formed tlic first Ger- i>ian Seventh-Bay Baptixt Church, and thej' liave since grown to an estimated membership of 3500. From the year 1639 Si.v-Priimjdc i>a/>f/.«*^ churches liave existed in Rhode Island, and the churches of this order have a present membership of 1450. The Tunkers, called also " Dunkers," "Dunkards," "German Baptists," and "Brethren," are found mainly iu Pennsyl- vania, where they settled in considerable num- bers from 1719 to 1730, and have prospered greatly in numbers and wealth. They hold in the main the same doctrines as the nsgular Baptists, but add some peculiarities of prac- tice. They have a regular ministry, but pay them no salary, regarding even the receiving of fees with great disfavor. They oppose Sun- day-schools and secret societies ; practise feet- washing as a religious ordinance ; interpreting literally the words of the apostle in 1 Cor. xvi. 20, they " greet one another with a holy kiss." They bore consistent testimony against slav- ery, and are now active advocates of total ab- stinence. They were for a time inclined to regard higher education as a conforming to the world, but they now have several colleges and high schools, iu which co-education is practised. They still oppose the establish- ment of theological schools or seminaries. They publish no statistics, having conscien- tious scruples against so doing, but they are believed on good grounds to have about 630 churches, 2485 preachers, and 95,000 members. A division of the Tunkers has joined the Ger- man Seventh-Day Baptists — if, indeed, they are not, as some authorities maintain, the originators of that body. The Wi iieb re nnevi am, or " Church of God," owe their origin to the labors of the Rev. John Winebrenner, who iu the year 1820 was settled as pastor of the German Reformed Church at Harrisburg, Pa. A great revival of religion began among his people, and the work aroused much opposition in the church, which looked unfavorably on such manifestations of abnor- mal excitement (as they viewed revivals). After five years of contiict Mr. Winebrenner and his people separated from the German Reformed Church and formed an independent congregation. About this time similar revi- vals occurred in the surrounding towns, and resulted in the organization of new churches. Iu the meantime, Mr. Winebrenner had been studying the Scriptures, and came to the con- clusion that neither in doctrine nor in discii)- line did the German Reformed Church cor- respond to the apostolic model, which he now conceived to be independent churches, com- posed only of believers, and without any liu- raan creed or laws, the Scriptures alone being accepted as the rule of faith and practice. In October, 1S30, a meeting was held nt Harris- burg, at which a regular system of co-opiration was" adopted by the churches .sympathizing with these views, and Mr. Winebrenner was elected speaker of the conference. This body now meets annually, and 14 other conferences or annual elderships have since been organ- ized, besides a general eldership that nieets triennially. The Church of God has an itincr- ' ant ministry, the appointments being made by the respective elderships ; they practise feet- washing as a religious ordinance ; recognize only immersion of believers as baptism", and hold that the Lord's Supper siiould be "ad- ministered to (Christians onlv, in a sitting pos- ture, and always in the evening. " The church has a publishing house at Harrisburg, an academy at Bosheyville, Pa., and a college at Findlay, (). Their numbers were last re- turned at 475 churches, 450 ministers, and 29,683 members. Baptists in Britisu America.— There were Baptists in Nova Scotia from 1760, but the first Baptist church in the British provinces was organized in Sackville, X. B., in 1763, and was an offshoot of the Second Churcli in Swansea, Mass. An association of the churches was formed in 1800. Up to this time most of tiie churches had practised open comnuinion, but they gradually came to regard this as in- consistent with their principles. In 1821 this association had so grown that for convenience it was divided int.) tlie Nova Scotia and New Brunswick associations ; the former was in 1850 divided into the Eastern, Central, and Western associations, and the latter in 1847 divided into the Eastern and Western, while from it was organized iu 1850 a Southern as- sociation, and in 1868 the Prince Edward's Island Association. These churches have been active in missionary work, a society having b^en formed in 1815 in Nova Scotia, and in 1820 in New Brunswick, wiiicli have vigor- ously prosecuted work both at hom>' and abroad. In educational work the maritime provinces have also been honorably prominent. When they had but 29 churches and 1773 members, tlicy established an academy at Hor- tou, N. S., and another not long afterward at Fredericton, N. B. Acadia College, founded about 1820, is their chief institution, and has an endowment of $100,000. It has an cfticient faculty and a large corps of students. The 7 maritime provinces now report 374 churches and 43,937 members. Churches were organized almost simultane- ously in Quebec and Ontario— in tlie former province in 1794, and in the latter in the fol- lowing year. Jlost of the early churches were planted by missionaries from' the Uniti-d States, but some of the earliest were composed of Scotch settlers. The first Baptist church of Montreal was not organized until 183((. and the French Catiiolic i)opulation of the prov- ince of Quebec has been an unfavorable soil for the growth of Baptists, thougli tlie fiour- ishing Grand Ligne Mission has done a good wort among'them and has In-en the means of bringing some 5000 people to the hnowk-dge of the truth. Ontario has afTordcd better con- ditions of increa-se, and the Bapti.st(liu relics are there numerous and growing. Controver- sies over the communion question have been no small hindrance to Baptist progress in Canada, these controversies cruising tlie divi- sion of churches and the dis.eolution of mis- sionarv oriranizations. The Can.'ida Baptist Union", formed in 1^43. after the model of the English organization, has had a more? stable existence than its predecessors. The Home Mission Society, formed in 1854. has been a BAPTISTS (84) BAPTISTS helpful and aggressive organization, planting new clmrclies and sustaining weak interests ; and the Foreign Mission Societj', for many years auxiliary to the Missionary Union, has since 187B maintained independent enterprises and has a flourishing mission among the Tel- ugus. A Baptist college was founded about 1860 at Woodstock, but has within the past year been transformed into an academic insti- tution. Previously the theological depart- ment had been transferred to the Toronto Bap- tist College, a theological school established in 1880 through the liberality and foresight of William McMaster. Within the past two years, also through his aid, Canada Baptists have established the Toronto Baptist Univer- sity, with whicli both the theological school and the Woodstock Academy are affiliated, aad in connection with which the Moulton College for women has been founded by the generosity of Mrs. McMaster. Though the new university is but just launched, it gives every promise of being second to no denomi- national school in breadth, thoroughness, and efficiency. The Eastern and Western Con- ventions of Canada now report 391 churches and 31,853 members, besides 20 churches and 830 members in Manitoba and 1100 Baptists unassociated. Baptists in Europe. — The history of mod- ern Baptists in Germany begins with the con- version of Johann Gerhardt Oncken, about 1830, and his baptism in 1834 by Professor Barnas Sears, of the Newton Theological In- stitution, who was in Germany pursuing his studies. A Baptist church was organized at Hamburg, with Mr. Oncken as pastor, but for some years the dissenters from the established Lutheran Church suffered severely from per- secution. For a time the American Baptists sustained a mission in Germany, through their Missionary Union, but for many years it has been self-supporting, and now maintains mis- sions of its own in China and South Africa, besides doing home mission work in Turkey and Russia. In the latter country the Baptist churches are barely tolerated, their ministers being often imprisoned, but more liberty has been given them of late years, and they are now establishing themselves in a church home in St. Petersburg. The German Baptists, in- cluding their home and foreign missions, and the associated churches of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, Poland, Hol- land, and Switzerland, now report 212 churches and 41,270 members. They sustain an excellent theological school and a publish- ing house at Hamburg. Tlie Baptist churches of Sweden owe their origin to the conversion in New York of a Swedish sailor, Gustavus W. Schroeder. Soon after his return to Sweden he met a Methodist missionary. Rev. Freder- ick O. Nelson, who was by him instructed in Baptist principles, embraced them, and "w^as baptized by Mr. Oncken in 1847. He was prospered in his labors in Sweden, in spite of imprisonment and banishment, and his suc- cessor, Andreas Wiberg, was even more fruit- ful in labors. In Norway also the Baptist churches have spread, until in the two king- doms there are now 495 churches and 33,238 members. They sustain at Stockholm a the- ological school that has educated over 250 ministers. Tliey are yet subject to occasional persecution, but the chief rigors of the law are no longer felt by them. The Missionary Union formerly maintained missions in France, Spain, and Greece, but for some years no appropriations have been made to these countries. In none of them have the Bap- tist churches planted grown with much rapid- ity or made any appreciable impression on the population. They still live, however, and grow, though slowly. From France are re- ported 17 churches, with 1190 members, and a theological school is sustained by them in Paris ; in Spain there are 2 churches, with 105 members, and in Greece a single church, with 7 members. Baptists in Australasia.— Rev. John Saunders, a Baptist minister who had estab- lished two churches in London, became very desirous^of preaching to the convicts and plant- ing a Christian church at Botany Bay. He reached Sidney, N. S. W., in 1834, and soon formed the Bathurst street church. His ardu- ous labors finally broke his health, but a wor- thy successor was found in Rev. James Toi- ler, by whose efforts an association was formed that now numbers 24 churches and 1420 mem- bers. The Baptist Church in Melbourne, Vic- toria, was organized in 1845 by Rev. William Ham, and the cause there has prospered con- tinuously. There are now 40 churches and 4558 members. In South Australia the first Baptist church to be established was the Hin- ders street chapel of Adelaide, wliich dates from 1861. Progress here has been hindered by an excess of the spirit of independency and too little co-operation, but there arc 52 churches and 3G65 members. The Wharf street chapel in Moreton Bay, Queensland, was built in 1856, after Rev. B. G. Wilson had preached there for several years, and from this the Baptists of the colony have increased to 27 churches and 2230 members. In New Zealand there are 26 churches and 2768 mem- bers, and besides the work among the white people a mission is maintained among the Maoris, of whom there are still about 50,000. Work was begun by Baptists in Tasmania in 1834, but there have been meagre results here, iu spite of many years of hard labor, there being at present but 9 churches and 497 mem- bers. Literature. — The best and most compre- hensive work is Armitage's History of the Baptists (N(!W York, 1887). Cramp's Baptist History (Philadelphia, no date) was in its day a useful, popular work, and is still the best known, but is untrustworthy. Other his- tories, such as Orchard's, arc worse than use- less, being unscholarly and misleading. On the English Baptists especially, see : Crosby's History of the English Baptists (London, 1738- 40, 4 vols.), invaluable for its collection of documents relating to the 17tli-century Bap- tists ; Ivimey's History of the English Baptists (London, 1811-30, 4 vols.), the first two vol- umes little more than a compilation from Crosby, but the last two containing much valu- able material ; Evans' Early English Baptists (London, 1862, 2 vols.), excellent, especially for its documentary history of Smyth and the BAPTISTS (85) BARCLAY General Baptists ; Dexter's True Story of John Smyth, the Se-Baptist (Boston, 1881), invalu- able for its bibliography of the baptismal con- troversy in England ; Publications of the Hun- serd Krwllys Society (London, 1846-54, 10 vols.), an indispensable collection of carefully edited reprints of QArXy English Baptist books and tracts ; Cutting's Historicul VinilicdtionH (Boston, 1859), polemic but scholarly, and containing numerous documents ; Barclay's Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Com- monwertlth (London, 1876) shows relations of Baptists to Friends ; Dexter's Gongregatioiuil- isnins Seenin its Literature (New York, 1880) gives the completest bibliography of the Puri- tan period ; Masson's Life of Milton (Lon- don, 1859-80, 6 vols.) contains an unequalled study of the struggle for toleration in Eng- land and the Baptist share in it ; Vodder's Baptists and Liberty of Conscience (Cincinnati, 1884) is a brief monograph founded on orig- inal sources ; Brown's ,/oA/i Bunyan, his Life, Times and Work (London, 1885), is the best biography of Bunyan yet written ; collected works of John Bun^'an, Robert Hall, and An- drew Fuller (many editions), give the best view, after their confessions, of the theology of the English Baptists. On American Baptists, see : Backus' History of the Baptists of New Eng- land (3 vols, reprinted by the Backus Histor leal Society, Newton, Mass., 1871), the best single authority on the ante-Revolution peri- od ; Publication.^ of the Xarragansett Club (out of print, but to be had at libraries), a c;)llection of reprints, mainly of the works of Roger Williams, that should not be neglected ; Bene- dict's General History of the Baptist Denomi- nation in America (New York. 1848), copious materials for a history, rather than a history, but founded on wide study of original sources ; Edwards' History of Baptists in Pennsylrania and NeiD Jersey (1772-92, 2 vols.), very scarce, but of great value as resting largely on per- sonal knowledge and contemporaneous tradi- tion ; Guild's Cliaplain Smith and the Baptists (Philadelphia, 1885) throws mueii light on Baptists of tlie Revolutionary period ; liuptisti and the Xational Centotary (Philadelphia, 1876), a collection of historical essays, some of them exceediuglv valuable ; Cathcart's Baptist Encycliipirdid (P\n\M\ii\[)\\\ii, 1880;, de- fective in some respects, b\it the best general reference book in print, and especially useful in its biograpliical articles ; Judson's Life of Adoniram Jadnon (New York, 188;J), the best biography of the founder of Baptist missions ; Smith's Missionary Sketches and Rambles in Mission FickU (Boston, 1880 and 1884), excel- lent brief histories of Baptist foreign missions ; American Baptist Tcar-Book (Philad(;ii)iiia), a yearly compend of denominational informa- tion, of unusual comprehensiveness and accu racy ; Handbooktfthe Southern Jli/'tist ('onr.n- tion (.Vugusta, Ga.). a similar compciid issued by the Southern Baptists, and containing de- tailed information regar.ling their work ; the Baptist Year Book of tlie Canadian Conven- tions (Toronto) ; Wavlan I's Principles and Practices of the Baptist, as well as the Baptist Magazine and the Sword and Trowel, the latter conilucted by -Mr. Spurgeon. The chief weekly papers of the American Baptists are the Watchman. (Boston), Examiner (New York), National Baptist (Philadelphia), Religious Herald ( Rich- mond), and Statuliird (Chicago). ^lonthly periodicals have been several times attempted, but excepting the Baptist Teacher (Philadel- phia) they have proved failures. Quarterly publications have had a checkered career also, but the Baptist Quarterly Review, established in Cincinnati in 1879, and transferred to New York in 1885, still prospers. I)er Send'wte (weekly, Cleveland) is the chief paper of the German Baptists ; the Outb>'>k (monthly, Al- fred Centre) is the Seventh-Day Baptist organ ; and the Morning Star (weekly, Boston) repre- sents the Freewill Baptists. IIkxuy C. Vkddek. Barbara (the stranger), St., a legendary saint ; b. in Nicomedia ; persecuted for her Christian faith by Martianus, 235, and linally beheaded by her"heatlien father, who was immediately thereafter struck by lightning ; hence she is regarded as the protectress against tlnuider, lightning, and tire arms. Her day is Dee. 4. The powder magazine on French men-of-war used to be called Saintc Barbe. Barclay, Alexander, b. in Scotland 1475 (?) ; d. at Crovdon, London, and wiis buried there, June 10, "1552. He studied at Oxford ; trav- elled on tli(! continent ; became a priest in tho I Colleixe of Otterv St. .Marv, in Devonshire. and there in 1508 translated Brant's >///> . He was appointed historiographer of'thc'states General, and employed in several delicate dip- lomatic- affairs. His principal works are a church history down to his dav, written in reply to Bossuet {Hixttnrc. dr l'ef/li.'iis Je.siis Christ ju!i(iirn jiresnit, Kotti'rdam. KI'.MJ, 2 vols.), and a history of the Jews (Jf/sfoirr d<» Jnifs . . . jiisqu'd pfesnit.llOitJ) \o\h.; Eiig. trans. , London, 1708). (See his life by .Mailbert. Paris, 1881.) Bath. Washing was reqtiired by the Mcsaic law in case of Levitical uncleanncss (Lev. xiv. 8, XV. 6, xvi. 28, Num. xix. 19, Deut. xxiii. 11), and of the high-priest before each act of expiation on the day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 4, 24), and at his consecration (viii. 6). Jt was also a part of the toilette (Ruth iii. 3, 2 Sam. xii. 20. Ezek. xxiii. 40). The laver at the door of the tabernacle was for the priests to wash in before entering (H\. xxx. 19-21). The Hebrews used running water (licv. xv. 13) and also open basins in courtyards (2 Sam. xi. 2). In the New Testament "th( re is men- tion of the baths Bethesda and Siloam (.John v. 2, ix. 7). Among the later Jews bathing was univer- sal, every considerable town having a jiublic bath. The Talmud praises the habit earnestly, and jirescribes the construction and use of the bathing-rooms. Great rabbins, rather than not bathe, would frequent heathen baths. Among Christians voices were raised agaiiist the use of the public baths, where often both sexes bathed together ; still they were not for- mally forbidden. From Constantine's time it was usual to build baths near the basilicas for ecclesiastical i>iirposes. C. Bath-Kol {ddiighier of the toice, i.e., echo), a Talniiidic term for a supposed divine reve- lation, as the echo of a voice from heaven. This was thought to remain when, upon the death of Haggai, Zechariah and ^lalachi, the Holy Ghost had cea.sed to sjx-ak through prophets. C". Baumgarten-Crusius flmwm-gar-ten kroo- ze-us), Ludwig Friedrich Otto, 1). at Mer.sc- i)urg,5()m. s.s.f. of Magileliurg. Germany,.! Illy 31, 1788 ; d. at Jena, May 31. 1843. He.vtudied at Leipzig ; became university iireacher llure. 1810; professor extraordinary of theology at Jena, 1812 ; profes.sor ordinary, 1S17. He was a cham|)ioii of supernaturalism against current rationalism. His best-known wriling.s are his text-books on ethics {Lthrbiirh d( r rhriftlirfitn Sitt,nl,hn\ JA'ipzig. 1S27) and the history of doctrine (I)»r/,iu'H!/ixU>iin,fj der JohaunciKchen Schriften, .leiia. ls43-45. 2 vols. Baur (1)6 wr), Ferdinand Christian, Protec- tant theologian, founder of the school of New BAUR (90) BAXTER Testament and historical criticism whicli bears his name ; b. at Schmiden, near Stuttgart, Wurteniberg, Germany, June 31, 1792 • d. at Tubingen, Dec. 2, 1860. He studied theol- ogy in the Blaubeuren Theological Seminary, 1805-09, and in the University of Tiibiugen, 1809-17 ; became professor of theology in the former, 1817, and in the latter, 1826. After issuing his Symbolism and Mythology, or the Nature-Religion of Antiquity (Stuttgart, 1824- 25, 2 vols.), he entered on that famous criticism of the history of doctrine, ecclesiastical symbol- ics, and biblical criticism, which compelled the advocates of the old faith to make a thor- ough study of the foundations of their belief. He began as a disciple of Schleiermacher, but went over to the Hegelians, and applied their principles to the study of church history, as is manifest in his books on Manicheism (Tubin- gen, 1831), and the historical development of the philosophy of religion. Die christliche Gno- sis, 1835. In the tield of historical theology he produced works on the doctrine of the Atone- ment (1838), and of the Trinity and Incar- nation (1841-43, 3 vols.) ; a text-book of the history of doctrine (Stuttgart, 1847 ; 3d ed., 1867) ; and a course of lectures on the same (Leipzig, 1865-67, 3 vols.). In symbolics he wrote a defence of evangelical doctrine against Mohler's Symbolics {Der Oegensatz des Kathol- izismus u. Protestantism us, Tiibingen, 1st and 2d ed., 1836). But his most cliaracteristic work was done in the criticism of primitive Christianity. Where before had been seen only peace and unity Baur discovered discord and enmity. According to him the early church was rent by a strife between the Jewish or Petrine party, which held that circumcision and the Mosaic law generally was obligatory on the Gentiles, and the Pauline party, \vhicli insisted that the Old Testament ritual and re- ligious rights and privileges of Judaism had been abolished, and that Gentile and Jew alike must be saved solely by faith. The Catholic Church was the resultant of these opposing forces ; in her peace was made. But the monuments of this unifying process are the books of the New Testament, wliich, for the most part, were written in the 2(1 century, and in order either to advance the ideas of one of these parties or to make a compromise be- tween them. Before a.d. 70 the only genuine writings are the 4 chief epistles of Paul (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Gala- tians) and the Revelation, the latter repre- senting Jewish Christianity. His followers, Zeller, Schwegler, Kostlin, Hilgenfeld, and others who constitute the Baur, or 2d Tubin- gen school, pursued his line of investigation, but the theory is now generally abandoned. It was a good working hypothesis, and fruit- ful in results the opposite its advocates desired. It was a revival of Ebionism and Marcion Gnosticism. (See Baur's Church IIistor>/ of the First Tliree Centuries, Eng. trans., Lon- don, 1878-79, 2 vols. [German orig. carries it down to 1848 ; Tiibingen, 1853-62, 5 vols. ; 3d ed., vol. 1 and 2, 1863; 2d ed vol 3 1869; vol. 5, 2d ed.. 1877], and Paul, Eng.' trans., 1873-75, 2 vols. [German orig. Stutt- gart, 1845 ; 2d ed.. Leipzig, 1866-67, 2 vols.]. Cf. Schaff, Hist. Chr. Ch.\ rev. ed,, i., 210.) Bautain (bo-tan), IjOui,g Eugene Marie, Roman Catholic ; b. at Paris. Feb. 17, 1795 ; d. at Viroflay, near Versailles, Oct. 15, 1867. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, 1819, but removed, 1823, on account of his advocacy of Fichte's views. He then studied theology and became a priest ; resumed lectur- ing, but for his assertion that reason could not prove the being of God or the immortality of the soul, he was suspended by his bishop and condemned by Rome, 1834, and it was not until 1841 that he submitted. In 1848 he became honorary general vicar of the diocese of Paris, and in 1853 professor of moral theol- ogy in Paris. Very popular has been his Art of Extempore Speaking, orig. Paris, 1856 ; 2d ed., 1863 ; Eng. trans., London, 1858 ; 5th ed., 1872. Baxter, Richard, b. at Eaton-Constantine, near Shrewsbury, England, Sunday, Nov. 12, 1615 ; d. in London, Tuesday, Dec. 8, 1691. He was educated at Wro-xeter until he was 18, when, instead of going to Oxford, he studied under a private tutor, who neglected him, and advised his becoming a courtier. To White- hall he accordingly went, but quickly returned home in disgust, and his mother shortly after dying, he determined to be a minister. He studied theology under the parish clergyman, was ordained, and became head-master of a school at Dudley, 1638 ; in 1640 assistant min- ister at Bridgenorth, Shropshire, and in 1641 he began his ministry at Kidderminster, coun- ty of Worcester, where he effected a wonder- ful moral transformation. His name is in- separably linked with that of the town, where he lived for the greater part of 19 years. Dur- ing the civil war he tried to hold a middle position, but was often compelled to leave Kidderminster. Thus, in 1647, he lived with Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and there wrote part of his immortal Saint's Everlasting Best. In 1660 he linally left Kidderminster for Lon- don. King Charles II. made him one of his chaplains, and CMarendon offered to make him bishop of Hereford ; but he desired rather to go back to Kidderminster. This could not be. When the Act of Uniformity was passed (1662) he quietly withdrew from the Church of England, and by so doing gave emphatic expression to views long cherished and derived from the most painstaking study. He con- tinued, however, to preach as opportunity served. In 1685 he was tried before Jeffreys on the charge of libelling the Church of Eng- land in his Paraphrase of the Aew Testament, and after patiently enduring, as was his wont, the gro.ss insults of Jeffreys, was fined 500 marks and sentenced to remain in prison until they were paid. The fine was remitted, and he was discharged from prison after 18 months. He resumed preaching in London, lived to see William and Mary brought in and to com- ply with their Tolera"tion Act. His last days were full of peace and honor. He is one of the noblest figures in ecclesiastical biography. By diligence he acquired rare learning, even in that time ; but he cultivated his soul no less than his mind, and that is the reason why his irenics shine so conspicuously forth amid the fiercely quarrelsome controversies of the time. His greatest works are household classics, BAYLE (91) BEATIFICATION especially The Saint's Everlasting liest, Lou- don, 1650 ; Oildas Salmanus ; or The Re- formed Pastor, 1C56 ; and A Call to the Un- conix'vtcd. One of the best, More Jieasons for the Christian Religion and no Reason, against It, 1673, deserves to be better known. In all he wrote 168 separate works. As a preacher he was renowned and beloved. Ilis position was the painful one of mediation, while men were sharply divided. He produced a Re- formed Liturgy for the Savoy Conference (1660), but it was not considered. It was with sadness, though without hesitation, that he re- mained outside of the National Church, for he loved peace, and was personally on excellent terms with the state clergy. A statue was erected to his memory at Kidderminster, July 28, 1875, which bears this striking inscription : '• Between the years 1641 and 1660 this tow^n was the scene of the labors of Richard Baxter, renowned equally for his Christian learning and his pastoral" fidelity. In a stormy and divided age he advocated unity and compre- hension, pointing the way to everlasting rest. Churchmen and Nonconformists united to raise this memorial, a.d. 1875."" It is he who has given currency to the golden saying of Meldenius : " In necessary tlnngs, unity ; in unnecessary things, liberty ; in both things, charity." (See his autobiography [in English], Reliqtiice Baxteriana', London, 1696 ; the life hy Orme prefixed to this edition of his Prac- tical Works, London, 1830, 33 vols. ; and the sketch by Boyle, London and New York, 1883.) Bayle (bal), Pierre, rationalist ; b. at Carlat, Southern France (department Ariege), Nov. 18, 1647 ; d. at Kotterdam, Dec. 28, 1706. His father was a Calvinistic minister, but he was educated at a Jesuit college at Toulou.se ; abjured Protestantism (March 19, 1669), but again professed it (Aug. 21, 1670) ; studied theology at Geneva, and afterward was a pri- vate tutor there. From 1675 until 1681, when it was suppressed, he was professor of phil- o.sophy at the Protestant university at Sedan ; then was professor of philosophy and history at Rotterdam until his dismissal, in 1693, for writing a pamphlet {Adcice to Refugees) which apparently reflected on the Dutch. His mas- terpiece is his Dictionari/, Wstorieal and Criti- cal, orig. French, Rotterdam, 1697, 2 vols. ; 2d ed., 1702, 4 vols. ; 11th ed., witli additions, Paris, 1820-24. 16 vols.; trans., London. 1710, 4 vols. ; 3d ed. . 1734-38, 5 vols. His scepticism comes out in this book, but it is tliat of " the literary man of the world, who in his reading has encountered so many oi)posing and well- supported arguments on ail subjects that he feels inclined to hold that no certainty caii ever be attained" {Enrgc. Brit.). His JS'ou- rellcs de la Ripublique dts J^ttres (Amsterdam, 1684-89) was a primitive and successful at- tempt to popidari/.e literature. Worthy of note are also his dissuasive against the absurd notions then prevalent as to com(;ts, and his trenchant criticism (1683) of Maimbourg's his- tory of Cahinism. His biography, by Des Maizeaux, is in the last ed. of trans, of his dic- tionary quoted. Bayly, Lewis (D.D., Oxford, 1613) ; b. at Carmarthen, Wales ; educated at Oxford ; became vicar of Evesham ; then rector in London ; and finally bi.shop of Bangor, 1016 ; d. there, Oct. 26, 1631. He wrote IVie Prac- tice of Pietie, London, 1612(?), an extraordi- narily popular P\iritan favorite ; 35th ed., 1635 ; lasted., 1842. BdeU'-ium, a production of Havilah (Gen. ii. 12), and referred to in the description of manna (Num. xi. 7). Some make it a pre- cious stone (Ge.senius pearls), but most writers now consider it an odoriferous wax-like resin which exudes from a sort of palm native in many parts of the East. C. Beadle (one who bids), in England "a parish ollicer having various subordinate du- ties, .such as keeping order in church, ]nniish- ing petty offenders, waiting on the clergyman, attending meetings of vestry or session, etc." Century Dictionary, s.v. Beads. See Rosauy. Beard, with Asiatics a badge of manly dig- nity. It was a gross in.sult to cut olT or mu- tilate another's beard (2 Sam. x. 4), but in times of deep sorrow it was plucked out (Ez. ix. 3) or allowed to be untrimmed (2 Sam. xix. 24). The Jews were forbidden to mar the corners of the beard (Lev. xix. 27), dovdit- le.ss to cut them off from a heathen or idola- trous usage. In Christian times the clergy usually conformed to what was tlie general custom of their age, but in the Roman Church they always shave the beard and receive the tonsure on the crown of the head. C. Beard, Richard, D.D., Cumberland Pres- bj'terian ; b. in Sunnier Count v, Tenn., Nov. 27, 1799 ; d. at Lebanon, Tenn!, Nov. 6. 1880. He began preaching in 1820 ; graduated at Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., 1832; became professor of languages there, 1832, and the same at Sharon (iliss.) College, 1838 ; president of the former. 1843 ; but in 1854 re- moved to Cund)erlaud University, Lebanon, Tenn., as professor of systematic theologj-. He was the leading theologian of the denomi- nation, and publislied Lectures on I'heoUigy, Nashville, 1870. 3 vols. ; Biographical Sketches, 2 vols. ; and Why am la Cumberland l^csby- tcrian? 1874. Beatific Vision, " the direct vision of God. supposed to constitute the e.s,sential bliss of saints and angels in heaven." (Cf. 1 Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 John iii. 2 ; Rev. xxii. 3, 4.) Beatification, the act of declaring a pious deceased jx rson to Ix! among the ble.ssed. and tlierct'ore wortliv of religious honor. It is sol- emnly made bv the pope, on the reconunen- dafion of .several bishops, and generally pre- cedes the canonization of t he same. 1 1 cannot take place for 50 vears after the jxrson's <1<-. cea.se. save in the ca.se of martyrs. The cost and the ceremonies are much less than for canoni- zation. The standard authority on the subject is bv Pope Benedict XIV. (Lamb.rtini). Be S^-rrorum Dei beatip'catiour, etc., nov (d.. Venice. 1766, 7 vols. ; Eng. \raus . JI>r'>io Virtue: a Portion of the Treatise of Benrdtct Y/r on the Beatification and Canonizatton If the Servants of Ood, London, 1850. 3 vols. BEAUSOBRE (93) BECEET Beausobre (bo-sobr), Isaac de, French Prot- estant ; b. at Niort, March 8. 1659 ; became preacher at Chatillon sur_ Indre, 1688 ; exiled by revocation of the Edict of iSTantes, 1685 ; he preached in Dessau, 1686-93, and from 1695 till his death, June 5, 1738, he was French pastor in Berlin. He was noted for learning and eloquence. His enduring fame was made by a critical history of Mani and Manicheism, French orig., Amsterdam, 1734-39, 2 vols. With Lenfant he made a translation of the New Testament from the Greek with a com- mentary (Amsterdam, 1718, 2 vols. ; Eng. Irans., London, 1726). His History of the Reformation, 1517-30 (Berlin, 1785-86, 4 vols. ; Eng. trans., vol. i., London, 1801), was posthu- mous, edited by L. E. Pajon de Moncets. Beck, Johann Tobias, D.D. (Basel, 1843), German theologian ; b. at Balingen, Wiir- temberg, Feb. 22. 1804 ; d. at Tubingen, Dec. 28, 1878. He was educated at Tubingen, 1822-26 ; after serving as a pastor, became professor extraordinary of theology at Basel, 1836 ; ordinary professor at Tiibingen, 1843. I a direct opposition to his speculative colleague, Baur, he gave to theology a strong biblical basis, and thus provided the best antidote to fallacious reasonings. Of his works, which include posthumous commentaries on Romans, Timothy, and Revelation, the best known are Outlines of Biblical Psycliology (orig. Stuttgart, 1843, 3d ed., 1871 ; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1877) ; and Pastoral Theology of the JVew Testa- ment (orig. Giitersloh, 1880 ; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1885). (See his life by B. Riggen- bach, Basel, 1888.) Becker. See Bekker. Backet, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury in the 12th century ; b. at London, Dec. 21, 1118 ; d. at Canterbury, Dec. 29, 1170. He was the son of a merchant who was at one time Sherilf of London, and who took the pains to have him well educated in the branches of polite learning, and in the arts and customs of polite society. He finished his education at the University of Paris, where he studied theology. Called home by family necessities, he was for a time a clerk in a Lon- don lawyer's office. But he soon attracted at- tention, and was taken up by Theobald, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, who made him arch- deacon. In 1155 he was elevated to the posi- tion of Chancellor of England. It was char- acteristic of him to give himself to any office he had to fill with the full surrender of all his powers, and he was found in this new place as faithful to the king as he had eminently been before to the archbishop. He mingled in the war of Toulouse in per.son. He took the king's side earnestly in his efforts to con- trol the English benefices without the inter- ference of the pope, and in exacting taxes from the clergy in return for their exemption from military service. It seemed to the king that he had in Becket a servant who could be depended upon to support the royal preroga- tive under all circumstances, and who was therefore just the man to fill the position of archbishop to the advantage of the state in those numerous relations with it in which the pope and the church were ever inclined to seek their own selfish interest. Accordingly, when the archbishopric of Canterbury became vacant, Becket was advanced to that place (1162). But the expectations of the king were dis- appointed. A great change took place in Becket's bearing toward political questions. The gay courtier was at once transformed into the austere monk. He even seemed to regard it a crime to receive the ofiice of bishop from the king, for he surrendered the pallium he had received to the pope. But Alexander III., perceiving the character of the man, re- turned it to him, and he was thus constituted archbishop in a purely ecclesiastical manner. He also resigned the office of chancellor, which the king had intended he should retain, and soon entered upon an active course of opposi- tion to the royal wishes. This sudden transformation has been the riddle of English history. But the most re- cent studies seem to make it evident that the true Becket was the ecclesiastic. It was his zeal as archdeacon which caused his promo- tion to the chancellorship. He probably had the archbishopric in mind from the first, and sought to win the thorough confidence of the king as the best guarantee of success in his ambition. His worldly gayety was a mask : his true character was that of the ascetic. Once firmly seated in his place as archbishop, Becket began to labor for the accomplishment of two chief ends. The clergy should be en- tirely exempted from all responsibility to secu- lar tribunals, and remanded to the ecclesiasti- cal courts, of which the ultimate head was the archbishop ; and the church should be enabled to acquire an independent revenue. Henry saw in these efforts the complete annihilation of the secular system as he had planned it, and he became the bitter foe of his former friend. He called a meeting of the clergy in 1163 at Westminster Abbey, and demanded of them the voluntary renunciation of the right of ex- emption from secular jurisdiction, which Becket refused to concede except the clause should be added: "Without diminution of the rights of tlie church. " This effort, there- fore, failed, but the king the next year, think- ing that he had in the mean time succeeded in isolating the primate, called the famous meet- ing of Clarendon, and submitted 16 " Consti- tutions," which contained the same demands. Becket at first promised to sign these, but after considering them more carefully, he withdrew his promise. From this time on there was the bitterest struggle between king and bishop. Henry summoned him before a secular coun- cil in 1164 to answer to charges of misappro- priation of money while chancellor, and pro- ceeded against him for his failure to appear. Becket fied the country. In 1170, at an inter- view with Becket, Henry promised to restore him to his see, to pay his debts, and defray the expenses of his journey. But he broke his promises in every particular. In retalia- tion Becket excommunicated the bishops who had officiated at the coronation of the king's son. In a hasty moment Henry exclaimed, upon liearing of this, " Of the cowards who eat my bread, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest V" and four knights BEDE (93) BEECHER took him at his word, slaying Becket in the Cathedral of Canterbury. Two years later he was canonized as a saint in tlie Roman Church. Best life bv Canon J. C. Robertson, London, 1859 ; of. Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, ed. J. C. Robertson, London, 1875 sqq., 8 vols. ; Chronicles and Memorials of Thomas Becket, ed. J. C. Robertson, 1880 ; other lives are bv John Morris. London, 1860, 2d ed., 1885 ; Robert Anchor Thompson, Lon- don, 1888. F. Bede, Venerable, the first English church historian ; b. at Wearmouth in 674 ; d. at Jarrow in 735. lie was educated at Wear- mouth and at Jarrow, and passed his life in the latter convent as a monk, engaged in the labors of instruction and study. Although his pupils became the tirst men of their age, he refused for himself even the position of abbot, and remained true to his vocation as a scholar. His life passed on without marked events. In his last days he was engaged in the translation of the 'gospel of John, and breathed out his life as he finished the last verse. His works were very numerous, and embrace almost all departments of learning. The principal are, however, of exegetical and historical character. They include commen- taries upon several books of the Old Testa- ment. A universal history, of no original value, is the first written in England. His Ecclesiastical History of the Nation of the Brit- ons is his chief work. It embraces an intro- ductory part derived from other writers, bring- ing the account down to the conversion of the Saxons, which is followed by an original his- tory extending to the year 731. Bede's .sources were abundant, and he employed them in the most faithful and painstaking manner. A number of writings are attributed to him wluch are not genuine. Best edition of the works by F. A. Giles, London, 1843-44, 12 vols, (with translation) ; of the Ecclesiastical History (in Latin, G. H. Moberly, Oxford, 1869 ; in Eng. trans., F. A. Giles, in Bohn's Library ; better, L. Gidley, 1870). Besides biographical sketches in editions referred to, see^life by G. F. Browne, London (1879). F. Bee and Honey. There are and always have been lumierous bees in Palestine, hiving in the crevices of the rocks or in old trees, and their habits furnish the sacred writers fre(|uent points of comparison. Honey is mentioned over and over as a token of the rieiuiess of the land, but it was not used in the vegetable offerings (Lev. ii. 11). In its wild state it was the food of John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4). C. Beecher, Henry Ward, Congregationalist ; b. at Litchfield, Conn.. June 24, 1813; d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 8, 1887. He graduated at Amherst (Mass.) Collece, 1834, andat Lane Tlieological Seminary, Cincinnati, O. (under his father's tcacliing and yjresi- dency), 1837 ; became pastor of the Presby- terian church at Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1837 ; at Indianapolis, Ind., 1839 ; and of Plymouth (Congregational) Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1847. He was for many years the most popu- lar American preacher, 'and all tlie more so from his unconventionalities. He \ised his pulpit for the advocacy of " reforms" in vari- ous directions, social and political, as well as religious ; and decidedly lost ground in later years, owing to his changed positions in these respects. His wit and humor were remark- able, and came out in his .sermons, which never- theless were earnest and edifying. Personally he was a most estimable and attractive man ; of generous instincts, of rare humanity and sympathy. His influence was ever on the side of freedom, be it of body or of mind. The American people owe him a debt of grati- tude for his splendid courage in defending the cause of miion in England in 1 863. I le shared in the foimding of llu; Independent (weekly new,spaper) in 1848, and edited it from 1861- 63. From 1870 to 1880 he (nominally) edited the Christian Union (religious weekly). He issued many collections of sermons, addresses, lectures, and articles under different titles ; also a novel {Norirood, 1867). His one book of serious study was a Life of Jesus the Christ, vol. i.. New York, 1871 (a far more scholarly book than was expected) ; vol. ii. (announced). His public ]>rayers (a selectioi' of which was published, l«6s) were revelations of a great nature which lived in the divine ])re.sence. They were of endless variety and ofttimes melting tenderness, and satisfactorily refuted the charge of immorality brought against him ; no foul-hearted man could pray as he did. His biography was written liy Lyman Abbott (New'^York, 1883, n. e. 1887) and by W. C. Beecher and S. Scoville (1888). Beecher, Lyman, D.D. (Middlebury Col- lege, Vt., 1818), Presbyterian; father of (he preceding ; b. at New Haven, Conn., Oct. 12, 1775 ; d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 10. 1863. He began life on a farm, but his uncle, per- ceiving the makings of a great man in him, sent him to Yale College, where he graduated in 1797. He studied theology under Pres. Dwight (q.v.), and in 1799 became Presby- terian pastor at East Hampton, Long Island, N. Y. The place was obscure enough, but he did not long remain in obscurity. He worked with great energy, and .'Joon impressed his powerful personality on all the country round. In 1804 the duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr wa^ fought. Mr. Beecher inijiroved the occasion to preach be- fore presbytery a sermon on duelling, wiiich was printed, and was the occasion of awaken- ing the national conscience on the matter. In 1808 he preached before synod a remarkable sermon on "The Government of Goii Desir- able," which increa.sed his reputation. In 1810 he entered \ipon a wider sjilure. He became Congregational pastor at Lilelifield, Coim. There he remained till 1826, and as at East Hampton, he so preached that continuous revivals characterized his ministry. In 1814 he issued his famous Si.r Srmons on Intan- ncrance. The subject at th<- time was us deli- cate as that of dueiling had been, but he knew he had taken the right position on it. and wan determined to make men see tiiat uilemiM r- ance must be suppressed. These sermons have been, translated into many languages, and cir- culated the world around. To his efforts the BEELZEBUB (94) BELGIO cause of foreign missions is largely indebted. In fact, there was no reform really worthy of the name which could not claim his powerful aid. In 1826 he went to Boston to be pastor of the Hanover Street Congigational church. He had a wider field of action, but more ad- versaries. But he only worked the harder, and so, although he was the butt of ridicule, he was a tower of strength in a time of great excitement. In 1832 a great change took place in his life. He was called to Lane The- ological Seminary, Cincinnati, to be president and professor of theology. He accepted the call as the voice of God, and until 1851 he taught, preached as pastor of the Second Pres- byterian church there, and presided over the seminary in its stormy formative period, and did each so well that if it had been his sole occupation it would have been honoring to him. In 1835 he was tried for alleged heresj^ on the doctrine of the atonement, on which he took the new school view. He was ac- quitted, but the trial was the occasion of sun- dering the Church. At length, wearied with his arduous labors, he left Cincinnati, and re- tired to Boston, carried his TFor^.s tlirough the press there, 1852, 3 vols., and later went to live in Brooklyn, where he sat under the preaching of his distinguished son, Henry Ward Beecher. His intellect was clouded during his last days. Lyman Beecher was imquestionably one of the' greatest men in the American pulpit. His originality, courage, eloquence and zeal rendered him a pervasive spiritual f.irce. (See his biography by his son Charles, New -York, 1864-65, 2 vols.) Be-ei'-ze-bub {lord of the Jwuse). known among the Jews as " the prince of the de- mons" (Matt. ix. 34, xii. 24). In the true text of the New Testament the word is Beelzebul, by some supposed to be a euphonic change, by others a derisive alteration ( = lord of dung). The original was an idol who had a temple and an oracle at Ekron (2 Kings i. 3). Our Lord seems to use the term as another name for Satan. C. Be-er {well), Be-er-oth (pi. wells), Hebrew words naturally found in numerous combina- tions. Be'-er-she'-ba {xoell of seven or of the oath) was a city at the extreme southern limit of Judah, where the patriarchs often dwelled. Often mentioned in the Old Testament, never in the New. Its ruins are known to day as Bir-el-sebah, where there are two deep stone wells. C. Beet, Joseph Agar, Wesleyan Methodist ; b. at Shetlield, Eng., Sept. 27, 1840; since 1885 professor of systematic theology in the Wesleyan Theological College at Richmond on the Thames, 10 m. w.s.w. of St. Paul's, London, where he was educated. He is author of commentaries on Romans (London, 1877 ; 5th ed., 1885), Corinthians (1882 ; 3ded., 1885), Galatians (1885) ; Holiness as Understood by \ the Writers of the Bible, 1880 ; 3d ed., 1883 ; I'he Credentials of the Gospels, 1888. Begg, James, D.D. (Lafayette College, Eas- ton. Pa., 1847), Free Churcli of Scotland ; b. at New Monkland, Lanarkshire, Oct. '31, 1808 ; d. in Edinburgh, Sept. 29, 1883. He was educated at Glasgow ; pastor at Max- welltown, Dumfries, 1830 ; (colleague) Edin- burgh, 1830 ; pastor at Paisley, 1831; at Liber- ton, near Edinburgh, 1835 ; at Newington, suburb of Edinburgh, 1843. He successfully opposed the union of the Free and United Presbyterian churches, and threw the whole weight of his influence, which, in virtue of his leadership of the Highland portion of the Free Church, was considerable, against the use of hymns and instrumental music in public wor- ship, and in general against religious progress. Although always in the minority, he gloried in his constant adherence to the religious idea.s of his youth. (See his life by Thomas Smith, London, 1885-88, 2 vols.) Begheirds, Beguines, were societies of pious women in the Netherlands, at the end of the 12th century, who lived under a common rule, not monastic. They may have had their origin in the necessities of the crusading period, when so many were left without their natural protectors. The origin of the name is uncer- tain, some deriving it from a priest, Lambert- le-begue, who is said to have given rise to the societies, some from " beggen" (Ger. beten), to pray. The societies were at first founda- tions of charity, the inmates of which had to do something for their support by spinning, etc. Later, communities for men of the same kind were established. The various houses came under the guidance of the Franciscans and Dominicans. This led many of them into mendicancy. They also came in contact with various sects, among which were the Brethren of the Free Spirit, and some of them became heretical. These were therefore persecuted. A few houses still survive. F. Behtnen. See Boehme. Beirut. See Beyrout. Bekker, Balthasar, enlightened theologian of tlie Reformed Church of Holland ; b. in West Friesland, March 30, 1634 ; was preacher at Franeker, and subsequently in Amsterdam, 1679 ; d. there June 11, 1698. In 1676 he drew upon himself the charge of Socinianism because he defended the Cartesian philosophy ; and in 1692 he was deposed and excommuni- cated because in his famous book, I'he World Bettcitched (orig. Dutch, Leeuwarden, 1691-93, 4 vols. ; French trans., Rotterdam, 1694, 4 vols. ; Ger. trans., Amsterdam, 1693; n. trans., Leipzig, 1781, 3 vols. ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., London, 1695), he attacked the prevalent be- lief in evil spirits, witches, and sorcerers. Bel. See Assyriology, p. 53, col. ii. Bel and the Dragon. See Pseudepigra- PHA AND Apocrypha. Belgic Confession, The, was originally drawn up in French chiefly by Guido de BrSs and sent to Philip II. of Spain with a view to induce him to tolerate the Reformed faith, and printed in Dutch and German translations in 1562. It was formally adopted by several synods, and finally by the Synod of Dort, April 29. 1619, and has since ranked with the Heidelberg Catechism as a symbolical book of the Reformed Church in Holland, Belgium, BELL (95) BENEDICITE and America. (Cf. Schaff's Creeds, i., 504 sqq.) Bell, Book and Candle. In the Roman Church formerly excommunication was per- formed by a solemn ceremony in which a can- dle, wu.sexringui.shed, a bell was rung, and the sentence was reail out of a book. F. Bellamy, Joseph {hon. D.D., Aberdeen, 1768), pastor of the church (Congregational) in Bethlehem, Conn., 1740-90; b. in New Cheshire, Conn., Feb. 20, 1719 ; d. in Bethle- hem, March 6, 1790. Graduating from Yale College in 1735, he was licensed to preach at the age of 18. He speedily acquired a reputa- tion for eloquence, and in 1742 engaged in the itinerant revival labors of the time. This work not yielding the fruits lie desired, he as- sociated himself with Jonathan Edwards in theological study, and printed his first book in 1750, True Rdigloii Diiincdted, a theoreti- cal and practical work against Anlinomianism. He joined Edwards in his efforts against the "half-way covenant," and engaged in con- troversy with the Sandemanians, etc. In 1758 he published a sermon upon the divinity of Christ. His writings dealt with the most fun- damental questions of theology, and he thus contributed largely to laying the foundations of the " New England theology." (See the art.) lie also became famous as a teacher in theology, and instructed many pupils in an in- dependent and original manner. His Works have been twice published ; best ed. Boston, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. F. Bel-lar-mi'-n[o], Roberto Francesco Ro- molo, Jesuit, famous apologist ; b. at ]\Ionte- pulciano, province of Siena, Italy, Oct. 4, 1542 ; d. at Rome, Sept. 17, 1621. He entered the Jesuit order at Rome in 1560 ; studied theology at Padua ; became professor of the- ology at Louvaiu, 1570, and at Rome, 1576, where he delivered, from 1576 to 1589, in the Collegium Romanuni, his famous Lectures upon the Contrupersics of the Christian Faith against the Heretics of the 7V»w(orig. Latin ed., Ingolstadt, 1581-92, 3 vols. ; Ger. trans., Augs- burg, 1842-53, 14 vols.) ; this was his chief book, and long the chief apology for Roman Catholicism, yet the first volume of it was put on the Inde.x by Sixtus V.— taken off, how- ever, in 1596. In 1599 he was made a cardi- nal. In the controversy between Jesuits and Dominicans concerning Molinos (q.v.), he de- fended his order so vigorously that he was re- moved from Rome by Clement YIII. anil made .tVrchbishop of Capua, 1602. and there remained until Clement's death in 1605. He might have been then elected pope, as also when the new pope died, but he declined the honor lie was a man of noble and jjure life, and in his polemical works did not condescend to abuse. He .secured the abolition of many evils in the papal government, and did not hesitate to blame the popes to (heir face. He maintained a simple, ascetic life in spite of his cardinalship. Besides the work mentioned above he wrote a catechism, Christian Doc- trine Kriilnined. which lias been widely circu- lated in different tongues. The Jesui'ls have long tried to have him canoni/.ed, but his au- tobiography, which they publi^hed to this end. stood in the way, so they suppressed it so ef- fectually that it became one of the rarest of books, until in 1887 Dol linger and Reu.sch brought out at Bonn a new edition {Die Silbst- biof/raphie des Cardinals Bellarmins). \\i^ complete works (except the autobiography) have been several times reprinted ; best ed. Cologne, 1619, 7 vols. Bellows, Henry Whitney, D.D. (Harvard. 1854), Unitarian ; b. at Walpole, N. II., June 10, 1814 ; d. in New York (Mty, Monday, Jan. 30, 1882. He graduated at Harvard College, 1832, and at the divinity school, 18:37 ; and was from 1838 till his death pastor of the First Congregational (Unitarian) Society (All Souls) in New York. His labors as pastor, preacher, and, above all, as philanthropist, especially in organizing and presiding over the United States Sanitary Commission (1861-66), and subsequently promoting international sanitary commissions (1867), cause him to be gratefully remembered. He wrote Restatement of Chris- tian Doctrine, Boston. 1859, n.c., ISfO ; Old World in its JS'ew Face : Impressions of Eu- rope in 1867-68, New York. 1868 ; Twenty- four Sermons in All Souls' Church, 1865-81 ; New York, 1886. Belshazzar. See Assyriology, p. 59, col. ii. Bema, " in the Greek Church the sanctuary or chancel, the enclosed space surrounding the altar. It is the part of an Oriental church farthest from the front or main entrance, originally and usually raised above the level of the nave. The holy table (the altar) stands in its centre, and behind this, near or skirling the rear wall of the apse, is the sesit for the bishop and clergy. An architectural screen with a curtain at its doors, or, as was the case especially in eaily times, a curtain only, sepa- rates the bema from the body of the church." Century Dictionary, s.v. Bem'-bo, Pietro, Roman Catholic cardinal ; b. in Venice, May 20, 1470 ; d. in Rome, Jan. 18, 1547. Educated at Padua and Firrara, a tine classical scholar ; loose in moraN but ele- gant in speech, he enjoyed the friend-hii) of popes Julius II.. Leo X. (who made liini hi* secretary). Clement VII. and Paul 111. (who made Inm cardinal. 1539). He wa.^ a i)agaii in the robes of a Christian eccle.sia.Mic. He was historiographer of Venice, 15L'9-39, and produced a history of that city from 14HG ti> 1513. (See Opere, Venice. 1808-10. 12 vols., with biography ; and biography by Ca.sa, 1718.) Ben-ai'-ah {Jniilt by Jthornh), the name of several Israelites, the chief of whom wa.s a .son of Jehoiada, the chief priest, and co.uinandfr of David's bodv-guard (2 Sam. viii. 18). Ho slew Joab, andbecjime his successor a.s general of the army. (See his exploits in 2 Sam. x.xiii. 20-23.) <-'• Benedicite (ben-C-tlis'-i-tC). the ranticle or hymn bciiiuning in Latin, " Beneect of a brilliant future. But never fond of pomp and magnificence, he was led by dan- ger and a vow to enter the monastery of St. Sequanus in Langres. Here he went to the extreme of asceticism, but reaped only con- tempt for himself. He perceived that monas- ticism needed a reform if it was to correspond with his ideals. In 779 he left his monastery and founded a model one in Languedoc on the river Anianus (Aniane). Here he obtained great fame, and was called to the court again. He took part in the theological contests of his time, but directed his chief efforts to reintro- ducing the pure rule of Benedict into France. Under Lewis he became superintendent of all Frankish monasteries. After his death his rivals soon gained control again, and all his work was destroyed. (See liis life by Nicolai, Cologne, 1865.) F. Benedict of Nursia, and the Benedictines. Benedict, b. at Nursia (now Norcia, 18 m. e. of Spoleto, iu Umbria, Central Italy, 480 ; d. at Monte Cassino, 50 m. n.w. of Naples, March 21, 543 ; fled in 494 from the vices of his companions in the city of Rome, whither he liad been sent for education, to a solitary place near Subiaco, and there gave himself up to the eremitic life. He passed three years in perfect solitude, engaged in contem- plation, but under heavy temptations of Sa- tan. But at last he was discovered by some shepherds, who were at first frightened at his wild appearance, but finally worshipped him as a saint. His fame spread, the people came about liim, and he wa.s compelled to become the leader of other ancliorites. In 510 the monks of a monastery iu the vicinity elected him their abbot, and after long resistance he consented to accept. But the strict obedience which he demanded, and the order and regu- larity of worship and work introduced by him, displeased them, and he was soon obliged to leave. It does not appear that he insisted now, or at a ]at(;r time, upon immoderate as- ceticism. Returned to his cave, others a.ssem- bled about him, and he was obliged to provide for them, which he did by organizing them into societies of 13, each presided over by an abbot. The future conflicts between the monks and regular clergy were foreshadow^ed at tills time by the attacks made upon him by a neighboring priest, Florenlius. Benedict thought it best at last to seek a new location, and established himself upon tlie site which ha.s since been famous as that of the first true Benedictine abbey, Monte Ca-^sino. It wjis a \ spot sacred to heathen worship, but Benedict destroj'ed the grove and altar of Apollo which he found, and erected a chapil. As cjirly as 529 tlie new monastery was organized tmder a formal and special rule, known as the Bene- dictine. The particular features of this will be given under the article " Mona.sticism. " En(niL''h here to say tliat it required labor, and enforced .strict obedience. It introduced into the monastic system the vow of stability, or permanence of residence. The vow of chastity beloui^ed, of course, to the essence of all mo- nasticism. Tlie organization of Benedict .soon became the model U{)on which all the monasteries of Europe were formed. Other rules already ex- isted, but the free communication which took ulace between the different monjisteries led by gradual development to the supremacy of tii'e Benedictine, on account of its great superi- ority. The tendency to unity and uniformity in the whole Latin Church assisted in tliis de- velopment. Gregory the Great helpeil also by his own admiration and recommendation of the rule. Under Pope Gregory II. anrl Boni- face, the Apostle of Germany* it became the characteristic form of Roman monasticism. But meantime it had undergone great modifi- cations. The monasteries had become very wealthy, and were chiefly or entirely filled with tlie scions of noble families. Thus the seats of privileged orders, the monasteries had become pattern establishments of religion and culture. The labor now exacted of the monks was often mere literary labor, and the con- vents became schools for the education of the .secular clergy and the laity. With the cathe- drals were associated cathedral canons and schools. Thus, since the order went on to settle itself in every favorable situation, till in England and France an abbey was ultimately found iu every fine valley and by every flow- ing river, it contributed powerfully to the de- velopment of civilization as well as of Christ i- anit}'. At various times tlie Benedictine system was found to be in need of reform. In the 10th century the union of .several monasteries into a "congregation" for mutual government was suggested, and this was the method tii(;re- after adopted. The most famous of these con- gregations were tlio.se of Clugny, Ilirschau, Pulsauo, etc. They were established under the special government of one central, model convent. About the close of the 10th century, the newly awakened religious spirit of tiic times led to the formation of other orders, with rules differing more or less from that of Benedict, .so that the ancient order now Ix-- came one among many orders, rather tlian the one all-inclusive sy.stem. The VMi centurv saw the rise of the mendicant orders, which threw all the rest into the shade. In the 17th century efforts were made to revive the Ii«-nc- dictines, and to direct their energies into new and useful channels. Certain new congrega- tions were formed, which resulted in a new ■scholarlv epoch in the hi.story of the lienedic- tines. Congregations in the Metlierlands, and particularly' that of St. Vanncs in Verdun, and that of St. Maur, iM-camc famous. Tlie last performed great ,servic(!s to the science of historv. These later Benedictines, among whoni were such scholars as D'Achery, Mn- l»illon. Martene, .Monlfam;on, Rivet and Pitra produc.'d standard editions of the Fathers ami other valuable works ; and thus have shared with the Jesuits the credit of maintaining Roman Catholic scholarsJiip, and by their greater freedom from prejudice and their faithfulness to the f.-uts. surpas.scd their nval«. But at present no order of monks seems to BENEDICT (98) BENNO have the scieutific interests of the Catholic Churcli in its special keeping. (See Rule of our 7nost Holy Father, Snivt Benedict, London, 1886 ; F. C' Doyle, The Teaching of St. Ben- edict, 1887.) F. Benedict, David, Baptist ; b. at Norwalk, Conn., Oct. 10, 1779 ; d. at Pawtucket, R. I., Dec. 5, 1874. After graduation at Brown University, 1806, he became pastor at Paw- tucket, and so remained for 25 years. He de- voted himself to historical studies and pro- duced, among other works, A General History of the Baptist Denomination in America and other Parts of the World, Boston, 1813, 2 vols. ; n.e.. New York, 1848 ; Fifty Years Among the Baptists, New York, 1860. Benediction {blessing), a term especially applied to the invocation of the divine blessing on things or persons, accompanied or not by prayers, sprinkling with holy water, incense, and other ceremonies. Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, in the Roman Catholic Church, is a comparatively modern rite, but has now become quite common. The priest takes the host from the tabernacle, places it in the monstrance, and then displays the mon- strance on the throne above the tabernacle. While the choir is singing, the host is incensed, and finally the priest makes the sign of the cross with the monstrance over the beads of the people, but without uttering any words. The Apostolical Benediction, repetition of 2 Cor. xiii. 14. Benefice means now simply an ecclesiastical living conferred with due authority on a proper person for life, and comprises within the same term both the duties and the revenues of the office. It originated from a special use of the Latin ieneficiiim common in the dark ages. Es- tates were then divided, according to the con- ditions of tenure, into allodial and feudal. The former denoted absolute, hereditary property, the litter was only a life-grant given by the king or the owner generally as reward for ser- vices done or to be done. Such feudal grants or fiefs were called beneficia, and as the church held and gave out a great number of fiefs, while it recognized no ecclesiastical property as allodial in the secu'ar sense of the word, the now general acceptation of the word bene- fice naturally grew up. According to canon law, a benefice should be established bj^ episco- pal authority, have some spiritual work con- nected with it, be conferred by an ecclesiastical person on a clerk who has "at least received the tonsure, and for life, etc. According as these and other conditions are fully complied with or not, benefices are called simple, when involving no other duty than service in the public offices of the church, or double, when having the care of souls connected with them ; m'ljor, when giving a certain rank, or minor, when conferring no rank ; regular, when held by a person duly qualified to perform its du- ties, or secular, when given to a layman, that he may enjoy the revenue, etc. The manner of appointment was and is also very different. Sometimes it takes place by an election by the chapter, followed by a confirmation by the pope or the proper authority ; sometimes it involves a noraiuation, presentation, etc., ' which terms are explained in their due places. Beneficence, Benevolence. The former is the practice of doing good to men ; the latter is the desire of so doing^ The objects of both are all who are within the sphere of our action or influence. The means of beneficence are temporal .supplies (Gal. vi. 6) ; prayer {Jas. v. 16) ; sympathy (Rom. xii. 15) ; teaching and admonition (Col. iii. 16). The obligations to it arise from our common origin and mutual relations ; the precept of Scripture ; the ex- ample of Christ ; the resemblance to God thus attained ; and the pleasure it affords. (See Buck, Thcol. Diet.) C. Benefit of Clergy. See Clergy. Beng'-el, Johann Albrecht, D.D. (Tiibin- gen, 1751), Protestant theologian ; b. at VVin- nenden, Wiirtemberg, June 24, 1687 ; d. at Stuttgart, Nov. 2, 1752. He studied at Tiibin- gcn ; became tutor there, 1708 ; professor in the well-attended theological seminary at Den- kendorf, 1713 ; propst at Herbrechtingeu, 1741 ; in 1749 prulat and eonsistm-ialrath of Alpirsbach, with residence at Stuttgart. His. Apparatus Criticns, 1734, to determine the true text of the New Testament, was a work of great labor in collation, and is the starting- point of modern New Testament textual criti- cism. He was the author of the famous canon, "The more difficult reading is to be preferred." His best-known work was his Gnomon (Tiibingen, 1742 ; Eng. trans., by M. R. Vincent and C. T. Lewi.s, Philadelphia, 1862). He was the father of modern Premil- lenarianism, and reckoned that in 1836 the Lord would come again. (Cf. his ErkUirte Offcnbaritng St. Johannis. 1740; last ed., 1876; Ordo iemporum, 1741.) He also wrote some familiar German hymns. (See life by J. C. F. Burk ; orig. Stuttgart, 1831 ; Eng. trans., London, 1837 ; best by O. Waehter, Stuttgart, 1865.) Ben-ha'-dad(,w7?= worshipper, of Hudad= the sun), the name of three Syrian kings. The first was hired by Asa to make war upon Baa.sha, King of Israel (1 Kings xv. 18). The second was his son, who made war on Ahab, besieged Jehoram in Samaria, when sick con- .sulted Elijah as to the issue, and was assassi- nated by Hazael (2 Kings vi.-viii.). The third was the son of Hazael, who lost all his fatiier had gained. His overthrow was predicted by Amos (2 Kings xii., Amos i. 4). C. Bei\jamin. See Tribes. Benjamin of Tudela, a learned Jewish rabbi of the 12th century, author of an itinerary de- scribing a large part of Asia, to the frontiers of China. It lias been translated into English by Asher, and published in London, 1840. F. Benno, bishop of Meissen ; b. near Goslar, 27 m. s.e. of Hildesheim, Hanover, 1010 ; d. at Meissen, 15 m. n.w. of Dresden, Saxony, June 16, 1106. Made bishop in 1066 or 1067 ; though personally friendly to Henr}'- IV., ho got entangled in the Saxon insurrection, and after the death of Gregory VII. was deposed. He was subsequently reinstated (1088), and busied himself in the conversion of the hea- then of his diocese, F. BENSON (99) BERN Benson, Rt. Hon. aud Most Rev. Edward White, D.D. (Cambridge, 1867), D.C.L. (Ox- ford, 1884), Lord Archbishop of Canterbury and primate of all England, and jMetropol- itan ; b. near Birmingham, July 14, 1829 ; graduated B.A. at Cambridge (senior optime and tirstclass cla.ssical tripos). 1852 ; became a.«sistant master at Rugby, 1853 ; first head master of Wellington College, 1859 ; chancel- lor and canon of Lincoln, 1872 ; bishop of Truro, 1877 ; translated to Cantcirbury, 1882. He has issued several volumes of sermons. Bentley, Richard, D.D. (Cambridge, 1696), Bible critic and classical scholar ; b. at Oul- ton, Yorkshire, Eng., Jan. 27, 1062; d. at Cambridge. July 14, 1742. He was educated at Cambridge, 1676-80 ; from 1682-95 was in Bishop Stillingfleet's family as tutor and as chaplain ; became roval librarian and F.R.S., 1694; master of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1700 ; and regius professor of divinity, 1717. His extraordinary classical attainments and his critical acumen came out in his Letter to Mill (1691) and Dissertation upon the Epistles of Philaris (1697), and his edi- tion of various authors, and his theological and philosophical in his Boyle lectures, entitled A Confitation. of Atheism (1693), particularly noticeable for their use of Newton's discov- eries, then almost unknown, in the defence of Cliristianity. In 1720 lie issued a proposal for an edition of the Greek and Latin Testament, and submitted the last chapter of Revelation in Greek and Latin as a specimen. His idea was to construct a text out of the most ancient Greek and Latin texts compared with the principal ancient versions and the quotations of the Fathers of the first 5 centuries. Al- though the scheme was never carried out, to him is due the credit of discovering the true principle. (See A. A. Ellfe. Bentieii critim sacra, Cambridge, 1862, and his biography by R. C. Jebb. London, 1882.) Ba-ren-ga'-ri-us of Tours, b. at Tours early in the 11th century ; d. on the neighboring island of St. Cosme, 1088 ; was a brilliant scholar and head of the cathedral school at Tours. His methods of study had always been independent, and he arrived at the con- clusion that the doctrine of Paschasius Rad- bertus. that the bread and wine of tlie sacra- ment are changed as to their sul)stance into the body and blood of the Lord, while retain- ing the accidents of bread and wine, was with out sufficient authority. He taught that the undivided Christ is spiritually present and is received by faith. Gradually his heresy be- came known, and he was made to pa.ss through one ecclesiastical trial after anotlier. Hilde- brand, before and after his elevation to the papacy, tried to shield him, and was probably of the same opinion ; but ultimately preferred, for the sake of carrying through liis own schemes, to let Berengarius fall, and he was finally condemned at a synod in Rome, 1079. (See his book on the Lord's Supper, I)e sacra cveiui, cd. Visehcr, Berlin, 1834.) F. Berington, Joseph, ?]nglisli Roman Catlio- lic ; b. in Shrop.sliire. 1746 ; d. at Buckland. Berkshire. Dec. 1, 1827. He received liis ec- clesiastical education at St. Omer College, France, and exercised priestly functions in that country for a few years. On his return he was appointed to various chars^es, but his liberality, his freedom in speech, his criticisms of Roman Catholic doitrlne, and his friend- .ships with Protestants stood in the way of his advancement and laid him open to suspicion. He was indeed twice suspended and called upon to retract his " errors," wliicli lie did, and then rea.ssertcd tlicm. He wrote many works, of whicli tlic i)riiHii)al are The History of the Lives of AheiUard and Ileloisa, . . . with their Genuine Letters (trans.), Birmingham, 1787 ; 2d ed.. 17«8 ; Sfemoirs of Gregorio Pan- m//i (trans.), Lomhm, 1798 ; 2d ed., 1813 ; The Faith of C'ftholies (with John Kirk), 1813 ; 3d ed., 1846, 3 vols. ; A Literary History of ttie Middle Afjes, 1814 ; 3d ed., 1883. Berkeley, George, D.D. (Trinity College, Dublin, 1721), (hurdi of England ; b. at Drysert Castle, county Kilkenny, Ireland, March 12, 1684-85; d.^it Oxford, England, Jan. 14, 1753. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; became a fellow, 1707 ; di- vinity and senior Greek lecturer, 1721 ; also Hebrew lecturer, 1722 ; dean of Derry, 1722. In the latter year he began his active canvass to secure funds to start a college in the Ber- mudas for the education of missionaries to America ; but failing, he set sail himself for America, and landed at Newport, R. I.. Jan., 1729. There he remained till 1731. In 1734 he became bishop of Cloyne, Ireland, and lived there 18 years. He advocated two ex- traordinary theories: first, that tar-water is a specific for chronic disorders of all kinds ; and, second, that " the immediate objects of the mind in thinking do not rei)resent something outside of the mind, but constitute the whole world of reality, which tiuis exists in minds alone." Hence there is no external world. The philosopliical sy.stem wliici) he founded is known asUniver.sarinunaterialism( Idealism or Phenomenalism). He taught that " ideas are whatever is perceived, and these are the only realities ; that these realities exist only so far as they are perccfived— that our higher knowl- edge of these idfji-s or realities only resiKicts their relations to one another or what they sig- nify. The possibility of any permanent rela- tions or signilicatiniiin these ideas is provided t)V supposing that God is the permanent up- holder of these idea.s. Wiiat .seems, or is taken to be, the material tmiver.se is simply the manifested ideas of God." Ueln-rweg. Hist. Phil., ii., 384. (See his complete works [of which the chief are AHphnai, or The Minute Philosopher ; Theory of Vision ; The Princi- ples of Human Knowleilf/e], ed. by A. C'. Fraser, Oxford, 1871. 4 vols. [vol. iv. is the bioe- raphv]. See al.so Fnuser's monograpli. Eilin- luinr'h and Philadelphia. ISHl. and di.Hc;ourse by Noah Porter, New York, 1885.) Berleburg Bible, The, a translation made bv an anonymous coniiJany of pietists, wliich appeared at" ii.rii-liurLr. (Icrniany. 1726-42. in S vols., di.stinuniishcd by its chjliasticand Iheo- soi)hical remarks, and ks quotations from the works of earlier mystic.<«. Bern, Disputation of, between Zwingli and other Swiss Rcformi-rs and the Roman Catho- BERNARD (100) BERNARD lies, liisted from Jan. 7 to 26, 1528, and was I based upon the Ten Theses which Zwingli had [ published, in which was presented the Re- j formed faith upon such points as tlie doctrine of Christ as the only head of the church, the Atonement, the Eucharist, etc. The Protes- tants had so decidedly the better of the argu- ment, that the result' of the disputation M'as the alliance of Bern Zurich and Basel on the basis of the Reformed faith. (Cf. Schaff, Creeds, i., 364 sqq.) Bernard, St. See Olivetans. Bernard of Clairvaux, a great abbot and ecftlesiastical leader ; b. at Fontaine, 20 m. n.e. of Dijon, Cote-d'Or, France, in 1091 ; d. at Clairvaux. department of Aube, 130 m. s.e. of Paris. Aug. 20, 1153. A member of a no- ble family, he would naturally have turned toward the pursuit of arms, but from his youth he was marked by a solitary dispo- sition, and by a preference for religious con- templation. At school he distinguished him- self by his ready mastery of the subjects taught, and his brothers sought to hold him to the life of a scholar. But he inclined more and more to the monastic life, and at last, un- der the influence of the knowledge that his mother had early consecrated him to it, he vowed to enter upon it, which he did at the age of 22. He was attracted by the reputation of Citeaux for rigid discipline, and entered there with 30 companions in 1113. He gave him- self to every form of service with the greatest conscientiousness, and soon became famous both in the monastery and out of it, so that new members were attracted thither. Citeaux became too straight for the multitude, and tlie plan was formed to found a monastic colony, over which Bernard was set as abbot. With his companions he wandered out in search of some wild and desolate spot, which they found at Clairvaux, in northwestern Burgundy, where they established tliemselves (1115). The hardships of the early days were great, but the example of Bernard sustained them in all their sufferings, since in self-denial and self-inflicted mortifications he surpassed them all. Sleep seemed waste of time, food indul- gence ; day and night he stood absorbed in prayer, till his limbs swelled beneath him. His health gave way. But amid all these austerities Bernard had also pursued truly spiritual exercises. His Bible was his constant companion, and he ac- quired a knowledge of it which appears upon every page of his writings. His system of thought, created under these circumstances and animated by his intense longing for spir- itual communion with God, was mystical, but moderated by the sound practical sense for which, with all his other traits, Bernard was distinguished. Sucli a man could not remain limited to the narrow sphere of a single monastery, and soon he was drawn into a genend activity which lasted as long as his life. In 1128 he drew up the rule for the new order of Knights Tem- plars. His services as a preacher were in de- mand for many purposes, and he developed that fiery eloquence with which at a later date he roused France and Germany to the second crusade (1146). Tlie flrst great public work performed by him was his advocacy of the cause of Innocent II., when there had been set up against him an anti-pope, Anacletus II. Bernard gained the adherence of the French clergy at Estampes, won Henry I. of England by a personal visit, brought over Lothaire of Germany, induced even some of the Italian followers of Anacletus to forsake liim, and finally saw Innocent established in Rome in 1138. He next turned his attention to the preservation of the faith of the church. The teachings of Abelard (see the art.), which were as rationalistic and critical as Bernard's were orthodox and mystical, seemed to demand re- sistance. Bernard met him, though with re- luctance, at a synod at Sens (1140), but Abelard appealed without discussion to Rome. Arnold of Brescia was another whom he felt called upon to oppose strenuously. He went to Toulouse in 1147 to put an end to the influ- ence of the Cathari (see the art.), but in vain. A council was held at Rheims in 1148 against these and other heretical movements at which he was present. But excessive labors had already undermined his constitution, and he was grievously sick. He summoned strength in 1153 to journey to the Mosel, where he rec- onciled two quarrelling counts ; but this done, he was exhausted and was glad to die. He was canonized in 1173. (See lives by Neander [Berlin, 1813 ; 3d ed., 1865 : Eng. trans., Lon- don, 1843] ; Morison [London, 1863 ; 2d ed., 1877] ; Hutfer [Miinster, vol. i., 1886] ; Ber- nard's works in orig. Lat., best ed., Mabillon, in Migne, Pat. Lat. CLXXXII.-CLXXXV. ; Eng. trans, by S. J. Eales, Life and Works of St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, London, 1889, sq.) F. Bernard of Clugny (or de Morlaix), the author of the poem on Contempt for the World; b. in England, or more probably in Morlac (Val Morienne), France ; became prior at Clugny and d. in that monastery, about 1140, at an advanced age. His Carmen de contemptu mundi, dedicated to his abbot, Pe- trus Mauritius (1122-57), and often published (Basel, 1557 ; Bremen, 1597 ; Rostock, 1610 ; Rinteln, 1626 ; Liineburg, 1640), is written in leonine verses, so difficult to compose con- secutively that the author claimed to liave been enabled to do it by special inspiration. Parts of it are very familiar through trans- lations by ,1. M. Neale, llie Rhythm of B. de M ... on the Celestial Country, London, 1859 ; 7th ed., 1866 ; and S. W. Duffield, The Ileav- enly Land, New York, 1867. (Cf. S. W. Duffield. Latin Hymn Writers [ed. R. E. Thompson], New York, 1891.) Bernard of Mentone (or Menthon), founder of the famous hospices ; b. in his father's castle at Mentone, 14 m. e.n.e. of Nice, France, 923 ; d, at Novara, 30 m. w. of Milan, Italy, June 13, 1007. Monk and archdeacon at Aosta, 49 m. n.n.w. of Turin, Italy, he found the pass now bearing his name infested by rob- bers. To defend the traveller from these and provide for his safety in the storms of winter, he erected and sustained two hospices in neigh- boring mountain passes. (Life by L. Burgener, Luzern, 1856.) F, BERNARD (101) BERYL Bernard of Toledo, made archbishop and primate of Spain in 1087, performed ,ii;real ser- vice in making the system of Grei^ory VII. and the Roman ecclesiastical customs supreme in Spain. F. Bernard, Claude, Roman Catholic, called the " Poor Priest ;" b. at Dijon, Dec. 26, 1588 ; in early life was dissipated, but on con- version became an ascetic priest in Paris and devoted himself with extraordinary diligence to the religious care of tlic poor, living himself iu voluntary poverty until his death, Marcii 28, 1641. (See his life by Lempereur, Paris, 1708.) Bemardin of Siena, St., Roman Catliolic ; b. at Massa Maritima, 33 m. s.w. of Siena, Italy, Sept. 8, 1380 ; entered the Franciscan order, 1403 ; became its vicar-general, 1437 ; carried through many reforms ; d. at Aquila, 68 m. u.e. of Ronie, May 20, 1444. He preachetl all over Italy to great crowds and with wonderful success. He was canonized, 1450 ; his day is May 20. (See his writings, Venice, 1745, 4 vols, [uncritical ed.], and his biography by J. P. Toussaint, Regensburg, 1873.) Bernardines. See Cistercians. Ber-ni'-ce {bringing victory), eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xxv. 13, 23 ; xxvi. 30). She was first married to her uncle Ilerod, King of Chalcis, and after his death married Polemon, King of Cilicia. This union ilid not last long, and she went to live with her brother, Agrippa II., and afterward became the mistress of Vespasian and then of Titus. She was beautiful, accomplished, and am- bitious, but without even the semblance of virtue. C. Berno. See Clugny. Berqviin(ber-kan), liOuis de, nobleman, one of the first martyrs of the Reformation in France ; b. at Passy, a suburb of Paris, 1490 ; for writing and translating books in behalf of religious reformed persecuted by Parliament in 1523 ; he escaped by intervention of the king, but persisting in his course, he was exe- cuted in Paris. April 17, 1529. (Cf. Baird, Rise of the, Huguenots, i., 128 sqcj.) Berretta. See Biretta. Berruyer (ba-rU-e-a), Joseph Isaac, French Jesuit ; b. at Rouen, Nov. 7, lOSl ; d. in Paris, Feb. 18, 1758. He conceived tiie ex- traordinary idea of popularizing Bible history by rewriting it in French as a romance in tiie taste of the time {Ilistoirc dii Peiiple de Dieii). But in carrying out this idea he introduced so much matter which was heretical, inaccurate, misleading, blasphemous, and even obscene, that his book was ecclesitistically condemned. It was, perhaps in consequence, very popular ; many editions were demanded in Frencli, and translations were made into Italian, Spanish, Polish, and German. It is even now reprinted. But the more scandalous passages have been removed. It remains, liowcver, in style and spirit the same. Tiiis is its bibliograpliical history : Ilistoire dn Peiiple de Dicv, first part. on the Old Testament, Paris, 1728, 7 vols, (put on the Index, 1734) ; second part, on the Ooa- pels. The Hague (Paris), 1753, 4 vols, (put on the Index, 1755) ; third part, on tlu; Epistles. The Hague (Lj'-oiis), 1757, 2 vols, ((iondcinned by the poix;, 1758) ; n.e. of 1st and 2d parts, Besan^on (1839), 10 vols. Bersier (ber-se-a), Eugene Arthur Fran- 9ois, Reformed Church of France ; b. at Morges, near Geneva, Feb. 5, 1831 ; studied theology in Geneva, Gottingen, and Halle; l)ast()rm Paris, 1«55 , d. tlKsre, Nov. 19, 18H9. His sermons have been translated into Engli.sh, German, Danish, Swedish, and Russian. His historical writin!i;s embrace J/ixtnirc du Siiimde de 1872, Paris, 1872, 2 vols. ; doUgun ), and the < ightli foundation of the holv Jeru.salem (Rev. xxl. 20), commonly supjxjsed to Ix; the mnilern yellow topaz. ^'- (102) BETHUNE Bes-sa-ri-on, Joannes (properly Basilius), Romau Catholic ; b. at Tnbizond, Asiatic Turkey, lo9o ; d. at Ravenna, Italy, Nov. 18, 1472. He was brought up in the Greek Church ; educated in Constantinople ; entered the Basilian order, 1423, when he took the mo- nastic name Bessarion. He became archbishop of Nic«a, 1437 ; was a member of the Ferrara- Florence council, 1438 ; and labored success- fully in behalf of the (short-lived) union be- tween the Greek and Latin churches. For the latter service the pope made him a cardi- nal, 1439, and he henceforth lived in Italy. He did much to promote the study of Greek ; made Latin translations of Greek authors, and collected Greek mss. He also was energetic in trying to rouse the Chri.stians of Germany, Italy, and France to a crusade against the Turks. (See his life by Henri Vast, Paris, 1878, aiid his works "in Migne, Pat. Or. CLXL, 1-746.) Beth-ab'-a-rah (house of the ford), the place on the Jordan where our Lord was baptized (John i. 28) ; but Revised Version reads " Bethany," an obscure village in Pernea, not to be confounded with that mentioned be- low. C. Beth'-a-ny (/ioi/se of misery), a village on the eastern slope of Mt. Olivet, 15 furlongs (li to 2 m.) from Jerusalem (John xi. 18), named 11 times in the gospels, the home of Mary and Martha, now a little Arab hamlet called el- Aziriyeh. " place of Lazarus." C. Beth'-el {house of Ood), a town 12 m. n. of Jerusalem, visited by Abraham (Gen. xii. 8) and by Jacob, who there had the vision of the ladder (xxviii. 11-19), and by Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 16) ; the chief seat of "the calf worship (1 Kings xii. 29-32), a home of the prophets (2 Kings ii. 3), mentioned often in the Old Testament, not at all in the New. C. Beth-es'-da (house of mercy), a pool in Jeru- salem near the sheep-gate (John v. 2), by tradi- tion identified with the modern Birket-Israil, 360 ft. long, 120 ft. wide, and 80 ft. deep ; but Robinson regards it as the same with the in- termittent Pool of the Virgin, outside of the city, above the Pool of Siloam. C. Beth-Ho'-ron (house of the holloic), the name of two places, the " Upper" and the " Lower" (Josh. xvi. 3. 5), lying on the opposite sides of a rough and rocky pass, 12 m. from Jeru- salem, on the way to the sea-coast. Down this pass Joshua drove the Amorites (x. 1-11), and through it Paul went by night on his way to Antipatris (Acts xxiii. 31). C. Beth'-le-hem (house oj bread), an old and famous city, 6 m. s. of Jerusalem, on a ridge running east and west, in a fertile region, and hence called Ephrath, fruitful (Gen. xxxv. 16), 2500 ft. above the sea. It was the burial- place of Rachel ; the home of Naomi, Boaz, and Ruth (Ruth i. 19) ; the birthplace of David (1 Sam. xvii. 12) ; taken by Philistines, and had a noted well (2 Sam. xxiii. 14, 15) : fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 6) ; foretold as Christ's birthplace (Micah v. 2) ; prophecy fulfilled (Matt. ii. 1) ; visited by the shepherds (Luke ii. 15, 17). It is now a small village of about 3000 inhabitants, who are all Christians, and is known as Beitlalim, " house of flesh." Tradition early pointed to a cave or grotto in which Christ was born. Over this the Em- press Helena erected the Church of the Na- tivity, the oldest in Christendom. Here Je- rome lived for 30 years and made his Latin version of the Bible, known as the Vulgate ; and here Baldwin was crowned king in 1101. In an irregular shaped chapel beneath the church are two recesses, in one of which is a marble slab on which is a silver star said to mark the exact spot of the nativity. A mile away from the town is the so-called " plain of the shepherds." The Latins, Greeks, and Armenians have separate convents hard by, and claim a joint property in the church. C. Bethlehemites. 1 . Designation of the Hus- sites, from the name of the chapel in Prague in which Hus preached. 2. A Roman Catho- lic order founded in 1659 by Peter of Beth en - court, a Franciscan in Guatemala, for hospital and educational service. A female similar order Avas founded in 1668. Beth'-pha'-ge (house of figs), a place near Bethany on the ]\Iount of Olives, and possibly west of it. Here the colt was found for Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 1). C. Beth-sa'-i-da (house of fshing), a city of Galilee, north of Capernaum (John xii. 2J, Matt. xi. 21). Many hold that there were two towns of this name, one on the west side of the lake, the other in Gaulanitis, on the eastern bank of the Jordan (Luke ix. 10 compared with Mark vi. 45) ; but others think there was but one, and that it was built on both sides of the Jordan, near its entrance into the lake. Schaff , Through Bible Lands ; Thomson, Tlie Land and the Book, I.e. C. Beth-she'-an (house of quiet), a city 4 m, w. of the Jordan, at the entrance of the val- ley of Jezreel. To its walls the dead body of Saul was fastened by the Philistines (1 Sam. xxxi. 10). After the captivity it was called Sey- thopolis, and is now known as Beisan. C. Beth-she'-mesh (house of the sim), a priests' city about 14 m. w. of Jerusalem (Josh, xxi. 16), noted as the place to which the ark was returned by the Philistines (1 Sam. vi. 12-18), and for the battle in which Jehoash, King of Israel, defeated and captured Ama- ziah, King of Judah (2 Kings xiv. 12). C. Beth-u'-li-a (virgin of Jehovah), the centre of the events narrated in the apocryphal book of Judith, but not elsewhere mentioned. It has never been identified with any existing site. C. Bethune, George Washington, D.D, (Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, 1838), Reformed Dutch ; b. in New York City, March 18. 1805 ; graduated at Dickinson College, 1823 ; studied at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1823-25 ; in the ministry of tlie Dutch Church from 1827, and served in various places (Church on the Heights, Brooklyn, L. I., 1851-59; New York City, 1859-61); d. in Florence, Italy, April 27, 1862. He was famed as a platform and pulpit orator and as a wit ; BETHZUR (103) BEZA also as an angler. He edited Walton's Complete Angler, New York, 1846. (See his life by A. R. Van Nest, New York, 18G7.) Beth'-zur {home of rod,-), a city some miles north of Hebron, fortitiecl by Rehoboum (2 Chron. xi. 7), and of service in rebuilding Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 16). It was famous in the wars of the Maccabees, and called by Josephus " the strongest place in all Judea. " It is now the ruined village Beitsur. C. Betroth. See Marriage. Beveridge, William, D.D. (Cambridge, 1679), English ))relate ; baptized at Barrow, Feb. 21, 163()-37 ; educated at Cambridge ; became vicar of Yealing, Middlesex, 1660-61 ; rector of St. Peter's, Cornhill, London, 1672 ; archdeacon of Colchester, 1681 ; declined ap- pointment to bishopric of Bath and Wells, 1691 ; accepted that of St. Asaph, 1704 ; d. in London, March 5, 1707-08. Much that he wrote enjoyed great popularity, but he is now remembered chiefly by his Private Tkoiif/hts upon Rdigioii, London, 1709 ; later edd. — e.g., London, 1871. His works have been re- printed, ed. T. H. Ilorne, with life, London, 1824, 9 vols., and Oxford, 1842-48. Beyrout, Beirut (Arabic, pronounced bffi- rool), Bairut (Turkish, pronounced bl-root), the chief seaport town of Syria, on the site of the ancient Berytus, settled by Phoenicians, known to Greeks and Latins, 57 m. w.n.w. of Damascus. Its name is said to come from the Phumician Baal Beerith {lord of wells). Its authentic history goes back to the 2d pre-Christian century. In 41 a.d. it was made a Roman colony. Its school of juris- prudence, established in the 3d century, was fa- mous for several centuries. The earthquake of 551 well-nigh destroyed the city, but dur- ing the Crusades it came again into promi- nence. In the 17th and 18th centuries the Druses made it their centre. In 1838 its popu- lation was only 15,000, but in 1886 it was esti- mated to be 90,000. Its commerce is compar- atively large, and the town is thriving. It is the centre of missionary operations in Syria. The American Board began there in 1823, and set up its press in 1834. There the entire Bible was translated by Eli Smith and Corne- lius Van Alen Van Dyck into Arabic, com- pleted 1865. In 1865 a liighgrade girls' school was opened, and in 1866 a college, which is a great power. There are also a the- ological seminary, cstabli-shed 1874, and a med- ical school in connection witli the college, and a hospital. The mission passed over to the Presbyterian Board in 1870. The Prussian deaconesses from Kuiserswerth have a hos- pital, orphanage, ami girls' school. The Brit- u'l Sgrian ScJwols, founded by Mrs. J. Bowen Thompson, were started there in 1860. Th<'y now number 30 day schools. The Roman Catholics have also established tiiemscUes there, and have tlourishing schools and a printing- press, and carry on a vigorous propa- ganda. Be •2a(deBe7,c), Theodore. Swiss Reformer; b. of nobl.' family at the castle of Vozciay, in Nivernais, central France, June 24, 1519 ; d. at Geneva, Oct. 13, 1605. He imbibed Protestant- ism from Wolmar at Orleans and Bourges, 1528-35; studied law at Orleans, 1585-39; lived a somewhat free life in Paris, enjoying the income of two benelices ; mingled in high society, and by his rather loose poems, ,l,ivc- nilia (Paris, 1548), won fame as the best Latin poet of his time. But in 1548 he was convert- ed ; left for Geneva and opeulv professed Prot- estantism. From 1549 to 1558 he taught Greek at Lausanne. Meanwhile he liclpccl (!alvin by writing ably on Predestination and the Eucharist ; defended his action in the ca.se of Servetus ; and also i)erformed a great ser- vi(;e to the church in coniplctirig Clement Marot's metrical translation of the Psalms (1560). He won the confidence of the Re- formed Swiss to an extraordinary degree, so that he was sent in 1557 and 1558 on embjussies to the Prot(;stant German princes to solicit their help in freeing imprisoned Huguenots and persecuted Waldensians. In 1558 he re- moved to Geneva, became president of the college opened in 1559, was ordained, and as.sisted Calvin in preaching and teaching. His personal rank, his acquaintance with high life, his learning, wit, and elo(|U(nce. his ele- gant manners and commanding iircsence — all tilted him to be the leader of the Reformed, and their representative in intercourse with foreign princes. He presented to Antoine, King of Na- varre, the cause of the Reformation at N^rac, 1560; returned to Geneva after a few months ; attended the famous Colloquy of Poissy, near Paris, 1561, and favorably inqiressed Cath- erine de Medici and Cardinal Loriaine by his defence of Protestantism. He frequently preached near Pans. When the civil war broke out he took the field as a i)reacher with the prince of Cond6. Peace being established, he return(!d to Geneva, 1563, and on Calvin's death in the next year succeeded him in his offices. In 1571 and 1572 he took part in tlie National Synods of the French Keformed in La Rochellc and Ninies. In 1586, at tiie (Col- loquy of Mciinpelganl, he debated with Jacob Andrea, on tiie Lutheran idea of the Ubitiuity of Christ's Body. In 1588 his wife, Claude Desnoz, whom he had married, 1548, died, and within a year he married the widow Katharina del Piano. In 1598 he resigned his professorship ; in 1600 his preaihership. Francis de Sales vainly attempted shoilly after to win him back to the Roman Ciuirch. In 1597 the Jesuits spread the report thai ho was dead and had recanted on liis deathbed. This stirred liim to write a satirical poem. One of his servi(;es was his translation of the New Testament into i>atin, with notes, Geneva, 1565. But he was a prolilic writer (cf. list ia Hcppe's /.V.-- toire KccUniitatiq'ie d,» £:/lii<,n IVefonuifs da roynume de h-anr^ (from 1521 to 156:^), ed. Ve-sson. Toulouse, 1882. 2 vols., is pniliably wrongly atlrii)Uted to him, although he may have inspired it. His ./'/r«/(«7iVi, referred to above, was reprinted, Paris, 1879. i BEZPOPOFTSCHINS (104) BIBLE! Bezpopoftschins. See Russian Sects. Bezslovestni. See Russian Sects. Bible {the Book, by pre-eminence). It is the best of all books, being the Word of God and the standard of human duty. It contains the work of about 40 authors taken from all classes of society, and extending through a ^ period of 1600 years. It is divided into two parts, the Old Testament (or Covenant) and the New. The former is written in Hebrew (save a few portions that are in Chaldee), a Semitic tongue, differing widely from the Japhetic or Aryan languages, not only in vo- cabulary, but in its genius and structure. Its lack of precision unfits it for philosophy, but its figurative character well tits it for devo- tional purposes. The Old Testament is the only work extant in pure Hebrew. The New Testament is written in Greek, a languasre admirably adapted by its vigor, fulness, and precision, to express every variety of thought. Biblical Greek is not pure and classical, as was once contended, but is " the common dia- lect " which came in with Alexander the Great, and that filled with Hebraisms arising from the fact that the writers were Jews. It has shown itself abundantly adequate as a channel of divine revelation. The text of both Testaments is wonderfully pure and correct. That of the Hebrew Bible has been carefully preserved by the labors of men who regarded it with an almost divine reverence The Masoretic text of to-day is the work of a body of .scholars living at Ti- berias and at Sora in the Eui)hrates valley, from the 6th to the 12th century, who added the vowel points and committed to writing the traditional notes called the Masora, i.e., tradition. They brought the text into the form which it now has, and there is little or no reason to doubt their conscientious fidelity and accuracy. The oldest extant manuscripts date from the 10th century. The entire He- brew Bible was first printed in 1488, and a second edition in 1494. All subsequent edi- tions have been little more than reproductions of these. The case is different with the Greek text. Copies of the gospels and epistles were multiplied in great numbers, and there was no organized body of learned men with authority to determine and preserve the original text. Hence a great variety of various readings owing to inadvertencies and unintentional faults. It has been the task of modern schol- arship, especially during the last century, to collect and compare the various manuscripts of the New Testament, and thus to arrive at the true text. These manuscripts are of two Classens, unciaU, written in capitals and with no division of words or sentences and very few marks of punctuation, and cursioes, writ- ten in running hand. The former are the older, dating from the 4th to the 10th cen- tury. The material used, the style of writing, and other peculiarities, enable experts to tell very nearly to what century any given manu- script belongs. The first printed text that was published was that of Erasmus in lolG. What is called the Received Text is that of the Second Elzevir Edition, 16;};}, which, how- ever, got the name more from its beauty and convenience than from its critical merit, and has no real authority nor any claim to special respect. The toils of a long succession of scholars have suflSced to furnish a text that satisfactorily represents the original. Chief among these scholars were Beza, Mill, Bengel, and Bentley in the centuries that followed the Reformation. In 1775 Griesbach improved the classification of manuscripts; in 1830 Scholz collected new material ; in 1840 Lach- man settled principles. Witliin the last gen- eration Tischendorf (who discovered the Sina- itic Codex), Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and Scrivener have perfected the science of biblical criticism and done more than all their predecessors toward ascertaining the exact words of inspiration. Great aid in settling both the text and the meaning of the Scriptures has been derived from the various versions that have been made in other languages. The most ancient of these is what has been called the Chaldee Para- phrase, viz., the Targums (= explanations), which were made after the Jews' return from captivity (Neh. viii. 8), when the Hebrew ceased to be their vernacular. These were not committed to writing until a late period, but they certainly represent an early tradition. They bear different names, such as the Tar- gurn of Onkelos, etc., and are upon different portions of the Old Testament, there being no one that covers the whole. The most useful version of the Hebrew Bible is the Septuagint (= LXX) so called because this was said to have been the number of the translators. It was made in Alexandria under the patronage of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and begun about B.C. 285. The Pentateuch was rendered first ; then followed the Prophets, and finally the Hagiographa, a circumstance which helps to explain the inequality of the version as to accuracy. It was generally accepted in our Lord's day by the Jews, and is continually quoted by the writers of the New Testament. It is of exceeding value as an interpretation of the Hebrew text, and as a specimen of the modified or Hellenistic Greek employed by the penmen of the later revelation. There were several other Greek versions (Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus), but of these only fragments remain. In the latter part of the 3d century the whole Bible was rendered into Syriac, and this version obtained the name Peshitto {simple) because of its fidelity. It is still of great use to the bibhcal critic. At an early period there were translatioi:s into Latin from the Septuagint. These versions, known technically as the Itala, uow^ exist only in fragments. This is because at the end of the 4th century, the learned Christian father, Jerome, made a new version directly from the Hebrew, which soon displaced all others. It is called the Vulgate, and was declared by the Council of Trent (1546) to be the authentic rule of faith, which no one should dare to re- ject under any pretext whatever. It obtained a wide circulation, and from it were made the Italian, Dutch, German, French, and Bohe- mian versions that were printed prior to the Reformation. Fourteen editions of these were in the German language. After the Reformation nearly all versions BIBLE (105) were made from the original tongues. In Germany this was done by Luther in a book (completed in 1534) which it is said tixed the Grcrniau language and established Protes- tantism. In French Lefevre's version was printed at Antwerp in 153G. It was super- seded by those of Olivetan and Martin. In 1880 a new and excellent version was issued by Dr. Louis Segond. In Holland what is called the States' Bible, made by persons ap- pointed by the Synod of Dort under the civil authority' and issued in 1637, is one of the best of modern versions. In 1868 there appeared the first instalment of a revised edition of this Bible, made by eminent scholars by order of the General Synod of the Netherlandish Church. It is very valuable, but for some reason the enterpiise stopped with the issue of the New Testament. In Italy the chief version was one issued by Diodati at Geneva in 1607, and it is in use to-day. In Spain the Bible of Reyna, afterward revised by Valera, made from the Vulgate, is most used now, and in Portugal that of Almeida, 1712-19 and that of Figueiredo, 1784, are both circulated. A new version of the Bible in both these lan- guages is considered very desirable, and ell'orts are now making on both sides of the ocean to secure this result. In Scandinavia the Danish Bible (also used in Norway up to 1814) a[)- peared in 1550, the Swedish in 1541, and the Icelandic in 1584. In English, Wiclif 's version (1380) was made from the Vulgate, but did a good work in its day. Tyndale (1484-1530) began a version from the originals of the New Testament and a part of the Old, which in a large degree still e.vists in the common English Bible, it being a foundation upon which all his successors in the work built. In 1535 Cover^^ile revised and completed Tyndale, and in 1537 the Mat- thew Bil)le carried the work still further, using Tyudalc's manuscript notes. Two years later appeared Cranmer's Bible, prepared by Cover- dale, in a large folio, and hence sometimes called the Great Bible, which was .set up in the churches and held the ]>re-eminence till Eliza- beth's time. In 15(50 appeared the Genevan version made by English e.xiles on the Conti- nent. It was printed in Roman type, distin- guished the verses as well as the chapters, and had very good marginal notes, for which rea- sons it "became a popular favorite. In 1568 came the Bishops' Bible, so called becau.se pre- pared by a number of prelates under the lead of Archbishop Parker, but it did not supplant the Genevan. The ne.\l to appear was a Koman- ist version, the New Testament at Klieims in 1582. the Old at Douay in 1609, both made from the Vulgate. What is known as the Au- thorized Version resulted from a request made by the Hampton Court Conference (1604) to James I., who acceded to it, and appointed 54 revisers (of whom 47 served), and gav(! them rules for their guidance, but contributed noth- ing to the e.Kpen.se of the work. The enter- prise was begini in 1(107, and the book was published in 1611. There is no evidence to show that it was ever .sanctioned by any au- tljority, but its intrinsic excellence .sec\ired it general acceptance. It was the growth of u hundred years, and its language is as line a model of simple, vigorous, and elegant Eng- lish as can anywhere be seen. "It lives on the ear like a music that can never be forgot- ten, like the sound of church bells which the convert hardly knows how he can forego." (Faber.) Yet after more than two centuries and a half had elaps(!d it became apparent that a revision was required, because manv words liAd become obsolete or had altered their mean- ing ; great advances had been made in all sacred studies, such as the geography and arcluvology of Palestine, the grammar and the vocabulary of the sacred tongues ; and the original text, especially of the New Testament, could now be ascertained or at least approxi- mated in a degree utterly im]K)ssible to the authors of the Authori/,id \'cisioii. Hence, by appointment of the Convdcation of Canter- bnry a lumiber of learned men of various de- nominations in the I'niled Kingdom took up the work, and afterward associated with them- .selves a similar body of Am(;rican scholars. These prosecuted the work of revision with great diligence from the time of beginning in 1870, and is.^ued the New Testament in 1881 and the Old in 1885. It has been subjected to some severe criticism, but the general and growing opinion is that it furnishes a more faithful and accurate expression of the mean- ing of the inspired originals than is to be found in any other modern version. It took King James' Bible half a century to displace the Genevan in the hearts of the people, and it will doubtless require as long a period to induce English-speaking Christians to surren- der the one "sacred thing which doubt has never dinuued and controversy never soiled " (Faber) for another which, however superior, has no such potent memories and traditions around it. Meanwhile the Revised Version is serving an excellent purpose as a brief and convenient commentary, furnishing to ordina- ry readers the mature judgment of a ntimbcr of the best scholars upon the true rendering of the inspired Word. The question what books constitute the Scriptures is answered by the term Canon (a siraif/fit aUiff, then a nie((Kiirinf/ rod), which as early as the 4th century came to denotes the rule defining the genuine writings of the Old Testament and the New. The test of the canonicity of any particular writing was its reception as divinely inspired by tin- church. Fortunately the evidence on this point is clear and satisfactory. The books of the ( >ld Testa- ment were arranged by the Jews into tlirec classes (Lnkexxiv. 44) : the Law, the Prophets, and the (Holv) Writings. The first embraced the five books of Moses ; the second was di- vided into two parts, one l\n:f<>nii> r prophets, viz., the historical books of Josliuu, Judges, Sanuiel, and Kings, tlie other, tlie l>it,r. i.f.. the i)roph(ts proper (excepting tlie Book of Daniel), which again were distribnted into llie greater (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and E/.ekiel) and the less (tile 12 minor prophets); tin- third, called Haffiocrapha. embraced all the n-mniri- inii books, viz., P.salms, Proverbs, Job. Can- ticles. Rnlh. Lamentations, Eccle.'r), the name for collections of biblical historical pic- tures from the New Testament, surroimded with Old Testament prototypes, and accom- panied with Latin or German explanations for the uidearned. As far back as the 13lh cen- tury, but particularly since the invention of wood-cutting, until the complete piinted Bible was in the hands of the people, this sp«(ies of popular literature enjoyed great favor and was very widely spread. Bibliander (Greikicized form of Jhieh- mail II). Theodorus, b. at, Jiischofszell, 11 m. s.s.e. of Constance. Switzerland. 1504 : d. of tiie plague, at Ziitich, Nov. 2(J, 1564. lie btv came professor of the Old TeMainmt at Zurich, 1531 ; opposed with unexiH'cled sliarpnetw Peter ]\Iartvr Vermigli'sexpo.-ilion of Calvin's doctrine of i)red(stination, wliereby he lost his position in 1560. He issued a Hebrew grammar in Latin, Ziirich, 15:^5. (See his life by J. J. Chri.stinger. Frauenfeld, 1867.) Biblical Theology. This term has some- times b.en und.rMo.xl as if it stood in npi>o. sition to sp((ulalivr theology, that system which, not content with Scripture, goe.sJM'yond it in constructing its formulas, whereas the BIBLIOMANCT (108) BINGHAM true contrast is with what is known as didactic or systematic theology. Both are, or profess to be, and always should be, scriptural. The difference is that the latter undertakes to give a scientific and connected view of all revealed truth in relation both to doctrine and ethics. The aim of the former is to set forth (he doc- trinal and ethical contents of the Bible in their historical development. Hence we have the biblical theology of the Old Testament and again that of the New, each considered on its own lines. Or there may be the same treat- ment of a smaller portion of either, as of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Wisdom books, the Prophets, or of the Gospels, the Pauline Epistles, those of Peter, the Epistle of James, or the Johannean writings. Such studies are alike interesting and useful, but they are no substitute for the system which exhibits the logical order and harmony of the entire com- pass of Revelation. Indeed, their chief value lies in the preparation they furnish for such a comprehensive view. On this point cf. Shedd, Dog. Theol. Representative works on Biblical Theology are, in English translation, Oehler on the O. T., ed. Day, New York, 1883 ; and of Weiss on the N. t., Edinburgh, 1883-83, 2 vols. C. Bibliomancy, or sortes biblicm, means a su- perstitious use of the Bible by opening it at haphazard and considering the first verse the eye rests upon, or entering a church and view- ing the first words of Scripture read, as a di- vine indication of duty. Some eminent Chris- tians, Bunyan, Wesley, and Cowper, as well as St. Francis d'Assisi and Augustine, have fallen victims to this delusion. But it was simply a pagan folly imported into thp church without reason or excuse. C. Bickersteth, Edward, a leader of the Evan- gelical party in the Church of England ; b. at Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland, March 19, 1786 ; d. at Watton, 21 m. w.s.w. of Norwich, Feb. 28, 1850. He practised law from 1806 to 1815 ; but then entered the service of the Church Missionary Society and was its secretary from 1816 to"l830, when he became rector of Watton, Hertfordshire. He was prominent in organizing the Evangelical Alli- ance (1845). His religious works enjoyed ex- traordinary popularity. A collected edition of the more important of them appeared in London, 1853, 16 vols. (See his biography by T. R. Birks, London, 1855, 2 vols.) Bickersteth, Edward Henry, son of pre- ceding. Church of England ; b. at Islington, London, Jan. 25, 1825 ; educated at Cambridge ; became vicar of Christ Church, Hampstead, London, 1855 ; bishop of Exeter, 1885. He is the author of the poem Yesterday, To-day, and Forecer, London, 1866, 18th ed., 1886, and other volumes. Bidding (of) Prayer, so called because the preacher bids or exhorts the people to pray for certain specified objects, is in use in the Church of England immediately before the sermon, when not preceded by a service or prayer, and consists of exhortations to prayer for the royal family, ministers, etc. Biddle, John, English Unitarian martyr, baptized at Wotton-under-Edge, 17i m. s.s.w. of Gloucester, Jan. 14, 1615 ; d. in prison, Lon- don, Sept. 22, 1662. He graduated at Oxford, B.A., 1638, M.A., 1641 ; became ma.ster of free St. Mary le Crypt school, Gloucester, 1641 ; endured much persecution during the Commonwealth for his pronouncedly anti- trinitarian opinions, being several times thrown into prison. At last, in 1655, he was banished for life to the Scilly Islands as a close prisoner in the Castle of St. "Mary's. Released in 1658 he reassembled his followers in Lon- don, but in 1662 was again seized, and remained in prison till his death. Biel (beel), Gabriel, erroneously styled " the last schoolman ;" b. at Speyer about 1425 ; d. at Tubingen, 1495. He studied at Heidelberg and Erfurt ; became cathedral preacher at Mayence ; professor of theology in Tubingen, 1484. He made no advance, but his doctrine of nominalism had consider- able influence upon Luther and Melanchthon. His chief work is Epitome ct collectorium ex Occamo super IV. libros Sententiarum, Tubin- gen. 1495. (Cf. Ueberweg, Hist. Phil., i. 465, 467.) Billican (bil-le-can), Theobald (properly Diepold Gerlaclur) ; b. at Billigheim (whence his surname), in the Palatinate, about 1490 ; d. at Marburg, Aug. 8, 1554. He studied at Heidelberg ; became lecturer on dialectics and physics there, 1512 ; and a follower of Luther, 15i8 ; being driven from Heidelberg 1522, he went to Weil and same year to Nordlingen, and there preached till 1535. His health fail- ing he became professor of jurisprudence at Heidelberg, and at Marburg, 1544. His chief work is Benovatio ecclesiiB Nordlingiacenis, Nordlingen (?), 1525. Bilson, Thomas, D.D. (Oxford, 1580-81), Church of England ; b. at Winchester, 1546- 47 ; d. in London, June 18, 1616. Educated at Oxford, he became bishop of Winchester, 1597. He wrote, at Elizabeth's command, True Difference Between Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion, Oxford, 1585, "which contributed," says Dr. Grosart, " more than any other [work] to the humilia- tion, ruin, and death of Charles I. The weai> ons forged to beat back the Kin^ of Spain were used against the Stuart." He was the final reviser of the Authorized Version and made the chapter headings. Bilney, Thomas, English Protestant mar- tyr ; b. at East Bilney (?), 1495 (?) ; burned at the stake, Norwich, Aug. 19, 1531 ; educated at Cambridge ; entered holy orders ; by reading Erasmus' version of the New Testament (1516) led to study the Bible he came to believe in the valuelessness of saint-worship and pilgrimages, and preached against them. On most points, however, he remained faithful to the old church, yet was compelled to recant, and be- cause he resumed preaching the objectionable " errors" he was executed. Bingham, Joseph, Church of England ; b. at Wakefield, 9 m. s. of Leeds, Sept., 1668 ; d. at Head bourn- Worthy, near Winchester, Aug. 17, 1723. He studied at Oxford ; be- came fellow of University College, 1681 ; un- BINNE7 (109) BITHYNIA justl}' accused of heresy because he had (cor- rectly) iu a sermon presented the early fathers' views upon the terms "person" and "sub- stance," he rcsisined his fellowship and be- came vicar of Hcadbourn- Worthy, 1095 ; was collated to Havant, near Portsmouth, 1712. His immortal fame comes from his Origines Erclcniasticrt', or Antiquities of the C/iristion Church, London, 1708-22, 10 vols., an exhaus- tive work, the first of its kind in English, and probablj^ the last ; best cd. of all liis works, Oxford. 1855, 10 vols. Binney, Thomas, D.D. (American Univer- sit3), LL.D. (Aberdeen, 1852), Nonconform- ist ; b. at Newcastle-upon-Tyue, April, 1798 ; d. at Clapton, London, Feb. 24, 1874. He was educated in the theological seminary at Wymondley, Hertfordshire ; became pastor of St. James' Street Congregational Chapel, Newport, Isle of Wight, 1824 ; of King's Weigh-House Cliapel, London, 1829 ; retired 1869. He exerted great influence, especially as a preacher to young men. (See his Me- morial, ed. Stoughton, London, 1874. His hymn, "Eternal light! Eternal light!" is familiar.) Bin'-ter-im, Anton Joseph, Roman Catho- lic ; b. at Dusseldorf, Sept. 19, 1779 ; d. pa.s- tor of Bilk, in the suburbs of same, May 17, 1855. He became a Franciscan, 1796 ; pastor at Dilk. 1805. Besides polemical treatises he wrote Denkwurdigkeiten der christkatholiscJien Kirche, Mainz, 1825-41, 7 vols. Biretta, a square cap with stiff sides and three, or in the case of professors of theology, four curved ridges, surmounted by a tassel, made ordinarily of cloth, black for a priest, violet for a bishop, and scarlet for a cardinal. Birgitta, Birgittines, a Swedish saint, and an order of nuns founded by her. B. at Fin- stad, 8 m. from Upsala, 1302 ; d. in Rome, July 23, 1373. She was, as a child, of a dreamy and poetic nature, but, married at 16, she de- veloped as wife and mother surprising practi- cal tiilents. Her husband finally retired into a monastery and soon died (1344). From this time Birgitta herself lived mostly in a convent, though not taking the vows. She soon be- came" regarded as a prophetess, and by many as a sorceress. It was her earnest desire to found an order which should accomplish the spiritual reformation of the church. The rule of such an order was revealed to her, as she believed, by the Lord himself. Hence the rule was called that of the Holy Saviour. To ac- complish her purpose she journeyed to Rome with her daughter (1349). Here she took up her residence, and was soon revered as a prophetess by high and low. She sent her mes- sages of admonition to kings and princes far and near. She even summoned the popes to return to Rome from Avignon. Finally, in 1370, her rule was approved by the pope', Ur- ban v., and little by little a great convent arose at Vadstena, on the ea.st shore of Lake Wetter, Sweden, where her daughter, Katha- rine, had been abbess of a small community since 1357. After a pilgrimage to Jeru.^alem (1372) Birgitta returned to Rome, soon to die. The monastic establishments of this order were to contain both monks and nuns in differ- ent buildings. Prominence was given to the study of the Bible. In its greatest extension the order was found even in Spain and num- bered 74 convents. Birgitta was canonized in 1391. Her famous Ucr.lntiouH was trans- lated into English, London, 1«73. (See her life by P. F. A. Hammerich, Ger, trans.. Gotha, 1872.) F. Bishop (orcr/teer), one who has the charge and direction of anything. In the IS'ew Testa- ment the word is equivalent to elder, the latter being derived from Jewish usage and signify- ing the dignity of the office, while the former is of Greek origin and signifies its function, Acts XX. 17, 28. The presbyters or bishops of the Apostolic period were the regular pas- tors and teachers of the congregations, and the qualifications required for them are de- scribed iu 1 Tim. iii. 1-7 and Titus i. 6-9. A difference of function seems to be indicated in 1 Tim. V. 17. This biblical idea of the word is reproduced in Clement of Rome's First Epistle, in which (chap. 42) he uses the terms bishop and eldet- indiscriminately. But at an early period — how early it is not easy to say — a distmction was made between the two terms. The superiority of the bishop is distinctly rec- ognized by Ign;itius, and soon after his day came to he universally observed, although Irenaeus {Adv. Heur. iii. 2, 3) and Jerome {Epixt. c. I., eid crangelnm) clearly state the original identity of the two offices. ' It should be said that there are those who consider the bishops tiie successors of the apostles, and as such to have a Scripture warrant for their offlce as diocesans. In the Roman Church the bishops are appointed by the pope imd arc bound to report personally in Rome at stated intervals. They take the oath of alltgianee (essentially Ilildebrand's) to the pope, and have certain prerogatives of order and juris- dittion. In the Church of England there are 34 bishops, 24 of whom are peers of tlu^ realm, and as such sit and vote in the House of Lord.s. To all belongs the right to confirm, to admit to orders, and to exercise general supervision in their respective dioceses. In G.rmany the TvUthcran Church calls its general superintend- ents bishops, yet is governed not by them but by consistories. In Sweden and Denmark the office is retained, jj'et without the jure dirino theory. The episcopate in the ^lora- vian Church' and in the Methodist Epi.^^copal Communion does not denote a difference of order, but is merely a matter of convenience, and has a missionary character. In the Prot- estant Episcopal Cliurch in the United States the bishops have similar functions with the English prelates, are chosen by the dioee.se in which thevare to preside, and are con.«<'cratcd bv the Hou.se of Bishops. They now numlx r about 72. C. Bishopric, the district over which the juris- diction of a l)i^^hop extends. Bishops' Bible. Se>e Bible. Bi-thyn -i-a, the northwest province of A.'sia Minor. When Paid attemj)ted to enter it the Spirit (Acts xvi. 7) suffered him not. but 1 Peter i. 1 testifies to the presence of Christians BISHOPS (110) BLOOD there, and Plinj, the governor, was (about A.D. 106) embarrassed by their number. Its metropolis, Nicaea, was the seat of the famous council, A.D. 325. C. Bishops' Book, or Tfie Institution of a Chris- tian Midi, an exposition of the Apostles' Creed, the Seven Sacraments, the Ten Command- ments, the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, and of justification and purgatory. It was pre- pared by bishops, under Cranmer's direction, and issued in 1537. Blaikie (blay-key), William Garden, D.D. (Edinburgh, 1864), LL.D. (Aberdeen, 1872), Free Church of Scotland ; b. at Aberdeen, Feb. 5, 1820 ; graduated M.A. at Aberdeen, 1837 ; entered the ministry, 1842 ; became professor of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868. Among his numer- ous books may be mentioned Better Days for Working People, London, 1863 ; 76,000th, 1881 ; Heads and Hands in the World of Labor, 1865 ; 5000th, 1868 ; Counsel and Cheer for the Bat- tle of Life, 1867 ; 6000th, 1868 ; For the Work of the Ministry, 1873 ; 4th ed., 1885 ; Personal Life of David Livingstone, 1880 ; 4th ed., 1884 ; Leaders in Modern Philanthropy, 1885 , Preachers of Scotland from the Sixth to the Nineteenth ^Century, 1888. Blair, Hugh, Church of Scotland ; b. in Edinburgh, April 7, 1718 ; d. there, Dec. 27, 1800. He was educated at that university and passed his life in that city, first as preacher, 1743, then from 1760 to 1783 as professor of rhetoric. His fame rests upon his Rhetoric, London, 1783, 2 vols., and his sermons, Edin- burgh and London, 1777-1801, 5 vols. (See his life by Finlayson, in edition of sermons.) Blaise, St. See Blasius. Blan-di-na, a slave girl of Lyons, whose martyrdom is described by Eusebius (v. i.), ed. Bohn, pp. 159 sq. Blan-dra'-ta {^ro^Qx\y Biandrata), Giorgio, founder of the Unitarian Church in Poland and Transylvania ; b. of noble family at Sa- luzzo. Piedmont, Italy, about 1515 ; d. in Transylvania, strangled by his nephew, about 1590 ; practised medicine with great success, but was compelled to leave Italy on account of his strictures on the Roman Church, 1556 ; went to Geneva, where he had controversy with Calvin ; thence to Poland, and thence to Transylvania, where he became body phy- sician to Prince John Sigismund ; after the latter's death in the Unitarian faith he held the same position toward King Stephen Ba- thori of Poland. V. Malacarne edited his works in Italian, Padua, 1814. Blarer. See Blaurer. Bla'-si-us {Blaise), St., Bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, beheaded for faith's .sake, after being scored with iron combs, 316. He is the patron saint of the city of Ragusa, of the guild of wool-combers, and because he saved tlie life of a boy who had a fish-bone .stuck in his throat, protects against sore throat. His day is Feb. 3. Blasphemy, speaking evil of God or of his attributes. It was punished with death by the Mosaic law (Lev. xxiv. 16), and on this charge both our Lord (Matt. xxvi. 65) and Stephen (Acts vi. 11, 13) were condemned. Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost (Matt. xii. 31) is declared to be an unpardonable sin. It was committed by the Pharisees when they wilfully and maliciously ascribed the miracles of the Son of God and the work of the Holy Spirit to the evil one. Such despite to the Spirit of grace rendered them incapable of re- pentance, and, consequently, of pardon. C. Blaxorer (blow-rer) (Blarer, Blaarer), Am- brosius, b. of noble parents at Constance, April 4, 1492 ; d. of the plague at Winterthur, 12 m. n.e. of Zurich, Dec. 6, 1564. He en- tered the Benedictine convent of Alpirsbach, 1510, and eventually became its prior ; com- pelled to flee from tlie convent, 1522, because of his advocacy of the Reformation, he went to Constance and was largely instrumental in introducing the (Zwinglian) Reformation into that city and tlie entire surrounding country {e.g., Ulm, Lindau, Stuttgart, Tiibingen). Driven out of Constance by the Interim, he labored in various places. (See biographies by Keim, Stuttgart, 1860, and by Pre.ssel, 1861.) Blayney, Benjamin, D.D. (Oxford, 1787), Church of England ; b. in 1728 ; d. as canon of Christ Church, Oxford, where he was edu- cated, and regius professor of Hebrew (1787), and rector of Poulshot, Wiltshire, Sept. 20, 1801. He published a dissertation on Daniel's Seventy Weeks, 1775 ; 2d ed., 1797 ; an edition of the Hebrew Samaritan Pentateuch, 1790, and other works. He revised for the Claren- don Press (1769) the text of the Authorized Version of the Bible so as to insure typo- graphical accuracy, and his revision is the standard for the Oxford University Press, Bleek (blake), Friedrich, German theo- logian ; b. at Ahrensbok, 10 m. n.e. of Lu- beck, July 4, 1793; d. at Bonn, Feb. 27, 1859. He studied at Kiel and Berlin ; be- came repetent at Berlin, 1818 ; privaidozent, 1821 ; professor extraordinary, 1823 ; ordinary at Bonn, 1829. He wrote a commentary on Hebrews, 1828 40. 3 vols. ; An Introduction to the Old Testament (Eng. trans., from 2d ed., London, 1869, 2 vols. ; n.e. [Bohn], 1875 ; orig. Berlin, 1860-65, 2 vols. ; vol. 1, 5th ed. by Wellhausen, 1886 ; vol. 2, 4th ed. by Mangold, 1886) ; and Lectures on the Apocalypse, 1862 ; Eng. trans., London, 1875. He was conser- vative and strictly impartial. But Wellhausen and Mangold, unhappily, have incorporated so much of their own matter into his text that the latest editions really misrepresent him. Blon'-del, David, a very learned French Protestant ; b. at Chalons-sur-Marne, 106 m. e. of Paris, 1591 ; d. at Amsterdam, April 6. 1655. He became pastor at Houdan, near Paris, 1614 ; professor of history at Amster- dam, 1650. He devoted himself "in numerous writings to the defence of the Evangelical Church. Perhaps his best-known writing is his book on Pope Joan, written originally in French (Amsterdam, 1647; 2d ed.. 1649; Dutch trans., 1650; Latin trans., 1657), in which he declares the story to be mythical. Blood. The life of all animals was consid- BLOOD AVENGER (111) BOEHME ered as especially in the blood (Gen. ix. 4, Deut. xii. 23), aud hence it was the essential part of the sacrilices olfered to God (Ileb. ix. 22). This made the atonement (Lev. xvii. 11) when sprinkled upon the altar, and lience the references in the New Testament (Mark xiv. 24, Eph. i. 7, Heb. xiii. 20, 1 John i. 7). The J(!ws were strictly prohibited from " eat- ing blood" (Lev. xvii. 10, 12). C. Blood-Avenger. A wilful murderer for- feited Ills own life, and it was the duty of the next of kin to inflict the penalty, since the crime was committed against God as well as society, and no ransom could be allowed (Num. XXXV. 31-33). But cities of refuge were provided for the accidental homicide, who could flee hither and have his case de- termined by the congregation (Num. xxxv. 12, 24), when if guilty he was surrendered, but if not, was required to remain there till the death of the existing high-priest. C. Blood-baptism, that received by a cate- chumen who was martyred. Such a death was supposed to be equivalent to the baptism the subject desired but had not received. Bloody Marriage, that of Henry, King of Navarre, and jNIargaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX., King of France, celebrated in Paris, Monday, Aug. 18, 1572, and so called because followed on Sunday, Aug. 24, St. J3ar- tholomew's Day, by the massacre of the Huguenots. Bloody Sweat is mentioned by Luke (xxii. 44) as having occurred to Christ in Gethsem- ane. The actual occurrence of such an ab- normal physical state is a well -authenticated phenomenon. Charles IX. of France died of a l)loodv sweat. (See Stroud, Physical Cause of Clu-ists Death, London, 1847, pp. 85-88.) C. Blount (blunt), Charles, English deist, lay- man ; b. at Upper HoUoway, April 27, 1654 ; committed suicide because he was by law, .still in force in England, forbidden to murry his deceased wife's sister, whom he greatly loved, Aug., 1693. His Miscellanfous Works appeared in 1695. Thej'^ are mostly unac- knowledged plunderings from different writ- ers, but contain original attacks on orthodox opinions. He translated the first two books of Philostratus' Life of Apollo nius of Tyana, with a great show of learning in the shape of notes, London, 1680. Blumhardt (bloom-hart). Christian Gott- lieb, German theoloffian ; b. at Stuttgart, April 29, 1779 ; d. at Basel, Dec. 19. 1838. He studied at Tubingen ; took part in found- ing the Basel Bible Society, 1804; was first inspt'cfor of the Basel Missionary Institute from 1816 till his death. He wrote'a meritori- oiis missionary history down to tiie Hcforina- tion ( Wrsuch einer nllqrineiiu n Missiiuis- g,'schic.hte dcr Kirche Chr'isti, Basel, 1828-37. 5 vols. ; French trans.. Valence, 1838, 4 vols.). Blunt, John Henry, D.D. (Durham, 1882), Churcli of England ; b. at Chevne Walk, Chelsea, London, Aug. 25. 1823 ; educated at Durham ; d. in London as rector of Bevers- ton, Gloucestershire. April 11, 1884. He ■wrote many useful biblical and theological compends, particularly Annotated Book of Common Prayer, London, 1866 ; 7th ed., 1883 ; Dictionary of Doctviiud and Historical Theol- ogy, London, 1870; Dictionary of Sects, Her- esies, etc., 1874 ; and a valuable h'istory of the Reformation of the Church of Knylaml, 1868- 82. 2 vols. (vc)l. i., 6th ed., 1886). He was a pronounced Higli Churchman. Blunt, John James, Church of England ; b. at Newcastle-under-Lyme, 15 m. n.n.w. of Stafford, 1794; d. at Cambridge, June 18, 1855. Educated at Cambridge, elected fel- low, 1816 ; he became Lady Margaret profes- sor of divinity, 1839 ; declined the see of Salisbury, 1854. He is best known by his Undesiy'ned Coinciih i,i;s in the Writinys hothof the Old and New 7) s/m/n n/s, an Aryvi/u ntfor their Veracity, London, 1847, 6th 'ed., 1859, but wrote nuieh besides. (Cf. his Memoir, London, 1856.) Boardman, George Dana, American Bap- tist missionary ; b. at Livermore, 20 m. n. of Lewi.ston, iMe., Feb. 8, 1801 ; graduated at Waterville College, Me., 1822 ; studied as resident licentiate at Andover Theological Seminary, 1824 ; went to Burmah, 1825 ; la- bored successfully as the "apostle to the Karens;" d. near Tavoy, Burmah, Feb. 11. 1831. His widow was the 2d wife of Adoni- ram Judson. Boardman, George Dana, D.D. (Brown University, 1866) ; Baptist, son of preceding ; b. at Tavoy, Burmah. Aug. 18, 1828 ; gradu- ated at Brown University, Providence, H. 1., 1852 ; and at Newton (Mass.) Theological In- stitution, 1855 ; has been since 1864 j>asior of the First Church, Philadelphia, Pa., and has published several volumes of discourses. Bochart (l)o-shar), Samuel, learned French Protestant theologian ; b. at Rouen, May 10, 1599 ; d. at Caen, May 16, 1667. Educated at Saumur, he became pastor at Caen, 1626. He is celebrated for his now useless sacred geography {Geographia sacra, Caen, 1646 ; several later edd., e.y., Leyden. 1707), and especially for his still useful Hierozoicon or book on Scripture animals (London, 1663, 2 vols., several later edd., e.g., by RosenmUller, Leipzig, 1793-96, 3 parts). (See his Opera omnia, Levden, 1675, 2 vols. ; 3d ed.. 1712. 3 vols., and sketdi of his life by \V. li. Whit- tingham in his Essays, London, 1829.) Bockhold, Johann. See AN.\u.\rTiSTB, p. 28. Bodenstein. See Kaiu.stadt. Boehme (lio nich, English form commonly n,hn„n). Jakob, Die greatest theo^opliist in the Lutheran Church ; b. at All Scidtiiberg, Upper Lusatia. Nov., 1575 ; wius master shoe maker at Gtirlitz ; d. there as manufacturer of woollen gloves, Nov. 17, 1624. He was 37 when he publi.shed Ins lirst book. A'lmra. Being silenced, it was not till 1624 tiuil \\\a Way to Christ appeared. But after lus death his admirers brought out numt runs treatises written bv liim Ix-twecn the above dates. He claimed to see God, and to speak about him from direct inward illumination. (Sec coin- plete edition of his works by Schiebler. Lcip- BOEHRINGER (112) BOHEMIAN zig, 1831-47, 7 vols. ; Eng. trans, bj' Ellistone, Sparrow, Hotliam, and Blunden, London, 1644-63. Rev. William Law was one of bis followers. (Cf. Bishop Martensen's Boehme, London, 1885.) See Mysticism. Boehringer (bii-ring-er), Georg Friedrich, Swiss Protestant ; b. at Maulbronn Wiirtem- berg, Dec. 28, 1812 ; d. at Basel, Sept. 16, 1879. He studied at Tubingen ; lied to Svi^it- zerland in consequence of his part in the insur- rection of 1833 ; became pastor at Grlattfelden, near Zurich, 1842 ; resigned to devote himself e.Kclusively to ecclesiastico-historical studies, 1853. He wrote in dependence more or less on Neander, yet in a scholarly manner, a church history down to the Reformation under the form of biographies Die Kirche Ghvuti unci ihre Zeugen, Zurich, 1842-58, 8 parts ; 2d ed., which is less laudatory and more critical, 1860-79, 24 vols. Bo-e'-ti'-us, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus, a Roman statesman and philoso- pher ; b. in Rome about 475 a.d. ; beheaded at Pa via, 525. Of high rank in the Roman 6tate. learned and able, Boetius was rapidly advanced ; became consul in 510, and his two sons, together, in 522. He was a favorite with the king, Theodoric. But from this high position he was brought down, by his own account, because of the enmities excited by his maintenance of justice. Accused of trea- son he denied the charge, but was convicted, imprisoned in Pavia, and finally executed. He was early revered as a Christian martyr and a saint.' Theological writings have been attributed to him, but they are without doubt not his. He translated Aristotle, and wrote upon logic and mathematics, and even music. His works were valued text-books during all the middle ages. But his most important work washisi)e Consolatione Philosophim {The Consolation of Philosophy), Eng. trans, in Bohn's Library. In this work, written in prison, he complains of his sorrows and old age, and is consoled by a woman personifying philosophy. It is a treatise upon the exist- ence, nature, and providence of God. It is written in a noble style and has been a favor- ite in all ages. Christ is never named in the work, and the writer never draws con.solation from any specifically Christian thought. His fate was' an unjust one, but he does not seem to have deserved his fame as a Christian martyr. Works in Migne, Pat. Lat. LXIIL, LXIV. F. Bogatzky (bo-gats'-kee), Karl Heinrich von, Grcrman pietist ; b. at Jankowe, Silesia, Sept. 7, 1690 ; d. at Halle, June 15, 1774, wnere he had lived in literary retirement, by Francke's invitation, in the Halle orphanage, since 1746. He wrote A Golden Treasury for the Children of God, orig. Breslau, 1718 ; 58th ed., Halle, 1885. Eng. trans, from 19th ed., orig. London, 1745 ; numerous edd. ; e.g., London, 1888. (See his autobiography. Eng. trans., London, 1856 and life by Kelly, Lon- don, 1889.) Bogomiles, a sect of the 11th and 12th cen- turies in Thrace, whose leader, Basil, was burned for heresy about 1100. Their doctrine was a form of that of the Cathari (which see), but they taught that there was but one eternal principle in the universe, the good. Satanael, the elder Son of God fell, and created man for evil purposes ; but was constrained to ask God to put a soul in him. When man did not overcome the evil of the world which was under the rule of Satanael, God sent his second Son, Jesus, to redeem him. F. Bogue (bog), David, D.D. (Yale College, 1815), English Independent ; b. at Hallydown, Berwickshire, Feb. 18, 1750 ; d. at Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825. Educated at Edinburgh, he became Independent pastor at Gosport ; was one of the founders of the London Missionary Society, and active on its behalf. He wrote with James Beunet the standard History of Dissenters from the Revolution in 1689 to tJie Year 1808, Loudon, 1808-12, 4 vols. ; 2d ed., 1833, 2 vols. Bohemian Brethren, the name given to the sect origiuiilly formed by Gregor and by Peter Chelcizicky about 1457 out of the rem- nant of the Taborites (q.v.), and which real- ized for many years, to a great degree, the sim- plicity of the early Christian disciples in faith and life. The constitutional convention was held at Lhota, near Reichenau, in 1467. Mora- vians and Waldensians were present. In all there were about 60. Three were chosen priests and ordained by Michael, an ex Roman priest, and two Waldensian priests. The duty of the rich to share with the poor was establish- ed, and oath- making, war, worldly positions of all kinds, which set one above another, and the right to puni.sh were rejected. Gregor died 1474. For 20 years thereafter the primi- tive condition was preserved, but in 1494 Luke of Prague, a learned man, and their most prolific author, the second founder of the sect, carried through a modification of the strict scheme of life and the sect entered on a more prosperous career. In 1500 it had in Bohemia 3000 to 4000 congregations, and in Moravia 70,000 to 100,000 members. In it a near ap- proach to apostolic simplicity was made. With the Waldensians they stood in close re- lations, and later with the Calvinists. From 1503 at Prague, and from 1508 in all Bohemia until 1516, great persecution overtook the sect. Effurts to secure the intercession of Erasmu.s for the release of Luke of Prague, arrested 1515, failed through his indifference. The sect came into contact with Luther in 1519, but failing to agree on the doctrines of the Eucharist and justification by faith alone a union was impossible. After a career of great purity they made peace with the Utraquists (q.v.), Lutherans, and Calvinists in Bohemia, at the Diet of Prague, 1575, and drew up the Bohemian Confession. This act seemed to seal their downfall. The nobles among them mixed them up in politics ; during the Smal- kald war (1548) many of them emigrated to Poland and Prussia ;" persecution decimated their ranks, discipline declined, and their last bishop was Johann Amos Comenius (d. 1670 q.v.). The virtue of these primitive Protes- tants passed over into the Moravian Brethren (q-v.). The literary development of the Bohemian BOLINGBROEB (113) BONIFAOB Brt'threa was verj' important. A great num- ber of the works formerly held to have been produced by the VValdensians are now known to be translations from the Bohemian. TJieir catechism was known to Luther. Many of their writers, besides Luke of Prague, were prolific. Of these Jan Blahoslav (1523-74) deserves mention as the Luther of his people in that he translated from the original the en- tire New Testament and half the Old, and wrote many of their liymns. The earlier ver- sion was from the Vulgate. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount, Enijlish nobleman ; b. at Battersea, Loudon, Oei. 1, 1678; d. there, Dec. 12, 1701. Edu- cated at Oxford, he entered politics and had a checkered career. His deistical attacks on Christianity gave transitory interest to his writings. "(See his life by Macknight, Lon- don, 1863.) Bollandists. See Acta Maktyrcm. B5l-sec, Jerome Hermes, Roman Catholic ; b. at Paris ; d. at Annecy, France, on Lake Annecy, 22 m. s. of Geneva, about 1584. He was in youth a Carmelite monk and preached in Paris, but becoming a Protestant in 1545 or 1546 he was compelled to liee and went to Ferrara. Having already studied medicine, he prepared himself still further and was a physician and surgeon the rest of his days. He settled near Geneva in 1550, but being ex- iled the next year for his criticisms on Calvin's doctrine of predestination, he went to Paris. In 1562 he returned to the Roman Church. He is remembered as the author of scurrilous lives in French of Calvin (Lyons and Paris, 1577; n.e,, Lyons, 1875), and Beza (Paris, 1582). (Cf. the exhaustive art. by Bordier in La France Protestante, 2d cd., 2d' vol. s.v.) Bon-ar, Horatius, D.D. (Aberdeen, 1853), Free Church of Scotland ; b. in Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1808, where he studied ; became pastor of the Grange Free Church 1866, and d. July 31, 1889. He is best known by his Jlynms of Faith and Hope, London, 1857-71, 3 vols. Bo-na'-ven-tu-ra', a famous scholastic and Franciscan monk, whose secular name was Giovanni Fidenza ; b. at Bagnorea, in the province of Rome, 1221 ; d. at Lyons, July 15, 1274. Early connected with tile Francis- can order, he entered it as monk in his 22d year, and while con.scienlious in the fullihnent of all his duties, he also piu-sued his studies, going to Paris for that i)urpose in 1243, where he was under the instruction of Alexander of Hales. In 1256 he became general of his or- der, and proved a mild but efficient adminis- trator. He entered into controversy in favor of its principle of poverty, maintaining that voluntary mendicancy w as a sign of holy per- fection. In 1273 he was made cardinal and bishop of Alba. The Franciscans regarded him as a .saint, and discovered miracles worked at his grave, but his oliieial canonization did not take place till 1482. As a scholar he is inferior to Thomas Aquinas in power of philosophical thought, but is distinguislied for the comprehensiveness of his mii)(i. He arranges all knnwh dge in subordination to theology, but his theology is free from extreme positions. He teaches the fact, but not the absolute necessity of the In- carnation, the necessity of prevcnient grace, not the absolute nulliiication of the will. The system culminates in the treatment of *' con- templation," of which there arc .six stages, crowned by the still, mysterious waik with (iod above all knowledge and explanation. (See his complete works in Latin, several idi- tions, e.g., Paris, 1864-71, 15 vols. In Eng. trans.. Life of Ht. Francis of Andsi [by Miss Lockhart], London, 1868; The Month of Jems Chriat, 1882 ; sup])osititioua works, TheMirroi' of the BlesHcd Virgin Man/, Dublin, 1849 ; Pw Iter of the Bleniied Virgin, London. 1852; The Life of Ghrif^t, 1881 . See life by Vicenza ; Gcr. trans., Paderborn, 1874.) F. Boniface (bon'-i-fass). the name of a num- ber of popes, but one of whom was of much importance in the historv of the papacy. 1. Pope Dec. 28, 418-Sepr. 4. 422. 2. Pope Sept. 22, 530-Oct. 16, 532. 3. Pope Feb. 19 till Nov. 12, 607. 4. Pope Sept. 15, 608-Mav 25, 615. 5. Pope Dec. 23. 6]9-()ct. 25, 625 ; did much for theChristianizationof Enirland. 6. Pope in 896. 7. Pope in 974 and from 984 to 985. He had his predecessor strangled, but was shortly compelled to tlei^ to Constan- ' tinople. But liaving returned and nnudered the pope John XIV., he .succeeded in main- taining himself a year. 8. This pope, Dec. 24, 1294-Oct. 11, 1303, whose family name was Benedict Gaetani, illustrates in his own person and in his history at once the arrogance and the nothingness, the power and the inherent weakness of the claims of the papacy to uni- versal supremacy in their most extreme form. Origiuiilly destined for the law, he studied this science, but was diverted to an ecclesiasti- cal Ciireer, and in 1281 was created cardinal. In this position he was intrusted with respon- sible tasks, and easily' made himself one of the most important members of the college. It is probable that he sought the papacy i.i the year 1294, but in vain. He acquired great influence upon the mind of the iwjie, CeK stinc v., and as he inclined to abdication, Gaetani favored the plan. He then secured his own elevation, probably by making promises to Charles II. of Naples. Con.**ecrated in 1295. he soon began to mix in the affairs of the princes and nations of Europe. He was thus involved with Germany, Denmark, Sicily, Hungary, Poland, England, and France, in Germany alone wjis he successful. His contest with France is the most famous and the most important for the liistory of the papacy and the temporal power. It broke out in conse- quence of certain taxes imposed upon the clergy by both England and Franccr in order to carry on the war in which they w( re in volved (1296). Brmiface forbade them, and Philip answered with forbidding the exporta- tion of silver coin or liullion from Frnnce. which cut off at one blow a large part of the income of the papal court. This quarrel was apparentiv composed by concessions of the pope, but" it Inirst out "again in consei/urncc of the hau<:hfv hearing of the legate sent in 1301 in relation to the crusade. The papacy was at a high point of self-conscious impor- BONIFACE (114) BOOS tance in consequence of the success of the papal jubilee the previous year. In the course of the altercation which followed, Booiface is- sued the bull " Tliuim Sanctam," which main- tained the doctrine that the subjection of the temporal to the spiritual power was an article of faith necessary to salvation. Accusations against the pope of the gravest crimes and deepest heresies were made by Philip, and the quarrel proceeded to tlie point of the prepa- ration by the pope of a bull of excommunica- tion (1803), when emissaries of the French king and of the Colonnas broke into Anagni, and got the pope into their power, from which he escaped only to die (1308). Boniface ex- pressed in his "famous bull the full claims of the papacy, but in his attempts to carry them out, he exhibited the fact tiiat he was really powerless, in face of the sense of right which his measures must awaken in the minds of a nation like the French. The charges of his enemies against his character are too evi- dently exaggerated to receive any special cre- dence. 9.^Pope Nov. 2, 1390-Oct. 1, 1404. Family name, Peter Tomacelli. F. Boniface, or Winfrid, the apostle of the Germans ; b. at Kirtou, near Exeter, Eng., 680 ; d. near Dokkum, Netherlands, June 5, 755. An Anglo-Saxon, he began missionary work in Frisia in 716. He was shortly com- pelled to return to England, but in 718 he went to Rome in preparation for further mis- sionary efforts. In 719 he began work in Thuringia, where he sought to bring the church, already formed under British rites, into subjection to Rome. He failed, but in 722 he was at the work again ; in 723 was lioman bishop of the region, and from this titne devoted all his energies to establishing the power of Rome in Germany and France. In 732 he was made archbishop. In Bavaria he deposed the native bishops who resisted his attempts. Synod after synod was held here and in lower Germany and France, in promo- tion of his plans. His chief opponents, Alde- bert and Clement, were condemned for heresy. In the end he triumphed in the main. In 754 he left his bishopric in charge of Lullus, whom he consecrated bishoj) of Mayence, and went to the Frisians to extend the Roman system there. But he was slain by them as he was about to administer the rite of confir- mation to certain converts. His entire rule of proceeding may be summed up in the sentence that he made the validity and the orthodoxy of the church to depend upon luiity with Rome. He was vastly more of an ecclesiastic than a missionary. (See his works, ed. J. A. Giles, London, 1844, 2 vols. ; lives by G. "VV. Coxe, London, 1853 ; A. Werner, Leipzig, 1875 ; Ebrard, Giitersloh, 1882.) F. Bonivard (bo-ne var), Francois de, Swiss politician ; b. at Seyssel-on the-Hhone, 21 m. s.w. of Geneva, about 1493 ; d. in Geneva, 1570. He became prior of St. Victor, Geneva, 1510 ; was deprived of his possessions by the duke of Savoy ; imprisoned in the castle of Chillon (1530-36) ; on his release finding his prior}' demolished he was pensioned by the Genevans. He wrote much ; particularly in- teresting is his Chronicle of the City of Geneva {La Chronique de Geneve, Geneva, 1831, 4 parts), only partially published. Boni homines (French BansTiommes, " good people"), in the French chancery and vulgar speech free or noble persons ; in church his- tory the by-name of several orders of monks : (1) of the English Brothers of the Sack ; (2) of St. Stephen Grandmont ; (3) of the French Minims ; (4) of the Portuguese Canons ; (5) also of tlie Albigenses, and (6) Waldenses. Bonner (or Boner), Edmund, English prel- ate ; b. at Hanley, 1500 (?) ; d. in Marshalsca prison, London, Sept. 5, 1569. He studied at Oxford ; became chaplain to Cardinal Wol- sey, 1529 ; and later much employed by Henry VIII. on foreign embassies, until in 1540 he became bishop of London ; under Edward VI. he was cast into the Marshalsea prison, London (1549), and deprived of all his dig- nities because he refused to enforce the use of the new prayer-book, or to take the oath of supremacy. His dignities were restored un- der Mary, 1553, and under special command of his sovereign he instituted severe persecutions of the " heretics," although it would seem he w.as not naturally cruel. His course made him the most hated man in London. He re- fused to take the oath of supremacy under Elizabeth (1559) and was cast into prison. Bonnet (bona), Charles, Reformed Church : b. at Geneva, March 18, 1720 ; d. there. May 20, 1793. His fame rests on his Reiterches Philosophiques sur les Preuves du Christinn- isme (Geneva, 1760), which ranks as one of the ablest apologies in the French language. Book in Scripture means primarily any writing, whether a hill, or accusation, or register, or volume. Various materials were used for making record. The decalogue was engraved on tab- lets of stone. Sometimes the cuttings on stone were filled with lead (Job xix. 24). Inscrip- tions were also made on tiles and bricks, which were afterward hardened by fire. An immense number of these have been found in the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, whicli pour a flood of light upon their history and character. Tablets of boxwood and ivory were common among the ancients. Wood was coated with wax, on which writing was done with an iron pen (Jer. xvii. 1, Luke i. 63). Afterward palm-leaves, and the inner bark of trees, and linen were employed. From a very early period papprus, a reed once common in Egypt, was used. From this comes our word paper. Later, parchment from skins was invented in Pergamos, and used for rolls or volum-es (2 Tim. iv. 13). The pen used for these materials was a small brush or a reed split at the end, and to this day scribes in the East carry an inkhorn with such pens attached to their girdles (Ezek. ix. 2). The making of paper from linen in its modern form was first known in Europe about a.d. 1800. The art of printing came in about 150 years later. C. Boos (bos), Martin, Roman Catholic ; h. at Huttenried, Bavaria, Dec 25, 1762 ; d. at Sayn, 6 m. n. of Coblenz, Aug. 29, 1825. Studied at Dilingeu under Sailer (q.v.) ; en- BOOTH (iir.) BOSTON tered the prieslbood and instituted a religious movement similar to Pietism. He was in con- sequence persecuted by the ecclesiastical au- thorities, driven away from his charge, and at last became religious teachor in (he g3'm- nasium at Dlisseldorf . (See his autobiograpliy, with additions, ed. by J. E. Gossner, Leipzig, 1831 ; Eng. trans., London, 1836.) Booth, William, General of the Salvation Army ; b. at Nottingham, Eng., April 10, 1829"; became a minister of the Methodist New Connection, 1850 ; resigned in order to give himself entirely to evangelistic work, 1865 ; started " the Christian Mission" in the East End of London, July, 1865 ; organized out of it " the Salvation Army," on a military plan and with many eccentricities designed to attract attention. iSee art. Salvation Akmy. Bora, Katharina von, Luther's wife ; b. at Bitterfekl. 18 m. n.e. of llalle, Saxony, Jan. 29, 1499 ; d. at Torgau, 80 m. s.s.w. of Berlin, Dec. 20, 1553. She became nun at Nimplsch, near Grimma ; there read Luther's writings, in consequence left the convent, April 4, 1523 ; went to Wittenberg ; fell in love with a stu- dent ; refused the hand of Dr. Glatz, of Or- lamiinde ; intimated that she would marry Amsdorf or Luther ; married Luther, June 13, 1525 ; bore him six children ; after his death (Feb. 18, 1546) lived at Wittenberg, and in poverty, until in 1552 the plague drove her to Torgavi, where she died. (See her life by Armiu Stein, Halle, 3d ed., 1886.) Bordelumians, a fanatical sect founded by Borsenius and David Bar at Bordelum, Schles- wig, 1737 ; suppressed for its immorality, 1739. It was a fruit of Antoinette Bourig non's (q.v.) activity, as she had a printing- press on the island of Nordstraud near by. and distributed her tracts through all that country. Bo-rel, Adam, Dutch Reformed preacher ; later sectary ; b. in Zealand, 1603 ; d. in Amsterdam, 1667, where since 1645 he had lieaded a sect, the BoreUtcs, which considered the existing church degenerate, its ministry unfit, and the Bible, without note or comment, tlie divine means of awakening faith. They lived blameless lives. Bor-ro-me'-o, Count Carlo, St., b. of noble parents in the castle of Arona, on Lago Mag- giore, Oct. 2, 1538 ; d. in Milan, Nov. 3, 1584. He studied at Pavia and became doctor of the laws, 1559 ; his uncle being elected pope (Pius IV.) that year advanced him in 10 days from apostolic prothonotary to cardinal- deacon and archbishop of Milan (1560). He was a model bishop, and his life is full of ex- amples to all Christians. Especially did he show his courage and his trust in God by staying in Lilian during the fearful plague of 1576. In the accomplishment of his designs he made u.se of the Jesuits, and instituted thorough reforms in all the orders ; by so doing he roused much hatred, which showed itself in a would-be murderous attack on him led by the Humiliati ((j.v.) in 1569. He founded the " Collegium Helvetium" for the education of ])riests to laljor in Switzerland and prevent the introduction of Protestantism from that (juaner, and suppressed by the In- quisition whatever he could find. He was canonized 1610. (See his complete works Milan, 1747 ; and lives by G. P. Giussani, in Italian, Pome, 1610 ; p^ng. trans., London, 2 vols. ; C. A. Jones, London, 1H77 ; and Charles Sylvain, Milan, 1884, 3 vols.) Borromeo Union, founded in Coblenz, 1844, for the circulation of Roman Catholic books and papers ; up to 1887 nimibered 43,249 members and had distributed $2,500,000 worth of books. Borrow, George, English layman ; b. at East Dereham, 15 m. w.u.w. of Norwich, Feb., 1S03 : d. at Oulton, July 30, 1881. He was a remarkable linguist, particularly famed for his acquaintance with the gypsy language (Romany). In early life he was an adventur- ous traveller on the continent of Europe. He wrote many books, of which the most famous is his Bible in Spain (a record of his experi- ences as agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society in that country), London, 1843, 3 vols, (numerous later edd., e.g., London, 1889). Bossuet (bo-sii-a), Jacques Benigne, D.D. (Paris, 1652), Roman Catholic ; b. at Dijon, France, Sept. 27, 1627 ; d. in Paris, April 12, 1704. Educated by the Jesuits, he early dis- tinguished himself by converting Protestants. He became bishop of C^oudom, 1669 ; tutor of the Dauphin, 1670 ; bishop of Alcaux, 1681. He defended Louis XIV.'s ab.solu- tism ; wrote the Four Articles of the Galilean Liberties (1682) ; opposed the Jansenists, Quietists, and Protestants, and was prime mover in .securing the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His numerous Avritings have given him the epithet of " last of the Fnnch Church Fathers. ' ' His pulpit oratory reached its height in his six Funeral Oi-ationH (orig. 3d ed., Paris, 1680 ; many later edd. ; Eng. trans., 8il ed., London, 1801); his i'nirerml llistniy from the Bcf/iniiing of the World to the Empire of Charlemfif//ie\lQHl ; n.e., 1873 ; Eng. trans., London, 1686; n.e., 1810), was thefirst attempt to treat history philosophi- cally from the Roman Catholic standpoint ; his Ejcposition of the Doctrine of the Cntholic Chvrchon Matters of Co ntrorcrxy (\Grt\ ; n.e., 1869 ; Eng. trans., London, 1672 ; n.e., 1841, New York [Calh. Pub. Soc.]); and Uixtory of the Variations of the Protectant Chiirch<» ("1688, 2 vols. ; n.e.."l740, 4 vols. ; Eng. trans., Antwerp, 1724, 2 vols. ; n.e., Dublin, 1836; rep. New York) were intended to win Protes- tants to the Roman Church. (See Jiis biog- raphy by II. L. Farrcr [Lear], Bmuet and hit Contemporaries, London, 1874; n.e., 1877.) Boston, Thomas, Church of Scotland ; b. at Diui^c. 13 m. w. of Bt rwick on-Twtcd. March 17, l.;77 ; «1. at Kttrick, May 20. 1732. He was graduated ^LA. at Edinburgli Ini- versitv, 1694 ; studied theology and taught in privafe families until in 1699 he became i>a.-I(ir at Siniprin. Berwicksiiire ; whence he w( iit to Ettrick in 1707. He is rememlKTcd for liis Human Mature in Its Fourfold Kstate, Edin- burirh, 1720 (commonly spoken of as Boston oil the Fourfold Stat^, "often reprinted) ; The BOUDINOT (116) BRADY Sovereignty and Wisdom of Ood Displayed in the Afflictions of Men, etc. (or, as now called, The Crook in the Lot), 1737 (often reprinted ; ed. Glasgow, 1868 ; has Memoir). (See his Memoirs, Edinburgh, 1776 ; 2d ed., 1813.) Boudinot (boo'-de-not). Elias, LL.D., Pres- byterian layman ; b. in FhiiadL-lphia, May 2, 1740 ; d. at Burlington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821. He became an eminent lawyer in New Jersey ; prominent in American politics (member of Continental Congress from New Jersey, 1778- 79, 1781-84 ; president, 1782, in which capac- ity he signed the treaty of peace with Eng- land ; again member of United States Con- gress, 1789-95) ; director of the Mint at Phila- delDhia, 1795-1805 ; took leading part in American religious affairs ; was one of the 26 corporate members of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1818), and first president of the'American Bible So- ciety (1816-21). He WMS wealthy and liberal. He wrote in The Evangelical Intelligencer (1806) the anonymous memoirs of William Tennent now published ; also The Star of the West ; or, an Attempt to Discover the Lost Tribes of Israel. Bourdaloue (boor-da-loo), Louis, Roman Catholic pulpit orator ; b. at Bourges, Aug. 20, 1632 ; d. at Paris, May 13, 1704. He be- came a Jesuit, 1648 ; a favorite preacher of Louis XIV., 1670, and wa^ sent by him, in 1686, on a mission into Languedoc to convert Protestants. His sermons arc noted for clear- ness and dialectical skill ; but toward the close of his life he withdrew from the pulpit and devoted himself to visiting hospitals, prisoners, and other classes of sufferers. His sermons have been frequently published, and translated either in whole or in part into Eng- lish, London, 1805, 1806; 3d ed.„ Dublin, 1855 ; Sermons, London, 1884. (See his com- plete works, n.c, Bar-le-Duc, 1864, 6 vols., and his life by A. Feug^re, Paris, 2d ed., 1875; 5th ed., 1889.) Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of. See Gallicanism. Bourignon (boo-ren-yon), Antoinette, re- ligious enthusiast, of Roman Catholic origin ; b. at Lille, Flanders, Jan. 13, 1616 ; d. at Franeker, Oct. 30, 1680. Almost a physical monstrosity, she yet had to run away twice to escape marriage, being bent on remaining single. By her parents' death made an heir- ess, she built a hospital at Lille, 1653. Her long course of mystical reading showed itself later when she gathered a sect (hence called Bourignonists) ai)Oul her in Amsterdam (1667), to whom she told her "revelations," and whom she kept about her when driven from place to place. Her chief follower was Pierre Poiret, who edited her works, Amsterdam, 1079-84, 19 vols. ; 2d ed., 1717, and wrote her life, 1679, 2 vols. Her ideas found most acceptance in Scotland, and " Bourigianism" is one of the heresies Presbyterian candidates are still called upon to renounce. Her books in English translations are : Light of the World, London, 1696, 3 parts ; n.e., 1868 ; The Light liisen in Darkness, 1703 ; The Academy of Learned Divines, 170S 4 parts; The Renovation of the Gospel Spirit, 1787, 3 parts ; especially An Apology for A. B., London, 1669, the principal source of her life. She considered religion as a mere internal ecstasy independent both of the church and Bible ; looked upon existing charches as corrupt, and upon herself as called to restore the true Christianity. Her wiitings are attractive in point of style. (See M. E. S., ^tude sur Antoinette Bonrignon, Paris, 1876.) Bower, Archibald, b. at Dundee, Jan. 17, 1685-86 ; d. in London, Sept. 3, 1760. He was educated in the Scotch college at Douay ; became a Jesuit, 1700 ; rose to eminence in the order ; was counsellor in the Court of the Inquisition at Macerata, but avowedly horri- tied at the cruel proceedings abruptly left the city, went to England and renounced Catholicism, 1726 ; was readmitted into the order of Jesus, 1745 ; but again professed to have left the Church of Rome, 1747. His fame rests on his History (f the Popes, London, 1748-66, 7 vols. ; reprinted with continuation by Dr. S. H. Cox, Philadelphia, 1844-45, 3 vols. His character for truth and virtue is doubtful. Boy -bishop, a piece of buffoonery practised in the mediieval Church of Rome, in which on Dec. 6 (St. Nicholas' Day) one of the choir boys in the cathedrals was elected "bishop" and held othce until Dec. 28 (Holy Innocents' Day), during which time he performed nearly full episcopal functions, even saying mass and filling vacancies. (Cf. art. s.v. in Benham's Dictionary of Religion.) Boyle, Hon. Robert, English natural phi- losopher and chemist, the son of the Earl of Cork ; b. at Lismore Castle, Munster, 111 m. s.s.w. of Dublin, Ireland, Jan. 25, 1627 ; d. in London, unmarried, Dec. 30, 1691. He devoted himself to natural science and theo- logical study ; did much to promote the former and established the Boyle Lectures for the defence of Christianity against unbelievers by an endowment of £50 a year. Bentley preach- ed the first course, 1692, and courses have been preached annually since, many of which liave been very valuable. (Sec his life by Thomas Birch, 1744 [in Boyle's collected works].) Bradvo-ardine, Thomas, " the profound doc- tor" {doctor profundus) ; b. in Chichester, 1290 (?) ; d. of the plague in London, Aug. 26, 1349. He studied at Oxford ; acquired great repute for learning and piety ; became chaplain and confessor to Edward III., 1337 ; consecrated at Avignon, July 19, 1349, Arch- bishop of Canterbury. His great book is De causa Dei contra Pelagium, ed. Savile, Lon- don, 1618 ; long a standard authority among theologians of the Augustinian and Calvinistic schools (analyzed by Milner in his Church History, iv., 79-100). Brady, Nicholas, D.D. (Dublin, 1699), Church of Eni,dand ; b. at Bandon, 20 m. s.w. of Cork, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1659 ; d. at Richmond, near London, May 20, 1726. Edu- cated at Oxford and Trinity College, Dublin ; after holding livings in Ireland he became rec- tor of St. Catherine Cree, London, 1691 ; of Richmond, Surrey. 1696 ; held together with that of Clapham (1705-06) until his death. His BRAHMANISM (IIT) BRECEINRIDGI! fame rests on his metrical version of the Psalms, which he made in connection with Nahum Tute, 169J), and which has replaced in tlie Church of Enghmd the former one of Sternhold and Hopkins. Brahmanism, historic and dominant religion of India (138,000,000, or 9.G percent of the race), developed out of the Vedic by the Brah- mans, the first of the three Aryan castes, as the}^ acquired dominance over the Kshatri3-as (warriors) and Vai^yas (conmions, from viq, people). Brahman, 'originally only a singer of the sacred songs, then a member of the most artificial, exclusive, and powerful hierarchy of the world. There are three stages in Brahman- ism—tiie i)rebuddhistic, that of the struggle with Buddhism, tliat after the conquest. In the conflict took up many non-Aryan, aborigi- nal elements. The result present Hinduism. See India, Religions of. W. It. M.\ktin. Brahmo-Somaj (lit. a worshipping assem- bly), a monotlicistic religion originated by Rajah Ram .Alohun Roy (1772-1833). and given greatest prominence to by his second successor, Keshub Chunder Sen (d. 1884). It is based on the idea of the universal presence of the divine Spirit, so that inspiration is a universal fact. It differs from Christianity in that it provides no remedy for sin. Chri-st was, however, apparently considered by Sen as divine. It is a missionary religion, and com- mends practical reforms, such as the abolition of polygamy, caste, idolatry, child marriages, and intemperance. (See T. E. Slater, K. C. Sen, and the Bvahmo-Soiufij, London, 1884.) Braiuerd, David, missionarj^ to tlie Indian? ; b. at Haddam, Conn.. April 20, 1718 ; d. at Northampton, ]Ma.ss., Oct. 9, 1747. In Yale College, 1739-42 ; expelled for making, dur- ing the '"Great Awakening," an indiscreet remark about a tutor's p'iety ; licensed to preach that year, and from 1743 till his death a missionary among the Indians in 3Iassa- chusetts, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Ilis success was great, but his piety it was which especially commended him to his contempo- raries and to posterity ; and the story of his life has induced many more than Henry Mar- tyn to become missionaries, (See his life by Jonathan Edwards, ed. Sherwood, New York, 1884.) Brant, Sebastian, LL.D. (Basel, 1489), Ger- man juri>t and .satirical poet ; b. at Strass- burg. 14.-)8; d. there. May 10, 1521. Ik- studied law at Basel ; became doctor and teacher of the same there, 1489 ; a syndic of Stnissburg, 1501, He was a i)roli(ic writer, but his fame rests on his illustrated poem, The Ship of Fools {Dan ynrntincltiff, Ba.'^el, 1494 ; best ed. of orig. text, Zarncke, with only 4 woodcuLs, Leipzig, 1854, while K. Simrock translates into modern German and gives all the cuts, Berlin, 1872 ; Latin trans., Stultiftra nantt, bv J. Locher, Basel, 1497 ; the basis of Alexancler Barclay's Ship of Fools, London. 1509; best ed., T. H. Jamie.son. 1874 ; other translations and editions), in ^yhich he hold!', u]) lo ridicule the vices and follies of his time in eoar.se but elTcelive language. The rude woodcuts aided the book not a little. It was wonderfully popular. No direct religious intent can be claimed for it, yet it did prepare the way for the Reformation. Bray, Thomas, D.l). ((Jxford, 1G96), Church of England ; b. at .Marston, Shropshire, ]«5r) ; d. in Loudon, Feb. 15, 1730. He was edu- cated at Oxford; entered the church, l(i78 ; held various benefices ; was selected by Bishop Compton, of London, to act as eonimissarv in Maryland. 1G95, but could not start until Dec. 20, 1699 ; returned in 1701 and securcl the re-enactment of the law for the church's establishment, repealed through (Quaker and Roman Catholic inl'uence. From 1 70() (ill his death he was rector of St. Botolph Wilhout. Aldgate, London. "He projected a scheme for establishing parochial libraries in every deanery- throughout England and Wales, anJl so far succeeded that before his death he saw upward of 80 established. No less than 39 libraries were established in North America, besides many in other foreign lands," through his efforts. *This library scheme was the genu out of which grew the' English " Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge" (1G98). His active interest in the spiead of the ( New Jersey (Princeton), 1818 ; studied at the Princeton Theological Seminary, 1M9-21 ; was chaplain of Congress, 1822-23 ; p.astor of the Second Church. Lexington. Ky.. ls2;i-26 ; of the Second Church, Baltimore. ,Md., 1820- 31 ; corresponding secretary of the Huard of Education (Philadelphia). 1S31-3G ; pr(if< s.«or of pastoral theology. Princeton Seminary. 18.S6-38 ; secretary and g«neral agent of the Board of Foreign "Missions. 1h:5H_4(). He was a leader of the Old school piirty in the Presby- terian Church, a vigorous debater, an ardent BRECEINRIDGE (118) BRETSCHNEIDER controversialist (especially against Rome, e.g., with Archbishop Hughes Philadelphia, 1836), a famous pulpit orator, and, withal, a winning man. Breckinridge, Robert Jefferson, D.D. ( , 18-), LL.D. (Jefferson College, 1847), Presbyterian, brother of preceding ; b. at Ca- bell's'Dale. near Lexington, Ky., March 8, 1800 ; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. He was graduated at Union College, 1819 ; prac- tised law, and was in the legislature of Ken- tucky ; studied for a while (1831-32) at Prince- ton Theological Seminary ; became pastor of the Second Church, Baltimore, Md., 1832; president of Jefferson College, 1845 ; pastor of the First Church, Lexington, Ky., and su- perintendent of public instruction of the State of Kentucky, 1847 ; professor of systematic and polemical theology, Danville (Ky.) The- ological Seminary, 1853 ; resigned, 1869. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1841. He was, like his brother, a strong Old- school man (he opposed the union in 1869), an intense hater of Romanism, a ready and able speaker and preacher. During the Civil War he wa,s pronouncedly loyal He presided at the National Republican Convention at Baltimore in 1864, which renominated Abra- ham Lincoln. His publications include the two elii borate volumes. The Knowledge of Ood Objectiveli/ [and] Subjectively Considered, New York, 1857 and 1859. Breckling, Friedrich, mystic ; b. at Hande- witt, Schleswig, 1629 ; d. at The Hague, Hol- land, 1711. . He studied at various German universities, 1646-56 ; became pastor at Hande- witt, 1659, but the next year, by reason of his book {Speculum seu lapis Lydius pastorum, 1660) on the bad lives of the clergy, was com- pelled to flee ; went to Zwolle, in Holhmd, where he became pastor, but in 1665 was re- moved by the Amsterdam Consistory because he there attacked the clergy. From early life a student of the mystics, he became himself a leader among tiiera, and numbered among his pupils such eminent persons as Bourignon and Gichtel, and enjoyed the friendship of Spsner. But his books are not read now. Brenz (brents), Johann, Swabian reformer ; b. at Weil, Swabia, June 24, 1499 ; d. at Stutt- gart, Sept. 11, 1570. He entered the Univer- sity of Heidelberg, 1512 ; became priest, 1520 ; preached at Swabian Hall, 1522 ; introduced the Reformation there, 1524, but was com- pelled to flee during the Smalcald war, 1546, and the Interim, 1547. In 1552 he became provost at Stuttgart. In 1553 he presented the Wiirtemberg Confession to the Council of Trent. He was the most prominent German divine after Melanchthon, and author of the theory of tlie absolute ubiquity of Christ. He wrote the first Protestant catechism (1528) a year before Luther's. He was at the Marburg Conference (1529) and the Diet of Augsburg (1530). An unfinished edition of his works appeared at Tubingen, 1576-90, 8 vols. (See life by Hartmijnu, Elberfeld, 1862.) Brethren of the Common Life were brotherhoods of pious clergymen for the pur- pose of studying the Scriptures and cultivat- ing the practical Christian life. They took voluntarily upon themselves the three monas- tic vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity, without the vow of perpetuity. Pious laymen were not excluded, and soon convents for sisters were added to those for the brethren. The founder of the institution was Gerhard Groot, of Deveuter in the Netherlands, who was a pupil of tlie mystic John of Ruysbroek. He died two years after founding the society, in consequence of his labors in attending suf- ferers from the plague (1384), and was suc- ceeded bv his pupil and associate, Florentius Radewins (f 1400). The brotherhood laid great weight upon the use of the mother tongue in the reading of the Bible and in public preaching and prayer. The order soon spread, and there was added a more regularly consti- tuted monastery at Windesheim, to which was afterward added, among others, that at Mt. St. Agnes, near ZwoUe, where Thomas a Kempis lived. The brethren gained their liveliliood by labor, chiefly copying manu- scripts and teaching. Begging was forbidden. They were hated by the mendicant friars, and once accused by them before the Bishop of Utrecht, but in 1418 their order was confirmed by the pope. They were loyal to the Roman Church, but their biblical tendencies worked against it, and did something to prepare for the Reformation. F. Brethren of the Free Spirit were a sect in the 13th and 14tii centuries in various places in Italy, German}^, France, and the Neth>.r- lands. ' They taught that God is all that is ; man is God, and though separated from him by sin, needs notliing but a knowledge of his identity with him to become perfect. Then sin is no longer possible, and whatever a man does, he does without sin. Every perfect man is Christ, and may even surpass his merits. The perfect is free from the moral law, and has only to follow the spirit. The sect was much persecuted by popes and inquisitors, and many of its adherents were burned, yet without extirpating it. Gie.seler conjectures that it had its origin in the teachings of Amal- rich of Bena (q.v.). (See Gieseler's Church History, Harper's ed. ii., 590.) F. Brethren, Plymouth. See Plymouth Brethren. Brethren, United. See Moravians. Brethren, United, in Christ. See United Brethren in Christ. Bretschneider (bret-shnider), Karl Gott- lieb, Protestant theologian ; b. at Gersdorf, Feb. 11, 1776 ; d. at Gotha, Jan. 22, 1848. He studied at Leipzig ; became general super- intendent and upper consistorial councillor at Gotha, 1816. He was a rationalistic super- naturalist (ef. Handbuch der Dogmatik, etc., Leipzig. 1814 ; 4th ed., 1838, 3 vols., and Lelirbuch der Religion, Gotha, 1824 ; Eng. trans. Manual of Religion, London, 1857), and played a prominent part in religious affairs. He contested the genuineness of John's Gospel from internal grounds (1820). His greatest service was the establishment of the Corpus Reformatorum, Halle, 1834, sqq., in which have appeared the works of Melanchthon (28 BREVIART (119) BROADUS vols.) and a great part of Calvin's. (See Lis autobiography, Gotha, 1851.) Breviary, a prayer-book of the Roman Church, embracing all the prayers of praise, thanksgiving, and petition, which the clergy, from the subdeacous upward, are expected daily to repeat, with the psalms, Scripture readings, homilies, sermons, and hj'mns be- longing with them. It has been a gradual growth in the history of the chunh. It is an attempt to fulfil the precept, " Pray without ceasing. " It has its connections also with the synagogical system of morning and evening prayers^ the two seasons of which were soon extended to three (9 o'clock, 12, and 3), to ■which the midnight hour was added, till finally seven regidar hours of prayer were generally recognized in the church, 6 o'clock, 9, 12, ij, 6, the completovium (just before retiring), and the matutina, at 3 o'clock a.m. The breviary comprises the proper exercises for these vari ous hours for every day of the year, and the principal parts, as well as the minor, are in- tended to have a special appropriateness to the particular day of the ecclesiastical year upon ■which they fall. It also includes offices for the festivals of the saints, and in appendices the office of the Virgin Mary, of the dead, the penitential psalms, etc. The Marquess of Bute has translated the Roman breviary, Lon- don, 1879, 2 vols. F. Brewster, William, elder and chief of the Pilgrim Fathers ; b. at Scrooby (?), Notting- hamshire, England, 1560 ; d. at Plymouth, Mass., April 10, 1644. He studied at Cam- bridge University for a time ; ■uas in the ser- vice of William Davison, Elizabeth's secretary of state, 1584-86 ; postmaster at Scrooby, 1594-1607, and rallied in his house the " Sep- aratists ;" tied to Amsterdam, 1608 ; went next year to Leyden, where he carried on a print- ing business, and gave lessons in English. He headed the first pilgrims to Plymouth, 1620 ; was their leader in spiritual affairs as ■well, and preached regularlv every Sundav until 1629, when William Ralph, the first settled minister, came, but not having been ordained he did not administer the sacraments. BriQonnet (bre-so-na), Guillaume, Roman Catholic ; b. in Paris, 1470 ; d. in the Castle of Estmant, near Montereau, France, Jan. 24, 1533. He became bishop of Meaux, 1516 ; reformed his clergy ; permitted Faber Stapu- lensis, Farel, and other Protestants to preach. 1521, in consequence was (falsely) accused of being a Protestant ; but he condemned Luther's doctrines in a synod at Meaux, 1523, and with- drew his protection from the Protestants. Bridge Brethren (Freres pontifes), a re- ligious brotherhood of Southern France, .so called because they took upon themselves the building of bridges and the general attention to ferries, streets, and hospices, in short, the protection and care of travellers nntian. In his Siqns of the Times (orig. ed. , Leipzig, 1855, 2 vols. ; '3d ed., 1856; Eng. trans., London, 1850) he represented the dan- gers to religious liberty from those "who were utilizing in the interests of despotism and obscurantism, the horror of revolutionary outbreaks then felt by the quiet middle classes of Germany." His books, Ec/j/pVn Place in Universal History (lldLiwhrni^, 1845-57, 5 vols. ; Eng. trans., London, 1848-07, 5 vols.) ; Ig- /(r/^iMs (Hamburg, 1847) ; IIip})olytus (Ln-pvA^^, 1852-53, 2 vols. ; Eng. trans., London, 1852, 4 vols.) ; Outlines of PhilosopJiy of Unitersal History (Eng. trans., 1854, 2 vols.) ; Lyra Oer- manica (Eng. trans., 1855-58, 2 series) ; God in. History (Leipzig, 1857-58, 3 parts ; Eng. trans., London, 1808-70, 3 vols.) ; Bibelwerk far die Gcmeinde (Leipzig, 1858-70, 9 vols.), attest his wide learning, interest in religion, and true pietv. (See his Memoir by his wid- ow, London, "1808.) Bunting, Jabez, D.D. (Wesleyan Univer- sity, Aliddletown, Conn., 1835), Wesle3^an ; b. 'at iManchester. Eng., May 13, 1779; en- tered ministry, 1799 ; since 1833 lived in Lon- don ; one of the leaders of the denomination ; d. there, June 16, 1858. He has been called " the second founder of Methodism," and did mucli to bring out the laj* element. He was president of the Theological Institute, Lon- don, from 1835. (See his life by Bunting and Bo we, London, 1887.) Bunyan, John, the author of what, next to the Bible, is the most extensively-reail book in the Engli.sh hmguage ; b. at Elstow, near Bedford, Nov., 1628 ; d. in London, Aug. 31, 1688. He was brought up to his father's trade of tinker, and spent most of his life in the practice of that humble craft. In his early years he was not a profligate, but careless of spiritual things and grossly profane, and in his Grace Aboundiny he speaks of himself as " a very ringleader in all manner of vice and ungodliness." Tlie explanation of this, and other self-accusations even more serious, is to be found not in the notion that they are mor- bid exaggerations, but rather in his intense convictions of the evil of sin, as seen in the light of the Sacrifice on Calvary, such as the Apostle Paul felt when he called himself " the chief of sinners." To one tluis spiritually en- lightened no language is too strong to express the heinousness even of those offences which some call venial. He married early, and the iniluence of his pious wife and some religious books which she inherited from her father awakeneil his religious instincts, and a reproof for his jirofane swearing administered by a woman, who was herself " a very loose and ungodly wretch," started him on anew course. He was satistied with an outward reformation, but once overhearing some godly women talk- ing of the things of God, he fonlid tlial he had neither their holiness nor their hai)])ines8. Then commenced a long struggle, which lasted for years, but at the end of it lie found peace, and* joined him.seJf to a Baptist churcli niicler "the godly Mr. Gilford." In 1655 he took up his residence in Bedford, and became a deacon of the churcli. Here he was gradually led into the exercise of his gifts of utterance, and though he still continued his craft as tinker, preached often and in various places with great success. He used his i)en also and publislied several books which answered a temporary purpose. His evangelistic labors were arrested in 1660, when, in consecjutnce of the restoration of the monarcliy. the old Acts of Elizabeth against conventicles were put in force. Bunyan could have escaped if he had been willing to give up his preaching. But this he would not do and he was sent to the common jail at Bedford, where he re- mained for 12 years, excepting a short jieriod in 1660, when he was .set at liberty through the intercession of some persons now un- known. During his imprisonment he sup- ported his family by making tagged laces. At times, imder different jailers, he enjoyed a certain degree of liberty, and in 1672 the* Dec- laration of Indulgence, which suspended all jienal laws against Nonconformists, opened the long-closed doors, and Bunyan walked forth a free man. Lie at once ri'sumed liis work, and while still retaining Jiis liandicraft gave liimself mainly to ministerial service and preached to large congregiitions, often in Lon- don. But again his labors were interrupted. The Declaration was withdrawn after a twelve- month, and in 1075 a new proclamation re- called all licenses previously granted to Non- conformists. Bunyiin was accordingly re- turned to his old prison, but was relea.sed after .six months, owing to the good ofhces of Dr. Owen with Bishop Barlow. It was during this last imprisonment that he began, if he did not complete, the tirst part of T/w Pilyriin'a Pror/rcss, which was tirst issmd in 1678. Though never again seriously troubled, his preaching journeys were not alw.ays without risk. Still he w"iis active, and wiun James II. courted the Nonconformists U>t sinislcr imrpo.ses, he steadfastly resisted the insidious proposal. In 1688 a .serious exposure, during a journey to Reading as a peac<'maker, brought on a disease which proved fatal in 10 days. He was the author of a numl«r «f works, several of which were posthumous. The principal ones are 77/*' J^'lyrim'n ProffreM ; The Holy War; 'Ih- Life and Death of Mr. Badman; The Jenimilem Sinmr Sand, and Grace jVx^vnding, the last one Ininp a vivid account of his own religious exp«rip:i wa* smitten of God (xii. 23). Paul visited it sev- eral times (ix. 3(t. xviii. 22, xxi. 8), and liero appeared before Felix and Festus and Agrip- pa, and was imprisoned for two years, and finally sailed lience for Ronu' (xxiii.-xxvii. 1). By Vespasian it wju* made a I{omnn colony. It was the home of Eusebius. the scene of Origen's labors, and the birthplace of Proco- piu.s. It is now a desolate ruin calii d A'fi*- criych. 2. Caesarea Philippi, near the eastern sourer of the Jordan, tin; ancient Paneas, the modem CJESARIUS (128) CALAMT Banias, on an elev^ated plateau surrounded by water-courses. Here Herod erected a marble temple to Augustus. His son Philip en- larged it, and called it Caisarea in honor of Tiberius Cyesar, and added Philippi to distin- guish it from the other Ca?sarea on the Medi- terranean. Our Lord visited it shortly before his transtigu ration (Mark viii. 27-ix. 2). It was once the seat of a Greek and a Latin bishopric in succession, but is now a paltry village amid extensive ruins, among which is a vast castle {Shubeibeh), the most striking in Palestine. T. W. C. Cae-sa'-ri-us of Aries, b. at Chalons sur Saone, 36 m. n. of Macon, in the 5th cen- tury ; d. at Aries, 45 m. n.w. of Marseilles, as archbishop, Aug. 27, 543. He was a re- former of the monastic system, and in the Synod of Arausio, present Orange (529), de- fended Augustinianism against Pelagianism. F. H. F. Oaesaro-papism, originally the system of subjecting the episcopate to the imperial gov- ernment ; in the Protestant Church the ex- treme extension of the government of the church through the several civil governments. Cai'-a-phas {depression), high-priest of the Jews, A.D. 25 to 36. At his house the plot was made for Christ's death, which C. coun- selled, unconsciously uttering an inspired pre- diction of the world's sal^^ation (John xi. 47- 53). He presided at Christ's trial (Matt. xxvi. 57), and afterward violently persecuted his followers (Acts iv. 6, v. 17). He was deposed from office by the proconsul Vitellius a.d. 36. T. W. C. Cain {acquired), the first-born of the race and the first murderer (Gen. iv.). Presenting to God an offering of fruits of the earth which involved no confession of sin, no reliance upon expiation, he was rejected, while Abel was accepted. Hence through envy he slew him (1 John iii. 12), and was banished from God's presence and made a fugitive and a wanderer, but received from God a sign to protect him from the avenger of blood. He withdrew into the land of Nod, east of Eden, and built a city which he called Enoch after one of his sons (Heb. xi. 4, Jude 11). T. VV. C. Cain'-ites, an obscure sect of Gnostics about 130 A.D. They held that while the Demiurge had created the world, yet tSophin (wisdom) had always preserved a race which, like her- self, opposed the tyranny of the Demiurge. Of this race Cain was the chief. He and others like him (Korah, tlie Sodomites, etc.) were honored, because by breaking the laws of the Demiurge they helped to destroy his kingdom. Even Judas was thought to have acted from the best motives, since he deemed Christ's death the surest way to overthrow the Demiurge. Hippolytus mentions the Cain- ites in his Philosopkoumena, viii., 13. (See Neandcr, Ch. Hist., i., 448, 476 ; n. 1, 646.) T. W. C. Caius (ka'-yus), or G-aius, pope from Dec. 17, 283, to April 22, 296 ; probably was not martyred. Caius flourished between 180 and 235 in Rome ; wrote against Proclus, a leader of the Montanists ; often confounded with Hip- polytus. It is not certain that he was a pres- byter. Oajetan (ka'-ye-tan), Thomas (properly Jacopo de Vio), Roman Catholic, cardinal ; b. at Gaeta, 40 m. n.w. of Naples, Feb. 20, 1469 ; d. in Rome, Aug. 9, 1534. He entered the Dominican order in Naples, 1484 ; became its general, 1508 ; cardinal and legate, 1517 ; sent by the pope to the Diet of Augsburg, where he had three fruitless interviews with Luther (Oct. 12, 13, 14, 1518), whose deep-set eyes and daring speculations, as he said, ex- cited his admiration and dismay. The pope made him bishop of Gaeta in 1519. He was a diligent Bible student and strong advocate of such studies. Although ignorant of He- brew, he wrote a commentary on the entire Bible, in a Latin translation, except Canti- cles, the Prophets, and Revelation (collected ed., Lyons, 1539, 5 vols.), which was more critical than would have been expected— he does not take the Vulgate as his basis — and therefore was criticised ; indeed the part on the Gospels was condemned by the University of Paris, 1535. His commentary on Thomas Aquinas' Summa (Rome, 1507-22, 3 vols. ; fre- quently reprinted) is classical. (See his life by Schillbach, 1881.) C^etanus (ka-ye-ta'-nus), St. (Gaetano da Thiene), b. at Vicenza, 40 m. w. of Venice, 1480 ; studied theology and law ; became member of the " Oratory of the Heavenly Love" at Rome, and prothonotary to Pope Julius II. ; founded there the Theatines (q.v.) ; d. at Naples, 1547 ; canonized, 1671. (See his life by Liiben, Regensburg, 1883.) Ca'-lah. See Assyriology, p. 52. Calamy, Benjamin (son of succeeding), D.D. (Cambridge, 1680), Church of England ; b. in London, June 8, 1642 ; d. there ; buried Jan. 7, 1686. He graduated at Cambridge (Catharine Hall), B.A., 1664; M.A.. 1668; elected fellow ; became perpetual curate of St. Mary Aldermaubury, London, 1677 ; vicar of St. Lawrence Jewry, with St. Mary Magdalene, Milk street, annexed, 1683 ; prebendary of St. Paul's, 1685. He was a High Church- man ; famous for his Discourse about a Doubt- ing [in 2ded. " scrupulous"] Conscience, 1683. (See his Sermons, London, 1687 ; 7th ed., with Sherlock's funeral sermon, 1738.) Calamy, Edmund, the elder. Nonconform- ist ; b. at Walbrook, Loudon, Feb., 1600 ; d. in London, Oct. 29, 1666. He graduated at Cambridge (Pembroke Hall), B.A., 1619; B.D., 1632 ; became vicar of St. Mary, Swaff- ham Prior, Cambridgeshire ; and same year lecturer at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, 1636 ; compelled to retire because he refused to read 7 he Book of Sports, he became lecturer at Rochford, 1636 ; perpetual curate of St. Mary Aldermaubury, London, 1639 ; sat in the Westminster Assembly ; promoted the resto- ration of Charles II., 1660, and went to meet him at Breda in Holland ; became his chap- lain ; declined nomination to bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield ; took part in the Savoy Conference, 1661 ; was ejected for non- ' conformity, 1662, and was imprisoned for a OALAMY (129) CALENDAR while for preaching. He was a very popular preacher and a leader of the Presbyterian party. He was one of those who, in 1641, un- der the name " Sraectymnus," i.e., S[tephen] Mrarsiiall], E[dmundl C[alamy], T[hom:isJ Y[ounir], M[atthew] N[ewcomen] and VV[ill- iam] Stpurstowe], composed the famous An- swer to (I booke entitxled An humble ronoit- stranre, which became the platform of the Presbyterians. Calamy, Edmund, the younger, grandson of the preceding. Nonconformist ; b. in Lon- don, April 5, 1671 ; d. there, June 3, 1732. He was educated in various schools, and stu- dent for a while at Oxford ; became assistant in Blackfriars church, 1693 ; at Hand Alley, Bishopsgate, 1695 ; minister at Tothill, West- minster (all London), 1708 ; and remained there till death. His fame rests on his his- torical works on English Nonconformity, be- ginning with the abridgment of Ba.xter's Nnr- rati'pe, with continuation to his death (which includes a chapter headed An Account, etc., nearly half the book, upon those who were silenced for non-conformity), London, 1703 ; 2d ed. carrying the history down from 1691 to 1711, London, 1713, 3 vols. ; a continuation of the Account appeared 1737, 3 vols. His works are authentic. (See his account of his own life, London, 1839, 3 vols. ; 2d ed., 1830) Calas (ka-las), Jean, Reformed Church of France ; b. at La Cabarede, near 3Iazamet, Central France, March 19, 1698 ; broken ou the wheel at Toulouse, by order of its parlia- ment, on the trumped-up charge of murdering his sou, because the latter had turned Roman Catholic, March 10, 1763. Voltaire exerted himself in behalf of the family ; wrote to this end his Treatise on Religious Toleration (1763 ; En^. trans., London, 1764) ; succeeded in having the verdict reviewed by the parliament of Paris, which declared Calas altogether in- nocent, March 9, 1765. Louis XV. ordered that the family's confiscated property should be restored, and presented them witli 30,000 francs. (See life of Calas by A. Coquerel, Paris, 1858; 2d cd., 1869.) Ca-la-tra -va, name of a Spanish ecclesiasti- cal military order, founded in 1158, in the wars against the Moors ; approved by the pope, Alexander IH., 1164; but now a mere order of merit. Calderwood, David, Scotch Prcsbvtcrian ; b. at Dalkeith, 6.V m. s.e. of Edinburgh, 1575 ; d. at Jedburgh, 40 m. s.e. of E-linburgli, Oct. 29, 1650. lie studied at Edinburgh ; became minister at Crailing, Roxburghshire, 1604 ; exiled for his opinions he went to Holland, 1619 ; returned, 1625 ; became minister at Peneaitland, East Lothian, 1640. He wrote The Altar of Damascus, the great .storehouse of Presl)\-terian arguments, Levdrn, 1621 ; Latin trails., fuller and better. 1633 ; 2d ed., 1708 ; but chiefly a Wsfon/ of the Kirk of Scot- land, extant in 3 forms, the 2d of which was published hy the Wodrow Societv, 1S42-49, 8 vols. : the 3d had appeared in 1678 ; tlu; l.st is less than half in n)aiuis(ript in the Jiritish Museum. (See his life in the Wodrow ed.) Calderwood, Henry, LL.I). (Glasgow, 1865), United Presbyterian Church of Seot- land ; b. at Peebles, 21 m. s. of Edinburgh. .May 10, 1830 ; .studied at the University of Edinburgh ; in which since 1868 he has been professor of mental philosophy. He is the author of The Philo.tophy of the" Infi/iite, Lon- don, 1854; 3ded., 1874\ lfondh„oh of Moral Philosophy, 1872 ; 14th ed,, 1888 ; On f, aching, its Means and Ends, 1874 ; 3d ed., 1881 ; The IMations of Mind and Brain, 1879 ; 2d ed., 1884 ; The Parables of our lA)rd, 1880 ; Tlie Uelations of Science and lleligion, 1881. Ca'-leb (the bold), the son of Jephunnch, of the tribe of Judah, one of the 13 sent to spy out Canaan. He and Joshua alone were true and faithful, and they only of Israel's men of war entered the promised land (Num. xiii., xiv.). Hebron was given him as the reward of his fidelity (Josh. xiv.). T. "W. C. Calendar. The ecclesiastical calendar com- bines with the civil a list of all the fasts and feasts observed in the Christian year. Such calendars began to be prepared at an early period. We find in a calendar of the year 354 traces of Christian revision in the removal of the lists of heathen festivals common in the Roman calendars, and the introduction of the week, whicii was not an element of the Roman chronological reckoning, but of the Jewi.sh and Christian. A Gothic calendar of the same century mentions 5 feasts celebrating events in Christ's life, and 6 memorial days of martyrs. From this time such calendars became increasingly fre(|uent and elaborate. The introduction of the clmrch feasts into the calendar caused considerable dilMculty for tw(i principal reasons. On the one hand, Chris- tians found it difficult to agree upon wliat they would celebrate at Easter, whether wilh the Jews, the 14th of the first month of the Jewish year, without regard to the day of the week (Qiiartodecimans), or the next following Sunday. The Council of Nice put an end to the confusion by ordaining that Easter should be upon the Sunday which immediately fol- lows the full moon that happens upon or next after the day of the vernal equinox. Tins in- troduced tlie second difiiculty, which is to combine in one ride 3 jieriods— week, lunar month, and .solar year— wiiich have no com- mon measure. Complex mathematical com- putations are thus rendered necessary, and the result is only an approximation to a solution. Ea.stcr determined, the other feasts of the church year are reckoned from it according to the fallowing table : A TABLE TO .SHOW WIIKN HOLY DAYS COMK. ( 9 WtTkM I 40 days :vj Kaetcr. Rogat'on Sunday Ascension Day i)r Holy Thursday I'l-nlecost or Whil-Siiuday Trinity Siindny After Easter The ecclesiastical calendars were at first, of course, adapted to the Julian reckuning. which was founded upon the supposition tliut the CALENDAR (130) OALIXTtTS year was 11 minutes 14 seconds longer than it is ; but this was early found to be erroneous. About 780 the venerable Bede discovered the anticipation of the equinoxes, and found that Ihey then took place about three days earlier than at the Council of Nice. The subject re- ceived attention from time to time, but noth- ing was done about it till in 1582, Pope Greg- ory XJII., having found that he could obtain the co-operation of the principal Catholic gov- ernments, issued a brief in which he abolished the ancient calendar, and substituted that Avhich has since been called the Gregorian calendar, or the new style. The equinoxes had now retrograded from the 21st to the 11th of March. Gregory directed 10 days to be suppressed in the calendar, and the 5th of Oct. to be reckoned as the 15th. The dif- ference between the old and new styles con- tinued to be 10 days during the 16th and 17th centuries, but since 1700 was a leap year in the Julian, but not in the Gregorian reckon- ing, for the 18th century the difference was 11 days, and for a similar reason the difference in "the present century is 12 days, and in the next will be 13 days. The new calendar was not readily received in the Protestant states, partly because the pope had used the word " mandamus" in his l)rief. Protestant Germany employed the Julian reckoning till 1700, and not until 1774 did she fully adopt the Roman method of de- termining Easter. In England the new style was not adopted till 1751. The difference between the two styles was provided for by ordering that Sept. 8 of the year 1752 should be reckoned as the 14th. At the same time the commencement of the legal j'ear was changed from March 25 to Jan. 1. In Scot- land the new stylo was adopted from the be- ginning of 1600 ; and in America it followed the English precedent. The English year had had various beginnings : till 1066 with Christ- mas day ; from 1067 to 1155 with Jan. 1 ; from 1156 to 1751 with March 25 ; since with Jan. 1. The reduction of old style to new, which is necessary to maintain the correspond- ence of ancient dates to present standards, presents two points of difficulty, one as to the dav of the month, the other as to the year. Thus, Jan. 24, 1636, O. S., is Feb. 3. 1637, N. S. ; Feb. 24, 1636, O. S., is March 5, 1637, N. S., since 1636 O. S. would have been reck- oned a leap year. But all dates after March 25 retain in the N. S. the same year as in the O. S. We subjoin two convenient rules for reducing English and American old style dates to new style : 1. To get the year N. S., add to all O. S. dates before 1700 which fall between Dec. 22 and March 24 inclusive, and for all from 1700 to 1752 falling between Dec. 21 and March 24 inclusive, the number one. 2. To get the day of the month in N. S. , add to all O. S. dates before 1700 10 days, from 1700 to 1800 11 days, and from 1800 to 1900 12 days, and from 1900 to 2000 13 days, counting the leap years according to the rules of the 6. S. F. H. F. Calendar Brethren, a society of both .sexes in North Germany, also in France, Switzer- land, and Hungary, composed of both ecclesi- astical and lay persons, for the cultis'alion of good fellowship and for mutual help, in a general way under the control of the diocesan. It sprang up in the 13th century ; became very corrupt, and was suppressed during the Reformation. Its name came from the primi- tive meetings being on the " calends" or first day of the month. But the society in some places, when further developed, met only 2 or 4 times a year. Calendar, Hebrew^. See Year. Calf, the young of the cow, much used in sacrifice ; hence the expression in Hosea, R. V. (xiv. 2), " So will we render as bullocks the offering of our lips" (cf. Heb. xiii. 15). A stall-fed calf was considered choice food (1 Sam. xxviii. 24, Luke xv. 23). A covenant was sometimes ratified by the parties thereto passing between the parts of a calf slain and divided (Jer. xxxiv. 18, Gen. xv. 9-17). The golden calf, cast by Aaron at Sinai dur- ing the absence of Moses (Ex. xxxii. 4), was probably of wood, overlaid with gold, and designed to meet the wishes of a people long- ing for some visible image of the deity (Ps. cvi. 20, Acts vii. 40, 41). The golden calves of Jeroboam (1 Kings xii. 28) were set up one at each end of his king- dom to hinder Israel from resorting to Jeru- salem for worship and so cut them off from the house of David. Hence Jeroboam is so often mentioned with the brand " who made Israel to sin." Calf-worship was frequently rebuked by Hosea (viii. 5, 6, x. 5, xiii. 2). T. W. C. Calhoun, Simeon Howard, D.D. (Will- iams, 1864), Presbyterian, foreign missionary ; b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 15, 1804 ; d. at Buffalo, N. Y., Dec. 14, 1876. He graduated at Williams College, 1829 ; went to the Levant as agent of the American Bible Society, 1837 ; became missionary of the American Board in Syria (principally at Abeih, on the slopes of Lebanon), 1844 (transferred to Presbyterian Board, 1871) ; returned home in 1874. His epithet, "The Cedar of Lebanon," reveals what a sturdy character his was. Calixtines, the party among the Hussites which contended for the restoration of the calix, or cup, to the laity. See Hussites. Ca-lix'-tus, the name of three popes, 1. (Kallistos) bishop of Rome, 219-223. The discovery of Hippolytus' (q.v.) work upon heresies has greatly increased our knowledge of the life of Calixtus. The slave of a certain Karpophorus, he was intrusted with a bank- ing business in which he failed and fied. Caught and brought back, he xv as imprisoned, and then, set free, he fell into trouble with the Jews, for which he was sentenced to the mines of Sardinia. But he returned to Rome, and under Zephyrinus became keeper of the cemetery (catacombs). He was also ordaintd, and had at this period a contest with Hippol- ytus about the Trinity, and was charged by him Avith Patripassianism. As bishop he again opposed Hippolytus, who taught with the Novatians that a Christian guilty of a mortal sin could never be restored to the com- OALIXTUS (131) OALVIN munioa of the church. It is not probable that lie became a martyr, and the Murti/rdom. whicli we have is unhislorical. 2. (Guido of Vienne) pope Feb. 2, 1119-Dec. 13, 1124. His prin- cipal service was tlie termination of the con- test about investiture which had come down from Grregory VII. (q.v.). At tirst Calixtus' relations with Henry V. of Germaiiy were not cordial, and he excommunicated liim in 1119. But after military victories in Italy in 1121, under the mediation of the German princes, better relations were established, and in 1122 at Worms the following conditions were settled upon : Tiie election of bishops and abbots siiould be made in the presence of the emperor, without force or simony ; in contested cases the emperor was to give the decision with the consent of tiie metropolitans and provincial bishops. Tiie elected bishop received tiie temporal power from the emperor by touch of sceptre, and the spiritual power upon con- secration by investiture with ring and staff by the pope*. Tliis M'as a substantial victory for the papacy, since it destroyed the imperial power of veto upon the consecration of an elected bishop. Once consecrated, the bishop soan got temporal power. 3. (Alonso de Borja, Italian Borgia) pope April 8, 1455-Aug. 6, 14r)8. Already 77 j'ears of age when elected pope, Calixtus III. (lid little for the church except stir up a war against the Turks, which effected, however, but little. His nepotism led to the elevation of his nephew Roderigo (v. Alexander VI.) to the cardinalate before the canonical age. F. H. F. Calixtus (properly Kallisou), Georg, one of the greatest Lutheran theologians of the 17lli century ; b. at Medelbye, Schleswig, Dec. 14. 1586 ; d. at Helmstedt, 21 m. e. of Br.inswiek, March 19, 1656. He studied at Helmstedt, then travelled for 4 years through Germany, England, and France ; returned to become professor of theology at Helmstedt and held the position till his death. In oppo- sition to the Lutheran orthodoxy he advocated a mild construction of the confessional points of difference between the Lutherans and the Romanists and Reformed ; found in the con- sensus of the Catholic faith during the first 5 centuries a basis for a common creed of Christendom ; deduced a sound biblical the- ology, and also tirst treated ethics apart from dogmatics (1634). The Romainsts regarded him as their sharpest opponent, while the strict Lutherans considered him secretly a Ro- manist. Other charges his liberality brought on him were crypto-Calvinism and syncretism. His great opponent was Calovius. (See his Eintonw thfubHjm [" Epitome of Theoloirv "], Goslar. 1619; life by Henke, Halle, 18.5:3-60, 2 vols., and by Dowding, London, 1863.) Call is God's invitation to man to share in the blessings of salvation, usu.TJly divi.led into the outward or (-ommon call, either of nature (Acts xiv. 17, John i. 9) or of the gospel (Matt, xxii. 14), which has no saving intluence. and the inward or effectual call wliich renews the soul, of which Paul speaks in Gal. i. 15, and which he describes as lugh (Phil. iii. 14). and holv (2 Tim. i. 9), and without repentance (Rom. xi. 29). T. W. C. Calmet (kal-ma), Augustin, Roman Catho- lic ; b. at Mesnil la Horgne, Lothringen, Feb. 26, 1672 ; d. at Seuones, Lothringen, Oct. 25, 1757. He became Benedictine, 1688 ; teacher at Moyenmoutier, 1698 ; superior at Manster, in Elsass, 1704 ; abbot at Nancy, 1718 ; of Senones, in Lothringen, 1728. His great fame rests on his Bictioimni of th.e. Bihle. French orig., Paris, 1722-28, 4 vols. ; 4th ed., 1845- 46 ; Eng. trans., London, 1732 ; 6th ed., 1837, 5 vols. Calogeri or Oaloyers, each meaning " good old men," the name for monks in the Greek Church. Calovius (properly Kalan), Abraham, Ger- man Lutheran ; b. at Mohrungen, East Pru.s- sia, April 16, 1612 ; d. at Wittenberg, Feb. 25, 1686. Hi' studietl at fviiiiigsberg ; became professor extniorditiaiy there, 1637 ; rector of the c/i/tn/Hi.' continuance of his studies by a benefice, wliuli was conferred upon him without ordination CALVIN (132) CALVIN at the age of 13. But the service of the church was soon exchanged for the law, which he studied at Orleans and Bourges. In Bourges he also enjoyed the instruction of Melchior Wolmar in Greek, which was subsequeutlj of great value to him in his theological studies. From tJie tirst Calvin was famous as a hard and successful student. His mind matured rapidly, and his habits of reflection and review, with a powerful memory, made him master of all that he learned. In extreane youth he was characterized by a religious disposition which made him llie monitor of his playmates, and later manifested itself in all the forms of Catholic religiousness. In Paris Jiis attention was directed more par- ticularly to the question of personal religion, and he sought peace in the rites of the church, but in vain. His experiences were iu many respects like those of Luther, but we know little of the circumstances of his tinal conver- sion. Gradually in connection with his legal studies he became engaged in preaching, and upon his return to Paris and the deatli of his father, he gave himself more and more to the- ological studies and religious labors. In 1533 he prepared the inauguial address of the rec- tor of the university. Cop, in which he devel- oped the doctrine of justification by faith, the result of which was to endanger his life and to compel him to leave the country. In 1534 lie arrived at Basel. His stay here was short, but was signalized b}' the composition of his Institutes, which appeared in Latin in 1536, and which presented, as the best apology for the persecuted Protestants of France, a sys- tematic view of their opinions (see Calvin- ism). Next for a brief period in Ferrara, and then in Noyon, he came to Geneva in 1536 on his way, as he thought, to Basel. But Farel detained him here, though much against his will, and he ultimately became the leader, not only of Genevan, but of all Reformed Protes- tantism. He was the man needed at the time for the work of Geneva, but at the moment, circumstances were unpropitious. Geneva had succeeded in detaching herself from her bishop and from the House of Savoy, and had become nominally Protestant. But political independence and public license were closely connected. The new laws against games, etc. , and the plain preaching of the new preachers had become unpopular. The strenuous con- duct of Calvin, and his refusal to administer the sacrament at Easter, 1538, on account of the prevalent immorality, led even the Council to proceed against him, and a decree of banish- ment was issued against him, April 23, 1538. He left the city with Farel and went to Strass- burg. Of his life here little need be said ex- cept that he gave himself to literary work and to the pastoral care of the church of the French refugees. He discussed the doctrine of tlie sacrament, revised his I?istitutes, and engaged somewhat in German affairs, going as far as Regensburg on one occasion. Nor did he forget Geneva, but corresponded with various individuals and wrote against Cardinal Sadolet, who had attempted to induce the city to return to the Catiiolic Church. Many changes which soon occurred in the city caused the return of Calvin to be earnestly de- sired. At first he refused, but overcome by his sense of duty lie complied with the urgent invitation of the authorities, and arrived in Geneva, Sept. 13, 1541. The life-work of Calvin was now begun. The emphasis he gave to pure doctrine had already been made evident in his Institutes. But he laid, if possible, even greater emphasis upon the practical mission of the church, which he conceived as possessing a greater authority than any other reformer. The church is our mother. She possesses author- ity over us to teach and to command obedi- ence. Hence she sliould be so organized as to exercise control over morals and manners, and to secure the exemplification of her doctrines in practical life. Calvin accordingly caused a " consistory" to be formed, which was com- posed of the city clergy (6 in number) and of 12 elders, and which proceeded to enforce Christian disciphne in the city with an exces- sive rigor which has never been equalled else- where. Impartial severity was exercised, til], in spite of opposition and conflicts which it at first produced, the Genevan system made Geneva what Calvin conceived her called to be, a pattern Christian city for the world If some punishments inflicted were awful (as when a child was beheaded for striking its father and mother), if some were ridiculous, the result does something toward apologizing for the means. The affair of Servetus (q.v.) was complicated with the general opposition to Calvin. The period of contest confirmed till the year 1555. With these efforts at re- pressing vice were intimately connected active efforts at promoting piety. Calvin and his associates were indefatigable in their labors as preachers and teachers. Alternate weeks he preached daily. Every Friday there was a so-called "congregation," in which the peo- ple were allowed to present questions and en- gage in discussion. The catechism was regu- larly taught. Care was taken to provide for instruction in theology, and Calvin lectured three times a week upon the Scriptures. In 1559 the number of students gathered from abroad had become so large that au academy was formed, over which Beza was placed as rector. Geneva had also become a general refuge for persecuted Protestants in all lands, and Calvin's influence was thus extended over all the Protestant world. He corresponded with princes and directed the course of relig- ious movements in distant countries as well as in his own France. Switzerland particularly was brought by his influence into closer rela- tions with Germany and other Protestant countries. In the mid.st of these labors Calvin con. tinned to live with the utmost simplicity. He once refused to have his salary increased. His house was modest in the extreme. In Strassburg he married Idelette de Bures, to whom he was greatly attached, and by whom he had one son, who died at an early age. After 9 years of married life she was takeu from him. Calvin attracted many to himself and attached them closely; but to many he was not congenial. His chief and acknowl- edged fault was the severity of his temper. He struggled against it, but' not with complete CALVINISM (133) CAMALDULIANS success. His many labors and close confine- ment drew upon him many diseases, under the accumulation of which' he at last sank, expiring amid the tears of all his associates in the government and in the ministry. No stone was set to mark his grave. Best cd. of Calvin's works in orig. Latin and Frencli, b}' Baum, Cunitz, and Eduard Keuss, Bruns- wick, 1863, sqq. ; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1843-53, 51 vols. There is no satisfactory life of Calvin in English, best is trans, of Bun- gener, Edinburgh, 1863 ; best extant is in Ger- man, by Stahelin, Elberfeld, 1863. F. H. F. Calvinism, a system of doctrine which takes its name from the eminent reformer, John Calvin (1509-64), noted for his logical acuteness, though its friends claim that it ex- isted long before him. Its substantial ele- ments are found in all tiie Confessions of the Reformed churches— the Helvetic, Gallic, Belgic, Westminster, etc., but its most catho- lic statement is given in the Canons of Dort (1618-19), inasmuch as the synod which set these forth w;xs a representative body. As the system emphasizes the sinfulness and de- pendence of man and the sovereign mere}' of God, it has sometimes been known as " The Doctrines of Grace." Its fundamental prin- ciple is that God being the sum of all perfec- tion, he can have no higher end than the manifestation of his own glory. As sin exists, and he could not be its author, it follows that he decreed to permit it and overrule it to the displa\' of his infinite perfections. The sali- ent features of the system, those by which it is distinguished from others, are usually rep- resented as the Five Points, which are here summarized from the Canons of Dort. 1. The whole race having become sinful through the apostasy of the first man, God might have left all under the curse, but he was plea.sed to choose some to holiness and eternal life, and pass by others, thus manifesting him.self such as he is, that is to say, both merciful and just. This choice is not founded ui)on the foreseen faith and obedience of the elect, as if this were something independent of the divine purpose, but is due to the wise and holy counsels of God's own will. The in- finite mind never acts witiiout a reason, but that reason is not always made known to man. 2. In carrying out his purpose of salv^atiou God was pleased to provide a .sali.sfactiou for sin. This was done by the gift of his own Son, who, in the fulness of time, became in- CJirnate and died on the cross, offering a sacri- fice which is abundantly sulHcient to expiate the sins of the whole world, and on the ground of which salvation is freely offered to every man. Yet the atonement thus made avails only to tiiose who were chosen of the Father, and, in consequence, received the gift of faith. These alone are etficaciously redeemed. 3. The need of such a provision is .shown by the universal and total corruption of the race, all men being by nature aliens from God and children of wrath. However refined, amiable, correct, and moral they may be ac- cording to human standanls, they come short of the divine commands, do nothing that is acceptable to God, and are whollv unable tc (lleb. xi. 9). the hn,d nf (hv Ifehnirs (G«n. xl. 15) the h'lhihind (Zed), ii. 12). and PaUstiu*' (K.x. XV. 14. Pliilislia. R. V.). fn>n> tlw IhIm-s on the southwest coast of tiie MiMlilerranean. Its extreme length is al)Out ISO m. and its average width about 60. I'nder J«vslma it was divided among the 12 tribes, under IMio- boam into the 2 kingdoms of Juilaii ami Is- rael, and afterward was ruled over iu turn by OANAANITES (136) CANON Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. In Christ's time there were 5 Roman prov- inces— Galilee, Samaria, Judsea, Pertea, and Idumea. It is now under the control of Tur- key. It has a very diversified surface, well watered and extremely fertile, though now being stripped of its forests the productiveness is small. The deepest known gorge on the earth's surface is the valley through which the Jordan flows, descending 2000 feet from its source to the Dead Sea. The various elevations of the region yield similar diversities of climate, and hence an unequalled variety of products. The hills, now bare and barren, were terraced to the summit, and the early and the latter rains carefully stored secured all the moisture needed. T. W. C. Oa'-naanites. The inhabitants of the Jor- dan valley were the Hiiites in the north (Josh. xi. 3) ; the Jcbusites, in the hill country around Jerusalem, the old name of which was Jebus (Josh. XV. 8) ; the Girgashites, probably east of the Sea of Galilee (Gen. x. 16) ; the Ca- naanites, in a restricted sense, north of the Jebusites (Josh. xi. 3) ; the Amoritts, south of Jerusalem (Gen. xiv. 7) ; the Ilittites or children of Heth, west of the Dead Sea (Gen. xxiii. 3, Num. xiii. 39), and the Perizzites, scattered through the land as villagers (Gen. xiii. 7). All these, together with some smaller tribes (Arkites, Anakim, etc.), made the popu- lation which was extirpated by the children of Israel under Joshua. The scriptural rea- son assigned for this dreadful overthrow was the exceeding wickedness of these nations. God had borne long with them (Gen. xv. 16), but there was a limit even to his forbearance. When their iniquity was full, the Israelites were sent forth to capture and destroy, not to sate their own anger or avarice or lust, but to execute God's righteous judgment. And hence they were often assisted by miracle, as in crossing the Jordan, the overthrow of Jer- icho, the great victory at Gibeon. In view of the grossly corrupt religion of the Canaanites and their bestial immorality, their total de- struction was not too high a price to pay for the establishment and preservation of true re- ligion on the earth. T. W. C. Can'-da-ce, an Ethiopian queen, whose treasurer was met on the desert road from Jerusalem to Gaza by Philip the evangelist and converted to Christianity. Her dominion was the region of Upper Nubia, called by the Greeks Meroe. T. W. C. Can'-dle-mas, a church festival celebrated Feb. 2, commemorating the purification of the Virgin Mary. It is celebrated by the lighting of candles to indicate the prophecy of Simeon that the child Jesus should become " a light to lighten the Gentiles." It was first observed probabljr in 542, and seems to have grown out of the heathen festivals of purification held in this month. F. H. F. Candles are used in the service of the Ro- man Church as a symbol of Christ, the true Light. Tliey are used in the mass, in the ad- ministration of the sacraments, in benedic- tions and processions, before statues, etc., and in praying for the dead, F. H. F. Candlestick, The Golden. See Taber- nacle. Candiish, Robert Smith, D.D. (College of New Jersey, 1841 ; Edinburgh, 1865), Free Church of Scotland ; b. in Eainburgh, March 23, 1806 ; d. there, Oct. 19, 1872. He was educated at Glasgow ; became minister of St. George's, Edinburgh, 1834, and remained till death ; was one of the founders of the Free Church of Scotland, 1843 ; and after Chal- mers' death (1847) the leading spirit therein. In 1862 he received the honorary position of principal of the New College. He tried to clTect a union between the Free, United, and Reformed Presbyterians of Scotland and the Presbyterian Church of England. He wrote several books. (See his Memoir of W. Wilson, Edinburgh, 1880.) Cange, Du. See Du Cange. Canisius (ka-nee'-se-us, properly Hondt), Peter, Jesuit ; b. at Nimwegen, Netherlands, May 8, 1521 ; d. at Freiburg, Switzerland, Dec. 21, 1597. He was the first German to enter the Society of Jesus, 1543 ; and became first provincial for Germany, 1556. He was extraordinarily active and successful in spread- ing the society and in suppressing the Refor- mation in Cologne, Bavaria, and Austria. He was beatified, Nov. 20, 1864. His two catechisms, the larger, Summa docArinw Chris- tiana', Cologne, 1554, and the smaller, Iiistitu- tione.s ckristiana. pietatis, 1566 (both repeated- ly reprinted, and translated into many lan- guages), were intended to counteract and supplant Luther's catechisms. (See his life by Riess [German], Freiburg, 1865.) Canon, Biblical. See Bible, p. 105. Can-on, Ecclesiastical, a person who pos- sesses a prebend or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. The institution is first heard of in the 6th century. Originally sim- ple priests, living in a community to assist the bishop, and dependent entirely upon him, canons formed subsequently in many places separate associations, sometimes having the election of bishops, sometimes subject only to their dean, sometimes existing in cities where there were no bishops. In the Roman Catholic Church in England and elsewhere canons were formerly distin- guished as regulars, those who liveel" in mon- asteries, secular, who did not, but kept the canonical hours, and lionorary, who were not obliged to keep the hours. In English cathe- drals of the present day the canons are obliged to be in residence for '3 months of the year. There are also minor canons who take part in the daily choral service. F. 11. F. Canon of the Mass, that part of the mass which begins after the " Sanctus" with the prayer " Te igitur," and ends, according to some, just before the " Pater noster," accord- ing to others, with the consumption of the ele- ments ; so called because it contains the fixed rule for celebrating the eucharist in the Ro- man Church. Canon Law is, properly, the law embodied in the Corpus Juris (\,noniei of the Roman Church. There are later sources of law in CANON (137) CANON that church, as for example, the decrees of the Council of Trent, the bulls of recent popes, the Vatican Council, etc. ; and there are in different Protestant countries of Europe, dif- ferent bodies of evangelical ecclesiastical law which have an historical connection with the Corpus Juris Gaiionict. In America, owing to the separation of church and state, canon law may be deliued as the sum of the consti- tutional and legislative regulations established by any ecclesiastical communion for its own government ; and as such it plays no part in public affairs, except as the courts may be called upon, now and then, to protect the rights of a portion of an ecclesiastical com- munion under its own laws. HisTOKY.. — The regulations which were es- tablished governing the relations of the church to the state and the administration of her in- ternal affairs were called caiums in distinction from the dogmas of the church, and the laws of the state. In the earliest times, there was uo need of gathering these into collections, but with the increasing extension of the church and the greater complexity of its re- lations, collections became a necessity. Tlie tirst mention of a code of canons is in connec- tion with the Council of Chalcedon (451). It seems probable that the decrees of the Coun- cil of Nice (325) and those of Ancyra (314), Neo-Cajsarea (314), and Gangra (365) had al- ready been gathered into a convenient volume. The lirst collection which has come down to us is the " Apostolical Constitutions," dating from the end of the 3d to the middle of the 4th century, which embrace dogmatical, litur- gical, ethical, and disciplinary regulations. Connected with these, as a kind of appendix, are the " Apostolical Canons," and there is a similar collection known as the " Apostolical Church Order," dating from the beginning of the 3d century. In the reign of Justinian various scattered compilations were reduced to a systematic form in 50 books. Later came the " Noraocanon," which contained tlie last- mentioned collection in connection with the civil la>TS relating to ecclesiastical matters. In the year 693 the TruUan Council made a comprehensive collection, which formed the .standard Greek law down to the middle of the 9th century. Translations of the decisions of the Eastern Church introduced them into the West, the best known being the " Isidorian" of Spain (5th century). The decisions of Western councils and the letters of the popes, called decretals, were united by Dionysius Exiguus, about the beginning of the 6th cen- tury, ill a collection called after him, which, though never formally adopted, became, in fact, the standard collection. A Spanish col- lection of the 6th centurv, called the Jlispana, obtained great currency in Spain and in France, wliere it was associated with the col- lection of Dionysius in its original, and in a modiiied form \ Dionyso- lladriana). The.se collections of genuine decretals were increased between the years Hi!) and S57 by a collection called at the present tiint; the pseudo- Isidorian decretals. This collection, which i)rctended to have been prepared by Isidorus Mcrcator, wlio was popularly supposed to be St. Isidor of Spain, was divided into three parts, of which the first, after some introductory mat- ter, contained the 50 apostolical canons, 59 spurious letters of popes from (^lenient to Melchiades, and the spurious "donation of Constantine ;" the second opens with an ex- tract from the preface of the genuine Spanish collection, and contains the Greek, African, Gallic, and Spanish councils in substantial agreement with the Spanish collection ; and the third contained papal letters from Sylves- ter to Gregory II., of which 35 were spuriou.s. The dale of the forgery is evident from the fact that the collection makes use of materials drawn from the Council at Paris in 829, and is itself quoted at Chiersy in 857. Bui in 857 it was unknown at Roiiie, as is seen by the answer of the pope to an inquiry addressed to him in reference to a spurious decretal. In 863 it was still unknown there ; but in 8()4 the principles of the false decretals biggin to play a great part in the letters of Nicholas 1. to Hincmar of Hheims in the affair of Kotliad of Soissons. That the spurious letters are a late forgery is evident from their style, which is that of the monkish Latin of the'fllh century : from their monkish ignorance, as when Cephas is derived from caput; and from their many anachronisms, as when Damasus (366-84) quotes from Leo I. (440-61), or when letters arc dated in the consulships of consuls long since out of office. The contents of many of them are so exactly adapted to later circum- stances as to require a prophetic inspiration on the p.artof the suppo.sed writers to account for the correspondence. Their general object seems to be to favor the bishoi)s in their con- tests with the archbishops, and to encourage appeals to the " primates," whom the writer wislied to see apiK)intefl in every country. la the absence of this olficer, who never got gen- erally appointed, the elfecl of the whole was to elevate the jiope at the expense of the arch- bishops, and was thus welcome to Nicholas. The writer may have been Autgar of Mayence, who wished to become primate of (Jermany. The gemiineness of the collection was not dis- puted in its day. and was only disproved by tlie Protestant scholarship of the period of the lieformation. The effect of the coikction seems to have been to promote teiideneies al- ready in existence, rather than to call in any very new force. In fact, their i)erfect accord with the ideas of the times was the great rea- son why their authority was accepted without sutlicient inquiry. The manuals of canon law which had sprung iq) thus irregularly and in widely separated districts, contained contradictory and obsolete elements. The whole needed ocera, CARATTES (140) CARMEL grand-niece of Pope Paul IV., by the Geneva courts (1559), he married Anna Framery, 1560. He stood in high favor -with the Protestants, and was the glory and sti'cngth of the Italian congregation there. (See his life, in Italian, by Niccolo Balbani, Geneva, 1587 ; n.e. by E. Comba, Florence, 1875 ; £ng. trans., Lon- don, 1608.) Caraites. See Karaites. Car'-che-mish {fort of Chemmli), a chief city on the Euphrates, taken by Pharaoh Neco after the battle of Megiddo, in which King Josiah was slain (2 Kings xxiii. 29), afterward retaken by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xlvi. 2). Its precise site is not determined. T. "W . C. Cardinal, the name of the principal mem- bers of the papal court. The pope occupies the threefold position of bishop of Rome, arch- bishop of a province of 8 bishoprics, and pri- mate of the Occident, and so head of the Catho- lic Church. In all these capacities he needs the same assistance in the performance of his duties as is necessary in the case of other bish- ops, and the cardinals are the officers who render the required assistance. The same board of officers originally assisted him in all his functions, so that it was the college of presbyters of the citj^ of Rome who became the original and model of the subsequent col- lege of cardinals. The city was early divided into various districts, in each of which there was one principal church where baptisms and other principal forms of service were per- formed. It was the presbyter of such a chief (or cardinal) .church who had a seat in the council of the Roman bishop. With these presbyters were next associated deacons for the distribution of charity. Under Stephen IV. (d. 771) there were added the suburbica- rian bishops. After much vacillation, the number of cardinals was fixed by Sixtus V. in 1590 at 70. Of these 6 are cardinal-bishops (these suburbicarian bishops), 50 are cardinal- priests, who derive their titles from churches in the city cif Rome, but who may be bishops or archbishops of other dioceses, and 14 cardi- nal-deacons. The requirements for the cardi- nalate are the same as for a bishopric. In all ages of the church abuses have been connected with the system, as when Giovanni de Medici was made cardinal at 10 (afterward Leo X.). The ceremonies at the installation of a cardi- nal are very elaborate. The insignia are chiefly the red hat, and to receive the hat has the same meaning as to become a cardinal. The vestments are also scarlet. The title of a cardinal is "your eminence." In the des- patch of the business of tjie Roman court, a variety of offices and boards have been from time to time established, the duties and privi- leges of which coincide with each other at many points. Hence custom, more than the original constitution of the different bureaus, decides where a given cause is to be decided. Since the Reformation a number of " congre- gations" have been created, which are com- mittees of cardinals, with a president, secre- tary, and various assistants, such as theo- logians. Of these the Congregation of the In- quisition, and of the Propagation of the Faith are the most famous. The latter attends to the aifairs of all countries, as America, in which the operations of the church are con- sidered mLsfeionary. The whole college of regularly instituted cardinals elect the pope, though not necessarily from their own num- ber. See Conclave, Curia. F. H. F. Cardinal Virtues, The, are prudence, jus- tice, temperance, and fortitude. Carey, William, D.D. ( , 18—) Baptist missionary ; b. at Paulerspury, near North- ampton, England, Aug. 17, 1761 ; d. at Ser- ampore, 13 ni. n. of Calcutta, India, June 9, 1834. He became minister at Moulton, 1786 ; at Leicester, 1789 ; joined in founding the Baptist Missionary Society (1792), and was its first missionary to India, where he arrived in 1794. Unable at once to begin missionary labor he became superintendent of an indigo factory near Maldah, Bengal, and the next year started a church ; removed to Serampore, 1799, and began missionary operations with school and piinting-press, from which pro- ceeded 26 versions of the Bible. In 1801 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit, Bengali, and Mahratta iu the newly-founded college of Fort William, Calcutta, and he held this office until it was abolished. He also success- fully propagated the gospel. His Inquiry into the Obliyatians of Christians to use Means for the Contersicn of the Heathens was one of the earliest missionary tracts in the language. He made a version of the Scriptures into Ben- gali and other languages of India. He also prepared various gram'mars and dictionaries. He was thrice married. (See his life by Eus- tace Carey, London, 1836 ; [with Marshman and Ward] by IMarshman, London, 1859, 3 vols. ; by George Smith, 1885 ; 2d ed., 1887.) Cargill, Donald (or Daniel), Scotch Cove- nanter ; b. at Rattray, Perthshire, about 1619 ; executed in Edinburgh, July 27, 1681. He studied at Aberdeen and St. Andrews ; be- came minister in Glasgow, 1655 ; publicly pronounced the Restoration a calamity on ac- count of Charles' character ; deprived of his beneiice and banished beyond the Tay, 1662, he led a wandering preacher's life until 1680, when he joined Richard Cameron (q.v.) in open rebellion. The next year (July 11) he was taken prisoner and shortly after executed. Carlstadt. See Karlstadt. Car'-mel (fruitfitl). 1. A city of Judah, 9 m. s.e. of Hebron, where Saul erected a trophy (1 Sam. xv. 12), where Abigail dwelt (xxv. 2), and where Uzziah had vineyards (2 Chron. xxvi. 10). 2. The only bold headland in Palestine. It separates Sharon on the s. from Jezreel on the n. The range runs 13 m. in a s.e. direction and is covered with copse, oaks, and evergreens. Its verdure and grace of outline and its rich pastures are often referred to in the Old Testament (Song of Sol. vii. 5, Isa. xxxiii. 9, xxxv. 2, Amos i. 2). It was the scene of notable events in the history of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings i. 9-15, ii. 25, iv. 25). The place of the destruction of the priests of Baal (1 Kings xviii.) is marked by the Arab name, Ev-Maharraknh, "the burn- ing," still given to it. On the summit is a huge Carmelite monastery. T. W. C. CARMELITES (141) CARPZOV Carmelites, an order of monks, originally eremitic, founded by a certain Berthold, in the 12th century, upon Mt. Carmcl. This was the period of the crusades, and the Patri- arch of Jerusalem gave the order a rule in 1209, which was contirmed by the pope in 1224. Bat soon the crusades came to an end, and the Carmelites withdrew from Palestine, and were soon found in Cyprus, Sicily, and even England. In 1245 their first general cha])ter was held, and in 1247 their original rule — which required separate cells, labor, and at timi s hi lence — was made more mild. I'heir costume, which had been of white and black striped material, was changed to a white mantle over a black robe. In 12!S7 the scapu- lar was invented by them — a piece of clothing consisting of two bands of gray woollen cloth worn, the one over the back, and tlu; other over the breast, and fastened together at the shoulders, which it was pretended had been brought down from heaven by the Virgin, who would pass through purgatory every Saturday and release all who should be found there wearing it. This greatly increased the following of the order. It soon claimed to stand in special relations to the Virgin. In 1452 convents for females were established. But the demoralization of the pre-Reforma- tion period affected the Carmelites as well as other orders. Numerous reformations and the formation of new congregations followed. In the 16th century the barefooted Carmelites of Spain were formed, which set themselves against the times by emphasizing asceticism and fanaticism. The order had now in all four generals, those of the modified rule, of the Congregation of Mantua, of the barefooted Carmelites of Spain, and of the barefooted monks of Italy. Its pretensions increased, till it claimed to iiave been in existence from the days of Elijah himself ! The order still exists. F. H. F. Carnesechi (kar-ne'-sek-ee), Pietro, Italian Protestant martyr ; b. at Florence about 1509 ; d. in Rome. Oct. 8, 1567. He rose to be papal secretary and prothonotary under Clement VII. (1528-84), and so influential that it was said that he ruled the church more than the pope did ; fell under Protestant influences and consequent susj)icion (altiiough he never left the church) after C'leincnt's death and held no further church position ; condemned by the Inquisition at Rome and executed. (See life by L. Witte, Halle, 1883, [pp. 56].) Carnival, a word of uncertain origin, sig- nifyin<^ the period from the beginning of the year till Lent, or more restrictedly the few days immediately preceding Lent, celebrated in Rome from early times with great public license. The origin of the custom is un- doubtedly to be sought in the Bacchanalian festivities of heathenism, which the church found it easier to modify than to suppress. Races and masked promenades constitute the distinguishing features of the celebration. OtlKT cities, as Milan and Venice, had tlicir carnivals also. F. H. F. Caroline Books, The, arose under the direc- tion of Charlemagne upon occjksion of tlie sec- ond Synod of Kice in 787, wiiich commanded the worship of images. They are four in number and comprise 120 chapters. Alcuin may have had a hand in their preparation. Their genuineness, though often disputed, is undoubted. They take a middle position be- tween the iconoclasts and the favorers of im- age worship. Pictures may be placed in the churches, but they are neither to be wor- .shipped, nor the s'aints through them. The authority of the fathers and of I he Bible is in- voked in behalf of this position. The books have a wider interest from the fact that they are a mirror of the whole theology of Ih'e Prankish Church. They occupy theologically the position of Gregory the Great, and even present as their creed "the Confession of Pe- lagius ! F. II. F. Carpenter, Lant, LL.D. (Glasgow, 1S06), English Unitarian ; b. at Kidderminster, Sept. 2, 1780 ; studied at Glasgow ; taught .school ; became minister at Bri.stol, 1817, luul exertecl great influence in the town and denomination ; drowned in the Mediterranean near Leghorn, April 5, 1840. (See his biography by his son, London, 1842.) Carpenter, Mary, daughter of above, Uni- tarian ; b. at Exeter, April 8, 1807 ; d. at Bristol, June 14, 1877. Her life was dedi- cated to the improvement of the pauper and criminal classes. Slie established at Bristol ragged and reformatory schools, and l)ecame an authority in such kind of reform. She was interested likewise in the education of Hindoo women, and in 1866, 1868, 1869, and 1875 visited India for that and other philan- thropic purposes. She had the satisfaction of seeing many of her ideas embodied in legisla- tion hoth at home and abroad. (See life by J. E. Carpenter, London, 1879.) Car-poc'-ra-tes, a Gnostic teacher from Alexandria, who flourished in the first decades of the 2d century. His followers, the Car- pocratians, were notorious for their immoral life. They first honored with public cere- monies the busts of their heroes— llie begin- ning of image worship. F. H. F. Carpzov (karp tsof), German Protestant theologians (originally from Spain, name Car- pezana). 1. Johann Benedict, b. al Hochlilz, 16 m. n.n.w. of Chemnit/, June 22, 1607 ; be- came professor of theoloirv at Leijizig, 1648 ; d. there, Oct. 22, 1657. He founded the dis- cipline of symbolics through iiin posihumoud work Isngof/c, etc. (introduction lii the symboli- cal Li:theran books). Leipzig, 1665. 2. Johann Benedict, son of preceding ; b. at Leipzig, Ai)ril 24, 1689; became professor there of (»ri- ental languages. 1668 ; of theology. 16H.J ; d. tiiere, Marcli 28, 1699. lie wtis the o|)ponent of the I'ictists and supfiressed th« ir ColUgia philobil)Iica. 8. Samuel Benedict, anotlur son; b. at Leipzig, Jan. 17. 1647; be( ame succes.'^or of Spener. ascliicf court pnaelur, at Dresden. 1692; d. there. Auir. 8L 1707. 4. Johann Qottlob, son of preceding ; b. ul Drca- den. Sept. 26. 1679 ; In-came prnfr ssor of Ori- ental lancmagesnt Leipzig. 1719 ; su|>erinlrnd- ent at Lubeck. 1730; d. there. April 7. 1767. He wa-s the most learned fheoingian of tlie name, and wrote against Kidiard Simon and CARROLL (142) GARY Clericus an introduction to the Old Testament, Leipzig, 1714-21. 5. Johann Benedict, gnuid- son of tlie first named ; b. at Leipzig, May 20, 1720 ; became professor of Greek at Helm- stedt, 1748 ; also of theology, 1749 ; also ab- bot of Konigsliitter. 1759 ; d. at Helmstedt, April 28, 1803. Carroll, John, Roman Catholic ; b. at Up- per Marlborough, Md., Jan. 8, 1735 ; ap pointed vicar-general, 1786 ; bishop of Balti- more—the first R. C. bishop in U. S. A. — 1789 ; archbishop, 1815 ; d. at Baltimore, Md., Dec. 3, 1815. Carson, Alexander, LL.D. (Bacon College, Ky., 18 — ), Irish Baptist; b. near Stewarts- town, County Tyrone, 1776 ; d. at Belfast, Aug. 24, 1844. He was educated at Glasgow ; became pastor of the Presbyterian church at Tobbermore, near Coleraine, 1798 ; being con- vinced of the scripturalness of the Congrega- tional form of church government he left the Presbyterians, and in the same place started an independent church in 1804. For 10 years he had to preach in barns and in the open air, before a chapel could be built him. In 1880 lie became a Baptist, while attempting to re- fute Haldane's new view of baptism, and his book. Baptism: Its Mode and Subjects (Edin- burgh, 1831), is a Baptist classic. He was very able and learned and justly honored. (See his life by G. C. Moore, London, 1851, and Douglas, London, 1884. His works were published in 6 vols., Dublin, 1847-64.) Carstares, William, D.D. (p]dinburgh, 1709), Scotch Presbyterian ; b. at Ctithcart, near Glasgow, Feb. 11, 1649 ; d. in Edinburgh, Dec. 28, 1715. He studied at Edinburgh, 1663-67 ; fled to Holland to escape persecution as a stout Presbyteripn, and there entered the service of William of Orange, whose fortunes lie advanced in a signal manner, and whose entire confidence he enjoyed. Under Anne his direct political influence ceased, but he be- came principal of the University of Edinburgh, 1703, and in this new sphere also distinguished himself. His coreligionists' esteem was shown by his four-times election to the moderator- ship, 1705, 1708, 1711, 1714. As a man of wonderful shrewdness, wisdom, honesty, bold- ness, and tact he played a great part in the civil and political history of his country. (See his life by R. H. Story, London, 1874'.) Cartesian Philosophy. Sec Des Cartes. Carthage, an ancient Punic city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 B.C., re-established by Augustus in 29 B.C. It was the capital of the province of " Africa," was the home of Ter- tuUian, the first theological writer of the Latin Church, of Cyprian, the bishop of the city, who was martyred there (258), and was sev- eral times the residence of Augustine. In the middle of the 5th century it became the Van- dal capital, was stormed by the Greek Belisa- lius in 533, and entirely destroyed by the Mohammedans in 706. ' P. H. F. Car-thu'-si-ans, a monastic order founded by Bruno in 1084, deriving its name from its first seat. Chartreuse. The characteristic of the order may be found in the idea of seclu- sion. Bruno built for himself and his com- panions separate cells, occupied at first by two, and later by one brotlier. Here the minor hours were said, the food of each pre- pared, and the religious life chiefly lived. The seclusion of the monks from the world and its cares and temptations, of the profes- sors from the lay brethren, of the order from other orders, of the individual monk from others, were the measures taken to carry out the idea of the order and maintain its exist- ence. And they have met with great success. It has remained more incorrupt and unmodi- fied than any of its associate orders. The or- der began early to spread. In 1151 there were 14 houses. In 1170 the order was taken under the special protection of the pope. About 1700 there were 170 establishments. It still exists. F. H. F. Cartaphilus. See Jew, the Wandering. Caurt'wright, Thomas, Church of England ; b. in Hertfordshire, 1535 ; d. at Warwick, Dec. 27, 1603. He was educated at Cam- bridge ; fellow successively of St. John's (1560) and Trinity (1562) colleges, and dis- tinguished for learning, eloquence, and piety. From 1565 to 1567 he was chaplain to the archbishop of Armagh. In 1569 he became Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cam- bridge, but next year was deprived in con- sequence of alleged " impious and unscriptu- ral" inveighing against the Anglican ecclesias- tical polity, and in 1571 he was deprived of liis fellowship. He went to the Continent, returned after a year, but finding that his outspoken sympathy with the Puritan movement only brought "him into trouble, he quilted England in 1573 and did not return until 1585. From that year till his death he was master of the Leicester Hospital at Warwick (an asylum for 12 poor brothers established by the Earl of Leicester, in 1571). " He frequently preached in the town and neighborhood, and is said to have been the first among the clergy of the Church of England to introduce extem- porary prayer into the services. . . . [His] position in relation to the religious parties was in some measure that of an eclectic. . . . [He argued] that admitted abuses in the church did not justify separation from its commun- ion. . . . His ideal in relation to church dis- cipline and organization was essentialh' Pres- byterian, and this in direct conjunction with the civil power. . . . His temperament was impulsive, and in argument he was often car- ried away by his impetuosity." One of his writings, A Ileplye, etc., 1572, was the proxi- mate cause of Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. (Cf. sketch by J. Bass Mullinger in Stephen, Nat. Biog., s.v.) Cary, Henry Francis, Church of England ; b. at Gibraltar, Dec. 6, 1772 ; d. in London, Aug. 14, 1844. He was educated at Chri.^t Chiirch, Oxford ; became vicar of Abbot's Bromley, Staffordshire, 1796 ; in addition, of Kingsbury, Warwickshire, 1800 ; assistant keeper of printed books in the British Mu- seum, 1826 ; resigned, 1837. His fame rests entirely on his translation of Dante's Ditine Comedy {Inferno, 1805, completed 1814), which remains the standard. OARYL (143) CASUISTRY Caryl, Joseph, Nonconformist ; b. in Lon- don, 1603 ; educated at Oxford : was member of Westminster Assembly of Divines ; minis- ter in London from 1645'till death, Marcli 10, 1672-73, although ejected, 1662. He is fa- mous for his Kvpomtion of the Book of Job, London, 1648-66, 13 vols., small quarto ; 2d ed., 1676-77, 3 vols., folio; abridged ed. by Bcrrie, Edinburgh. 1836.) Casas. See L.\s Casas. Cassander, Georg, lioman Catholic ; b. at Pit them, near Bruges. Flanders. Aug. 24, 1;313 ; d. at Cologne, Feb. 3, 1566. He was educated at Louvain ; became professor of belles-lettres at Bruges, 1541 ; on account of his Reformation sympathies compelled to re- sign, he travelled about until 1549, when lie took, up permanent residence at Cologne. He made it the business of his life to bring about a union between Roman Catholics and Prot- e.stants. He wrote much upon the subject. His principal writing is De articuUs . . . con- sultatio, etc. ("A Consideration of the Articles in Dispute between Catholics and Protest- ants"), Cologne, 1564. His collected works, Opera omnia, Paris, 1616, folio, were promptly put on the Index. Yet the only concessions he would make were to grant the cup to the laity, and the validity of Protestant ordinations. (See life [in Latin] by A. C. Friederich, Got- tingen, 1855.) Cassian. See Docet^. Cas-si-a -nus, John, contemporary of Au- gustine, was trained in the mouasticism of Syria and Egypt. He wrote largely upon monasticism and founded two monasteries near ^larseilles. Entangled iu the Pelagian controversy, he advanced the views which were subsequently called semi-Pelagianism. He also wrote against Xestorianism. His dates are uncertain, but he was b. about 360 ; d. about 448. F. H. F. Cas-si-o-do'-rus, Magnus Aurelius, a Ro- man statesman and a monk ; b. at Scyllacium, in Bruttium, about 477 ; d. between 560 and 570. He was iu the service of the East Gothic kings till 540, when he withdrew to a monas- tery which he had founded in Bruttium. Here he wrote works of the greatest value to pi>sterity. The most important are, Epintola- rum Libri XIT., which contains the decrees of the East Gothic kings, and a church history compiled from Socrates, Sozomenus, and The- odoret. (See his collected works in Migne, Pat. Lat. LXIX.-LXX. ; conden.sed Eng. trans, of his Letters, Oxford, 1886. Life by A. Franz, Breslau, 1873.) F. H. F. Cassock, a clerical coat reaching to the feet. It has an upright collar. In the Church of Rome that worn by the priests is black, by the bishops purple, 'by the cardinals .scarlet, and by tlie popes white. In the Church of England the color for all three orders of clergy is black, but bishops on state occasions often wear purple. It is confined at the waist by a broad siush called a circlinc. The bishop's apron in the Anglican Church is really a short cassock. Caste. Sec India. Castell, Edmund, D.D. (Cambridge, 1601). b. at Tadlow, Cambri(l<:esiiire, 1606 ; d. at Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, 1685. He was educated at Cambridge; " a.ssisted' Walton on his Poliffjlot (1657), contributing the editions of the Samaritan, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic versions, and other (unacknowledged) portions, and spending much money on it ; brought out in 1669, 2 vols., folio — at the expense in time of at least 18 years of gratuitous labor, and in money of £13,000, besides incurring a debt of £1800— his famous Lexicon lleptaf/lot- ton, Ilebrainiin, Vlialilaicuni, Si/riarum, Seima- ritaniim, yFAhinpinun, Aniltiemn, eonjuuctim, et Pertticnin S( puratim. Ruined in fortune, in health, and almost blind, the poor man had some consolation in the enthusiastic reception of his work by foreign scholars. His lexicon was specially prepared for "NValton's Polfn/lot, and is usujilly sold with it. In 1666 lie be- came chaplain- in-ordinary to the king ; in 1667 prebendary of Canterbury and profesvor of Arabic at Cambridge ; F.R.S., 1674 ; was succes-sively vicar of Hatfield Be vend, of Wodeham Walter, and of Higham Gobion. Castellio (Castalion, Castalio originally Chateillon), Sebastian, Protestant ; brat St. Martin-du-Frcsne, near Geneva, 1515 ; d. at Basel, Dec. 29, 1563. He was proficient in Greek and Hebrew, and on Calvin's recom- mendation became rector of the Genevan .school, 1541 ; went to Basel in con.sequt nee of his dissent from Calvin's views on predestina- tion, 1544 ; became professor of Greek there, 1552. His famous Latin version of the Bible was publi-shed at Basel, 1551, and his French version, 1555. (See life by iMithly, Ba.sel, 1862, and by Broussoux. 1867. Cf. Schafl", Creeds, i., 475 sqq.) Oas'-tor and Pol'-lux, the twin sons of Jupiter, who presided over the destinies of sailors. Hence they were often figured on ships' prows in classic days, and al.so were the name of ships, as in Paul's case, Acts xxviii. 11. Casuistry is that department of ethics which treats of cases of conscience, especially the perplexing (juestions which arise from appar- ently contlicting duties. Some have denied the u.se or propriety of any such science. They sav that in true Christian ethics jirinci- ples of "life are .set forth, not rules for indi- vidual cases, and that there is nothinir like casuistry in the moral teaching of Clirist and his apos"tles. If a man's ultimate aim be to do the will of God, this aim will liy the aid of the llolv Spirit clear \\\i all special perplexities us thev arise. This opinion is a natural revul- sion from I lie form wliich the sy.sfem a>2y). he nalurallv treated the Ten Commandments, the C reed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Sacraments, as the topics proper 'to such a work. There had been catechisms in the period immediately preceding the lieformation, as that of the Bo- CASTOR (146) OATHARI hemian Brethren ; but beginning with Luther's a great number was put fortli by all parties. The Geneva Catechism of Calvin appeared in 1536, the Heidelberg in 1563. The begin- nings of the English catechism date from 1549. Tile catechism of Mogilas in the Greek Church was prepared in 1543, that of the Council of Trent in 1566 (Eng. trans, by Donovan, Dublin, 1829). The Socinians published one in 1574. The Zurich belongs to the year 1639 ; and the greatest of the catechisms, the Larger and Shorter of the Westminster As- sembly, were prepared in 1647. The Shorter Catechism, after a review of the entire field of theology, takes up- successively the Ten Commandments, the Sacraments, and the Lord's Prayer, thus substantially maintaining the ancient selection of topics. Catechetics is the science of the instruction of candidates for membership in the Christian Church. The Catechetical Schools were schools, like that at Alexandria, whicli were founded for the instruction of catechumens, but which sometimes developed into theologi- cal institutions. F. H. F. Ca-te'-na, a commentary upon a book of Scripture composed of selections from various authors. The work of biblical interpretation which began in the Eastern Church with Origen was carried on by his successors, till in the 5th century it attained its summit, the Western Church having meantime had her Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome, who had added no insignificant contribution to the rich materials collected. This material had now to be brought together, abridged, and ar- ranged, and this was done under the titles of epitomes, or glosses, and later cateiuB. Cassi- odorus is named as the first compiler of a catena, but was not strictly so, since he did not give his sources, and revised his materials. Usually in the true catenw, the quotations are made without change, and are arranged one after another in order, the text being printed in the margin, and the name of each author given in its place. The making of catenm con- tinued till on into the 16th century, and since that time similar collections have often been made. The significance of these early catenw lies in the fact that they have preserved to us many extracts from authors which have other- wise been entirely lost. With all the various inaccuracies which exist, miscitation of names, defective condition of the texts, etc., the catena} nre most valuable as throwing light upon the earliest periods of the history of the church. They are still but partially exploited and will repay" further study. The literature is well given in Herzog's liealencyclopddie, vol. iv., p. 451 f. F. H. F. Oath'-a-ri, a sect of many branches, widely extended in Southern Europe during the mid- dle ages. It had its origin among the Slavs, and a bishopric is mentioned as existing in Macedonia in the 12th century. The Bogo- miles (q.v.) were a sect of the Cathari. Among their earliest seats was Dalmatia, and in the latter part of the 12th century these regions, including Bulgaria, were dotted over with Cathari. Their doctrine was early trans- planted by travelling merchants into Italy, where the ancient traditions of Manichasism may have helped it to gain a footing. It was discovered by the Catholic Church in Turin about the year 1035, and several of its adher- ents were burned. In the following century there were many churches of Cathari, which were governed by bishops, and which were so favored by political complications that they were long able to bid defiance to the ecclesi- astical authorities. They continued to main- tain themselves till the 14th century, after which they disappear. The most numerous body of Cathari was found in Southern France, where they were called Albigenses from the town of Albiga, or popularly Bojis Hammes (good men). They were also found in other parts of France, and in the neighboring countries, but in the region about Toulouse they were most numerous. They seem to have come from Italy about the beginning of the 11th century. Their large following, which substantially embraced the entire population, was no doubt due to the fact that the church, having forgotten its teach- ing ofiice, had left the people spiritually desti- tute. Many efforts were made to subdue them. Bernard of Clairvaux travelled through their country, attempting to convert them, in 1147. In 1165 a dispute was publicly held between the Catholic clergy and the Cathari near Albiga, but though their doctrine was condemned, the Albigenses themselves were permitted to depart in peace. Then, more elaborate efforts for their conversion were made. In 1178 a papal legate was sent to preach to them, but in vain. In 1180 the Cistercians were called into the work, and for a long time were engaged in their fruitless attempts. Among their assistants was Dom- inic (q.v.), whose well-meant efforts were as fruitless as the rest. In the beginning of the 13th (jentury the princes as M'ell as the com- mon people of South France were almost to a man in the Cathari Church. Then came In- nocent III. to the papal throne (1198). Vigor- ous measures were at once set in operation. Raymond of Toulouse, who took the part of his subjects, was excommunicated in 1207. In 1208, in consequence of the assassination of his legate, the pope proclaimed a crusade against the heretics. A pitiless war of exter- mination followed. The Inquisition (q.v.) was brought in to help. In 1244 the greatest part of the survivors had taken refuge in the castle of Montsegur. After a bold defence this was taken by storm, and more than 200 of the " perfect" were burned alive. But in the first half of the 14th century there were still traces of the sect in France. In Germany they had perished about a century earlier. The doctrines of the Cathari bear a strong resemblance to Gnosticism (q.v.) and are founded upon speculations as to the origin cf physical and moral evil. There is an evil as well as a good principle in the universe, which in the most strenuous form of the doctrine is represented as being as absolute as the good principle. The world and the human body are the work of this evil principle, which is identified with the God of the Jews. The bad God having seduced souls in heaven to sin and having shut them up in material bodies, the CATHERINE (147) CATTLE good God has finally determined to come to their relief. To this end he 1ms sent his Son Jesus. The body of Jesus was a mere appear- ance, and so were his miracles and all that he seemed to do upon the earth. Mary herself had only an apparent body. Jesus reveals to men their true condition, and salvation is by this knowledge. Since many have died witll- out the necessary knowledge, their souls are caused (o pass through a series of bodies till they attain it. Another form of the doctrine taught that there was but one God, and that lie was the Creator of matter. But an evil spirit, originally good, the God of the Jews, formed things as they are. This form of the doctrine substituted traducianism for the transmigration of soids. In the ethical portions of their system, and in their customs, all parties of the Cathari agreed. Sin was pleasure in the created, the work of the evil spirit. Hence mortal sins are : The possession of earthly wealth, associ- ation with our fellow-men, falsehood, war, the killing of animals, the use of animal food, ex- cepting fish. Upon renunciation of the world, the believer was received into the church, com- posed of the "perfect," and was baptized with the Holy Ghost. The life of the perfect was so exacting in its requirements that but few embraced it. The numerous " believers" were content to remain upon a lower plane, and to seek admittance to the full privileges of the church in time of sickness or danger. Their forms of worship were simple, their officers only bishops and deacons. They held frequent synods. (See Maitland, History of the Albigenses, etc., London, 1832.) F. H. F. Catherine, St., in Greek ' AeiKadapivd (" the ever-pure"), a famous saint of Alexandria, revered in both the Greek and Latin churches. She converted a number of heathen philoso- phers, and though condemned to immediate death, they met it joyfully. She converted also the empress (wife of Maximin), with her guard of 200 soldiers. She was finally be- headed herself alter many miraculous deliver- ances, the most famous of which gave rise to the name of St. Catherine's wheel ; for it is related that when about to be torn to pieces by four wheels carrying sharp spikes, an angel broke the cords which bound the wheels to- gether and also those which bound her. Her (iaj- is, generally speaking, Nov. 25, but March 5 is in some places observed in her honor. F. H. F. Catherine of Siena, b. at Siena. 1347 ; d. in Koine, April 29, 1380. The daughter of a dyer, Jacomo lienincasa, she refused to betroth herself according to her parents' desires, and sought at the age of lo admittance to the peni- tents of the Order of St. Dominic. Her fame for austerities became very great. Later she engaged in works of mercy abroad, especially in^time of a great plague (1374). She had also remarkable vi.sions, and received the stig- mata of the Saviour's wounds, though in- visibly. In her last years sh(! appeared a.s a peacemaker between contending princes. (Sec her life by J. E. Butler, London, 1879 ; 3d cd., 1881.) F. H. F. Cathedra, Cathedral, the official seat of a bishop, and the church where that seat is lo- cated. The bishop usually establishetal ('(Ubm-y, Philadelphia, 1867 ; 2d cd., 1884.) F. II. F. Cell, (1) in clivssical usage a cave where provision of some sort is kept ; (2) then a , email dwelling apartment ; (3) in Christian usage a chapel erected over a tomb ; (4) a room in a monastery ; and tinally, (5) a monas- tic dwelling either of a single monk or of a community, subordinate to an abbey, coin- pelled to pay tithes to it, and to present them- selves there at stated times. Cellerariua or Cellarius, the monastic ofll- cer who had cliarge of the secular all'airs. Cellites or Anchorites, (1) a class of monks between hermits and ca>uobiles, who lived in cells in the neighborhood of the monastery and were under its control, while the hermits were independent, and the co'nobites lived in the monastery. (2) Members of the Alexian order ((j.v.). Celo-Syria. See Ccelo-Syria. Celsus, a Platonic philosopher, the oldest literary opponent of Christianity. Unfortu- nately his book, The True IMKCoarirobable. The lirst half of the 4th century seems to have In-en the most llourishing period of the church. Later, Pelagianism is said to have come in, and the Britons in distress are said to have «pi)lied to Gaul for help, which res]»()nss of tra.li- tion which has tilled the accounts with all sorts of miracles. Fiom this time on. nothing is known of the church till the l)c-giniiing of the (till centurv. The introduction of Christianity into Ireland is a.scrii>ed bv some to Celestiue (423-32), wJio is said to have .sent Palladius to Inland. But the more reliable tradition refers the convcr- CELTIC (150) CELTIC sion of that land to Patrick (q.v.). In this early time Christianity is found also in south- ern Scotland. The victory of Arthur over the Saxons at Bath (516) gave the British Church the oppor- tunity of renewing its activity. The stimu- lating cause may have been some influence ex- erted by the Church of Gaul, and tradition suggests as much. The seat of the church was now Wales, -whither the Britons had been driven back by the invaders. Four bishoprics are found here— Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph, and St. David. The same system of church government prevailed here as elsewhere in Christendom — the territorial episcopacy. The conventual system was highly developed. A famous monastery was Glastonbury in Somer- set. Another was Bangor, near the modern Chester, which in the year 603 numbered 2100 monks. In an engagement with the Saxons later, 1200 monks were slain. Anchorites were also held in great honor. The great event of this period was the conference with the Roman missionary, Augustine, in the year 603. It took place upon the western borders of the Saxon kingdoms. Seven British bishops met Augustine. The three points in dispute were the celebration of Easter, baptism, and common missionary elforts among the heathen. The conference might have resulted in a prac- tical union between the churches, had it not been for the haughtiness of the Roman. With the subsequent progress of the Saxon arms the British were driven farther and farther back, till finally, in 777, the last station in South Wales had conformed to Rome. Meantime the Scottish Church in Ireland and Scotland had had a brilliant history. This was more of a missionary church than the others. Tradition seems to indicate that the Irish Church after the death of Patrick had fallen into decay, and that it was revived by efforts having their origin in Wales. Fin- nian is said to have performed this work, and to have founded a monastery in Meath Avhich had 3000 monks. This was the centre from which numbers of missionaries went out into all Ireland, founding many monasteries, of Avhich the most famous was that at Bennchar (Bangor), founded in 558. This monastery became the source of missionary laborers for the Scottish, and later the Continental mis- sions. The great work of these institutions was. however, done in Ireland itself, which they converted to Christianity', and to which they gave the choice fruits of a higher culture. Efforts were made by Rome to win the church over to the Roman usages, and though in re- spect to the celebration of Easter they yielded about 703, they kept their custom of baptizing without the use of oil, their ordination by a single bishop, and their clerical marriage. At the beginning of the 9th century, the invasions of the Danes drove many of the Irish to the Continent. In 563 Columba with 12 companions came from the Irish Bangor to Scotland for mis- sionary purposes, and was assigned to the Island of Hi, or lona, where he established a monastery which was to be the governing monastery for all the missions that might be established among the Picts. This form of ecclesiastical organization was maintained, and the church remained a monastic church for 150 years, the monks going out and estab- lishing such centres of work all over the land. The most important service rendered by these monks was in the introduction of Christianity into Northumbria. The heir to the throne, Oswald, had escaped to Hi at a time of per- sonal danger, and had there learned what Christianity was, and had accepted it. When he ascended the throne in 634, he determined to Introduce Christianity among his people. There had been some work already done in the realm, and the bishopric of York had been established under Eadwin in 627. But sub- sequent events had compelled the bishop to flee, and the work had to be begun again. Oswald sent to Hi, and after one missionary had met with failure, Aidan was sent out in 634, who became the successful missionary of the country, and is one of the most interesting figures in all missionary history. He humbly put his episcopal residence at distant Lindis- farne, from which he travelled all through the land, and gained the hearts of all the people by his unselfish devotion to them. Under his successors the church continued to flourish, till in 664 a disputation was held, and the Cel- tic ChiTrcii was persuaded to accept the cus- toms of Rome upon tlie points in contest be- tween the two parties. From this time the separate history of the Celtic Church in this region ceases. Troubles over the same ques- tions arose even in the mother monastery at Hi. The king of the Picts went over to the Roman side in 710. This made an end to the primacy of Hi in the Pict country. With the coming of the Danes in 794 Hi was exposed to their attacks, and in 802 the monastery was burned. Though afterward restored, the seat of ecclesiastical government was finally re- moved to Dunkeld. The period from the 9th to the 12th century is the period of the decline of the Celtic Church. Asser, bishop of St. David, put himself under the protection of Alfred the Great, but this only served to open wide the door to the influence of Rome. In 1172 the Welsh Church was reformed upon the model of Rome. It was in this period that the Cul- dees appeared, who have been the objects of much discussion. They have been made a Aveapon of Protestant and Presbyterian po- lemics. They have been .supposed to have preserved in one corner of the world the pu- rity of primitive Christianity without admix- ture of the traditions of Rome. But such does not seem to have been the case. The name is of uncertain origin, but must mean simply friends or worshippers of God. It was never applied to the old Scottish Church, but first to certain anchorites after the expulsion of the monks of Hi in 717. They lived mostly in monasteries like other monks, from whom they did not greatly differ, except that their rule was less stringent in certain particulars. Side by side with these were secular clergy- men. They had peculiar canons, and wera permitted to have wives. In the 13th century the name is used of many different classes, in botli a good and bad sense. The subjection of the Celtic Church in Ire* OELTIO (151) CHAD land to Rome was a gradual process, but was accomplished flually iu consequence of the de- cline of the church and the evident need of re- form. Lanfranc, Gregory VII.. and An.selm all took part in the work, and in 1152 tlie country was divided into 4 bishoprics. In Scothmd (he assimilation to Rome came under the government of David, 1124-53. The bish- opric of Glasgow was founded, and 9 dioceses established. By 1333 Rome was triumphant, and the Culdees were then regarded as her- etics. The great peculiarity of the Celtic Church was its close connection with the national or- ganization into clans, etc. Thus the life of the church penetrated more thoroughly the entire public life. It has been a much-mooted question whether this church had the 3 grades of the clergy. The great number of bishops said to have been ordained by Patrick seems to imply that they were scarcely more than presbyters. Some facts as to Patrick's ow^n course seem to favor this view, but he himself certainly exercised episcopal functions. Else- where the traces of the full episcopal system are undeniable. The doctrine of the Celtic Church was a simple Christianity, derived from and nourished upon the Bible, which was an object of special study among them. They seem to have possessed no translation of the Scriptures into a Celtic language. (See Killea, Haddan, and Stubbs, Councils, 0.\- ford, 1869 ; Skene, Celtic Scotland, Edinburgh, 1876-80, 3 vols. ; Bright, Eurli/ Eiic/lish CInirch Ilixtory, O.vford, 1878 ; Warren, Litiirgti (ind Ritual of the Keltic Church, O.xford, 1881 ; Rhys, Celtic Britain, London, 1882.) F. H. F. Celtic Religion. See Druidism. Cemeteries. See Buri.\l, CAT.\co>rBS, Sepulchre. Censer, a vessel in which fire and incense were carried in Hebrew worship. It was usually made of copper (Num. xvi. 39), but that used on the day of Atonement was of pure gold (1 Kings vii. 50, Heb. ix. 4). Usu- ally the priest holding the censer with coals in one hand, witli the other sprinkled pow- dered incense upon the tire, and the smoke filled the room. The " bowls full of incen.se" in Rev. v. 8 (R. V.) were censers. T. W. C. Censor. See Index. Censures, Church, tlie penalties enjoined by the ecclesiastical authorities for certain otTences. They are excommunication ; sus- pension ; deposition (of a minister) ; interdict (wlien the rites of the church are forbidden, previously the most frightful penalty in the power of the pope). Census. Four formal numberings of the Jews are recorded in the Bible; : one at Sinai (Ex. xxxviii. 26), showing the number of men over 20 years of age to be 603.5.50 ; one in the 2J year after the Exodus (Num. i. 2). showing the .same figures ; one jupt before the entrance into Canaan (Num. xxvi.). and one iu David's reiiin (2 Sam. xxiv. 9). when the men numbered 1,300,000, wJiich seems large for the area of the country ; but Palestine was fertile and tho surface of such a character that all of it could be u.sed for productive purposes. All (;ollal- eral sources of information indicate that the population was very dense. Reference is made in the New Testament (Luke ii. 1) to " a decree from ('ajsar Augus- tus that all the world should be taxed," or enrolled, as the R. V. gives it. This, in con- sequence of the fact that the registration was made by tribes, required that Joseph and Mary should go to the city whence they orig- inated, to be enrolled, and consequently led to the birth of our Saviour in Bethlehem, the place marked out in Micah's prophecy (v. 2). Luke states that this took ])la((! when Cyrenius (the Greek form of the Roniiui Qnirin'ufi) was governor of Syria, but J(»scplnis .nays that Quirinus came to Syria as imperial legate and completed a census in 6 or 7 .\.D. The dis- crepancy between the two dates was early perceived, and for a long time was made an objection to the evangelist's accuracy. But the recent investigations of Zumpt render it every way probable that (Juirinus was twice governor of Syria, the first time from n.c. 4 to A.D. 1 and the second from a.d. 6 onward. It was during his first occupancy of the office that the enrolment occurred, and thus the veracity of Scripture is fully vindicated. T. W. C. Centuries of Magdeburg, tlie lu'story of the Chri.stiun Church, written by Matthias Flacius lllyri('\is and associates, all of whom lived in ]\l;igJ(l)urg. wliere tiie work was pub- lished (15()()-74). It is divided into centuries, each tilling a volume, ¥.o the 13 vols, cover the tirst 13 centuries of the church's history. It was the tirst Protestant work of the kind, and has never been superseded. It was in reply that Baronius prepared his great work. Centurion, a Roman officer commanding a hundred men. Several centurions are men- tioned , witii honor in the New Testament. The faith of one astoni.'^hed our Lord (Matt, viii. 10), another recognized Christ's claims even in death (Mark xv. 39). another was the tirst-fruit of the Gentiles (Acts x. 1), and a fourth was Paul's active friend (Acts xxvii. 43). T. W. C. Cerdo, the predecessor of Marcion (ti.v.). As he left no writings it is impossible to de- termine exactly what he taught. Ce-rin'-thus, the first known link connect- ing Judaism and Gnosticism, a conlemjuirary of St. John the Divine, wlio had a horror of him, according to tradition, taught that Clirist woidd reign iooO years on the earth, durinff which there would "iu- numerous wnsual pleas- ures for the elect ; that the material luiivorso was created not by (Jod but l)y anu:elic iHJngs ; and that it wa.s'not imtil baptism that tiie human Jesus became Christ. Cerularius. See C.t:uiLARu:s. Ceylon. Sec Missions. Chad or Ceadda, jiatron saint of Lielilield. Emrlaiiil. where hed. March 2, 672. liorn m Northuml)ria, he was monk in Ireland anfi at Lindisfarue, 9 m. s.s.e. of Fi<'rwi^on and in the spirit rather than tlie letter. Ho rejected the doctriue that forgiveness of sins is purchased by the death of Jesus, and claimed that the highest object of Jcsus' mis- sion was the recovery of n\an to virtue and holiness. While believing in future retribu- tion he opposed the doctrine of everlasting l)unishment. Channing was a preacher ratlier than a controversialist. The best fruits of his moral and spiritual life are seen in liis ser- mons. He took a prominent rank as a social reformer. His orations on "Self-culture," "Temperance," and the "Elevation of the Laboring Classes," and on "Slavery and War, ' ' illustrate his philanthropic spirit. His orations and essays on " Napoleon Bonaparte, " " Fenelon," and "John Milton," attracted much attention as specimens of literary and moral criticism. He married, at the age of 84, his cousin, Ruth Gibbs, and had several children. His life, by W. H. Channing, in one volume, and a one-volume edition of his works are published by the American Unita- rian Association, Boston (l)of h, 1880). The vol- ume entitled The Prrfrrt Life, though less read than others, contains his most mature sermons. S. J. Bauuows. Chant (Latin for song), a term u.sed in the early church to designate the music of the congregation. It now designates that form of church music in which prose is sung to simple melodies. F. H. F. Chantry, and Chantry Priests, an ecclesi- astical foundation to provide for the chanting of masses for tlie dead. Money was often left for tlie building of chapels for this purpose, and they and the priests were called by the same name. F. II. F. Chapel, a small church, or a side room in a church, separately dedicatcil, used for wor- ship and lor the sepulture of the dead. Sim- ilar buildings were often connected, previous to the Reformation, with castles, religious houses, etc., but without the right of sepul- ture or sacramental service. F. H. F. Chapelle ardente, the lights around a collin ; used in the Itonian C'atliolic burial rites. Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, S.T.D. (Harvard, 1856), LL.D. (Tufts, 1S78), Univensilist ; b. at Union Village, Wa.shington t^ounly, N. Y.. Dec. 29, 1814 ; d. in New York City, Sunday, Dec. 36, 1880. After his course in the Ben- nington (Vt.) seminary he studied law at Troy (1836), next year he left law practice for literature and at the same time became a con- vert to Universalism and a.ssistant editor of The Emnqdiriil Marjazine and Gosjhl Adro- cate, a Universalist paper, at Ulica, N. Y. , in 1888 h<; bciran pn-achin?, and after holding charges at Richmond. Va. (18:J.S). Cbarlcstown, Mass. (1840), in the School Street Church, Boston (1846), he went to New York in 1848, and until his death was the leading pnacher of his denomination and famous as a ])latform speaker. \h\ rarelv toudiod on tlie s|>ecial theme of his denomination, but pre.-uhid pure and practical religion. He published several volumes of discourses. (See his life by Sum- ner Ellis. Boston. 1882.) Chaplain, oritrinally a clerg>-mnn who per- formed divine service in a chapel ; now com- CHAPLET (154) CHARITY monly applied to ministers attached to politi- cal, philanthropic, or military bodies for the performance of such services. Bishops also have chaplains who assist them in examin- ing candidates, conducting correspondence, etc. The Queen of England has 86 chaplains- in-ordiuary who receive from the crown £30 each annually, and 13 honorary chaplains, who serve gratuitously. These preach in turn before her majesty. Chaplet. See Rosauy. Chapter (Latin capitidum, a little head), 1. Of a cathedral, the body of clergy belonging to a cathedral church, consisting of the canons and prebendaries, of which the dean is presi- dent. It assists the bishop in managing the diocese, and when the see is vacant rules it. 2. Of a convent, the assembly of the monks for reading or business. Chapter-house, the hall or apartment in which the chapter meets. Some of those at- tached to English cathedrals are singularly beautiful. Chapter and Verse. This division of the Bible is of comparati vely modern origin. The Pentateuch was divided b}^ the early Jews into 54 pamldotli, and these again into 669 sidriin, for reading in the synagogue. Sim- ilar sections of the prophets were called Juip- taroth. The present division into chapters is usually assigned to Cardinal Hugo about a.d. 1240, iaut was, perhaps, made earlier. It was introduced first into the Latin text, afterward with a few variations into the Hebrew and the Greek. The division into verses, in the Old Testament is found in the earliest Hebrew manuscripts, but in the New was made by the celebrated Robert Stephens in 1551 while on a journey (inter equitandum) from Paris to Lyons, and was published in the 4th edition of his Greek Testament. This capitular and versicular division of the sacred volume is a very great convenience for reference, but otherwise is a serious drawback. Oftentimes a close connection of thought is broken by an unfortunate separation of chapters, as in Gen- esis, where the first 3 verses of the 2d chapter should have been attached to the preceding chapter, and in Revelation where the first 5 verses of the last chapter should undergo a similar transfer. In the same way the separa- tion of clauses and sentences into verses gives the unwary reader a wrong view of the con- nection, and fosters the habit of viewing the divine utterances apart from the context. The Bible is not a book of apothegms, but a stream of continuous instruction in narrative, proph- ecy, or argument, and the reader is required, if he will get its full sense, often to disregard entirely the division into verses and chapters. In the Revised Version of the English Bible the text is printed continuously as other books, and the notation of chapter and verse is rele- gated to the margin. T. W. C. Chapters, Three, a condemnation issued in 544 by Justinian against (1) the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, (2) the writings of Theodoret against Cyril and for Nestorius, (3) the letter which Ibas of Edessa was said to have written to the Persian Maris. These persons or writings were indifferently called chapters. They were originated by Theodore of Ca;sarea in Cappadocia, who hoped, or professed to hope, to gain the Mo- nophysites for the church again by condemn- ing the principal representatives of the (An- tiochian) theology for which they cherished so much opposition. But in condemning these, the emperor seemed to be condemning the Council of Chalcedou, and the Three Chapters stirred up a great controversy. The Greek Church resisted, though but for a time. The Western Church was less pliant. Vigilius of Rome vacillated between the two parties. In 548 at Constantinople he condemned the Three Chapters ; in 553 he was for them. On the whole, he yielded to the imperial wishes, and favored the condemnation. A schism in Italy was the result, and Milan and Aquileia, with other cities of Upper Italy, separated them- selves from Rome on account of its acceptance of the V. Ecumenical Council of 553. F. H. F. Character indelebilis (Latin). In the Ro- man Church the indelible mark stamped upon the soul in Baptism, Confirmation, and Or- ders. T. W. C. Chariot. See War. Charismata (car-is' -ma-ta). See Gifts. Charity, a term now used to express either almsgiving, or else toleration, as in the phrase, a charitable construction ; bat in the Author- ized Version of the Bible denotes what we un- derstand as love, the queen of the Christian graces, that into which aH human duty is sum- med up. (See Matt. xxii. 37, Rom. xiii. 8, 1 Cor. xiii. 13.) T. W. C. Charity, Brothers of, a lay order of the Roman Church for the care of the sick and the fallen. In 1540 the Portuguese Juan di Dio (Juan Ciudad), "John of God" (1495-1550), a layman, at Granada, Spain, opened a house for a hospital ; had the satisfaction ere he died of seeing an association of laymen devote them- selves to the care of the sick therein. The idea was quickly taken up elsewhere, and in 1572 the order was created by the pope and given all the privileges of the mendicant or- ders. It now has houses which are essentially well-arranged hospitals in different parts of Europe, and numbered, in 1877, 1169 mem- bers. Their readiness to serve persons irre- spective of creed, makes them popular. See art. John of God. Charity, Sisters of, called also " Gray Sis- ters," "Daughters of Charity," "Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul," a female order of the Roman Church for the care of the sick, founded by Vincent de Paul (see art.) at Paris, in 1633, in co-operation with a widow, Madame Louise (Marillac) Legras. It was the resultant of previous experiments in the same direction. Its rule was confirmed by Pope Clement IX. in 1668. The vows, besides the usual ones of obedience, poverty, and chastity, specially oblige the care of the sick, ii-respec- tive of creed or the character of the disease. They are, however, not irrevocable, but re- newed yearl}'. Postidants wait 6 months be- fore taking the habit, and the probation period CHARLBMAONE ( 155 ) CHARNOCE is 5 years. The hood is white, with long streamurs. Before Vincent's deatli the order had spread all over France, but did not extend further. It was suppressed at tlie Revohition (1790), but revived by Xapoleon (1801). Since 181") it has spread in other lands, until now it is universally known. In the United States the sisters carry on parochial and boarding- schools, besides nursing. The mother-house is at Emmittsburg, Md. " Tlie order as a whole numbers some 28,000 members. For a Prot- estant analogue, see Deaconess. Charlemagne (shar-le-man), first head of the Hoi}' Roman Empire ; b. 742 ; king of the Franks, 708 ; emperor, 800 ; d. at Aachen, 814. He shared his kingdom at first with his bro- ther, Carloman, who soon died (771). It stretched from the Loire to east of tiie Rhine, and was surrounded by a circle of dependent peoples — Aquitaine, Brittany, Frisia, Thu- ringia, Bavaria, etc. These were gradually converted into component parts of his king- dom. In 772 he began the work of subdu- ing the Saxons, which lasted for 30 years. After innumerable petty wars, Wittikind, the mainspring of the opposition to the Franks, was baptized in 785. This was the nominal reduction of the Saxons, but actual trouble still continued, till Charlemagne deported large numbers of Saxons and filled their places with more loyal subjects. But by 804 resist- ance was finally overcome. Meantime Bavaria had been subdued, and even Pannonia added to the kingdom. Ever since the death of Pipin in 768 the Lombards in Italy had given the pope trouble. The refusal of Hadrian to recognize the sons of Carloman, who had fled to the Lombards after their father's death, widened the breach, and accordingly the pope called upon Charle- magne to protect him. Charlemagne there- fore made an expedition to Italy, conquered the Lombard king, and secured to the pope the territory which had been given him by Pipin as a temporal sovereignty. Upon a later expedition, he was suddenly crowned in Rome by Leo III. as king of the Romans. This re-establisheil upon a new basis the old Roman Empire. It was a theocratic Christian institution, in which the church and state by a close union souglit to work together for the common end of the elevation and Christianiza- tion of Europe. It had its origin in tlie neces- sity of the state to the church and of the church to the state. The relations of the two powers to one another svere not defined, and endless strife subsequently arose out of tiiis circumstance. The pope .seems to have acted without Charlemagne's knowledge, but upon consultation with the chief men of the city of Rome. The people acclaimed tlie emperor, and probably thought that they were exercis- ing the city's ancient right of election. The popes subsequently claimed that Leo had acted as the supreme authority by divine commis- sion. Charlemagne seemed to think tlint the act of the pope was in a certain sense a divine act, as initiating the empire, but he viewed the dignity as hereditary, and the coronation as performed once for all. The pope acknowl- edged the supremacy of the civil power by giving Charlemagne the title of Patricius, or representative of the emperor, and then that of Ca?sar Augustus. In fact, Charlemagne acted as the son of the church in all things purely spiritual, but in things civil as her lord. The great ecclesiastical authorities w( re also powers of the realm, met in the secular assemblies, where ecclesiastical topics were discussed. Charlemagne's general administration wa.s enlightened and wise. Every element wliicli could contribute to the advancement of his peoples in culture was eagerly seized upon by him and developed to the extent of his power. He made Alcuin (q.v.) his prime minister in intellectual things. He ordered a school to be established at every monastery, and read- ing, writing, arithmetic, singing, and tlie Psalter to be taught. Thus he sought to ele- vate the people and the clergy together. In his ecclesiastical and secular legislation lie the germs of almost all modern European 'civiliza- tion. (Cf. life by J. I. Mombert, New York, 1888.) F. H. F. Charles V., German emperor during the period of the Reformation ; b. at Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500 ; d. at Yuste, Spain, Sept. 21, 1558. He inherited the Netherlands and the duchies of Austria from his father, and Spain from his grandfather Ferdinand. Elected emperor in i519, he had the supreme control in the most important parts of the old world, and in the recently discovered new. England and France were the only chief powers not in greater or less subjeclion to him. He held his first diet in Germany in 1521, at which Luther appeared and was put under the ban of the empire. Immediately after this Charles de- parted to the Netherlands and thence to Spain, and, busied with various wars, was not seen again in the empire till the diet at Augsburg in 1580. By this time the Protestant move- ment had gained such headway that it was impossible to put a stop to it. The war with the Turk called Charles again from the em- pire, and struggles with Fra'nce kept him busy till his victory in 1544. Then he turned his attention to the Protestant affair. His efforts at an accommodation resulted in the calling of the Council of Trent, which, however, promised little good. In 1546 he took the field in South Germany. In 1547, assisted by ^laurice of Saxony, he reduced the Protestant leaders to submission, and yet, on the eve of triumph, was himself attacked by Maurice in 1552. Disgusted with the outcome of all his ' labors, he lefi his brother, Ferdinand, to make the peace of Passau (1552), and of Augsburg (1555), gave up his various positions, and re- tired in 1556 to Yuste, where he lived in conventual seclusion. The best-known life of Charles V. is by Robertson ; the best is in German by Baumgarten, Stuttgart, 1885 sq(i. F. II. F. Charles IX. See BAUTnoLOMEw's Day, p. 87. Charnock, Stephen, Puritan ; b. in Lon- don. 162K ; (1. there. Julv27, 1680. He gradu- ated at Oxford. M. A. ,1652: preached for a time in Ireland ; had no regular charge for 15 years while leading a studious life in Loudon ; ORASmiM (156) CHERITH became pastor there, 1675. His fame rests on his work On the Excellence and Attributes of God, London, 1681-82. His TForA;s appeared, Edinburgh, 1864, 5 vols. Chasidim (saints), a name given to a sect or party among the post-exile Jews (1 Mac. ii. 42, vii. 13), which had for its aim to resist Hellenistic innovations and to observe rigidly all the ritual of purification and separation. They carried self-denial, abstinence, ablu- tions, withdrawal from the world, etc., to the greatest possible extreme. _ In time they split into parties, one of which became widely known as the Essenes. In the last century the sect was reorganized, or rather a new sect under the same name, in Poland, by the Rabbi Israel of Podolia, called Baal-Shem {lord of the name), because he professed to work mir- acles by invoking the great cabalistic name of the 'Supreme Being. His fame attracted multitudes of followers in Eastern Europe and Palestine who, when he died (1760), numbered 40,000. Though repudiated by the orthodox Jews they stilllnaintain their position. Their ethical precepts are elevated, but the starting- point is communion with God through the Zadik or spiritual head who, as God's delegate on earth, can do wondrous things ; and they lay great stress upon absolute faith, with which profane knowledge and philosophy greatly interfere. Their religion is said to be utterly formal, and its ceremonies are coarse and noisy. T. W. C. Chastity should not be confounded, as it often is, with celibacy. The latter means de- votion to a single life, while the former is the denial of fleshly lusts, whether in the married or the unmarried. Among the ancients there was much looseness of opinion, and still more of practice, in this matter. But Christianity took higher ground, reproving all fornication in either sex, and enforcing it by the consider- ation that the believer's body is a temple of the Holy Ghost and therefore should not be defiled by lewdness. It requires also the sup- pression of all impure desires, and the avoid- ance of whatever tends to excite them. Chas- tity is to be cultivated in thought (Matt. v. 27, 28) and in word (Eph. v. 3, 4), as well as in deed (1 Cor. vi. 9). T. W. C. Chasuble, an outward garment worn in the Roman Church by a priest otiiciating at mass. It is derived from the psnula, a round gar- ment with a hole in the centre for the admis- sion of the head, by cutting at the sides places for the arms, thus leaving only pieces hang- ing down before and behind. These are em- broidered with emblems of the sufferings of Christ F. H.>. Chateaubriand (shat-o-bri-ang), Fran9oi3 Auguste, Viscount de, Roman Catholic ; b. at St. Malo, on the English Channel, Sept. 4, 1768 ; d. in Paris, July 4, 1848. He wrote The Oeninsof Christianity (Paris, 1802 ; Eng. trans., Paris, 1854), and Tlie Martyrs (Paris, 1809 ; Eng. trans., London, 1819, 2 vols.). He is one of the most brilliant of French writ- ers. Chauncy, Charles, Puritan ; baptized at Yardley, Nov. 5, 1592 ; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 19, 1672. He was educated at Cambridge ; M.A., 1617 ; entered the ministry and was persecuted by Laud ; sailed for Plym- outh, 1637 ; preached at Scituate, 1641-54 ; was second president of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., 1654, till his death. He was an admirable preacher and a learned man. Ched-or-Ia'-o-mer (/tawf^/'wZ of sheaves), king of Elam, who for 13 years made the 5 cities of the plain his tributaries, and on their re- belling in the 13lh year came with 4 allied kings and overran the whole country south and east of the Jordan. Lot was among his captives, but was rescued by his uncle Abra- ham with his own dependents and neighbors (Gen. xiv.). His name is found on Chaldean bricks recently discovered. T. W. C. Cheever, George Barrell, D.D. (New York University, 1844),Congregationalist; b. atHal- lowell, Me., April 17, 1807 ; graduated at Bow- doin College, 1825, and at Andover Theologi- cal Seminary, 1830 ; was pastor of the Church of the Puritans, New York City, 1846-70, and since in literary retirement. He is the author of Inquire at Amos Giles' Distillery, Salem, 1835 (a famous attack on the drink traflSc) ; A Reel in a Bottle, Xew York, 1850 (rev. ed. under title, Lofj-book of a Voyage to the Celes- tial Country, 1885) ; Faith, Doubt, aiul Evi- dence, 1881 ; God's Timepiece for Man's Eter- nity, 1883, and other volumes. Chemnitz (kem-nits), Martin, Lutheran ; b. at Treueubrietzen, 22 m. s.s.w. of Potsdam, Nov. 9, 1522 ; d. at Brunswick, April 8, 1586. He became Librarian at Konigsberg, 1550 ; driven away by the Osiander party, and went to Wittenberg, 1553 ; became pastor at Braun- schweig (Bnmswick), 1554 ; superintendent, 1567. He was the most important Lutheran theologian of the 2d half of the 16th century, and his great work is his examination of the theology propounded by the Council of Trent, Examen concilii Tridentini, Greifswald, 1565- 73, 4 vols. (Bee life by Lentz, Gotha, 1866.) Che'-mosh (subduer), the national god of the Moabitcs (Num. xxi. 29, Jer. xlviii. 7), called in 1 Kings xi. 7 '' the abomination of Moab," when Solomon introduced his wor- ship, which Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 13) after- ward suppressed. It was to Chemosh that Mesha (2 Kings iii. 27) offered his son, and in the inscription on the Moabite stone the same king attributes to Chemosh his victories. In Judges (xi. 24) Chemosh is spoken of as the god of the Ammonites. T. W. C. Cheney, Charles Edward, D.D. (Iowa College, 1871), Reformed Episcopalian ; b. at Canandaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836; gradu- ated at Hobart College, N. Y., 1857 ; and the P. E. Theological Seminary of Virginia, 1859 ; became rector of Christ Church, Chicago, 1860 ; suspended for omitting the word " re- generate" in the baptismal service, which ac- tion was one of the occasions for the organi- zation of the Reformed Episcopal Church in 1873, whereof he was immediately elected a bishop. Che'-rith {cutting), a brook flowing into the Jordan where Elijah (1 Kings xvii. 3) hid CHERUB (157) CHINA himself. Robiusou identifies it with the pres- ent ]V'adi/ Kelt, a swift stream which enters the Jordan from the west a little south of Jericho. T. W. C. Cher'-ub (plural Cher'-u-bim). Of uncer- tain (U'ri nation. An order of heavenl^^ beings, not like an.ii:els sent upon messages, but alwa.ys in God's iniiiu'diate presence. They are vari- ously represented as living creatures (Gen. iii. 24, Ezek. i., Ilev. iv.), or as figures wrought in tapestry, gold or wood (Ex. xxxvi. 85, xxxvii. 7, Ezek. xli. 25), as having 1 face (Ex. XXV. 20), or 2 (Ezek. xli. 18), or 4 (Ezek. X. 14), as having 2 wings (1 Kings vii. 27), or 4 (Ezek. i. 6), or 6 (Rev. iv. 8). The fullest description represents the cherub as winged, full of eyes, and with a fourfold face — that of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle — and with wheels turning every way and moving with lightning speed, thus combining the highest earthly forms in harmonious union. The " cherubim of glory" (Ileb. ix. 5) were the living bearers of God manifesting himself on the earth (Ps. xviii. 10\ and they upheld his throne (Ezek. x. 22). The frequency of their figures in the ornamentation of the tabernacle and the temple was a sure token of the pres- ence of God in the midst of his people. Sim- ilar winged figures are found in the monu- mental remains of other ancient peoples, but there seems no reason to doubt that tlie conception was original with the Hebrews. There is no record Uiat either the cherubim or their figurative representations were ever worshipped among the chosen people. T. W. C. Cheyne (chan), Thomas Kelly, D.D. (Edin- burgh, 1884), Church of England ; b. in Lon- don^ Sept. 18, 1841 ; educated at Wercester College ; B. A., 1862 ; fellow of Balliol College, 186S ; Oriel professor of the interpretation of Holy Scripture, 1SS5— all Oxford. He is the author of commentaries on Isaiah, London, 1880-81, 2 vols. ; 3d ed., 1884 ; Micah, 1882 ; Hosea, 1884 ; Jeremiah, 1883-84, and a new translation of the Psalms, 1884. Chiliasm, same as Pkkmillennialism, q.v. Chillingworth, William, Church of Eng- land ; b. at Oxford, Oct., 1002 ; d. at Chiches- ter, Jan. 30. 1643-44. He became a fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, 1628 ; a convert to Romanism, 1630, and went to Douay ; but the consequence of his effort to tell the world the reason why he had become a Romanist was that he left Douay in an imcertaiu state of mind, 1631, and renounced his new faith and returned to Protestantism, 1034. In 1638 he entered the ministry of tlie Church of Eng- land. His fame rests uiwn his T/ic lielif/ion of ProtistuntH a Siife Way to Sitlvdtion, Ox- ford, 103.S (many etld. since), which contains the well-known sentence, " The Bible, I say, the Bit)Ie only is the religion of Protestants'"' (See ids life by Des Maizeaux, London, 1725.) Chimere (from Old French "chimarre," " a gown or coat"), a sleeveless vestment Avorn by bishops, but to which in modern times lawn sleeves ha\c been sewn. China, Missions to. See JMissions. China, Religions of. Excluding Islam, with 3,000,000 adherents mostly in tlie western part, and Christianity, witli (in 1881) 1,0'J4,000 Ro- man Catholics (41 bisho])s) and 23,000 evangeli- cal Christians, the religions of China are 3 in number : Confucianism, that of court and educated. Buddhism and Taoism, the popu- lar. Confucius (q.v.) claimed to reform the old religion, of which much is doubtless pre- served in modern popular Taoism and has served to corrupt the exotic Buddhism. This old religion has served as the basis of popular belief and practice amid all modifica- tions and additions. Our information coming through Confucius (see China, Sacred Books of), it is hard to saj^ whether or not, and if so, how far he has edited the reports. The fundamental ideas of the five King may, however, be taken as those of this ancient re- ligion. Heaven (Thian), the supreme emperor (Shang- ti), and the different classes of spirits (Shan) were worshipped. The utterances regarding Thian and Shang-ti are often so sublime and spiritual that Legge, Faber, and Happel regard the ancient religion as monothei.stic and the reform of Confucius as retrograde. Others view it as only a degree higher than the Sha- manism of the tribes of Northern Asia. (See Shamanism.) Hence the missionary dispute about the right to translate God by Shang-ti. No distinction is possible between Thian, heaven ; Ti, emperor ; and Shang-ti, supreme emperor. In many descriptions they are iden- tical with the material heaven. Destiny (Ming) and the way of heaven (Tao) are prominent ideas. The usual course of nature is the reve- lation of heaven. Disturbances are warnings to restore harmony in the state. There arc's fundamental existences— heaven, earth, and man — that must harmonize. The order of na- ture is the norm of all moral action. The in- stitutions of the state are regarded as natural laws. The will of heaven is also revealed through the voice of the people, Vox 2)opuli vox Dei. Worship of tlie spirits is inextricably con- nected with that of Shang-ti, though they are not his servants or mediators. They are every- where present, invisible, inscrutable, but very real. They are distinguished as lieavenly, earthly, and human (ancestors). The human (Kwei), and of these the spirits of ancestors (Tsu), are most worshipped. Belief in im- mortality is the outgrowth of ancestral wor- ship, for there is no established doctrine in the ancient books about the state of the soul after death. Ancestors are worshipped with a view to their influence upon their living posterity. Everything in empire and in liouse is done in their presence : hence ancestral halls and tablets. Ancestral worship is the fundamental form of the Chinese religion. Aside from the absence of a mythologj' and formulated theology, the most ])ceuliar feature is the non-existenceof priests, liciigious cere- monies are a part of civil life and apportioned in gradation among the state ofiicials. Ances- tral sacrifices are general and permitted to the people. Divination is widespread. Nothing is un- dertaken without it. (SeeFEifo-BUUi.) Es-ery- CHINA (158) CHOIR thing is interpreted, but noticeable js divina- tion by the plant Shi, the tortoise (Pu. lients in shell when burned indicative) and the Yi- king. (See China, Sacred Books of.) The basis of Chinese life and religion is rev- erence for the order of nature, the state, and the family. This filial piety, in the Chinese Bense, is the sublimest and profouudest con- ception of the Chinese. In his teaching Confucius (551-478 B.C.) represented himself as an adherent of the old religion and emphasized the importance of a knowledge of the ordinances of heaven. The thought of heaven comforted him in affliction. He was a zealous participant in public wor- ship and followed the 300 ceremonial usages and the 3000 rules of decorum. On the other hand, he seldom named Shang-ti except in quoting the King, and in several utterances designates employment with theological prob- lems as useless. " So long as one does not know men, how is one to know spirits ? So long as one does not know life, how is one to solve the enigma of death?" He said once that he had not prayed for a long time. About spirits and the dead he gave evasive answers. Filled with a sense of social duty and moral obligation, he tended toward an agnostic atti- tude toward the life above and beyond. Con- fucianism is ethical naturalism. A Confucian, while participating in the state and ancestral sacrifices and divination is agnostic in belief and humanitarian in practice. The inborn reachings of the soul after the supernatural and the spiritual have made Budd' ism (the religion of Fo) and Taoism, the popular religions. The former introduced 85 A.D. from India in consequence of isola- tion and ignorance of its sources has become grossly corrupted, and is greatly influenced by the popular ideas and religious practices, espe- cially such as are seen in Taoism. This pur- ports to be the system of Lao-tse and his Tao- te-king. (See Lao-tse.) Resemblance is now only nominal. The transformation from the original is extraordinary. Taoists are a com- munity with hereditary "heavenly Master." The succession extends into the first century. They worship in temples spirits of heaven, phenomena of nature, god of riches, etc., etc. They have manifold superstitions ; seek im- mortality by magical means, elixirs, plants ; speak of the state in which the corpse becomes invisible, the dead immortal, and a sword re- places the corpse in the coffin. They have several popular ethical books, the teaching of which is relatively pure and good ; the chief is the Book of Rewards and Punishments, 212 aphorisms enforced by 400 anecdotes. The princii^al thought is that the spirits of heaven and earth reward and punish good and evil. Another principal book is the Book of Hidden Blessings. Much taken from Buddhists, as command against shedding the blood even of animals. But the morality of the books is entirely offset by the superstitions of people and frauds (immortality elixirs) of priests. Important to remember that Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism do not exist as dis- tinctly separated, aggressively antagonistic systems. All are recognized alike by the state. The Chinese is free to choose, and his belief and practice are eclectic. The ancestral and spirit worship of the old religion main- tains itself by and in each and all the three. (See J. Edkins, Religion in China, London, 1859; 3d ed., 1884; J. Legge, Religions of China, Loudon, 1880.) W. R. Martin. China, Sacred Books of. These are the five King— aud four Shu— Li-king, Lun-yu, Shu-king, Tehung-jung, Shi-king, Ta-hlo', Li ki, Dialogues of Tehiin-thsieu, Meug-tse (Menciue), Hiao-king. and consist of ancient writings collected and finally edited by Confucius or proceeding from him or his school. Li-king, Book of Changes, is the oldest and most venerated, and is used in divination. The dragon horse rose from Hoang-ho with dark and light circles on its back. Fohi made from these 8 trigrams. From these proceed 64 hexagrams. Li-king is notes and excursus on these ; but the sense is still un- explained. McClatchie resorts to comparative mythology, La Couperie to Akkadian, others find a philosophical cosmogony. The changes are identified with changes in nature and human destiny. Its use in divinati(m gave the book its great importance, but the prin- ciple of divination is unknown. Shu-king is a great history embracing 17 centuries imtil 7th B.C. Shi-king, Book of Songs, is 300 songs chosen by Confucius from a tenfold larger collection. Li-ki is 46 chapters containing rules of con- duct sanctioned by usage and tradition. Tshiin-thsieu, spring and autumn, alone written by Confucius. Annals of his native principality Lu from 723 to 494 b.c. The 'Hiao-king, Book about Piety, does not belong to the 5 King, but is almost of equal esteem. It contains the instruction of Con- fucius to a disciple. The 4 Shu are of second rank. The Lun-yu contains short dialogues and words of Confucius and his first disciples, and is a principal source of information regarding Confucius. Tshung-jung, Doctrine of the Mean or Bal- ance or Harmony, is ascribed to a grandson of Confucius. Ta-hio, the Great Doctrine. This with the Tshung-jung is the classical expression of Confucianism. Meng-tse (Mencius), 371-288 b.c, was the greatest teacher of the school of Confucius. (See Mencius.) For translations and discussions of these writings see J. Legge's The Chinese Classics and the series of Sacred Books of the East, III., XVI., XXVII. , XXVIII. W. R. Martin. Chirothecse, the embroidered gloves worn by Roman Catholic bishops, and formerly by those of the Church of England. Choir (from Latin chorvs), used (1) of the singers of the church ; (2) of the part of the church, where they sit, which probably was evolved out of the tribuna of the old basilica, corresponded to the holy of holies of the Jew- ish temple ; usually was in the eastern part of (159) CHRISTIAN the building and raised. The high altar is in it. Oho-ra'-zin, a town in Galilee, upbraided by our Lord (Matt xi. 31) along with Beth- saida for its impenitence. Its exact site is dis- puted. Robinson puts it at Tell-Hum, but Dr. W. M. Thomson at Kherazeh, 2 m. n.w. of Tell-Hum, where there are extensive ruins. T. W. C. Chorepiscopi, "country bishops," presby- ters regularly consecrated and empowered with most of the powers of a bishop, yet oc- cupying a position of subordination to the par- ticular bishop in whose diocese they worked, just as the suffragan bishop does now. The ofBce came in as early as the 4th century and ceased in the Western Church in the 9th. Chrestus, Chrestians, instead of ;fp«Tr6f, *' anointed," xpv^tuq, " gracious" or " good," was sometimes taken by the people as the name of Christ. So it is given by Suetonius (Claud, c. 25). But it would seem from the allusions to this intentional or unintentional punning on the name in this fashion, found in Justin Martyr {First Apology, chap. iv. [Christian Literature Company's ed., vol. 1., 164]), Theophilus of Antioch {To Autolycus, chaps, i , xii. [vol. ii., 89, 92]), Tertullian {Apolofjj/, chap. iii. [vol. iii. 20]), and Lactan- tius {T/ifi Divine Institutes, iv., chap. vii. [vol. vii., 106]), that the mistake was quite com- mon. Ohrism, consecrated oil used in the Roman and Oriental churches in the ceremonies of baptism, contirmation, ordination, and ex- treme unction. F. H. F. Chrisome, originally the white cloth laid over the head of the newly baptized to keep the chrism on the head ; then the name given to the dress in which the child at baptism was formally invested, and which was returned when tile mother came to be churched. If the infant died its mother could be churched ; the chrisome was its shroud, and the child spoken of as a " chrisome child." Christ. See Jesus Christ. Christ, Images or Pictures of, were first known among the Gnostics in the 2d century. A spurious letter of Lentulus, a professed eon- temporary of Jesus, originating probably in the 15th century, describing Christ as a man of noble appearance, with curled hair parted in front, with a smooth, high forehead and a reddish beard, presents the idea formed of him, after a long course of development, in the Greek Church. He appears also as the good shepherd, in the form of a youth of not more than twenty, in the catacombs. The highest type of pictorial representation is reach- ed in the famous painting of the last supper by Leonardo da Vinci. There are certain im^iirf's and pictures of Christ which claim a miraculous origin, of which the most famous is the Veronica, on a linen cloth upon which Christ is said to have wiped his face upos the way to Calvary. F. H. F. Christ, Knights of the Order of^ Portuguese established in 1317, originally religious and sanctioned by the pope, but secularized in 1789. Christ, Monogram of, is the combination of X and P found in the catacombs, afterwards used by Constantine on military standards, coins, etc. Christ, Person of. See Christologt. Christ, Sinlessness of. See Jesus Christ. Christ, Three Offices of, are those of proph- et, priest, and king. Calvin introduced the idea of treating tlie work of Christ under these three aspects, and it passed into the Heidelberg and Westminster catechisms, and into Lutheran theology through Gerhard. Christadelphians, a small sect in Great Brit- ain and America founded by John Thomas, M.D., about 1860, and so called because they believe that all who are in Christ are his brethren. They call their congregations " ec- clesias. " They reject the Trinity, believe that the eternal spirit of God was manifest in Jesus Christ, consider immersion essential to salvation, and that none will be saved but those who believe Christadelphian teaching ; the rest Avill be annihilated. (See A Declara- tion of the First Principles of the Oracles of the Deity, Washington, D. C.) Christening, an alternative for baptism (q.v.). Christian, a name first given to the dis- ciples at Antioch, A.D. 42 (Acts xi. 26), and given not in reproach or contempt, but simply to distinguish them from the Jews, with whom they had previously been confounded. It oc- curs in only 2 other places of Scripture (Acts xxvi. 28, 1 Peter iv. 16). A real Christian accepts (Christ as his teacher, example, and re- deemer, his Lord and his God ; but the term is often used to distinguish believers from Pa- gans, Jews, and Mohammedans, and some- times to denote only those who have confessed Christ publicly. T. W. C. Christian Commission, an organization which cared for the souls of the Union sol- diers in the civil war, as the Sanitary Commis- sion did for their bodies. It was synchronous with the entire war. It distributed Bibles, hymnals, tracts, religious newspapers, and books. Upward of 6 million dollars were used by it in various waj's. (See art. in the j Schaff-IIerzog Encyclopcedia.) Christian Connection, or Christians, a de- ! nomination started in 1810. congregational in ] polity, anti-Trinitarian and Arian in tiieoiogy, 1 practising immersion, accepting no creed. ! Their original platform stated: "That the I name of Christian is the only name of distinc- tion which we take, and by wliich we, as a denomination, desire to be known, and the Bible is our only rule of faith and practice." Tliey are .said to have had, in isso, 1755 churches, 1344 ministers, and 142,000 mem- Christian Endeavor Society. See p. 98J>. I Christian Union. The churches organized under the above name, although existing upon the very same basis for years, became orgatt- CHRISTIANS (160) OHRISTOLOGT ically one in the year 1864, under the leader- ship of Rev. J. F. Given, a graduate of Mari- etta College. The peculiar aim of these churches is to unite all believers on the Son of God into one body, in each community, under the name of Christ, with the Holy Bible as the only and all sutlicient rule for belief and con- duct. The following are their principles : 1st. The oneness of the Church of Christ ; 2d. Christ, the only Head ; 3d. The Bible our only rule of faith and practice ; 4th. " Good fruits" the only condition of fellowship ; 5th, Christian union without controversy ; 6th. Each local church governs itself ; 7th. Politi- cal preaching discountenanced. They have increased rapidly in numbers, having 2 an- nua) councils in Ohio, where they are most numerous, 2 in Missouri, and others in Ind- iana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Colorado, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Texas, California. The organization numbered, in 1889, nearly 150,- 000 members. They have a church paper. The Christian Witness, edited by Rev. H. J. Duck- worth and published at Dayton, O., also a paper published at Excelsior Springs, Mo. Their church government is congregational, each local church governing itself, and they are evangelical in religious doctrine and belief. They are taking steps for the establishment of several institutions of learning, and are earnest in home missionary work. Many of their ministers are educated and popular gospel preachers. Their councils are advisory over the churches and legislate only for the governing of their own members. The highest authority known among them, under God, is tlie local independent church. Their General Council convenes every .4 years, and is com- posed of nearly 200 delegates. The body' is most numerous in Ohio, Indiana, and Mis- souri. H. J. Duckworth. Christians, Bible. See Methodists. Christians of St. John. See Mend/eans. Christians of St. Thomas, a certain Chris- tian sect on the Malabar coast. Southwestern India, which claims the Apostle Thomas as its founder, but which is really of Nestorian or- igin, and in the 8th century received a metro- politan from the Nestorian patriarch. It may have originated in the contact of the early Christian missionaries with the Parthian-Ind- ian border. It has been much oppressed by the neighboring governments, but is now un- der British protection and numbers some 60,- 000 souls. (See W. Germann, Die Kirche der Thomaschristen, Giitersloh, 1877.) Christlieb, Theodor, Ph.D. (Tubingen, 1857), D.D. (Berlin, 1870), German Evangel- ical theologian ; b. at Birkenfeld, Wiirtem- berg, 25 m. e.s.e. of Treves, March 7, 1833 ; d. at Bonn, Aug. 15, 1889. He studied at Tubingen ; was pastor of the Islington Ger- man church, London, 1858-65 ; professor of practical theology and university preacher at Bonn, since 1868. He was the author of Mod- ern Donht and christian Belief, orig. St. Gall, 1868 ; 2d ed.. Bonn, 1870 ; Eng. trans., Edin- burgh and New York, 1874 ; 4th ed., 1879 ; Protestant Fm-eiqn Missions, their Present State, orig. Gutersloh, 1879 ; 4th ed., 1880 ; Eng. trans., London, Boston, and New York 1880 (several edd.). Christmas, the celebration of the birth of our Lord, observed throughout Christendom on Dec. 25. It has its origin in the necessity, among other festivals introduced into the church, of liaving one which should mark the coming of so great a blessing as the presence and mission of Christ. It was not a custom either among the Jews or the earliest Chris- tians to celebrate birthdays. The first Chris- tian festivals gathered about the great facts of the work of redemption — the death and the resurrection. Had there been a disposition to celebrate the date of Christ's birth, there were no traditions as to the time of its occurrence. But the feast of the Epiphany prepared the way for Christmas. This was first celebrated by the Gnostics, upon Jan. 6, and commemo- rated the baptism. When the Catholics tqok up the idea, they combined the celebration of the birtli and the baptism, as two kinds of epiphanies or appearances. But the com- bination was not successful, and a separate festival for the birthday was introduced, first in Rome, probably in the papacy of Julius I., 337-52. By 376 it was introduced in Antioch, and was welcomed so heartily that in 386 Chrysostom could speak of it as already upon a par with other Christian feasts. All ten- dency to celebrate the birth of Christ in con- nection with the baptism upon Epiphany does not disappear in the East till the middle of the 5th century. But from about this time the practice of all Christians was the same. The choice of the date, in the utter lack of all tradition, has been referred to different thoughts, but the most probable is the natural analogy between the birth of Christ, the Sun of Righteousness, and the beginning of the return, or the rebirth, of the natural sun upon Dec. 25. In the Roman Church Christmas is celebrated with special public services, and in all branches of the Protestant, except, for a time, the extreme Puritan churches, it has been observed as a family day, and with more or less elaborate religious services. (See Chambers, Book of Days, Edinburgh, 1864.) F. H. F. , Christol'-ogy is the doctrine of the person of Christ. The grand peculiarity of this is that Christ is God and man united, the two natures constituting one unique personality. He is neither divine alone, nor human alone, but divine-human. This is the central truth of the Cliristian system, and, bafljing as it is to our, comprehension, the source of all its vitality and power. It Avas foreshadowed in the prophetic descriptions of the Messiah. He was to be born in a certain small village (Micah V. 2), yet this was not to be the begin- ning of his existence, for "his goings forth are from of old, from everlasting" (from the days of eternity). He was to be a king and conqueror, perfect in wisdom and grace, and achieving a universal and perpetual empire (Ps. ii. 6, xlv. 2-7, Ixxii.. Isa. ix. 6, 7) ; and yet despised and rejected, a man of sorrows, and finally cut oif out of the land of the living (Isa. liii.). He was to open the eyes of the blind and the ears of the deaf, and make the CHRISTOLOGY (161) CHRISTOLOGY lame man leap as an hart (Isa. xxxv. 5, 6), and yet himself to be betrayed, sold, pierced, slain, and his grave appointed with the wicked. Yet his vicarious sufferings should make many righteous, and introduce an administration which should change the moi-al condition of the whole earth (Isa. xi. 1-9, Ix. 1-11). He was to do the work of a prophet (Isa. xlii. 1-7). that of a priest (Ps. ex. 4, Zech. vi. 13), and that of a king (Dan. vii. 14)— in each case combining and exalting to the highest point the excellences of all who had previously held such offices. These predictions and many others of like nature were all fulfilled in the son of Mary. He was unquestionably a man, being so called by himself and others. He had a body, for he ate, and drank, and became weary, and slept, and increased in stature ; he lived for 30 years as a man ; he died on the cross, was buried, rose again, and proved his identity by physical signs. He had, too, a rational soul, for he increased in wisdom. He had the com- mon feelings of our nature— wondering, re- joicing, sorrowing, weeping, loving, and on occasion becoming indignant. Tet he was just as certainly also divine. He received divine titles. Divine perfections were ascribed to him. Divine works were performed by him. Divine worship was paid to him. The evidence runs through the whole of the New Testament. The eternal Word was manifested in the flesh— that is, the Son of God as a divine per- son took upon him the nature of sinless hu- manity. And these two natures continue for- ever in Christ's complex person. They are not mixed nor confused, but united so as to form a God-man. A common illustration is taken from our humanity. Each individual of the human race is composed of body and soul, a material and an immaterial nature, and the personality results from the union of the two. Neither one alone is the man, nor does either impart any of its properties to the other, but the two together, each in its full integrity, are requisite to a complete individuality. In like manner the divine nature and ihe human coexist in the one Saviour. It is a profound mystery how this is, how there is such a com- plete union without confusion of a divine con- sciousness, mind, feeling, and will, with a hu- man consciousness, mind, heart, and will. But the fact is certain ; and hence, while the properties of one nature cannot be attributed to the other, i.e., the divine never becomes human nor the human divine, yet the proper- ties of both natures are often attributed to the person resulting from their union, and he may be indifferently designated by divine or by human titles. He is still God when he dies, and still man when he raises his people from their graves. It is hardly possible to exaggerate the im- portance of this point in theology. What Christ was is far more essential to Cliristianity than what he tauglit, for he is not simply the autiior of our religion, but its centre and its substance. The kernel of the whole .system lies in the fellowship with God which it intro- duces through the composite person of the Lord Jesus. T. W. C. History.— The elements of the subsequent doctrine of the church are to be found in the earliest writers of the Christian era. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists looked upon Christ as their God, though they did not answer the question how he could be God, and yet God, the Father and the Son, be one The progress of reflection upon the great truths revealed in the Word of God led soon to the asking of this question, which was an- swered in the Arian controversy, closing about the year 381. But when the fact was clearly established that the Son was of the same es- sence as the Father, there remained the further question, How was this Son inade man ? or What was the relation of the God and the man in the single personality, Jesus Christ ? The answer to this question was a gradual one. The early struggle, with Gnosticism, which denied generally that the human body of Christ was anything more than a mere ap- pearance, had brought out fully that Christ had a real body, and this was embodied in the rule of faith now known as the " Apostles' Creed." It was not so clearly perceived that he had a human soul, though this had not been denied. Platonic phitosophy entered into the problem to confuse it. But Origen (d. 254) di.stinguished clearly between the di- vine Word and the human soul, and taught that the soul was as essential to Christ as the divine Word, that nothing of humanity should be believed to be wanting in him. This point once made was never forgotten, althougli connected in Origen with his speculations as to the origin of evil and the pre-existence of souls. One more thing Origen said that ought not to be omitted, viz., that the union of the divine with the human in Christ was brought about by means of a human soul perfectly submitted to God. Thus the union was at bottom an ethical one. The failure of Apollinaris (q.v.) to advance the doctrine did not prevent the further con- sideration of it by the school of Alexandria. Athanasius brought out the difference between the indwelling of God in all good men and the indwelling of the Logos in Christ. In him the divinity had made human flesh its own. There is therefore but one Son of man. The Word bears the weaknesses of the flesh as its own. Hence the incarnate one is to be adored, and J\Iafy is the iMother of God. He; adds that the incarnation is the restoration of hu- manity to its original design. Gregory Nazi- anzen teaches the same doctrine, but also lays emphasi.s upon the humiliation and limitation of the Logos in the incarnation. Gregory of Nyssa attempts to advan(;e the study by ex- plaining the possibility of the incarnation, which he does by the idea that the soul is by nature " capacious of the divine." There is nothing in human nature which in itself is unworthy of God. As Athanasius had said, the soul'was meant for the Logos, and thus when tlie Logos a.ssumes it. he is coming to his own. (Jyril closed the .series of thinkers who followed out tliese thoughts. He taught that tlie Logos is the principle which consti- tutes the personality of the God-man. The union of God and man is indeed my.sterious, but that which is assumed becomes one with OHRISTOLOGY (162) OHRISTOLOGY the Lo,i!;os. Logically there is still a distinc- tion ; God does not cense to be God, nor hu- manity to be humanity ; but in reality, there are no longer two natures, but one nature- one being, one person, " one nature after the incarnation." Hence that which was born of the Virgin was God, and she is the Mother of God. The profound soteriological thought underlying all this was that salvation was not possible except God should participate in our weakness and suffering. But side by side with this tendency in Alex- andria there had been developing one alto- gether different at Antioch. Two fundamen- tal thoughts governed the Christology of this school. One was that the highest moral per- fection was only to be gained by free personal development, and the other that the great work of the Redeemer was to present a per- fect example of holiness for our imitation. Hence the emphasis was laid in this school upon the human nature of Christ, and the in- dwelling of deity in Christ is conceived after the analogy of his indwelling in all good men. Hence also the incarnation is ever perfecting itself during the life of Jesus. The two na- tures of Christ are "conjoined," they say, ■work rather in perfect harmony, than in a union such as Alexandria taught. And hence Mary is the Mother of Christ, not of God. The questions between the two schools of thought controlling the Christian world were brought to a decision b}" the Nestorian con- troversy. Nestoriiis (q.v.) took for his start- ing-point the Anliochian " conjunction," and defined Christ as the man with whom God is united. The two natures are to be carefully separated in thought, though they subsist in unity. That which was born of Mary was the "man, and hence she is the Mother of Christ. The phrase "Mother of God" was strongly opposed by Nestorius. He thus taught in reality that Ciirist was man and God, a twofold person, with two central points, each to be conceived as independent of the other. The union is subjective in us, rather than objective. The participation of the deity in the sufferings of the humanity Nestorius also rejected. Cyril replied to Nes- torius by saying that he taught two Christs rather than one, and the controversy waxed liot. Nestorius accused Cyril of confounding the two natures, which would be the same as destroying both ; of an Apollinarian limita- tion of the human nature ; and of degrading the intinite God to a human being. By these charges and countercharges the true question between the parties was brought out, Whether Cyril's Christology did not demand a transfor- mation of the two natures, and whether Nes- torius' did not involve a division of the one Christ. Cyril viewed the question thus seri- ously, and argued vigorously against Nes- torius. He said Nestorius not only divided the Christ, but destroyed his redemptive ac- tivity. This is the work of the one incarnate Logos, and it loses its significance so soon as it is referred to the man Jesus as its agent. Nestorius also destroyed tlie humiliation of Christ, for it can be no humiliation for him to unite himself with a man in Nestorius' sense. At the same' time the exaltation is destroyed. If the man, and not the Son of God, lias suf- fered for us. there is no redemption, for a man cannot redeem us ; and all the mediatorial acts, priestly and intercessory, lose their sig- nificance. In a word, Nestorius' view attacks the facts of our Christian experience. Such was Cyril's reply, and it had force because he was maintaining that perfect unity in the ])er- son of Christ which is necessary to account for the undivided consciousness of the Christ pictured to us in the gospels. He sought to add a positive element lo the discussion "of the doctrine by the theory of the communication of properties, whereby the Logos imparts him- self entirely to the flesh which he assumes and thus lifts it up into the deity. And here, though he did not fall into the mistake him- self, he prepared the way for the subsequent entire absorption of the humanity taught by Eutyches (q.v.). The Council of Epiiesus (431) decided against Nestorius, and his personal relations to the contest ceased. The Latin fathers now began to concern themselves with the ques- tion, as e.g., Ambrose. It was reserved for Leo I. in his letter to Flavian to give that calm and balanced view of the subject M'hicb could be, and was adopted as the basis of the final definitions at Chalcedon (451). Both the letter and the creed fall somewhat short of providing a basis for the true unity of the person of Christ, though they assert this strongly. The school of Alexandria carries off the victory on the whole. The rational soul, the consubstantiality with God accord- ing to the divinity, and with man according to the humanity, the two natures to be ac- knowledged " "inconfusedly, unchangeably, indi visibly, inseparably," and the title of Mary as Mother of God. are all Alexandrian. Still, the general balancing of elements throughout the whole suggests the Antiochian " conjunction." The Council did not settle the doctrine. The Monophysites, the heirs of Eutyches. to whom " nature" and " person" were equiva- lent concepts, so that two natures were the same as two persons, and the Monothelites, who denied the human will because not seeing how there could be two wills if they were in perfect harmony, and because tw^o inharmoni- ous wills would divide the person of Christ, continued the discussion. I3ut the mind of the church in general turned back from all these extremes to the creed of Chalcedon, which was thus left as the maturest presenta- tion of the theme to which the early church could arrive. The period of the Reformation saw this doc- trine again under discussion. The doctrine of the means of grace, which Luther was led by his controversy with Zwingli to emphasize, and the doctrine of the ubiquity of the Lord's body, which the exigencies of his theory of the sacrament called for, led him to the investi- gation of the question how the Lord's body could be ubiquitous. lie found the answer to this question in the ancient theory of the communication of properties. The hufnau nature of Christ received the divine attribute of omnipresence. But a deeper question than how to get a basis for the theory of the Lord's CHRISTOPHER (163) OHRYSOSTOM Supper vfas in liis mind. That theory de- pended upon his conception of the undivided nature of the one Christ, who, thus undivided, wrought all liis w^orks, includino; the imparta- tion of grace in the Supper. The two natures of Christ were perfectly united, though orig- inaliv^ diverse, because brought into perfect similarity by the mutual inipartation of prop- erties. The Lutheran Church has historically retained so much of this theory as is necessary to afford a basis for the ideas that the divine really took part in our weakness, and that the human body is really present " in, with, and under" the elements of the Supper. The " Reformed" churches made no effort to pass beyond the detinitions of Chalcedon. In our own day still more thought has been expended upon this theme, which has, however, scarcely become as yet a matter of history. The classical work is Dorner's Ylktory of the . . . Doctrine of . . . CJirUt, Eng. trans., Edin- burgh, 1861-63, 5 vols. (See arts. Kknosis and DoRNER.) F. H. F. Christopher, St., celebrated by the Greek Church upon May 9, by the Latin upon July 25, is known only by legends which have scarcely a trace of historical worth. He is said to have lived at Samos in Lycia, a place not otherwise known, to have converted mul- titudes by miracles, and to have suffered martyrdom. The German legend, that he sought to serve the strongest, and having found the devil afraid of Christ turned to him, and carried pilgrims across a river till at last Christ himself came, is not without beauty and instruction. F. H. F. Christophorus, pope Nov. , 903-June, 904, imprisoned his predecessor, Leo V'., and him- self met the same fate. F. H. F. Chrodegang, St., of noble Frankish birth, early in the 8th ceutur}^ ; became chancellor of King Karl Martel, to which office was joined that of bishop of Metz, 742 ; d. March 2, 764. He was a great statesman and ecclesi- astic, and endeavored with partial success to correct clerical laxity by the " rule" that the clergy should live together under the eye of their bishop, and thus be under stricter con- trol. Chronicles, the name of the 13th and 14th books of the Old Testament, which, among the ancient Jews, formed only one book. They are of unknown authorship, but were probably written by Ezra. The 1st book re- capitulates .sacred histor\' by genealogies from the beginning to the time of David, of whose life and reign it treats more fully. The 2d book recounts the hi.story of Judah, without that of Israel, from Solomon to the return from exile. They differ from King.s in that they dwell more on ecclesiastical matters, en- large upon public worship and the temple ser- vice, are fuller in respect to the religious char- acter of the kings, and by I heir genealogical records aided in the re-establishment of the Hebrew state and church. Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles are mutally supplementary, and need to be read together, as forming with some unessential discrepancies one contiiuious and most instructive hi^story. The most use- ful commentaries are those of Bertheau (2d ed., 1873) and Keil (1870). T. W. (I Chronicon paschale, a Christian chronicle of unknown authorship, extending from the creation to a.d. 1042, so called from its exact Paschal computations. Chrys'-olite .((/oM stone), the garniture o\ the 7th foundation of the New Jerusalem fKev. xxi. 20), usually identified with the yel- low topaz of the Old Testament. T. W. C. Chry-sor-o-gus ("of golden speech"), a name given to Peter, bishop of Ravenna, since 433 (b. at Imola, 22 m. e.s.e. of Bologna, 406 ; d. there, 450) for his eloquence. He was a contemporary of Valentinian III., and as court preacher exercised a wide iutiuence. Of his sermons, 176, of which only 100 are genuine, have come down to us. They em- phasize morals and good works, and occa- sionally enter the realm of polemic theology. He opposes Arianism and Eutychiani.sm. Works in Migne, Pat. Lat. vol. lii. ; partial German trans., and life by Held, Kempteu, 1874. F. H. F. Chrys-opra'-sus (r/old leek), an agate of the color of the leek's juice, the 10th precious stone in the foundation of the New Jerusa- lem. T. W. C. Chrysostom (Chry-sos'-tum, ciolden-mouth- ed), bishop of Constantinople ; b. at Antioch, 347 ; d. at Comana, Asia Minor, 407. His family belonged to high circles, since his father, Sccundus, held an important military position, and he would naturally have devoted himself to some secular pursuit. But the deeply religious education which liis mother, to whom his entire training fell after the death of his father, gave him, led him to turn aside from the profession of the law, which he had already taken up, and begin the study of the- ology. He was the pupil of the bishop of Antioch, Meletius, for 3 years, and then be- came Reader. But upon the death of his mother, he turned to that form of religious life which he would already have embraced except for her opposition, the monastic, and spent the 6 following years in absolute retire- ment in a neighboring' monastery. His earli- est writings deal with the monastic life and exhibit the greatest devotion to it, a feeling which he preserved to the end of his days. But considerations of health called him back to Antioch in the year 380, and thus began the second period of his life, and his principal service to Ids own times and to the world. At first a deacon, he engaged in the care of the sick, upon which department of ministe- rial activity he wrote several treatises. In 380 he was ordained presbyter, and was intrusted with the office of principal preacher in An- tioch. His pulpit activity embraced all the l)ul)lic and churchly interests of his day. He quieted the people when excited by "fear of the imperial displeasure at the destruction of the statues of the imperial family ; he sought to heal the Meletian schism in Antioch ; he entered the field against the Anomceans, and airainst Gnostic and Jewish errors. He ex- plained whole books of the Bible in series of sermons, or dwelt upon the peculiar events CHUBB (164) CHURCH of the day, or took up special topics, such as the history of Hannah. The remnants of heathen ways of life, of ancient superstitions, and the evils of the worldliness of his own times, all occupied his attention in turn. Thus he passed 12 years of growing useful- ness and increasing fame. But now he was to be put in a place at once more conspicuous and dangerous. The arch- bishopric of Constantinople was vacant, and Chrysostom was selected for the position. Brought thither by a wily device, to overcome his reluctance and the unwillingness of the people of Antioch, he was consecrated in 398. Constantinople was religiously and morally corrupt, since the intluence of a despotic gov- ernment and of the worldliness of the capital city conspired with the fanaticism of the East to promote the outward profession of the truth with the neglect of its substance. Chrysostom was an earnest, strict, simple-minded man, little fitted to cope with the forces about him, and little disposed to yield to them. He be- gan by opposing the Arians, who still had considerable influence with the people. Blood was shed in some of the conflicts which re- sulted. His episcopal activity extended itself to other churches, as to that of Ephesus, whither he journeyed in 401, installed a new bishop, and also deposed 6 nei,^hboring bishops who had been guilty of simony. But he thereby created enemies for himself. He also came into conflict with Theophilus of Alex- andria over his persecution of certain monks whom he had driven out of Alexandria. His freedom of utterance upon many topics had also set the Empress Eudoxia against him, and Theophilus found it easy to arouse her to active enmity, and to have a synod held at a place {Ad Quercum) near Chalcedon in which 46 complaints were brought against Chrysos- tom, and it was recommended that he be ban- ished. He delivered himself to his pursuers and was carried out of the city ; but the ex- citement of the people called him back, and he resumed his office. But the empress was still against him, and a hasty word of his own completed his ruin. Another synod was held at Constantinople, and he was again deposed, and on June 20, 404, was carried into banish- ment. The place of banishment was Kukusus in Armenia Minor. Here Chrysostom did not give up his spiritual labors, but maintained a constant correspondence with Constantino- ple, with missions which had been founded by him, and with other churches. Innocent I.' of Rome sought to induce the emperor to mitigate his sentence, but the only effect was that he was banished to Pityus upon the northeast eru shore of the Black Sea, toward which place he had started, when at Comana his strengtii gave out and he died. Aside from his importance as a preacher and an exegete, the great importance of Chry- sostom lay in the example he set in that age, of an earnest, pure, and amiable Christian character. Eng. trans, of his works, Christ. Lit. Co., N. Y., 1889, 6 vols. (See life bv W. R. W. Stephens, London, 1872 ; 2d ed., 1880.) F. H. F. Chubb, Thomas, English Deist ; b. at East Harnham, ntar Salisbury, Sept. 29, 1679 ; d. at Salisbury, Feb. 8, 1746-47. He was a clerk for a tallov.' -chandler, imperfectly educated, yet wrote several deistical books and many tracts. His free-will theory was considered worthy of an elaborate refutation by Jonathan Edwards in his Treatise on the Freedmn of t/ie Will (pt. i., sec. X.). Church (Greek kuriakon, the Lord's house). The Greek word, ecclesia, translated church, signifies an assembly, either secular (Acts xix. 32) or religious (Acts ii. 47). It is applied either to a particular congregation in a local sense, as the church at Antioch (Acts xiii. 1), or to a collection of congregations in a prov- ince, as in Acts ix. 31 (where the true text reads, " The church throughout all Judaea and Galilee and Samaria had peace"), or finally to the whole body of believers, whether considered as the professed followers of Christ, and therefore visible (as in 1 Tim. iii. 15), or as the aggregate of saved souls, known only to God and invisible to men (as in Heb. xii. 23). In the gospels the word is used only twice, each time by Matthew. One of these is in xvi. 18, " Upon this rock I will build my church," Avhere the Master declares his pur- pose to construct the edifice of his followers as a society, the other in xviii. 17, " tell it imto the church," where he speaks in anticipation of its existence. The day of Pentecost seems to have been the birthday of the Christian Church (Acts v. 11). The word is never used in Scripture to denote a building for worship. Churches are divided either locally, as the Church of England, the Kirk of Scotland, etc., or by differences on important points of doctrine, "as Trinitarians or Unitarians, Pela- gians or Anti-Pelagians, Calvinists or Armin- ians. Reformed or Lutheran, Broad Church or Evangelical ; or by variant views as to government, as Papists, Prelatisls, Presbyte- rians, Independents, or Methodists ; or by dif- ferences as to the sacraments, as Baptists and Pisedobaptists ; or by diversities of w^orship, as Liturgical or Anti-Liturgical ; or by two or more of these combined. The most generally -accepted definition of a church is that of the Nineteenth Article of the Church of England—" a congregation of faithful men, in tli'e which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly administered according to Christ's ordinance", in all those things that of necessity are requi- site to the same." The "faithful men" are those who confess their faith in Christ and sustain that confession by a correct outward life. They are not always what they profess to be, and this was true in apostolic times (Acts viii. 13, 21). Our Lord likened the kingdom of heaven to a field in which there were tares as well as wheat (Matt. xiii. 24, 25). The object of the church's existence is to promote the glory of God, the edification of its own members, and the diffusion of the gospel over the whole earth ; and to accom- plish these ends ordinances of worship are ap- pointed and the rulers exercise continual watch and care. When any members walk dis- orderly and continue to do so, notwithstand- ing adnicnition, they may be excluded (Matt, xviii. i7, 1 Cor. v. 3), but upon repentanc« OHUROH (165) CHURCH may and should be restored (Gal. vi. 1). Ex- pulsion is the highest penalty that can be im- posed, there being no authority to inflict any civil disabilities. According to the Scripture the church is not a voluntary society, but a divine institution, and it is the duty' of every believer to be in communion with his brethren ; but this duty can be enforced only by moral considerations. To use violent means implies an alliance of church and state, and is diametrically opposite to the will of him who said, " My kingdom is not of this world." T. W. C. Church and State had at first only the rela- tions of the persecuting or indiiferent supreme power, and the obscure, misunderstood, or dreaded, persecuted comnuiuity. In this silence and obscurity the church developed her constitution. When Constantine recog- nized her and set her free from further perse- cution, and gradually gave her rights under the state, he did not attempt to make any es- sential change in her character ; but the favor which protected her became gradually the power which governed her. On the one hand, the laws of the stale were changed to agree with the demands of Christian principle, viz., in respect to slavery, the circus, punish- ments, marriage, etc. Heathen lost their civil privileges, and the Christian clergy received special rights. The decisions of church coun- cils received the authority of laws. But on the other, the emperor assumed the right to call such councils, and regarded himself as in some sense the highest bishop of the Chris- tian, as he had been the pontifex maximiis of tlie heathen state. To some extent also the state contributed to the support of the church from the public funds. Gradually there de- veloped a sentiment in the Eastern CImrch which made the emperor a holy person, and gave him a despotic control over all the affairs of the church. The Occident, while it remained a portion of the undivided Roman Empire, shared in these arrangements, though it had a greater amount of freedom in consequence of its dis- tance from the court. With the beginning of the barbarian invasions in 410, the force of circumstances led the church t) the assump- tion more and more of temporal administrative functions. She became, to a certain extent, identical with the state, and when Pipin would protect her from the power of the Lombards, it was natural that he should confer upon her in a limited territory supreme local power (States of the Church), which was confirmed by Ciiarlemagne, and placed under the gen- eral supremacy of the empire. A similar sy.s- tem of connection of church and state char- acterized the whole monarchy of Charlemagne, for the great ecclesiastics were made great feudal dependents, and civil and ecclesiastical concerns were discussed and determined with- out much reference to any difference between them. The Frankish emperors also consid- ered themselves as the supreme bishops of the empire. But soon a different theory began to appear. The possession of power in a portion of Italy led the popes to desire more, and complication with the secular government, together with the growing idea of a universal spiritual monarchy, led to the maintenance of the doctrine that the church was superior to the state, which advanced by regular stages through Nicolas, Hildebrand, Innocent, and Boniface VIII. to the extreme position that the church is the fountain of all power, and that to believe this is necessary to salvation. The theory could not avoid calling out the op- position of the secular government, and the history of the middle ages is largely occupied with the narration of the struggles of popes and emperors, in which now one and now the other gets the advantage, the progress of events leading irresistibly toward the final triumph of the state. The Protestant Reformation introduced a new theory of the relations of church and state. The power of the church is restricted to purely spiritual things, which are sum- marily expressed by the Augsburg Confession as " preaching the Word and administering the .sacraments." So the power of the state extends only to that which is external, to the management of property and the preservation of public order. Luther himself originally denied the power of the state to remedy heresy, though he afterward had the Zwickau fanatics removed by the state under the prin- ciple of care for the public order. In fact, neither then nor since has the German Church been able to make such a distinction between the domain of church and state as to prevent much intermingling of jurisdiction. At the close of the Thirty Years' War the jus refor- miimli was granted to princes, whereby the state had the power to determine the veligiou of its subjects. This has gradually been sur- rendered, till all German states now allow free selection of confession, and make civil rights independent of all religious connections. At the present time the church in Germany is established— that is, derives its support di- rectly or indirectly from the state, and is in external matters subject to the state. It has, theoretically, control in its own sphere, but professors of theology are still appointed by the government, and the relics of the idea which regarded the church as a police agent in the hands of the state come now and then to view. The Reformation in England produced a different state of affairs. At first under Henry VIII., since the king took the place which had hitherto been occupied by the pope, there was the most perfect union, or identity of church and .state. This system was continued under Elizabeth, and an offence against the church was considered a crime against the state. Perfect uniformity of worship was de- manded, the result of which was to excite re- volt (see PrnnwNs). Robert Browne seems to have been the first to see that the system was wrong, and to teach the modern doctrine of tiie full independence of church and state. Tlie overthrow of the monarchy in 1G49, with the following restoration, left affairs in the same condition as before. Gradually more and more liberty has been given to dissenters, till tlie national church enjoys only the ad- vantage of being established by law. It is in many respects subject to the "state, as in the CHURCH (166) CHURCH appointment of bishops, but is supported from endowments and tithes. In America the different churches began upon the same systems as had prevailed in their former homes. Thus, though indepen- dence from the state was more consonant witli the principles of Congregationalism, and the experiences of the immigrants to Massachu- setts had been hard under the establishment in England, the churches in New England were established by law, in that their min- isters were supported from public funds, nu- merous ecclesiastical were made state affairs, and, at first, at least, etforts were made to ex- clude all other forms of religious practice from the country. The same in general was true of all the other colonies except Maryland and Pennsylvania. In Virginia the salaries of the ministers were fixed by law and at- tendance upon Avorship required. With the national era there began a different state of things. The terms granted to other religious bodies were made more liberal ; but not till 1817 was Connecticut, and not till 1833 Mas- sachusetts ready to break up the union of church and state entirel3^ The universal American system is now perfect separation of church and state. The state protects the property of the churches, and will in certain cases protect the individual in his rights under the laws of the church of which he is a mem- ber ; but no state pays the expenses of any church establishment. There is, however, no provision at present to prevent a state from establishing a church, though the general gov- ernment cannot do so. F. H. F. Church, States of the. From the time of Leo I. (440-61), on account of the increasing weakness of the government of Ital_y, the popes were obliged to take upon themselves many of the functions of civil government. The reign of the Lombards in Italy (568-755) was particularly a time of oppression to the church and of confusion in the state. When, therefore, at the request of the pope, the Frank- ish king had come over the Alps, and in the year 755 had conquered the Lombards for the second time, he gave to the pope, as the best security against further annoyance, a strip of land taken from the Lombards, as a temporal sovereiffuty. The extent of this is quite doubtful, but according to the most generous statements it reached from Ferrara on the north along the shore to Numana on the south, embracing thus the districts known as the Exarchate of Ravenna, and the Pen- tapolis. The city of Rome was not included. Charlemagne, after his victory over the Lom- bard king in 774, returned these possessions, which had been taken from the pope, and in- creased them somewhat, since localities in Tuscany are mentioned, with Spoletum, Ben- eventum, Corsica, and the Sabine country. What the powers thus conferred upon the pope were is not certain, but we know that the supremacy of the emperor was not abro- gated, since he sent, according to Leo himself, his missi, or supreme judges, to Rome. Thus begun, the states of the church were variously enlarged and reduced by various emperors under the guidance of circum- stances. As a feature of the contest always waging for supremacy between pope and em- peror, the pope sought to extend his direct personal dominion and the emperor to reduce it. Lewis the Pious (817) made large addi- tions. The duchy of Rome, the duchy of Perusium, which connects this with the Pen- tapolis, portions of Tuscany, nearly all south- ern Italy, with Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica are the principal of these. Within these lim- its, with the addition of the county of the Duchess Matilda, and even " those portions lying between tlie mountains and the sea," viz.. Upper Tuscany and Liguria, the states of the church were always confined. Out of Italy the pope purchased in 1348 the city of Avignon and the county of Venaissin in south- ern France. By the time of Rudolph of Hapsburg (1278- 91) the limits of the states of the church had come to be what they remained substantially from that time on. They extended from Bo- logna and Ferrara on the north along the coast of the Adriatic, through the duchy of Spoleto, to the strip upon the coast of the Mediterranean including the Campagna, of which Rome w^as about in the centre. All other possessions north and south, except two insignificant duchies, were lost. The French Empire under Napoleon incorporated these states, but they reappeared in 1815, to be again reduced to a strip along the Mediter- ranean in 1860, when the kingdom of Italy absorbed the rest, and to disappear from the map in 1870. The dogmatic system of the Roman Church, which teaches that the temporal power is de- rived from the spiritual, cannot allow that the pope can be a subject, and demands for him temporal sovereignty ; but, historically speak- ing, the possession of the states of the church was a great injury to the papacy, since it en- tangled it in political affairs, and often oper- ated to the disadvantage of its spiritual inter- ests. (See M. Brosch, Oeschichte des Kirchen- ataates, Gotha, 1880-82, 2 vols.) F. H. F. Church-congress, an annual gathering, since 1861, of clergy and laity of the Church of England for the discussion of religious and social questions. Church-diet {Kirchentag), gatherings of clergy and laity in German Protestant state churches, held since 1848, for the discussion of religious and social questions. Church Discipline rests upon the authority of the New Testament. The two passages. Matt, xviii. 15-18 and xvi. 18-19, establish the church, and direct that in it discipline shall be executed, the ultimate fountain of which is the church itself. Accordingly we find the New Testament churches exercising discipline against the openly immoral (1 Cor. v., etc.), against those who are negligent of their duty (3 Thess. iii. 6), against teachers of false doc- trine also (2 Tim. ii. 17, Tit. iii. 10. 2 Jolm, vs. 10, 11, Rev. ii. 14). It is, liowever, always for the sake of the reformation of the sinner. When the church became involved in the troubles arising from the severe per.secutions of Decius, the natural reaction of events made the discipline more formal and more severe. OHUROH (167) CHURCH The lapsed were restored to the full commun- ioa of the ciiurch only after regular process of discipline, which lasted iu some cases sev- eral years. The severity of this resulted in laying great weight upon the recommenda- tions of martyrs and confessors in behalf of the fallen, which in turn ended in laxness of practice. The result of this was to call forth the opposite extreme among the Montanists and the Novatians, the last of whom forbade the church to receive the fallen again to mem- bership. The Donatists also went to the ex- treme of saying that no sacrament was valid when performed by an unworthy priest. Witii the development of the Roman system of doc- trine purgatory was introduced (q.v.) and the idea of indulgence (q.v.). The confessional developed the system of satisfactions for sins committed as necessary to forgiveness. The church had also varieties of excommunica- tion, of which the " ban" was individual, the " interdict" (q.v.) was common to a com- munity. Discipline thus became an engine for attaining political ends. To the regular administration of discipline was added the Inquisition, as a special means for reaching heretics (q.v.). The Protestant Reformation put an end to these abuses within the limits of the new churches. The private excommunication, and that for the purpo.se of reclaiming the soul, was alone recognized by Luther as legitimate. The " Reformed" churches laid more em- phasis upon discipline as a means of building up a holy church. A general distinction be- tween the two branches of the Protestant Church, though not always observed, is that the Lutheran treats the church rather as an educational or pastoral establishment for the purpose of training the people in a religious life, and the Reformed more as a communion composed of those already regenerate, who are to be developed to a more perfect Christian life. Hence in the Lutheran Church the ob- ject of individual excommunication is rather the protection of the conscience of the church in her office of administering the sacraments. In America, tho.se churches which lay em- phasis upon the church as a means of grace (Roman, Episcopalian, Lutheran, etc.), follow the general method of discipline observed by their affiliated churches in Europe ; while those which view it rather as the communion of saints (Congregatioualists, Baptists, Presby- terians, etc.), require a more or less distinct con- fession of personal faith in Chri.st as a condi- tion of admission, and administer discipline in cases of such an open lapse from a Christian walk as throws reasonable doubt upon the genuineness of such a profession. In all cases the oliject of discipline is the benefit and re- covery of the offender, and no church pro- fesses to secure a member.ship in which all are, beyond the possibility of doubt, regenerated persons. F. II. F. Church Edifices. See Architecture, Curiuii. Church Government. The development of the govenuncnt of tlic' churcih began with its first organization jus a rnmmunity. Tlie apostles found need of assistants in the work of administering the charities of the church, and, possibly upon the suggestion offered by the organization of the synagogue, they pro- ceeded to set apart special officers for this ser- vice, the first deacons. Another order of offi- cers was also established in the time of the apostles, that of elders, who are otherwise called bishops ; and these two orders reappear in the Epistle of Clement (q.v.) as already es- tablished in the church at Rome, and many other churches, when the church emerges from the apostolic age. Another picture of early church life, differing somewliat in its coloring, is afforded by that other earliest document, the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles." Here we find churches who.sc cherished leaders are the " apostles" and the " prophets," and upon whom the writer finds it necessary to urge the appointment of bishops and deacons. Evidently here the immediate influence of the apostles in appointing such officers has not been deeply felt. Among such churches and other Gentile churches the in- fluences of the forms employed for social or- ganization in the heathen society about them may have had a large influence. There were innumerable clubs of all sorts, which had their privileges, and wdiose officers were often called by the names which were now adopted in the new societies or churches. Thus, " elders" or ruling officers may have arisen on the one side, and " bishops" or treasurers, and " deacons" or assistants in the work of distributing the treasure of the church to the poor, on the other. But, however they arose, these classes tended to unite into one homo- geneous body, in which gradually the bishop became the head of the local church, the pres- byters assisted him, at first in governing, and subsequently in instructing, and the deacons occupied a still lower place in the system. As early uicia brought fish and timber and merchandise in exchange for wheat, honej", oil, and balm ; and the denunciations of the prophets (Isa. ii. 6, 16, Hos. xii. 7, Jonah i. 8, Ezek. xxvi. 2) show that Jerusalem, through its port Joppa, carried on considerable intercourse with for- eign countries. At a later period trade was greatly promoted by the influx of foreign- born jews coming to the great festivals. The number of these was far greater than is gen- erally supposed. The present position of the Hebrews in the commercial world is due to their exile among other nations, their long ex- clusion from political and civil rights, and the race tie which enabled them to act in concert. T. W. C. Commination ("threatening"), the title of an office in the liturgy of the Church of Eng- land, so called because it denounces God's anger and judgment against sinners. It was omitted in the American Prayer-book, but the prayers in the English office are ordered to be used at the end of the Litany on Ash Wednesday. Commissary, one who is delegated by a bishop to discharge certain episcopal functions in a portion of the diocese remote from the principal consistory court. Com-mo-di-a'-nus, a Christian poet, flour- ished about 250, of whom two works have come down to ns, one entitled Iiistrvctiones, and the other Carmen Apologeiieum^ ad. 'E^.. Ludwig, Leipzig, 1877-78, 2 parts, and in Migne, vol. v. The latter contains the legend of the Antichrist. F. II. F. Com'-mo-dus, Roman emperor, reigned 180-92, of profligate character, but from his very indifference to religion and morality in- dulgent to the Christians, who were left in peace during his reign, for the most part. Christians are said to have held positions even in the imperial palace. The laws against Christianity remained unrepealed, and this was a cause of occasional persecutions. F. II. F. Common Prayer. See Liturgy, Pratp:r- BOOK. Common Service of the Lutheran Church. See Liturgy. Commu'-nica'-tio Idiom'-atum. a doctrinal COMMUNION (183) CONANT term relating to the union of the divine nature and the human in the person of Christ, the two natures being inseparable, so that what- ever in either nature is proper to Christ in tlie abstract belongs to him in the concrete. So far all Christians agree, but the Lutheran Church goes farther, and affirms that in con- sequence of the hypostatical union of the two natures, each nature shares in the essential attributes of the other, and this thej' apply to the corporal presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. The Reformed consider this view liable to very serious objections. (See Hodge, Strong, Krautb.) T. W. C. Communion. See Lord's Supper. Communion of Sjiints, one of the points of a Christian's faith according to the Apostles' Creed. It does not consist in identity of dog- ma or polity or worship, but in the mutual fellowship that results from believers' union as living members of the one Saviour (1 John i. 6). Thus apprehended it is a great privilege and blessing ; and it prompts to love, charity, sympathy, co-operation, mutual edification and holiness of life, often affording in the present world a foretaste of the blessed and perfect communion in the upper sanctuary. T. W. C. Communism is a system of society in •which common property is the recognized form. It has sometimes been advocated on scriptural grounds as being the pattern set by the early Christians at Jerusalem just after Pentecost. But the community of goods Avhich then ex- isted was merely a spontaneous gush of good feeling, not required by any law, and soon passing away with the extraordinary circum- stances wiiich called it forth. Efforts at com- munistic societies have been made in all ages and countries, but have never attained per- manent success. No artificial rules can take the place of the spirit of competition, accom- panied by the domestic affections and the genial etliics which the gospel inculcates. Christianity purities and elevates the social state by purifying individual members ; nor is there any other way. It emphasizes the golden riile and furni.shes the motive to obey it, viz., love to God. Human brotherhood rests upon the divine Fatherhood. He who loves God will love his brother also. And just so far as these obtain, strife and painful friction disappear, and there is peaceful prog- ress on all sides. (See Nordhoff, Coinmu- nistic Societies of the United States, New York, 1874 ; T. D. Wool.sey, Communism ami Socialism., New York, 1880.) T. W. C. Commutation of Penjmce. See Penance. Competentes. See C.\.techetic8. Completorium or Compline, the last ser- vice of the day, when the canonical hours (q.v.) are observed. Complutensian Polyglot. See Poly- glot. Compostella, Order of Knights of St. James of (San Jago de», established in llGl to protect from tlie .Moors the piln proposed lliat all those who dis- sented from the opinion of tlie majority of the cliurch should be put under admonition, and so deprived of the power to vote, to which Pastor Wilson replied : " I think you speak very well ; it is very meet. " This accordingly was done, and then, the church assentiugW silence, the chief culprit was also admonished. A week later the trial was resumed. jMrs. Hutchinson avowed repentance. " She liad spoken unadvisedly and rashly. The root of all was the hight and pride of her spirit. She was heartily sorry she had slighted the minis- ters." But Mr. Shepard was "unsatisfied if her repentance were true. ' ' So was Mr. Eliot. Mr. Symmes was glad to see any humiliation in her ; but Mr. Peters " did think she would have humbled herself more." Deputy-gov- ernor Dudley was " very much afraid her re- pentance would do more hurt than her errors Her repentance w^as in a paper which he didn't know who drew up ; it certainly wasn't in her countenance." Mr. Shepard returned to the subject squarely to say : " you have not only to deale with a woman this day that houlds diverse erronious opinions, but with one that never had any trew grace in her hart : yea, this day, she hatii shewed herselfe to be a no- torious" Imposter : it is a Tricke of as notori- ous Subtiltie as ever was held in the Church. " All who spoke thought she ought to be cast out, until some one inquired " how they could cast out a penitent, since the Scripture de- clareth that he who confesseth and forsaketh his sin shall have mercy, and we are to bear with patience the contrary-minded?" Tt) whom Mr. Cotton tersely explained that that applied to true penitence, and the " contrary- minded" referred to vfcra those who were icithimt. Those who were on the other side still boing under admonition, the church nnan- imouslif sanctioned the proposition of expul- sion, whereupon Pastor Wilson, in the name of the church, delivered the poor woman to Satan, and in the name of Jesus Christ com- manded her as a leper to withdraw herself out of the congregation, as one who may now liave no part in them or benefit by them. Of course it is to bo borne in mind that, in every respect, those were ruder and harder times than these in which we live ; but, with all due allowance, it is nearly impossil)le to recognize in such a scene the lineaments of a fair and honorable government by the people, acting untler the benign orders of a Goil of infinite justice and a Saviour of infinite mercy. Such a phivse of Congregationalism as this could not be permanently satisfactory to an intelligent people who were on their way to be a free people. Yet it was not until the days of John Wise and Nathaniel Emmons ; not until well into the present century ; not until the aspects and infiuences of civil gov- ernment favored such a transfer ; that the gen- eral system of the fathers was clarified and energized by purging out the last vestige of that Presbyterianism which had so long been a curse to it, and its development into a Con- gregationalism which is a self-consistent, ho- mogeneous, and satisfactory democratic polity, fitting exactly the rights of man and thf commands of God. Before a.d. 1800 Congregationalism was scarcely known out of New England, and the first generation of the 10th century had ncarlv gone by before New England Coiigregational- ists emigrating to the interior and the West became aware that I'resbyterianism is not the same church goveriunent under another name, and began to incpiire why those simi)lc ancl scriptural methods which "worked so well on the eastern side of Byram river should not also prove possible, practical, and beneficent on its western side. In 1852, by the abroga- tion of what had been since 180ron both sides a well-intended "Plan of Union" between Presbyterians and Congregationalists, but whose working had not satisfied the latter, the Congregationalists first steadily began to grow in the newer sections of the land. The first real attempts at accurate denominational statis- tics date back only to 1845, although a vague endeavor had been made 85 years before. A comparative glance at the returns of a few years may be instructive : Churches. Members. Ministers. iroo ... 5;30.. (41 cluirches vacant 18-45. ...1,471.. l(ir),'->87.... 1,412 1843 ...1,807.. 177,008.... 1,01-J (No returns for 1849.) 1859. ...2,571.. 250,452... 2,.'V1-1 18B9. ...3,043.. 330,391.... 3,:i78 1879. ...3,074 382,920.... 3,585 1889. ...4,569.. 475,008.... 4,408 It is usual for the Congregational ministers of a neighborhood to be united in a niinisierial as,sociation which meets two or three limes a year for purposes of better accpiaintance, spir- itual intercourse, and professional inqirove- ment. It has become the practice for students desiring introduction to the ministry to seek, and, if^all be well, to receive from such asso- ciations a certificate of approval, which be- comes a sufficient commendation to the churches. Lately it has also become common for membership in some such body, as involv- ing the good-will and confidence of his neigh- bors, to be recognized as orderly proof of good standing in the Congregational ministry. These district associations are afiiliated in delegated state associations which meet once a year. The churches are also joined in confer- ences, much as the ministers are in these asso- ciations. The Triennial National Council, comi>osed of caref(dlv-proportioned delegations from all the ('.)iigregatif)nal churches of the land, was formrMl at Oberlin in 1871, and has met at New Haven in 1874. Detroit in 1877. St. Louis in 18H0. Concord, N. H., in ISS;^ Chicago in 1880, and Worcester, Mass., in IHHU. There are 7 benevolent societies through which the Congregationalists of the Lnited States work together for the advancement of the kingdom of God, while, at the sauu; time, they cooperate largely with Christians of other polities throuirh" Bible, tract. Sunday- school, seamen's friend, temperance, moral reform, and kindn-d organizations. These arc : 1. The American Board of Com- OONGREGATIONALISTS (192) OONGREGATIONALISTS missioners for Foreign Missions, established in 1810, which has 22 missions, 1050 stations and out stations, 472 missionaries and assist- ant missionaries, 2135 native laborers, 336 churches, with about 31,000 members, 126 high schools and seminaries for young men and women, with over 7000 students, and a total of near 43,000 children and youth who are under Christian instruction. The annual receipts are about $400,000 in donations and nearly |150,000 in legacies. 2. The American Home Missionary Society, organized in 1826. It has aided to establish 5081 churches, nearly half of which have come to self-support. It has collected and disbursed in cash over 12 millions of dollars, and supplied needy pastors and their families with nearly 3 millions of dollars' worth of clothing, books, and other valuables. Its an- nual receipts are about $550,000 in cash and nearly $70,000 in supplies. 3. The American Missionary Association, organized in 1846, was originally especially to aid the slave, and since emancipation it has sought to prepare the colored people for the discharge of their duties as citizens and Chris- tians, not forgetting the Indians and the Chinese. It has been instrumental in estab- lishing 136 churches and 58 colleges and schools, having under instruction nearly 12,000 pupils. It estimates that there are more than 200,000 scholars taught by those whom it has trained. 4. The American College and Education Society, organized in 181G as the " American Education Society." lis object is to aid col- leges when in their formative stage, and to assist pious young men to obtain an education for the Christian ministry. It has aided about 7500 young men into the pulpit. It had last year on its list 280. It has done what it could also to aid 23 colleges and seminaries toward self-support. 5. The American Congregational Union, whose object is to assist in the erection of churches and parsonages. Its total resources for church-building last year were $152,803.,- 94 ; for parsonages, $26,534.26. 6. The Congregational Sunday-school and Publishing Society. During 1888 it aided in the organization of 497 Sunday-schools, and made 2582 grants of Sunday-school literature. Its total receipts were $45,496.58. 7. The New West Education Commission, whose ob^ tion in Utah and adji tories. It maintains 30 schools, with more than twice that number of teachers, in which are nearly 3000 pupils, nearly one third of whom are Mormons, and as many more apos- tates from the Mormon faith. It has also 24 Sunday-schools including nearly 2000 pupils. Its total income for the last year was $65,- 751.89. Congregationalists in the United States have also 7 theological seminaries for the training of ministers, intended especially for those who have already taken a college degree, yet ex- ceptionally admitting others. These are An- dover, opened for service in 1808 ; Bangor, which began its work in 1816 ; Yale, which graduated its first class in 1825 ; Hartford bject is to promote Christian civiliza- Utah and adjacent states and terri- (formcrly East Windsor), founded in 1834 ; Oberlin, which received students in 1838 ; Chicago, which commenced its labors in 1858, and the Pacific (at Oakland, Cal.), where in- struction began in 1869. For the last 10 years these 7 seminaries in all together have aver- aged, adding a whole one for a fraction, 43 professors, 21 instructors or lecturers, 10 resi- dent licentiates, 18 in their advanced or gradu- ate classes, 89 seniors, 95middlers, 104 juniors, 53 in special courses— an average total of 63 instructors and 368 students. It should be added that the last reported year is noticeably above these averages, reporting 74 instructors, with 490 undergraduate students, of whom 92 were seniors, 113 middlers, 133 juniors, and 153 specials. It is a cheering fact with which to conclude our view of American Congregationalists, that their latest statistics show for the last 5 years a net annual gain of very nearly 112 churches and of almost 16,000 members. We have seen that there were only 2 or 3 feeble Congregational churches in England M'hen emigration to this country began. Ten years before the convocation of the Westmin- ster Assembly there were no more, save that 5 or 6 Baptist churches, who were immersing Congregationalists, had added a little to the growth of Separatism in England. The fact was that Puritanism never took kindly to Separatism, while at the same time New England was drawing that element to herself over sea. But when the ferment of the civil war came on, Congregationalism, which the English have usually preferred to call Inde- pendency, began a swift and large growth, especially in London and its neighborhood. It is probably to be confessed that it t^ourished for a time exceptionally among the illiterate, who had an enthusiastic or even a fanatical turn. But about the time when the Long Parliament opened it began to make its way as never before among the better class of Puri- tans, men like Nye, Goodwin, Bridge, Bur- roughs, and Simpson being numbered among its stoutest adherents ; a thing helped by the steady flow of a stream of influence from New England in letters and trfiatises from Cotton. Hooker, Davenport, Ilicha,rd Mather, Samuel Stone, and their compeers. As late as 1641 as wise and good a man as Richard Baxter con- fes.sed that before then, he "never thought what Presbytery or Independency were, nor ever spake with a man that seemed to know it." There were 10 or 11 Congregational- ists in the Westminster Assembly ; Cotton, Hooker, and Davenport being invited from this country, but failing to see "a sufficient call." Cromwell and the army favored Inde- pendency, and the polity made a long stride forward. But the Kestoration soon darkened the heavens, and a series of tyrannical acts followed. Not until 1689 did England begin to mitigate itself toward Nonconformists. Slowly one senseless and cruel discrimination against them after another has been swept away, until at last even they have a college in Oxford. English Congrega"ionalists deserve great honor tliat, in the face of such hostility, tliey have made so large a growth. Their last Tcai' Book reports in England and Wales CONGRBaATIONALISTS (193) OONQREGATIONAIilSTS 4376 churches, branch churches, and mission stations. Besides these they have in Scothmd 101 churches and stations ; in Ireland. 123 ; Canada. 201 ; Australia, 310 ; New Zealand, 24; Natal, etc., 26; South Africa, 39; Ja- maica, 41 ; British Giiitina. 39 ; India, 31 ; Ciuiia, 2 ; on the Continent, 4, and in the Chiuinel Islands, 11. These ajxgregate 5328. Add these to the 4569 on the American list, and we get a grand total of well on toward 10,000 (9897) Congregational churches known und tabulated among English speaking peoples. Baptists, Unitarians, and Universalists have sometimes been accounted Congregationalists. But tlie former, although using substantially the democratic polity, so radically dilfer from Congregationalists on more than one important point, that it seems fallacious to endeavor to include them under that name ; while the laxit}^ of discipline as well as of theology in the case of tlie latter two, is so great and vital, that they can hardly in fairness be accounted as having any polity at all. Hexry Martyn Dexter. Literature. — R. Browne, A Bookc wJdch sln>weth the Life and Mnn iters of all True Christians and Junce vidike then "'"^ ''^'^^" Turkes and Papistts, and Heathen Folke. Also the Pointer and Partes of all Diainitie, etc., Mid- delbvrgh, 1583. H. Barrowe and J. Greenwood, A Trve De- scription, out of the Word of God, of the Visi- ble Church (Dort), 1589. H. Barrowe, A Brief Discouerie of tJie False Church, etc. (Dort), 1590. F. Johnson and H. Ainsworth, A True Con- feHsion of the Faith, and HvnMe Acknowledg- ment of tiLe Alegels of the Byzantine government to stamp out that heresy "wen-, in spite of Hi'* compromi.se of 4S2, the socalle.l llenotikon ((I.V.), so incessant and so hanwsing, thai the COR (198) OOREA Egyptian Christians actuall}'^ received the Mohammedaa Arabs, when they broke into the country in 640, as liberators. Tliey soon fell a prey, however, partly to seduction, partly to coercion. The country became Mohamme- dan, and the Copts represent only the small and insi.sjnificant remains of the once so famous Church of Egypt. The name is a corruption of the Greek 'Ar//'rrrwf, pronounced " ghubt" or " ghibt" by the Arabs ; and the Coptic version of the Bible is the ancient Egyptian tongue written down with Greek characters interspersed here and there with old Demotic signs. This lan- guage is still used in the services, though it is not understood any more — hardly even by the priests ; in every-day parlance the Copts speak Arabic like the rest of the Egyptians. The church, which is spread in small communities all over the country, but most strongly repre- sented in Fayum, an oasis in Middle Egypt, and at Cairo, has a very elaborate hierarchy, at the head of which stands the patriarch of Alexandria, and maintains very pronounced ascetic views ; some of the monasteries dating back to the tirst centuries are still standing. But there is no religious life — nothing but dull routine and dead ceremonies. In 1825 the English Church Missionary So- ciety tried with considerable success to bring about a kind of revival, and in 18o5 the United Presbyterian Church of North America also took up the idea, founding in 1875 a seminary at Siut for the education of young Coptic preachers. (See A. J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, London, 1884.) Cor. See IMeasures. Coran. See Koran. Cor'-ban, the Hebrew name for a sacred gift. The Jews are rebuked by Christ for using this as a way of violating the 5th com- mandment. A son would say (Mark vii. 11), "It is a gift to God, by whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me," and so withhold it, although it never passed, nor was intended to pass, out of his hands. T. W. C. Cordeliers, the name given to the Francis- cans in France on account of the rope girdle they wear. See Franciscans. Cordova, the Spanish city, in which (1) in 853 a synod convened which practically de- cided in favor of opposing, fanatically, the Mohammedan power so that the Christians might win the martyr's crown ; (2) in 980 was founded a famous school, whose greatest teacher was Averroes, and pupil INIaimonides, and which was the principal seat of the study of Aristotle in Arabic. Corea (coree'-a). This peninsular king- dom lies between China and Japan, Asiatic liussia and the Eastern Sea, and in the his- tory of civilization has been the link between Cathay and Zipangu, as was Cyprus between Egypt and Greece. The immediate neighbors of the Coreans are the Chinese, Russians, and Japanese, while by means of the electric cables and overland telegraph they are in easy com- munication with the rest of the world, and no longer the " hermit nation." The form " Corea," which reached us through the Portuguese navigators of the 16th century, is that of the mediaeval king- dom Korai in popular use under the form Gaoli. The official name, used from e.g. 1122 to 9 A.D., and again since a.d. 1392, when the present dynasty was established, is Ch5-sen, meaning Morning Calm. This poetic phrase refers most probably not to the natural charm of the dayspring, but to the gracious favor of China, the " Middle" kingdom, around which all other nations were as satellites to the sun, or as fringes to a robe, the audiences of the emperor or Son of Heaven being gi/en at day- break. The name Cho-sen is thus a minia- ture of Corean history, for though justly claiming national independence, and often bloodily fighting for it, and though often in- vaded and oppressed by Chinese armies, yet Corea has been for centuries tributary to the " Great Country," to which she is but '"'a little house." As a pupil nation Cho-sen has re- ceived arts, science, literature, ethics, and re- ligion from China, the mother of Asiatic civilization east of the Ganges. Physically, the country consists of the pro- longation of a great mountain chain from Manchuria, 3 eastern provinces occupying the ridge and 5 western ones the slope. Ta Cho- sen or "all Corea" is divided into 8 prov- inces, which have the sea and rivers for their outer, and mountains for their inner bound- aries, and are thus excellent natural divi- sions. The}^ take their names from the 2 chief cities in each, the initial syllables being united. The northern part is cold, mountainous, and thinly settled, with mineral wealth, but little arable land, while the southern provinces are warm, fertile, and densely populated. The central province, which contains the capital, Se'oul, is the headquarters of the over-numer- ous official class. The total area is about 82,000 sq.m., or about twice the size of Ohio. The population numbers 10,528,937 souls, there being in all 3,356,267 families ; 5,312,323 males and 5,216,614 females ; the greater care exercised over boys during their childhood's sicknesses being the cause of the excess of males. In physical appearance the Coreans are taller and stouter than the Japanese, resembling them in the face more than the Chinese, and in character and temperament suggesting a happy mean between the two races, being less mercurial than the one and less stolid than the other. The Coreans and Japanese, as shown especially by language, are of one orig- inal stock, the former having more Chinese, and the latter more Malay intermixture of blood. Passing over their mythology and legends, the first historical civilizer of Corea was Ki-tse', a Chinese noble, and ancestor of Confucius, at the court of the Shang dynasty, who. on its fall, unable to serve the conqueror Wu, departed amicably and emigrated eastw^ard founding Ping Yang, on the Ta Toug river, a Corean city, wliich has yet many memorials in art, law, and custom of this founder of stx;ial order. He named his new domain Ch5-sen. The mass of Corean people are, however. OOREA (199) CORINTHIANS descended from a northern people who mi- grated from the Suugari valley, and their early political evolution was through feudal- ism into monarchy, Chinese culture being continually borrowed. We may thus epitomize the national history : EraofoldChO-sen, 1132b.c.-9 a.d. ; era of the Three Kingdoms. 9-960 a.d. ; United Korai or Corea, 960-1393 ; modern ChO-sen, 1392- 1890. The native history, after the Christian era, is in most important events corroborated by Chinese and Japanese annals, and manj- points of universal human interest are discovered, such as the first recorded use of the magnetic needle used as a mariner's compass by the Chinese ships sailing to the Corean capital in 1133 A.D., commerce with the Arabs, and con- tact with the Persians and Thibetans. The Corean language is closely allied to the Japanese, tliough the Chinese ideographs are much used. A Corean nobleman invented, in the 7th century, a simple alphabet of 14 con- sonants and 11 vowels, classitied according to the organs of speech. This most important fact will facilitate the spread of the Bible wiien translated into the vernacular. The serious native literature is in Cliinese, and the ethics, philosophy, and classics of China are made the basis of education and culture as well as of success in the competitive examinations for the civil service. In religion tlie primitive fetichisra and wor- ship of the spirits of air, earth, and heaven, popularly prevails over all other cults. Though Buddhism from a.d. 353-1392 pre- vailed, it is now supplanted by Confucianism. Priests and monks are not allowed in walled cities, and nearly the only remnants of the once dominant faith are mountain monasteries, from whicli precious literary treasures may yet come forlli, and certain colossal statues of Buddha, hewn out of natural rock. Practi- cally the people are without a strong religion and are waiting for one. It is often supposed tliat Christianity was introduced by soldiers of the Japanese invading armies of 1592-97, but of this there is no proof. In 1777 a coterie of students, who had re- ceived from Peking through the tribute-bear- ers some books fronr the Jesuit fathers there, were converted to Roman Christianity. They multiplied so fast tiiat, in 1794, a Chinese, and in 1836, a French mi.ssiouary priest se- cretly entered tlie country and a powerful church was formed. Despite all governmental efforts, by desolating the frontier, guarding the ]>asse3 and coast, and otiierwise to isolate Corea from outside influences, bloody inquisi- tion and persecutions, and the outlawry and decapitation of 9 French priests in 1866, con- verts multiplied. The pressure of Russia, Japan, France, and the United States, witli blooily reprisals by the three latter nations, became too great "for the hermit nation, and in 1876, the Japanese, and in 1S83, the Ameri- cans secured treaties and commerce. In defiance of China Corea has asserted her sovereignty by having a legation in Wa.sliing- ton. The first missionaries of Bible Christianity, the American Presbyterians, began work at Se'oul in 1884, II. N. Allen, M.D., and Rev. Horace Underwood being first on the ground, though Rev. John Ross, from the iMaueluirian side, had translated the Scriptures and bajUizc d Coreans. The American Methodists have fol- lowed with a strong staif of workers. There were in February 1H90 over 100 converts, 2 churches, and the beginnings of Christian education in boarding and day schools, theo- logical instruction, hospitals, Sunday-schools, union translation of the Bible into the ver- nacular, hymnology, and religious literature. 'J'his is the promise and record of less than 4 years' planting of reformed C^hristianit v in a pagan nation whicli has been openecl to Western intercourse but 7 years, nor does any country show a more hopeful missionary lielcl. The Roman Catholics chiim many thou- sand followers. Besides ado])tiiig telegraphs, steamers, and the material forces of Western civilization, as far as the national treasury will permit, the government lias established a hospital, medical school, and college of liberal arts, which are under American in- structors. Literature. — John Ross, Corean PHmei', London, 1877 ; W. E. Griffis, fovea, the Hermit Nation, New York. 1882, 3d ed., 1889 ; Percival Lowell, Chomn, Boston, 1885, 2d ed., 1887 ; W. R. Carles, Life in Corea, London, 1888 ; II. N. Allen, Corean Tales, New York, 1889; H. G. Underwood, A Pocket JJictionari/ of the Korean Language, London, 1890. William Elliot Griffis. Cor'-inth, the capital of Acliaia on an isth- mus 40 m. w. of Athens, and having 2 ports, one on the east, the oth.er on the west. This fact gave it great military and commercial importance, and it became very wealthy and refined. Destroyed by the Romans n.c. 146, it was restored by Julius Ca?sar, and regainecl its former splendor and profligacy. Paul (a.d. 52) introduced the gospel, and abode there 18 months, during which he wrote the 3 Epistles to the Thessalonians. On a .subse- quent visit (a.d. 57) he wrote the Epistle to the Romans. T. \V. C. Corinth'-ians, The Epistles to. These are not didactic, but discuss a variety of (pustioiis arising from the application of Christian prin- ciples to the ordinary nltairs of life. They are so fuUof personal and local details that their genuineness has rarely been denied. The First Epistle was written at Ephcsus about A.D. 57, when Paul received through the family of Chloe (i. 11) painful intt lligence of the factions that had arisen, using his name and those of Peter, Apollos, and Christ him- self, in bitter contentions. He rebukes this great error, and guards the i)eople against resting their faith upon the wi.sdom of men instead of the simple Word of (iod. lie then l)roc.eeds to reprove them for cirhiiii gross se.xual immoralities (ch. v.), and replits to their questions respect inir celibacv and mar- riai:o((h. vii.)and the eating of i'ond olTered to idols (ch. viii.). lie also treats c.f decorum in public as-semblies and the right use of the Lord's Supptr (ch. xi.), and of sixeial giftH of the Spirit (chs. xii., .\iv.). In the VMh chap, he treats of love, and in the 15th of the CORNELIUS (200) COSIN resurrection, each in a strain of wonderful beauty and eloquence. He then (ch. xvi.) directs as to Christian beneficence and closes with friendly greetings. The Second Epistle was written from Mace- donia a few months later in the same year, and was occasioned by intelligence received through Titus (vii. 6, 7) of the favorable re- ception of his former letter and its good effects, although there were still those who were op- posed to him. They accused him of fickle- ness in not fulfilling "his promise to visit them, blamed his severity toward the incestuous per- son, and charged him with the assumption of undue authority. In the course of his reply he answers these objections, enlarging upon the excellence of the new covenant (iii., iv.), the character of his ministry (chs. v., vi.), the nature of repentance (vii.), the duty of benefi- cence (viii., ix.), and then at length vindicates his own course and his apostolic authority (x -xiii.). Both epistles are remarkable for the light they throw upon the personal char- acter of the apostle — his history and his intel- lectual and spiritual greatness. He solves all questions by an appeal to Scripture, or to the words of Christ, or to his own authority as an organ of the Holy Ghost. His directions apply not only to the cases submitted to him, but also to numberless others of the same kind, and thus what at first sight is only a collection of details becomes a book of principles. [The principal separate modern commentaries on Corinthians are by Hodge (1857); Stanley (1855) ; Beet (1882) ; Godet (1885) ; on the First Epistle alone, Edwards (1885) ; Ellicott (1888) ; Dods (1889).] T. W. C. Come'-lius, a Roman centurion of the Italian cohort stationed at Caesarea, who was the first Gentile convert to Christianity (Acts x., xi.). He was miraculously directed to send for Peter, who was in like manner caused to heed the summons. On hearing the word Cornelius believed, and he and his household were bap- tized. T. W. C. Cornelius, pope, 251-52. The Novatians were condemned by a synod under his presi- dency. See Novatians. F. H. F. Cornelius Agrippa. See Agrippa. Cornelius a Lapide (properly van der Steen), Roman Catholic ; b. at Boehaff, near Liege, Belgium, 1568 ; became a Jesuit ; paid special attention to Bible study ; was teacher of the Scriptures at Louvain and afterward at Rome, where he d. March 12, 1637. His learned and valuable commentaries cover the entire Bible, except Job and the Psalms. Best ed., Lyons, 1838, 11 vols., Eng. trans, of parts, London, 1881-87. Corporal, the cloth used in the Roman cliunih to cover the bread and wine after communion. It represents the linen cloth in which the body of Jesus was wrapped, whence its name. F. H. F. Corpus ("body") Catholicorum ('' of the Catholics") and Corpus Evangelicorum (" of the Evangelicals"), the coile(;tive names of the Roman Catholic and Protestant states of Germany, respectively. They first come up prominently during the proceedings which preceded the Peace of Westphalia, 1648. The head of tlie former was the elector of Mayence. of the latter that of Saxony, even after that house became Roman Catholic, it being stipu- lated that the control should be in the Dresden privy council, which was Protestant. Both bodies ended with the dissolution of the Ger- man empire in 1806. Corpus Christi, the festival in the Roman church celebrating (on Thursday of Trinity week) the adoration of the Host. It was first proposed by a nun, Juliana, in 1230, estab- lished in 1264 by papal bull, re-established in 1311, and is celebrated with processions and great pomp. F. H. F. Cor'-pus Doctri'-nae, the name given to collections of doctrinal treatises representing a certain type of faith. The first was tlie C. P. Philippicum (Leipzig, 1560), which con- tained the chief confessional writings of Me- lanchthon. Similar collections were afterward made at Hamburg, at Brunswick, and else- where ; but all were finally superseded when the Formula Concordise was produced, and accepted as the common Corpus Doctrinw of the whole Lutheran Church. T. W. C. Corpus juris canonici {i.e., " the body of canon law"), the canonical authorities of the Roman Catholic Church, embracing the De- cretum Oratiaiii (1150), Decretals of Gregory IX. (1234), Liber sextus of Boniface VIII. (1298), the Clementines of Clement V. (1311), the Extravagantes Joannis XXII. (1340), and Extravagantes cornmunes (1484). An edition revised by the commission of cardinals called the Correctores Romani appeared in Rome, 1582, last ed., Friedberg, Leipzig, 1879-81. Correspondences. See New Jerusalem Church. Cosin, John, Church of England ; b. at Norwich, Nov. 30, 1594 ; d. in London, Jan. 15, 1671-72. Educated at Cambridge, he rose rapidly in his profession ; became a preben- dary of Durham, 1624 ; dean of Peterborough, 1640 ; compelled to leave England, 1643-44, he retired to Paris, where he otliciated as chaplain in the household of Charles II., who at the Restoration made him dean again and ere the year closed bishop of Durham and lord lieutenant of the county, 1660. By his energy, his administrative ability, and his munificence he greatly strengthened the dio- cese. Two foes, Romanism and Puritiinism, excited his sleepless opposition, and he did not scruple to employ his civil and ecclesiastical power to rid his diocese of them. Yet the strictness of his interpretation of the Fourth Commandment suited the latter, and his in- sistence on elaborate ritualism gave color to the report that he inclined to the former. He had the courage of his convictions, and was of a singularly frank and outspoken character. " He possessed the now almost lost art of composing prayers after the best and most ancient models ;'and to him w^e are indebted for some of the most beautiful col- lects in our prayer-book, and probably for most of the alterations made." His best- known work, indeed, is his Collection of Pri- COSMAS (201) COUNTER-REFORMATION vate Devotions, Loudon, 1626-27, modern edd. ; but his works Mil 5 vols. (Oxford, 1843- 55). He was a great smoker. (Cf. Cauou Overtou'vS art. in Diet. Nat'l Diog.) Oosmas and Damianus, Sts., brothers who labored as Christian physicians till in 303, in ' the persecution under Diocletian, they were martyred. Their remains are said to have been brought to Rome, where a church was dedicated to their memorj', and where they are still remembered, Sept. 27 being set apart for them. In the middle ages they were ex- tensively honored as the patron saints of all physicians and apothecaries. A clerical order of knights was dedicated to them, which soon went out of existence. F. H. F. Oos'ma3 In-di-co-pleu'-stes, a monk who travelled in India (whence his designation) and wrote a " Christian Topography," which was designed to be a system of geography based on Christianity, but which was, in fact, tilled with fancies and errors. (See Montfaucon's Collectio nova 2)atrum Orcecorum, Paris, 1707.) F. H. F. Cotelier (cot'le-a), Cotelerius, Jean Bap- tiste, Roman Catholic layman; b. at Nismes, 30 m. n.c. of Moutpellier, France, 1627 ; became member of the Sorbonne, Paris, 1649 ; devoted himself to learning, especially to the Greek Fathers ; brought out a famous edition of the Apostolic Fathers, Paris, 1672 ; d. in Paris, Aug. 12, 1686. Cotton, George Edward Lynch, D.D., Church of England ; b. at Chester, Oct. 29, 1813 ; educated at Cambridge ; became assist- ant master of Rugby under Arnold, 1837 (he is the "young master" of Tom Br&icn at Rngby) \ master of Marlborough College, 1852 ■; bishop of Calcutta, 1858"; did good work for education and missions ; drowned at Kushtla, India, Oct. 6, 1866. Councils have been held in the church from the first at Jerusalem (Acts, ch. xv.) to the; present day. They may be divided into live distinct periods : 1. To *325, the period of the founding of the system ; 2. 325-869, that of the ecumenical councils of the Greek Church ; 3. 869-1311, the councils of the West under papal direction; 4. 1311-1517, the "reform- ing" councils ; 5. 1517-1870, Roman Catholic councils since the Reformation. The councils of the earliest period were held to meet some pressing necessity, and of course lacked all authoritv in the state. Thus one was held against _>ionlanisin, another a little before 200 upon the ci-U hration of Easter, and later, regular local synods for the ordinary government of tlie churches were introduced. The council at Aries, in 314, was in some sense a general assembly of the entire Chris- tian West. Ultimately a hierarchy of coun- cils was established which corresponded with the episcopal hierarchy. The councils of the second period began with that at Nice. 325, called by (Jonstanline. Besides dctining the divinitv of Christ, it is- sued a number of discijilinary regulations. The second, at Constantinople, 381. contirmi-d the results of the tir.«t, adding certain defi- nitions as to the Holy Ghost. ^ The third, at Ephesus, 431, condemned Nestorianism, and is also remarkable for the tlirection given by the pope to his delegates to preside as judEces over the council. Eutychianism having de- veloped in opposition to Nestorianism, the fourth council was called at ('halcedon, 451, which defined the doctrine of the nat\ircsof Christ upon the basis of Leo of Ronu^'s letter to Flavian of Constantinople. The fifth, at Constantinople, 553, condemned tlie three chapters ((j.v.). The sixth, Con.stantinople, Nov. 7, 680, to Sept., 681. condemned Mono- thelitism, and Pope Ilonorius as a Monothe- lile. This ends the series of great doctrinal councils. The seventh, Nice, 787, sanctioned the worship of images, and the eighth, Con- stantinople, 869, was occupied with questions of discipline. Many of the purely Latin councils of the third period are reckoned T)y the Roman Catholics as ecumenical. They decided a number of questions. The most important was the fourth Lateran Council, 1215, held by Innocent III., and representing the extreme claims of the hierarchy. It begins the series of councils in which the business has been prepared by the court of Rome and laid be- fore the council for their consent. The " reforming" councils grew out of the great schism (1378-1447), and are those of Pisa, Constance, Basel, and Ferrara (qq.v.). The councils of the fifth period are those of Trent and the Vatican ((|(i.v.). The Protes- tant churches have generally organi/.ed under regular councils, as, e.g., the ' general assem- blies" of the Presbyterian churches. The Synod of Dort (1618-19) partook somewliat of the character of a Calvinistic ecaimenieal council. The best collection of documents as to the councils is that of ^lansi, 31 vols. fol.,no\v reprinting in Berlin. Hefde's C<>ih- ciiienf/csr/iir/ite, Freiliurg in Br.. 1M55 s(|q., 2d ed. 1873 sq{(., is the best history ; partial Eng. trans., Edin., 1871-76, 2 vols. F. H. F. Counsels of Perfection, the three monastic vows of voluntary i)Overty, perpetual celibacy, and obedience, were so styled by media- val casuists because they were supposed to lead to perfect holiness when prrfeclly kept. Counter-Reformation, the term for the meas- ures taken by the Roman Catholic Church to uproot Protestantism in those lands in which it had entirely or partially triumphed. The movement was helped by the imperial rescript whicii, agreeal)Iy to the Religioiis Peace of AugsburLT, 1555." had rendererl the ecclesiaisti- cal position ol any particular territory de- peudenton liie relig'iouscoaviclionsof itsgov- ernor. The pioneers of the Counter-reforma- tion were everywhere the Jesuits, it Ixgan in Bavaria, wlieu Duke Albncht V., a friend of the Jesuits, ordered Count Joudum of Ortenburu', the leader of the evangelical party among the nobility, to dismi.ss his evan- gelical preachers, aiid since the count n fused to do so, proceeded to drive them out by force of arms, and the nobility who favored them at the same time. 1564. " This exptdsion was eonq)leted in 1573. an. The Roman creeds from the Tridcntine to that of the Vatican Council. 4. The evangelical. comDrehending the various confessions of the L phy of Atheism is Confuted and its Impossi- bility Demonstrated, London, 1678 ; n.e., 1845, ^ vols. The title sufficiently describes this learned work. Cudworth was the leader of the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.). Culdees. See Celtic Church, p. 150. Cumberland Presbyterian Chxirch. See Presbyterian Church. CUMMING (209) CUSA Gumming, John, D.D. (Edinburgh, 1844). Niitioual Scottish Church ; b. in the parish of Plntray, Aberdeenshire, Nov. 10. 1807 ; d. in London, July 5, 1881. Educated at Aber- deen, he was from 1833 till his death pastor in London. He attracted notice and crowds by liis determined opposition to popery and con- fident interpretation of prophecj'. Cummins, Gaorge David, D.D. (Prince- ton, N. J., 1857). Keformed Episcopal; b. near Smyrna, Kent County, Del., Dec. 11, 1833 ; d.at Luther vdlle, near Baltimore, Md., June 26, 1876. jae graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1841 ; entered the Methodist ministry ; changed to the Epis- copal, 1845 ; became assistant bishop of Ken- tucky, 1866 ; left the denomination and es- tablished the Reformed Episcopal Church, and was its first bishop, 1873, See art. Epis- copal Chluicii, Reformed. Cuneiform Inscriptions. See Assyriol- OGY, p. ~)2. Cunningham, William, D.D. (Princeton, N. J., 1842), Free Church of Scotland ; b. at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, Scotland, Oct. 2, 1805 ; educated at Edinburgh, where he lived as pastor (1834) and professor of theology (1843) until his death, Dec. 14, 1861. He was one of the leaders of the Free Church and an able controversialist. His books are post- humous, the best being The Reformers and the Tiieohgy of the Rfiformntion, Edinburgh, 1863. (See his life by Rainy, Edinburgh, 1871.) Cup, a drinking vessel of horn, earthen- ware, or .some precious metal (Gen. xl. 13, x\\v. 3, 1 Kings vii. 26). In a figurative sense it meant the portion given one by divine Provi- dence (Ps. xi. 6, xvi. 5), the blessings of this life (Ps. xxiii. 5), a thank-offering to God (Ps. exvi. 13), the judgments of heaven (Ps. Ixxv. 8, Isa. li. 17), and also the sufferings of our Saviour (Matt. xx. 23, xxvi. 39). Tr W. C. Curate, i.e., one who has the ctire, or care, of souls in a parish ; so in the Prayer-Book phrase "all bishops and curates;" but now generally u.sed " to denote the minister, whether presbyter or deacon, who [in the Cliurch of England] is employed imder the spiritual rector or vicar, as assistant to him in the same church, or else in a cliapel of ease witliin the same parish, belonging to the motiier church. Where there is in a parish neither spiritual rector nor vicar, but a clerk employed to officiate there by tlu; improprietor [i.e., the layman who has the income of the ecclesiastical property], this is called a per- petual curacy, and the priest thus employed tlie perpetual curate.'' Such curates are now made vicars. (Cf. Hook, Diet., 14th ed., s.v.) Cureton, William, LL.D. (Oxford, 1858), D.D. (llallf, Germany), Church of Enirland ; b. at Westbury, Shropshire, 1S08 ; d. in Lon- don, June 17, "1864. He was educated at Ox- ford ; assi.stant keeper of Mss. Britisii Museum, 1837 to 1849 ; canon of Westminster and rec- tor of St. ^[argaret's, 1849 till death. His fame rests on his Syriac labors — e.g.. Corpus Ignatianum, 1849 ; Reinaim of a very antient Recension of the Four Gospels in Syriac, 1858 ; Fragmenta Erangelica, 1870. Curci, (koor'-chee). Carlo Maria, Roman Catholic ; b. at Naples, Sept. 4, 1809 ; entered the Society of Jesus, 1826 ; was expelled for his liberal political views, 1877 ; submitted to the pope, 1879 ; offended again by his lib- eralism, 1883, but again submitted. His great offence is his desire to reconcile church and state in Italy. _ His various writings on this topic have excited widespread attention. Curia Romana, the Roman Court, or the estal)lishnient of the pope for the transaction of his official duties. See Cardinal. Cu'-sa, Nicolas de, Cusanus (Nicolaus Chrypffs), b. at Cues, on the Mosel, in the diocese of Treves, 1401 ; d. at Todi, 24 m. s. of Perugia, Italy, 1464 ; was the .son of a poor fisherman. When a mere boy he displaved unusual ability, and Count Ulrich of Mandcr- scheid sent him to the .school of the " Brethren of the Common Life" at Deveiiter. At the age of 23 he graduated in law at the Univer- sity of Padua. He soon abandoned this pro- fession and entered the church. He became well versed in philology, theology, philosophy, and mathematics. In*1430 he i.s' found at Cob- lenz as dean, and ascends from this time to one grade in the church after another. As Archdeacon of Liege he was at the Council of Basel, where he completed his book entitled De Catholica Concordantia, in which he main- tained the proposition that the papal office is not restricted to the bishop of Rome, and that he is only to be recognized as head of the church when properly elected to that position by the representatives of the whole church. The " Donation of Constantine" he declared to be a forgery, and maintained the indepen- dence of secular princes in matters not per- taining to religion, of the pope. In another tract he seeks to prove that general councils have their authority directly from Christ, and so are superior to the pope. A few years later he is, however, found upon the side of the pope, without assigning any .satisfactory rea- son for the change. He served under Eugene IV. as ambassador to France, to Constanti- nople, and to Germany. In 1448 he was made cardinal. In 145-1 he was involved in a dispute with archduke Sigismund in his own diocese of Brixcn. Sigismund even impris- oned him, but released him the same year. He had already been engaged upon a number of missions of a reformatory character in the Netherlands, to the Bohemians, etc., in which he had met with but little success. A hospital which he had founded at Cues received his library and still possesses unpublished mss. of his. As a philosopher, Cusa was the first to break with the ruling scholasticism. God is the ab- solute maximum and the absolute minimum. There is something like the Hegelian idea in his declaration tliat God pa.^ses out of unity into equality, and then back into unity again. God passes over into the world, yet he does not become the world. Thus Cu.sa saves him- .self from Pantheism. Ultimately, God is un- knowable. As a mathematician Cusa may claim to be the first who tauglit the revolution OUSH (210) CYPRIAN of the earth about the sun and the plurality of worlds. (See Scharpff, Der Cardinal unci Bifichof Kicolaus von Cusa als Reformator, Tubingen, 1871.) F. H. F. Cush, a name applied in Scripture to three countries : (1) the Oriental Cush, near the Gihon (Gen. ii. 13) ; (2) the southern parts of Arabia and the coasts of the Red Sea, where Nimrod originated and whence the wife of Moses came (Gen. X. 8, Num. xii. 1. 3 Chron. xxi. 16) ; (3) more commonly Ethiopia proper, lying south of Egypt and now called Abyssinia (Ps. Ixviii. 31, Isa. xviii. 1, Jer. xiii. 23). T. W. C. Cuthbert, St., bishop of Lindisfarne. The place and date of his birth are luicertain ; d. at Fame, March 20, 687. Entering the mon- astery of Mailros (Melrose) in 651, he soon be- came a favorite of the abbot, Eata, and the prior, Boisil. When Eata, at the suggestion of king Alchfrid, founded the monastery of Ripon, as it is now called, he took Cuthbert with him as prior. But the Mailros monks could not maintain themselves at Ripon after 661, probably because they followed the Scot- tish rule. Boisil dying about this time, Cuth- bert succeeded him as prior, and exerted him- self not only as a faithful prior, but as a preacher in the surrounding regions. Several years after, we find him at Lindisfarne as prior, with the object of reforming this mon- astery in accordance with the Roman ritual. He must accordingly have already taken the tonsure. After a time the charms of the an- choritic life led him to retfi-e to the island Fame as a hermit. The fame of his piety caused him to be elected bishop of Lindisfarne in 684, but after a short period of active labor in this new position, he insisted the same year upon returning to his cell. (See life by A. C. Fryer, London, 1881.) F. H. F. Cutty-stool, a raised seat or gallery once used in Scotch churches by repentant unchaste persons, who would be restored to full com- munion. Cuyler, Theodore Ledyard, D.D. (Prince- ton, 1866), Presbyterian ; b. at Aurora, N. Y., Jan. 10, 1822 ; graduated at Princeton Col- lege, 1841, and Theological Seminary, 1846 ; became pastor of the Lafayette Avenue Pres- byterian Church, Brooklyn, 1860 ; resigned 1890. He is a noted total abstinence advo- cate, and one of the most prolific authors in tiie religious press. Two of his numerous books, Stray Arrows, New York, 1852, and IVie Cedar Christian, 1858, have been widely circulated. Cyaxeres. See Darius. Cycle, from the Greek k'vkIoq, "a ring," "a circle," means generally a number of years used as a larger unit in reckoning time, and specially such an arrangement used for the purpose of establishing perfect congruity between the solar and lunar computation of time. A very ancient cycle was the Octaetcris, or cycle of 8 years, founded on the fact that 8 solar years correspond very nearly to 99 lunations, or 8 lunar years with 3 intercalary months. A still more famous cycle w-as the Metouic, or cycle of 19 years, invented in 432 B.C., and based on the fact that the diilerence between 19 solar years and 235 lunations, or 19 lunar years with 7 intercalary months, is only 2 hours and 3 minutes. Cyp'-ri-an (Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus), bishop of Carthage ; b. apparently in Car- thage, about the year 200 ; martyred there, Sept. 14, 258. His family was one of wealth, and he received a good education, and became a teacher of rhetoric, in which profession he gained a position of influence in Carthage. His conversion and baptism occurred in the year 245 or 246. He immediately gave a large portion of his wealth to the poor, and devoted himself to ascetic self-discipline, and to the study of the Scriptures and the church writers. Tertullian especially became a favorite of his. In a short time he was made a deacon, and then, in 247(?), presbyter. His election to the bishopric (248), a post of difficulty to a man of his opinions, he resisted, but in vain. He was immediately involved in contests. Personal opposition combined with the circumstances of the times and place to stir up enemies against him. The discipline of the church had fallen into neglect, and the long period of peace which the church had enjoyed had given occasion for many to seek an entrance to her membership who scarcely belonged there. Hence many fell away from the faith in the persecution of the year 249. Cyprian, who found himself in danger, sought safety in flight, and was much reproached therefor. But he paid little attention to the calumnies which were heaped upon him, and continued from his place of refuge to provide for his charge. The circumstances of the time had given a new emphasis to the evils attending the custom of receiving to the membership of the church again any of the lapsed for whom a martyr or a confessor should intercede. Whole families were thus sometimes restored without any profession of repentance. In- deed, in Carthage, confessors had ordered the restoration of all the lapsed without distinc- tion. Against all this Cyprian protested and commanded, but for the most part in vain. And now came the greater trouble, the schism of Felicissimus. Among Cyprian's opponents was a certain Novatus, a presbyter at Carthage, who during Cyprian's absence had ordained Felicissimus as deacon. When, now, Cyprian sent two bishops, Caldonius and Herculanus, to distribute his bounty among the poor and also to put suitable men into the ministry, Felicissimus resisted them, and five presbyters joined him. Cyprian returned to the city shortly after Easter, 251 , and held a synod the same year, in which rules more in accordance with "his ideas about the restoration of the lapsed were adopted, and also Felicissimus was condemned and excommunicated. The next year there was another synod, and now Felicissimus, who had meantime seen the No- vatian party set up a rival bishop to Cyprian in the person of Maximus, himself elected a second anti-bishop, Fortunatus. Maximus would receive none who had lapsed to the communion of the church, Fortimatus all, but Cyprian those who gave signs of true re- pentance. The wisdom of Cyprian and his CYPRUS (211) CYRIL evident benevolence and faithfulness daily f^aiued liini friends, and his opponents de- stroyed each other. But now arose a contest with the bishop of Home upon the question of the validity of heretical baptism. Cyprian denied this, and Stephen affirmed it. The question itself re- mained undecided between them ; but the as- sertion of his independence and his equality in rank to the Roman bishop by Cyprian has rendered the dispute of great importance in the history of church polit}'. In general Cyprian's position was that of a high church- man, lie made salvation dependent upon connection with the church. He emphasized the unity of the church, and made this unity to reside in the unity of the bishopric as a whole, but made Peter the head among equal brethren in the apostolic college. The persecution broke out again in 256 un- der Valerian in Cartilage. C3'prian was seized Aug. 80, 257, and examined, when he con- fessed himself a Christian and refused to sac- rifice. He was banished to Curubis, not far from Carthage, where he remained a year. Then he was brought back and confined in liis own country residence. From here, called to the city, he was again examined, and on the same day executed bj^ the sword. His works, consisting of letters and treatises, are to be found in Migne, Pat. Ltit. IV. and V. ; translated in the Ante-Nicene Library, Christian Literature Publishing Company, vol. v., 263-596. Life bv G. A. Poole, Ox- ford, 1840. See also O. Ritschl. Cuprian. ron Carthago u. d. VerfassuiKj d. Kiirlie, Giittin- gen, 1885. F. II. F, Oy-prus, a large fertile island in the north- cast part of the Mediterranean, 140 m. long and about 50 m. broad. It was the Kiltim of the Old Testament (Num. xxiv. 24. Ezek. xxvii. 0). Its inhabitants were noted for cul- ture, but also for all manner of luxury and profligacy. Of the cities of the island, Paphos, at the west end, and Salamis at the east are mentioned in Scripture. The gospel was preached there at an early day (Acts xi. 19). Barnabas (Acts iv. 36) and Mnason (xxi. 16j were natives. Paul's first missionary tour began there, and one of its fruits was Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of the island. (See Loher, Cyprus, New York, 1878.) T. W. C. Cy-ro'-ne, the chief city of Cyrenaica (now Tripoli), or the Lybian pontapolis. It was a Grecian city, but under Roman rule. Many Jews were .settled there, and they had a syna- gogue in Jerusalem, some of who.se members (Acts vi. 9) took part against Steplien, but others became heralds of the gospel (xi. 20, xiii. 1). Simon, who bore our Lord's cross (Matt, xxvii. 32), was of this citv. ' T. W. C. Cyrenius. See Quikinius. Cjrr-i'-a-cus, name of several persons. 1. (Saint) a (.leiicndary) deacon in Rome, mar- tyred. Day is celehrated on Aug. 8. 2. (Saint) bishop of'Ancona, also legendary, .said to have shown to St. Helena the place of the true cross. Day is May 4. 3. The saint and pre- tended pope, companion of St. Ursula (q.v.), who was martyred in Cologne. Day Aug. 8. 4. Patriarch of Constantinople, 595-606. He a,ssumed the title "ecumenical bishop" and had it contirmed by a synod, though against the remonstrances of Gregory I. of Rome. When, in 602, Phocas ascended the imperial throne, and his relations with the patriarch had become unpleasant, Gregory induced him to forbid the use of the objectionable title. Cyriacus had, however, died '(Oct. 7, 606) be- fore the decree was issued. 5. Metropolitan of Carthage, and contemporar-' of Gregory VII. (1073-85). F. H. F. Oyr'-il of Alexandria, b. there about the close of the 4th century ; d. there also in 444. Patriarch in 412, he soon became famous for liis zeal in opposing every kind of error. He closed the churches of the Novatians, drove out the Jews, and was thought to have had a hand in the murder of Hypatia. He is most famous for his contest with Nestorius, patri- arch of Constantinople (q.v.). Nestorius had denied that the predicate "Mother of God" should be applied to Mary. Without men- tioning the name of Nestorius. Cyril is.sued a tract against this view, teaching that the Logos, with the assumed human nature, was born of Mary. Later, at a .synod at Alexan- dria (430), Cj'ril issued a letter to Nestorius condemning his doctrine in 12 anathemas. Nestorius replied with counter-auathenias. The following year the ecumenical council at Ephesus was called, which resulted in the deposition of Nestorius by the council, and that of Cyril and Memnon of Ephesus by the Antiochian party, all of which depositions were confirmed by imperial decree. But Cyril and Memnon were soon restored, while Nestorius was sent back to his monastery. A reconciliation of Cyril witli John of Antioch was now procured, by wliich John was led to condemn Nestorius. Cyril afterward attacked Theodore of Mopsuestia and Diodorus of Tarsus. His dogmatic writings embrace treatises upon the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the worship of God. He also composed an apology for the Christian religion against Julian (10 book.s). (See the art. Ciiristol- OGY.) Works in Migne, Pat. Gr. LXVI.- LXXVII. Eng. trans, of his commentary on L.ike, Oxford, 1S50, and Fice Totacs agaiiList Xestoriiis,tation (Matt. "iv. 4, 7, 10) thrice uses its words to rcpi'l the great adversary of souls. See Pkntateuch on the question of its date and for literature. T. W. C. Deutsch (doitsh), Emanuel Oscar Men- ahem, ilclirew ; b. at Xeis.-c, Prussian Silesia, Oct. 28, 1829 ; was since IH.").") assistant in the British Museum ; wrote a brilliant article on the Talmud {Qnarterli/ Reriew, Oct., 1867) wliich attracted wide attention ; d. at Alex- andria, Egypt. May 12, 1873. (See his Liter- nry llnmnins, with memoir, London and New York, 1874.) Davay, Matthew Biro (properly Miityas Biro of Deva), founder of the IlefornW CImrch of Hungary ; b. at Deva. Transyl- vania, about l.")00;"d. at l);'br(>r7.in. Eastern HunL'ary, about 1547. He .studied theology at Cracow. 1523-24 ; then entered a monastery and became a priest. In 1527 he embraceil the Reformation, and in 1529 he went to Wit- tenberg on a visit to Luther and spent 18 months in his house. His zeal in preaching the new faith among his countrymen led him into constant danger, and twice (1531, 1532- 34) he was for lengthy periods imprisoned. In 1534 he put himself under the protection of the powerful Count Nadasdy, who was a Protestant, and did not suffer further persecu- tion. In 1541 he tied before the Turks and betook himself to Switzerland. There he im- bibed the Swiss doctrine of the sacraments and preached it boldly on his return home, much to the scandal and. amazement of the Luther- ans, and the disappointment and disgust of Luther himself. His last years were pa.s.sed in ministerial labor at Debreczin. Like the other reformers he wrote a number of treatises in behalf of the new faith, some of these were popular (expositions of translation of Luther'ii small catechism, etc.), others more scholarly, but all helped powerfully toward the same end. Development, in the theological sense, is the theory that our conception of our relation to the intinite is progressing toward the per- fect ; and in regard to Christianity that we are continually understanding it better. In a more special application of the term, it is applied to the claim that doctrines now de- veloped were in germ in the New Testament — e.g., the distinctive doctrines of the Roman and Greek churches ; in this sense the word is used by Cardinal Newman in his Development of Christian Doctrine, London, 1845. For the philosophical use of the term, see Evolution. Devil {slanderer), the chief of the fallen angels. The term {diabolos) is sometimes ap- plied to very wicked men or women (John vi. 70, Acts xiii. 10, 2 Tim. iii. 3, Tit. ii. 3), and translated "devil" or " false accusers," but usually it denotes Satan, the great leader of evil in the world. There is only one devil, all the other unclean spirits are demons of whom he is the prince. In Hebrew he is called Satan, the adrersary of God and man. Elsewhere he is called " the prince of this world" (John xii. 41); "the prince of the power of the air" (Eph. ii. 2) ; " the god of this world," (2 Cor. iv. 4) : " the dragon, the old serpent" (Rev. xx. 2) ; " the wicked one" (1 John V. 8); "Beelzebub" (Matt. xii. 24). He is everywhere shown to be full of deceit, malignity, and cruelty, " of evil all compact," a liar and a murderer. It is not uncommon for men to say that the existence of Satan is a mere superstition, but the Scriptures with one voice declare it to be a terrible reality. Nor is there anything unreasonable in it. It is quite as conceivable that an angel fell as that man fell. We know the fact only from Revelation, but that is enougli, and we should act accordingly, putting on the whole armor of God since we wrestle not alone with flesh and blood. " Tlie denial of tiie personal Satan is the first step in tlie denial of tlie sinfulne.«8 of sin." (SeeE. H. Jewett, y;/. 11. F. Dupauloup (dii-pon-loo), Felix Antoine Philibert, Roman Catholic ; b. at St. Felix, Savo}', Jan. 3. 1802 ; d. attheC;istle Lacombe, near Grenoble, Oct. 11, 1878. He studied at Paris ; became priest, 1825 ; vicar-general of Paris, 1888 ; professor of the Sorbonnc ; bishop of Orleans, 1849. He was vigorouslj^ opposed to the papal infallibility dogma, but accepted it. (See his life by F. Lagrange, Eng. trans., London, 1885, 2 vols.) Du Perron (dii pa-rOn), Jacques Davy- Roman Catholic ; b. at Bern, Switzerland, of Huguenot parents, 1559 ; d. in Paris, Sept. 5, 1618. He entered the Roman Church, 1578, and devoted himself to converting Protestants, liis most notable convert being King Henry IV., 1593. He was appointed bishop of Ei-reaux, 1595 ; cardinal, 1604 ; archbishop of Sens and grand almoner of France, 1606. (See his life by Feret, Paris, 1876.) Dupin (dii-pan), Louis Sllies, Jansenist ; b. at Paris, June 17, 1657 ; d. there, June 6, 1719. He was educated at Paris ; became professor of philosophy in the College of France there, 1686, but for embracing Jansen- ism was removed and banished to Chateller- ault, 1703, and although recalled not restored to his chair. He took prominent part in the attempted union between the Anglican and Gallican churches, and between the Greek and Roman. His great work was A New Hintorfi of Ecclesiastical Writers (orig. French, Noumlle hibliotheque des auteurs ecclesinstiq^tes, Paris, 1686-1714, 47 vols., 2d ed., 1690-1715, 19 vols., Eng. trans., London, 1693-1707, 17 vols, in 7, 3d ed., Dublin, 1722-24, 3 vols.). Du Plessis-Mornay. See Mornay, Phi- lippe DK. Durand of St. Pour9ain, philosopher and theologian of the 14th century ; b. near tlie end of the 13th century at St. Pourgain, in Auvergne, Fratice ; d. "at Meaux, Sept. 10, 1334. He entered the Dominican order at an early age at Clermont, went subsequently to Paris, and taught theologv in the University tliere about 1312. In 1318 he was made bishop of Annecy, and in 1326 bishop of Meaux. In 1331 he was engaged in a contest with Pope John XXII. on the beatitic vis- ion. His principal writing is his commentary upon tlie Sentences of Peter Lombard. Dur- and here exliibits himself as a man of inde- pendcnee, who relies upon the utterances of the reason. He was at first a Tiiomist, but in his tiieory of knowledge begins with tlie doctrine of 'Albert the Great (q.v.), that the unirersals are before, in, and after the thing. God .sees the universal and the particular in one mental intuition. Man sees only the in- dividual, and arrives at the general by his reason. Hence he has no a priori knowledge. Durand also separates sharplv between the realms of knowledge and of fa'ith. Tliev are incommensurable magnitudes. Faith "rests solely upon authority of the Scriptures, and the Roman Church is the only authorized in- terpreter of these. Theology is therefore not a science, because nothing in it is iu itself certain. Even its subordinate principles, since they go back to the first principles which are founded upon authority, are not scientific. It has, in fact, nothing to do with knowing, but only with acting. We arc not concerned with God as he is in himself, but only with such knowledge as shall enable us to act rightly. Thus the Thomist system is completely reversed. As to the sacrament, Durand taught that there was no true trau- substantiation. (See J. Launoy, Syllabus ra- tionum, quibns Durandi causa, etc., 0pp. i. [written in 1636] ; Herzog, Realenci/clopaedic, in., 778.) F. II. F. Durbin, John Price, D.D. ( ), LL.D. ( ), Methodist ; b. in Bourbon County, Ky., in 1800 ; d. in New York City, Oct. 17. 1876. He entered the M. E. ministry in 1819 ; graduated at Cincinnati College, 1825 ; be- came professor of languages, Augusta Col- lege, Ky. ; was president of Dickinson Col- lege, Carlisle, Pa. , 1834-45 ; secretary of the Missionary Society, 1850-72. He was dis- tinguished for eloquence and executive ability. He did much for the increase of interest iu and expenditure for foreign missions by his denomination. His Observations on his travels in Europe (New York, 1844, 2 vols.), and in Egypt, Palestine. Syria, and Asia Minor (1845, 2 vols.) were very popular. (See life by J. A. Roche, New York, 1889.) Durham, The See of, a city of England, 14 m. s. of Newcastle, was founded in 995 by Bishop Ealdhun, who fled thither from Ches- ter-le-Street before the Danes. William the Conqueror made the prelate of Durham a prince-bishop, and the see soon became one of the richest in England, The cathedral, containing the remains of St. Cuthbert and of Beda, was built 1093-1480. Under Henry VIII. the see lost much of its power and still more of its wealth. Durie, or Dury, John, Protestant ; b. at Edinburgh, 1596 ; d. at Cassel, Germany, Sept. 26, 1680. He was educated at Sedan, France, and Ley den ; lived most of his life on the Continent, where he travelled a great deal, and in every place he was— in the courts of kings and other rulers, in church assemblies and congregations, in private and public— he ceased not to press the cause of church union. He was chaplain to Charles I. and to Mary princess of Orange ; a member of the West- minster Assembly of Divines, and in other offices. But his numerous publications, his correspondence, his colloquies, and his jour- neyings, all had ecclesiastical union for their object. He strove first to unite Lutheran and Reformed churches ; then in liis own country the Presbyterians and Congregationalists. At times he wasgrcatlveneouratred. ashis.schemes met the favor of dislingnishcd persons, but he accomplished notliiiiLr visilile with all his efforts. (See Diet. Xnf. lUog. s.v.) Dutch Reformed Church. See Refoumed Cuuucu. DUTIES (240) EASTER Duties, Conflict of, a misnomer which has occupied a large phice in books of casuistry, hut really has no existence, for duties cannot clash. The conflict referred to occurs only in the mind of one at a loss to determine what his duty in a given case is. T. W. C. Dwight, Timothy, D.D. (Chicago Theo- logical Seminary, 111., 1869), LL.D. (Harvard, 1886),Congregationalist; b. at Norwich, Conn., Nov. 16, 1828 ; graduated at Yale College, 1849 ; studied at the Yale Divinity School, and became professor of sacred literature in it, 1858 ; president of Yale College, 1886. He was a member of the New Testament Revision Company. Dykes, James Oswald, D.D. (Edinburgh, 187B), Presbyterian ; b. at Port Glasgow, near Greenock, Scotland, Aug. 14, 1885 ; gradu- ated M.A. at Edinburgh University, 1854 ; studied theology at New College, Edinburgh, 1854-58, and at Heidelberg and Erlangen, 1856 ; became pastor at East Kilbride, County Lanark, Scotland, 1859 : co-pastor of Free St. George's, Edinburgh, 1861 ; in Australia for health's sake, 1864-67 ; pastor of Regent's Square Presbyterian Church, Loudon, 1869 ; principal of English Presbyterian Theological College, London, 1889. He is the author of From Jerusalem to Antioch, London, 1875, 2d ed., 1880 ; Abraham, 1877, 3d ed., 1878 ; The Manifesto of the King, an Exposition of the Sermon on the Mount, 1881 (a n.e. of 3 earlier volumes); The Law of the Ten Words, 1884; The Gospel According to Paul, 1888, and other volumes. E. Eadie, John, D.D. (St. Andrews, 1850), LL.D. (Glasgow, 1844), United Presbyterian Church of Scotland ; b. at Alva, Stirlingshire, May 9, 1810 ; d. iu Glasgow, Saturday, June 3, 1876. He was educated at the University of Glasgow, and in divinity at the Hall of the Secession Church, in the same city ; was licensed, March 24, 1835 ; called, June 24, and ordained, Sept. 24, pastor of the Cam- bridge Street, United Secession, Church, Glas- gow— a remarkably short probationership. He remained in this position till 1863, when, with a portion of the congregation (68 mem- bers), he began the Lansdowne church, in the same city, and ministered to it till his death. In 1843 he became professor of biblical litera- ture in the United Secession Divinity Hall, Edinburgh. He thus did double duty, and in two places, but his professorial work extended over only two months of the year. He was a member of the New Testament Revision Com- pany. He was a born expositor of Scripture, and published commentaries on the Greek text of Ephesians (London, 1854), Colossians (1856, 2d ed., 1884), Philippians (1857, 2d ed., 1884), Galatians (1869), First Thessalouians (1877). He edited (and condensed) Cruden's Concordance, 1839 ; A Biblical Cyclopaedia, 1849, 25th ed., 1888; Classified Bible: an Analyticnl Concordance to Holy Scripture, 185G,'6th ed. ; Ecclesiastical Cyciopmdia, 1862, 6th ed., and wrote Life of John Jvitto, Edin- burgh, 1857 ; The English Bible : an. External and Critical History of, London, 1876, 2 vols. (a valuable book). (See his life bv James Brown, London, 1878.) Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, d. 1124(?) ; author of the contemporary life of Anselm (q.v.), published first at Antwerp, 1551 ; and of the excellent Historia Novorum, a history of England from the Conquest till 1122 (best ed. of both by Rule in the Rolls series, Lon- don, 1884), and other pieces. Eadmund, St., b. at Abingdon, 51 m. w.n.w. of London, Nov. 20, 1170(?), of Reinald and Mabel Rich ; d. at Soisy, Eastern France, Nov. 16, 1240. He was educated at Oxford and Paris (1185-90) ; taught in both places first secular, then sacred learning ; preached the crusade over a great part of England, 1227, and won such fame that iu 1234 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury. He had a stormy time of it, opposed by king, monks, and the pope— all because he took the side of the people. At last, in despair, he resigned in the summer of 1240 and entered the Cistercian monastery at Pontignj', in Champagne, France, but very soon after removed to that at Soisy, not far off, where he died. He was an ascetic of an extreme type, but generous, kind-hearted, humble, and pure, and justly entitled to sainthood. He was canonized after careful examination, 1247. (See Butler, Lives of Saints, under Nov. 20 ; Hook's Arch- bisJiops, vol. iii.) East, Praying toward, a custom of the early church, as appears from Clement of Alex- andria, Tertullian, and Augustine. It made some charge Christians with being sun-wor- shippers, but the reason was that the rising sun was a type of the new life. The Jews iu exile turned toward Jerusalem in prayer (Dan. vi. 10), the Moslems toward Mecca, their holy city. T. W. C. Easter, the church festival celebrated in memory of the resurrection of our Lord by the Greek, Roman Catholic, Episcopal, and Lutheran churches, and now also by many of the non-liturgical churches, which otherwise do not regard the church-year. The English Easter and the German Ostern are derived from the Saxon Eastra or Eostra, the goddess of spring ; while iu the Romanic languages, the Italian Pasqua, the French Pdques, and in the Scandinavian, the Danish Paaske, the name has come directly tlirough the Latin Pascha, and the Greek 7r«cr;fa, from the Hebrew ;j)e.sacA, the passover of the Jews. Some features of its popular celebration, as, for instance, the Easter-egg, are of Teutonic origin ; others, as, for instance, the Easter-lamb, of Jewish ; but, generally speaking, no other Christian festival is so thoroughly an outgrowth of the Chris- tian spirit. "The date of its observance, such as it has been fixed by the Council of Nice, 325, is the first Sunday after llie first full moon after the vernal equinox. As the vernal equinox invariably falls on March 21, the first full moon after the equinox may occur in the night between March 21 and March 22, and the first Sunday after the full moon may be the next day. Thus March 22 is the earliest EASTERN (241) ECCLESIASTES day on which Easter can fall. There may, however, pass a whole lunar month, minus one clay, after the equinox before the first full moon occurs, and Hgain, there may pass a wliole week, minus one day, after the first full moon before a Sunday comes round, and thus Easter may fall as late as April 25. The date of its observance must consequently vary froui j'ear to year, though within the above terms, and with it will also vary those other church festivals which are depentlent upon it. The stipulations of the Council of Nice, however, were the result of a protracted controversy, the so-called Paschal-Controver- sies, which see. Eastern Church. See Greek Chuucii. E'-bal (stone), a mountain in Ephraim over against Mt. Gerizim, from which it is separated by a valley 500 yards wide, in which is the town of Shechem". From Ebal the curses of the law were pronounced (Deut. xxvii. 13). T. W. C. Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims ; b. 786 ; d. March 20, 851. He was the son of a Saxon serf, but was made a freeman by Charle- magne ; educated in a cloister school as the foster-brother of Louis the Pious ; ordained priest, and in 81G appointed archbishop of Rheims. In 822 he was put at the head of the Danish mission and made 2 visits to Den- mark. He also succeeded in having Harold Klak baptized at Mayence in 826. Neverthe- less, his mission work was nothing but politi- cal intrigue, and the same character bears his work at liome. He deserted Louis the Pious in a most ungrateful manner and joined his rebellious sons. When the emperor again re- turned to power he sought to be reconciled to him, but was thrown into a dungeon and re- t-iined there for several years. Reinstated by Lothair, he was again expelled by Charles, and he died in ob'scurity in the diocese of Hildesheim, where Louis the German had given him a refuge. He is by some considered to have had a principal part in the authorship of tlie Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. C. P. Ebed Jesu, surnamed Bar Brika, " Son of the Blessed," a Nestorian theologian, was first bishop of Sinshar, in Arabia, and afterward metropolitan of Nesebis, or Loba, in Armenia, where he died in 1318. His dogmatical works on the incarnation of the Logos, the sacra- ments, etc., have been edited in Syriac and Litin by A. Mai, and are found in Script. Vit., X., 317-66 ; ins poetical works are found in Assemanni, Bibl. Or., iii., 1, p. 325 sqq. Ebionites (Hebrew, poor), a name first ap- plied to the early Christians of Jerusalem be- cause of tlieir poverty. Then it was applied to Jews who had become Christians. Wlien certain Jewish Christians .separated themselves from the general movement of the church, and either laid an undue or an exclusive im- portance upon the observances of the Mosaic law, they in particular received this name. Discussions upon Ebionitism have been very prominent in connection witli the attempts of the school of Baur to explain the earlv Chris tian history according to the scheme of Hegel. But it is evident that altogether too much im- portance has been attached to the Ebionites ; that the Jewish elements in Christianity which have had a great influence upon it are the legitimate outcome of the fact that Cliristi- anity is founded upon Judaism ; that the he- retical Jewish Christianity which received the name Ebionitism soon separated itself, and never had any appreciable influence upon the development of the church. (See Ritschl, Ent.stcJnuKi (Jrr ultkafhoUxrhcn Kirche, p. 152 If., and llarnack, Doginenycschichte, i., 215-40.) F. H. F. Ebrard (Johannes Heinrich), August, Ph.D. (Erlangen, 1841), Lie. Tlieol. (Erlangen, 1842), D.D. (Basel, 1847) ; Reformed ; b. at Erlangen, Jan. 18, 1818 ; d. there, July 23, 1888. He studied at Erlangen and Berlin ; was professor of theology at Ziirich, 1844-47 ; at Erlangen, 1847-61, and since 1875 was pas- tor of tlie French Reformed church there. He wrote many literary works under the pseudonyms Gottfried Flammbcrg, Christian Deutsch, Sigmund Sturm, or Schliemann, d.j., and many theological works vmder his projier name, of which may be mentioned The Gospel History (Erlangen, 1842, 3d ed., 1868, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1863) ; Die iroschottisehe Missionskirche, Giitersloh, 1873 ; Apolocjetics (1874-75, 2 parts, 2d ed., 1st part, 1878, 2d part, 1881, Eng. trans., 1886-87, 3 vols.); Bonifntius, der Zerstorer des columbanisclien Kirchentums auf dem Festlarule, 1882 ; Lebens- fuhrungen, 1888. Ec-bat'-a-na, the capital of Media, once mentioned in tlie Bible (Ezra vi. 2), often in the Apocrypha (cf. especially Judith i. 1 sqq.), and in Greek authors (cf . especially Herodotus, i. 98, 99) ; the modern Hamadan, in Persia, 165 m. s.w. of Teheran. It -w^as the Persian royal summer residence. There Cyrus' decree concerning the building of the temple was found. The tombs of Mordecai and Esther are now shown there. Ecgberht. See Egbert. Ecce Homo {" Beliold tlw, man'') is the Latin rendering in the Vidgate of the Greek words by whicii, in John xix. 5, Pilate presents Jesus to the people, and has afterward become a technical term applied to pictures of Christ as the suffering Saviour. Ecclesiastes, the Greek name of a book the autiior of which calls himself Koheleth, one who gathers an assembly, or, as many think, who addresses such an a.s.sembly, i.e., is a preacher. Its canonical authority is un- disputed. Its author was cither Solomon, as tradition declares, or some later inspired writer wdio availed himself of his large and varied experiimce and spoke as in his name. The chief reason for the latter opinion is the style of the book, in which occur words that are not iis;'d at all in the earlier books of Scrip- ture, others that occur there rarelv', and others that are found only in the Chaldee of Ezra and Daniel ; and besiiles, the prevalent con- struction is dilTerent from cla.ssic Hebrew as to the use of participles, the relative, and what is known n^ viir ronrersivc. Some say, however that these peculiarities may be due ECCLESIASTICAL (242) ECKHART to Solomon's long intercourse -5\ith foreigners, and that tlie Clialdaisms may be fragments preserved from the common tongue of which the Semitic hinguages were offshoots. Tlie book is discursive and apothegmatic, and the precise course of the thought is not easily as- certained, but the chief theme is very appar- ent— viz., the vanity of all human pursuits apart from the chief end of life, and the con- sequent wisdom of making the fear of God and the keeping of his commandments our main aim. To reach this it roams over a wide tield of experience and observation, not ob- serving the logical divisions of a philosophical treatise, at times introducing a string of prov- erbs (vii. 1-22, X. 1-20), now apparently a pessimist, again an optimist, but never a sceptic, often observing the parallelism pecul- iar to poetry and again relapsing into prose. The writer records with entire freedom the successive moods, whether sad or genial, through which he passes, and sometimes there are utterances which one is perplexed to un- derstand or to reconcile with other portions of Holy Writ, but this only shows that we are not to deduce opinions from detached portions or sentiments, but to weigh the general scope and combined force of the whole. The book, with all its peculiarities and difficulties, is a constituent part of Scripture, and its absence would leave a void in the sacred literature in- tended to instruct and guide man amid the varied phases of human life. Lit. Tayler Lewis in Lange ; Perowne in Camb. Bible for Schools. T. W. C. Ecclesiastical History. See Church His- tory. Ecclesiastical Polity. See Church Pol- ity. Ecclesiasticus. See Pseudepigrapha. Eck, Johann, Mayer von, D.D. (Freiburg, lolO), Roman Catholic opponent of the Refor- mation ; b. at Eck, Swabia, Nov. 13, 1486 ; d. at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Feb. 10, 1543. He studied at Heidelberg philosoph}" and classics, at Tubingen theology and philosophy, and at Freiburg in Breisgau, law. After such a preparation he was ordained a priest (1508), and became professor of theology in the Uni- versity of Ingolstadt, 1510. He quickly won a wide reputation for scholastic learning, but especially for dialectical skill and readiness. Accordingly when Luther issued liis famous 95 theses he entered the lists against him (March, 1518) by his ms. book Ohelian (" obe- lisci" were marks made in books by Origen in his Hexapla, which called attention to sus- picious words or passages, hence the title of Eck's book was well chosen). Luther denom- inated his reply Asferisci, a title borrowed also from Origen's custom. He and Eck had been friends, and Eck's tone grieved him greatly. At the Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 16, 1519) with Karlstadt and Luther he argued on the Catholic side, and with the effect that Duke George of Saxony was confirmed in his opposition to the Reformation, while Luther was damaged in the opinion of the hearers bj^ being compelled to confess sympathy with Hus. From that time on Eck devoted himself to opposing the Reformation. He had meagre success. It is true that he induced Leo X. to issue a bull against Luther, but he hud great labor in getting it read, although he returned with it to Germany with the authority of papal nuncio. He found himself a butt of lidicule, and was compelled to flee from place to place to a^oid being mobbed. His vanitv, however, sustained him, and he had some- thing to boast of as the great champion of the old faith. In 1521 and 1523 he visited Rome to solicit help in opposing Protestantism. In 1524 he took part in the Regensburg conven- tion ; in 1525 went to the Netherlands, and then to England, where he was pleasantly re- ceived by Henry VIII. In 1526 he appeared against (Ecolampadius at the Baden (im Aar- gau) conference. May 21 to June 8. He took a leading part in the reply to the Augs- burg Confession (1530), and prevented the Roman Catholic princes from accepting the Regensburg Interim of 1541. He was indeed indefatigable in his opposition to Protestant- ism, and used every available means. He had ready wnt and considerable learning, which he well knew how to use. Although grossly slandered, there is nothing proved again.st his character. His vanity, his partisanship were faults, but easily forgiven. His writings in- clude an elaborate defence of the Roman papacy, the principal theme of the Leipzig Disputation {De pmnatu Petri adversns Lnd- derum, 1520) ; a manual of apologetics against Luther {Enchiridion locorum comnmnium ad- verms Lutheriim, 1525, 46th ed., 1576), and a translation of the Bible into German, Ingol- stadt, 1537, rev. ed., 1550. (See life by Th. W iedemann, Regensburg, 1865.) Eckhart (generally called Meister Eckart), one of the most brilliant and most impressive representatives of German mysticism, was born in Thuringia between 1250-60 ; entered the Dominican order ; studied philosophy in Paris, which city he often visited ; was made a prior at Erfurt in 1298 ; taught theology at Strassburg in 1312 ; moved in 1317 to Frank- fort ; lived afterward at Cologne, and died before 1829. His system is pantheism : God and nature are one. But the emphasis is laid on the nature-absorbing God and not on the God-inspired nature, and his pantheism ends in an ascetic ecstasy whose visions are sub- limely poetical in spite of their austerity. He was the pride and boast of the Dominican order, but at many points he approached so near to Scotus Erigena, the Beghards, the Brethren of the Free Spirit, the Waldenses, etc., that he came into bad repute, and difficul- ties arose. The biill, however, condemning certain of his doctrines did not appear until after his death. (See, for his selected works, Ausrietrdldte Predigten vnd xerwandte Hchrift- stuc'ke. Mit einer einleitenden MonogrdjiMe, von W. Schopff, Leipzig, 1889 ; cf. Preger. QeschicMe der deutschen Mystik im Mittel- nlter, 1874; Jundt, ITisioire du j)anthcisme ■jojmlair, Strassburg, 1875 ; and monograplis by Martensen, German trans., Plamburg, 1842 ; Bach, Vienna, 1864 ; Lasson, Berlin, 1868 ; Linsemann, Tiibingen, 1873 ; Haupt, 1874 etc.) ECLECTICS (243) EDUCATION Eclectics, a name given to certain ancient philosophers who selected from different sys- tems what they saw tit and combined it into a system of their own. Their example was followed by the Neoplatonists of Alexandria, whose chief exponents were Plotiuns, Por- phyry, and Proclus. T. W. C. Ec the'-sis, the name given to a letter issued by the En)peror Heraclius in 638 to pacify the troubles occasioned by the Eutychian heresy ; but as it did not 'meet with general favor and was condemned by Pope John IV., it was withdrawn by the emperor, Constans II. T. W. C. E des-sa, a very ancient city of Mesopo- tamia, 78 m. s.w. of Diarbekir. Christianity was early introduced into it, and the cit}^ con- tained 300 monasteries. It was the seat of Ephraim Syrus and his school. Here the famous portrait of Christ said to have been painted by St. Luke and sent by the Saviour himself, with a letter, to Abgarus, king of Edessa, was preserved, till it was carried, in 944, to Constantinople, and thence to Rome. Neither the picture nor the letter appears to have any historical foundation. The city, which contains 40,000 inhabitants, is still the seat of a Greek archbishop. T. W. C. Eddy, Richard, S.T.D. (Tufts, 1883), Uni- versaiist ; b. at Providence, R. I., June 21, 1838 ; has been in the ministry since 1851, and since 1878 president of the Univer.salist His- torical Society. He wrote Unimrftalism in America, a History, Boston, 1884-86, 2 vols. Eden (cf. Accadian edin, "a plain"), the primitive home of our tirst parents (Gen. ii. 8), of uncertain or unknown locality ; probably in the highlands of Armenia, or in the valley of the Euphrates. Cf. art. Assyiiiology, p. 54. Edersheim, Alfred, Ph.D. (Kiel, 1855), D.D. (Vienna, Berlin, and New College, Edin- burgh), Church of England ; b. of Jewish parents in Vienna, March 7, 1825 ; d. at Men- tone, France, Saturday, March 16, 1889. After studying at Vienna he was converted to Ciiristiauity ; entered the New College, Edin- burgh. 1843, and in 1849 became minister of the Free Church ; in 1875 entered the Church of England ; was vicar at Loders, Dorsetshire, 1876-83, when he finally went into literary re- tirement at Oxford. Of his numerous works may be mentioned T/w Iloim dud Synagogue of the Modern Jew, 1872; The Temple; its Ministry and Service as they tcere in the Time of Jesm Christ, Loudon, 1874 ; Bible History (down to the Ass3Tian captivity), 1875-87, 8 vols. ; The Life and Times of Jesus tlie Messiah, 1883, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1886, New York. rep. 1 vol. ; Prophecy and History in Relation to the Messiah, 1885 ; Jesus the Mes- siah (abridgment of Lijfe and Times), 1890. Edict, Rescript, both are orders enjoining or proliil)itiiig >oiue line of conduct, but the latter dilTcrs from tlie former in that it is is- sued in response to an iiKpnry. Famous edicts aretliT^efDof the Roman "emperor Consfan- tine (313-23) estaltlishing Christianitv ; (2) of Worms U521), which coudenmcd Luther ; (3) of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed the Huguenots certain religious rights. See France, Reformed Church of. Edification {building up) denotes in spirit- ual things the growth of the believer in the graces of Christian character. The means of securing it are prayer, meditation, reading the Scriptures, attendance upon public wor- ship, the use of the sacraments, and mutual conference. And each believer is bound also to edify others by a holy and blameless walk, and by the diligent use of such means of grace as are within his reach. T. "W. C. E'-dom (red), called also Idumaea and Mt. Seir. It extended from the Dead Sea to Akaba, and east of the Arabah to the desert of Arabia. It is a mountain district, well watered and bearing a luxuriant growth of plant and vegetable life. Its first inhabitants were the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6), wlio were probably cave-dwellers. They were dispos- sessed by Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 8), the chief of whose descendants are called " dukes" (vv. 15-31), probably the same as the Bedouin Sheikhs of modern times. The enmity of Jacob and Esau was perpetuated in their de- scendants. Edom at tirst opposed the passage of Israel through their country (Num. xx. 20), but afterward granted it (Deut. ii. 4-7). Saul warred with the Edomites (1 Sam. xiv. 47) and David conquered them (2 Sam. viii. 14), but, at the instigation of Hadad, they revolted against Solomon (1 Kings xi. 14). Edom was for a long time tributary to the kingdom of Judah, but asserted their independence in the reign of Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20-22). Sub- sequently they seized the southern part of Judah, and were succeeded in Mt. Seir by the Nabatheans. Their new home took the name of Idunifea. Here, in the days of the Mac- cabees, they were defeated by Judas M., and afterward subjugated and forcilily prosely- tized by John Hyrcanus, B.C. 130. From them sprang Antipater, who obtained the government of Jud;ea, b.c. 47, and his sou was Herod the Great. The prophecies which foretold the destruction of Edom (Jer. xlix. 7-32, Obadiah 8) have been strikingly ful- filled. The many ruined cities of their coun- try attest the former greatness and the present desolation. (See E. H. Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, London and New York, 1871.) T. W. C. Education among the Hebrews, so far as the body of the people was concerned, con- sisted mainly in the instruction given by par- ents (Deut. vi. 6-9, 20, 21), which, with the influence exerted b}^ their ritual, gave them a mental training far sujierior to that of any contemporary nation. There was a body of educated men — the priests, the surveyors of Canaan (Josh, xviii. 8, 9), the annali.sts. and those who did business with foreign courts (3 Kings xviii. 26). The schools of the proph- ets (1 Sam. xix. 20, 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 7. 15) added to the niunbor. During the captivity the .synagogue svstem was developed, and with it regular instruction to tlie younir by authorized teachers. This includ;'d the leach- ing of a trade to each pii|)il, as we see in the case of Paul, who, although well trained by EDUCATION (244) EDWARDS Gamaliel, had learned the art of tent-making (Acts xviii. 3). Girls, although higher in posi- tion than in other countries, received only the rudiments of learning. The Hebre^A^ ideal wife, "the capable woman" described in Prov. xxxi. (10-31), did not have a great deal of book knowledge. T'. W. C. Education, Ministerial. From the earliest ages the church was accustomed to aid in training indigent students for the ministry. This was done at first by the piimitive fathers and afterward" by the monastic establishments. At the Reformation the end was reached by scholarships attached to the schools or by con- tributions from congregations or individuals. In Britain university endowments were made for the purpose. In America colleges, such as Harvard, Yale, Nassau Hall, and Queens, were founded with this aim in view. After- ward societies were formed to aid students with the necessary means. The American Education Society, formed in 1815, vip to this time has aided 7500. The Board of Education of the Presbyteritxn Church, formed in 1819, has aided more than one half of her ministers. The Reformed (Dutch) Church formed its board in 1832. The Protestant Episcopal has two societies : one for the Increase of the Min- istry (1857), the other, the Evangelical Educa- tional Society (1862), both prosperous and use- ful. The Methodists organized a board in 1869. The Baptists have local organizations, as do also the Reformed (German), the Luther- ans, and nearly all other Christian bodies. It has been justly said that to the wise and liberal policy thus pursued is due the high character of the Protestant ministry in this country, not only for moral and religious worth, but also for broad intelligence and sound learning. The Roman Catholics have many colleges, and are increasing their seminaries for the more thorough training of candidates for the priest- hood. T. W. C. Ed'-re-i {strong). 1. One of the two capitals of Bashan (Num. xxi. 33), and afterward in the limits of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 31). Its ruins cover a large space, and are now called Edhra. 2. A town of Naphtali, near Kedesh (Josh. xix. 37). Edwards, Bela Bates, D.D. (Dartmouth, 1844), Congregationalist ; b. at Southampton, Mass., July 4, 1802; graduated at Amherst College, 1824, and at Andover Theological Seminary, 1830 ; became professor of sacred literature in the latter institution, 1848 ; d. at Athens, Ga.. April 20, 1852. He edited the Amerkiin (^'uittn-ly Register, 1828-42, and the Bihll<>t],,,',i S„cm, 1844-52. He wrote a meritorious JfiKsionnn/ Gazetteer, Boston, 1832, reprinted in J. Newton Brown's Enryclo pfpdia of Relirjioiis Knowledge, ed. Philadel- phia, 1859, pp. 1187-1250. Edwards, Jonathan, the elder ; b. at East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703 ; d. at Prince- ton, N. J., March 22, 1758. The family of Edwards was of Welsh origin, and his great- grandfather had emigrated to America at an early date, and settled in Hartford. His father. Timothy Edwards, was born in Hart- ford in 1669, was settled in Windsor in 1694, and continued to serve here in the ministrj^ of the gospel till 1758. He was a man of extensive and accurate learning, a faithful pastor, and a truly religious man. His parish enjoyed fre- quent revivals. And thus his son was brought up in an atmosphere both highly intellectual and genuinely religious. Edwards began to exhibit very earl}' the superior powers of mind with which he was endowed. At 10 years of age he was able to refute with cogency and wit the doctrine that the soul is material and sleeps with the body till the resurrection. At 13 years of age he was ready for college, and entered at Yale. He had already made some original observa- tions upon the habits of spiders, which proved great talent for natural science. But the course of study at that day, the influences of his home, the general atmosphere of the col- onies, and still more his own peculiarly deep religious nature, all turned him more and more toward the ministry as his calling in life. When 14 years of age he was reading Locke's Essay v^wn Hnman Understanding, enjoying a far higher pleasure in the perusal of its pages " than the most greedy miser finds when gathering up handf uls of silver and gold from some newly-discovered treasure." The col- lege was much broken up during this period, and Edwards had to migrate with his class from New Haven to Wethersfield, and back again to New Haven. But his studies suffered no interruption. He early formed tlie habit of studying with his pen in his hand, not for the purpose of mere note-taking, but as a means of the independent exercise of his mind. Notes " on the mind "remain, which contain the seeds of his most important subsequent work. Indeed, his theory of virtue, whether derived from a reading of Cumberland or from his Bible, is as clearly stated in these boyish notes as in the treatise written in ma- ture manhood. Thus he went on in indepen- dent study till, in the year 1720, he graduated with the highest honors of the college. The next two years of Edwards' life were spent at college preparing for the work of the ministry. His religious life had already taken upon itself that deep and even mystic char- acter which always distinguished him. Early religions emotions and the habit of secret prayer had given way to later coldness, but ho had come out of this into the clear light of the love of God. The doctrine of the divine sovereignty had been a stumbling-block to him, but he had come not only to acquiesce in it, but even to regard it as infinitely glorious, and it remained a leading thought with him through life. His first ministerial experience was in the town of New York, where he preached about 8 months, and was afterward invited to settle, but did not accept. In 1723 he returned to the college as tutor, and remain- ed there 3 years. It was a critical time for the institution.' The rector, Mr. Cutler, had be- come an Episcopalian, and his ottice had been declared vacant. The whole duty of instruc- tion and government devolved upon Edwards and 2 other young men, and President Clap was afterward ready to acknowledge the in- debtedness not only of the college, but of liter- ature to them. Amid these occupations Ed- EDWARDS (245) EDWARDS •wards' religious life deepened, ;xnd here we find the beginning of those 70 resolutions which formed the guiding force of his character, and of which the 6th was, " Resolved, to live with all my might while I do live." In 1727 Edwards was installed as colleague pastor with his grandfather, the aged and venerable Solomon Stoddard, over the church in Northampton, Mass. Mr. Stoddard lived till 1729. Meantime Edwards had married Miss Sarah Pierrepoiit, a lady of rare religious nature, who was a help meet for such a man. For some j'ears no great event marked the course of the Northampton life, but in 1734 a revival of religion occurred which was of un- usual power and extent. The revival was the result of Edwards' preaching in a fresh and original manner of the old doctrine of jusliti- cation by faith, which the inroads of a Pela- gianizing Arminianism had already brought into considerable neglect. The revival, which was the beginning of Edwards' great practical services to the church, was also the beginning of his labors as a constructive theologian. As a consequence of the revival he appeared be- fore the public with 2 volumes, a Narrative of Sarpridiifi Conversions (1736) and Five Jbiscoiirses (1738), of which the first was upon justification. The religious interest waned somewhat for a time, but in 1740, in connec- tion with the visit of Whitefield, who arrived in Northampton, Oct. 16, there occurred an- other revival of great power. It was accom- panied with some excesses which have since appeared in similar seasons, in which ph3's- ical excitement played a large part, and led al.so to some irregularities in the way of lay preaching, and the intrusion of ministers into other ministers' parishes. Edwards, who was the most powerful preacher in New Eng- land, had himself done evangelistic work in various places, and so had many others. All these things gave offence ; but the chief ground of offence was the fact that the revival laid emphasis upon the new birth, and had a direct and evident tendency to break up a sys- tem then prevailing in New England, intro- duced by the so-called " Half-way Covenant" (q.v.), wliich made the church a school for educating men in religion, and thus making them Christians by a gradual and indefinite process. Hence there arose a great contro- versy, in which Edwards took part by sev- eral works, Bistinrjnisliinq Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God (1741), Thoughts on the Jieviral (1742), and after a change of view as to the subject consequent upon experiences which followed upon the revival. Qualifica- tion,^ for Foil Communion (1749). It W!us this change of view, whereby Ed- wards had come to discard the practice which his grandfather had introduced, of inviting persons confessedly uuregenerate to the com- munion in the hope of their conversion, which led to a painful crisis in his life. The church did not take kindly to his new ideas. They raised a storm about him, denied him a hear- ing, called a council, and dismissed him (1700). He was thus driven out of the most favorable {)osition, as one would think, in New Eng- and, and finally had to accept the post of mis Bionary to the Indians at Stockbridge, Mass., whither he went the following year. In this position he was an able and laborious teacher of his humble charge. He also fouglit suc- cessfully the first fight in America with the rapacious Indian agent. But his retirement gave him opportunity to do greater things than he might have done had he remained in Northampton. In his abundant leisure ho prepared the treatises upon The Freedom of the Will (1754), on Virtue (written in 1755), and Original Sin (1758). They were the fruit of his long and profound studies upon the state of the country and the " prevailing" Arminianism. They were a stout defence of the principal tenets of the old Calvinism, but they contained the seeds of those great modi- fications which the cour.se of the " Edward- ean," or New England school of theology, has developed. See New England The- ology. Edwards' daughter Esther had married the Rev. Aaron Burr, who had been made presi- dent of the college at Princeton, N. J. In 1757 he died, and the trustees, meeting soon after his death, elected Edwards as his suc- cessor. The call was probably an unwelcome one. It w^as certainly a perplexing one, for Edwards had laid his plans for the production of a number of works by which he hoped to promote the cause of religion. But he re- ferred the matter to a council, and they, to the permanent loss of the world, advised' him to accept. It is said that he burst into tears. But finally he went. He was inaugurated president "in 1758. He had scarcely entered upon the work of the presidency, when ho was inoculated with the small-pox. TJie dis- ease took an unfavorable turn, and in a few weeks after he had dropped his pen at Stock- bridge he was dead. The best editions of his works are the Wor- cester, originally published in 8 vols. , 1809. now republished in 4, and the D wight ed., l6 vols.. New York, 1829-30. There still exist many unpublished Mss. Dwight's ed. in- cludes a life. (See also A. V. G. Allen, Jonathan Edwards, Boston, 1889.) F. II. F. Edwards, Jonathan, the younger ; b. at Northampton, Mass., May 26, 1745 ; d. at Schenectady, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1801. He w^as but 6 years of age when the family removed to Stockbridge, and since his playfellows here were usually Indian children, he natu- rally became very proficient in their language. This circumstance, which was regarded with some surprise, determined his father to devote him to the ministry of the gospel among the Indians, and to send him to the Oneidas upon the Susquehanna River in care of Rev. Gideon Ilawley, when but 10 years of age, to learn their language. But the war then in progress interfered, and he returned to Stockbridge in less than a year. Next came the removal to Princeton, and then the speedy death of his father, followed by the death in the same j'ear of his mother, 'though Avithout means, he was not without friends, and in 1760 he began his education in the grammar-school at Prince- ton, was admitted to the college after a year's study, and graduated in 1765. As a classical EFFECTUAL (246) EGYPT student he maintaiued a high rank, but his strength was in philosopliy. While in college he had been converted, and in 1766, after a period of stud}^ with Joseph Bellamy, he was licensed to preach. From 1767 to 1769 he was a tutor in Princeton College, and from Jan. 1, 1769, to May 19, 1795, pastor of the church of White Haven, in the town of New Haven, Conn. From 1796 he was pastor at Colebrook, Conn., till in May, 1799, he was elected president of Union College, Schenec- tady. His work here, though short, was such as to mark him as a great teacher. His svi- perior abilities as a theologian and a controver- sialist had already been proved by his reply to the treatise of Chauncy upon the Salvation of All Men (1789), and that to Samuel West's Essays upon Liberty and Necessity, written while at Colebrook. In these works he ex- hibited the keenest logic, the most remorseless analysis and refutation of an adversary, the greatest thoroughness of treatment. If he lacked something of the intuitive eye of his father for great truths, he knew how to state far better than his father what he did see. His great constructive work in theology was done in the doctrine of the atonement (see New England Theology), in which he ad- vanced upon his father, though following him in his other writings. If the school is called " Edwardean" in honor of the father, the theory of the atonement held by it should be called " Edwardean" in honor of the son. Edwards' works were published at Andover in 2 vols., 1842, and are accompanied by a Memoir by Trj^on Edwards. F. H. F. Effectual Calling. See Call. Effectual Prayer. That which attains its end and is answered. The term is derived from the common version of James v. 16, " the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much," but the true rendering, as given in the Revised English Bible, is, " the supplication of a righteous man availeth much in its working." Efficacious Grace. See Grace. Egbert (or Ecgberht), St., b. in Northum- bria, Eug., 639 ; d. at the monastery on the Island of lona, Scotland, April 24, 729. In youth he went to Ireland to study ; taken sick, he vowed that if restored he would take return to England, but would become a monk and practise certain austerities. He kept his vow, aud won a great reputation for sanctity. He interested himself in missions, but was provi- dentially hindered from going himself till 716, when he went to lona, Scotland, and there labored till his death. Egede, Hans, b. at Senjen, in the northern part of Norway, Jan. 31, 1686 ; d. at Stubbek- jcibiiiu, in the Danish island of Falster, Nov. 5, 17r)8. He studied theology at the Uni versity of Copenhagen, and was appointed pastor of Waagen, one of the Lofoten islands, in 1707. In 1721 he went to Greenland to preach Chris- tianity to the heathen natives, and he remained there till 1740 ; but even after his return to Denmark he continued to work for the mis- sion, tlie result of whicli has been that there are no more heathens in Greenland, but a number of flourishing churches. (See Fenger, H. Egede og den grvulaiulske Mission, Copen- hagen. 1879.) C. P. Eginhard or Einhard, b. about 770 in Franconia ; d. at Seligenstadt-on-the-Main, 15 m. s.e. of Francfort, March 14, 844 ; was educated at Fulda and at the court of Charle- magne under Alcuin, and became secretary to the emperor and superintendent of public buildings. "Whether his wife Emma was Charlemagne's daughter of the same name is uncertain ; at all events, the marriage was dissolved about 815, and Eginhard was or- dained a priest and retired to the monastery of Seligenstadt. His life of Charlemagne and his letters have great interest also to church history; best ed. Jaffe, Mon. Carol., Berlin, 1867. Collected editions of his works were given by Migne, CIV. 351-610, XCVII. 25- 62 ; and by Teulet (with French trans.), Paris, 1840-43, 2 vols. The best ed. of his poetry by E. Dtinmler in his Poetm Latini ceri Carotini, Berlin, 1884 (ii. 125-135) ; his French trans- lation of all his works separately iss\ied by Teulet, Paris, 1856 ; German translation of the Annales by Abel, Berlin. 1850 ; English translation of the Life of Charlemnqne by "W. Glaister, London, 1877, and S. E. Turner, New York, 1880 ; cf. J. I. Mombert, diaries the Or eat, New York, 1888. Eg'-lon {calf), a king of Moab wlio held Israel in bondage 18 years, having Jericho for his seat of government. He was slain by Ehud, and his people west of the Jordan were destroyed (Judges iii. 12-30). T. W. C. Egypt, General History and Statistics of. Egj'pt is 520 miles long, and on an average 160 miles wide, extending on both sides of the Nile from the first cataract to the Medi- terranean. The arable soil is not more than 8 miles broad on an average, but expands to 160 miles at the widest point, that at which the river divides into its 7 arms before entering the sea. The name was given to the coun- try by the Greeks, and first occurs in Homer. The natives themselves called it Kem (and so it is called in hieroglyphics), the " black [land]," referring to the color of its cultivable soil. The Hebrew name was Mizraim. This valley is, so far as the Nile- floods reach, a land of inexjiaustible fertility, and sheltered, as it was, on all sides by the sea and the desert, it became one of the first starting-points of human civilization. Indeed, the history of Egypt goes farther back than that of any other people. There once existed a continuous rep- resentation of that history from its beginning down to the time of Alexander the Great, written by an Egyptian priest Manetho. But it has perished ; only fragments of it, in the form of extracts made by Josephus, Eusebius, etc., have come down to us. Something may be learned, however, from the Old Testament, Herodotus. Diodorus Siculus, etc., and still more from the monuments of the country and their hieroglyphic inscriptions, a source which as yet is very far from having been exhausted. Manetho enumerates 30 dynasties as having ruled in Egypt before Alexander the Great, probably several of them at the same time, but over separate parts of the country. la EGYPT (247) EISENMENGER the first year of the 1st dynasty mentioned by him, which is fixed by Lepsius as 3892 B.C. and by Bockli as 5702 B.C., King Menes built Memphis in Lower Egypt, and to the same millennium belong the great pyramids at Gizeh and the tombs, with their innumerable pic- torial representations and inscriptions. Dur- ing the 11th dynasty Thebes and its local god, Aininon, became celebrated, and from the same period date the great reservoir of Lake Moeris with its system of distributing canals. This even development was suddenly stopped about 2100 ]$.c. by the invasion of a warlike, nomadic people, coming from the east, the Hyk.sos, who conquered Lower Egypt, made Upper Egypt tributary, and re- mained in the country for 500 years. Be- tween this people and the Israelites Manetho makes a sharp distinction, and he puts the exodus of the latter 250 years later than the expulsion of the former. After the liberation from the Hyksos followed another glorious period, to which belonged the great kings Ramases IL , of the 19th dynasty, and Hamases IIL, of the 20th dynasty. But, as is often the case, the great prosperity of the country weak- ened the race, and Egypt was once more over- run by foreigners. The Ethiopian king Shabak conquered the country near the close of the 8th century B.C., and "established the 25th dynasty. The rule of the Ethiopians seems to have been qtnet and uneventful, but when they retired to their own country, wearied and exhausted, they left Egypt in a state of confusion, the so-called dodekarchy, wliich bordered on anarchy and threatened with dissolution. From this calamity the country was saved by Fsammetichus I., one of the dodekarchs, who established the 26th dynasty chiefly bj' the aid of Ionian and Carian mercenaries. After the close of the war these Greek soldiers were settled in Egypt, obtained estates, ac- quired privileges, and formed a prosperous colon}' which rapidly became the connecting link between Greece and Egypt. Under Araa.'sis the Greeks were allowed to build Nankrabis, which soon became an important commercial place and really opened up Egypt to foreign commerce. Great riches tlowed into the country. Tlie number of cities ro.se to 20,000, and private peopk- were often pos- ses.sed of almost incredible wealth. But just the riches of the country allured its enemies, and it was twice conquered by the Persians — in 525 and in 340. The Persians, however, would probably never have made themselves masters of Egypt for any long period, but tlie Greeks did. After the conquest by Alexander the Great in 332, and his death in 323, Egypt was ruled by a Greek dyna.sty, the Ptolemies, until it Ix'came a province of the Koman Em- pire after the battle of Actium, 30 n.c. Under the Ptolemies and the Romans Egyp- tian civilization reached its point of culmina- tion. Alexandria, a Greek city on Egyptian soil, became the intellectual centre of the world. Here the Greek philo.sopher met with the Oriental dreamer, the Hebrew prophet, and the Egyptian .scientist, and the results wore Xeo-Piatonism, the Septuagint Version, Philo, Manetho, etc. Very early the country became Christianized, and the influence which the Egyptian Church has exercised on Chris- tianity through the Gnostic, the Alexandrian School of Theology, and the monk is felt down to this very day. Under the East Ro- man sway, however, decay set in and devel- oped rapidly. The Egyptian Church became monophysitic, and this circumstance made the country an easy prey for Islam in 638. See Coptic Ciiuucir. For ancient Egypt, see Wil- kinson, edition Birch, Loudon, 1878, 3 vols.; for modern Egypt, see Lane. 6th ed., 1882, 2 vols. ; for Egyptology and the Bible, see Na- ville in Schatf's Through Bible Lands. Kew York (1888), new ed., pp. 428-453. E'-hud [union), a Benjamite who delivered Israel from the Moabites by first slaying their king at Jericho, and then rai.sing an army and defeating his people. He judged Israel with honor for many years (Judges iii. 12-31). T. W. C. Eichhorn (ike-horn), Johann Gottfried, D.D. (Gottingen, 1811), German theologian ; b. at Dcirrenzimmern, Wiirtemberg, Oct. 16, 1752 ; d. at Gottingen, June 27, "l827. He studied at Gottingen, 1770-74 ; became profes- sor of Oriental la'nguages at Jena, 1775, and at Gottingen, 1788. Of his numerous writings, the most famous are his Introductions to the Old and New Testaments {Einleitung in'a A. 7'., Leipzig. 1780-83, 3 parts, 4th ed., Got- tingen, 1820-24, 5 vols.; Einleitvnf/in'n N. T., Leipzig, 1804-14, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1820-27, 5 vols. ; Einleitung in die (qwc. Schviften A. T., 1795), which marked a new departure in such treati-ses, inasmuch as, for the first time, the Scriptures as a whole received a purely liter- ary treatment, being examined in the light of classical and Oriental learning. He had him- self no interest in the Bible as a religious book. Many of his thoroughly rationalistic ideas were enthusiastically received, only to be dropped after a Wme—e.g., that the gospels were compilations by later writers from docu- ments no longer extant ; that many of the O. T. books and some of the epistles, etc.. are ungenuine. (See his letters in Lcirsch, Bonn, 1881.) Einhard. See Eginhard. Einsiedeln or Maria Einsiedeln, the fa- mous Swiss Benedictine monastery and place of pilgrimage, because of its wonder-working image of the Virgin Mary and its chapel, which she personally consecrated, Sept. 14, 948, is locflted about 25 m. s.e. of Ziirich. Here Zwingli was priest (1516-19), and preached against image worship so effectively as to seriously impair the revenues of the monks for a time. It revived at the close of that century, and it is now visited by 150,000 pilgrims annually. It has a valuable library. Eisenmenger (I zen-menger), Johsmn An- dreas, (Jc rniiin theologian ; b. at ^Mannheim, 1054 ; (I. at Ib-idelberg. Dec. 20. 1704. where he stuilied and had been profes.sor of Oriental langiuiges since 1700. He wrote the famous anti-Semitic work Judaiftm ExjioKcd [Ent- d(clt,H Judenifnim, Frankfort, 1700, 1st ed., suppressed in response to Jewish pleading, 2d ESKEHARD (248) ELEUTHEROPOLIS erl., at the expense of King Frederick I., of Prussia, Konigsberg, 1711), the fruit of 19 years of diligent scraping together from 203 treatises of all the myths, stories, arguments, misunderstandings, and everything else against Christianity which he could trace to a Jewish source. Ekkehard is the name of 5 monks in the monastery of St. Gall, who became very cele- brated in their time as teachers and writers. They wrote hymns. Liber Benedictiorinm ; history, a continuation of the chronicle of St. Gall commenced by Ratpertus ; legends, etc. (See Meyer von Knonau, hie Ekkeharte, Basel, 1876.) El-a-ga-ba -lus or He li-o-ga-ba-lus, Roman emperor, 218-222 ; was supposed to be a son of Caracalla ; b. at Antioch, 204 ; educated at Eraesa, Syria ; elected high-priest of the sun- god there, and by the intrigues of his mother, Julia Sodmis, and grandmother, Julia Mse.sa, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers of the Syrian camp. But his reign was a series of such cruelties and debaucheries that, 4 years later, the same soldiers threw him and his mother and grandmother in the Tiber. The Christian Church remained in peace during those years, as he found no time to realize his idea of amalgamating all the different kinds of religious worship found in the em- pire into the worship of the one god El-gnbal, " god the creator," his own name, to which he had changed his original name Varius Avitus Bassianus. E'-lah {terebinth). 1. The valley in which David slew Goliath (1 Sam xvii. 2, xxi. 9), now Wady-es-8umt, 16 m. s.w. from Jeru- salem. 2. The son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel, 926 B.C., who reigned 2 years, and was slain while intoxicated by Zimri, one of his officers (1 Kings xvi. 6-10). T. W. C. E'-lam (Mfjhland), a region which took its name from a son of Shem (Gen. x. 22), and cor- responded to the Elymais of Greek and Roman writers. The city Susa or Shusan was in it (Dan. viii. 2), and thence it extended southeast to the Persian Gulf. It was a powerful mon- archy in Abraham's day (Gen. xiv. 9), and long retained its own princes, but finally be- came a province of Babylonia and afterward of Persia. It aided in the overthrow of Baby- lon (Isa. xxi. 2), and invaded Israel (Isa. xxii. 6). Its destruction was foretold by Jeremiah (xlix. 34-39) and Ezekiel (xxxii. 24, 25). T. W. C. E'-lath or Eloth (trees), an Edomitic sea- port, the modern Akiba, on the northern end of the Gulf of Akiba ; an important place imder Solomon (1 Kings ix. 26, 28) ; taken by the Assyrians (2 Kings xvi. 7-9). Elder, the oldest office known, running back to the days of Abraham, whose servant Eliezer is called (Gen. xxiv. 2) " the elder of his house" (R. V.). During Israel's sojourn in Egypt, the elders (Ex. iv. 29) were treated by Moses as the representatives of the people, they being probably the heads of the tribes. Every city had its elders (Deut. xix. 12, Judges viii. 14), "but there was a special body of 70 men, who were with Moses on Mt. Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 1, 9), and were selected for service for the whole people (Num. xi. 16, 17. 24, 25). At a later period we find a tribunal of 70 elders known as the Sanhedrin, which the Rabbins maintain was a continuance of the original appointment by Moses. The name is mentioned in Maccabaean times about 175 B.C. (1 Mac. vii. 33, xii. 6), and in the New Testa- ment mention is made of " elders of the Jews," distinct from the Sanhedrin, but co- operating with it (Matt. xvi. 21, xxi. 23, xxvi. 57). In the Christian Church the name is applied to the local officers of congregations, wdio are also called bishops or overseers. In Acts xx. 28 Paul addresses as "bishops" (R. V.) the very same rulers of the Ephesian church who had just before (ver. 17) been called " elders." In Titus i. 5, he directs Titus to " appoint elders in every city," and then, proceeding to describe what sort of persons they should be, says, '"For the bishop must be blameless," etc. Peter also, in his first epistle (ver. 1), says, " The elders among j^ou I exhort," etc. Of the time and method of the institution of this office there is no record, whence it is rea- sonable to infer that it existed from the begin- ning, the elders of the church taking the place and discharging the functions of " the rulers of the synagogue" (Mark v. 22), who con- ducted the prayer, reading of Scripture, and exhortation which constituted the service. Every church had a number of elders. Nor is any distinction made between the teaching ancl the ruling elder, unless it be found, as some say it is, in 1 Tim. v. 17. Since the Reformation the name has been given in non-prelatical communions to certain officers charged with the spiritual care of a congregation in common with the minister. They are appointed either for life or for a term of years. Their duties are to maintain dicipline, guard against unsound doctrine, visit the sick, counsel the young, and see that there is no lording over God's heritage. In the churches of the Reformed they, in equal numbers with the ministers, compose all eccle- siastical assemblies from the lowest to the highest. T. W. C. Elect {chosen), a term applied in the New Testament to those who are not only called to Christ, but actually come to him and are saved (Matt. xxii. 14). They were chosen in Christ from eternity that they should be holy (Eph. i. 4, 5). " The elect lady" in 2 John was either some eminent Christian woman or a figurative expression for a Christian church. T. W. C. Elec'-tion. See Predestination. Elements, in ecclesiastical usage the ma- terials employed in the sacraments — viz. , water in baptism, and bread and wine in the Lord's Supper. These are of divine appointment, and for them nothing else can properly be substituted. T. W. C. El-eu'-ther-op'-o-lis, an ancient city of Palestine, 28 m. e.n.e. of Gaza, having very extensive ruins with massive vaults. It is identified with the village of Beit Jibrin. T. W. C. ELEUTHERUS (249) ElilOT E-leu'-the-rus, pope 177-93, was a Greek by birth. The Liber Pontijicalin and Beda in his Ilist. EccL, iii., 25, tells us that the British Kiug Lucius wrote a letter to Eleuthe- rus askiut,^ him to send teachers of Christianity to his kinj^dom. If such a letter has ever ex- isted, Elcutherus has neglected to pay any re- gard to it, as it was the Celtic and not the lioman Church which did the first mission- ary work among the Britons. C. P. Elevation of the Host. The custom of lifting up the consecrated bread in the cele- bration of the eucharist, for the adoration of the congregation, was not known in the Ro- man Church until about 1200, when it was in- troduced for the purpose of emphasizing the belief of the church in the doctrine of tran- substantiation. It is first mentioned in the synodical constitutions of Odo de Sulli, bishop of Paris. E'-li {(lucent), a high-priest of the Jews, and also a judge. lie governed Israel 40 years. He was a pious man, but negligent of family discipline. His 3 sons were slain in battle, and the Ark was captured, a calamity that broke his heart, and he died in his 98th year (1 Sam. ii. 11, iii., iv.). T. W. C. Ellas Ijevita (properly Elihu l)en Asher Hallevi), the great Hebrew teacher of the 16th century ; b. at Neustadt-on-the-Aisch, near Nuremberg (Feb. 8 ?), 1472 ; d. in Venice, 1549. Driven out of his country by persecu- tion, he went to Italy, 1502 ; settled first at Padua as Hebrew teacher, 1504, and from 1512 to 1527 lived with Cardinal Egidio of Vitcrbo ; from 1540 to 1547 was at Isny, Swabia, as assistant to the printer Paul Fagius. but spent the close of his life in Venice. He remained unconverted, although constantly with Christians. Two of his grandsons be- came Roman Catholic priests. He had ios his day among the Jews the hardihood to deny the high antiquity of the Hebrew vowel points, asserting that they were later than the Tal- mud. He also first popularized tlie theory that to Ezra and the men of the Great Syna- gogue we owe the present canon of the O. T. El-ig'-i-us, b. at Chatelet, near Limoges, in the Department of Haute- Vienne, France, about 588 ; d. at Noyon, 67 m. n.e. of Paris, the birthplace of Calvin, Nov. 30, 659 ; was a goldsmith by profession, and employed in the royal nnnt in Paris. Both on account of his professional ability and by dint of the force of his cliaracter he occupied a high standing at the Neustrian court under the reigns of Clotaire and Dagobert. He was a Gallo-Roman. not a Frank, by descent ; be- came early a pupil of Columbanus, and began an ascetic life without giving up his trade. He bought Sa.xon slaves by the hundreds, gave lliem freedom, and made tiuin monks. He built churches and founded monasteries, one at Solignac near Limoges, another in Paris. In 640 lie was made bisliop of Noyon, and as such he made hiiriself conspicuous with his courage and a\istcrity at the .synods of Chalons, 644, and Orleans, 650. ]\Iiracles were sai