CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library ‘aint TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. BY A. BARTH, MEMBER OF THE SOCIETE ASIATIQUE OF PARIS, AUTHORISED TRANSLATION BY REV. J. WOOD, EDIN. THIRD EDITION. LONDON: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & CO., Lr? 1891. po The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved. TO DR. JOHN MUIR, THIS SKETCH or THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA 1S RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THE AUTHOR IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS UNWEARIED SERVICES AS A STUDENT AND INTERPRETER OF THE FAITHS AND WISDOM OF INDIA, AND OF HIS GENEROUS PATRONAGE OF INDIAN RESEARCH. CONTENTS. gee PAGE PREFACE : ‘ ; : : : : ; ; ix INTRODUCTION . d ‘ xxi J. Tue Vepic Retiegions . . : ‘ ‘ ‘ 1-38 The Rig-Veda: its Deities, Cultus, and Essential Character 1-38 II. BRAHMANISM . ‘ ‘ . : : 2 + 39-100 . Ritual—Spread a . : 39-63, 2. Philosophic Speculations of the piisiads — The Sankhya and the Vedanta Reaction. : ‘ 64-86 3. Decline in Dogmatic and Ritual. 3 s 87-100 III, Buppuisu é ‘ ‘ ‘ 5 : - 101-139 Buddha and his Teachings—Spirit and Organisation— Decline 5 “ 7 : : 3 : 10I-139 IV. JaInismM . : : : . F . ; . 140-152 Affinity with Buddhism—Creed and Cultus 3 140-152 V. Hinpvuisou : . e.g . ede - 153-293 1, The Hindu Sects: their Great Deities—Civa, Vishnu, Krishna, Rama—The Avataras—The Trinity . 159-185 2. Their History and Doctrines—Vishnuism, Civaism —Influences, Philosophical and Religious . 186-237 3. The Reforming Sects—Mussulman Influence—The Sikhs . - 238-251 4- Wordhip-<1ddlatziee Shared Sriiibale and Objects —Festivals—Pilgrimages—Retrospective and Pro- spective . r . . : ‘ + 252-293 PREFACE - +4 Tue following sketch of the Religions of India appeared originally in 1879 as an article in the Encyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses, which is published in Paris under the editorship of Professor Lichtenberger. My aim in com- posing it was to present, to that class of readers who take interest in questions of historical theology, but who happen to have no special acquaintance with Indianist studies, a résumé, which should be as faithful and realistic as possible, of the latest results of inquiry in all provinces of this vast domain. At first I thought I might comprise all I had to say in some fifty pages; but I soon saw that within a space so limited, the work I had undertaken, and which I intended should assume the form of a statement of facts rather than of a series of speculative deductions, would prove absolutely superficial and be sure to give rise to manifold misapprehensions. This first difficulty was easily got over through the friendly liberality of the Editor of the Encyclopédie, for, as soon as aware of it, he handsomely offered to concede to me whatever space I might need. Other difficulties remained, however, besides those connected with the subject in itselfi—which is one of boundless extent and intricacy, and which no special work, so far as I knew, had as yet treated at once as a whole and in detailed particularity—those, viz., which arose out of the general plan of the work in which my sketch was to appear as an article. The Encyclopédie admitted only of a small number of divisions into chapters, and no notes. x PREFACE, I had not, therefore, the resource of being able to relegate my impedimenta to the foot of the pages, a resource which in such a case was almost indispensable, since I had to address a reader who was not a specialist, and I was my- self averse to be obliged to limit myself to a colourless and inexact statement. All I had to say and explain must either be said and explained in the text, or suppressed altogether. The result was that I loaded my text to the utmost possible extent, often, I must say, at the expense of fluency of diction, and I also suppressed a good deal. T left out, with no small reluctance, more than one remark, which, though of secondary, was yet of serviceable impor- tance, because it would have interrupted the continuity of what I sought mainly to develop. I sacrificed especially a considerable number of those particularities, such as not unfrequently defy all attempts at circumlocution, yet im- part to matters the exact shade of meaning that belongs to them, but which would have required observations in explanation such as I could have introduced only at the expense of interlarding my pages with an array of in- congruous parentheses. In these circumstances I did all I could to retain at least as much as possible of the sub- stance ; and those Indianists who may be pleased to look into my work will see, I think, that under the enforced generalities of my exposition there lies concealed a certain amount of minuteness of investigation. These shortcomings I was able to remedy in a measure in the impressions which I was solicited to issue in a separate form shortly after, and to which I was free to add annotations. By this means it was possible to append the bibliography, as well as a goodly number of detached re- marks and technical details. As to the text itself, even if I had had the necessary time, it would have been difficult to have modified it in any important particular. The re- daction of a scientific treatise written without divisions into chapters and intended to remain without notes, must assume a form more or less of an abnormal character, If PREFACE. xi the book is to be of value, this defect of external resources would have to be compensated for by its internal struc- ture. In all its sections it would require to present a more explicitly reasoned sequence of ideas, and to possess to some extent more compactness of structure, into which the introduction of new matter would be attended with difficulty. The article was therefore reproduced in the French edition without alterations. For this very reason also the present edition is in these respects pretty much the same as the French original. Certain inaccuracies in detail have been corrected ; in some passages the text has been relieved to the expansion of the notes; in others, though more rarely, material intended at first to appear in the footnotes has been admitted into the body of the work; the transcription of Hindu terms in particular has been rendered throughout more rigorous and complete; but in other respects, the text is unaltered, and the additions, as at first, have been committed to the notes. These last have not merely been brought up to date, so as to give the latest results,) but rendered in general more complete than they were in the French edition, in which they had been thrown together in a somewhat hurried fashion. In my regard, they are not calculated to change the character of the work, which has no pretence in its present form, any more than its original, to teach anything to adepts in Indianist studies. They must needs impart an authoritative weight to my statements, which, except where the original authorities were inaccessible to Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1881: vol. x. The Dhammapada, 1The redaction of these notes belongs to the spring of 1880; some few were added in December of the same year. I avail myself of this opportunity to mention the following works which I first became aware of only after the correction of the proofs:—A. Ludwig, Commentar zur Rigveda-Ubersetzung, ister Theil, Prag, 1881. A. Kaegi, Der Rig- veda, die 4lteste Literatur der Inder, 2te Auflage, Leipzig, 1881. transl. by F. Max Miiller; the Sutta-Nip4ta transl. from Pali by V. Fausbéll ; vol. xi. Buddhist Suttas, transl. from Pali by T. W. Rhys Davids. H. Kern, Geschiedenis van het Buddhisme in Indié, Haarlem, 1881 (in course of publication). E. Trumpp, Die Religion der Sikhs, nach den Quellen dargestellt, Leip- zig, 1881. xii PREFACE, me, have not been made on the basis of documents at second hand. They are fitted anyhow to give to those who have only a slight acquaintance with the details of our studies, some idea at least of the immense amount of labour which has within the century been expended on the subject of India. With the view of making this evident I have been careful to supply a rather extensive bibliography, in which the reader will perhaps remark a greater array of references than was necessary to justify my statements. I have, however, prescribed here certain limits to myself. I have not, for instance, except when absolutely necessary, mentioned any books which I did not happen to have by me (in which category I include a host of native publications, with the titles of which I could have easily amplified my references); neither have I re- ferred to works, which, though doubtless not without their value at the time when they appeared, are now out of date, and in which the true and the false are to such an extent intermingled that the citation of them, without considerable correction in an elementary treatise such as this, would have only served to confuse and mislead the uninitiated reader. But except in these cases, and such as I may have omitted from want of recollection, I have endeavoured as much as possible to point out the place of each, especially that of those who led the van in this interesting series of investigations. In fine, as I have already explained, a good many of the notes are simple additions, and ought to be accepted as a sort of appendix in continuation of the text. Having said this much of the senate conditions under which this work was undertaken and drawn up, I have still, with the reader's indulgence, some explanations to make in regard to a matter or two belonging to the con- tents, in regard to questions which I have thought I ought to waive as being in my opinion not yet ripe for solution, and also as regards the restriction I have imposed on PREFACE. xiit myself in not introducing into my exposition any pro- nounced peculiarities of private opinion. The reader who peruses with intelligence what I have written, and is aw courant with Indianist studies, will not fail to remark that my views on the Veda are not precisely the same as those which are most generally accepted. For in it I recognise a literature that is pre-eminently sacerdotal, and in no sense a popular one; and from this conclusion I do not, as is ordinarily done, except even the Hymns, the most ancient of the documents. Neither in the language nor in the thought of the Rig-Veda have I been able to discover that quality of primitive natural simplicity which so many are fain to see in it. The poetry it contains appears to me, on the contrary, to be of a singularly refined character and artificially elaborated, full of allusions and reticences, of pretensions to mysticism and theosophic insight; and the manner of its expression is such as reminds one more frequently of the phraseology in use among certain small groups of initiated than the poetic language of a large community. And these features I am constrained to remark as characteristic of the whole collection; not that they assert themselves with equal emphasis in all the Hymns—the most abstruse imaginings being not without their moments of simplicity of concep- tion; but there are very few of these Hymns which do not show some trace of them, and it is always difficult to find in the book and to extract a clearly defined portion of per- fectly natural and simple conception. In ali these respects the spirit of the Rig-Veda appears to me to be more allied than is usually supposed to that which prevails in the other Vedic collections, and in the Brahmanas. This conviction; which I had already expressed emphatically enough more than once in the Revue Critique, I have not felt called upon to urge here, in a work such as this from which all discussion should be excluded as much as possible. I have, nevertheless, given it such expression even here that a careful reader, if he looks, will not fail to recognise it ; xiv PREFACE. anyhow it has not escaped the notice of such an expert in the affairs of India as Professor Thiele of Leyden, with whom I am happy to find myself in harmony of view on the subject of the Veda. That critic has, in consequence, not without reason, challenged! me to say why I have not insisted on it more, and if, after this first avowal, I was warranted to draw such a sharp distinction as I have done between the epoch of the Hymns and that of the Brah- manas, . Whether I was right or wrong in doing so, it is not for me to decide. I have pointed out the differences which, as it appears to me, we must admit to exist between the two epochs referred to, differences which I do not think can be accounted for simply by the diverse nature of the docu- ments. In the Brihmanas we have a sacred literature and anew liturgy; the priesthood that inspired the Hymns has become a caste; and there is a theory which is given forth as a law for this caste, as well as the others—one which, whether true or imaginary, is nevertheless in itself a fact. Were it only for these reasons, I should consider myself bound to maintain the generally accepted distinction ; but, not to adduce more, I confess that I had another reason —the fear, viz. of being drawn into the subject further than was desirable in a work such as this. The Hymns, as I have already remarked, do not appear to me to show the least trace of popular derivation. I rather imagine that they emanate from a narrow circle of priests, and that they reflect a somewhat sincular view of things, Not only can I not accept the generally received opinion that Vedic and Aryan are synonymous terms, I am even not at all sure to what extent we are right in speaking of a Vedic people. Not that communities did not then worship the gods of the Veda, but I doubt very much if they regarded them as they are represented in the Hymns, any more than that they afterwards sacrificed to them in community after the rites prescribed in the Brih- 1In the Theologische Tijdschrift of July 1880, PREFACE, xv manas. If there is any justice in these views, it is evident that a literature such as this will only embrace what is within the scope of a limited horizon, and will have autho- ritative weight only in regard to things in a more or less special reference, and that the negative conclusions espe- cially which may be deduced from such documents must be received with not a little reservation. A single instance, to which I limit myself, will suffice for illustration. Suppose that certain hymns of the tenth book of the Rig-Veda—a book which the majority of critics look upon with distrust —had not come down to us, what would we learn from the rest of the collection respecting the worship of the manes of the departed? We might know that India paid homage to certain powers called Pitris, or Fathers, but we could not infer from that, any more than from the later worship of the Matris, or Mothers, this worship of ancestors, or spirits of the dead, which, as the comparative study of the beliefs, customs, and institutions of Greece and Rome shows us, was nevertheless from the remotest antiquity one of the principal sources of public and private right, one of the bases of the family and the civic community. I am therefore far from believing that the Veda has taught us everything on the ancient social and religious condition of even Aryan India, or that everything there can be accounted for by reference to it. Outside of it I see room not only for superstitious beliefs, but for real popular religions, more or less distinct from that which we find in it; and on this point, we shall arrive at more than one conclusion from the more profound study of the subsequent period. We shall perhaps find that, in this respect also, the past did not differ so much from the present as might at first appear, that India has always had, alongside of its Veda, something equivalent to its great Civaite and Vishnuite religions, which we see in the ascendant at a later date, and that these anyhow existed contemporaneously with it for a very much longer period than has till now been generally supposed. Xvi PREFACE. I have in a summary way indicated these views in my work, and that in more passages than one; but it is easy to see how, if I had laid greater stress on them, they might have modified certain parts of my exposition. I did not think that I ought to go against the received opinions on this matter, or that in addressing a public imperfectly qualified to judge, I should attach more weight to my private doubts than the almost unanimous consent of scholars more learned than myself. If it is a wrong that I have done, I confess it, and that as one which I committed wilfully. And,after all, there is so much that is uncertain in this obscure past, and what Whitney says in regard to dates, “in Indian literary his- tory,” that they are so many “pins set up to be bowled down again,” is so applicable to all hypotheses in this field, that a new opinion would do well to allow itself some considerable time to ripen. I am accordingly of opinion that the Neo-Brahmanic religions are of very ancient date in India. On the other hand, their positive history is comparatively modern; it commences not much earlier than the time when it becomes dispersed and distracted among that confusion of sects which has prolonged itself to our own time. In order to render an account of these sects, it was my duty to classify them, and I have done so according to the philosophic systems which seem to have at each period prevailed among them. This arrangement I have adopted only in defect of another ; for the merely chronological succession, besides being for the earlier epochs highly uncertain, and calculated to involve me in endless repetitions, would have been of slender sig- nificance in itself, and would have resolved itself into a bare enumeration, since it is impossible to show, in most cases here, that a succession of the sort involves filiation. I confess, however, that the arrangement adopted is not very satisfactory. The formule of metaphysics have penetrated so deeply into the modes PREFACE. XVii of thinking and feeling prevalent in India, that they may in most cases be treated as we do those common quan- tities which we eliminate in calculation; and it is always hazardous to judge by them of movements of such religious intensity. My sole excuse in this case is the necessity I was under of having some principle of classi- fication, and the difficulty, amounting to impossibility, of discovering another. I have, before I conclude, to say a few words on two questions which I have purposely evaded, as being hitherto unsusceptible of a satisfactory solution, The first is the question of Caste, its origin and successive developments. I did not entangle myself in this ques- tion, in the first place, because of its exceeding obscurity. In fact, we have already a Brahmanical theory of caste, in regard to which we should require to know how far it is true to facts before we venture on explanations, which might very readily prove of no greater validity than a work of romance, I gave this question the go- by, in the second place, because, as respects antiquity, the problem, taken as a whole, is a social rather than a religious one. In sectarian India at present, and since the appearance of foreign proselytising religions, caste is the express badge of Hinduism. The man who is a member of a caste is a Hindu; he who is not, is nota Hindu. And caste is not merely the symbol of Hindu- ism; but, according to the testimony of all who have studied it on the spot, it is its stronghold. It is this, much more than their creeds, which attaches the masses to these vague religions, and gives them such astonishing vitality. It is, therefore, a religious factor of the first order, and, on this score, I felt bound to indicate the part it now plays and its present condition. But there is no reason to presume that it was the same in the antiquity to which its institution is usually referred, and in which the theory at any rate took its rise that is reputed to regulate it. Still less is it probable that the b xviii PREFACE. existing castes, with one exception, that of the Brahmans, are the heirs in a direct line of the ancient cdtur- varnya. I have, therefore, felt free to discharge myself from the obligation of inquiring into the origin and more or less probable transformations of the latter, and it was enough to indicate the period onward from which the texts represent the sacerdotal caste as definitely estab- lished ; that is to say, when we first meet with a precise formula, giving a religions sanction to a state of things which in all probability existed in fact from time im- memorial. The second question of which I have steadily kept clear, is that of the relations which happen to have arisen between the Aryan religions of India and the systems of belief professed either by foreign peoples, or by races ethnographically distinct that had settled in the country. This inquiry thrust itself upon me in relation to Chris- tianity and Islamism; and there is nothing I should have wished more than to do as much in reference to other historical relations of the same kind, if I had thought I could do so with any profit. There is, as regards India, some weak and uncertain indications of a possible ex- change of ideas with Babylon, and the legend of the Deluge might not improbably have come from that quarter. But all that can be done in regard to this, is to put the question. For a inuch stronger reason I have shrunk from following Baron d’Eckstein into the inves- tigation of the far more hypothetical relations with Egypt and Asia Minor. In a very; friendly and far too eulogistic criticism of the present work, E. Renan has been pleased to express some regret on this score; and I am very far from maintaining, for my part, that the time will not come when it will be necessary to resume researches in this direction; but to do so now would, in my opinion, be to advance forward in total darkness. The question is different as regards the re- 1 In the Journal Asiatique of Sune 1880, PREFACE. xix ligions of the aboriginal races of India, Here the influences and borrowings from one side, that of the aborigines, are evident, and from the other, the side of the Hindus, are d priori extremely probable, an inter- change of this kind being always more or less reciprocal. Only it is very difficult to say exactly what the con- quering race must have borrowed -in this way from the aboriginal races, The religions of these peoples survive in fact under two forms: either in the condition of popular superstitions, which resemble what they are elsewhere; or, as among the tribes which have remained more or less savage, in the condition of national religions to some extent inoculated with Hindu ideas and modes of expression. These religions, in their turn, if we analyse them, are resolvable, on the one hand, into those beliefs and practices of an inferior type, having relation to idol or animal worship, such as we find in all communities that are uncivilised, and, on the other hand, into the worship of the divinities of nature and the elements, such as personifications of the sun, heaven, the earth, the mountains—that is to say, of systems of worship which are not essentially different from those which we meet with at first among the Hindus. In these circumstances, it is obvious that in special studies we might be able to note features of detail which have been borrowed by the more civilised race from that which is less so, but that we could not do much towards determining the effect of these. influences and borrowings in their general import, the only question to which it would be possible to give prominency here. I have only to explain the notation I have adopted in the transcription of the Hindu terms. The circumflex accent, as in d, 4, a, indicates that the vowel is long; the vowels r and / are transcribed by 7i and Zi. It will be observed that u and & should be pronounced like the French sound ou, and that ai and aw are always diph- thongs. An aspirated consonant is followed by h, and xe PREFACE. this aspiration ought to be distinctly expressed after the: principal articulation, as in inkhorn. Of the gutterals, g and gh are always hard, and the nasal of this order is marked by %, to be pronounced as in song. The palates e and 7 (and consequently their corresponding aspirates) are pronounced as in challenge, journey, and the nasal of the same order, fi, like this letter in Spanish. The lingual consonants, which, to our ear, do not differ perceptibly from the dentals, are rendered by f, th, d, dh, ». The sibilants ¢ and sh are both pronounced almost as sh in English. The anusvara (the neuter or final nasal) is marked by m, and the visarga (the soft and final aspiration) by A. The orthography has been rendered throughout rigorous and scientifically exact; only in a small number of modern names have I kept to the orthography in general use. A. BARTH. Paris, September 1881, INTRODUCTION. InprA has not only preserved for us in her Vedas the most ancient and complete documents for the study of the old religious beliefs founded on nature-worship, which, in an extremely remote past, were common to all the branches of the Indo-European family ; she is also the only country where these beliefs, in spite of many changes both in form and fortune, continue to subsist up to the present time. Whilst everywhere else they have been either as good as extinguished by monotheistic religions of foreign origin, in some instances without leaving behind them a single direct and authentic trace of their presence, or abruptly cut short in their evolution and forced to survive within the barriers, henceforth immovable, of a petty Church, as in the case of Parseeism,—in India alone they present up to this time, as a rich and varied literature attests, a conti- nuous, self-determined development, in the course of which, instead of contracting, they have continued to enlarge their borders. It is owing in a great measure to this extraordinary longevity that such an interest attaches to the separate and independent study of the Hindu religions, irrespective alto- gether of the estimate we may form of their dogmatic or practical worth. Nowhere else do we meet with circum- stances, on the whole, so favourable for the study of the successive transformations and destiny, so to speak, of a INTRODUCTION. polytheistic idea of the universe. Among all the kindred conceptions that we meet with, there is not another which has shown itself so vigorous, so flexible, so apt as this to assume the most diverse forms, and so dexterous in recon- ciling all extremes, from the most refined idealism to the grossest idolatry ; none has succeeded so well in repairing its losses; no one has possessed in such a high degree the power of producing and reproducing new sects, even great religions, and of resisting, by perpetual regenesis in this way from itself, all the causes which might destroy it, at once those due to internal waste and those due to external opposition. But for this very reason, too, it becomes difficult to conceive in its totality, and in the succes- sive additions made to it, this vast religious structure, the work, according to the most probable computations, of more than thirty centuries of a history that is without chronology, a perfect labyrinth of buildings, involved one in another, within whose windings the first explorers, almost without exception, went astray, so misleading is the official account of them, so many ruins do we meet with of a venerable aspect, and which yet are only of yesterday. Thanks to the discovery of the Vedas,! how- xxii Sanscrite et Latine,” 1838; and the three memoirs by the founder of the scientific interpretation of the Veda, Prof. R. Roth, “Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda,” 1846. Among 1 Our first positive acquaintance with the Veda dates from the publi- cation of the celebrated essay of H. T. Colebrooke, “On the Vedas or Sacred Writings of the Hindus,” inserted in vol. viii. of the Asiatic Researches, 1805, and reproduced in the “ Miscellaneous Essays” of that great Indianist. Next to this funda- mental work we must mention the first attempts at an edition of the Rig-Veda by the lamented Fr. Rosen, entitled “ Rigveda Specimen,” 1830; “Rig-Veda Sanhita, liber primus, the more recent publications we take leave to mention, A. Weber, “ Aka- demische Vorlesungen iiber Indische Literaturgeschichte,” 1852, 2d ed. 1876, translated into French by A. Sadons, 1859; into English by J. Mann and Th. Zachariae, 1878; Max Miiller, “ A History of Ancient Sanscrit Literature as far as it illus- INTRODUCTION. xxili ever, which has laid bare for us the first foundations of the edifice, it is now easier for us to ascertain where we are in its mazes, although we are very far from saying that the light of day has at length penetrated into all its compartments, and that we are now able to sketch a plan of it that will be free from lacuna. Anyhow, in undertaking to describe within a limited number of pages this complex whole, it is clear we must resolve at the outset to content ourselves with a summary, and, it may be, disappointingly incomplete sketch. Many significant and characteristic points, the most of the realia, and an immense body of myths and legends, and every- thing which cannot be summarised, we shall have to omit. Of the history of these systems, which have not, however, been the result of mere abstract thinking, but which have grown up in vital relation with the complex and agitated life of every human institution alongside of them, we shall have time to examine only the internal, and, in some de- gree, ideal side—the development of the doctrines and their affiliation. We shall not be able to study them at once as religions and mythologies. We propose, however, to be more minute in what relates to the Vedas, out of regard to their exceptional importance, since the whole religious thought of India already exists in germ in these old books. Only we shall make no attempt to go farther back, or by trates the Primitive Religion of the Brahmans,” 1859, zd ed. 1860. The “TIndische Studien,” which A. Weber edits, and the first volume of which appeared in 1849, are mainly devoted to the investigation of Vedic litera- ture; and the great Sanscrit Dic- tionary of St. Petersburg, edited between the years 1855 and 1878 by A. Bohtlingk and R. Roth (the Vedic portion being due to Roth), has, more than any other work, contributed to the rapid advance- ment of these studies. For the in- formation, in part apocryphal, current in Europe at an earlier date on the Veda, see Max Miller, “ Lectures on the Science of Language,” vol. i. p. 173 8eq.; and a very curious note by A. C. Burnell, in Ind. Antigq., viii. 98. xxiv INTRODUCTION. the help of the comparative methods to trace up to their origin even the Vedic divinities and forms of thinking. Within these limitations the task we propose to ourselves will, we think, prove vast enough, and we feel only too keenly how imperfect our work will in the end be found to be. We by no means flatter ourselves that we have always succeeded in distinguishing the essential points, in disentangling the principal threads, and preserving to every element in our exposition its just proportion and place. All that we can pledge ourselves to do is, that we shall euard ourselves against introducing into it either a too pronounced peculiarity of view or a factitious lucidity and arrangement. THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. I. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. THE RIG-VEDA. General view of Vedic literature.—Its age and successive formation ; priority of the Hymns of the Rig-Veda.—Principal divinities of the Hymns: the World and its objects, Heaven and Earth, the Sun, Moon, and Stars.—Agni and Soma.—Indra, the Maruts, Rudra, Vayu Parjanya.—Brihaspati and Wac.—Varuna.—Aditi and the Adityas.—The Solar divinities: Strya, Savitri, Vishnu, Pashan.— Ushas, the Agvins, Tvashtri, the Ribhus.—Yama, the Pitris and the Future Life.—Abstract personifications and mythical figures. —Ab- sence of a hierarchy and a classification of the Gods.—Way in which the Myths have been treated in the Hymns.—Monotheistic concep- tions: Prajapati, Vigvakarman, Svayambht, &c.—Pantheistic cosmo- gony: Purusha, the primordial substance, no eschatology.—Piety and morality ; co-existence of baser forms of belief and practice, as in part preserved in the Atharva-Veda.—Cultus: speculations regarding sacri- fice and prayer: the rita and the brahman.—Essentially sacerdotal character of this religion. THE most ancient documents we possess connected with the religions of India are the collections of writings called the Vedas. These are sometimes reckoned three in number and sometimes four, according as the reference is to the collections themselves or to the nature of their contents; and of these two modes of reckoning, the second is the more ancient.! One of the oldest divisions of the mantras, 1 Aitar. Br., v. 32,1; Taittir. Br., iii, 10, 11, 5; Catap. Br..v.5, 5; 10. A 2 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. or liturgical texts, is, in fact, that which distributes them into ric, yajus, and sdman,! or, according to a later defini- tion? but one which may be accepted as valid for a period of much greater antiquity,’ into (a) hymns, more strictly verses of invocation and praise, which were chanted with a loud voice: into (0) formule prescribed with reference to the various acts of sacrifice, which were muttered in a low voice: and into (c) chants of a more or less complex structure, and followed by a refrain which was sung in chorus. To possess an accurate knowledge of the rics, the yajus, and the sdimans, was to possess the “ triple science,” the triple Veda. When, on the other hand, there is men- tion of the four Vedas,‘ the reference is to the four collec- tions as they exist at present, viz., the Rig-Veda, which includes the body of the hymns; the Yajur- Veda, in which all the prescribed formule are collected; the Sdma- Veda, which contains the chants (the texts of which are, with a very few exceptions, verses of the Rig-Veda*); and the Atharva- Veda, a collection of hymns like the Rig-Veda, but of which the texts, when they are not common to the two collections, are in part of later date, and must have been employed in the ritual of a different worship. Be- sides those collections of mantras, 7.e., of liturgical and ritualistic texts, called Samhitds, each Veda still con- tains, as a second part, one or more Brdéhmanas, or trea- tises on the ceremonial system, in which, with reference to prescriptions in regard to ritual, there are preserved numerous legends, theological speculations, &c., as well as 1 Atharva-Veda, vii. 54, 2; see Rig-Veda, x. 90, 9; Tait. Samh., i. 2, 3,33 Catap. Br., iv. 6, 7, 1. 2 The official definition is given in the Mimams4-Satras, ii. 1, 35-37, pp. 128, 129, of the edition of the Bibliotheca Indica ; see also Séyana’s Commentary on the Rig- Veda, t. i, p. 23, aud Commentary on the Tait- tirfya Samhita, t.i. p. 28, edition of the Bibliotheca Indica; Piasthana- bheda ap. Ind Stud., i. p. 14. 3 Atharva-Veda, xii. 1, 38; Aitar. Br., v. 32, 3,43; Catap. Br., ii. 3, 3, I 7. 4 Chandog. Up., vii. 1, 2; Ath.- Veda, x. 7, 20; Briladar. Up., ii. 4, 10. 5 Interesting information on the mode of the formation and the cha- racter of these chants will be found in the introduction to A. C. Burnell’s edition of the Arsheyabrahmana, pp. xi., xli. See also Th. Aufrecht, Die Hymnen des Rigveda, 2d ed., Preface, p, xxxviil, THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 3 the first attempts at exegesis. In the most ancient redac- tion of the Yajur-Veda, which is pre-eminently the Veda that bears on ritual, in the Black Yajus, as itis called, these two parts are still mixed up together.t Finally, of each Veda there existed several recensions called Cakhds, or branches, between which there appeared very considerable Of 1 There are for this Veda, as for the others, two collections, the one termed the Samhita and the other the Bréhmana; but they both contain at once liturgical texts and ritualistic. 2 1. Of this literature there have been published, with critical elabora- tions, First, the Rig- Veda— (a.) Sambhité: Rig - Veda-San- hita, together with the commentary of Sayanacharya, edited by Max Miller, 6 vols. in 4to, 1849-74. A reprint without thecommentary, The Hymns of the Rig-Veda in Sanhita and Pada Texts, 1873, Die Hymnen des Rigveda, herausgegeben von Th. Aufrecht, 2 vols. 8vo, 1861-63, form- ing vols. vi., vii., of the Indische Stu- dien, and of which a second edition was issued in 1877. ‘These were trans- lated into French by A. Langlois, 1848-51, reprinted in 1872; into English by H. H. Wilson and E. B. Cowell, 1850-63, reprinted in 1868, and by Max Miiller in 1869 (first vol- ume only); into German by A. Lud- wig, 1876-79, and by H. Grassmann, 1876-77. An edition of the text, with translations into English and Marhatti, The Vedarthayatna by Shankar Pandit, has since 1876 been in the course of publication at Bom- bay. Of an edition of the text be- gun by E. Roer in the Bibliotheca Indica (Calcutta, 1848), and accom- panied with a commentary and a translation into English, there have appeared only four parts, (3.) Brabmana: The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, edited and translated by M. Haug, 2 vols. 8vo, Bombay, 1863. A more cor- rect edition has just been issued by Th. Aufrecht, Das Aitareya Braih- Mana mit Ausziigen aus dem Com- discrepancies at times.? these recensions, in so far as mentare von Sdyandicdrya, Bonn, 1879. The Aitareya Aranyaka, with the commentary of Sdyana Acharya, edited by Rajendralala Mitra, Cal- cutta, 1876 (Biblioth. Indica). The Aranyakas are supplements to the Bradhmanas, 2. The Atharva- Veda. (a.) Samhita: Atharva Veda San- hita, herausgegeben von R, Roth und W. D. Whitney, 1855-56. (2.) Braéhmana: The Gopatha Brabmana of the Atharva-Veda, edited by Rajendralila Mitra and Harachandra Vidydbhushana, Cal- cutta, 1872 (Biblioth. Indica), 3. The Sama-Veda, (a.) Samhitis: Die Hymnen des Sama-Veda, herausgegeben, iibersezt und mit Glossar versehen, von Th. Benfey, 1848. This work has thrown into the shade the prior edition and English translation by J. Stevenson, 1841-43. Sama Veda Sanhita, with the commentary of Sdyana Acharya, edited by Satyavrata Samacramt, Calcutta, 1874 (Biblioth, Indica). This edition, which has reached the fifth volume, comprehends all the liturgical collections of the Sama- Veda, as well as the Gainas, that is to say, the texts in the form of antheins. (2.) Brahmanas: The ‘andya Mahdbrihmana, with the commen- tary of Sayana Acharya, edited by Anandachandra Vedantavagtca, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1870-74 (Biblioth. Indica). The final section of the Shadvimgabrihmana has been pub- lished and commented on by A. Weber, Zwei Vedische Texte iiber Omina und Portenta, in the Me- moirs of the Academy of Rerlin, 1858. Some short Brihmanas of this 4 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. they affect the Samhits, the fundamental collections,a small number only has come down to us; of the Rig-Veda, only one;! of the Atharva-Veda, two;? of the Sama-Veda, three; while of the Yajur-Veda there are five, of which three are of the Black Yajus* and two of the White Yajus® All this united constitutes the (rutz, “ the hear- ing,” ie. the sacred and revealed tradition. If we except a certain quantity of appended matter, which criticism has no difficulty in discriminating from the Veda we owe to A. C. Burnell: The S4mavidhana-Br., London, 1873. The Vamga-Br., Mangalore, 1873. The Devatadhyaya-Br., ibid., 1873. The Arsheya-Br., ibid., 1876. The same with the text of the Jaiminiya school, ibid., 1878. The Sambhito- panishad-Br., ibid., 1877. All these texts, with the exception of the last, are accompanied by the commentary of Sayana. The Vamgabrahmana had been previously published by A. Weber in bis Indische Stu- dien, t. iv. We owe, moreover, to Burnell the discovery of the Jaimi- niya-Br., of which he published a fragment under the title of “A Le- gend from the T'alavakara or Jaim’- niyabrahinana of the Sama Veda,” Mangalore, 1878. 4. The Yajur-Veda. (a.) The White Yajus: The White Yajur-Veda, edited by A. Weber, 3 vols. 4to, 1849-59, compre- ‘hends: (1.) The Samhitd, the Vajasa- neyi-Sanhité in the Madhyandina, ‘and the Kanva-Cakka, with the eommentary of Mahidhara; (2.) The Catapatha Brahmana, with Ex- tracts from the Commentaries; (3.) The Crautasfitras of Katyayana, with Extracts from the Commentaries. (b.) The Black Yajus : Die Tait- tiriya-Samhita, herausgegeben von ‘A, Weber, 1871-72, forming vols. xi. and xii. of the IndischeStudien. he Sanhit&é of the Black Yajur-Veda, with the commentary of Madhava Acharya, Calcutta, 1860. (Biblioth. Tiidica). he publication, which ‘as reached vol. iv., comprehends nearly half of the text; the editors have been successively E. Réer, E. B. Cowell, Mahegacandra Nydyara- tna. The Taittiriya Bralmana of the Black Yajur-Veda, with the commentary of Sdyanicharya, ed- ited by Rajendralaéla Mitra, 3 vols. 8vo, Calcutta, 1859-70 (Biblioth. Indica). The Yaittiriya Aranyaka of the Black Yajur-Veda, with the commentary of Sdyandcharya, ed- ited by Rajendralala Mitra, Calcutta, 1872 (Biblioth. Indica). For the Upanishads, which are arranged in this literature in some few cases rightly, in the majority incorrectly, see infra, 1 That of the Cakalakas. 2 Besides the vulgate, edited by Roth and Whitney, that of the Paip- paladis, discuvered recently at Kash- mir, see R. Roth, Der Atharvaveda in Kaschmir, 1875. 3 Besides the vulgate, which is that of the Kauthumas, those of the Randyaniyas and of the Jaimintyas. Of a fourth, that of the Naigeyas, we have only fragments. See Bur- nell, Riktantravyakarana, p. xxvi. 4 Those of the Taittirlyas (pub- lished), of the K&thas (see A. We- ber’s Indische Studien, iii, 451; Indische Literaturgeschichte, p. 97, 2d edition), of the Maitrayaniyas (see Haug, Brahma und die Brahmanen, 1871, p. 31; A. Weber, Indische Studien, xiii. p. 117; L. Schroeder, Zeitschr. der Deutschen Morgenlind. Gesellsch., xxxiii. p. 177). 5 Those of the Madhyandinas and of the Kanvas (published), THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 5 genuine stock, we have in these writings, as a whole, an, authentic literature, which professes to be what it is, which neither asserts for itself a supernatural origin nor seeks to disguise its age by recourse to the devices of the pastiche. Interpolations and later additions are numerous enough, but these have all been made in good faith. It is nevertheless difficult to fix the age of these books, even in any approxi- mate decree, The most recent portions of the Brahmanas which have come down to us do not appear to go farther back than the fifth century before our era! The rest of the literature of the Veda must be referred to a remoter antiquity, and assigned, in a sequence impossible to deter- mine with any precision, a duration, the first term of which it is absolutely impossible for us to recover. Ina general way, it must be conceded that the mantras are, beyond a doubt, older than the regulations which prescribe the use of them; but we must also admit that the entire body of these books is of more or less simultaneous growth, and conceive of each of them, in the form in which it actually exists, as the last term of a long series, the initial epoch of which must have been obviously the same for all of them. An exception, however, will require to be made as regards the great majority of the hymns of the Rig- Veda. This Samhité is, in fact, composed of several distinct collections, which proceeded, in some cases, from rival families, and belonged to tribes often at war with one another. Now, in the liturgy which we meet with in the most ancient portions of the other books, not only are 1 The two last books of the Aita- réya Aranyaka, for example, are as- cribed by tradition to Caunaka and his disciple Agvalayana. Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, t. i. pp. 42 and 333, Cowell’s edition, Max Miiller’s Ancient Sanskrit Litera- ture, pp. 235-239. Yajiavalkya, who in the Qatapatha Br. belongs already to the past, is not much more ancient. See Westergaard, Ueber den iiltesten -Zeitraum der Indischen Geschichte, p. 77. In the King Ajatagatru of Brihadéranyaka- Up., ii. 1, and of Kaushitaki-Up., iv. 1, some think they recognise the prince of that name who was con- temporary with Buddha, Burnouf, Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 485 ; see, however, Kern, Over de Jaartelling der zuidelijke Buddhisten, p. 119. Several of the short Brahmanas of the Sama-Veda, the Adbhutabrahmana of the Shadvimga, and a great part of the Taittirtya Aranyaka are probably much more modern still, 6 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. these distinctions in regard to origin obliterated, not only is the general body of the Hymns indiscriminately selected from, but this is done without respect to the integrity of the ancient prayers, a couplet being picked out here, a triplet there, and thus a body of invocations formed of a character altogether new. The liturgy of these books, therefore, is no longer the same as that which we meet with in the Hymns, and the transition from the one to the other would seem to imply a very considerable lapse of time. Speaking generally, we may say these books pre- suppose not only the existence of the chants of the Rig- Veda, but that of a collection of these more or less akin to the collection that has come down to us. Attempts have been made to estimate the length of time that would be necessary for the gradual formation of this literature, and the eleventh century before the Chris- tian era has been suggested as the age in which the poetry that produced these hymns must have flourished? But taking into account all the circumstances, we are of opi- nion that this term is too recent, and that the great body of the chants of the Rig-Veda must be referred back to a much earlier period. Contrary to an opinion that is often advanced, we consider also a goodly number of the hymns of the Atharva-Veda to be of a date not much more recent; and some of the formule prescribed in the Yajur-Veda are in all probability quite as ancient. As to the other litur- gical texts, these, when not borrowed from the Hymns or 1We do not intend by this to In a general way, the fact in ques- affirm that in the Rig-Veda, as we tion is indubitable, although in par- find it, we must consider all the parts which compose it as having preserved their original forms intact. So far from that, there are more or less unmistakable traces in many of them of their having been recast or readjusted. On this subject see the translation by Grassmann, and **Siebenzig Lieder des Rigveda,” translated by K. Geldner and A. Kaegi, 1875, a publication executed under the direction of R. Roth. ticular cases the problem is often difficult of resolution. 2? Max Miller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 572; see A. Weber, Indische Literaturgeschichte, p. 2, 2d edition. 3 The existence of a collection of the nature of our Atharva-Veda is involved in such formule as Taittir. Samh., vii. 5, 11, 2, and probably also in Rig-Veda, x. go, 9. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 7 other similar collections no longer extant,! belong to an age more recent, and form with the Brahmanas the secon- dary deposit in the stratification of Vedic literature. The religion which is transmitted to us in these Hymns? is,in its principal features, this: Nature is throughout divine. Everything which is impressive by its sublimity, or is supposed capable of affecting us for good or evil, may become a direct object of adoration. Mountains, rivers, springs, trees, plants, are invoked as so many high powers. The animals which surround man, the horse by which he is borne into battle, the cow which supplies him with nourishment, the dog which keeps watch over his dwelling, the bird which, by its cry, reveals to him his future, toge- ther with that more numerous class of creatures which threaten his existence, receive from him the worship of either homage or deprecation.t There are parts even of the apparatus used in connection with sacrifice which are more than sacred to purposes of religion ; they are regarded as themselves deities.® 1 In all the ritualistic texts, even the most recent, we meet now and again with fragments of liturgy of the same nature and character, soume- times quite as ancient as the Hymns, and which do not occur in the Sam- hités of the Rig- and the Atharva- Veda as known to us. 2 See J. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, vol. iv., 2d ed., 1873, and vol. v., 1870. We refer our readers, once for all, to this exposé as at once the most complete and the most reliable we possess of the Vedic religions. Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Lite- rature, p.525 seg. The sameauthor’s Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Re- ligions of India, 1878, pp. 193 seq., 224 seg., 259 seq. A. Ludwig, Die Philosophischen und Religiésen An- schauungen des Veda in ihrer Ent- wicklung, 1875 ; and Die Mantralit- teratur und das Alte Indien (t. ili. of his translation of the Rig-Veda), 1878, pp. 257-415. A. Bergaigne The very war-chariot, offensive subjects the mystic and religious ideas of the Rig-Veda to a searching analysis in a work still in course of publication, entitled, La Religion Védique d’aprés les Hymnes du Rig- Veda, t. i. (Bibliotheque de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes, fascic. xxxvi.), 1878. * Rig-Veda, vii. 35, 8; viii. 54, 4 x. 35, 25 64, 8; ii. qr, 16- 18 ; iii. 333 vii. 47, 95, 965 vill. 74, 15 5 x. 64,93 753 Vil. 49; 1. 90, 8; vii. 34, 23-253 vi. 49,14; x. 17, 145 97; 145. Atharva-Veda, viii. 7. 4 Rig-Veda, i. 162, 163; iv. 38; i. 164, 26-28 ; iii. §3, 14; iv. 57,4; vi. 28; vili. IOI, 15; x. 19, 169; Atharva-Veda, x. 10; xii. 4; 5 ; Rig- Veda, vii. 55; ii. 42, 43; x. 165; 1. 116, 16; 191, 6; vii. 104, 17-223 Atharva-Veda, viii. 8, 15; 10, 29; ix, 2 22; % 4. 5 Rig- Veda, iii. 8 ; x. 76, 175; and in general the Apri-stiktas; see, moreover, i. 187; i. 28, 5-8; iv. 58; Atharva- Veda, xviii. 4, 5; xix. 32, 8 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. and defensive weapons, the plough, the furrow which has just been traced in the soil, are the objects, not of blessing only, but of prayer India is radically pantheistic, and that from its cradle onwards. Nevertheless it is neither the direct adoration of objects, even the greatest, nor that of the obvious personifications of natural phenomena, which figures most prominently in the Hymns. Thus, Aurora is certainly a great goddess; the poets that praise her can find no colours bright enough or words passionate enough to greet this daughter of heaven, who reveals and dispenses all blessings, ushering in the days of the year and prolonging them to mortals. Her gifts are celebrated and her blessings implored, but her share in the cultus is small in comparison ; it is not, as a rule, to her that the offerings go. Almost as much must be said of the deities Heaven and Earth, although they are still revered as the primitive pair by whom the rest of the gods were begotten. In.the cultus they disappear before the more personal divinities ; while in speculation they are gradually super- seded by more abstract conceptions or by more recondite symbols. Of the stars there is hardly any mention. The moon plays only a subordinate part.2 The sun itself, which figures so prominently in the myth, no longer does, so to the same extent in the religious consciousness, or at most it is worshipped by preference in some of its dupli- cate forms, which possess a more complex personality and have a more abstruse meaning. The two single divinities of the first rank which have preserved their physical char- acter pure and simple are Ayni and Soma. In their case, the visible and tangible objects were too near, and, above all, too sacred, to be in any greater or less degree obscured or outshone by mere personifications. Nevertheless, means g. The Rig-Veda, consecrated to are peculiar to the Atharva- Veda the worship of the great gods, is comparatively meagre in supplying information on these imperfect and, at times, merely metaphorical deifi- cations. On the other hand, more than the half of those portions which are devoted to these lower forms of religion. } Rig-Veda, iii. 53, 17-20; vi. 47, 26-31 ; vi. 75; iv. 57, 4-8. * Rig-Veda, i. 24, 10; 105, 1, 103 x. 64, 33 85, 1-5, 9, 13, 18, 19, 40. ‘THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 9 were at length devised by which what was gross in the merely physical idea of a god Agni and a god Soma might be refined into more spiritual conceptions. They were invested with a subtle and complicated symbolism; they were impregnated, so to speak, with all the mystic virtue of sacrifice; their empire was extended far beyond the world of sense, and they were conceived as cosmic agents and universal principles. Agni, in fact, is not only terrestrial fire, and the fire of the lightning and the sun ;1 his proper native home is the mystic, invisible heaven, the abode of the eternal light and the first principles of all things.? His births are infinite in number, whether as a germ, which is indestructible and ever begotten from itself, he starts into life every day on the altar from a piece of wood, whence he is extracted by friction (the arant), and in which he sleeps like the embryo in the womb ;8 or whether, as son of the floods, he darts with the noise of the thunder from the bosom of the celestial rivers, where the Bhricus (personitications of the lightning) discovered him, and the Agvins begat him with aranis of gold* In point of fact, he is always and every- where the same, since those ancient days when, as the eldest of the gods, he was born in his highest dwelling, on the bosom of the primordial waters, and when the first religious rites and the first sacrifice were brought forth along with him.2 For he is priest by birth in heaven as well as on earth,® and he officiated in that capacity in the abode of Vivasvat’ (heaven or the sun), long before MAtaricvan (another symbol of the lightning) had brought him down to mortals? and before Atharvan and the Angiras, the primitive sacrificers, had installed 1 Rig-Veda, x. 88, 6, 11. x. 46, 2; i. 58, 6; iii, 2, 33 x. 88, 2 Rig-Veda, x. 45, 1; 121,73 vi. 10; 184, 3. 8,2; ix. 113, 7, 8. ® Rig-Veda, i. 24, 2; ili. i. 203 3 Rig-Veda, x. 5, 1; iii, 29; 1. 68, x. 88,8; 121, 7, 8; iv. i. 11-18. 2; x. 79, 4, &c. Being born thus ® Rig-Veda, i, 94, 6; x. II0, II; every day, he is called the youngest 150. of the gods. 7 Rig-Veda, i. 58, 1; 31, 3. 4 Rig-Veda, ii. 35; ili. 15 ii, 4, 2; 8 Rig-Veda, i.93,6; iii.9, 5; vi. 8, 4. # 10 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. him here below as the protector, the guest, and the friend of men! The later legends, in which the birth of the lightning, or the first generation of the sacred fire, is directly represented as a sacrifice, are in this respect only the legitimate development of these old conceptions. As lord and generator of sacrifice, Agni becomes the bearer of all those mystic speculations of which sacrifice is the subject. He begets the gods, organises the world, produces and preserves universal life, and is, in a word, a power in the Vedic cosmogony.? At the same time, as observation, doubtless, contributed to suggest, he is a sort of anima mundi, a subtle principle pervading all nature; it is he who renders the womb of women capable of conception, and makes the plants and all the seeds of the earth spring up and grow.* But at the core of all these high powers ascribed to him, he never ceases for an instant to be the fire, the material flame which consumes the wood on the altar; and of the many hymns which celebrate his praises, there is not one in which this side of his nature is for once forgotten. Soma is in this respect the exact counterpart of Agni. Soma is properly the fermented drinkable juice of a plant so named, which has been extracted from its stalk under pressure after due maceration. The beverage produced is intoxicating,t and it is offered in libation to the gods, especially to Indra, whose strength it intensifies in the battle which that god maintains against the demons. But it is not only on earth that the soma flows; it is pre- sent in the rain which the cloud distils, and it is shed ? Rig-Veda, i. 83, 4, 5571, 2,3;vi. x. 21, 8; 80, 1; 183, 3. In the 15, 17; 16, 13; X. 92, 103 vii. 5,6; Atharva-Veda he is identified with ii. 1,9; 2, 3, 83 4, 3-43 X.7,3391, Kama, Desire, Love; Ath.-Veda, iii, I, 2. He is called himself Angiras, 21,4. In the ritual he bears the sur. the first of the Angiras. names of Patnivat, of Kama, of Put- 2 Rig-Veda, v. 3, 1; x.8,4:i.69,1. ravat: Taitt. Samh., i. 4, 273 ii. 2, See Taitt. Samh., i. 5, 10,2; Rig- 3, 1; ii. 2, 4, 43 see vi. 5, 8, 4. Veda, vi. 7,7; 8,3; x. 156, 4. 4 Rig-Veda, viii. 48, 5, 6; x. 11g, 3 Rig-Veda, iii 3,10; x. 51, 3; i. viii, 2, 12. 66, 8 ; iii. 26, 9; 27,9; viii. 44, 16; THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. i beyond the visible world wherever sacrifice is performed.! This is as much as to say that, like Agni, Soma, besides the existence he assumes on the earth and in the atmos- phere, has a mystic existence? Like Agni, he has many dwelling-places ;? but his supreme residence is in the depths of the third heaven, where Sarya, the daughter of the Sun, passed him through her filter, where the women of Trita, a duplicate, or at any rate a very near relation, of Agni, pounded him under the stone, where Pashan, the god of nourishment, found him. From this spot it was that the falcon, a symbol of the lightning, or Agni him- self, once ravished him out of the hands of the heavenly archer, the Gandharva, his guardian, and brought him to men.> The gods drank of him and became in consequence immortal; men will become so when they in turn shall drink of him with Yama in the abode of the blessed.§ Meanwhile, he gives to them here below vigour and ful- ness of days; he is the ambrosia and the water of youth; it is he who renders the waters fertile, who nourishes the plants, of which he is the king, infusing into them their healing virtues, who quickens the semen of men and animals, and gives inspiration to the poet and fervour to prayer.” He generated the heaven and the earth, Indra and Vishnu. With Agni, with whom he forms a pair in closest union, he kindled the sun and the stars. None the less is he the plant which the acolyte pounds under the stone, and the yellow liquid which trickles into the vat? 1 In the view of the Vedas, sacri- i. 23, 19, 20; ix. 60, 4, 85, 39; 95, fice is offered by the gods as wellas 2; 96,6; 88, 3. by men ; it is universal and eternal. 5 Rig-Veda, ix. 96, 5; 86, 10; 87, * Rig-Veda, i. OI, 43 ix. 36,15. 2; 1. 93, 5. * Rig-Veda, i. 91, 5. 9 A. Kuhn has gone minutely “ Rig-Veda, ix. 32, 2; 38, 23 1, 63 113, 33 1. 23, 13, 14. 5 Rig- -Veda, iv. 26, 6,73 273 13; viii, 82,93 1. 71, 53 ix. Lee 8 Rig-Veda, viii. 48, 3; ix. 113, 7~- IT; viii. 48, 7; 79s 2, 363 i. OI, 6,7. z Rig-Veda, ix. 8, 8; viii. 79, 2, 6; i. QI, 22; x. 97, 22; vi. 47 33 into the ramificatious of the leading myths that refer to Agni and Soma in his Memoir, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Géttercranks, 1859. For the symbolism of which these two gods are the subject, and for all that religion of sacrifice of which they are in some degree the centre, 12 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. In the other divinities the physical character is more effaced. Occasionally it is preserved only in the myth or in a limited number of attributes; and even in that case it is not always easy to determine it with precision. For the religious consciousness they are personal deities ; and in general the greater the deity is the more pronounced and complex is the personality. Jndra, he who of all these is invoked most frequently, is the king of heaven and the national god of the Aryans ;? he gives victory to his people, and is always ready to take in hand the cause of his ser- vants. But it is in heaven, in the atmosphere, that he fights his great battles for the deliverance of the waters, the cows, the spouses of the gods, kept captive by the demons. It is here that, intoxicated with the soma, he strikes down with his thunderbolt Vritra, the coverer, Ahi, the dragon, Cushna, the witherer, and a crowd of other monsters; that he breaks open the brazen strongholds of Cambara, the demon with the club, and the cave of Vala, the concealer of stolen goods ; and that, guided by Sarama, his faithful dog, and roused to fury by the song of the Angiras, he comes to snatch from the cunning Panis what they have pilfered? In these combats, which are now represented as exploits of a remote past, and again as a perennial struggle which is renewed every day, he is some- times assisted by other gods, such as Soma, Agni, his companion Vishnu, or his bodyguards the Maruts.2 But he more frequently fights alone ;* and, indeed, he has no need of assistance from others, so vast is his strength and so certain his victory.6 Once only is he said to have been see especially the work of A. Ber- 108. For the basis of these myths gaigne already cited, La Religion and the expression given to them in Védique d’aprés les Hymnes, and the paper of the same author, Les Figures de Rhétorique dans le Rig- Veda, in Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique de Paris, t. iv. 96. 1 Rig-Veda, i. 51, 8; 130, 8; ii. 11, 183 iv. 26, 2; viii. 92, 32, &. 2 Of the countless passages which refer to these struggles we shall mention only Rig-Veda, i. 32 and x. the other mythologies, see the me- moir of M. Breal, Hercule et Cacus, Etude de Mythologie Comparée, 1863. 3 Rig-Veda, iv. 28, 1; ix. 61, 22; iii. 12,63 i, 22,193; iv. 18, 11; viii. 100, 12; iii. 47, &c. + Rig-Veda, i. 165, 8; vii. 21,63 x. 138, 6, &c. ® Rig-Veda, i, 165, 9, 10. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 13 seized with terror, and that was after the death of Vritra, “ when, like a scared falcon, he fled to the depths of space across and beyond the ninety and nine rivers;”! while even in this flight the later literature, which has preserved the memory of it, sees only an effect of remorse. The fact is, that in India the struggle between the god and the demon is, and will always remain, an unequal one; it will give rise to an infinite number of myths; but this will not, as in Persia, issue in dualism. Indra, then, is pre- eminently a warlike god. Standing erect in his war-chariot, drawn by two fawn-coloured horses, he is in some sort the ideal type of an Aryan chieftain. But that is only one of the sides of his nature. As a god of heaven he is also the dispenser of all good gifts, the author and preserver of all life ;? with the same hand he fills the udder of the cow . with ready-made milk, and holds back the wheels of the sun on the downward slope of the firmament; he traces for the. rivers their courses, and establishes securely without rafters the vault of the sky.* He is of inordinate dimen- sions; there is room for the earth in the hollow of his hand ;° he is sovereign lord and demiurgos.® Around him those divinities are grouped which seem to share in his empire, from the first, his faithful companions the Maruts, probably the bright ones, gods of storm and the lightnings.’?” When their host begins to move, the earth trembles under their deer-yoked chariots and the forests bow their heads on the mountains.® As they pass, men see 1 Rig-Veda, i. 32, 14. 2 Theremorseot the brahmanicide, for the antagonist of Indra has be- comeaBrahman: Mahabhar., v. 228— 569. The basis of this story is, how- ever, of ancient date, Taitt. Samh., ii, 5, 1; ii, 5, 33 see vi. 5, 5, 2. Taitt. Samh., ii. 4, 12, Indra does not kill Vritra, but concludes a com- pact with him. 3 Rig-Veda, iv. 17, 17; vil. 37,3: He is the Maghavan, the muniticent par excellence. * Rig-Veda, i. 61,9; iii. 30, 14; iv. 28, 23 ii. 15, 2, 3. 5 Rig-Veda, i. 100, 15; 173, 63 vi. 30, 13 iii, 30, 5. ® Rig-Veda, ii. 12; i. 101, 5; iv. 19, 2; iii. 46, 2; ii. 15, 25 17, 53 vi. 30, 5; viii. 96, 6. 7 Twelve hymns of the first book addressed to the Maruts form the first volume (all that has appeared) of the translation by Max Miiller. 8 Rig-Veda, v. 60, 2, 33 villi. 20 5s 6; 1. 37, 6, 8. 14 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. the flashing of their arms and hear the sound of their flute-music and songs, with their challenge calls and the cracking of their whips.1 Tumultuous though they are, they are none the less beneficent. They are dispensers of the rains, and from the udder of Pricni, the spotted cow, their mother, they cause her milk to flow in the showers.? From their father, Rudra, they inherit the knowledge of remedies? This last, whose name probably meant “ the reddish one,” before it was interpreted to mean “The Howler,” is, like his sons, a god of storm. In the Hymns, which certainly do not tell us everything here any more than elsewhere, he has nothing of that gloomy aspect under which we find him become so famous afterwards. Although he is armed with the thunderbolt, and is the author of sudden deaths,* he is represented as pre-emi- nently helpful and beneficent. He is the handsomest of the gods, with his fair locks. Like Soma, the most excel- lent remedies are at his disposal, and his special office is that of protector of flocks.6 He isa near relation of Vdyu or Vata, the wind, with whom he is sometimes confounded,® a god of healing like him, and owner of a miraculous cow which yields him the best milk.’ He is also similarly re- lated to Parjanya, the most direct impersonation of the rain-storm, the god with the resounding hymn, who lays the forests low and causes the earth to tremble, who terrifies even the innocent when he smites the euilty, but who also diffuses life, and at whose approach exhausted vege- tation begins to revive. The earth decks herself afresh when he empties his great shower-bottle; he is her husband, and it is through him that plants, animals, and men are capable of reproduction ; and, as may always be 1 Rig-Veda, i. 64, 4; viii. 20, 11; 5 Rig-Veda, ii. 33, 3, 43 1. 43, 43 i, 85, 2, 10; 37, 3, 13- 114, 53 ii, 33, 23 vie 743 1, 435 2 Rig-Veda, i. 37, 10, 11; 38,7, 114, 8; x. 169. ; ee 93, 64, 63 V. 53, 6-10 ; ii. 34, Io. 6 Rig-Veda, x. 169. He is, like 3 Rig-Veda, i. 38,2; ii. 34, 2; him, father of the Maruts: i, 134, Vili. 20, 23-26; ii. 33, 13. 4; 135, 9. - Rig-Veda, ii. 33, 3, 10-14; vii. 7 Rig-Veda, x. 186; i. 134, 4. 46. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 15 predicated of a god of storm, who has at his command both Agni and Soma under the forms of lightning and rain, he has a higher réle and plays a part in the generation of the cosmos.! By one of those peculiarities characteristic of the Vedic religions, nearly all the features which have just been men- tioned as conspicuous in Agni, Soma, and Indra reappear in another divine personage of an origin apparently very dif- ferent, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as he is called, the lord of prayer. Like Agni and Soma, he is born on the altar, and thence rises upwands to the gods; like them, he was begotten in space by heaven and earth: ; like Indra, he wages war with enemies on the earth and demons in the air ;? like all three, he resides in the highest heaven, he generates the gods, and ordains the order of the universe. Under his fiery breath the world was melted and assumed the form it has, like metal in the mould of the founder.? At first sight it would seem that all this is a late product of abstract reflection; and it is probable, in fact, from the very form of the name, that in so far as it is a distinct person, the type is comparatively modern; in any case, it is peculiarly Indian ; but by its elements it is connected with the most ancient conceptions. As there is a power in the flame and the libation, so there is in the formula; and this formula the priest is not the only person to pro- nounce, any more than he is the only one to kindle Agni or shed Soma. There is a prayer in the thunder, and the gods, who know all things, are not ignorant of the power in the sacramental expressions. They possess all-potent spells that have remained hidden from men and are as ancient as the first rites, and it was by these the world was formed at first, and by which it is preserved up to the present.‘ It is this omnipresent power of prayer which 1 Rig-Veda, v. 833 vii. 101; ix. * Rig-Veda, iv. 50, 4; ii. 26, 35 82, 33 113, 3. 24, 53 1v. 50, i3 x 72, 2. > Rig-Veda, ii, 24, 115 vil. 97,8; 4 Rig-Veda, i. 164, 453 vill. 100, 10, ii, 23, 3, 183 ii, 24, 2-43 x. 68. II; X. 71, 13 177, 25 114, 1; Ul. 23, 17; 16 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. Brahmanaspati personifies, and it is not without reason that heis sometimes confounded with Agni, and especially with Indra. In reality each separate god and the priest him- self! become Brahmanaspati at the moment when they pronounce the mantras which give them power over the things of heaven and of earth. The same idea, in a more abstract form, comes out in Vac, the sacred speech, which is represented as an infinite power, as superior to the gods, and as generative of all that exists.” If we combine into one all the attributes of sovereign power and majesty which we find in the other gods, we will have the god Varuna’ As is implied in the name, which is the same as the Greek Ovpaves, Varuna is the god of the vast luminous heavens, viewed as embracing all things, and as the primary source of all life and every blessing.* Indra, too, is a god of the heavens, and these two personalities do, in fact, coincide in many respects, There is, however, this difference between them, that Indra has, above all, appropriated the active, and, so to speak, militant life of heaven, while Varuna represents rather its serene, immutable majesty. Nothing equals the magni- ficent terms in which the Hymns describe him. The sun is lis eye, the sky is his garment, and the storm is his breath.6 It is he who keeps the heavens and the earth apart, and has established them on foundations that cannot be shaken; who has placed the stars in the firmament, who has given feet to the sun, and who has traced for the x. II, 43 90. 9. Prayer isthe weapon of Bribaspati, ii. 24, 3, &c. ; it is also that of the Angiras. The brahman, the effective word, is devakrita, the work of the gods, vii. 97, 3; compare the bellowing of Agni, of Varuna, of the celestial bull, the song of Par- janya and that of the Maruts. 1 Rig- Veda, iv. 50, 7. 2 Rig-Veda, x. 125. 3'The myth of Varuna and the whole of the conceptions which are connected with it are the subject of a study, as profound as brilliant, in the work of J. Darmesteter, Ormazd et Abriman, leurs Origines et leur Histoire, 1877. See also the interesting monograph by In another circle of ideas, a character quite similar is at times ascribed to the Waters, which are not only the divers manifestations of the liquid element, such as springs, rivers, rains, clouds, 1 Rig-Veda, iii. 59. Hillebrandt, Ueber die Goéttin Aditi, 2 Rig-Veda, x. 72, 8,9. Hence 1876. his name of Martanda. 4 Rig-Veda, vii. 85, 43 viii. 52, 3 See Max Miiller, ‘I'ranslation of 7; x. 88, 11 (dditeya). the Rig-Veda, pp. 230-251, aud A. > Rig-Veda, i. 89, 10. 20 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. libations, but are also conceived of as the primitive medium in the womb of which is fashioned everything that exists.t The transition from the Adityas deities to the solar deities is, as we have just seen, an imperceptible one. Of the latter, the most important are Surya, the sun, con- ceived directly as a divine being; he keeps his eye on men and reports their failings before Mitra and Varuna ;? Savitri, the quickener, who, as he raises his long arms of gold, rouses all beings from their slumber in the morn- ing and buries them in sleep again in the evening ;* Vishnu, the active, who is destined at a later period to such honour, the comrade of Indra, who paces along with long strides, and in three steps traverses the celestial spaces ;* and Pishan, the nourisher, who with his golden goad traces the track of the furrow, the good shepherd who loses not a single head of his cattle. He knows all roads, and these he is incessantly traversing on a chariot yoked with goats; he is the guide of men and of herds of cattle in their peregrinations, as he also is of the dead along the paths which lead to the abode of the blessed.® We need not insist on the qualities of clear-sightedness, sagacity, and ordaining power naturally common to all these deities in their character as beings related to the light and the sun. It will be observed, however, that they are conceived of, and especially treated, in a very personal manner, and in a way to suggest only very indirectly the luminary they represent, from which they are at times expressly distinguished ;® and that, in fine, they express only the beneficent aspects of it. The harmful sun, the destroyer and devourer,—he, for example, whose wheel 1 Compare such passages as Rig- 8 See Rig-Veda, where, x. 149, 3, Veda, vii. 47; 49 with x. 82, 5, 6; 109, 13 121, 7, 83 129, 1-33 190, 1. » Rig- Veda,i. 50; 115; vii. 62, 2, &c. ® Rig-Veda, ii. 38, &c. 4 Rig-Veda, i. 22, 16-21 ; 154. 5 Rig- Veda, i. 42; vi.533 iv.57,73 xX. 17, 3-6. the sun is called the bird of Savitri ; i. 35, 9, Savitri guides the sun; v. 47, 3, the sun is called a brilliant stone set in the sky ; vii. 87, 5, it is the golden swing fabricated by Varuna. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 21 Indra breaks in pieces,!1—has given rise to myths, but he does not become a god as in the Semitic religions. Ushas naturally takes rank next the sun; she is the Aurora, and the most graceful creation of the Hymns, a bright and airy figure that hovers on the uncertain border- land of poetry and religion, so transparent is the personi- fication, and so uncertain are we whether it is to the object evoked that the poet addresses himself, or whether it is not rather God whom he adores in his works.2 The case is quite different with regard to the two Agvins, the horse- men. It is not easy to explain either the reason of their name or their physical meaning. It is obvious that they are deities of the morning: they are the sons of the Sun and the betrothed of Aurora. On their three-wheeled chariot they make the circuit of the world every day; their whip distils the honey of the dew; it was they who revealed to the gods the place where the soma was hidden ; and one part at least of the myths, in which they are always found succouring a person in distress, seems to be naturally explained by the deliverance, that is to say, the rising, of the sun out of darkness. But neither does all this, any more than the comparison which has been drawn between them and the Dioscuri, render their origin much clearer. Nevertheless they rank among the divinities that are often invoked; they are dispensers of benefits, are possessed of invaluable remedies, and preside at gene- ration. By this last function they are allied to their maternal grandfather, Tvashtri, the fashioner, who fabri- cated the thunderbolt of Indra and the cup of sacrifice, and whose special office it is to form the fcetus in the womb, one of the most curious characters in the Vedic 1 Rig-Veda, iv. 28, 2, &e. 2 Nothing more charming than these hymns to Aurora is to be found in the descriptive lyrical poetry of any other people. Rig- Veda, i. 48, 113, 123, 1243 iii. 61; vi. 645; vil. 77, 78. * Rig-Veda, i. 34, 10; iii. 39, 3; vill. 9, 17; 1. 118, 53 iv. 43, 6; i 157; 3143 V- 76, 35 i. 116, 125 119, 9. See A. Weber, Ind. Stud., v. 234; L. Myriantheus, Die Acvins oder arischen Dioskuren, 1876. 5 Rig-Veda, i, 34, 3-6; 157,53 %- 184, 2, 3; Ath.- Veda, ii. 30, 2. See Yaitt. Samh., ii. 3, 11, 2. > Rig-Veda, i. 32, 2; 20, 6; 188, 9; x. 10,.5; 184, 1; ‘Taitt. Samb., i, 5: 9, 4, 2. 22 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. Pantheon, in a mythological point of view, but of slender. account in a religious one. He has close affinities with Agni, of whom he is at times the father. He has other children besides: Saranyu, the hurrying cloud, who has connection with Vivasvat, the sun, and Vigvardpa, the many-fashioned, a monster with three heads, who is likewise a personification of the storm, and who expires under the blows of Indra.2 He himself maintains a struggle with Indra, who ventures into his dwelling to ravish from him the soma. He is at once creator and evil-doer,? and the only power really invoked who par- takes as much of the demon as of the god. As workman of the gods, he has the Ribhus as rivals, a set of genii, ordinarily three in number, who by their works attained to immortality. They are distinguished for having divided into four the one cup of sacrifice which Tvashtri had fashioned Here again what is nothing more than a myth has sometimes been taken for history; for we hear of the religious reform wrought by the Ribhus, and of their admission among the gods.? Notwithstanding their vague and hardly intelligible nature, they are fre- quently invoked, and they partake daily of the evening offering. The solar myths naturally lead us to those which are connected with the life beyond the grave; for in India, as elsewhere, it is a.solar hero who rules over the dead. Yama is, in fact, a son of Vivasvat, the sun.6 He might have lived as an immortal, but he chose to die, or rather he incurred the penalty of death, for under this choice a fall is disguised.? He was the first to traverse the road from which there is no return, tracing it for future gene- rations. It is there, at the remotest extremities of the heavens, the abode of light and the eternal waters, that he 1 Rig-Veda, i. 95; 2; x. 2, 7. > See Fr. Néve, Essai sur le mythe ? Rig-Veda, x. 17, 12; 8, 8, 9. des Ribhavas, premier vestige de 3 Rig-Veda, iii. 48, 4; iv. 18,3; l’apothéose dans le Véda, 1847. X. 110,93 ix. §, 93 ii. 23, 17. ® Rig-Veda, x. 14, 15 17, 1. * Rig-Veda, iv. 35, 8; i. 20, 6. ? Rig-Veda, a. 13, 4. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 23 reigns henceforward in. peace and in union with Varuna. There by the sound of his flute, under the branches of the mythic tree, he assembles around him the dead who have lived nobly. They reach him in a crowd, conveyed by Agni, guided by Pfshan, and grimly scanned as they pass by the two monstrous dogs who are the guardians of the road. Clothed in “a glorious body, and made to drink of the celestial soma, which renders them immortal, they enjoy henceforward by his side an endless felicity, seated at the same tables with the vods, gods themselves, and adored here below under the name of Pétris, or fathers. At their head are, of course, the first sacrificers, the minstrels of other days, Atharvan, the Angiras, the Kavyas, the Pitris by pre-eminence, equal to the greatest of the gods, who by their sacrifice delivered the world from chaos, gave birth to the sun, and kindled the stars.) It is not impro- bable there were some who thought it was they whom they saw sparkling at night in the constellations ; for India, too, was aware of the old myth which conceives of the stars as the souls of the dead? These, however, are very far from being the only representations that were given of the future life. As it was not always the custom to burn the dead, we find them conceived of as resting in the earth like a child on the lap of its mother, and dwelling for ever in the tomb, called in consequence “the narrow house of clay.” It was imagined, too, that when the body was ou the eve of dissolution and returning to its elements, the soul went to tenant the waters or the plants.* This last conception, in which there is a sort of first rude idea of the theory of metempsychosis, occurs only in an exceptional 1 Rig-Veda, ix. 113, 7-11; x. Agastya (Canopus) are of ancient 135: 1543 143 15; 16, 1, 2; 17. date: Rig-Veda, x. 82, 2; Catap. Compare Atharva-Veda, iv. 34, 2; Br. ii 1, 2, 4; Taitt. Ar, 1 11, Rig- Veda, i. 125,53; 154,53 x.56, I, 2; see besides Mahabhar., iii 4-6; 68, 11; 107, 1. 1745-1752. 2 Rig-Veda, i. 125, 6; x. 107, 2; 3 Rig-Veda, x. 18, 10-13; vii see Taitt. Br.,i.5, 2,5. The myths 89, 1. that relate to the seven Rishis (the * Rig-Veda, x. 53; 16, 3. stars of the Great Bear) and to 24 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. way in the hymns of the Rig-Veda. This notion seems to belong to religious beliefs of a lower type, which this collection despises, and the existence of which we shall have occasion to refer to after. Anyhow, the simple fact that the practice of incineration had become general presupposes a highly spiritualistic idea of death. The Hymns are much less communicative in regard to the des- tiny in store for the wicked. They either perish or go under the earth into deep and dismal pits, into which are cast along with them the demons, the spirits of decep- tion and destruction! The Atharva-Veda is cognisant of an infernal world,? but there is no description of hell, and we learn nothing of its torments.’ This very imperfect glance at the myths connected with the principal divinities will perhaps be enough to show out of what elements India has collected the objects of its worship. We shall not perform the same task for the other figures of the Pantheon. Not only would the mere enumeration of these be too tedious, since every object in the visible creation, as well as every idea of the mind, is capable of elevation to the rank of gods; they belong rather to the history of the myths than to that of religion. They are either abstract personifications, often very ancient indeed, such as Purandhi, abundance, Aramati, piety, Asuniti, blessedness, Mrityu, death, Zanyu, wrath (these two last being masculine) ; or deified ol jects, such as Sarasvati and Sindhu, which are at once rivers and goddesses; or mere symbols, such as the different forms of the solar bird or the courser of the sun; or, in fine, ancient represen- tations which have scarcely emerged from the penumbra of the myth, such as the Gandharva, Ahi Budhnya, the dragon of the abyss, Aja Ekapdd, the one-footed bounder _ 1 Rig-Veda, iv. 5, 55 vil. 104, 3; on the future life, all chap. xv. of ix. 73, 8. is that excellent work. According to 2 Atharva-Veda, xii. 4, 36. Benfey, Hermes, Minos, Tartaros, 3 See, however, Atharva-Veda, vy. in the Memoirs of the Roy. Society 19, 3, 12-14, cited by M. H. Zim- of Géttingen for 1877, the concep- mer, Altindisches Leben, p. 420; tions of Tartarus and the Inferi are and, in general, for the Velic ideas Indo-European. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 25 or goat, Gung, Sinivdli, Rakd, goddesses who preside at procreation and birth, and who were early identified with the phases of the moon,—all indistinct figures, which are still invoked because their names occur in the old formule, though they no longer mean anything of any account for the religious sentiment. Expressions indicative of the gods in general also became at length proper names of certain classes of divine beings, such as the Vigvedevas, properly “all the gods,” and the Vasus, the bright ones, of whom Indra or Agni is the chief. We shall have a better opportunity hereafter of considering a few of the more essential conceptions. Among this crowd of deities,—of which there is often mention of thirty-three, or three times eleven,? once of three thousand three hundred and thirty-nine;* in the Atharva-Veda this last number is still further increased, the Gandharvas alone amounting to six thousand three hundred and thirty-three,t—there are some which cut a greater figure than the rest, but there is, properly speaking, no hierarchy. There is an interminable variety of ranks, and a confusing interchange of characters. This, to a certain extent, is a feature common to every religion depending directly on the myth. Myths are, in fact, formed independently of one another; they regard the same object in different aspects, and among different objects they seize the same relations. As they radiate from divers centres, they mutually interpenetrate each other and issue of course in a certain syncretism. If Greece, for example, had transmitted to us her ancient liturgies, we would, we may be sure, have found in them a very different state of things from the beautiful order which has been introduced by the light and profane hand of the muse on the classic Olympus. But in the Hymns 1 We know that the most general 2 Rig-Veda, i. 45, 23 139, 11. name for the deity, deva, to which There are 35: Rig-Veda, x. 55, 3. the Latin deus corresponds, signifies 3 Rig-Veda, iii. 9, 9. properly bright-shining or lumi- 4 Atharva-Veda, xi. 5, 2. nous. 26 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. there is more than a simple want of classification. Not only “are there,” as is somewhere remarked,’ among these gods, who rule one another and are begotten from one another, “neither great nor small, neither old nor young, all being equally great,” but the supreme sovereignty belongs to several, and we find at one time absolute supremacy, at another the most express subordination assigned to the same god. Indra and all the gods are subject to Varuna, and Varuna and all the gods are subject to Indra. There are kindred assertions made of Agni, Soma, Vishnu, Sirya, Savitri, &c.2 It is somewhat difficult to arrive at an accurate conception of the mode of thought and feel- ing which these contradictions imply. They are no mere exaggerated expressions uttered in the fervour of prayer, for these would not have been collected and preserved in such numbers ; neither does it seem possible to refer them to differences of epoch or diversities of worship. They form, in truth, one of the fundamental traits of the Vedic theology. As soon as a new god is evoked, all the rest suffer eclipse before him; he attracts every attribute to himself; he is the God; and the notion, at one time monotheistic, at another pantheistic, which is found in the latent state at the basis of every form of polytheism, comes in this way, like a sort of movable quantity, to be ascribed indiscriminately to the different personalities furnished by the myth. Another process by which this vague sense of the want of unity is relieved is by identifying one god with several others. There is, perhaps, not a single figure of note which has not given occasion to some such fusion. It is thus that Indra is in turn identified with Brihaspati, Agni, and Varuna; that Agni is said to be Varuna, Mitra, Arya- man, Rudra, Vishnu, Savitri, Pishan.2 There is none, up to the formula so frequent in the Brahmanas, “ Agni is all the gods,” which we do not meet with already in the 1 Rig Vode, viii. 30, 1. The con- iii. 9,95 ix. 96, 53 102, 5; i. 156, arabe this is said Rig-Veda, i. 27, 43 viii. lor, 12; ii, 38, 9. : s See a selection of passages in * Rig-Veda, vy. 69, 4; i. rot, 3; Muir's Sanskrit Texts, t. v. p. 219. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 27 Hymns.! Doubtless this superior insight into the divine nature is not to be met with to the same extent in all the Vedic poets; with many of them, all that is said to their gods amounts to this, “Here is butter; give us cows;” but it exists in many of them, and not a few had the power of expressing it in language that we cannot but admire. Thus the myth here is no more than a subordinate element, the mere substratum fora higher reality. It tends to return to what it originally was—a mere symbol. Its most definite features lose their sharpness, or continue to survive only in isolated allusions and ready-made phrases. In a developed and concrete form it becomes embarrassing, whether when it offers a conception of the gods which looks mean, ¢ross, or even loathsome, or when it simply represents them in an aspect too human, too epic, and in a sense too familiar for the religious consciousness, now grown more exacting. The authors of the Hymns have thus discarded, or at least left in the shade, a great number of legends which existed previously, those, for example, which re- ferred to the identification of Soma with the moon,? what was fabled of the families of the gods, of the birth of Indra, of his parricide, &c.8 In this way a long list could be drawn up of what might be called the reticences of the Veda, In this connection it is particularly interesting to see how they have treated the myths which relate the manifold intermarrying that forms the basis of all mytho- logies, the union of a male divinity with a female being, conceived almost always as irregular, and very often in- cestuous. This union lies no less at the basis of a great number of representations in the Veda. All the gods there are conceived as begetters of offspring, males or 1 With a slight variation, Rig- 2-5. It isalse as lunar god that he Veda. v. 3, I. is the husband of Sarya, the daugh- * The myth which places the am- ter of Savitri, the sun conceived as a brosia in the moon appears to be feminine deity, ib. 9, and that he Indo-European. Soma is identified presides over menstruation, ib. 41.. with the moon, Rig-Veda, x. 85, % Rig-Veda, iv. 18. 28 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. bulls; they are lovers of the Waters, the Mothers, the Gnds (genetrices), of the Apsaras, the Undine class, of Apyd Yosht, the wife of the waters, who is capricious and wanton, and they are at once their sons and husbands. It would, however, be difficult to extract from the Hymns a chapter on the amours of the gods. With very few exceptions, everything is resolved into brief rapid hints, isolated features, or mere symbols. With the exception of Aurora, the goddesses here have only a featureless physiognomy, and the most conspicuous gods are hardly alluded to in these stories. Once only is Indrani, the wife of Indra, the unchaste Venus ;? once only is there mention made of the relations of Varuna with the Apsaras,? of whom, however, he is, agreeably to his origin, the true lover. In this capacity he gives place to the Gandharva, a being purely mythical.§ In this there certainly appears a touch of moral delicacy, which it would be unjust not to acknowledge. In the dialogue between Yama and his sister Yami,‘ for instance, the attempted incest is spurned, and yet it is almost certain that originally Yama yielded to the temptation. But when we consider how crude often the language of the Hymns is, we feel justified in affirming that this scruple was not the only one which induced the Vedic minstrels to pass hurriedly over these myths, and that in this matter we must also take into account their aversion to speak of the gods in too definite terms. Sometimes it seems, indeed, that this was the subject which chiefly occupied them; and it is not without a certain annoyance that we see them often striving to render themselves unintel- ligible, and in a manner to bury their ideas under a confu- sion of incongruous identifications. In this respect India already appears in the Veda what she has ever since continued to be. In the very first words she utters, we find her aspiring after the vague and the inysterious. It .) Rig-Veda, x. 86, 6. And the 3 Rig-Veda, x. 10,43 11, 23 123, passage, besides, is interpolated. 5 * Rig-Veda, vii. 33, 11. * Rig-Veda, x. 10, ! THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 29 would be unjust not to recognise often in this aspiration her very keen sense of the obscurity which hides from us the inner nature of things, and an anxious effort at times to penetrate that obscurity. There are many of those old songs in which, under confusion of thought and imagery, we think we still discern the trouble of a deeply affected soul both seeking truth and lost in adoration. But neither can we disguise from ourselves the fact that in this search for the obscure there is very frequently only affectation and indolence, and that already in the Veda, Hindu thought is profoundly tainted with the malady, of which it will never be able to get rid, of affecting a greater air of mystery the less there is to conceal, of making a parade of symbols which at bottom signify nothing, and of playing with enigmas which are not worth the trouble of trying to unriddle. If now we try to sum up the theology of these books, we shall find that it hovers between two extremes; on the one side, polytheism pure and simple; on the other side, a species of monotheism, with several titularies, the central figure of which is, if I may say so, always changing places with another. Obviously the specula- tive spirit of the Vedic poets could not rest here; it was necessary for them to fix this floating idea, and in order to this very little remained for them to do. For a long while they had recognised it vaguely in the persons of Indra, of Agni, of Brihaspati, of Savitri, and they had had the splendid vision of it in Varuna. Instead of attaching it in turn to personalities intimately mixed up with the myth and the public cultus, and which in consequence were incapable of resolution, all they required to do was to trans- fer it to names more abstract, in order to realise as much of the personal monotheistic idea as India was ever to be able to receive. In this way arose Prajdpati, the lord of creatures, Vievakarman, the fabricator of the uni- 1 Rig-Veda, x. 121, 10, 30 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. verse! the Great Asura, the great spirit,? Svayambnd, the self-existent being (Atharva-Veda)> Parameshthin, he who occupies the summit (ibid.),* all so many names of the God of the gods. At the same time the panthe- istic solution was arrived at in another way, by specula- tion, namely, on the origin of things. Varuna and his peers had made the world, that is to say, had organised it. But whence did they obtain the materials to fashion it?5 To this question there was one reply, which must be very old, since it is Indo-European: The world was fashioned from the body of a primitive being, a giant, Purusha, dismembered by the gods. Evidently this reply could not yield a satisfaction that would last; for whence came this Purusha, these gods themselves? and what was there before they were born? Here we ought to quote entire the celebrated hymn in which the self-existent substance, superior to every category and every antinomy, is affirmed as the first term of existence, with a depth of thought and an elevation of language which no school has ever sur- passed.? In it arose Kdma, desire, and that was the first starting-point in the subsequent evolution of being. In this conception, the personal God, or, as we find him after- wards called, Ka, Who? is one of the terms, at times, in- deed, the first term, in the evolution of the absolute, or Za, This. It was Hiranyagarbha, “the golden embryo,” ® who was the primary form, But already analysis shows a ten- dency to intercalate between him and the ultimate notion a certain number of principles or hypostatical beings, such as the Waters, Heat, Order, Truth, Desire, Time.® These two last especially became, in the Atharva- Veda, the centre of a vast system of symbols.!°“—When we consider these 1 Rig-Veda, x. 81; 82. ® Rig-Veda, x. 190; 82, 5; 129, ® Rig-Veda, x. 177, 15 V. 63,3, 7 31 4 3 Atharva-Veda, x. 8, 43, 44. 10 Atharva-Veda, ix. 2; xix. 53, 54. * Atharva-Veda,x. 7,17; xix.53,9. For these personitications and other 5 Rig-Veda, x. 81, 2, 4. similar ones see the rich collection of § Rig-Veda, x. go. passages in Muir’s Sanskrit Texts, 7 Rig-Veda, x. 129. t. Vv. p. 3§0 seg. § Rig-Veda, x. 121. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 3a speculations on the one hand, and the final doctrines of Persia and Scandinavia on the other, which are at once so definitively fixed and so much in harmony, the absence of everything like an eschatology is something surprisine. These men, who meditated so much on the origin of things, appear never to have asked themselves whether they would come to an end, or how; and the Veda says nothing of the last times. We should like to have some data in regard to the chron- ology of all these speculations, but on this point every- thing turns out to be extremely uncertain. From the fact that they are logically afterthoughts, and that, in the formu- lated state, they are almost all to be met with in one book of the Rig-Veda, which is unlike the rest, viz., the tenth, we conclude in a general way that they belone to the last epoch of Vedic poetry. This assumption may be cor- rect, although we are not so satisfied in regard to it as people usually seem to be. The only proofs we have of a positive nature, those deducible from the language, are few and far between ; and moreover it is precisely in the case in which the evidence of recency of composition is most complete, in that, viz., of the hymn to Purusha, that we find ourselves face to face with ideas of extreme antiquity. One point, however, may be reckoned certain: these more elevated conceptions have not directly done any injustice to the ancient divinities. Long after the epoch in which the most recent hymns. were composed, Agni was still always the guest and brother of men, Indra the god whom they invoked in battle, and Varuna the executor of justice, whose fetters they dreaded ; and if ever these figures fade away by degrees from the consciousness, it will not be in the presence of Prajapati. The co-existence of things which seem to us to contradict and exclude each other is exactly the history of India, and that radical formula which occurs even in the Hymns, that “ the gods are only a single being under different names,’? is one of those which is oftenest 1 Rig-Veda, i. 164, 46; compare viii, 58, 2, 32 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. on her lips, and which yet, up to the present time, she has never succeeded in rightly believing. Before quitting the Hymns, the only matter that remains for examination is the doctrine they teach us in regard to human duty, how they conceive of morality and piety, what sort of cultus they presuppose, and what ideas they attach to the observances of this cultus. The connection between man and the gods is conceived in the Hymns as a very close one. Always and everywhere he feels that he is in their hands, and that all his movements are under their eye. They are masters close at hand, who exact tasks of him, and to whom he owes constant homage. He must be humble, for he is weak and they are strong; he must be sincere towards them, for they cannot be deceived. Nay, he knows that they in turn do not deceive, and that they have a right to require his affection and confidence as a friend, a brother, a father. Without faith (¢raddhd), offerings and prayers are vain! These are so many strict obligations due to the gods, on which the Hymns insist in a great variety of passages. They are less explicit, on the other hand, in regard to the duties which man owes to his fellows. In one passage, they praise acts of kind- ness towards all who are in suffering or in want;? in others, sorcery and witchcraft, seduction and adultery, are denounced as criminal;? and the last book contains a prayer with an exhortation to concord.*- But in general it is only indirectly that we are able to estimate this part of their moral system. We must judge of it by the conception which they form of the gods, and, viewed in this connection, it will appear to bear the impress of unmistakable eleva- tion of sentiment. We are not particularly told in what those dharmans, those vratas, or decrees of the gods, exactly consist, which they have established for the maintenance 1 Rig-Veda, i. 104, 6; 108, 6; ii. 3 Rig-Veda, vii. 104, 8 seg. ; iv. 5, 5. 26, 3; X. 151. Indra and Agni in 4 Rig-Veila, x. 1913; see x. 71, 0, articular are often called father, for the curse upon the unfaithful rother, and friend. friend, * Rig-Veda, x. 117. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 34 of satya and rita, truth and order. But how could it be permitted to men to be bad when the gods are good, to be unjust while they are just, and to be deceitful when they never deceive? Itis certainly a remarkable feature of the Hymns that they acknowledge no wicked divinities, and no mean and harmful practices. An enemy, indeed, is con- signed in them to the divine wrath, butit is with the simple- hearted conviction that this enemy is impious. The few fragments of a different nature which have slipped into the collection) serve only to throw into greater relief this fea- ture of the grand Vedic religions. They testify, in fact, that alongside of these there existed others of less purity, which the proud tradition of certain sacerdotal families managed for long to consign to oblivion. Banished by the Kanvas, the Bharadvajas, the Vasishthas, the Kugikas, and others, from theirfamily cultus and that which they celebrated in honour of their kings and chieftains, these religious beliefs con- tinued to subsist in the form of superstitions, and were finally collected in the Atharva-Veda, Some, it is true, are fain to see in them so many corruptions due to a later age. We do not deny that the collection of the Atharva-Veda does in fact contain a great number of passages of recent date, but there is much also of which the language does not differ from that of the Rig-Veda; and it involves in our opinion a mistaken judgment of human nature to be unwilling to admit that dissimilar conceptions may sub- sist together. It is a clear mistake, especially in regard to the mental state of a people with naturalistic reli- gious beliefs, to conceive it possible there should have been an epoch in which it knew nothing of philtres, or incantations, or sorceries, or obscene practices, in which the mind would not be haunted with the fear of malignant spirits, and would not seek, by direct acts of worship, either to appease them or to turn their anger against an enemy. Now, a religion which, like that of the Rig-Veda, sees alongside of it practices like these and 1 For example, Rig-Veda, x. 145, 159. 34 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. refuses to adopt them, is a moral religion. We must acknow- ledge, then, that the Hymns give evidence of an exalted and comprehensive morality, and that in striving to be “without reproach before Aditi and the Adityas,”! the Vedic minstrels feel the weight of other duties besides those of multiplying offerings to the gods and the punctili- ous observance of religious ritual, although we must admit also that the observation of these is with them a matter of capital importance, and that their religion is pre-eminently ritualistic. The pious man is by distinction he who makes the soma flowin abundance, and whose hands are alwaysfull of butter ; while the reprobate man is he who is penurious towards the gods, the worship of whom is man’s first duty.? This worship resolves itself into two sets of acts—obla- tion and prayer. There is as yet no mention either of the devout rehearsal of sacred texts? or of vows properly so called, neither of ascetic practices, although the word iapas, which is properly heat, is already employed in some passages in the special sense of mortification,’ this sense having become a common one in the Atharva-Veda; and we hear of the Muni, the ecstatic enthusiast, who lets his hair grow and goes quite naked or barely clad in rags of reddish colour (which, by the way, at a later date is the favourite colour with ascetics and also the Buddhist monks). He is considered to hold intimate communion with the gods, and there is a hymn in which the sun is celebrated under the form of a Muni But the true service of the gods is sacrifice accompanied with invocations. These invocations we still possess in part; the great majority of the Hymns are nothing else, and we have already stated in what respect the liturgy we find in them differs from that which was adopted at a later period, and which remains in use to this day. As for the sacrifice itself, we know few particulars 1 Rig-Veda, i. 24, 15. mule and solemnia verba: Rig- ? Rig-Veda, viii. 31. Veda, i. 164, 39; x. 114, 8; vil. * Onthe contrary, a great valueis 101, 13; ix. 33, 33; 50,2; &c. attached to the ‘‘novelty” of ‘the + Rig-Veda, x. 154, 2; 169, 2. Hymns. There were, however, for- * Rig-Veda, viii. 17, 14; x. 136. THE VEDIC RELIGIONS. 35 of the manner in which it was celebrated. Probably the ceremonial was much akin to that of the succeeding age, for a certain number of the observances prescribed in the books of ritual, and these at times very precise, appear to be Indo-Iranian. Of these there were great varieties, from the simple offering up to the great religious festivals. These last were very complicated observances; they re- quired immense preparations and a numerous array of priests, singers, and officers at their celebration. The offerings were thrown into the fire, which bore them to heaven, to the gods. They consisted of melted butter, curdled milk, rice, soups, and cakes, and soma mixed with water or milk. This last kind of offering the gods, Indra in particular, were reputed to come and drink from a vat placed on a litter of grass before the fire. In the case of libations at least, the act of oblation was repeated thrice a day, at the three savanas of the morning, mid-day, and evening. Victims were also sacrificed, notably the horse, the sacrifice of which, the Agvamedha, is described at length; The offering of the horse was preceded by that of a goat sacrificed to Pishan. 2 As a rule all distinction of caste ceases within the borders of the Pu- rushottamakshetra. Compare Maha- bharata, iii. 8026, in which all castes become Brahmans whenever they have crossed the Gomati on a visit to the hermitage of Vacishtha. 286 TIIE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. of Jagannath, while two others, the washermen and the potters, may enter, but not farther than the first court. Like the ancient religion, Hinduism, then, has its ex- communicated races; but alongside of those who are thus repudiated by it there are some which repudiate it in their turn—we mean the tribes in a more or less wild state, which represent, the majority of them at least, the first tenants of the soil before the arrival of the Aryans. In Hindustan and the north of the Dekhan the great body of these tribes has become indistinguishably blended with the victorious race. In the South they have also adopted the Aryan culture and religion, preserving, how- ever, their languages, which are different forms of the Dravidian, radically distinct from the Sanskrit. It is a question which is not yet ripe for solution, how far they in turn have been able to infect their conquerors with their own ideas and customs. It is probable, however, that some at least of the goddesses of the Hindu religions which sanction the sacrifice of blood are of Dravidian origin. But this is an assimilation which has not taken place everywhere. All along the northern and eastern frontier, in the centre among the Vindhya mountains, and over the least hospitable portions of the tableland of the Dekhan; farther to the south, in the recesses of the Ghats, and in the Nilgherries, we meet with tribes connected, those of the north and centre with Tibetan or trans- gangetic races, and those of the centre and south with the Dravidian races, who have remained more or less pure, and have preserved their national customs and religions. We shall not enter into the examination of those religions. Like the tribes which profess them, they have no history, and their classification ethnographically is far from complete and settled. The most interesting and best known are those of the aborigines of the Dravi- dian race. They have as their common character the adoration of divinities connected with the elementary 1 Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. xix. p. 62. HINDUISM. 287 powers and the earth, mostly female and malignant, the worship of ghosts and other mischievous spirits, which they seek to appease by bloody sacrifices and orgiastic ceremonies, which recall the Shamanism of the tribes of Northern Asia.| The priest or the sorcerer, the devil- dancer of the English, abandons himself to a frantic dance until he falls down in convulsions. He is then possessed, and the incoherent expressions which he lets drop express the willof the spirit whose wrath it is sought to disarm. Many of these practices have left traces among all the Dravidian populations, even among those that are most thoroughly assimilated. Hinduism, however, makes steady progress among these tribes: the modes, the forms of worship, the deities of the plain rapidly encroach on their mountains. But those who have kept apart without com- mingling return, for most part, to the Hindu, especially the Brahman, aversion for aversion, contempt for contempt. During the famine of 1874, for instance, some Santals preferred to die of hunger at the door of the charity-food dispensaries rather than accept food at the hands of the Brahmans.” Now that we find ourselves at the end of our long task, must we sum up all ina final judgment? All that pre- cedes already is little more than a long sumining up, and our greatest fear is that we have not succeeded in giving a sufficiently comprehensive idea of the complex, manifold, and outrageously confused character of these religions. Perhaps before there were any Homeric poems they had already gone beyond Parmenides, and at the present time, after centuries of intercourse with the Western world, they display to view, even in the most enlightened centres, a fetishism that is matchable only among the negroes 1 On these religions, their divi- ° Hunter, Statistical Account of nities and practices, see F. Kittel, Bengal, vol. xiv. p. 313. Among Ind.. Antiq., ii, 168, and Ursprung the Holiyars of the Dekhan, in cer- des Lingakultus, p. 44,and R. Cald- tain customs we remark a trace of well, Comparative Grammar of the the same hostile feeling. Dravidian Family of Languages, p. 579 seq., 2d ed. 288 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA, of Guinea. Is their history that of a long process of decay, and have they, as some incline to believe, since the Veda been only gathering around them thicker darkness ? or must we admit a real progress in this long succession of efforts? For the thirty centuries, at least, through which we can trace them, we find them constantly changing and constantly repeating themselves; so much so, that we seek in vain for notions of which we can with- out reservation affirm at any given moment that they are new or fallen into oblivion. No other among the Indo- European peoples had so early as this an idea of an abso- lute law universally binding, and yet we would like to know to what degree in practice it ever had a legislation. In how many cases can we say, Here is what India believes or does not believe, here is what it approves or what it condemns? Long before our era it contended theoretically against caste, and confessed the vanity of it, yet it re- tains it all the same to this day; nay, more than that, it has carried it to excess, and brought it to an issue at once so odious and so chimerical that it is impossible to know how to account for it. Aud what contradictions there are if we examine the morale of these religions! Not only have they given birth to Buddhism, and produced, to their own credit, a code of precepts which is not inferior to any other, but in the poetry which they have inspired there is at times a delicacy and a bloom of moral sentiment which the Western world has never seen outside of Christianity. Nowhere else, perhaps, do we meet with an equal wealth of fine sentences. One of the men who have done most to promote an acquaintance with the Hindu religions, Dr. John Muir, has collected a certain number of these maxims and thoughts in an exquisite anthology,? which must have gained many friends to 1 Bhagavad Gita, v. 18. Translations from Sanskrit Writers, ® Religious and Moral Sentiments with an Introduction, Prose Versions, from Sanskrit Writers, 1875. The and Parallel Passages from Classical author has just included this first Authors (vol. viii. of Triibner’s Ori- selection in a larger work: Metrical ental Series), 1879. HINDUISM. 289 India. And yet what an absence of every moral element in the majority of these cultuses! What gloomy sides there ,are to these practices and these doctrines! The astonish- ing preservation of Hinduism is by itself alone a problem. It is certain that for a long while back the Hindu people have been better than their religions, and that these, ou many sides, threaten to fall in pieces. They continue to subsist, however, and neither the gospel nor the Koran has till now seriously laid hold of them. Several cen- turies of Mussulman domination have hardly touched them. They have reacted at least as much on Islam as Islam has acted on them;! and it would seem at the pre- sent time that, in certain provinces at least, they are making it recoil? As for Christianity, at this very time, when it has the command of unparalleled resources and everything in its favour to raise it to pre-eminence and lend it prestige, the success that accompanies its efforts is the smallest conceivable. The operations of the Catholic Propaganda, which are more remarkable for the wonderful solidity of their groundwork than their extent, have long since come to a standstill, and up to the present time those of the Protestant missions have perhaps been still less successful. Notwithstanding the great number of eminent men, some of them of quite singular merit, which they reckon in their bosom, none of the Eng- lish, American,. or German Protestant missions, which are labouring at the present time in India (except, how- ever, those whose operations are among the aborigines, especially among those of Chota Nagpore and the Central Provinces), have reason to feel satisfied with the results. 1 See Garcin de Tassy, Mémoire sur les Particularités de la Religion Musulmane dans l’Inde, 2d ed, 1869 ; Colebrocke, On the Peculiar Tenet of Certain MuhummalanSects, in Miscellaneous Essays, vol. ii. p. 202; Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. ix. p. 280, and passim. This influence has been especially powerful in the West, where it has produced really mixed sects, such as that of the Sangars and the Kho- jas of Gujarat and Sindh: Ind. An- tig., v. 171, 173. 2 In Bengal, excey-t in the district of Gaya, the Mussulmans are either stationary or on the decline: Hunter, op. laud., passin. T 290 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA, Not one has till now succeeded in founding anything which can be compared with the work of the unknown apostles who, in the first centuries, established Churches called after St. Thomas, or even with that of St. Francis Xavier and the first Jesuit missionaries. This is due, perhaps, to the circumstance that the Protestant mis- sionary comes and settles down, surrounded by a family with whom he lives in citizen comfort, while the native is impressible only by display or by asceticism. But it is especially due to this, that he reasons so much, Now, controversy, on which the Hindu dotes, and in which he excels, has no hold on his religion, which has, so to speak, no definite dogmas. Arguments sink into this soft mass, and are lost, like a blow with a sword in one of those inferior organisms which have no fixed centre of vitality. The missionary is loved and respected, the moral truth of his teaching is approved of and admired, and it cannot be questioned that in this respect alone his presence has been productive of much good; but there are no con- versions. It is, then, more than doubtful whether Hin- duism must, in even a distant future, give way to another religion; and yet it is visibly collapsing and deteriorating. At this very moment it is very near becoming little better than a form of paganism, in the etymological sense of the word. Science, industry, administration, police, sanitary regulation, all the conquests and all the exigencies of modern life, are calmly waging against it a war with far greater results than the work of missions. Will it find it has within itself resources enough to adjust itself to the new conditions which are pressing upon it with in- creasing rapidity ? The experience of the past is calcu- lated to inspire in this respect almost as many fears as hopes. The whole history of Hinduism is, in fact, that of a perpetual reform, and it is impossible not to be struck with the persistency in the effort. But, at the same time, we are obliged to confess how ephemeral and how liable to be corrupted cach of these endeavours has till now proved HINDUISM. 291 to be. Will this be the case with that which is going on in our own time, and, so to speak, under our own eyes, the effort after a deistic reform maintained by the Brahma Samdj (Church of God)? We have intentionally said nothing till now of this movement, which takes its rise » from the direct and avowed influence of Europe, although from the first it has been conducted from an exclusively Hindu point of view and by Hindus.!' The founder of the movement, in the first years of this century, was the Brahman Ram Mohun Roy (who was born at Burdwan in 1772, in Lower Bengal, and died at Bristol, in England, in 1833), one of the noblest figures offered to view in the religious history of any people, but who was, in fact, better conversant with Christian theology (having with this object, besides English, acquired Latin, Greek, and Hebrew) than with the Vedas, although he knew of them all that it was possible to know then. He believed that these old books, in particular the Upanishads, rightly interpreted, con- tained pure deism, and he endeavoured to persuade his fellow-countrymen to renounce idolatry by appeals to tradition. With this aim he translated and published a certain number of these texts, and expounded his views on reform at the same time in original treatises. Becoming soon an object of attack, at once on the part of his own people and that of certain missionaries, he replied to them in writings in which the science of the theologian is found in alliance with a power of thinking of rare elevation, and some of which continue to this day models of controversial literature.2 The Brahma Saméj, it thus appears, had re- course from the first to the methods of propagandism in 1 The Brahma Samaj has already produced a considerable literature. References to this subject, as well as a general estimate of the move- ment, will be found in Max Miiller’s Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. pp. 271-275, 283-290. See also the Revues Annuelles, which Prof. Garcin de Tassy published from 1850 till the year he died, 1878, and which are devoted to the examination of everything affecting in any degree the Hindustani lan- guage or literature. These Revues form the most accurate and perfect record of the intellectual progress of Northern India during the last thirty years. 2 See in particular his treatise, The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to 292 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. use in Europe, and it has remained faithful to these since. In its aim it is a Hindu sect; in its organisation, in its means, and all its modes of action, it is an association analogous to that of theological parties among ourselves. It has its places of meeting and prayer, its committees, its schools, its conferences, its journals, and its reviews. The revealed authority which the founder had thought, in the beginning at least, he ought to claim for the Veda has been gradually given up, especially since a kindred asso- ciation, the Dharma Samdj (the Church of the Law), was founded for the defence of the old orthodoxy. For over a dozen years now the sect has been split into a con- servative party, the Adi (ie, ancient) Brahma Samdj, and an advanced party, which was formed under the direc- tion of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahma Samdj of India, the former more respectful to the old usages, the other driving at a more radical reform. In this work there is an immense deal of what is right in itself, devout in senti- ment, and great and even noble in aspiration. It is impos- sible sufficiently to honour these truly worthy men, who labour with so much zeal to raise the intellectual, the religious, and moral level of their fellow-countrymen; and the good which they do is unquestionable. But it is more than sixty years since the Brahma Samdj was founded ; and how many adherents can it reckon up? In Bengal, its cradle, among a population of 67,000,000, some thou- sands, all in the large towns; in the country districts (and India is an essentially rural country), it is hardly known. Doubtless it is not exposed, like the other sects, to the risk of sinking into corruption or falling back under the yoke of superstition. But will it erow up quick enough to become their heir? And when will it ever be strong enough to exercise an influence with effect on 200,000,000 of men? ‘There are, then, in the existing Peace and Happiness, as also his the Observations of Dr. Marshman, First, Second, and Final Appeal to several times reprinted. the Christian Public in reply to HINDUISM. 293 circumstances in which Hinduism is placed, the elements of a formidable problem, a problem which is being pro- posed, at the same time, it is true, all over Asia, but nowhere with more directness than here. The material civilisation, in the hands of a sprinkling of strangers, who are dreaded for their power, sometimes honoured for their moral superiority, but in nowise loved, is over- running it with the rapidity of steam and electricity, while the moral civilisation stands absolutely still. For the last dozen years especially the Colonial Government has done much for the multiplication of schools of every grade. But India is a poor country, its revenue is defi- cient, and the resources of the state are insignificant in the presence of the enormous wants there are to satisfy. The Government is obliged, besides, to take its first steps with caution, so as not to rouse, in these easily excitable masses, feelings of distrust, which it would afterwards find it difficult to allay. But suppose India possesses a system of school instruction as effective as heart could wish, it will be impossible on that account to suppress a question which is pressing for answer, and to which we see no reply: What will the faith of India be on the day when her old religions, condemned to die but determined to live, shall have finally given way ? INDEX. Abhayadeva Stri, 141 Abhidhanacintamani, 140 Abhidharma, 102, 103, 109 Abhinavagupta, 184, 207 Aborigines, the, 163, 203, 286 Acara, 267, 2 Agoka, 106, 107, 109, 117, 122, 127, » 130, 135 Agrama, the four, 79 Acvaghosha, 127 Agvalayana, 5 Agvalayana- Crauta-Stitra, 49 Agvalayana-Gribya-Satra, 49 Agvamedha, 35, 54, 98 Agvayuji, 55 Agvin, 9, 21 Adbhuta-bréhmana, 6, 259 Adhvaryu, 45 Adhyatmaram4yana, 217 Adi-Brahma- Samaj, 292 Adibuddha, 115, 146 Adigranth, 192, 243, 244, 245, 247 | Aditi, 19, 34, 42, 173 Aditya, 19, 34, 42 Adityabhakta, 257 Advaita, 72 Advaiténand, 232 Agama (Jaina), 141 Agama (Qaiva), 188 Agastya, 23, 209 Ages, the four, 93 Aghori, 214 Agni, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 31, 35, 36, 4I, 42, 46, 160, 161, 174, 180, 188, 253, 256, 261, 263 Agnihotra, 54, 55 Agnihotrin, 90, 99 Agni-Pur&na, 187 Agnishtoma, 56 Agnyadheya, 55 Agrabayant, 55 Agrayana, 55 Ahankara, 218 Ahi, 12, 267 Ahi Budhnya, 24 Ahimsa, 58, 97, 139, 145 Aitareya-Aranyaka, 5 Aitareya-Brahmana, 4 Aitareya-Upanishad, 66, 67 Aja Ekapad, 24 Ajanta, 129 Akagamukhin, 214 Akalt, 248, 249 Akbar, 66, 132 Alabaster, H., 106 Albirouni, 132, 261, 274, 279 Alchemy, 210 Allah-Upanishad, 65, 66 Alwis, J. d’, 105, 113, 120, 123 Ambika, 165 Amga, 19 Ameavatara, 171 Amritavindu-Upanishad, 66 Auritsar, 250 Anandacandra Vedantavagiga, 3 Anandagiri, 189 Anandatirtha, 195, 227 Ananta, 169, 173 Androgynous divinities, 200 Anga, 141 Angad, 245 Angiras, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 23 Animal, worship of animals, sacred animals, 7, 264 Aniruddha, 218 Annam, 103 Annapragana, 51 Anquetil Duperron, 66 Anugraha, 218 Anumarana, 96 Apastamba-Crauta- “Saitra, 49 296 Apastamba-Dharma-Satra, 50, 89 Apsaras, 28, 93 Aptoryama, 56 Apya Yosht, 28 Aradhya, 209 Aramati, 24 Arani, 9 Aranyaka, 4 Ar Ci Dae, 233 Ardham&gadhi, 150 Ardhanariga, 200 Ardochro, 200 Arhat, 167 Arjuna, 93, 167, 172 Arjuna, Guru Arj, 244 Arsheya-Braéhmana, 4 Aruneya-Upanishad, 66 Aryaman, 19, 26 Aryavarta, 62 Asankhyeya, 118 Asat, 69 Asceticism, 80, 144, 145, 165, 205, 213, 214, 226, 234 Ashtaka, 55 Assalaéyana-Sutta, 127 Astrology, 253, 254, 270 Asuniti, 24 Asura, 30 Asuras, pl., 42, 48, 160, 170 Atharvagikha-Upanishad, 66 Atharvan, 9, 23 Atharva-Veda, 2, 3, 5, 6, 24, 25, 30), 33) 41, 45» 46, 66, 89, 160, 102 Atheism, 76, 110, 146 Atiratra, 56 Atmabhoda, 94 Atman, 71 seg., 218 Atma-Upanishad, 66 Attar Singh, 246 Atyagnishtoma, 56 Aufrecht, Th., 2, 3. 39, 93, 97, 135, | 184, 188, 194, 200, 217, 236, 256, 257; 261, 262, 269, 273, 275, 278, 279 Aurangzeb, 241, 246, 257 Aurora, 7, 21, 28, 36 Auveiyar, 192, 209 Avadana, 120 Avadhtta, 214 Avalokitegvara, 213 Avatara, 166, 169, 170, 195, 217, 219, 222, 226, 250 Baba Lal, 241 Badémi, 164, 185, 209 INDEX. Badrinath, 278 Bahikatha, 213 Bala, the nine white, 167 Baladeva, Balarama, 173, 176, 218, 261, 266 Bala Gopal, 235 Bala Lal, 235 Bali (Asura), 261 Bali, isle of, 63 Ballantyne, R., 188 Bana, 145, 189, 194, 257, 272 Banda, 247 Banerjea, K. M., 163, 188 Banjari, 204 Barahout, 222 Barlaam and Josaphat, 118 Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, J., 105, 106, 113 Basava, 208, 229, 262 Baudhayana-Crauta-Sitra, 49 Beal, 8., 103, 105, 108, 114, 123, 136 Beames, J., 233 Bells, 143, 224, 273 Benares, 206, 215, 216, 240, 265, 272, 279, 283, 284 Bendall, 10 Benfey, Th., 3, 24, 120 Bengal, 232, 276, 292 Bergaigne, Ab., 7, 12, 37, 134 Bhadrabahu, 140 Bhaga, 19 Bhagavad-Gita, 75, 76, 191, 193, 197, 219, 221 Bhagavat, 182, 219 Bhagavata, 189, 193, 194 Bhagavata-Purana, 96, 188, 192, 197, 234 Bhagavatt, 141, 146 Bhagvanlal Indraji, 138 Bhairava, 164, 205 Bhairavi, 165, 205 Bhakta, 225, 228 Bhakti, 218 seq., 228, 232, 243 Bhakti-Sttra, 188, 193, 219 Bhandarkar, 222 Bharthart, 213 Bhartrihari, 184 Bbaskara, 251 Bhava, 160 Bhavabhfti, 196 Bhavishya-Purana, 93, 97, 175, 256, 257, 275 Bhikshu, 122, 127 Bhikshuni, 122 Bhogavatt, 266 INDEX, Bhrigu, 9, 171 Bhiita, 164, 253, 256 3 Bigandet, P., 106, 112, 113 Bijjala, 208 Biot, J. B., 93 Birds, myths and worship of, 11, 20, 24, 168; cf. Garuda Birbhan, 241 Blochmann, H., 204 Boar, the, avatara of, 170 Bodhidruma, 263, 280 Bodhisattva, 115, 121, 213 Bohtlingk, A., xxiii., $8, 140 Bollensen, F., 60 Books, sacred, 34, 40, 44, 102, 141, 156, 230, 245, 246 Brahma, 43, 82, 92, 93, 164, 169, 179 seg., 199, 20%, 256, 261, 276 Brahmac@rin, 45, 79, 228, 229 Brahmac4rin, name of sect, 213 Brahmacarya, 45, 99 Brahman, 16, 38, 44, 81, 115 Brahman, a kind of priest, 43, 44 Brahmana, xiii., xiv., 2, 3, 5, 39 seq., 44, 46,88, 161 Brahmanaspati, 15, 16, 38 Brahmandi-Purana, 217 Brahman, 43, 44 seg., 64, 65, 87 8g. 99, 125, 126, 127, 135, 138, 143, 155, 163, 196, 205, 209, 243, 258, 268, 269, 272, 285, 287 Brahmanism, 50, 53, 64, 99, 117, 118, 119, 129, 131 Brahmanism, Neo-, xvi., 118, 132, 138, 153, 293 Brabma-Purana, 187 Brahmarshi, 62 Brahma-Samaj, 291 Brahma-Sam4j of India, 292 Brahma-Upanishad, 66 Brahmavaivarta-Puréna, 182, 187, 236, 256, 262 Brabmavarcas, 65 Brabmavarta, 62 Brahmavidy4-U panishad, 66 Brahmavindu-Upanishad, 66 pagan 55 Bréal, M., Byihedvanyaka: Upanishad, 66, 67 Brihaddevata, 59 Brihaspati, 15, 26, 29, 86 Bribaspati-Smriti, 97 Brihaspati-Stitra, 86 Brihatkatha, 196, 201 Bribat-Paragara-Sarpita om 253, 256 297 | Brihat-Samhita, 261 ) Bruining, A., 75 Buddha, 80, 106 seg., 117 seg., 146, 148, 149, 171, 172, 222, 223, 229, 261, 279, 280 Buddhas, pl., 121, 171 Buddhagosha, 103, 108, 136 Buddhism, 67, 69, 70, 77, 80, 83, 85, 87, 89, 97, 101, 139, 142, 145 seq., 213, 218, 279, 280 Biibler, G., 50, 89, 92, 99, 106, 107, 123, 141, 144, 150, 184, 190, 207, 259, 267, 268, 279 Burgess, J., 128, 129, 280, Burmah, 103, 132, 279 Burnell, A. C., 2, 4, 42, 76, 89, 95 97, 141, 206, 211, 221, 229, 263 Burnout, E., 5, 6, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, III, 12, 119, 122, 123, 124, 138, 156, 167, 188, 197 Bull, the, symbolism and worship, 15, 27, 164, 261, 264 Cabdabrahman, 81 Cabul, 39, 106 Caitanya, 192, 195, 229, 232, 234, 236 Caitanyacandrodaya, 233 Caitri, 55 Caitya, 60, 263 Gaiva, 87, 132, 134, 138, 159, 181, 182, 188, 196 seq., 214 seg., 226, 275 Caivadargana, 199 Cakadvipa, 258 Cakalaka, 7 Cakha, 3 Cakint, 202 Cakra, 128, 168 Cakravartin, the twelve, 167 Akta, 201 seg., 215, 216, 227, 236 akti, 188, 199, 200 seq. Cakuntala, 207 Cakya, 109 Cakyamuni, 78, 110, 115 seq. Célagréma, 262, 269 Calaékapurusha, 167 Calanos, 0 Caldwell, R., 144, 157, 209, 210, 226, 270, 287 Calukya, 134, 183 Camba, 258, 261 ail cl 12 Cambhu, 261 Cambodja, 63, 103 Camunda, 164, 203 298 Candala, 119 Candikaé, 203 ees 193 andra, Candramas, 41, 253 Candragupta, 106, 130, 133, 149 Catkara, 66, 75, 88, 89, 95, 124, 134, 135, 138, 157, 184, 189, 190, 192, 193, 198, 206, 207, 218, 229, 262, 268 ‘ahkaravijaya, 189, 256 Caakh4yana-Grihya-Stitra, 49 Cannibalism, 215 Canti, 225 Caranavytha, 94 Caran Das, 237 Carva, 160 Carvaka, 86 Casanadevi, 143 Caste,xvii., xviii., 43, 51, 62, 63, 91, 119, 123, 125, 126, 137, 143, 195, 208, 213, 232, 239, 242, 243, 267, 272, 284, 285, 288. Catapatha-Bréhmana, 4 Catarudriya, 66, 161 Catrufijaya-Mahatmya, 141 Caturmasya, 55 Caturvarnya, xiv. Caunaka, 5 Caunakiya, 5 Celibate, the, 79, 95, 237, 249 Cenobitism, 79, 95, 205, 208, 213, 215, 237, 272 Cesha, 169, 173, 256, 266 Ceylon, 106, 103, 117, 125, 130, 132, 137, 177 Chandas, 41 Chandogya-Upanishad, 66, 67 Charity, 118, 119, 139, 213, 285 Childers, R. C., 103, 104, 106, 107, III, 112, 113, 120, 123 China, 103 Chota Nagpur, 289 Christianity, influences of, xvilii., 210, 219 seg., 285, 289 Churches, Christian, 132, 212, 221 Cignadeva, 61 Ciras-Upanishad, 66 Civa, 43, 134, 165 seg., 179 seg., 197 seg., 204, 205, 216, 255, 256, 259, 261, 265, 269, 274 ivacarin, 213 Giratina 269 Civa Narayana, 241 CivaprakAca-Pattalai, 197 Civa-Purana, 262 Civaratri, 276 INDEX. Clergy, 95, 127, 137, 143 Colebrooke, H. Th., xxii., 5, 59, 68, 86, 92, 150, 193, 197, 268, 289 Collins, R., 221 Communion, 56, 250, 275 Council, among the Buddhists, 108, 130; among the Jainas, 148 Confession, 121 Conjevaram, 283 Conversion, 119 Coomara Svamy, 107 Cosmogony, 39, 37, 68, 93 Cow, the, symbolism and worship, 7, 12, 13, 93, 248, 264 Cowell, E. B., 3, 4, 86, 103, 142 Craddha, 32 Sean 52, 55, 280 Cramana, 121 Crauta, ritual Qr., 53 seq., 96 Crauta-Sitra, 49 Cravaka, 144,152, 214 Cravani, 55 Credo, 120 Creuzer, F., 180, 261 Gri, 168, 171, 175,177 Cricakra, 205 Cringeri, 206, 229 Crivara, 214 Gruti, 4, 94 Csoma de KG6rés, 103, 104 Cada, 270 Cadakarman, 51, 270 gees, 52, QI, 124, 130, 135, 163, 204 Calik&-Upanishad, 66 Cullavagga, 103 Cultus, general character of the Brahmanic, 34, 54, 55, 60, 267, 268; distinction of a private and a public, 50, 61, 270; the Neo- Brahmanic, 138 ; the Buddhist, 128, 143; the Jaina, 143; the sectarian, 253 seq., 267 seg.; the Sikh, 247, 250; of the aborigines, 163, 203, 261, 264, 286 Culva-Satra, 49 Cunningham, A., 106, 107, 122, 128, 130, 132, 135, 149, 194, 257, 259, 260, 271, 280 Cunningham, T. D., 242 finyavada, 115, 148 Cushna, 12 Qvet&evatara-Upanishad, 66, 70, 76, 83, 207 vetadvipa, 193, 219 vet&mbara, 144, 145, 147 INDEX. Cvetapata, 144 Cyaparna Sayakayana, 58 Dabistén, 213, 245 Daganami, 206 Dagaratha, 176 Dada, 241 Dadtpanthi, 241 Dakint, 202 Daksha, 19 Dakshina, 55 Dakshinacara, 203 Dana, 97 Dara Shak6éh, 241 Dargana, 68, 218 Darcaptirnamasau, 55 Darmesteter, J., 16, 263 Dasa, 157, 196 DaAsatva, 225 Davids, T. W. Rhys, vii., 103, 105, 107, III, 112, 120, 123 Debts, the three, 79 Dekhan, 63, 117, 125, 130, I51, 194 seq., 206, 209, 211, 216, 257, 272, 277, 280, 283, 286 Deluge, xviii., 170 Demons, 12, 22, 41, 167, 172, 177, 253, 256, 287 Deva, 25, 93 Devadasi, 273 Devaki, 168, 172, 173, 223 Devala, devalaka, 260 Devatadhyaya-Brahmana, 4 Devatdyatana, 260 Devayajana, 61 Devi, 165, 183, 199 seq., 262, 269, 277 Devil-dancer, 287 Devimahatmya, 197 Dhammapada, vii., 136 Dhanapala, 141 Dharma, 53, 93; among the Bud- dhists, 108, 122 Dharma-g¢Astra, 50, 53, 91 Dharmagoka, 108 Dharmasabha, 100 Dharma-Samaj, 292 Dharma-Siatra, 49, 50 Dhy4navindu-Upanishad, 66 Dickson, J. F., 121 Digambara, 144, 145, 147, 149 Dikshé, 54 Dipavamsa, 104 Divane Sadh, 249 Dog, the, myths and worship of, 12, 23 299 Donner, 0., 53 Dowson, J., 106 Draupadi, 253 Dravidian races and religions, 286 Drishadvati, 62 Dualism, 13, 69, 195, 199, 200 Dubois, J. A., 88 Du Mast, G. de, 157 Durga, 165, 203 Durgapfja, 206, 276 Dvaita, 196 Dvaraka, 174, 278 Dvija, 51, 79, 91 Dwarf, avatara of the, 170 Earth, the, 7, 14, 42 Eastwick, E., 231 Eckstein, Baron d’, xviii. Ecstasy, 82 Eggeling, J., 103 Elphinstone, M., 247, 248, 283 Erotic mysticism, 199 seq., 230 seq. Eschatology, 31, 93 Esoteric doctrine, 47, 90, 197, 201 Excommunication, 52 Faith, vide Bhakti. Fa-Hian, 114, 132 Fanaticism, I 3h 196, 214, 246 Fauche, H., 187 Fausbdéll, V., xi., 106, 120, 136 Fayrer, a 267 Feer, L., 107, 108, 120, 279 Homie principle, 19, 27, 199 seq., 261 Fergusson, J., Ferishta, 283 Festivals, 275, 282 Fetichism, 60, 225, 247, 261 Fire, sacr ed, 53> 54. Vide Agni. Fish, avatara of the, 170 Foucaux, Ph. E., 105, 113, 122, 138 Foulkes, F., 185, 197 Frankfurter, O., 113 Friederich, R., 63 Funeral rites, 23, 52, 53, 59, 241, 279 Gaddi, 229, 241 Gana, 162 Ganadhara, 143 Ganapatya, 256 Gandhari, 39 Gandharva, II, 24, 25, 28, 256 Ganegn, 164, 185, 197, 256, 261, 203 129, 263, 280 300 Ganeca-Purana, 256° ”~ Ganges, 39, 62, 98, 253, 269, 277, 278, 283 Gangdputra, 278 Gangotri, 278 Garcin de Tassy, 289 Garbe, R., 49 Garbhadhana, 51: Garbha-Upanishad, 66 Garuda, 168, 256, 265 Gaudapada, 198, 255 Gauri, 165 Gautama, 105, 142 Gautama-Dharma-Siitra, 50, 260 Gauvain, V., 106 Gaya, 132, 283 Gaya-mabhatmya, 278 Gayatri, 41 Geldner, K., 6 Ghasi Das, 241 Ghat, 278 Girls, exposure of, 48 Girnar, 278 Gitagovinda, 231 Gladwin, Fr., 132 Gnas, 23 Gnosis, 217 Gobhila-Grihya-Sfitra, 49 Godana, 51 Godavari, 278 Gods, the, in general, 7, 8, 10, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 36 Gogerly, D. T., 105, 107, 112 Gokarna, 283 Gokula, 233 Gokulastha Gosain, 233 Goldschmidt, P., 132 Goldstiicker, Th., 49, 259 Goloka, 228 Gomati, 285 Gond, 204, 266 Gopalatipantya-Upanishad, 66 Gopatha-Brabmana, 3 Gopi, 174, 231, 234 Gorakn&tha, 213 Gorresio, G., 187 Gosain, 213, 232, 234 Gosavid, 215 Gover, E. Ch., 209 ' Govinda, 231 Govind Singh, 204, 244. 247, 249 Grace, 74, 199, 207, 218, 226 Graha, 253 q Gramadevata, 254, 271 1 Gramayajaka, 271 Grandidier, A., 280 INDEX. Granth, 243 seq Grassmann, H., 3, 6 Graul, C., 157 Grierson, 276 Grihastha, 79 Grihya ritual, 49, 96, 98, 268 Grihya-Sfitra, 49 Grimblot, P., 107, 123 Grohmann, V., 41 Growse, F, 8., 280 Grube, E., 265 Gungt, 25 Guru, 51, 90, 157, 171, 183, 228, 235, 239, 243, 244, 245, 240, 247, 248, 250 Guyard, St., 120 Gymnosophist, 145 Haarbriicker, Th., 131, 132 Haas, E., 53 Halabhrit, 173, 177 Halhed, N. Br., 92 Hall, F. E., 145, 187, 190, 194, 257 Hamsa, 213 Hamsa-Upanishad, 66 Hanumadukta-R&ma-Upanishad, 66 Hanumat, 177, 253, 265 Hara, 184 Haracandra Vidyabhtishana, 3 Hardy, R. Spence, 103, 104, 112, 122, 131 Hari, 184 Hari Govind, 245 Harihara, 184, 185 Harivamga, 156, 184 Haug, M., 3, 4, 56, 89, 99, 263 Haughton, Gr. Ch., 92 Hauvette-Besnault, 188, 231 Haviryajfia, 55 Heaven, 8, 15, 42 Heber, R., 139, 204, 242, 258, 276, 279, 285 Hell, 24, 42, 93, 112 Helios, 257 Hemacandra, 140, 167, 272 Hemadri, 97.“ Heresy, 120, 123 Herod, 222 Hesychius, 145 Hierodules, 273 Hillebrandt, A., 16, 17, 19, 54 Himalaya, 62, 277 Hinayana, 115 Hinduism, 160, 170, 153-293, .269, 284 INDEX. 301 Hindustan, 164, 171 211, 216, 232 seq., 276 Hiouen-Thsang, 114, 132, 134, 214, 257, 279 Hiranyagarbha, 30, 69, 169, 256 Hodgson, B. H., 103, 104, 138, 156 Hoisington, H. R., 197 Holi, 276 Holiyar, 287 Holizmann, A., 93 Hora, 254 Horse, the, symbolism and worship of, 73 sacrifice of the, vide Agva- medha Hotri, 46 Ht, F., 136 Hunter, W., 99, 152, 158, 204, 215, 233, 235, 257, 267, 280, 281, 285, 286, 287, 289 Hurdvar, 279 Hylobioi, 79, 95 Hymng, the, xiii., xiv. Icdna, 160 IcA-Upanishad, 66, 67 Igvara, 75, 94, 160, 255; of. Mahe- qvara Idealism, 76, 192, 193 ; ef. Vedanta Idolatry, vide Images Images, 60, 95, 128, 138, 143, 200, 209, 210, 223, 225, 239, 258, 259 seq., 260, 269, 273 Indo-Scythians, 108, 130, 162, 196, 200, 257, 258 Indra, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35) 45, 93, es 174, 176, 197, 253, 256, 259, 261 Indrani, 28 Infant god, 220, 222, 223, 235 Initiation, vide Upanayana Inscriptions, 106, 107, 108, 130, 132, 134, 135, 144, 149, 194, 198, 202, 208, 257, 259, 279 Tran, Iranian influences, 258 Islam, Mussulman influences, xviii , 211, 240, 243, 285, 289 Ishti, 54, 57 Itihasa, 91 Jabala-Upanishad, 66 Jacobi, H., 109, 127, 141, 144, 148, | 150 Jagadguru, 229 Jagannatha, 232, 273, 274, 278, 251, 282, 283, 286 Jagannatha Tarkapaficdnana, 92 Jagjivan Das, 241 Jaiminiya, 4 Jaiminiya Brahmana, 4 Jaina, 86, 134, 140-151, 152, 167, 171, 208, 214, 218 Jambudvipa, 135 Janaka, 176 Janamejaya, 265 Jangama, 208 Japan, 103 Jataka, 106, 120 Jatakarman, 51 Jati, 213 Java, the isle of, 63, 163. Jayadeva, 231 Jayanarayana Tarkapaficinana, 190 Jesus, 219 Jina, 134, 142, 146,147, 148,229, 261 Jinas, pl., 142 Jivananda VidyAsagara, 92. Jivanmukti, 79, 210 Jivatman, 73, 74, 193, 218 Jiiana, 217 Jhanakanda, 67, 76 Jihanin, 238 Jhatiputra, 150 Jolly, J., 50, 92 Jones, W., 92, 100 Jilg, B., 120 Julien, St., 114, 120, 214, 257, 279 Ka, 30 Kabir, 195, 238, 239, 244 Kabir-Panthi, 240 Kact-Khanda, 278 Kagyapa, 142 Kagyapa, the sun, 259 Kadru, 265. Kaegi, A., xi., 6 Kailasa, 164, 277 Kaivalya-Upauishad, 66 Kaiyata, 259 Kala, 30, 160; ef, Mahakala Kalagoka, 108 Kali, 165, 203 Kalidasa, 196 Kalika-Purana, 203 Kalkin, 171 Kalpa, 118 Kalpadruma, 263 Kalpa-Sfitra, 49 Kalpa-Sftra (Jaina), 140 Kama, 10, 30, 165, 175 Kamsa, 173, 222 Kamyeshti, 203 302 Kanheri, 132 Kanishka, 108, 131 Kanphata, 133, 213 Kanthagruti-Upanishad, 66 Kanva, 4 Kapalika, 214 Kapila, 171 Karah pras4d, 250 Karala, 165 Karmakanda, 67 Karman, 77, 110, 112 Karmanaca, 280 Kartabhaj, 158, 236 Kashmir, 108, 207, 216, 256, 257, 266, 268 Katha, 4 Kathaka- Dharma-Stitra, 50 Kathaka-Grihya-Sttra, 50 Katha-Upanishad, 66, 67 Kathavattu, 108 Katyayana, 4 Katyayana Crauta-Sfitra, 49 Kaugika-Sfitra, 49, 203 Kaushitaki-Upanishad, 66, 67 Kauthuma, 4 Kavya, 23 Keganta, 51 Kena-Upanishad, 66, 67 Kennedy, V., 188 Kern, H., 5, 43, 63, 103, 106, 107, 108, 134, 148, 257, 261 Keshub Chunder Sen, 292 Khalsa, 246 Khoja, 289 Kielhorn, F.; 88, 259 Kikata, 39 Kirtan, 232 Kittel, F., 209, 225, 261, 272, 287 Klaproth, J., 114 Klatt, J., 141 Koi, 204 Kol, 204 Koli, 157 Koppen, C. F., 104, 122, 138 Krishna, 138, 163, 166 seg., I9I, 199, 218, 219, 230 seg., 261, 279 Krishna, 280 Kshemendra, 197 Kshurika-Upanishad, 66 Kubera, 164, 256, 261 Kubhéa, 39 Kuhn, Ad, 11, 263 Kuladevata, 168, 183 Kumirila, 89, «35, 189 Kural, 157, 192 Karma-Purina, 188 INDEX. Kurukshetra, 62, 277 Kutb-Uddin, 260 Lakshmana, 176 Lakshint, 168, 199, 201, 227, 261, 2 Lalitavistara, 105, 108 Lamaism, 122, 138 Landresse, 114 Langlois, A., 3 Languages, sacred, 40, 120, I51, 156, 195 Lanka, 177, 178 Lassen, Chr., 40, 59, 105, 106, 108, 123, 130, 142, 144, 160, 162, 163, 168, 181, 187, 189, 200, 219, 221, 231, 251, 253, 257, 261, 268, 280 Latyayana-Crauta-Stitra, 49 Lejean, G., 280 Lichtenberger, Prof., ix. Life, future, II, 22, 42, 49, 52, 86, 113, 228 Lindner, B., 53 Liga, 61, 164, 209, 216, 261, 262, 269, 271, 272, 273, 276 Litga-Purana, 188 Lingayit, 208, 226, 272 Liturgy, 5, 34, 269 Loiseleur Deslongchamps, A., 92 LokamAatri, 202 Lokap§la, 93 Lokayata, 86 Lorinser, F., 221 Lotus of the Good Law, to4, 107 108, 109 Ludwig, A., xi., 3, 7, 40, 60 Mac-Gregor, W. L., 242 MAadhurya, 225 Madhusfidana Sarasvati, 94 Madhva, 195 Madhyadega, 62 Madhyamika, 115 Madhyandina, 4 Maga, 258 Magadha, 106 Magadhi, 103 Magavyakti, 258 Maghavan, 13 Mahabh4rata, 91, 139, 154, 156, 187, 163, 167, 187, 265, 272, 276, 2 4, Mah&bhashya, 88 Mahadeva, 138, 160 Mahadevi, 199, 201 Mahék4la, 164; ¢/. Kala INDEX. Mab4matri, 201; ¢f. Mother Mah4may4, 202; ef. Maya MahAparinibbana-Sutta, 106 Mah4pras&da, 274 Maharaja, 234 Mahatmya, 272, 278 Mahavagga, 103 Mahavamsa, 104 Mahavira, 148 Mahfayajiia, 55 Mahayana, 115 Mahegacandra Nydyaratna, 4 Mahecvara, 198 Mahecvara, 198 Mahmoud of Ghazna, 260, 283 Maitrayantya, 4 Maitreya, 121 Maitri-Upanishad, 66, 83, 180 Maleolm, J., 242 Male (principle), 27, 199, 200, 2613 of. Purusha, Bull Malice, 33, 47, 202 Manas, 69, 218 Manasa, 278 MAanava-Crauta-Sitra, 49 Manava-Dharmagastra, vide Manu Mandtikya-Upanishad, 66, 67 Manmatha, 256; cf. Kama Mantra, 3, 52, 60, 62, 156, 183 Manu, 53, 62, 91, 170; in the plural, 93 Manu, code of, 53, 92, 93,94, 167 Manvantara, 94 Manyu, 24 Mara, 167 Marriage, 51, 53, 59 MAarkandeya-Purana, 96, 188, 197 Martanda, 19, 173 Marut, 12, 13-16 Massoudi, 279 Mataricvan, 9 Materialism, 69, 85 Matha, 95, 99, 208, 215, 272 Mathura, 172, 232, 260, 280, 283 Mathura-Mahatwya, 278 Matsya-Purana, 175, 188, 200, 261, 273 Matsyendranatha, 213 Maurya, I17, 130, 149 Maya, 75, 191, 194, 199, 201, 207 May4 Devi, 223 Maytra, 258 Medha, 57 Megasthenes, 80, 83, 163, 168 Mela, 215, 275 Menander, 131 303 Metempsychosis, 23, 42, 78, 112, 210 Meyer, R., 97 Milindapaitha, 131 Mim4msé, 65, 68, 76, 88, 94 Mini4ms4-Stitra, 68 Minayef, T., 120 Mira Bat, 157, 236 Mirkhond, 283 Missions, 63, 130, 289 Mitakshara, 92 Mithra, 19 Mithraism, 257 Mitra, 19, 20,.26 Mleccha, 62, 63, 171 Monachism, 122, 126, 127, 137, 144 Monkey, 177, 265 Moon, the, 8, 24, 27, 42, 164, 253, 261, 263 Moon, sacrifices at the full and new, 54, 55 Mother, 27, 183, 201, 261; the goddess mother, 223 Moksha, 79 Monotheism, 26, 29, 70, 75, 94, 178, 179, 209, 219, 240, 243 Mountains, worship of, 165 Morality, 32, 47, 79, 86, 110, 117, 172, 176, 205, 215, 227, 233 seq., 239 seq., 243, 288 Mrityu, 24, 69, 164 Muir, J., 75,173 26, 30, 432 45, 62, 85, 98, 160, 163, 164, 166, 215, 224, 261, 268, 288 Miller, M., xi., 3) 5; 6, 7, 13,19, 49, 5¢, 53, 575 61, 66, 86, 89, 107, 108, 113, 136, 241 Multan, 257 Mundaka-Upanishad, 66, 67, 81 Muni, 34 Myriantheus, L., 21 Myths, 25, 27, 175 Nadavindu-Upanishad, 66 Nadiy4, 99 Naga, 253, 265 Naga sect, 213 NagAnanda, 134 Nagarjuna, 115 Nagarkot, 260 Naimisha, 62 ‘Naivedya, 274 Nair, 268 : Nakshatra, 41, 42, 254 Namakarana, 51 Namdev, 244 304 Nanak, 195, 229, 242, 243, 244, 245 Nanakpotra, 150, 245, 249 Nanda, 173 Nandi, 264 Nara, 167 Narada, 219; code of, 92 Narada-Paficaratra, 182, 188, 189, 193, 199, 228 Narayana, 69,167, 169 Narmada, 279 Nastika, 85 Nataputta, 150 Naturalism, 11, 12, 176, 178 Navatattva, 140 Nayaputta, 150 Nayika, 202 Nepal, 103, 132, 137, 213, 216, 279 Neumann, C. F., 1 Néve, Fr., 22, 95 Nidana, 110, 111, 114 Nihilism, 76, 115 Nilarudra-Upanishad, 66 Nimbarka, 251 Niraydvaliya-Sutta, 141 Nirgrantha, 144, 149, 151, 152 Nirmala Sadhu, 249 Nuriti, 261 NirQdhapagubandha, 55 Nirvana, 79, 110, 112 seq., 147 Nirvana, date of the, of Buddha, 106, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115 Nirvana, date of the, of Jina, 148 Nishkramana, 51 Nityanand, 232 Norris, E., 106 Nrisimha, 171, 182, 192 Nrisimhatapaniya- Upanishad, 66, 180, 182, 192 Nyaya, 68, 76 Nyaya-Sttra, 68 Observances, religious, wide Prac- tices Oldenberg, H., 49, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 120 Om, 82, 181 Orissa, 106, 257, 278, 281 Pacu, 57 Pagupata, 197, 199 Pacupati, 164, 198 Padma-Purana, 187 Pahul, 246 Paippaladi, 4 Pakayajiia, 55 * Pali, 102, 107, 108 INDEX. Palmer Boyd, 134 Paficadandachattra prabandha, 202 Paficaraksha, 156 : Pancaratra, 189 PAfiicaratra, 189, 193, 218 Pandava, 174, 175, 253 Pandharpur, 251, 283 Pandurdnga, 251 Pani, 12 Panini, 172, 197, 259 Pantheism, 7, 10, 26, 29, 69, 71 Papa, 52 Parabrahman, 81 Paragurama, 171 Paramahamsa, 213 Paramahamsa-Upanishad, 66 Paramatman, 73 Parameshthin, 30 Paraskara-Grihya-Sitra, 49 , Pargvanatha, 152 Pareiya, Paria, 157, 285 Parijata, 263 Paris, Rear-admiral, 167 Parishad, 45 Parjanya, 14, 16 Parsi, 258 Parvana, 55 Parvati, 165, 261 Patala, 266 : Patafijali, 88, 215, 259, 266 Patimokkha, 120 Patita, 52 Paundarika, 98 Pegu, 103 Persecutions, 133, 144 Pessimism, 83, 116, 147 Phallus, vide Linga PicAca, 164, 253 Pilgrimages, 62, 98, 132, 143, 152, 215, 283 seq. Pinda-Upanishad, 66 Pischel, R., 107, 127 Pitris, xi., 23, 42 Pitamaha, 82 Pitriyajfia, 55 Planets, 253, 261 Plants, myths and worship of, 7, 10, 23, 262 Plutarch, 80, 83, 131 Poley, L., 197 Polyandry, 268 Polytheism, 26, 29, 255 Prabhakara, 76 Prabhasa-Khanda, 178 Pragna-Upanishad, 66, 67 INDEX, Pragnottararatnamala, 138 Practices, religious, 34, 47, 192, 226; ascetic, 80, 214; mystic, 82, 205,” 269; obscene, 33, 202, 214 Pradyumna, 130, 156, 175 Prajapati, 29, 31, 41, 44, 46, 69, 82, 92; in the plural, 93 Prakriti, 69, 70, 75, 113, 199, 200, 201 Pramfda Dasa Mitra, 75 Prana, 72 Pranagnihotra-Upanishad, 66 Pran Natha, 241 Prasdda (the grace), 218 Prasdda (the offering), 274 Prasthanabheda, 94 Pratigraha, 97 Pratyabhijiia, 207 PrayAga, 62, 266, 277, 279 Prayoga, 88 Premsagar, 231, 234 Preta, 253 Pretakarman, 51 Prigni, 14 Prayer, 15, 34, 38 Prinsep, J., 106 Prinsep, H. T., 242, 249 Probabilism, 148 Profession of faith, 121 Proselytism, 63, 77, 119 Psalms, the, I Paja, 96 Pajari, 272, 273 Pumsavana, 51 Punarbhava, 78 Pundra, 225 Punjab, 39, 243 seq., Punya, 52 Purana, 83, 91, 93, 96, 156, ao 197, 200, 228, 230, 265, 277, 28. Purana (Lingayit), 208 Purandhi, 24 Purgatory, 93 Purt, 168, 274, 281, 283 Parnabhisheka, 205 Purohita, 98 Pnrusha (mythic), 30, 37, 45 Purusha (philosophic), 70, 72, 75 Purushamedha, 58, 59 Purushasikta, 66 Pfishan, 11, 20, 23, 26, 35 HOGG Ye S ‘ 257, 268 Radha, 141, 199, 201, 227, Radhakanta Deva, 59 Radhavallabhi, 236 Rabu, 261 31, 234 305 Rajastya, 54 Rajendralala Mitra, 3, 4,65, 97, 105, 188, 233, 281 Raka, 24 Rakshasa, 253 Rama, 138, 167, 172, 175 seg., 192, 194, 230, 240, 261, 276; cf. Bala- rama, Paragurama. RAamacandra, 177 Ramananda, 194, 195, 226, 220, 236, 237, 238, 244 RamAnuja, 194, 195, 226, 227, 229 Ramatapaniya-Upanishad, 66 seq., 192 Ramatirtha, 83 Ramayana, 139, 157, 167, 175, 187, 195 RAamegvara, 278, 283 R&ammohun Roy, 77, 291 | Ranayaniya, 4 Ranjit Singh, 249, 274 Raoul-Rochette, 196, 200 Rasa, 39 Rasapana, 210 Rasegvaradarcana, 210 Rathayatra, 282 Ravana, 177 Raymond, X., 242 Regnaud, P., 66, 84 Rehatsek, 189 Reinaud, 132, 18g, 211, 260, 274, 279 Relics, 128, 131 Rémusat, Ab., 104, 114 Renan, E., xviii., 222 Reva-Mahatmya, 279 Revanta, 26 Revelation, 44 Ribhu, 22 Ric, 3 Rieu, C., 140 Rig-Veda, xiii, xiv. 2, 3, 4, 6, 17, 27, 28, 31, 45 Rigvidhana, 97 Rijragva, 35 Rishabha, 142 Rishabhapaficacik4, 141 Rishi, 23, 44, 79; the seven, 23 253s 257; 1 Rita, 33, 37 Rivers, worship of, and sacred, 24, 277, 278, 279 Roer, E., 3, 4 Rogers, H. T., 136 Rohini, 173 Rohita, 165 Rosary, the, 224, 270 U 306 Rosen, Fr., xxii. Roth, R., xxii., xxiii., 3, 4, 6, 15, 93 Rousselet, L., 280 Rudra, 14, 26, 159 seq. Rukmini, 175, 271 Rapa, 111 Sacerdotalism, spirit of, 38, 40, 43, 45 seq. Sacrifice, 9, 23, 34, 35, 36, 45, 47 seg., 54 seg., 81, 96, 166, 208 Sacrifice, animal, 55, 56, 139, 164, 203, 204, 271 Sacrifice, human, 57, 58, 59, 203 S4dhu, 241 Sagar, 278 Sahaji Bai, 158, 237 St. Francis Xavier, 290 St. Thomas, 290 Sakhibhava, 236 Sakhya, 225 Sallet, von, 128 Salokata, 42 Samarpana, 235 Saman, 2, 61, 62 Sama-Veda, 2, 3, 45 Saémavidh4na-Braéhmana, 4, 97, 122 Samhita, 2, 3 Sambitopanishad-Brahmana, 4 Sampadi, 149 Samsara, 77 Samskara, 51, 89, 243 Samskara, Buddhist term, III Sanctuaries, 61, 95, 129, 135, 137; 143, 216, 250, 258, 261, 272, 291 Sang4r, 289 Sangha, 122, 123, 125, 127, 148 Sajna, 111 Saakhya, 68, 69, 72, 753 76, 94, 116, 146, 171, 181, 191, 195, 198, 200 Sankhya-Stitra, 68 Sanny4sa-Upanishad, 66 SannyAsin, 79, 80 Santal, 287 Sarak, Saravak, 152 Saram4, 12 Saranyu, 22 Sarasvati, 24, 40, 62, 181, 199, 256, 279 Sarayu, 39 Sarba Lohanti, 247 Sarvadarganasangraha, 142, 188, 193, 198, 207, 210 Sarvopanishatsara, 66 Satt, 59, 96 Sati, name of Devi, 165 INDEX. Satnami, 241 Satrap kings, 253, 257 Sattra, 54 Satya, 33 Satya Narayana, 271 Satyavrata Samagramin, 4, 76 Saura, 258 Sautrémani, 56 Savana, 35 Savara, 213 Savitri, 19, 20, 26, 27, 29, 177 Savitri, 51, 99, 258 Sayana, 2, 56, 86, 88, 89, 98, 132, 142, 161, 188, 198, 207, 210, 264 Scepticism, 85 Schiefner, A., 104, 105, 108, 120 Schlagintweit, E., 122 Schlegel, W. von, 187 Schmidt, J. J., 104 Schroeder, L. von, 4 Sea, the, as known to the Vedic poets, 39 Sects, general character of the, xv. 138, 153, 182 sey., 211, 217, 229, 275 Senart, E., 103, 106, 108, 167, 172, 263, 266 Serpent, worship of, 265, 266 Shadvimga-Bréhmana, 3 ShahrastAni, 13%, 132, 204, 253 Shankar Pandit, 3, 89, 203 Shatcakra-U panishad, 66 Shea, D., 212 Shendidharma, 270 Sherring, A., 214, 279 Shodagin, 56 Siam, 103 Siddhi, 79, 203 Sikhs, the, 192, 204, 242 seg., 275 Simantonnayaua, 51 Sindhu, 24 Sinivali, 25 Sita, 176, 177, 178, 276 Sittar, 209, 225 Skanda, 161, 164, 183, 201, 223, 259, 261 Skandha, 111 Smarta, 89, 184, 206, 226 Smarta-Sifitra, 49 Smriti, 49, 53, 79, 80, 88, 90 Soma, 8, 9, 10, 11, 26, 27, 36, 42, 56, 177, 263 Soma-Candramas, 41 Soménanda, 207 Somayaga, 54, 57, 99 Somnath, 260, 278, 283 INDEX. Sorceries, 33. 202, 215 Spashtadfyaka, 237 Spiegel, Fr., 107 Srota4patti, 119 Stars, the, 8, 23. 253 Stenzler, Fr., 49, 50, 91, 92, 215, 265 Stevenson, J., 3, 140, 261 Sthavira, 123 Stotra, 141 Strabo, 80, 81, 83, 265, 278 Sugriva, 177 Suicide, 80, 146, 228, 279 Sumatra, 103 Summer, M., 122 Sun, 8, 9, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 42, 161, 165, 172, 177, 185, 253, 257, 258, 259, 263, 276 Sunda, isles of, 63, 125 Suparnadhyaya, 265 Strya, 20, 26, 36, 41, 166, 180, 269 Sarya, 11, 27, 41 Stryacataka, 253 Sfta, 156 Suthré, 249 Satra, ritual, 49, 53, 88, 107, 108; philosophic, 68, 74,75; Buddhist, 77, 102, 107; Jaina, 141; Caiva, I Sutta-Nip&ta. xi. Svamin Narayana, 242, 258 Svarga, 42, 48 Svayambh4, 30 SyAdvadin, 148 Taittirtya, 4 Taittirlya-Aranyaka, 4, 5, 1C6 Taittiriya-Brabmana, 4 Taittirtya-Samhita, 4 Taittirtya-Upanishad, 66, 67 Takman, 41 Talavakdra-Brahmana, 4 Tandava, 164 Tandya MahabrAhmana, 3 Tantra, 96, 188, 197, 200, 201, 236, 269 Tantra (Buddhist), 201 Tantinaptra, 47 Tapas, 30, 34° Tara, 143. Tarandtha, 104 Tat, 30 Tathagata, 121 TathAgata-Guhyaka, 201 Teg Bahadur, 246 Tejovindu-Upanishad, 66 Thanessar, 260 ' 307 Thera, 123 Theravali, 123 Thibaut, G., 49, 55 Thiele, Prof., xiv. Thought, the last, 227 Tibet, 103, 122, 201, 268, 278 Time, vide Kala Tirtha, 62, 277 Tirthayatra, 277 Tirthya, 123, 150 Tiruvalluvar, 157, 192, 209 Tisro Devih, 180, 202 Tortoise, avatara of the, 170 Traipurusha, 109 Tree, the worship and myth, 263 Trenckner, V., 102, 131 Triad, 41 TricinApalli, 283 Tridandin, 206 Tripitaka, 102 Tripura, 160 Triratna, 122, 147 Trita, 11 Trivent, 279 Troyer, A., 212 Trumpp, E., xi., 204, 242, 244, 250 Truths, the four noble, 110 Tryambaka, 161 Thugs, 204 Tukarfma, 192, 251 Tula, 97 Tulasi, 262 Tulasidasa, 195 Tungabhadra, 280 Turnour, G., 104 Tvashtri, 21, 22 Ucchishta, 36 Udast, 249 Ukthya, 56 Uma, 165 Upanayana, 51, 91, 99 Upanishad, 65 seg., 76 seg., 94, 96, 188, 201, 291 Upapurana, 188 Unaiga, 141 Uraon, 204 Urdhvabahu, 213, 214 Ushas, 21 Utkala-Khanda, 278 V&e, 16, 38, 256 Vaigeshika, 68, 76 Vaiceshika-Stiitra, 68 Vaidika, 90, 99 Vaikuntha, 168 308 Vairdgin, 237, 238 Vaishnava, 87, 133, 134, 159, 182, 193 seq., 216, 226, 230 seq., 274 Vaishnavavira, 133 Vaitana-Sttra, 49 Vajapeya, 54, 56, 98 Vajasaneyi-Samhita, 4 Vajrast¢i, 127 Vajrastici-Upanishad, 66 Vala, 12 Valabhi, 134, 257 Vallabhacarya, 229, 233, 234, 235, 237, 242, 269, 272 Valluvar, 157 Valmiki, 157 Vamacara, 203 Vamg¢a-Brahmana, 4 Vanaprastha, 79 Varaha Mihira, 94, 134, 145, 194, 202, 214, 253, 258, 261, 280 Varaha-Purana, 194, 199, 261, 273 Vardhamana, 148 Varuna, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 37; 42, 56, 252, 256, 261 Vasauta, I Vasishtha-Smriti, 50, 267 Vasu, 25, 172 Vasudeva, 172 Vasudeva, 225 Vasudeva (the nine of the Jainas), 167 Vasuki, 266 Vata, 14 Vatsalya, 225 Vayu, 14, 41, 180, 261 Vayu-Purdna, 188 Veda, xiii.,xv., xxi., 27,28, 29, 39,45, 81, 90, 91,92, 93, 94, 100, 109, 120, 126, 143, 154, 155, 203, 210, 218, 230, 243, 284, 292 Vedana, I11 Vedanta, 65, 68, 71 seg., 88, 94, 99, II0, I17, 190, 206, 240, 243 Vedantasara, 75 Vedanta-Sttra, 68, 75, 79, 124, 194, 195, 208 Vedantatattvasara, 194 Vehicle, the Great and the Little, 145 Vetala, 253 Vigdkha, 259 Vigvakarman, 29 Vigvartipa, 22 Vigvaripa, 173 Vigvavasu, 256 INDEX. Vigvedevah, 25 Vidhana, 96, 97 Vidyadhara, 253 Vib&ra, 137 Vijiiana, 111 Vinaya, 102, 103, 108, , 109 Vindhya, 62, 204 Vindhyavasint, 204 Virabhadra, 164 Viraj, 69 Virgin, the Holy, 223 Vishnu, 11, 20, 26, 46, 134, 159, 165 seq., 179 seq., 199, 201, 204, 255, 262, 265, 269, 273 Vishnubhakta, 251 Vishnu- Vharma-Satra, 50 Vishnudvish (the nine of the Jainas), 167 Vishnu-Purana, 96, 188 Vishnusahasran4ma, 269 Viththala, 251 Vivaha, 51 Vivasvat, 9, 22, 173 Vivien de Saint-Martin, 40 Vratas, 32 Vratya, 52 Vrihannaradiya-Purdna, 135, 184 Vriki, 35 Vrindavana, 104, 173, 231, 234, 283 Vrishakapi, 265 Vrishotsarga, 264 Vritra, 12, 13 Vyasa, 157 Warren, 8. W., 92 Wassiljew, W., 103, 104, III, IIS, 123 Waters, the, 9, 12, 19, 22, 28, 30, 43, 46, 169, 266 Weber, A. ,xxii., xxiii., 3, 4, 6, 21, 41, 42, 43, 49, 53, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 94, 98, 127, 138, 141, 143, 146, 148, 160, 162, 163, 167, 170, 173, 177, 180, 187, 202, 203, 219, 221, 258, 35% 261, 262, 263, 269, 276 West, R., 92 Westergaard, N. L., 5, 107, 108 Whitney, W. D., xvi., 3 Widows, marriage and suicide of, 59, 9 Wilford, 221 Wilkins, Ch., 191 Williams, Monier, 275, 280 Wilson, H. H., 3, $7, 59, 65, 83, 99, 106, 142, 150, 182, 188, 194, 198, INDEX. 203, 219, 225, 237, 238, 242, 251, 257, 272, 275 Wilson, J., 270 Windisch, E., 140 Windischmann, F. H. H., 75, 95 Woman, the, wife, 50, 51, 80, 90, 122, 143, 147, 157, 272, 284 Wurm, P., 163 Yagoda, 173 Yadava, 173, 174 Yajamana, 50, 56 Yajtia, 55, 96 YAjfiavalkya, 5, 92, 256 Yajintika, 90 Yajur-Veda, 2, 4, 41, 43, 45, 160, 161 Yajur-Veda, white, 4 Yajur-Veda, black, 4 Yajus, 2 Yaksha, 164, 253 Yakshma, -41 3099 Yama, 11, 22, 28, 42, 256, 261 Yamt, 28 Yamun4, 40, 62, 279 Yaska, 44, 85, 88, 180 Yati, 144, 213, 214 Yoga, 79 Yoga (dargana), 68, 76, 79, 82, 83 203 Yogagikha-Upanishad, 66 Yoga-Sitra, 68, 88 Yoga-Stitra (Jaina), 140 Yogatattva-Upanishad, 66 Yogayatra, 253, 254, 261 : Yogin, 79 Yogin, Civaite ascetic, 165, 213 seq. Yogini, 202 Yoni, 262 | Yuga, 93 | Zarmanochegas, 80 | Zimmer, H., 24, 40, 43, 56 THE END. PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON’ AND CO. EDINBURGH AND LONDON