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 T l l 3|g, 1 «)ul of a Christian: 
 
 o,i„, a „? 1924 031 261 799 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY : 
 
 A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE HUMAN MIND 
 
 (University Extension Series) 
 
 Second Edition Revised. 
 Crown %vo, 2s. 6d. 
 
 THE WORSHIP OF THE ROMANS 
 
 Crown 8vo, 6s. 
 
 " A scholarly analysis of the religious ceremonies, beliefs, 
 and superstitions of ancient Rome, conducted in the new and 
 instructive light of comparative anthropology." — Times. 
 
THE 
 
 SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 A STUDY IN THE RELIGIOUS 
 EXPERIENCE 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK GRANGER 
 
 D.Lit., M."A. (Lond.) 
 
 PROFESSOR IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM 
 
 METHUEN & CO. 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 1 900 
 
Ats-no^ 
 
REV. ROBERT VAUGHAN 
 
 RECTOR OF SEBERGHAM 
 AUTHOR OF " STONES FROM THE QUARRV" 
 
" I did greatly long to see some ancient godly 
 man's experience, who had writ some hundreds 
 of years before I was born ; for those who had 
 writ in our days, I thought (but I desire them 
 now to pardon me) that they had writ only that 
 which others felt, or else had, through the 
 strength of their Wit and Parts, studied to answer 
 such objections as they perceived others were per- 
 plexed with, without going down themselves into 
 the deep." 
 
 Bunyan, Grace Abounding, p. 129. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE Christian experience is deeper, richer, 
 more varied, than is supposed by some 
 and taught by others. It is deeper than we 
 should imagine if we listened only to those who 
 reduce it to the superficial acceptance of a creed ; 
 it is richer than appears from the dry and barren 
 summary with which some thinkers are content ; 
 and it is far too varied to be exhausted by any 
 single type or group of types. But this book 
 has for its immediate aim neither to praise the 
 Christian religion nor to make converts. It seeks 
 to describe in as scientific a spirit as possible 
 what after all is a fair object for cool reflec- 
 tion. Although religion appeals to the feelings, 
 and is therefore a proper field for the orator, 
 there is an advantage also in words which speak 
 of nothing more than what we are. The use of 
 the plain truth ought not to be the last compli- 
 ment which men pay to their faith. Such an 
 investigation will not be unprofitable for the 
 study of mind generally. The emotions, and 
 again, poetic invention and genius, are not very 
 well understood as yet, even by the professed 
 students of the mind. Perhaps as we approach 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 these problems from a new standpoint, we may 
 see them in a clearer light. 
 
 The reader who finds the opening chapters 
 somewhat hard to follow, is advised to postpone 
 them and to begin with the fourth chapter, in 
 which the different forms of conversion are dis- 
 cussed and to proceed from that point to the end. 
 He will then be better placed for the somewhat 
 unfamiliar considerations with which, in the first 
 three chapters, I have tried to plumb some of the 
 soul's recesses. Truth is not all on the surface 
 even in religion. 
 
 In the twelfth chapter, I have tried amongst 
 other things to describe the practice of the good 
 man in speaking the truth. Throughout I have 
 assumed that a lie of whatever degree is a vice. 
 And yet I find that there are at least three cases in 
 which even good men sometimes tell lies (p. 276). 
 In Judaea of old, a poet said hastily, though 
 perhaps quite truly, that all men were liars ; so 
 too it seems that in a modern state, all citizens 
 are indirectly accomplices in deceit (p. 277). It 
 is better surely to confess the deep-rooted dis- 
 order of human society, and our own inex- 
 tricable responsibility for it, than to pretend that 
 truth is entirely attained in daily practice. Here 
 I seem to light upon the reason why foreigners 
 charge us with hypocrisy as our national failing. 
 Englishmen are perhaps more straightforward 
 than other nations. But we are apt to blind 
 ourselves to the real nature of the compromises 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 with principle to which we are driven not less 
 than others. To tell lies is not the greatest 
 sin ; the hypocrite not only tells lies, but seeks 
 to hide his sin from himself, his fellows, and his 
 God. 
 
 Sherwood Rise, Nottingham 
 February 1900 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. ON METHOD ..... I 
 
 II. THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL . . .23 
 
 III. THE OVERSOUL . . . . .46 
 
 IV. THE SOUL'S AWAKENING . . . -72 
 V. ECSTASY ...... 98 
 
 VI. THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL . . I23 
 
 VII. VISIONS AND VOICES . . . .147 
 
 VIII. HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE . . . 168 
 
 IX. SYMBOL AND RITUAL .... 206 
 
 X. PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION . . .225 
 
 XI. ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS . . . 246 
 
 XII. DIRECTION, CONFESSION, AND CASUISTRY . 265 
 
 XIII. MYSTICAL THEOLOGY .... 285 
 
THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 
 
 Purpose of the book — Difficulties of topic — Choice of sources — 
 Method — Value for psychology — Philosophy of religion — 
 Theology. 
 
 IT is the purpose of this essay to describe the 
 Christian life, as far as possible, in the terms, 
 and with the methods, of psychology. At the 
 same time, this task is not undertaken with the 
 idea that the Christian life rests upon an illusion 
 which it is the business of the psychologist' to 
 dispel. Such an idea can only arise in the mind 
 of one who entirely misunderstands the principles 
 of method. Each study has its appropriate 
 subject matter and its corresponding standard 
 of validity ; and confusion arises when the 
 standard of one science is applied within the 
 field of another science. 
 
 Yet there is a point of contact between the 
 spheres of the religious life and of psychological 
 study, to which attention must be drawn before 
 we go any further. Psychology always attempts 
 
2 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 to seize upon the genuine character of each ex- 
 perience, as distinguished from the colour which 
 may be put upon it, either by the subject of the 
 experience, or by others. And in the religious life 
 there is a frequent and pressing danger of putting 
 a colour upon experiences, of playing a part. 
 This indeed was the emphatic opinion of the 
 founder of the Christian religion. Hypocrisy, He 
 said, spreads through the life of professedly re- 
 ligious persons, like leaven through meal. But 
 this hypocrisy is not necessarily a conscious one. 
 The fanatic is an unconscious hypocrite. We are 
 on the way to the cure of this failing when we 
 lay hold upon what is undoubtedly real, and discard 
 what is merely appearance. 
 
 Hence it is that, amidst the immeasurable 
 quantity of religious literature, there is but little 
 which is truly available for our investigation. For 
 nearly all religious literature has the intention of 
 edifying, of leading men outside themselves to 
 something higher. And there would seem to be 
 an inevitable conflict between this intention and 
 the attitude of an impartial observer. If you 
 describe things as in your opinion they ought 
 to be, you will probably, nay, almost certainly, 
 fail to lay due emphasis on every aspect of 
 things as they are. And that which holds good 
 of the outer world, also holds of the inner life ; 
 the idealist who looks for the best, or the worst, 
 of outer things, is under a severe temptation to 
 alter the perspective of the spiritual experience. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 3 
 
 Hence there are very few sermons, amid all the 
 multitude that have been at any time delivered, 
 which sincerely reveal the soul of the preacher, 
 as it is in the sight of the Eternal. It may 
 be replied, that it is the special business of 
 sermons to comfort and console ; but that is just 
 the reason — perhaps the necessary reason — why 
 we cannot make use of them now. Yet there 
 have been preachers who have made the interior 
 life the key by which to unlock the hearts of 
 their audiences ; who having been sincere with 
 themselves first of all, have then spoken as men 
 to men. But this can only be done in the 
 language of the soul, a dialect which each must 
 construct for himself, piecing together an alphabet 
 from his own heartstrings. 
 
 A similar reason will prevent us from finding 
 much help in ecclesiastical history, and in the 
 biographies of religious persons. Either we have, 
 instead of the plain fact, " an exaggerated and un- 
 natural panegyric," or a moral is hung upon every 
 possible peg. But to use Goethe's trenchant 
 phrase, God is not like the inn-keeper who 
 presents his reckoning every Saturday. Hence 
 ecclesiastical histories are only available so far 
 as they contain contemporary documents and 
 sources, letters and speeches. One of the finest 
 portraits of Athanasius is limned in the pages 
 of Gibbon, and St Bernard is perhaps best 
 presented in the work of another avowedly non- 
 Christian writer, Cotter Morison. The reason 
 
4 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 is not far to seek: Gibbon and Cotter Morison 
 could write with their eye upon the object. They 
 were not distracted by the wish to turn their 
 heroes to spiritual profit. For the student can- 
 not remain content with the method of the 
 partisan religious historian. There is nothing 
 which is not spoilt by touching up, and biography 
 perhaps suffers as much as anything. Heart 
 speaks to heart, as the motto runs of one, who 
 under compulsion bared his very soul to the 
 world. And so I repeat without further apology 
 that sermons and ecclesiastical histories and the 
 biographies of religious persons do not, as a rule, 
 unveil completely the soul of a Christian. 
 
 Where then is this kind of truth to be sought ? 
 It is to be sought at the fountain head, in those 
 journals and autobiographies and letters which 
 are the vehicles of an original and living ex- 
 perience, and not merely the reflections of Scrip- 
 ture and Creed, repeated in an alien medium. 
 The field is not so large as we might expect, 
 and the comparatively few authorities to which 
 reference will be made in these pages, form a 
 considerable proportion of the material which is 
 available for our purpose. 
 
 But the appeal which we shall continually make 
 to the individual experience involves a certain 
 divergence from the ordinary procedure of the 
 psychologist, or rather an extension of it, an 
 application of it, to a special subject-matter. The 
 modifications which we shall be compelled to 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 5 
 
 make can only become clear as the topic we are 
 studying is developed. Tertullian, in his book 
 Upon the Soul, claims to " free common opinions 
 from the subtleties of thinkers by referring them 
 to sacred literature." 1 Paraphrasing this, we may 
 say that we shall not limit the religious experience 
 by the canons of psychology, but rather, on the 
 contrary, we shall extend the latter to take in this 
 special subject. 
 
 For we shall find reason to hold that the 
 common rule of advancing from the familiar and 
 accessible fact to that which is less known, is not 
 applicable here. We shall, perhaps, be in im- 
 mediate contact with the real all the way, but 
 the later stages of our journey will be not less, 
 but more, of a revelation than the earlier ones. 
 Hence the part of experience which is held in 
 common possession, is not necessarily a clue to 
 the specific experiences of the religious life. 
 
 How, then, is the comparative method to be 
 applied if the religious experience is unique? 
 How are we to rise from the isolation of the 
 solitary experience to the objective character 
 required by scientific method? The distinction 
 between the higher reaches of the religious ex- 
 periences and the common experience, does not 
 take away the likeness to be traced in the lives 
 that sometimes have reached that higher level. 
 There are strong analogies between careers as 
 diverse in circumstance as those of Paul and 
 
 1 par. 2. 
 
6 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Augustine, and Bunyan, and Wesley and Newman. 
 We shall try to get at the meaning of these 
 analogies by setting them in their proper context, 
 or, as the same idea may be put, in their proper 
 universe. 1 Here we meet with a form of fallacy 
 which is exceedingly frequent, not only in the study 
 of the religious life but in psychology generally. 
 The nature of an experience is determined, not 
 only by its own form, but by that of its accompani- 
 ments. At least this would seem to hold good 
 of all higher experiences. Hence it might even 
 be said that an experience formally the same, is 
 differenced in different persons by what goes with 
 it. And, in particular, it may be said that, apart 
 from the universe to which it belongs, the single 
 religious experience in itself is meaningless. We 
 cannot, therefore, be content with a mere enumera- 
 tion of isolated states as an account of the religious 
 life. We must view its various elements in their 
 inter- connection, and in their relations within a 
 systematic unity, that is to say, within the sphere 
 of the religious ideal. 
 
 Now it is to be noticed that this ideal is only 
 pointed at — not realised — in each successive 
 moment of the religious experience. The ideal 
 is like a word of which the successive experiences 
 are the letters. " It is the peculiarity of the 
 human mind that it cannot take an object in, 
 which is submitted to it, simply and integrally. 
 
 1 A universe denotes the sphere of meaning within which an idea 
 holds good. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 7 
 
 It conceives by means of definition or description ; 
 whole objects do not create in the intellect whole 
 ideas, but are, to use a mathematical phrase, 
 thrown into series, into a number of statements, 
 strengthening, interpreting, correcting each other, 
 and with more or less exactness approximating 
 as they accumulate to a perfect image." 1 
 
 But, further, not only is the religious ideal 
 incapable of being presented fully in a single 
 experience ; it is only partially realised in the 
 complete course of the individual life. Only in 
 the religious society as an organic whole can 
 , it be displayed. Hence the religious ideal is 
 specialised in the lives of individuals in such a 
 way that they bring out its meaning through 
 their union within the Church. If each man 
 may be said in his life to spell out a word, the 
 complete sentence in which religious thought is 
 expressed may be said to be uttered by the re- 
 ligious society. There is a suggestive parable of 
 this in the legend which describes the origin of 
 the Apostles' Creed. It is said that the twelve 
 apostles being assembled together, made in suc- 
 cession the declarations which, taken together, 
 form the creed, as though a single mind was 
 unable to be the organ of the complete Christian 
 thought. 
 
 We are at once brought up by the objection 
 that the experiences of the apostolic age may not 
 be compared with those of later times : it is main- 
 Newman, Essay on Development, 94- 
 
8 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 tained, for example, that the visions of St Paul 
 stand on quite a different footing from those of 
 St Teresa. 1 It may indeed turn out that the 
 visions of St Paul are of a different character from 
 those of the Spanish saint, but if that is the case, 
 and the difference is a thoroughgoing one, we 
 ought surely be able to detect the fact for our- 
 selves. Again, to take another example, the room 
 where the apostles were gathered together at 
 Pentecost, is said to have been shaken in a 
 mysterious way. I seem to myself to understand 
 this fact better when I read in George Fox's 
 Journal that at Mansfield " the house seemed to 
 be shaken. Some of the professors said it was 
 now as in the days of the apostles, when the 
 house was shaken where they were." And the 
 suggestion of "the professors" is a very likely 
 one. It is very easy to say that Fox was in 
 error and that the house was not shaken, but Fox 
 was there and the critics were not. At any rate, 
 George Fox believed that the building was shaken, 
 and from our present point of view, this is enough. 
 The distinction, then, that is sometimes drawn 
 between the miraculous character of apostolic times, 
 and the non-miraculous character of later times, 
 breaks down. We must not be frightened from 
 meeting the truth face to face by any artificial 
 limits of what is possible. The study of the 
 religious experience extends our estimate of the 
 powers of the human mind. 
 
 1 Herrmann, Communion with God, E. Trans., 223, 224. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 9 
 
 We shall not be prevented, therefore, from em- 
 ploying the comparative method within the limits 
 laid down. Not only so, we shall be content with 
 a merely subjective view of evidence. It is out- 
 side the plan of this essay to seek a proof of those 
 external events which, whether exactly described 
 or not, have no immediate bearing upon the inner 
 life. It is the business of the historian to determine 
 the objective truth of a narrative ; the student of 
 the mind regards belief in an event as equivalent to 
 the event itself, for the purposes of some inquiries, 
 and this seems to be an inquiry of such a kind. 
 And, on the other hand, the historian is bound to 
 take account of beliefs, although they are without 
 support in immediate fact. Still more is he bound 
 to take account of beliefs which, in themselves, 
 carry a certain presupposition in favour of their 
 object. 
 
 Among the difficulties which attach to the study 
 of the Christian life in its historical manifestations, 
 not the least is the diversity of belief and practice 
 which seem to render any general account of it 
 impossible. But this diversity is in reality more 
 on the surface than at first sight appears. The 
 complexity of the religious ideal, the difficulty 
 of realising it completely within any given condi- 
 tions, gives occasion to misunderstandings. Hasty 
 thinkers jump to the conclusion that that part of 
 the Christian ideal which does not answer to their 
 point of view is superfluous or even harmful, and 
 on the other hand they bring into undue promi- 
 
10 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 nence those provinces of religious truth which have 
 affected them most deeply. But when we rise from 
 the view of a single age to the general history of 
 the Christian Church, and from the conditions im- 
 posed by the genius of a single race, and the cir- 
 cumstance of its life, to the qualities demanded by 
 a universal church, we begin to feel the need of 
 caution, of a spiritual disinterestedness which is 
 content to forego private inclinations and pre- 
 judices in the interests of a truly catholic faith. 
 At the same time, such a temper as this will not 
 feel itself bound to reject the particular expressions 
 of religious feeling which seem to break in upon 
 this ideal unity. It is only when a single truth 
 is presented in such a way as to obscure the claims 
 of other truths upon the intellect and the heart 
 that it becomes dangerous, and, in the scientific 
 sense of the word, heretical. Perhaps I may 
 single out two principles which are often over- 
 looked in reflecting about religion. There is 
 the principle of Revelation, and the principle of 
 Parsimony. 
 
 The principle of Revelation has already been 
 anticipated ; it is this : that the data of the Christian 
 philosophy must be accepted as " given " to the 
 reason which argues from them. Of course this 
 does not close inquiry about the limits of what is 
 "given" on the one hand, and of what we infer 
 on the other. But the positive and historical 
 side of the Christian tradition can never be inter- 
 preted by any method which, like that of Strauss, 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 1 1 
 
 treats the whole Christian system as a mental 
 creation. 
 
 The principle of Parsimony instructs us how we 
 are to deal with what is " given.'' We must not 
 take statements in their fullest application, but 
 rather incline to an underestimate — not of religious 
 truth in its depth and power — but of the amount 
 to which that truth depends on any one fact. 
 Statements, which, taken singly, are but pro- 
 babilities, serve in sum to establish a reasonable 
 certainty, and this is changed by faith into a moral 
 certainty. This principle will be illustrated in the 
 chapter on the Oversoul. 
 
 The inquiry upon which we are engaged, and of 
 which the method has been roughly sketched, will 
 be of interest to the psychologist, the student of 
 the philosophy of religion, and to the theologian. 
 
 Ribot, in his Psychology of the Emotions, points 
 out that there is a great field for the psychological 
 student in " the part played by the emotions and 
 passions in human life." 1 Now they can only 
 be studied to any profit amid the stresses of 
 particular experiences such as those with which 
 we are to be engaged. Further, the very fulness 
 and reality of the religious life promises more 
 even to the student of general psychology than 
 the desiccated skeletons of experiences which 
 are trailed over the pages of an abstract analysis. 
 " Shall the spiritual world," Kingsley asks, " be 
 limited by us to the merest commonplaces of 
 1 Pref. 
 
12 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 everyday experience ? " x We shall consider, 
 therefore, in the chapter upon the depths of the 
 soul, how far the ordinary analysis of experience 
 is really exhaustive. Again, some contemporary 
 psychologists look anxiously for traces of disease 
 in everything which is at all uncommon, and they 
 are thus led to exaggerate the morbid character 
 of the mystical experience. For example, Dr 
 Tylor thinks that a full meal would close the 
 gates of paradise to most ascetic visionaries. 2 I 
 do not think it would be as doubtful a statement 
 if it should be affirmed that abstemious living 
 would open the gates of the visionary world to 
 everybody. At any rate some physiologists 
 maintain that normal digestion is of very rare 
 occurrence. Suppose that heaven is literally 
 lying about us still, and that fasting of a genuine 
 character is necessary to see it. I do not say 
 that this is the case, because I have never 
 undertaken the amount of fasting that might 
 be necessary. But the supposition is worth 
 making, if only as a check to our presumption 
 of what is possible. Large numbers of dyspeptic 
 writers have proved that Blake was mad because 
 he saw visions. The other alternative takes the 
 breath away. Suppose that his experience is the 
 more truly normal one ! 
 
 The idea of the average must therefore be 
 distinguished from the idea of the normal. The 
 
 1 Preface to Life and Sermons of Tauter. 
 
 2 Primitive Culture, ii. 415. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 13 
 
 average person is dyspeptic more or less. The 
 normal experience therefore — to take even this 
 standpoint — is not the same as the average one. 
 Again, the normal experience of the individual 
 must be viewed as part of a social life. The 
 individual reaches complete satisfaction — not 
 within himself — but in the whole life of which 
 he is a member. As such he will have his own 
 office to perform, and in proportion as the society 
 becomes more perfectly organised, the diversity 
 between the different functions it imposes will 
 also increase. Hence the normal member of such 
 a community may sacrifice a great portion of his 
 capacities to the performance of one or two special 
 duties. In one sense, it may be said that his 
 nature is cramped and dwarfed ; but the society 
 which exacts these sacrifices may more than 
 compensate them in the realisation of the common 
 ideal to which he contributes, and in which he 
 shares. Hence the poet and the inventor and the 
 discoverer are not proved to be morbid types by 
 the extent to which they diverge from the average. 
 And what holds good of them holds good also 
 of the religious genius. The religious genius is 
 not proved to be morbid by the extent to which 
 he diverges from the average type. Moreover, 
 the natures of these special types throw light one 
 upon another. There are analogies between the 
 mental outfit of Bunyan and of Blake, and the 
 nature of religious inspiration helps to the under- 
 standing of the poet's mind. 
 
14 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 But this very common life which enables us to 
 interpret these special types, sets a problem of 
 great difficulty. The familiar individualist psy- 
 chology seems unable to deal adequately with it, 
 and this for an obvious reason. The subject of 
 the religious ideal seems to be more than in- 
 dividual, and indeed to be capable within itself 
 of distinction into persons. The doctrine of the 
 Trinity, for example, seems to be rather a formula 
 for the religious life in its ultimate nature than 
 an isolated and inexplicable mystery. Or to 
 speak in a less theological manner, the fact of 
 freewill — to use the popular phrase — in an 
 ordered universe, involves implicitly just the dis- 
 tinction of persons within one substance, which 
 is rendered explicit in the doctrine in question. 
 I can quite imagine someone to object that such 
 doctrines are purely hypothetical constructions, 
 and that if we refuse to grant the postulates on 
 which they rest, they fall to the ground. But we 
 are not now concerned with the doctrines them- 
 selves but with the psychological facts at which 
 they seem to point. I shall try, therefore, to 
 single out that aspect of the common experience 
 with which psychology is perhaps competent to 
 deal, and to consider whether after all Emerson's 
 hypothesis of oversoul deserves the contemptuous 
 silence with which it has been passed over. 
 
 In the next place, the philosophy of religion 
 has something to learn from psychology. Unless 
 its terms can be translated back into the specific 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 15 
 
 experience, it has no guarantee against being 
 deceived by purely fantastic creations which the 
 abstract understanding sometimes decks out in 
 a spectral garb. The particular is as profound 
 a notion as that of the universal to which it is 
 related. As a matter of fact it is nearer than 
 the universal to the notion of the individual, in 
 which thought approaches its culmination. For 
 the ideal in which thought culminates is realised, 
 not in the abstract, but in the organised society 
 of which the individual is a component. 
 
 In fact it may be said that the universal is 
 merely the scaffolding through which the particular 
 is transformed into the individual, and that when 
 its work is done its meaning ceases too. For, 
 as we have seen, each life tends to run a unique 
 course of its own, and there is no universal mould 
 into which it can be fitted. Hence the implicit 
 attitude of mind, which in religion is called faith, 
 can only be rendered self-conscious by using 
 general terms, by distinguishing it from what 
 conflicts with it : but this act of distinction is 
 unimportant compared with the initial appre- 
 hension. Description and definition do not create 
 their objects, they simply draw lines round them, 
 and thus separate them from what they are not. 
 If we take feeling, reflection, intuition to represent 
 the three stages of belief, we see that in the 
 second stage the soul, as it were, goes outside 
 of its possessions. It no longer speaks from with- 
 in, or from experience as a party and possessor 
 
1 6 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 of the fact, but "from without as a spectator, 
 merely, or perhaps as acquainted with the fact 
 on the evidence of third persons." 1 I remember 
 reading somewhere, I think with reference to 
 Renan, that anyone who was to write a history 
 of religion, must have once believed but have 
 ceased to believe. What, I suppose, was demanded 
 by this second qualification, was the power of 
 detaching oneself from the subject. Yet the 
 sympathy which comes of the first condition, that, 
 namely of belief, is perhaps the more important 
 of the two. 
 
 Since, therefore, the specific feeling refuses to 
 submit to formulae which rather describe what 
 it is not, than what it is, it turns out that the 
 divisions which separate soul from soul are less 
 transparent than formal logic likes to assume. 
 Hence we shall be prepared to find a greater 
 difficulty in reflecting upon the distinctions and 
 likeness which hold of the various religious types 
 than is usually expected. The very emphasis 
 which it is necessary to lay upon the unique 
 character of the religious, as of other forms of 
 life, will make us more attentive to those regions 
 of experience where the division between soul 
 and soul breaks down. Here we approach again 
 from a different standpoint the problem which 
 psychology finds in determining the subject of 
 the complete religious experience. The fact that 
 souls can enter into communion with one another 
 
 1 Emerson, Essay on The Oversoul. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 17 
 
 is an assumption which psychology makes for 
 itself, but which surely it is the business of the 
 philosophy of religion to examine. It is at least 
 an admissible hypothesis that the communication 
 of minds is through some common ground, that 
 the communication of soul with soul is not 
 entirely accounted for by the indirect modes of 
 inference described by Mr Spencer. 1 This topic 
 will be dwelt upon in the third chapter. 
 
 There is a difference between theology and the 
 philosophy of religion. Theology implies that a 
 particular standpoint is taken up in religious 
 matters, whereas the philosophy of religion would 
 seem to view all standpoints in an external 
 manner. The philosophy of religion deals with 
 its subject as related to human experience gener- 
 ally, whereas theology tends to confine itself within 
 the limits laid down by tradition, whether the tradi- 
 tion take the form of certain documents, or certain 
 institutions, or both of these together. Ritschl, for 
 example, says that the formation of the leading 
 ideas in systematic theology must proceed through- 
 out upon specifically New Testament views. 2 But 
 soon after he indicates the need of a reference to 
 psychology by saying that "every change in 
 theology presupposes changes in the religious 
 and ecclesiastical consciousness. 3 In fact, theo- 
 logy in the narrower sense is now passing over 
 
 1 Principles of Psychology, Part I., c. 7. 
 
 3 History of Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconcilia- 
 tion, Eng. Trans., p. 3. 
 3 Op. cit., 18. 
 B 
 
1 8 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 into a philosophy of religion. It is no longer 
 possible to isolate the Old and New Testaments 
 from all other records, nor again the Christian 
 experience from all other experiences. Yet this 
 very act of comparison is far from implying that 
 what is characteristic in the Christian faith is to 
 be merged in some abstraction. Comparison 
 emphasises differences as well as resemblances. 
 Christianity is in some respects like the nature 
 religions, but it is infinitely more unlike them. 
 It is only by comparison, as we have seen, that 
 what is really characteristic is brought to light. 1 
 Hence the transformation of theology in the 
 narrower sense to a philosophy of religion, means 
 that Christian beliefs, instead of being treated as 
 out of relation to the rest of thought, are brought 
 into relation with it, and at the same time dis- 
 tinguished. And what holds concerning the 
 objective elements in the Christian tradition, 
 holds with reference to the Christian experience. 
 While, as we have seen, psychology must not 
 unduly limit the possibilities of that experience, 
 it is also true that any account of the Christian 
 experience must satisfy the ordinary tests of what 
 is real. I remember — if this reminiscence may 
 be excused — being perplexed when I was about 
 seventeen years old, by what was told me con- 
 cerning the process of conversion, and I asked 
 some of those who professed to know something 
 about the religious life, what was meant by con- 
 
 1 P. 6, Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, 3. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 19 
 
 version, or rather what took place in it. The 
 answers that I received raised more difficulties 
 in my mind than they removed. My informants 
 simply repeated to me the terms in which the 
 writers of the New Testament speak of the life 
 of the soul, and they seemed to employ in their 
 explanations a dialect which was never applied 
 by them to the common things of life. Of course 
 I found in conversation as time went on, that my 
 experience was repeated in other cases where the 
 discipline of school had cultivated the habit of 
 determining the meaning of words. I was not 
 surprised then to find that this not infrequent 
 experience was also that of Newman. "In 182 1 
 he had been drawing up at great length an 
 account of the Evangelical process of conversion 
 in a series of scripture texts, going through its 
 stages of conviction of sin, terror, despair, news 
 of the free and full salvation, apprehension of 
 Christ, sense of pardon, assurance of salvation, 
 joy and peace, and so on to final perseverance : 
 and he there makes this N.B. upon his work : 
 
 " I speak of conversion with great diffidence, 
 being obliged to adopt the language of books. 
 For my own feelings were so different from any 
 account I have ever read that I dare not go by 
 what may be an individual case." 
 
 It is only right to say that " at various times 
 of his life, as, for instance, after the publication 
 of his 'Apologia' letters, kindly intended, were 
 addressed to him by strangers or anonymous 
 
20 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 writers, assuring him that he did not yet know 
 what conversion meant." x 
 
 However, this may be, unless theology can put 
 its statements into the terms of the living ex- 
 perience it is reduced to the merest wordspinning. 
 The method described by Newman can only 
 retain its authority by the help of a fallacious 
 theory of verbal inspiration, 2 and now that this 
 idol of the theatre seems in a fair way to be 
 exploded, the method of which it was the founda- 
 tion must go with it. I do not mean that the 
 truths of theology are necessarily within the scope 
 of the tavern and the street. The beer-jug and 
 the mid-day sporting tissue appeal to one set of 
 feelings ; the communications of the seer appeal 
 to another set. The experience which furnishes 
 us with the needful touchstone is that of the 
 religious life, and for this we must have recourse 
 to those who have best lived that life, that is to 
 say — using a term which has a quite definite 
 meaning — the saints. For a saint is one who 
 displays in a special degree the excellences which 
 characterise the Christian ideal. In order, then, 
 to understand the New Testament and the history 
 
 1 Letters of J. H. Newman, vol. i., 108, 109. 
 
 2 Notice that what was called verbal inspiration really stood for an 
 arbitrary and unhistorical method of interpreting the Bible, which 
 entirely contradicted the true inspiration of the biblical books. It 
 distinguished neither the degree nor the mode of inspiration; 
 treated history, drama, poetry, and prophecy, as exactly equivalent 
 in the expression of religious truth. The verbal inspiration of 
 this complex literature is a fact for us, if we are willing to recognise 
 the differences of degree and of intention. 
 
ON THE METHOD OF THE INQUIRY 21 
 
 of the Christian Church, we must make use of 
 the psychology of the saints. The church of 
 each age is the living commentary upon the 
 Christian tradition. The life of Jesus can only 
 be understood, and the imitation of Jesus is only 
 possible, by the great mass of mankind, so far as 
 the ideal which He embodied is reflected in the 
 Christian society. There is then no century which 
 can claim the exclusive and plenary possession of 
 Christian truth, neither the first, nor the third, 
 nor the thirteenth, nor the sixteenth, nor the 
 nineteenth. And yet, perhaps, there is no age 
 which has not contributed some revelation to the 
 sum of truth. Hence we may not omit one of 
 the nineteen centuries which bind the present, as 
 by a golden chain, to the life of the carpenter. 
 
 And so, as we study the lives of saints and 
 mystics in the most direct and intimate manner 
 possible, we are, as it were, in the workshop of 
 the religious spirit on its contemplative side. The 
 autobiographies, say of St Augustine or of St 
 Teresa, furnish a touchstone by which we may 
 test religious formularies. Their rich emotional 
 life wells up in thoughts, many of which are fit 
 to become the germs of whole systems of thought. 
 It is almost the opposite of what seems the case, 
 to say with Herrmann that " Greater and higher 
 than all religious emotion within the Christian, 
 there rises and towers religious thought." 1 On 
 the contrary, thought enters into the Christian 
 
 1 The Communion of the Christian with God, p. 39. 
 
22 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 intuition mainly as the negative determination of 
 feeling. Let us take a single example. The 
 different attributes of the divine nature are so 
 combined in the life of Jesus that He exhibits 
 them in their relation to one another so far as 
 this is possible within the limits of a human life. 
 Herrmann, in The Communion of the Christian 
 with God, has for his main object to show what 
 is an incorrect inference from this principle, that 
 " we do not merely come through Christ to God, 
 but that we find nothing in God but Christ." 1 
 The German thinker merely gives exaggerated 
 expression to a thought which St Teresa puts 
 far more vividly in a single poetic phrase. " I 
 see clearly and since then have always seen that 
 if we are to please God, and if He is to give us 
 great graces, everything must pass through the 
 hands of His most sacred Humanity, in Whom 
 His Majesty has said that He is well pleased." 2 
 But the Spanish saint has left many thoughts as 
 suggestive as this. 
 
 1 P. 26. s Life translated by Lewis c. xxii., par. 9. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 
 
 Empirical psychology inadequate — Discursive method and intui- 
 tion — Coming to God — Augustine — Gaining of soul — Poetic 
 apprehension — Religion and science — Blake's philosophy and 
 life — Blake as mystic — Mysticism defined and distinguished 
 from vision and symbolism. 
 
 A FEW years ago it would have been con- 
 sidered extravagant to suggest that the 
 soul had any secrets which lay beyond the reach 
 of the discursive understanding. As against the 
 mystic, the systematic thinker observed an amused 
 and contemptuous silence. He refused to re- 
 cognise the inadequacy of his own methods which 
 were governed in the main by the analogies of 
 physical science. Now, just as the methods of 
 psychology have been extended in one direction, 
 namely, that of psychophysics, so it would seem 
 that they may be capable of extension in other 
 directions, and in particular in the direction sug- 
 gested by the mystical temper. 
 
 We have already seen that the idea of the 
 average is capable of being misapplied in psy- 
 chology. There is another assumption which 
 vitiates psychological method, namely, that it is 
 possible to interpret the whole range of conscious- 
 
24 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 ness from within the limits of the individual life. 
 And these two sources of error seem to be linked 
 together. So long as psychology deals with the 
 individual mind regarded in isolation, it will be 
 confined to the merest commonplace, and will 
 thus fail to deal with what is truly distinctive. 
 Considering descriptive psychologies in the light 
 of works of fiction, the imaginary hero whose 
 symptoms are described, is usually like a victim 
 chained in the prison of dulness. When once, 
 however, we pass from the individual to the social 
 life in which alone he is possible, the case is 
 changed. We are now able to regard each 
 experience set over against other experiences, 
 as unique. Hence while some experiences are 
 deeper or wider than others, there is none which 
 limits all others to itself. 
 
 Hence the whole method of psychology has to 
 be modified. There are parts of life in which not 
 only the contents of the experience are, as always, 
 isolated, but the mode of their presentation is 
 unique. In other words the common denominator 
 of human life is relatively limited, not only in the 
 products, but in the processes of experience. There 
 is a difference not only in degree, but in kind, 
 between the heroic and the commonplace. Maeter- 
 linck is almost justified in his exaggeration of an 
 overlooked truth when he says, " All that does 
 not go beyond experimental and daily wisdom is 
 unworthy of the soul." 1 
 
 1 Trisor des Humbles, 164 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 25 
 
 There is another limitation to the method of 
 psychology which is specially important at this 
 point. Psychology can mark off and classify the 
 products of consciousness ; it is almost unable to 
 seize the processes. It is like an anatomy of the 
 soul separated from a physiology. The intro- 
 spective method, as it were, can portray the rain- 
 bow above the waterfall. It cannot fix the descent 
 of the spray, nor the passage of the refracted rays. 
 And the soul is revealed far more in what it does 
 than in what it says. We may seize, abstract, 
 define certain superficial aspects of its life, but we 
 are bound also to engage in the almost insuperable 
 task of finding out the secrets of its working, or 
 else our thoughts about the soul become dry and 
 barren. If, then, we wish to see the soul really 
 portrayed, we find it in the drama of the masters 
 of human passion, rather than in the more abstract 
 presentations of psychology. For feeling is the 
 fountain of consciousness, and the psychologists 
 have never yet succeeded in dealing with it satis- 
 factorily. " There are things so sublime," says St 
 John of the Cross, " that their proper idiom is for 
 them to be perceived, felt and wrapped in silence." x 
 From age to age some poet or seer or man of 
 action reveals a little of the mystery, but mystery 
 grows too fast for revelation to keep pace with it. 
 
 " The merely descriptive literature of the emo- 
 tions is one of the most tedious parts of psychology. 
 And not only is it tedious, but you feel that its 
 
 1 Living Flame of Lave, verse ii., line 4. 
 
26 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 subdivisions are to a great extent either fictitious 
 or unimportant, and that its pretences to accuracy 
 are a sham. But unfortunately there is little 
 psychological writing about the emotions which is 
 not merely descriptive. As emotions are described 
 in novels they interest us, for we are made to share 
 them. We have grown acquainted with the con- 
 crete objects and emergencies which call them 
 forth, and any knowing touch of introspection 
 which may grace the page meets with a quick and 
 feeling response. . . . But as far as ' scientific 
 psychology ' of the emotions goes, I should as lief 
 read verbal descriptions of the shapes of the rocks 
 on a New Hampshire farm as toil through them 
 again. They give nowhere a central point of view, 
 or a deductive or generative principle." 1 Professor 
 James' remedy for this sad state of things is to 
 represent feeling as an echo of psychological states. 
 Thus we are sorry because we cry, rejoice because 
 we laugh, and not the contrary. But even these 
 considerations only apply to the more superficial 
 aspects of emotion. They do not take us into the 
 depths where the springs of conduct are touched. 
 " Though you trod every path," says Heraclitus, 
 "you could not find the limits of the soul, so 
 deep is its essence." 2 
 
 This bankruptcy of psychology is not inexpli- 
 cable. Consciousness is not merely a physical 
 fact, and what is specially characteristic of the 
 human consciousness cannot be expressed in 
 1 Principles of Psychology, ii. 448. 2 Fr. 71. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 27 
 
 physical analogies. Love, deliberate purpose, 
 creative invention cannot be formulated universally 
 in an exhaustive manner. While, therefore, we 
 are not going to deny the validity in its degree 
 of reasoning by general notions, they yield now 
 to a higher form of apprehension. The individual 
 is the highest form that the universal can take 
 for the absolute idea, or, as it has been said by 
 Lotze, the individual person is, in a sense, a species. 
 On the other hand, in the physical world, the 
 notion of individual is almost meaningless. One 
 crystal is like another in its kind. But, as we 
 rise towards the world of persons, comparison be- 
 comes less and less exhaustive of the nature of 
 things, until in the world of feeling we have to 
 deal with objects that have to be taken each for 
 themselves. We must not think, therefore, of 
 emotion as though it could be separated from its 
 circumstances ; it is a phase of the whole being, and 
 not a detachable attribute. Hence the masters of 
 the spiritual life have often been but indifferent 
 exponents of the more formal and abstract qualities 
 of mind, while the formal psychologist has often 
 lacked grip of the deeper realities of experience. 
 Mill, in his Autobiography, has described in classical 
 terms the distinction with which we are now con- 
 cerned. 1 Speaking of Carlyle he says : " I did 
 not deem myself a competent judge of Carlyle. 
 I felt that he was a poet, and that I was not ; that 
 he was a man of intuition, which I was not ; and 
 1 P. 176. 
 
28 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 that as such he not only saw many things before 
 me, which I could only, after they were pointed 
 out to me, hobble after and prove, but that it 
 was highly probable he could see many things 
 which were not visible to me, even after they 
 were pointed out. I knew that I could not see 
 round him, and could never be certain that I saw 
 over him." It would be hard to match the ex- 
 quisite candour of this passage, in which Mill him- 
 self disclosed his own unaffected greatness of mind. 
 
 The course of the spirit, therefore, baulks pre- 
 diction. " The wind blows where it will. You 
 hear its sound, but cannot tell where it blows from, 
 nor whither it is going. It is like the children of 
 the Spirit." It is impossible, then, to prophesy 
 the course which any soul will run, least of all 
 one on which circumstance presses lightest. And 
 if the mystery of the individual life grows upon us 
 as we consider it, still more is this the case with 
 national life. The average and commonplace does 
 not represent the nation so well as its heroes. 
 On the contrary, " the true mind of a nation at 
 any time is best ascertainable by examining that 
 of its greatest men." 1 
 
 How are we to give formal expression to this 
 truth, namely, that the soul moves to its destina- 
 tion through a series of surprises ? " On this path 
 man neither comes nor goes by footsteps, nor 
 intervals of space." 2 Distances are rather to be 
 
 1 Ruskin, Modern Painters, iii. 193. 
 
 2 Augustine, Confessions, i. 18. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 29 
 
 measured by change of feeling, nay, more than a 
 change, by what is like a new creation. It is a 
 kind of birth to reach further or rise higher towards 
 the centre of things. " We can thus be born more 
 than once," says Maeterlinck, " and at each of these 
 births we draw a little nearer to our God." 1 The 
 phrase of a new birth is thus but a symbol thrown 
 around a spiritual fact, and we must be on our guard 
 lest the symbolism, which is the necessary and yet 
 imperfect representation of that which transcends 
 physical conditions, be taken in a literal sense. 
 " For we must know," St John of the Cross declares, 
 " that the soul, so far as it is spirit, has nothing 
 high or low, nothing more or less deep in its 
 essence, like bodies that can be measured by 
 quantity. There is no difference between what 
 is within and what is without. Leaving this 
 meaning of a material and quantitative centre and 
 depth on one side, we call that the soul's deepest 
 centre which is the furthest goal to which its 
 essence, virtue, and power of movement and opera- 
 tion can reach ; and this centre is God. Love 
 unites the soul to God, and the more degrees of 
 love the soul holds, so much the more deeply does 
 it enter into God, and is concentrated into Him." 2 
 We are not venturing then upon any theory of 
 successive births, " the drear outworn speculation 
 so familiar to us all these many years past, where- 
 with the Esoteric Buddhist has traduced the greatest 
 
 1 Trisor lies Humbles, 256. 
 
 2 Living Flame of Love, verse i., line 3. 
 
30 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 spiritual influence in Asia." 1 It is also a serious 
 question whether the teaching of Jesus is not 
 caricatured when the symbols in which He clothed 
 it are petrified. There is a sect, I have been told, 
 which goes out upon the tiles to preach, because 
 Jesus said, " what ye hear in the ear, proclaim upon 
 the housetops." And this error is a parable. The 
 new birth, then, is not to be identified with the 
 phantasmagoria of the spiritualist, nor is it to be 
 confused with the figurate ideas through which 
 it is expressed. The kingdom of Heaven, to which 
 the new birth is a vestibule, is a kingdom of the 
 spirit, and has the spiritual for its main charac- 
 teristic whatever the visible shapes are in which it 
 is realised. 
 
 When this line of thought is followed out, some 
 religious minds begin to be apprehensive of ration- 
 alism. Two considerations will perhaps be enough 
 here. In the first place, the spiritual has for its 
 necessary correlative in human apprehension, the 
 visible through which it is realised. And again, the 
 highest form of the reason is not that which deals 
 with abstractions merely, but that which is con- 
 versant with the real, of which the abstract reason 
 has merely marked off successive aspects. So 
 also the will is not something that finds expression 
 in this or that isolated act, but rather reveals it- 
 self in the attitude of the soul to the whole universe 
 of ends. Hence the life which is truly spiritual is 
 not to be thought of as that of an abstract reason, 
 
 1 Fiona Macleod in the Dome, ii. 209. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 31 
 
 or of an abstract will, set over against the life of 
 the senses and natural impulses, but as including 
 and transfiguring all these constituent factors. If, 
 then, it is said that the union of the Christian with 
 God takes place in the will, it is difficult to imagine 
 any union more profound or intimate. We must 
 not think of a merely superficial assent of the 
 mind to an isolated thought or motive : in such 
 a process as this the soul is merged in the over- 
 soul and touches the Eternal, or rather is touched 
 by it. 
 
 In coming to God, the soul also finds itself. 
 The life of the soul — in its ultimate form as the 
 life of the spirit — consists in this : that " the life 
 of life," to use Augustine's phrase, is repeated, 
 reflected, or realised at an individual centre, and 
 this in such a way that the individual while he 
 shares in the common life, at the same time con- 
 tributes something of his own towards it. 
 
 It is now clear, perhaps, why the history of the 
 soul cannot be interpreted from within itself. This 
 history is like a riddle with two answers ; one is 
 found within, the other, in the whole system of 
 things. And so in detail ; the several processes 
 of the soul's life in its higher stages, consist in 
 the modification of the world-process by the 
 conditions of the centre at which it is being 
 mirrored and at the same time partially enacted. 
 
 Hence the psychology of the depths of the 
 soul must be written again for every single case. 
 To show how perhaps this might be done, we 
 
32 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 will take two instances, almost extreme ones, of 
 the religious life. Augustine shall portray for us 
 the religion of the orator and thinker, and Blake 
 shall illustrate the form which the one religious 
 ideal takes upon itself in the mind of a painter 
 and poet. 
 
 Augustine describes the manner in which he 
 gained at one time self-knowledge and knowledge 
 of divine things, in the following terms : " I 
 entered with Thee for guide into the depths of 
 my soul, and found the power to do so because 
 Thou wast my helper. I entered and saw with a 
 certain eye of my mind, an unchanging light — 
 not this common light which is visible to all flesh 
 — shining above that same eye of my mind, and 
 beyond my mind. And it was not like a greater 
 light of the same kind as that of the sun, but very 
 far different. Nor was it above my mind in the 
 way in which oil floats upon water, nor as the 
 sky is higher than the earth : but it was higher 
 because it made me, and I was made by It. The 
 man who knows the truth, knows that Light, and 
 the man who knows that Light knows the Eternal. 
 Love knows it, O eternal Truth, and true Love and 
 beloved Eternal ! Thou art my God, for Thee I 
 sigh by day and night. And as soon as I knew 
 Thee, Thou didst take me up so that I saw that 
 to exist on which I looked, and that I who 
 looked, did not yet exist. And Thou didst strike 
 the weakness of my sight, shining strongly upon 
 me, and I shivered with love and horror, and I 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 33 
 
 found that I was far from Thee in the region of 
 unlikeness, as though I heard the voice from on 
 high : ' / am the food of grown men, grow and thou 
 shalt eat Me ; nor shalt thou change Me into thy- 
 self as the food of thy flesh, but thou shalt be changed 
 into Myself' And I knew that Thou hast schooled 
 man for his iniquity, and hast made my mind to 
 waste away like a spider, and I said is Truth then 
 nothing, since it is diffused neither through finite 
 nor through infinite space? And Thou didst 
 shout from afar, / am that I am. And I heard 
 as a man hears in his heart, and there was no 
 doubt left in me, and I would rather doubt my 
 own life, than that the truth did not exist which 
 is seen being understood through the things which 
 are made." x 
 
 The unity of the soul is thus something to be 
 reached after and found both within God and 
 within itself. " I collected myself," says Augus- 
 tine, " from the dispersion wherein I turned from 
 Thee, the One, and was vainly divided." 2 The 
 soul is not there to begin with but must be 
 gained. " When we are distracted with contend- 
 ing impulses, there is a spiritual sadness because 
 the soul does not rise altogether, being lifted up 
 by the truth, but weighted down by custom." 3 
 This effort after unity with oneself is usually 
 accompanied with considerable anguish. "All 
 that we can learn without anguish cramps us." * 
 
 1 Conf. vii. 10. 2 Ibid. ii. 1. 
 
 3 Ibid. viii. 9. 4 Trlsor des Humbles, 164. 
 
34 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Hence in popular theology there is a kind of 
 formal repudiation of this effort in its different 
 forms, and the vivid realisation of the person of 
 Jesus is advised instead. " For," as St John of 
 the Cross says, "few are willing to endure even 
 for this purpose the least spiritual solitude and 
 mortification and to labour with firm patience." 1 
 
 There is no fundamental difference between 
 the apprehension of the religious ideal as Augus- 
 tine describes it, and the apprehension of the 
 poetic ideal. And not only the mind of the 
 poet, but those also of the plastic artist and of 
 the scientific discoverer, move towards their re- 
 spective goals in an analogous manner, although 
 with less self-consciousness. The introspective 
 tendency of the religious thinker, however, makes 
 him the most subtle and expressive interpreter 
 of the common experience. And so the writings 
 of the mystics generally serve as a key to forms 
 of spiritual life which are not specifically religious. 
 "It is one of the curiosities of Christian theology 
 that a divine influence asserted by Scripture and 
 believed by the early church to manifest itself in 
 the successful conduct of civil offices and the 
 fulness of intellectual learning should in these 
 latter days be often set up in a sort of super- 
 natural opposition to practical wisdom and the 
 results of science." 2 Men are not moved, unless 
 by a kind of self-devotion, to spend their energies 
 
 1 Living Flame of Love, verse ii., line 5. 
 G. A. Smith, Isaiah i. 188. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 35 
 
 in the pursuit of truth scientific or historic, or 
 again in creative production, social reform, or 
 mechanical invention. To use Heine's phrase, 
 they may be true knights of the Holy Spirit, and 
 may help to build up Jerusalem in fulfilling their 
 calling. There is an asceticism of the artist as 
 well as of the contemplative saint ; and he not 
 less than others must gird himself up to carry out 
 the divine vocation. 
 
 In some few instances — very few — the spirit 
 of a great artist has broken the silence and has 
 revealed the mode in which it has apprehended 
 the truth. The masters contemporary with 
 Socrates were dumb even to his questioning, but 
 in one striking instance an artist has attempted 
 to formulate his own theology, and we can see 
 the truth after which Augustine reached, through 
 the eyes of Blake. He * prefaces the fourth 
 chapter of Jerusalem, one of his strange prophetic 
 books, with the following manifesto. His latest 
 biographers suggest, that it will appear at first 
 sight a great deal more mad than some of his 
 writings. 1 I may say that they have made 
 a serious mistake in transcribing the passage 
 by writing " imminglement " for " entanglement." 
 After some hesitation I have ventured to offer 
 the reader an opportunity of judging for himself, 
 since Blake's writings are not accessible to every- 
 body. This passage offers in a compact form the 
 interpretation not only of Blake's life and work, 
 ' Ellis and Yeats, Life, i. 66. 
 
36 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 but also of Ruskin's teaching, 1 and is really the 
 counterpart of the quotation from Augustine. 
 For there are two poles of Christian truth, the 
 spiritual and the visible, and Blake's words may 
 stand specially for the latter. 
 " To the Christians." 
 
 I give you the end of a golden string, 
 
 Only wind it into a ball, 
 It will lead you in at Heaven's gate, 
 
 Built in Jerusalem's wall. 
 
 " We are told to abstain from fleshly desires 
 that we may lose no time from the work of the 
 Lord. Every moment lost is a moment that 
 cannot be redeemed, every pleasure that inter- 
 mingles with the duty of our station is a folly 
 unredeemable, and is planted like the seed of a 
 wildflower among our wheat. 2 All the tortures 
 of repentance are tortures of self-reproach on 
 account of our leaving the Divine Harvest to 
 the enemy, the struggles of entanglement with 
 incoherent roots. I know of no other Chris- 
 tianity and of no other Gospel than the liberty 
 both of body and mind to exercise the Divine 
 Arts of Imagination — Imagination the real and 
 Eternal World of which this Vegetable Universe 
 is but a faint shadow, and in which we shall 
 live in our Eternal or Imaginative bodies when 
 these Vegetable mortal bodies are no more. The 
 
 1 Infra, p. 63. 
 
 2 Note the comparison of human life to the vegetable world 
 throughout the quotation. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 37 
 
 Apostles knew of no other Gospel. What were 
 all their spiritual gifts? What is the Divine 
 Spirit? Is the Holy Ghost any other than an 
 intellectual Fountain ? * What is the Harvest of 
 the Gospel and its labours ? What is the Talent 
 which it is a curse to hide? What are the 
 Treasures of Heaven which we are to lay up for 
 ourselves? Are they any other than Mental 
 Studies and performances? What are all the 
 Gifts of the Gospel ? Are they not all Mental 
 Gifts ? God is a Spirit who must be worshipped 
 in Spirit and in Truth, and are not the Gifts of 
 the Spirit Everything to Man. O ye Religious, 
 discountenance everyone among you who shall 
 pretend to despise Art and Science ! I call upon 
 you in the name of Jesus. What is the life of 
 Man but Art and Science ? 2 Is it Meat and 
 Drink ? Is not the Body more than Raiment. 
 What is Mortality but the things relating to 
 the Body that dies ? What is Immortality but 
 the things relating to the Spirit which lives eter- 
 nally ? What is the Joy of Heaven but improve- 
 ment in the things of the Spirit? What are 
 the pains of Hell but Ignorance, Bodily Lust, 
 Idleness and devastation of the things of the 
 Spirit? Answer this to yourselves, and expel 
 from among you those who pretend to despise 
 the labours of Art and Science, which alone are 
 
 1 This is an exaggeration, but so is the opposite and popular 
 view that religion is not on speaking terms with the intellect. 
 
 a Art and science are simply daily practice and common sense 
 taken at their highest, i.e. their ideal meaning. 
 
38 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the labours of the Gospel. Is not this plain 
 to the thought? Can you think at all and not 
 pronounce heartily that to labour in knowledge 
 is to build up Jerusalem, and to despise know- 
 ledge is to despise Jerusalem and her builders? 
 . . . Let every Christian as much as in him 
 lies engage himself openly and publicly before 
 all the world in some Mental pursuit for the 
 building up of Jerusalem ! " 
 
 I do not think that it is hard to put a real and 
 important meaning into this strange passage, and 
 to read from it the secret of its author. He looks 
 from the end of the eighteenth century into the 
 future and anticipates the growth of positive 
 knowledge and the development of the arts of 
 life in which the century which is now closing 
 has found its vocation. Immortality and Heaven 
 are for Blake no things of time and space but 
 of the spiritual world, a world which is to shine 
 through the things of earth. Here, too, Blake 
 anticipates, and the religious thought of the pre- 
 sent finds him more congenial than the preachers 
 of hell fire who scared his contemporaries. 
 
 The life of the man was greater than his 
 utterance. For the great majority the world is 
 a place of need and hardship. Blake was a 
 living protest against the dull acquiescence in 
 misery into which so many lives flicker out. 
 Poverty has been praised from a safe distance 
 by some religious-minded persons. Blake, like 
 the apostles, adorned it. The noisy and impro- 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 39 
 
 vident wretchedness which is ever eager to plead 
 poverty as its excuse receives a stern rebuke from 
 this journeyman. His was a genuine poverty that 
 frequently knew its last shilling, but it was never 
 sordid. "Whatever was in Blake's house there 
 was no squalor. Himself, his wife and his rooms 
 were orderly and clean ; everything was in its 
 place. His delightful working corner had its 
 implements ready — tempting to the hand. The 
 millionaire's upholsterer can furnish no enrich- 
 ments like those of Blake's enchanted rooms." 1 
 Blake then is not only a prophet because he 
 could read the true meaning of the age to come, 
 but he helped to reveal the meaning of the present. 
 He gave a poetic expression to the simple sur- 
 roundings and opportunities of an English artisan, 
 and did this with his verses and his drawings as 
 well as in his life. The Songs of Innocence " are 
 a valuable psychological document as establishing 
 the possibility of a man of genius and of passion 
 reaching thirty with the simplicity of a child. 
 Hardly anything else in literature and art, unless 
 some thought in Shakespeare, so powerfully con- 
 veys the impression of a pure elemental force, 
 something absolutely spontaneous, innocent of all 
 contact with, and all influence from, the refine- 
 ments of culture. Even great artists and inspired 
 poets suddenly confronted with such pure un- 
 assuming nature, may be supposed to feel as the 
 disciples must have felt when the Master set the 
 1 Palmer quoted ; Life by Gilchrist, i. 306. 
 
40 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 little child among them." 1 This is nearly right, 
 but not quite. Blake seems to have read a good 
 deal more than Dr Garnett assumes ; and the 
 simplicity attained by Blake was at the cost of 
 considerable effort and self-criticism. Hence, 
 although it is true that Blake remained to the 
 end a mind of transparent simplicity, he dis- 
 plays also a most original, though often fantastic, 
 genius for reflection. And reflection cannot work 
 without material, such material as Blake found 
 in his reading. Hence, he furnishes us with a 
 considerable instance of the noble form of thought 
 in which innocence and experience are reconciled. 
 
 In his mind, however, thought took a visible 
 form. His meaning seems to be divided between 
 what he wrote and the drawings which he made 
 to illustrate his writings. He lingers over the 
 pathetic weakness of children and the gloom that 
 gathers round old age spent amid the wretched- 
 ness of a great city ; or contrasts the pittance 
 upon which he could live the life of the spirit, 
 and the futile expenditure in which the passing 
 fashion is embalmed. For the most part, happily, 
 he designs for its own sake. Forgetting the 
 accidental circumstances of his age, he rises into 
 the pure region of beauty, and returning to 
 common day fixes forever what he has seen, in 
 an occasional masterpiece. 
 
 Here then is the true mysticism of Blake, not 
 in the strange hieroglyphics through which he 
 1 Garnett, William Blake, Painter and Poet, 21. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 41 
 
 chose to register his self-communings. In fact 
 the symbolic system of which Messrs Ellis and 
 Yeats have so much to say, proved a stumbling- 
 block to him in his progress as an artist. For 
 the student of Blake his symbolism must be 
 like "the linen clothes folded up" of which he 
 himself speaks, from which the spirit has broken 
 forth. 
 
 Our study of Blake then will not be without 
 profit if we can reach with its help a truer idea 
 of what is meant by mysticism. It is that 
 attitude of mind which divines and moves towards 
 the spiritual in the common things of life. It 
 is not a partial and occasional operation of the 
 mind under the guidance of far-fetched analogies. 
 At the same time, objects, and actions, trifling in 
 themselves, which happen to coincide with some 
 moment of tension, take on a character sublime 
 or affecting, and thus the feelings gain a kind 
 of conventional language, a symbolism. But if 
 these symbols are separated from the feelings 
 which give rise to them, they afford nothing 
 more than at first a sense of mystery. And as 
 their novelty wears away they disclose their empti- 
 ness to us as soon as we reflect upon them. 
 Huysmans, for example, plays with the symbols 
 of religious feeling in his Cathedral. But he 
 rarely penetrates below the surface. He does 
 not lead the reader to those great and primal 
 forces of the soul from which devotion draws 
 its strength. 
 
42 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Nor again is mysticism to be identified with 
 the seeing of visions, an experience which is 
 nourished by the use of visible symbols. For 
 when visible symbols are dwelt upon by persons 
 who are highly strung, as in the acts of devotion 
 performed before images or pictures, they react 
 upon the mind in a manner to which hypnotic 
 suggestion furnishes the necessary clue. In fact 
 they are a means to a self-hypnotising. Nor is 
 this confined to the use of religious pictures and 
 sculpture ; the artist or amateur may be taken 
 captive by his familiar possessions until beautiful 
 imagery lingers in his mind like a haunting 
 refrain. Blake, unhappily, shut himself, of set 
 purpose, from that repeated contact with nature 
 which refreshes and recreates the fancy, and his 
 mind turning in upon itself was slowly imprisoned 
 in a round of gloomy and repellent forms. 
 
 Mysticism, then, is not specially associated with 
 symbols and visions in which the senses find 
 exercise. Just as little does it turn upon any 
 imagined pre-eminence of discursive reasoning over 
 sensation. " For although those things which are 
 reached by reflection, being spiritual, are preferable 
 to the corporeal things which are reached by sense, 
 the preference is concerned with the objects them- 
 selves, of the higher, that is, over against the lower, 
 not of reflection as compared with sense. For how 
 should intellect be preferred to sense, by which it 
 is informed in order to the knowledge of truths, 
 inasmuch as the apostle writes to us, for his in- 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 43 
 
 visible things are discerned from the foundation of 
 the world through the things which are made P" 1 
 " Spiritual things," says St John of the Cross, 
 " transcend sense, but that is because they already 
 include it." 2 The spiritual life is not degraded by 
 having its roots in the life of sensible impression, 
 but the latter is exalted by being taken up into 
 the life of the spirit. 
 
 There is, then, no such intrinsic dignity in any 
 partial operation of the soul that we can mark it 
 off as nobler than another. This consideration 
 seems to dispose of theories like that of Dr 
 Martineau, which explain the supremacy of con- 
 science by reference to a hierarchy of powers, of 
 which the lower must obey the higher. Love, 
 hope, faith, are not faculties or even operations of 
 uniform types ; they are modes in which the 
 whole spirit relates itself to its object. 
 
 Hence we can no longer rest in the separa- 
 tion of the arts of expression from the religious 
 life, to which the puritan spirit, in its extreme 
 forms, is so prone. The very idea of the incar- 
 nation — the assumption of the human into the 
 divine — is not realised unless human life is taken 
 throughout the full range of its normal activities, 
 and the reader who recalls the sense which we 
 have agreed to put upon the term normal, will 
 not underestimate the scope of this realisation. If, 
 then, Blake had lived in those more genial times 
 when religious ideas joined with other ideas in the 
 
 1 Tertullian, de anima, 18. 2 Living Flame of Love, pref. 
 
44 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 employment of all available talent both of painters 
 and sculptors, we should not now have to deplore 
 the fact that one of the very few supreme geniuses 
 in this kind that our race has produced, should 
 have run to waste. How Blake would have fared 
 if he had been left entirely in the hands of his more 
 unsympathetic contemporaries may be gathered 
 from one circumstance. He left at his death an 
 enormous pile of manuscripts of the same character 
 as the extant prophetic books, and his widow placed 
 them in the hands of an Angel of the Irvingite 
 Church, Mr Frederick Tatham. Mr Tatham de- 
 stroyed them in obedience to a mandate from his 
 sect. 1 
 
 Some may think that the likeness between the 
 poetic and the religious life has been strained in 
 this chapter. There is a suggestion with which 
 we can close it, that will quite justify us in spend- 
 ing so much time over the mind of Blake. The 
 artist invents his methods of working or takes 
 them over from tradition. The great Italian 
 schools will illustrate the latter fact : the career 
 of Blake, and also of Turner, the former. On the 
 whole, then, the artist has his own technique, his 
 own way of doing things, and, therefore, no uni- 
 versal rules for the productions of genius can be 
 laid down. It is the same with the art of living. 
 No universal rules can be laid down for its higher 
 flights, and so the psychology of the saints must 
 be rather like a history of artists than the de- 
 1 Ellis and Yeats, Life, \. \(t"j. Garnett, 71. 
 
THE DEPTHS OF THE SOUL 45 
 
 scription of a single uniform type. Hence anec- 
 dotes which reveal, so to speak, the touch, the 
 tact of a great soul, are more illuminating than 
 a formal characterisation, and the anecdotes of 
 which the gospels are mainly composed disclose 
 the mind of the Master in a way which it baffles 
 the imagination to better. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 OVERSOUL 
 
 Hypothesis of Oversoul — Diversity of process with likeness of 
 product at lower levels, diversity of both at higher levels, 
 likeness of process at highest — Formal psychology adequate 
 only at lowest level — Relation of highest process, or oversoul, 
 to persons — Oversoul in national life and in the Church — 
 Communicated by education — Doctrine of the spirit — Special 
 manifestation in Christian love — Inspiration of thought and 
 feeling — Prediction — Negative conditions — Range of the over- 
 soul — Criticisms of Bradley and Ritschl. 
 
 THE principle of parsimony is of great im- 
 portance in speculating about religion, 
 namely, that we are to take our terms in the 
 narrower sense when an alternative is offered. 
 For the enthusiasm which directs itself upon 
 religion is always on the watch for the oppor- 
 tunity to utter itself in an exaggerated way, and 
 loses sight of the fact that religious truth rests 
 upon a number of probabilities which support one 
 another, and, in combination, are equivalent to an 
 amount of certainty which they lack if we take 
 them separately. 
 
 Hence the hypothesis of oversoul is to be under- 
 stood at first with no further range of meaning 
 than is necessary to hold together the facts which 
 seem to suggest it. The cautious thinker will 
 4 6 
 
OVERSOUL 47 
 
 naturally be on his guard against what looks like 
 an attempt to introduce animism — the personifica- 
 tion of functions — into psychology. At any rate 
 the convention by which the psychologist has 
 confined himself within the limits of a single 
 mind, has freed contemporary thought from the 
 mythology in which writers like Swedenborg and 
 Tertullian have indulged. 
 
 A recent brilliant writer, Mr Mackail, in his 
 Latin Literature, couples these two names as 
 exponents of a romantic psychology. 1 I am too 
 jealous of the epithet to let it pass unchallenged, 
 for I think it may fairly be claimed for a psy- 
 chology which is based upon the idea of the 
 oversoul. The psychology of the oversoul is so 
 far from personifying that its central hypothesis is 
 introduced to explain personality, by subordinating 
 it to something higher in which it is included, as 
 the personages of a drama are determined by the 
 action in which they take part. But when the 
 powers of the mind are personified, as they are 
 by Tertullian and Swedenborg and Blake, the 
 soul becomes the arena of contending spirits, 
 and so, instead of taking its own part in the 
 divine drama of the world, it is paralysed within 
 itself in self-contemplation. Hence there cannot 
 possibly be a greater contrast than is presented 
 by the method of Blake's prophetic books, on the 
 one hand, in which the method of Swedenborg 
 on its poetic side culminates, and the action and 
 
 1 P- 254- 
 
48 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 variety of a mediaeval romance on the other. In 
 the legend spiritual beings play their part in the 
 world of reality, and share in its conflicts as 
 vigorously as the gods in the Iliad. Nothing 
 ever really happens in Blake's mystical writings. 
 There is a panorama of names and words and 
 forms, which have a meaning perhaps, but it is 
 scarcely ever apparent. "The surface is per- 
 petually, as it were, giving way before one and 
 revealing another surface below it, and that again 
 dissolves when we try to study it. The making 
 of religions melts away into the making of the 
 earth, and that fades away into some allegory of 
 the rising and setting of the sun. It is all like 
 a great cloud full of stars and shapes through 
 which the eye seeks a boundary in vain." 1 His 
 books are a revelation of his own soul, but they 
 do not furnish, and should not be expected to 
 furnish, the materials for a complete psychology. 
 And what holds good of Blake holds good also 
 of any other system of correspondences, such, for 
 example, as that which Swedenborg employed. 
 Symbols and correspondences are like solvents 
 by which the stubborn differences of things are 
 to be dissolved away. 
 
 I have no intention of burking the difficulties 
 of thought by a myth, and shall try to give a 
 quite positive meaning to the term oversoul. We 
 have seen that the psychologist can deal upon 
 universal lines only with a small part of ex- 
 
 1 Ellis and Yeats, Life, i. 287. 
 
OVERSOUL 49 
 
 perience, and that beyond this there is a region 
 where the truly characteristic part of the in- 
 dividual life is to be sought. In the last chapter 
 we tried to plumb the depths of two typical lives, 
 and so considered some of the reasons for postu- 
 lating a ground for this transcendental part of 
 experience, if we may use so contradictory a 
 phrase. We cannot remain content with unique 
 events standing over against one another in 
 isolation. 
 
 In the simpler processes of psychical life there is 
 a likeness of product which tends to blind us to 
 the underlying diversity of process. Perhaps after 
 all the concepts of even simple objects have 
 different meanings for each mind, a difference 
 which is clear enough in its results upon practice. 
 Consider, for instance, the meaning of the word 
 " mountain " in the minds of a poet, a mining 
 engineer, a shepherd, and a weary excursionist, 
 as they pass over it. Already the technique of 
 the soul is beginning to appear. 
 
 On the other hand, the unique character 
 of our deeper experiences is not a mode of 
 thought in which we can rest. We break away 
 from the commonplace, the universal, in order 
 to realise what is individual, personal to our- 
 selves, but this second stage yields to a third. 
 There is something beyond personality ; the one 
 process of which personality is like an aspect 
 repeated at different centres. 
 
 Someone may object and say that this is 
 
SO THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 merely a play upon words. Let me ask a 
 question. How are we to understand the ex- 
 istence over against one another of persons 
 otherwise than by supposing a process upon 
 which they depend ? Of course it is open to 
 anyone to assume that each person is, as such, 
 self-existent, and that there is more than one 
 self-existent being. This assumption is practi- 
 cally involved in nearly all contemporary psy- 
 chology, and yet surely so important an 
 assumption must be considered before it can 
 be allowed to pass. But if we feel unable to 
 conceive such a scheme of things, we are bound 
 to define the world of persons within itself and 
 in relation to its ground in a different way. 
 Just as " nature " is a constitutive idea in 
 which the separate atoms of physical experi- 
 ence are held together, so spirit or oversoul 
 is an idea which we must postulate to account 
 for the separate atoms of the psychical life. 
 It may be asked why the notion of soul is 
 not of this kind? The reply is near at hand. 
 The life of the soul is an imperfect unity. 
 And what we have postulated is a perfect unity, 
 which therefore lies beyond the individual experi- 
 ence. Nor can we admit the suggestion that 
 this imperfection of the individual soul can be 
 remedied by taking a number of souls together. 
 For the process which we are considering in 
 its complete form would not then be accounted 
 for. No combination of dependent beings can 
 
OVERSOUL 
 
 Si 
 
 account for one another. Hence the oversoul, 
 or spirit, is a unity of process which does 
 not find its centre in any individual. We are 
 only carrying one stage further the thought of 
 Spinoza. Just as " nature " is the name for 
 the system of extended things, in which one 
 attribute of God is revealed, so '' spirit " may 
 be understood as the name for the system of 
 processes under which the attribute of thought 
 is revealed. And I am so far from claiming 
 any originality in the application of this idea 
 of a system, that I will draw on one side to 
 make room for the author of the most recent 
 text-book of psychology, Dr Stout. 
 
 " The world of material phenomena presup- 
 poses a system of immaterial agency. In this 
 immaterial system the individual consciousness 
 originates. To it in some way the sensational 
 experiences are due which form the basis of 
 our knowledge of the material world. It is 
 on it the individual consciousness acts when it 
 produces changes in the material world. All 
 this is possible because the system of imma- 
 terial agency is identical with what we know as 
 matter in so far as matter exists independently of 
 its possible presentation to a perceiving subject." 
 (Whether it is right to use the term matter, 
 after emptying it of its meaning in this way, 
 is rather doubtful.) " This theory has purposely 
 been stated in a vague form. There are vary- 
 ing views as to the nature of the system of 
 
52 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 immaterial agency. Some say that it is will, 
 others that it is absolute thought, others that 
 it is unknowable ; in any case the student 
 should guard himself against the assumption 
 that the immaterial system is a sort of repeti- 
 tion of the material system involving the same 
 sort of interactions, and similar distinctions and 
 relations of its parts. One thing seems clear, 
 that we are nearer the truth in speaking of it as 
 consciousness than in speaking of it as matter." * 
 
 Yet it seems better to mark this system off 
 in some way from "consciousness," and that is 
 why I prefer the term "oversoul." 
 
 Now we are not without clues to the char- 
 acter of this process which we have assumed. 
 The soul, as it comes to unity in the depths of 
 experience, 2 seems to become transparent and 
 receptive of what we may call inspiration. De 
 profundis clamavi ad te, Domine. And in the 
 higher forms of inspiration — for there are lower 
 forms too — the oversoul seems to express itself 
 as it were in a relatively full self-consciousness. 
 
 We have seen that there are ranges of experi- 
 ence in which the formal psychologist is at home, 
 and that there are other spheres to which his 
 method seems inappropriate, and that it is possible 
 to be conversant with one of the spheres, and not 
 at the same time with another. 3 I now suggest 
 that some of the Christian doctrines are really 
 
 1 Manual of Psychology, 54. 2 Cf. p. 33, supra. 
 
 8 P. 28, supra. 
 
OVERSOUL S3 
 
 attempts to translate into definite expression 
 these unexplored ranges of the life of the soul, 
 namely, the doctrines of the Holy Spirit and 
 inspiration, and of the communion of saints in 
 the life of the Church. Our task then is, in part, 
 to mark off these characters of the human spirit — 
 treated as realised in the society and not simply 
 in the individual — which have sought expression 
 in these doctrines. We can regard Christian 
 doctrines as so many attempts to cultivate and 
 preserve certain forms of common life, and use 
 them as an evidence of that life. At the same 
 time we shall not be specially concerned whether 
 our considerations are drawn from sources that 
 are specifically religious. It is not the business 
 of psychology to act as a theological watchdog, 
 and we are bound to take account of the gropings, 
 demands, movements of the soul, whether they are 
 religiously valid or not. 
 
 We can trace the operations of the spirit, though 
 with varying clearness, in the history of various 
 races and nations, as well as in the history of 
 those religious communities, which at first were 
 identical with the nation, and finally in the more 
 cosmopolitan religions. I have attempted else- 
 where to show how in particular we can trace the 
 operation of the Roman spirit. 1 And the reason 
 why we shall dwell now especially upon the mani- 
 festation of the oversoul in the Christian Church 
 is that we find there its richest and most concrete 
 1 Worship of the Romans, c. i. 
 
54 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 form. All profound theologians have affirmed that 
 the spirit operates beyond the limits of the Church, 
 and beyond those times in which the documents 
 of the Church were composed. "Pusey holds 
 the inspiration of the Church and of all good men, 
 for example, Socrates, and, indeed, I never could 
 find out," says Newman, " why Hooker is not to be 
 called inspired." 1 Whenever, therefore, the soul 
 aspires beyond the commonplace it shares in the 
 life of the spirit. No bolts and bars, ecclesiastical 
 or otherwise, can come between the meanest and 
 weakest soul, and this august possibility, except 
 in so far as they destroy the soul's power over 
 itself. For the portals of the spiritual realm lie 
 within the soul itself, and the unique character 
 of the soul's higher experience precludes all 
 immediate control of it from without. " This 
 last prerogative is to be reserved to the supreme 
 and all-embracing spirit." 2 There is, therefore, 
 no necessary antagonism between humanism and 
 Christian theology. There is even a " point of 
 union where theology falls into its place as 
 a branch of learning." 3 " The early Christian 
 writers," says Professor Ramsay, ''weary me 
 sometimes with doctrine when I want humanity ; 
 but beneath their doctrine the man appears, and 
 when they condescend to the affairs of the world 
 they are full of human feeling. The greatest of 
 them often reach the level of thought where 
 
 1 Letters, i. 187. 2 St Bernard, Sermon V. 
 
 3 Pattison, Casaubon, 251. 
 
OVERSOUL 55 
 
 doctrine and life are fused as two aspects of 
 the same thing." 1 It follows from this that 
 education, so far as it introduces the developing 
 mind to the things of the spirit, is performing 
 a work which often reaches to the height of 
 religion. 
 
 It is curious that Ritschl and his followers 
 should limit the operation of the spirit upon 
 the individual to the historical career of Jesus, 
 and that in this way the extreme left should 
 have joined hands with the obscurantists of the 
 extreme right. But the theologian must take 
 account of the operations of the spirit gener- 
 ally, or he must be content to be relegated with 
 his works to the limbo specially assigned to still- 
 born theological systems. Humanism has had 
 to wait its time as against the sixteenth-century 
 builders of spiritual prisons ; but the river of 
 events has carried the western nations away 
 from the men who preferred to live amid en- 
 closures and vaults, raised by themselves, over- 
 arching and crushing them like the walls and 
 domes of Piranesi's Carceri. It is not surprising 
 that the man who best interprets to us the age 
 of ecclesiastical reform found such structures 
 more stifling than those which they were meant 
 to replace, in which after all he opened some 
 windows. " He had been born with the hopes 
 of the Renaissance with its anticipation of a 
 new Augustan age, and had seen this fair 
 1 Church in Roman Empire, 177. 
 
$6 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 promise blighted by the irruption of a new 
 horde of theological polemics worse than the old 
 scholastics, inasmuch as they were revolutionary 
 instead of conservative. Erasmus never flouted 
 at religion nor even against theology as such, 
 but only at blind and intemperate theologians." 
 He was not the less effective because he preferred 
 not to break with the past. " His Greek Testa- 
 ment contributed more to the liberation of the 
 human mind from the thraldom of the clergy 
 than all the uproar and rage of Luther's many 
 pamphlets." 1 Erasmus has this true mark of 
 inspiration ; he rose above the mere partisan. 
 In him the spirit of his age was expressed, and 
 with a freedom which reflects credit on the toler- 
 ance of the empire and the papacy. The master- 
 spirit of the Reformation will get a hearing more 
 and more now that the noisier voices in the theo- 
 logical tumult are being stilled. " Greater light 
 and stronger judgment is usually with the recon- 
 cilers than with either of the contending parties." 2 
 The spirit of Erasmus is embodied for England 
 in the universities and public schools through which, 
 not less than through professedly religious insti- 
 tutions, temperate orthodoxy is diffused through 
 the leading currents of political and social life. 
 On the other hand, the English artisan is more 
 estranged from the religious life than ever, and 
 with religion, the life of the spirit remains closed 
 
 1 Pattison, Erasmus, in "Enc. Brit." 
 
 2 R. Baxter in Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Bioqra-bhy, v. 574. 
 
OVERSOUL 57 
 
 to the great mass of our fellow-countrymen. The 
 catastrophic forms of the religious life can only 
 be required generally among those who have been 
 the subjects of a vicious educational system. On 
 the other hand, in the life of the universities and 
 public schools, amid all the glaring imperfections 
 of that life, the benign influences of the spirit 
 steal gently in and sink none the less deeply be- 
 cause they are almost unheeded. Between these 
 two types of the religious life, that which attempts 
 by spasmodic and interrupted effort to compensate 
 for the continued and pervasive blasphemy of the 
 spirit, and, on the other hand, that which pays 
 daily even an unconscious homage, there can be 
 no hesitation on the part of those who seek per- 
 manence and stability in national character. " The 
 austere sects," Joubert says, " excite the most 
 enthusiasm at first, but the temperate sects have 
 always been the most durable.'' And that is 
 why the temper of Erasmus is after all a better 
 vestibule to the kingdom of the spirit than the 
 temper of the extreme reformers. 
 
 One more word on this topic : the very resent- 
 ment with which, perhaps, these lines will be read 
 by some is its own condemnation. How blas- 
 phemous, they will say, to compare education with 
 the special means of grace ! Yet, for all that, it 
 is only when the office of the teacher is animated 
 by an ideal as lofty as is implied by this com- 
 parison, that his true functions can be maintained 
 against those who, at this time, are endeavouring 
 
58 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 to reduce education to a preparation for business, 
 and nothing more. Jerusalem, as Blake finely 
 says, has to be built in England, and this build- 
 ing depends more upon the spirit which governs 
 education than upon anything else. 
 
 Yet, after all, education is only the vestibule to 
 the religious life, and it is not less than that. 
 But we shall now pass through the porch into the 
 temple, and study the more vivid manifestation of 
 the spirit within the Church. The consciousness 
 of the Church has sought to express itself in the 
 doctrine of the spirit as opposed to soul and body ; 
 of the Holy Spirit as revealed in the common life ; 
 and of the Church regarded as the mystical body 
 of Christ. 
 
 And first as to the spirit manifested in the life 
 of the individual. There is no doubt that in the 
 Christian Church, and under its influence, the 
 individual has come to a far more vivid self-con- 
 sciousness than in the city state of the ancient 
 world. For patristic psychology, " the most im- 
 portant thing in the world is the presence of a 
 multitude of individual souls." 1 It is, therefore, 
 by a logical necessity that the doctrine of the 
 oversoul, or spirit, has been elaborated by Christian 
 theology. There are some phases of the Christian 
 experience, particularly those which accompany 
 what is called inspiration, that baffle the ordinary 
 analysis of the operations of the mind. When we 
 interpret the idea of the Godhead into its implica- 
 
 1 Siebeck, History of Psychology, I. ii. 358. 
 
OVERSOUL 59 
 
 tions, we shall, as psychologists, be able to agree 
 with the definition of the spirit as that by which 
 men are capable of union with God. Just as the 
 oversoul is identical with itself, even in all those 
 who share in it, so it is not always possible to 
 distinguish in religious phraseology between what 
 is said of the one spirit and of the spirit as mani- 
 fested in individuals. This relation of the indi- 
 vidual soul to the oversoul seems to illustrate, and 
 to be illustrated by, the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 "The true unity of believers, like the Unity of 
 Persons in the Holy Trinity, is offered as some- 
 thing far more than a mere moral unity of purpose, 
 feeling, affection ; it is in some mysterious mode 
 which we cannot apprehend, a vital unity. In 
 this sense it is the symbol of a higher type of life, 
 in which each constituent being is a conscious 
 element in the being of a vast whole. In ' the 
 life ' and in ' the life ' only, each individual life is 
 able to attain to perfection." 1 This view, which 
 is obviously of the same kind with the theory of 
 Emerson, explains also the realisation of im- 
 mortality in the present life. In the spirit, dis- 
 tinctions of number and time seem to be irrelevant. 
 That is why the doctrine of the Trinity, which 
 attempts to transcend numerical distinctions, is 
 really a more philosophic view than the assumption 
 of an unbroken unity. And along with the notion 
 of number, that of time must go. The spirit is 
 eternal, not as opposed to, but as transcending time. 
 1 Westcott on St John xvii. 21. 
 
60 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Hence anyone who rises to the life of the spirit 
 is already in the enjoyment of an eternal life. And 
 further, through the notion of a process in which 
 the individual is not so much lost, as realised in 
 something higher, the belief in the immortality of 
 the individual becomes rational. 
 
 The entrance upon the life of the spirit is also 
 the foundation of the spiritual congregation ; " If 
 we walk in the light, we have communion with 
 one another." Although it is not necessary, 
 indeed, that the oversoul should enfold a man 
 through the forms of religious institutions, these 
 are, perhaps, the most efficient means. The most 
 powerful impulse to the life of the spirit is that of 
 religious love ; what education and discipline does 
 slowly, painfully and doubtfully in fitting the soul 
 for the common life, is often done at a single stride 
 by the fiery enthusiasm of religious passion, and 
 the victims of inverted education and fatal oppor- 
 tunities are wrenched in an instant from the habits 
 of one or even two decades, and become most valu- 
 able ministers of the common needs. Yet it is a 
 mistake to regard the relation between the light of 
 the oversoul and the communion in which it is 
 realised as reciprocal. The Church offers its com- 
 munion as a means to that light, but when it is 
 most true to itself it does not claim to be the sole 
 possessor of the light " which lighteth every man 
 that cometh into the world." 
 
 Yet there is a unique and all-important office 
 which the Church, and nothing else, performs in 
 
OVERSOUL 6 i 
 
 the world. There is in the Church an attitude 
 towards the touchstones of experience which is 
 found nowhere else, an emotional temper which 
 Paul compares to a cement holding the com- 
 munity together. " All the body fitly framed 
 and knit together through that which every 
 joint supplieth according to the working of the 
 measure in every several part, maketh the in- 
 crease of the body unto the building up of itself 
 in love." 
 
 The unity of the oversoul, as of the individual 
 soul, is thus something which is not immediately 
 given in the life of the society, but something 
 which has to be striven after, as well as received. 
 This unity is realised in a comparatively super- 
 ficial manner in the common life of citizens, 
 realised partially in the whole body of scientific 
 apprehension, and most deeply in the common 
 life of the Church. One and the same group 
 of experiences is concerned, therefore, though 
 in varying modes, in the doctrines of the spirit 
 in man, of the Holy Spirit, and of the mystical 
 body of Christ. These doctrines, therefore, have 
 a value for the psychologist, in that they point 
 at certain psychical conditions to which adequate 
 attention has not been given elsewhere. And, on 
 the other hand, the theologian, who wishes to 
 realise the meaning of these doctrines, will tend 
 , to express himself in a strictly .psychological 
 manner. " I have conceived," Ritschl says, " of 
 the Holy Spirit as the ground of the common 
 
62 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 consciousness of divine sonship, as the motive 
 and the divine power of the supramundane re- 
 ligious and moral life in the community, and 
 so as the necessary formal determination of the 
 Christian personality." x If we give these thoughts 
 of Ritschl the wider scope which they really de- 
 mand, but which he so strangely refused them, 
 they are almost equivalent to the thoughts with 
 which we have just been occupied. 
 
 Now that we have thus roughly determined 
 the range and conditions of the oversoul, let us 
 consider for a moment how it is revealed in 
 inspiration. It is perhaps impossible to avoid 
 anticipating to some extent what will be said 
 about inspiration in a later chapter. Now, how- 
 ever, we shall consider it in regard to its source ; 
 afterwards in relation to the mind of the prophet. 
 
 Inspiration is of more than one kind ; over 
 against that of the judgment through which 
 objective truth seems to dawn upon the soul 
 is the not less real inspiration of the feelings 
 through which the soul awakes to self-sacrifice 
 and love. 
 
 Let us consider first the inspiration of the 
 judgment. The seer and poet always speak of 
 truth as given to them, a phrase which we may 
 compare with the use of the term given to de- 
 note the as yet unorganised volume of sense 
 impressions. And although the psychologist 
 may discern by retrospective analysis the pos- 
 
 1 Thcologie u. Metaphysik, 45. 
 
OVERSOUL 63 
 
 sible modes in which such truth might have 
 been attained step by step, this possibility, as 
 Mill observed, does not justify us in contradict- 
 ing the account which genius gives of its own 
 workings. Milton, for example, claimed in all 
 seriousness to be the mouthpiece of " that Eternal 
 spirit who can enrich with all utterance and all 
 wisdom " ; and in many other places he speaks 
 of the light that breaks in upon the soul when 
 it becomes transparent to such divine effluences. 
 The convention, then, — which turns out to be 
 more than a convention — by which we speak of 
 the inspiration of the true poet, is tested when 
 we extend the phrase to artists, workers and 
 inventors, in whatever kind. And yet it has to 
 be so extended or abandoned altogether. Ruskin, 
 who by the way has clothed in a more beautiful 
 and orderly frame the soul of Blake's teaching, 
 uses the word inspiration after this manner, 1 " not 
 carelessly nor lightly, but in all logical calmness 
 and perfect reverence." The inspiration of the 
 Jewish prophets is, therefore, to be compared and 
 partly identified with these other instances. " The 
 possession of a single true thought about Jehovah, 
 not derived from current religious teaching, but 
 springing up in the soul as a word from Jehovah, 
 is enough to constitute a prophet." 2 And so it 
 turns out that the ideas of Blake, which per- 
 haps the reader was inclined to scout as extrava- 
 
 1 Modem Painters, iii. 147. 
 
 2 Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel, 182. 
 
64 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 gant, are very near sober fact, and follow for the 
 most part in a direct manner from the idea of 
 God. " There is none beside Thee," says St 
 Augustine, " who is the teacher of truth whereso- 
 ever and whencesoever it may have shone." x 
 
 Over against the inspiration of the judgment 
 is that of the feelings. It is a special office of 
 the Christian revelation to insist upon the claims 
 of the affections. Let us now consider some of 
 the grounds upon which this claim is justified. 
 We have seen that in a favourable environment, 2 
 gracious influences steal in upon the soul and 
 insensibly mould it towards a divine harmony, 
 but that where these influences are lacking the 
 soul becomes encased in a network, through which 
 it can only break by a supreme effort, some deep 
 stirring of the springs of life. And this same 
 effort of the will brings the soul to God, as well 
 as the slow and insensible movings of a quieter 
 experience. But the feelings which the Christian 
 religion seeks to develop are not undetermined. 
 It is too often thought that any kind of excite- 
 ment is religious in character, provided that it be 
 associated with certain forms of ritual, or again of 
 expression. This is far from being the case. I 
 do not know how this emotional temper can be 
 better described than as the character of Jesus, 
 interpreted by the imitation of the noblest of His 
 followers, whether professed or not. These efforts 
 at imitation are, in turn, not less remarkable in 
 1 Con/, v. 6. 2 p. ej. 
 
OVERSOUL 65 
 
 themselves and in their effects than other instances 
 of inspired imagination and skill. There is an 
 originality of the heart not less than of the 
 invention, and of the two the former has much 
 the greater power over the mass of mankind. 
 The prophet is a nobler figure than one who is 
 a priest and nothing more ; but nobler than either 
 stands the man who, out of unfeigned love towards 
 his fellow-men, shares in their burdens, like Francis 
 of Assisi or Vincent de Paul. Only a one-sided 
 psychology will depreciate the originality of men 
 like these. And yet here too the originality is not 
 assumed by the possessor of the feeling ; not unto 
 us, not unto us, they cry in the same accents as 
 those of Milton. Now this is a very interesting 
 and important parallel, and from another quarter 
 strengthens the grounds for belief in the oversoul, 
 or, in more familiar language, the one spirit. 
 
 Let us note in the next place that the inspira- 
 tion of feeling is connected with an intuitive fore- 
 boding of the future. Here we must distinguish 
 between the feelings that are called up mechani- 
 cally as by the objects and acts of devotion, and 
 those feelings which, welling up from the depths 
 of the heart, bear the token of true inspiration. 
 Such feelings are indeed " the powers of the age 
 to come." They are a clue to the future which 
 they will tend to control. Even when they seem 
 to cling to the past they have this warrant ; that 
 the momentary present is only a partial criticism 
 of the past, and that as against the present, the 
 
66 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 whole past is usually of greater value. The veils 
 of the divine are removed only at intervals ; and 
 when the sanctuary is closed, recollection takes the 
 place of the prophet. The hidden life is one day 
 to be disclosed again. 
 
 The spiritual interpretation of history consists 
 simply in applying the idea of the oversoul, in 
 reading the course of events as acts in a great 
 world drama. We shall look, therefore, for the 
 manifestations of the oversoul, not in the disturb- 
 ances of the order of nature, but in its characteristic 
 functions. As we proceed, we shall find that much 
 of what seems extraordinary in the religious life 
 is perfectly normal, and that the notion of the 
 miraculous has been applied far too hastily in ex- 
 plaining the life of the soul. The messengers, 
 " angels," of the oversoul are not necessarily visible 
 any more than the spirits in Manfred. " The 
 angelology of the Old Testament deals with 
 functions, operations, and not persons." x And so 
 the prophetic character of the Old Testament 
 turns not so much upon any quality in the events 
 therein recorded, as in the temper of mind in 
 which they were regarded, a temper which can 
 be gained, as through a sort of contagion, by 
 those who immerse themselves in its perusal. 
 
 Let us, in conclusion, deal with one or two 
 objections. 
 
 Several thinkers deny the likelihood of com- 
 munion in a direct manner, whether between one 
 1 G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 311. 
 
OVERSOUL 67 
 
 soul and another, as Mr Bradley does, or between 
 the soul and God, as Ritschl does. These two 
 objections point to the two aspects of the oversoul 
 which seem to be manifested in the religious ex- 
 perience. On the one hand, souls find not only 
 their ground, but their unity and communion with- 
 in the oversoul, and on the other there seems to 
 be a special disclosure of the oversoul in inspira- 
 tion. " A direct communication between souls we 
 cannot say is impossible," Mr Bradley declares ; x 
 but on the other hand he finds no good reason for 
 supposing it to exist. Not only does this hypo- 
 thesis fail to commend itself to Mr Bradley's 
 judgment, it also disappoints his taste. " The 
 possibility seems in addition to be devoid of all 
 interest." Perhaps these objections are not directed 
 against the conclusions to which we have been 
 tending. For us it is sufficient if the communion 
 of soul with soul is made possible through the 
 system in which all souls are held together. And 
 I think that we can draw a most important dis- 
 tinction here between the ideas current among 
 "spiritualists," and those of the Christian belief. 
 The spiritualist seems to think that one soul can 
 directly communicate with another, as when a 
 " medium " is possessed by a " control." The 
 communion of souls in theology has another mean- 
 ing, and is referred to the spirit. The direct 
 action of soul upon soul, which Mr Bradley seems 
 to have in view, is that of the " control " as it 
 
 1 Appearance and Reality, 343. 
 
68 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 affects the '' medium." Perhaps we may put the 
 matter in this way : Mr Bradley, like Mr Spencer, 
 seems to hold that all communication of souls is 
 indirect, and is mediated by inference from the 
 physical expression of the soul's life. But surely 
 if we hold that physical and psychical events are 
 disparate, the physical events which intervene be- 
 tween an utterance by one soul and its apprehen- 
 sion by another, cannot be more than the occasion 
 of that apprehension ; the ground of it must be 
 sought elsewhere. This thought is carried further 
 in the quotation from Dr Stout's Manual. 1 
 
 Again, the theory of the oversoul is not really 
 touched by another objection of Mr Bradley. 
 " The sameness of souls," he says, " is a fact. The 
 identity of their content is just as real as their 
 separate existence. But this identity need not 
 imply any further relation between them. It need 
 not, so far as we can see, act in any way ; and its 
 action where it acts appears to be indirect. Souls 
 seem to influence one another only by means of 
 their bodies." Mr Bradley seems to exaggerate 
 the importance of the identity of content which is, 
 as we have seen, exceedingly limited, at least in 
 the simpler experiences. What is important, how- 
 ever, is not so much identity of content as of 
 process. 2 But perhaps Mr Bradley will not let 
 such terms pass unchallenged. I wanted to say 
 presentative activity. But then it is " a scandal " 
 even to use this word. 3 I looked therefore through 
 J P. 52. 2 P- 49- 3 Op. cit., 63. 
 
OVERSOUL 69 
 
 the index of Appearance and Reality to see whether 
 I could avoid offending Mr Bradley in any way ; 
 but, if we may judge by the index of his book, 
 nothing ever really happens in his philosophy, any 
 more than in the prophetic books of Blake, and 
 all that the real can do is to appear. However, 
 I have done what I could in order to confine my- 
 self within the limits laid down for me, and would 
 distinguish merely between one and the same con- 
 tent, and the mode of its appearance at different 
 centres, for it is not so much identity of content, 
 as of process that concerns us. And, since this 
 identity of process is only attained "the higher 
 we mount from the facts of sense," 1 there seems 
 reason for seeking in that quarter especially, condi- 
 tions of the communion of souls. That is to say, 
 the point at which identity of process seems to be 
 realised by different souls, is the furthest away 
 from the range within which — to use Mr Bradley's 
 phrase — "souls influence one another by means 
 of their bodies." 
 
 But if an individualist psychology is a contra- 
 diction, as we have seen reason to hold, we find 
 ourselves drawing the conclusions to which we are 
 committed, even on the principles of Mr Bradley. 
 " All psychology in its practice is compelled to 
 admit the working power of identity." 2 And 
 again he says : " In the course of the soul's in- 
 ternal history, we must admit that the sameness of 
 
 1 Appearance and Reality, 345. 2 Op. cit., 355 
 
70 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 its states is an actual mover." 1 We are bound to 
 extend the interpretation of identity which is thus 
 affirmed for the individual soul, to groups of souls. 
 The identity pf feeling, of aspiration, of judgment, 
 is a mover. In other words, the communion of 
 souls is something more than a mere similarity. 
 
 Another criticism of the same writer is met by 
 the theory of the oversoul. " Most of those," we 
 are assured, " who insist on what they call the 
 personality of God, are intellectually dishonest. 
 They desire one thing, and to reach it they argue 
 for another. . . . The Deity which they want is 
 of course finite, a person much like themselves, 
 with thoughts and feelings limited and mutable 
 in the process of time. They desire a person in 
 the sense of a self, amongst and over against other 
 selves, moved by personal relation and feelings to- 
 wards these others — feelings and relations which 
 are altered by the conduct of the others." z I am 
 not aware of any considerable theologians against 
 whom Mr Bradley's accusation holds. The com- 
 munion of the soul with God is not as of one 
 self with another, but as of the soul coming to its 
 true self in the spirit ; God being, in the words of 
 Augustine, "the life of life." 3 By denying the 
 communion of souls, Mr Bradley destroys inevi- 
 tably the other parts of the theological system. 
 
 Let us now consider for a moment the objections 
 directed by Ritschl and his school against the 
 mystical union of the soul with God. We will 
 
 1 Appearance and Reality, 353. a Op. tit., 532. a Conf. x. 6. 
 
OVERSOUL 71 
 
 consider these objections in the form of the con- 
 clusion to which they are supposed to lead, namely, 
 that the union of the soul with God, or of Jesus 
 with God, is simply a union of intention. But to 
 speak in this way is really to touch upon the deeps 
 of the soul. Nothing can be more profound than 
 the harmony which has for its centre the springs 
 of conduct. In fact the notion of a oneness of 
 will is simply the explicit form of the thought 
 that is implicit in the mystical union. Hence the 
 sincere use of the third petition in the Lord's 
 Prayer has a mystical meaning, or, to express this 
 better, aspiration cannot go beyond this petition. 
 
 Lastly, the individual comes to his full rights 
 in the oversoul. There is no conflict between the 
 oversoul and the characteristic qualities of genius. 
 In fact the special character of genius is guarded 
 against the ridiculous method of Lombroso by 
 marking off the " normal " from the " average," and 
 also from the " morbid " ; a task which beforehand 
 would seem rather superfluous. In the complex 
 human personality, the community of feeling, etc., 
 in the oversoul, accompanies the flowering of 
 supreme genius. Homer and Shakespeare and 
 Goethe are at once the most unique and the most 
 universal of minds. They fulfil their office in the 
 revelation of the human spirit by reflecting the 
 true meaning of that revelation to the utmost. 
 And this is precisely what the average mind can- 
 not do : Phomme sensuel moyen might indeed be 
 described as the precise negation of the oversoul. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE SOUL'S AWAKENING 
 
 Complexity of process— Diversity and modesty — The possibility of 
 instantaneous conversion — Relation to final perseverance — 
 Conversion as instantaneous change of motive— As causing the 
 introspective habit — And so self-torment — Effect on doctrine — 
 Shrinking from ridicule— Humour— Introspection and preach- 
 ing — Development of introspection — Search for consistency — 
 Clarification of feeling — Faith and experience — Sin. 
 
 THE soul, as it develops, enters into fresh 
 relations with the oversoul. A more or 
 less complete terminology has been given to one 
 particular stage in this development, that, namely, 
 in which the soul first becomes conscious of its 
 relation to the oversoul. The new birth, con- 
 version, reconciliation, justification, election, all 
 denote rather aspects of a process than a com- 
 plete experience. They are an instance, further, 
 of a principle on which stress has been laid ; that 
 there is a difference of form as well as of content 
 in different experiences. The development of 
 the soul takes place in such a way that no single 
 description of any stage — or at least of any later 
 stage — in that development, can apply to all 
 persons. It is lamentable to think how many 
 commentaries have been vainly composed upon 
 72 
 
THE SOUL'S AWAKENING 73 
 
 the letters of St Paul, for lack of remembering 
 the simple and obvious fact that the religious 
 life which he described was the one he knew, 
 namely, his own ; and that only, by a strange 
 coincidence, can it tally to any considerable ex- 
 tent with the religious life of another man. 
 
 Many instances suggest themselves which show 
 the serious consequences which follow for the 
 spiritual life, from the assumption that we can 
 enter upon it only in one way. The discipline 
 of the Jesuit novice is avowedly intended to stifle 
 individual character and leave in its place the 
 passive obedience of an instrument. Hence we 
 can understand why one and the same course is 
 imposed upon all. But although this "discipline 
 is wonderfully adapted to the purpose for which 
 it is designed, it seems to have contributed to the 
 curious mediocrity above which the members of 
 the society have so rarely risen, and below which 
 they have not often fallen. The Society of Jesus 
 has been wonderfully prolific in minds of the 
 second rank, but it has fallen short, with a few 
 rare exceptions, of the breath of genius — that 
 gust of the spirit that only blows where the air 
 is free. 
 
 So also in a very different quarter, a uniform 
 plan of salvation has been imposed upon thou- 
 sands of persons by the later exponents of the 
 evangelical revival, who have been unconscious 
 that what they called the plan of salvation was 
 simply the reduction of St Paul's experience to 
 
74 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 a mechanical formula. Newman says of him- 
 self : " The evangelical teaching, considered as a 
 system and in what was peculiar to itself, had 
 from the first failed to find a response in his 
 religious experience, as afterwards in his par- 
 ochial. He had indeed been converted by it to 
 a spiritual life, and so far his experience bore 
 witness to its truth ; but he had not been con- 
 verted in that special way which it laid down as 
 imperative." 1 Nor need anyone be surprised 
 that this was so. In proportion as the soul be- 
 comes more truly conscious of itself in the religi- 
 ous life, it will also regard itself as standing in its 
 own private relation to the spirit. And when a 
 stranger intrudes upon these furthest recesses, he 
 is often guilty of a serious injury. For there is a 
 modesty of the soul, as well as of the body, 
 through which high-spirited persons usually shrink 
 from talking about the principles of honour upon 
 which they act. This is why the intrusion even 
 of well-meaning persons in the things of the 
 spirit is so often bitterly resented. The religious 
 life, in its private aspect, is indeed a mystery and 
 forbids speech, and when this reticence is trans- 
 gressed the soul seems to be wounded. Dale, 
 speaking of hypnotic experiments, says : " I have 
 come to the conclusion that when a man sub- 
 mits himself to experiment, he surrenders for the 
 time the integrity of his self-command, allows 
 a break to be made in the fences which protect 
 1 Letters, i. 108. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 75 
 
 his personality, runs grave risk of madness or 
 worse. If I may put it so there seems to me to 
 be a sacrifice of the chastity of our inner personal 
 life in these inquiries, which may have results on 
 the higher nature analogous to those which follow 
 the physical offence and still more ruinous." 1 I 
 think this is one of the reasons why sometimes 
 there is a look upon the countenance of some 
 very devout persons as though they had been 
 whipped publicly. The soul is sometimes laid 
 bare, as it were, in devotional offices, and is at 
 the mercy of another. In his story, The Flag 
 of their Country, Rudyard Kipling reads a much 
 needed lesson to those persons whose enthusiasm 
 makes them forget the dignity which hedges round 
 even the commonest soul, and who are eager to 
 mouth and to paw even in the holy of holies. 
 
 Now there are scarcely any minds that have 
 been subjected to profanation like that of which 
 I am speaking, without suffering some loss of 
 insight and power. The spirit does not entrust its 
 deeper inspirations unless to those who can guard 
 them. It refuses, therefore, to recognise any 
 plan of salvation and comes and goes at its own 
 sovereign pleasure. Hence it often happens that 
 the inner life of one who in the eyes of his fellows 
 is a moral wreck, is, in the eyes of a higher in- 
 telligence, a garden of beauty, just because such 
 an one has kept the inmost sanctuary unprofaned. 
 For it is not every sinful act that of necessity 
 1 Life, p. 651. 
 
76 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 affects the depth of the soul. " In my younger 
 days," says Baxter, " my trouble for sin was most 
 about my actual failings in thought, word, or 
 action. . . . But now I am much more troubled 
 for inward defects and omissions, or want of the 
 vital duties or graces in the soul." 1 There can 
 be no doubt here of the opinion of Jesus. He 
 found more congenial companionship amid the 
 outcasts of Jewish society than among the pro- 
 fessedly religious ; and seems to have compared 
 the Pharisees to whited sepulchres by contrast 
 with those whose outward life belied their true 
 nobility of spirit. 
 
 Now there are large classes of persons who 
 exhibit a special susceptibility to suggestion, and 
 particularly amid the excitement which is aimed 
 at in some forms of religious assemblies. At 
 such times they exhibit many of the symptoms 
 which are found in hypnotic seizures, and while 
 they are open then to religious impressions in a 
 distinctly morbid manner, they are also often 
 carried away by impressions of a less wholesome 
 kind. It is impossible to read the accounts of 
 what takes place at religious revivals without 
 thinking of these parallels drawn from medical 
 pathology. 
 
 And yet, strangely enough, there is a wide- 
 spread tendency to identify the universal manner 
 by which the soul rises for the first time into the 
 life of the spirit, with this the least spiritual 
 1 Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Biography, v. 570. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 77 
 
 manner of all. At such times man begins to draw 
 nearer to the centre of things ; to truth, peace, 
 goodness. And although in some cases an over- 
 powering external suggestion wrenches the soul 
 from its old course into the new, it is compara- 
 tively rare for the motives to be so suddenly 
 altered. Moreover, so far is instantaneous con- 
 version from being the only true type of the 
 approach to God, that it is but the extreme form 
 of one type among several. Conversion is, in its 
 essence, a change of intention ; and this may be 
 directed either upon intellectual or upon moral 
 objects. There is also an analogous process by 
 which the soul attains rest through the slow 
 clarification of the feelings. Hence we must 
 hesitate before we accept any cut and dried 
 theory of conversion, like that which is based 
 upon the dramatic experience of St Paul on the 
 way to Damascus. There is the highest author- 
 ity for saying that the road to the kingdom of 
 the spirit is neither easy to find nor easy to tread. 
 The journey has to be made from each of the 
 four winds. Hence, although the way of life is 
 marked off as difficult and narrow, if we compare 
 it with the broad and easy way of custom and 
 inclination, it is not of one monotonous character. 
 " For as there are many mansions in heaven, so 
 also there are many roads leading thither. Some 
 persons advance by considering themselves in 
 hell," St Teresa says (here the method of the 
 old-fashioned revivalist preacher is laid down), 
 
78 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 " others, in heaven, and these are distressed by 
 meditations on hell." (Here the saint prophesies 
 the shrinking of the present generation from 
 eternal punishment. As the American elder said 
 to the new minister, " It is no good preach- 
 ing eternal punishment to our people ; they 
 won't stand it.") "Others meditate on death." 
 (Think of our grandmothers reading Drelincourt 
 on Death, Blair's Grave, Young's Night Thoughts, 
 Hervey's Meditations among the Tombs !) " Some 
 persons if tender-hearted are greatly fatigued by 
 meditations on the Passion " (the Teutonic nature 
 shrinks from the stations of the cross with their 
 vivid portrayal of the sufferings of Jesus), " but 
 are consoled and make progress when they 
 meditate upon the power and greatness of God 
 in His creatures and on His love visible in all 
 things." (Here is the breezy and somewhat super- 
 ficial optimism of Channing and the American 
 Unitarians.) 1 
 
 Let us consider for a moment why conversion 
 should be associated so often with a definite and 
 instantaneous change of motive, a change which 
 can be produced by religious excitement working 
 upon certain temperaments. In the first place, 
 there is a delusive simplicity in such cases. For 
 the springs of conduct are veiled in clouds and 
 darkness, and are infinitely less accessible to 
 observation than is assumed by some popular 
 beliefs. It is only possible to mark off a change 
 
 1 Life, xiii. 20. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 79 
 
 in the soul by taking a superficial view and 
 fixing the moment by an outward act. We 
 need not be surprised then that this way of 
 beginning the religious life by an instantaneous 
 change of motive should be seized upon as typical 
 to the exclusion of others which in reality are 
 not less valid. Nor again is it surprising that 
 the English character with its strong practical 
 bent, should lay special stress upon the change 
 of motive, and that it should be impatient with 
 minds like that of Newman in their search for 
 consistency ; or that it should be so incredulous 
 about the emotional experiences upon which 
 mystical writers love to dwell. And, in the 
 third place, the belief in instantaneous conversion 
 is tempting for a further reason. It dispenses 
 with any need for systematic explanation. When 
 the change of motive has once taken place, the 
 life of the soul is thought to admit of no further 
 description, as though from earth to heaven were 
 just one step. 
 
 A popular preacher not so very long ago went 
 up into the North of Scotland to conduct a 
 mission, and his experience there brings out very 
 well the relation that holds between the profes- 
 sional standpoint of the pulpit and the beginnings 
 of the spiritual life. He complained amongst 
 other things that " in the North they could soak 
 up a great amount of preaching and make no 
 sign." I suppose the scientific phrase would be 
 that they were supersaturated. " One of the great 
 
80 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 difficulties there too was instantaneous conversion. 
 Somehow they did not want a sudden change." 
 A woman rebuked him by saying that her mother 
 had been praying in the hills for five years before 
 she was converted : how was she to be converted 
 in five minutes? Think of those lonely years 
 amid the mountains and lochs, where the Celtic 
 imagination traces its legends of love and death, 
 and then think of the bustling gentleman from 
 the south offering to furnish salvation complete 
 within five minutes ! In the religious life each 
 event, each experience, is to be taken as a fresh 
 revelation, and no single event or experience is to 
 be allowed to dominate the whole after life in 
 such a way as to obscure the special meaning of 
 each moment. In this sense, and in the religious 
 life above all, " to form habits is to fail." 
 
 The belief in instantaneous conversion holds 
 very closely with the belief in final perseverance, 
 and the connection between these two ideas is 
 interesting to the psychologist. If the soul is 
 specifically determined by the single act of con- 
 version, it will retain this bent toward the end. 
 But, fortunately, the infinite variety of the soul's 
 life rises above these cramping bonds. No single 
 act of the soul can so mortgage its whole after 
 course in such a manner as to shut off altogether 
 the possibility of a free choice. " I do not ask 
 to see the distant scene ; one step enough for me." 
 Cardinal Manning shortly before his death ex- 
 pressed himself as feeling some doubts about the 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 8 1 
 
 destiny of his own soul, and in consequence has 
 been much criticised by those who fail to realise 
 to themselves the tragedy of human conduct. 
 As a matter of fact, to use Ritschl's words, " the 
 craving after assurance leads to an artificial tension 
 of sentiment with interruptions by moments of 
 despair or with the risk of lasting self-deception." 1 
 Nearly every page of Grace Abounding justifies 
 these words of Ritschl. 
 
 In truth these two ideas, namely, of instan- 
 taneous conversion and of final perseverance, 
 contain within themselves a contradiction. The 
 life of the spirit cannot be expressed in the terms 
 of time, and in proportion as it is more deeply 
 realised, the ideas of time fall away. 
 
 So long as the direction of the soul towards 
 God is viewed in an external way, such as that 
 which we have been considering, it is possible 
 to pass through many experiences without a 
 deepened self-knowledge. And yet even in the 
 simplest mode of approach to the truth, there is 
 also a revelation of self. " For what is it," asks 
 St Augustine, " to hear from Thee about oneself 
 but to come to know oneself?" Genuine re- 
 ligious feeling then and increased self-knowledge 
 go side by side. But in certain modes of the 
 religious experience introspection plays a greater 
 part. There are some minds which are impelled 
 towards introspection, and it is to them that we 
 
 1 History of Christian Doctrines of Justification and Reconcilia- 
 tion, p. 287. 
 F 
 
82 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 owe the striking self-revelations in which we can 
 best read the religious spirit. The very emphasis 
 or exaggeration into which religious minds often 
 fall, magnifies and brings to light the subtler 
 aspects of life. The soul is set over against God 
 in an awful isolation, like the two actors in a 
 drama of ./Eschylus, and this idea colours even 
 the simple conditions of life until they merge 
 into a tragic gloom and lurid intensity. " I 
 thought," says Bunyan in one of his melancholy 
 moods, " that all things wrought for my damage 
 and for my eternal overthrow." 1 And again, 
 " Methought this sin was bigger than the sins of 
 a country, of a kingdom, or of the whole world ; 
 no one pardonable, nor all of them together was 
 able to equal mine, mine outwent them every 
 one." 2 Of course there is exaggeration here, and 
 historical truth cannot accept these statements 
 literally. But if we read them as the expression 
 of deep feeling the case is altered and they have 
 a genuine meaning. 
 
 At such times of storm and stress, the soul 
 sees objects in a distorted perspective, and is 
 aware of this, its weakness. " These things," said 
 Bunyan, " may seem ridiculous to others, even as 
 ridiculous as they were in themselves, but to 
 me they were the most tormenting cogitations." 8 
 This self-tormenting is one of the most character- 
 istic features of the religious life, although it often 
 passes its normal limits and becomes morbid. 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 157. 2 lb., par. 172. 3 lb., par. 184. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 83 
 
 When, in the act of reflection, moral standards 
 are for the first time consciously applied by a 
 man to his own character, he tends to become 
 alarmed by the persistence of habits of thought 
 and desire which have become part of his nature, 
 and, on the other hand, to watch with anxiety 
 each act which may both reveal himself and 
 further determine himself. " I durst not take a 
 pin or a stick," said Bunyan, " though but so big 
 as a straw, for my conscience now was sore, and 
 would smart at every touch : I could not now 
 tell how to speak my words for fear I should 
 misplace them. Oh, how gingerly did I then go 
 in all I did or said. I found myself as on a 
 miry bog that shook if I did but stir. 1 . . . But 
 my original and inward pollution — that was my 
 plague and affliction — that I saw at a dreadful 
 rate always putting itself forth within me ; that 
 I had the guilt of to amazement ; by reason 'of 
 that I was more loathsome in mine own eyes 
 than was a toad, and I thought I was so in God's 
 eyes too. ' Sin and corruption,' I said, ' would 
 as naturally bubble out of my heart as water 
 would bubble out of a fountain.'" He was 
 racked as on a wheel in this way for years. 
 Now there can be no doubt that these growing 
 scruples have a most important function to play 
 in the moral life of the society. The struggles 
 of the soul are not merely, as it were, a freak or 
 a sport, but have a universal meaning. No mere 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 82. 
 
84 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 calm process of self-examination can take the 
 place of the self-torment of which Bunyan speaks. 
 Mere self-examination without the accompanying 
 effort is like putting a diseased tissue under the 
 microscope without seeking a cure. There is 
 in St Augustine an utterance like Bunyan's. 
 " No one is clean from sin in Thy sight, not 
 even an infant whose life upon the earth has 
 been of one day." 1 The awakened and there- 
 fore oversensitive conscience confuses the degrees 
 of wrong. The bawling of the newborn child and 
 the theft of some fruit by the lad of sixteen, are 
 solemnly condemned by the saint, who was after 
 all a repentant rake. It is an ironical comment 
 upon these self-revelations of Augustine that they 
 have found expression in the creed of Calvin and 
 his followers in the belief that beings morally inno- 
 cent are tortured eternally. Perhaps, however, as 
 Bunyan says, there is a necessary absurdity about 
 the exaggerations into which human beings fall 
 at certain crises. But religious teachers who lack 
 the sense of humour perpetuate for the amusement, 
 edification or perplexity of others, those extrava- 
 gances which wiser men like Bunyan estimate at 
 their true value. There is a saving cynicism which 
 is found in the most saintly persons, and is, in its 
 due place, a safeguard against exaggeration. He 
 who penned the picture of Vanity Fair, 2 and 
 Santa Teresa when she spoke of "the badly 
 arranged comedy of this life," are at one with Him 
 
 1 Canf. ii. 6. 2 I do not mean the novel. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 85 
 
 who compared His divine mission to the cry of a 
 child among children playing in the market-place. 
 The theologian who shrinks from the touch of 
 nature runs the risk of being alienated from his kind, 
 and, for the time being, from his own true self. 
 
 I am aware that flippancy has its dangers, but, 
 after all, in a world where there is so much to be 
 serious about, there can scarcely be too many 
 merry people. And so it is pleasing to come 
 across their delightful footsteps in somewhat solemn 
 surroundings. Let us try to catch a glimpse of 
 the muse of comedy, as she haunts even the sacred 
 precincts. George Fox on one occasion gravely 
 censures those who held that "women have no 
 souls " (adding in a light manner) " no more than 
 a goose." " But I reproved them, and told them 
 that was not right." 1 I believe that the latter- 
 day saints hold something to the same effect. On 
 other occasions Fox fell foul of rhyme-makers and 
 fiddlers. And this was when Milton was writing 
 the words for the music of Henry Lawes in the 
 more serious days before the restoration and the 
 license of Charles the Second ! Human nature 
 has a habit of shaking itself loose from those 
 shackles which formalists would put upon it. 
 Donne, in a rash moment, made a promise (which 
 he failed to keep) that he would not write any 
 verses after taking orders, as though religion and 
 the muses could not agree. I am sure no one 
 will be very hard upon poor Donne for his un- 
 1 Journal for 1646. 
 
86 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 doubted breach of faith to the Lady Bedford, who 
 exacted his foolish vow. And, to descend to 
 physical as well as moral frailty, those who have 
 suffered from the close air of some places of wor- 
 ship, will sympathise with another child of nature 
 — his name is, unfortunately, not handed down. 
 Wesley was preaching at Bath, Monday, January 
 24th, 1743. "Some of the rich and great were 
 
 present One of them, my Lord , stayed very 
 
 patiently till I came to the middle of the fourth 
 head. Then starting up he said : ' 'Tis hot, 'tis 
 very hot,' and got downstairs as fast as he could." 1 
 I am inclined to think that Wesley, unlike Fox, 
 could relish the details in which human weak- 
 ness is shown and dragged down from its pedestal. 
 The great reformers in religion, St Francis, Luther, 
 Wesley, have been touched with a humanism which 
 is libelled by the rigidity of some of their followers. 
 Wesley could enjoy seeing the Westminster scholars 
 act the Adelpki of Terence. Or again with comic 
 power he depicts in a sentence his grandfather An- 
 nesley. " He lived seventy-seven years, and would 
 probably have lived longer had he not began water- 
 drinking at seventy." 2 And let no one say these 
 trifles are unworthy of the dignity of religion. The 
 man who is sensible of them will be saved from too 
 high a conceit of himself, and from the mistakes 
 into which serious persons often fall. The shafts 
 of ridicule fall harmless from a humorous coat of 
 mail. Nowhere is this self-criticism more required 
 
 1 Vfeslefs Journals, 1743. a lb., 1768, 1769. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 87 
 
 than in the attempt to gain over others to the 
 opinions and beliefs which have taken strong pos- 
 session of the soul. Poor Fox sets out bravely " to 
 bring off people from all the world's religions which 
 are vain." 1 St Teresa could have advised him. 
 "When people," says she, "begin to have pleasure in 
 the rest and fruit of prayer, they will have everybody 
 else be very spiritual also. Now, to desire this is 
 not wrong, but to try to bring it about may not be 
 right, except with great discretion and with much 
 reserve, without any appearance of teaching." 2 
 
 And this brings us back to the point at which 
 we arrived some time since. The man who is to 
 deal successfully with the souls of others, must 
 first understand his own. " For it is one grace 
 that our Lord gives grace ; and it is another grace 
 to understand what grace, and what gift it is ; and 
 it is another and further grace to have the power 
 to describe and explain it to others." 3 One of the 
 reasons why the pulpit is not more effective is 
 that the revelation of the soul to itself is under- 
 taken, for the most part, by men who, not knowing 
 their own hearts, presume to depict the inner life 
 of others. " 'Tis not all our understanding has 
 to do, simply to judge us by our outward actions ; 
 it must penetrate the very soul, and there discover 
 by what springs the motion is guided. But that 
 being a very high and hazardous undertaking, I 
 could wish that fewer would attempt it." * 
 
 1 Fox, Journal, i. 648. 2 Life, xiii. II. 
 
 3 Teresa, Life, xvii. 7. 4 Montaigne, Essays, Book II., c i. 
 
88 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 The first step in genuine introspection is to dis- 
 cover that, after all, self-knowledge is exceedingly 
 hard to attain. There are two special characters 
 in religious introspection that at once force them- 
 selves upon the attention of one who is beginning 
 to reflect. Many thoughts and impulses are re- 
 ferred in a seemingly arbitrary way to an external 
 power, and it is not always clear why a person 
 should not say outright, " I thought so," instead of 
 " the Lord said to me," with St Teresa and George 
 Fox. 1 And yet we must not force the living 
 expression of the saint into any preconceived 
 formulae. This reference of thought and im- 
 pulse to an external source is not unreasonable 
 if we bear in mind that the soul is not something 
 self-existent, but is dependent upon a wider 
 sphere, in which it is included. Psychology pro- 
 ceeds too often as though the soul were the entire 
 world in itself. Then again there is a certain 
 inarticulateness in religious experiences. " At 
 other times I learnt some things without the 
 help of words and that more clearly than those 
 things which were told me in words. I under- 
 stood exceedingly deep truths concerning the 
 Truth, more than I could have done through 
 the teaching of many learned men." 2 The 
 office of the Christian religion in disclosing the 
 soul to itself is described in a striking meta- 
 
 1 We shall consider in later chapters the visions and voices that 
 seem to come from without. 
 
 2 Teresa, Life, xl. 6. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 89 
 
 phor ; " it pierces even to the dividing of soul 
 and spirit" (Heb. iv. 12). "I say that it happens 
 to me from time to time — it has done so this 
 very day and so I remember it well — to see my 
 soul tear itself in order to find itself there where 
 the greater part of it is." 1 And, in particular, the 
 Christian teacher has not only to interpret the 
 monitions which stream in from without upon the 
 soul, but those vague movements in which it 
 awakens to knowledge of itself. 
 
 We are now able to proceed to the two other 
 leading types of approach to God ; the search for 
 intellectual consistency, and the clarification of 
 feeling. Augustine is an imposing example of 
 those who have sought to satisfy the reason in 
 religious truth. At one time he despaired about 
 the truth being found in the Church. " For 
 when my spirit," he says, " tried to run back into 
 the catholic faith, I was smitten back because the 
 catholic faith was not what I thought it to be." 2 
 The study of the scriptures and of natural science 
 combined with the personal influence of Ambrose 
 in changing his view until he admitted that as 
 against the Manichaeans the catholic faith could be 
 affirmed " without impudence." 3 The Christian 
 faith was for him the crown of his studies and he 
 read Plato as the preface to St John. 4 Although 
 the type illustrated by Augustine is not a common 
 one, it has contributed largely to Christianity so 
 
 1 Teresa, Life, xvii. 10. a Conf. v. 10. 
 
 3 lb., v. 14. * lb., vii. 9. 
 
90 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 far as it is an intellectual force. The saint was 
 not one of those who, like the ideal convert, can 
 be conducted from the outer gloom to the light 
 in five minutes. He spent the years from eighteen 
 to thirty in passing from one standpoint to 
 another until he could obtain the best view of the 
 truth. This search for the truth in his case as in 
 all other genuine instances, was touched through- 
 out with the utmost richness of feeling. " Great 
 thoughts spring from the heart." " Man," Augus- 
 tine cries, "is a huge abyss, and his hairs can 
 be counted more easily than the affections and 
 stirrings of his heart." 1 There are few more 
 magical passages in the Latin language than 
 that in which he describes his grief for the death 
 of a friend. 2 We need not wonder that from him 
 the mediaeval world drew its vocabulary of religion 
 and of love. Truly deep feeling is also subtle ; 
 it is only the shallow soul that is rough and tact- 
 less. And this subtlety in Augustine answers 
 to his perception of the complexity of man's 
 nature. The careful reader will note instances 
 of this subtlety in many an unexpected thought. 
 His attention, for example, is attracted by the 
 strange luxury of pity ; " mourning alone was 
 pleasant to me, and succeeded my friend as the 
 darling of my spirit." He could reflect, too, upon 
 the mysterious nature of the pleasure which 
 tragedy affords, or again upon the pleasure of 
 contrast between a threatened peril and the relief 
 
 1 Conf. iv. 14. 2 lb., iv. 4. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 91 
 
 of escape. Amid this variety of experience he 
 gained a clear idea of the oneness of spiritual 
 life, and then sought a like unity in the course of 
 the history of the world. He shook himself free 
 from the Manichseanism — which is, after all, the 
 mark of a mind not yet at peace with itself — by 
 his famous declaration that evil is nothing but 
 the privation of good, 1 and at last embraced the 
 soul and the world in the one idea of a heavenly 
 society, the City of God. 
 
 There is an analogy between Bunyan's rest- 
 lessness until he could be certain of his own 
 salvation, and the speculative movements of 
 Augustine. On both sides the change of con- 
 version was rather intellectual than moral. And 
 further, there is in Bunyan an unresolved con- 
 tradiction in the way in which he leaves evil as 
 something positive over against the divine bene- 
 ficence. And so he shares the Manichaeanism of 
 Augustine's earlier days. The sceptical method, 
 however, of the polished African is quite beyond 
 the reach of the undisciplined mind of Bunyan, 
 and he gives an amusing caricature of it in 
 his picture of Doubting Castle. The fact that 
 truth is difficult of access — that knowledge shades 
 off from certainty into uncertainty — is the hob- 
 goblin that harasses Christian and Hopeful. One 
 cannot imagine Bunyan saying with Augustine, 
 that " a man need not blush to confess his ignor- 
 ance, lest by saying falsely that he knows he 
 
 1 Con/, iii. 7. 
 
92 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 should deserve never to know " ; nor with Richard 
 Baxter, that "I am not so foolish as to pretend 
 my certainty to be greater than it is, merely 
 because it is a dishonour to be less certain ; nor 
 will I, by shame, be kept from confessing those 
 infirmities, which those have as much as I, who 
 hypocritically reproach me with them." 1 But 
 what was excusable in the case of the Bedford 
 tinker, with his limited opportunities, is not a 
 precedent for everybody. It is a striking and 
 noticeable fact that most forms of religious belief 
 still cling to the method of Bunyan which involves 
 after all the suicide of the reason, and have not 
 yet learnt from the great masters of apologetics 
 who speak in the dialect of a freer age. 
 
 Lastly, conversion may take the shape of a 
 clarification of feeling. Of course it is not to 
 be supposed that these types are clearly marked 
 off one from another. Sometimes a single mind 
 will exhibit their joint characteristics almost in 
 equal degrees. Thus Augustine finds peace as 
 well as intellectual satisfaction. Still there are 
 cases where the doctrines of religion are accepted 
 and the maxims of religion obeyed, while the 
 spirit has to reach through many a struggle of 
 feeling to a settled state. Sometimes these con- 
 ditions are found in the outer world ; sorrow and 
 disappointment may be a dolorous way to God 
 along which perhaps the majority of beautiful 
 souls attain their beauty. The discipline of life 
 1 Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Biography, v. 569. 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 93 
 
 thus becomes for many men the instrument of 
 spiritual advance. Physical weakness throws 
 the soul back upon the support of others, and 
 thus forces it to realise the community of man- 
 kind. And in realising this dependence, it comes 
 to know itself more truly, and so to enter upon 
 the life of faith. Dale regretted that he was not 
 disciplined in this way until a late period in his 
 life. 1 It is another indication of the futility of 
 some popular theories about conversion, that this 
 mode should be almost overlooked in comparison 
 with the more mechanical modes. 
 
 I can imagine someone objecting that we 
 ought not to separate the change of motive from 
 its emotional accompaniments. There is a very 
 good reason however for doing so. In a later 
 chapter we shall see that mechanical suggestion 
 — in fact hypnotism, acting as it does upon im- 
 pressionable and sometimes diseased natures, plays 
 a very large part in instantaneous conversion. 2 
 
 An artificial atmosphere in which emotion is 
 forced is furnished not only by the religious 
 assembly, but also by the cloister, and we owe 
 to its inmates some of the most striking descrip- 
 tions of the history of emotion. There, so to 
 speak, the ordinary emotional life is magnified. 
 No one has described the night of the soul more 
 vividly than the Spaniard, St John of the Cross. 
 
 Yet the religious life cannot be separated from 
 the other experiences of the soul, not even by the 
 1 Life, 631. 2 P. 117. 
 
94 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 solitude of the convent. For the relation between 
 the religious and other impulses is a very close 
 one, and the deepening of the emotional nature 
 which marks the attainment of physical maturity 
 is expressed partly in a greater susceptibility to 
 religious considerations. The self-discipline which 
 is then entered upon is often associated with a 
 more specific religious profession, and is a most 
 important factor in building up character. The 
 exercises and objects of religious feeling furnish 
 an emotional outlet which relieves the storm and 
 stress of these years, and renders the control of 
 self more easy. Yet there are limits to this office 
 of religion, and very serious dangers are incurred 
 when even religious emotion is cultivated in ex- 
 cess. We shall return to this topic in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 If it is impossible to separate one group of 
 emotions from the rest, it is not less impossible to 
 separate religious thought from the temper which 
 it expresses. It follows that the creed, in which 
 the theologian has formulated his own experience, 
 must be translated back into their own experience 
 by those who accept it. It is in this sense that 
 faith can be regarded in a threefold aspect, as 
 an affection, a belief, a motive. Faith is nothing 
 unless it lives ; unless it springs from the depths, 
 and controls the exterior conduct, of the soul. 
 (Hence belief, in the technical sense, can never be 
 reduced to a simple assent, as the sect maintain to 
 which Faraday belonged.) But it does more than 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 95 
 
 this ; it moves beyond itself to an object which 
 it affirms. So far as the operations of faith go 
 beyond the experience upon which they super- 
 vene, they may be described with a certain pro- 
 priety as " a work of God in us." x And it is 
 because the object of Christian faith is not the 
 mere outcome of what has preceded it, that Christ- 
 ianity is not a natural but a positive religion, 
 that is a revelation. 2 Yet, as psychologists, we 
 are not concerned with the outward declarations 
 of belief. On the inside, faith can be described as 
 that experience to which the Christian life tends, 
 an attitude of the soul to an object which is shared 
 by all. 
 
 The ideal of spiritual perfection which is pre- 
 sented to the soul in the act of faith, brings with 
 it a consciousness of the contrast between this 
 ideal and the heritage of character which we have 
 received or acquired. This contrast is also a 
 condemnation of what is discordant with the ideal, 
 and so we reach the peculiar quality that attaches 
 to the notion of sin. 
 
 In some cases the soul marks itself off so 
 clearly on the side of the ideal over against 
 its old self, that the old self is spoken of as 
 something alien. Augustine indeed says that 
 his wickedness divided him against himself; he 
 might equally have said that his aspirations had 
 done so. 3 
 
 1 Luther, quoted by Herrmann, op. cit., 170. 
 
 2 Smith, Prophets of Israel (1895 ed.), 168. 3 Conf. v. 10. 
 
96 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 There is a certain character, however, of the 
 Christian ideal which makes it impossible that 
 the sense of sin should ever entirely disappear 
 from the awakened consciousness. The Christian 
 ideal is not one that can be reached by the indi- 
 vidual who is living to himself; it can only be 
 realised in its appropriate environment, in the 
 Christian society ; and since this social ideal is 
 never more than partly realised, conduct can 
 never be more than approximately perfect. On 
 the other hand, every falling short contributes 
 to the imperfection of the society, and so per- 
 petuates the evil. It is easy to see that the 
 doctrine of original sin gains meaning when it 
 is applied, not to the individual, but to the 
 race ; and that it involves the condemnation by 
 an ideal, of the character which the ideal also 
 determines. We must ask — not whether the 
 individual deserves to be condemned, but whether 
 his character is conformable to this given standard 
 or not. From such a point of view the doctrines 
 of human depravity and original sin become true, 
 even if partial, statements of fact. 
 
 The reason why these doctrines have some- 
 times been misunderstood is that the soul has 
 been regarded individually, instead of in its social 
 relations. The Christian life is not that of a 
 solitary pilgrim, but of the member of a great 
 society. It follows that the Church is a body 
 of sinners, and in the world can never be any- 
 thing else. Its ideal can never be realised com- 
 
THE SOUL S AWAKENING 97 
 
 pletely. Only through neglect of the social 
 character of religion can the pretensions of some 
 sects to Christian perfection be explained. In 
 laying down moral judgments, therefore, we must 
 be quite clear whether we have in view the indi- 
 vidual or the society. Just as psychological truth 
 is only partially attainable so long as we have in 
 view the individual alone, so it is with moral and 
 spiritual truth. It is one of the marks of the 
 superficiality of theosophy that the moral progress 
 exhibited by it is that of the individual alone, apart 
 from his context, from the social life in which he 
 attains reality. In fact the very idea of a second 
 incarnation seems to contradict what seems to be 
 a universal condition of the individual's life. A 
 further objection is this,, they talk " as if it were 
 possible for any soul to clothe itself in any 
 body." J Whereas the soul is to be viewed on 
 the one hand in relation to other souls, on the 
 other hand in relation to the body, which, for 
 that matter, is also a social product. To men- 
 tion one fact only, mere physical well-being is 
 only maintained by the co-operation of producers 
 and distributers in an organised society and through 
 a complex system of trades. Any system, then, 
 which fails to take account of these two factors 
 can never give an adequate account of the spiritual 
 conflict of which the beginning has now been 
 described. 
 
 1 Aristotle, de anima, i. 3. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ECSTASY 
 
 Distinction between the "normal" and the " average "—Ex- 
 pression in countenance — Contagion of feeling — Solitude — 
 Effect of a crowd — Seizures and fashion in them — Relation to 
 hypnotism — Excitement and miracles — Levitation and biloca- 
 tion — Physical accompaniments of the mystical life— Orgiastic 
 excesses — Conversion by hypnotism — Sensible effects of ideas. 
 
 ALONG with the religious life of which the 
 beginning has been described, there go 
 certain reactions between those parts of the soul's 
 life with which we are more specially concerned, 
 and other parts. We shall consider in this 
 chapter the excitement that accompanies the first 
 stirrings of the religious life, and in the next the 
 revulsion that, by an inevitable law, follows upon 
 ecstatic illumination, namely, the dark night of the 
 soul. 
 
 But the reader is to be warned once more 
 against supposing that every departure from what 
 is usual is therefore morbid. He is to extend 
 his ideas of the range of human experience, 1 in 
 the directions of ecstasy, on the one hand, and of 
 melancholy on the other. 
 
 It is natural to expect that not only the ex- 
 
 1 P. 12. 
 
 9 8 
 
ECSTASY 99 
 
 citements and revulsions which attend the birth- 
 throes of the spirit will find outward expression, 
 but that also the inward peace, which sometimes 
 comes as the result of such a conflict, will show 
 itself in the countenance and gait. There are 
 faces to be seen here and there on which a 
 heavenly light gleams, at least for those whose 
 eyes have been opened. The spirit seems to 
 remould the body to itself in such a way that 
 after the physical beauty of the earlier years 
 there comes later a spiritual beauty even of the 
 countenance, in which the first comeliness is 
 transfigured. Persons whose thoughts have been 
 habitually conversant with great matters take a 
 trace of them, and this circumstance is not con- 
 fined to the religious life. Old actors especially 
 gain this impressiveness of look. Perhaps it is 
 because they have exercised their facial muscles 
 in voicing the whole gamut of emotion and so 
 have moulded themselves into a kind of human 
 epitome, like the head of the Almighty Father 
 in Pesellino's Trinity, or in Blake's illustrations 
 to the Book of Job. Sometimes this change of 
 appearance takes place suddenly. Fox says of 
 himself on one occasion : " I was very much 
 altered in countenance and person, as if my body 
 had been new moulded or changed." 1 When St 
 Teresa was writing the Fortress of the Soul, her 
 face was seen to shine, by Mother Anne of the 
 Incarnation. 2 At the same time outward things 
 1 Journal, 1647. 2 Life, tr. by Lewis, 99 n. 
 
IOO THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 are a very imperfect clue to what is within. I 
 know some saintly persons who have the look 
 of detected thieves, and other persons with the 
 look of an apostle whom I would not trust for 
 a moment. Still these exceptions are not fatal. 
 We have already seen that the devotional life 
 sometimes leads to an excessive self-humilia- 
 tion, and self-approbation can give more bland- 
 ness to a glance than the peace of God within 
 the heart. Nothing, however, can be more in- 
 tolerable than the attempt to set a fashion in 
 expressing religious feeling. 
 
 If the soul to some extent moulds the body to 
 itself, on the other hand, physiological changes 
 have a good deal to do with the religious life. 
 " The disquiet of the soul," says St Teresa, 
 " comes most frequently from bodily indisposition 
 — I have had great experience in the matter, and 
 I know it is true ; for I have carefully observed 
 it and discussed it afterwards with spiritual persons 
 — for we are so wretched that this poor prisoner 
 of a soul shares in the miseries of the body. The 
 changes of the seasons and the alterations of the 
 humours very often compel it, without any fault 
 of its own, not to do what it would, but rather to 
 suffer in every way. Meanwhile the more we 
 force the body on these occasions, the greater the 
 mischief and the longer it lasts. Some discretion 
 must be used in order to understand whether ill- 
 health be the occasion or not. The poor soul 
 must not be stifled. Let those who thus suffer 
 
ECSTASY IOI 
 
 understand that they are ill." 1 This last saying 
 of Teresa ought to be written in letters of gold 
 before the eyes of all who are artificially excited 
 by religious gatherings. There is a natural 
 exaltation of feeling when the mind directs itself 
 upon sublime objects, but this is too often con- 
 fused with the lower kind of excitement which 
 is produced when human beings are assembled 
 together in a crowd. This latter form of excite- 
 ment may be traced under the heads of contagion 
 of feeling and hypnotic suggestion. 
 
 Contagion of feeling is best understood perhaps 
 by setting it over against the influence of solitude. 
 Four years ago I spent in the Lakes a week of 
 almost complete solitude, broken only about once 
 a day by a visitor. This was not much perhaps 
 to boast of in the way of being a hermit, but it 
 was enough to teach me one or two things. I 
 had never realised until then how intimately the 
 sense of the neighbourhood of other human beings 
 enters into almost every experience. I felt in 
 my loneliness as if one part of my soul had been 
 wrenched away, and there was also a curious 
 mixture of pain and a feeling of expansion as 
 though some strivings previously cramped could 
 now express themselves. I was conscious of a 
 greater range of feeling, being at times more 
 exalted, and at other times more depressed than 
 in ordinary circumstances, when for most men 
 the presence of others acts like a check upon 
 variation in either of these two directions. 
 
 1 Life, xi. 23. 
 
102 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 But now take the case of a company of human 
 beings who are simultaneously excited. Even a 
 very slight rise in the general level of feeling 
 deprives us to some extent of the inhibition by 
 which we are ordinarily influenced, and the 
 change in the direction of greater freedom makes 
 the spirit begin to rock upon its foundations 
 like a passenger staggering upon the deck of a 
 steamer when it puts out from calm water into 
 the deep. The first movement makes some 
 persons gasp in anticipation of what is to come. 
 Apply this to the religious life. Assembling 
 together in a congregation has effects which can 
 easily be marked off. A certain temper is excited, 
 and there is a beginning of enthusiasm, a quicken- 
 ing of love. 1 Hence there is a. tendency to 
 identify religious feeling with fellowship in a re- 
 ligious society. When Victorinus said to his 
 Christian friend Simplicianus, " Now you shall 
 know that I am a Christian," he replied, " I will 
 not believe it nor count you among the Christians 
 until I see you in the Church of Christ." 2 It 
 is clear that the growth of the religious com- 
 munity is, for the most part, dependent upon the 
 communication of the religious impulse. And 
 while this impulse may be generated by indepen- 
 dent reflection or by conscious imitation of others, 
 these means are less efficient and available for 
 most men than the less articulate but more pro- 
 found effects produced by assembling together. 
 
 1 Hebrews x. 24. * Augustine, Conf. viii. 2. 
 
ECSTASY 103 
 
 It is clear, then, that the heightening of feeling 
 which is produced in this way, is characteristic of 
 the religious experience. Hence it is one-sided 
 to insist on the effects of seclusion as though they 
 alone adequately accounted for that experience. 1 
 This much, however, may be affirmed ; that over 
 against the deepened social life of the religious 
 society stands the exalted life of the individual, 
 an exaltation produced by solitude, discipline, 
 and reflection. 
 
 The sudden emphasis of the social factor in 
 religious gatherings, therefore, produces effects 
 not less remarkable than those which are pro- 
 duced at the other extreme by solitude. We 
 shall consider these effects now in some of their 
 extreme physical manifestations. Those who 
 are sermon-hardened may be incredulous when 
 it is said that the human voice raised amid cir- 
 cumstances of strangeness, anticipation, and sup- 
 pressed excitement, has the power of sending too 
 highly strung hearers into fits. When the Rev. 
 John M'Neill complained that his Scotch hearers 
 could soak up a great amount of preaching and 
 make no sign, he paid a sincere compliment to 
 their soundness of mind. Hearers with a mental 
 equipment inferior to theirs are protected by 
 custom. It is well that it is so. Religious ex- 
 citement is one of the most powerful agents in 
 producing insanity, and will always be viewed 
 with apprehension by those who have even faintly 
 1 H. R. Marshall, Mind, New Series, No. 21, 50. 
 
104 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 realised this fact. It is well known in the Lakes 
 that the Keswick Convention yearly produces a 
 crop of nervous disorders of a more or less serious 
 kind, disorders which sometimes break out into 
 acute mania. I would suggest that along with 
 the other texts and inscriptions which they dis- 
 play, the authorities of that convention should 
 write up the saying of St Teresa, Let those who 
 thus suffer understand that they are ill. Some 
 teachers of religion trespass into the province of 
 medicine. When seizures began to be frequent 
 among the crowds who attended Wesley's teach- 
 ing, he regarded them as special evidences of the 
 divine favour and sang the Te Deum. A physician 
 would have employed the treatment proper to 
 epilepsy or hysteria. 
 
 On the first of January 1739, Wesley and 
 about sixty others spent the night in continual 
 prayer. " About three o'clock in the morning 
 the power of God came mightily upon us, inso- 
 much that many cried out for exceeding joy and 
 many fell to the ground. As soon as we re- 
 covered a little from that awe and amazement 
 at the presence of His Majesty, we broke out 
 with one voice : ' We praise thee, O God, we 
 acknowledge Thee to be the Lord ! ' " On the 
 28 th of the same month Wesley went with some 
 friends " to a house where was one of those 
 commonly called French prophets. After a 
 time she came in. She seemed about four or 
 five and twenty, of an agreeable speech and 
 
ECSTASY 105 
 
 behaviour. She asked why we came, I said, ' to 
 try the spirits whether they be of God.' Pre- 
 sently after she leaned back in her chair and 
 seemed to have strong workings in her breast 
 with deep sighings intermixed. Her hands and 
 head, and by turns every part of her body seemed 
 also to be in a kind of convulsive motion. This 
 continued about ten minutes, till at six she began 
 to speak ; though the workings, sighings, and 
 contortions of her body were so mixed with her 
 words that she seldom spoke half a sentence 
 together. She spoke much all as in the person 
 of God and mostly in Scripture words." Wesley 
 was not certain whether she spoke by the spirit 
 of God or not. From this case it. is clear that 
 the public mind was at the time more or less 
 familiarised with the idea of seizures which 
 accompany religious exercises. Not only so ; 
 Wesley himself seems to have regarded them as 
 the token of divine approval. On April the 26th, 
 in the same year, he records in his diary : " While 
 I was preaching at Newgate on these words, He 
 that believeth hath everlasting life, I was insensibly 
 led without any previous design to declare strongly 
 and explicitly that God willeth all men to be thus 
 saved, and to pray that if this were not the truth 
 of God, He would not suffer the blind to go out 
 of the way, but if it were He would bare witness 
 to His word. Immediately one and then an- 
 other sunk to the earth : they dropped on every 
 side as thunderstruck. In the evening one was 
 
106 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 so wounded by the sword of the spirit that 
 you would have imagined she could not live a 
 moment." 1 Wesley himself cannot be acquitted of 
 taking advantage of this epidemic when he called 
 upon God to display His power in this particular 
 way. A more powerful way of suggesting a 
 seizure to the hysterical persons in his audience 
 could scarcely be imagined. 
 
 There are fashions in these things. While the 
 hearers of Wesley dropped to the ground as if 
 dead, during a great Presbyterian revival which 
 passed over Kentucky and Tennessee in the be- 
 ginning of this century, persons swooned away 
 and lay as if dead on the ground for a quarter of 
 an hour, and this " falling exercise " was succeeded 
 by the jerks. A backwoods preacher who has left 
 a valuable autobiography says : 
 
 " A new exercise broke out among us called the 
 jerks which was overwhelming in its effects upon 
 the bodies and minds of the people. No matter 
 whether they were saints or sinners, they would 
 be taken under a warm song or sermon and seized 
 with a convulsive jerking all over which they 
 could not by any possibility avoid, and the more 
 they resisted the more they jerked. I have seen 
 more than five hundred persons jerking at one 
 time in my large congregations. Most usually 
 persons taken with the jerks would rise up and 
 dance. Some would run but could not get away. 
 To see those proud young gentlemen and young 
 1 Wesley's Journals, under respective dates. 
 
ECSTASY 107 
 
 ladies dressed in their silks, jewellery, and prunella 
 from top to toe, take the jerks, would often excite 
 my risibilities. The first jerk or so you would 
 see their fine bonnets, caps, and combs fly : and 
 so sudden would be the jerking of the head that 
 their long loose hair would crack almost as loud 
 as a waggoner's whip." x 
 
 These strange accompaniments of religious 
 fervour seem partly original, springing from over- 
 excitement and hysteria ; partly imitative, the 
 report of such things tending in some minds 
 to suggest imitation. There is thus a kind of 
 physical hypocrisy as well as a moral one. The 
 subjects of many of these seizures yield to them 
 almost against their will and at variance with 
 their own highest promptings. Hence the sense 
 of shame which is often found in those who are 
 so carried away. They are surprised by what 
 seems to be an upheaval of their lower nature, 
 the revolt of the lower nervous centres, and the 
 disorder of the higher. There is thus an intimate 
 connection between these phenomena and those 
 of hypnotism. Leaving this point for a moment, 
 let us note that the hearers of Wesley were doubt- 
 less more or less familiar with the strange ex- 
 periences of the Camisards, to whom the French 
 prophetess seems to have belonged. Wesley 
 refers to them several times in the Journals, and 
 seems, towards the end of his life, to have come 
 to the conclusion that these experiences, instead 
 1 Quoted in Baring Gould, Strange Survivals, 174. 
 
108 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 of bearing the stamp of the divine approval, were 
 the work of Satan. Speaking of some of his 
 converts near Chapel en le Frith, he says : " It 
 is chiefly among these enormous mountains " (he 
 is speaking of the Peak country) " that so many 
 have been awakened, justified and soon after 
 perfected in love ; but even while they are full 
 of love, Satan strives to push many of them to 
 extravagance. This appears in several instances. 
 " Frequently three or four, yea, ten or twelve, 
 pray aloud all together. Some of them, perhaps 
 many, scream all together as loud as they possibly 
 can. Some of them use improper, yea, indecent 
 expressions in prayer. Several drop down as 
 dead and are as stiff as a corpse, but in a while 
 they start up and cry ' Glory, Glory,' perhaps 
 twenty times together. Just so do the French 
 Prophets, and very lately the Jumpers in Wales, 
 bringing the real work into contempt." 1 No 
 religious teaching has the monopoly of such 
 effects as these. They arise out of the universal 
 qualities of human nature. They are found 
 beyond, as well as within, the pale of Christi- 
 anity, and are the chief physiological basis of 
 the nature religions. They characterise the be- 
 ginnings of all great religious movements, and 
 seem especially to have marked the first century 
 of Christian history. The night-long vigils of the 
 love-feast in Fetterlane had the same results as 
 the agapae at Corinth, namely, in a certain mental 
 
 ^Journals, April 3, 1786. 
 
ECSTASY 109 
 
 disordering. But it is not here that the secret 
 of Christ is found. The Saviour of the world 
 laid a cool hand upon the brow of humanity as 
 it throbbed with multitudinous impulses, and by a 
 miracle more admirable than that of the Galilean 
 lake, calmed the spiritual tempest into the peace of 
 God. Let not your hearts be troubled are the words 
 of One who heals the mind, and they condemn all 
 presumptuous intrusion upon the soul's tranquillity. 
 
 There is no doubt, then, that religious excite- 
 ment is accompanied by what is unusual, wonder- 
 ful, that is to say, miraculous. Let anyone who 
 has put down the New Testament as unreliable 
 because of the miraculous elements which it con- 
 tains, turn to it again after becoming acquainted 
 with corresponding occurrences in other ages, and 
 he will find that much that before offended his 
 sense of the probable, is really a strong testimony 
 to the candour of its writers. Let him take, for 
 example, the topic of demoniac possession. As 
 we have just seen, human beings are exposed to 
 disorders in which the control of self, which marks 
 the highest life, is temporarily suspended. The 
 more primitive strata of experience are exposed 
 to view, and if, as St Augustine says, evil is but 
 the privation of the good, we need not be sur- 
 prised that the reference to evil spirits should 
 suggest itself. 
 
 And so the fact that the lower forms of the 
 religious life lead to wonderful occurrences will 
 prevent us from saying too hastily that this or 
 
I IO THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 that occurrence is impossible. In particular, there 
 are serious reasons for hesitating before we declare 
 that a human being cannot rise in the air or float 
 along the sea in defiance of gravity ; or that in 
 defiance of bolts and bars, and of the limitations 
 of space, he cannot be in more than one place at 
 once, or, if you like, that he cannot pass with in- 
 finite rapidity from one place to another. I was 
 once talking about this to a friend of mine — whose 
 word, by the way, I would take against yours, kind 
 reader, whoever you may be — and he assured me 
 that, when he was a boy, he had the power, by 
 holding his breath, of floating a few paces through 
 the air without touching the ground. I was 
 astounded when he said so, for he is a man whose 
 life is spent amid realities, and I tried by cross- 
 examination to shake his statement, but without 
 effect. I am not quite convinced that he has not 
 made a mistake. But I no longer retain the 
 happy assurance that nothing can happen which 
 I am not used to. I may say in passing that my 
 friend regarded this as a purely physiological fact, 
 and did not claim for it any moral significance. 
 He has now lost the power. When, therefore, 
 St Teresa declares that she was sometimes lifted 
 up in a similar way, I am also perplexed and do 
 not forthwith make up my mind that the saint is 
 lying. " You feel and see yourself carried away," 
 she says, "you know not whither. For though 
 we feel how delicious it is, yet the weakness 
 of our nature makes us afraid at first, and we 
 
ECSTASY 1 1 1 
 
 require a much more resolute and courageous spirit 
 than in the previous states in order to risk every- 
 thing, come what may, and to abandon ourselves 
 into the hands of God, and go willingly where we 
 are carried, however painful it may be. And so 
 trying is it that I would very often resist, and 
 exert ah my strength, particularly at those times 
 when the rapture was coming upon me in public. 
 I did so, too, very often when I was alone, because 
 I was afraid of delusions. Occasionally I was able 
 by a great effort to make a slight resistance, but 
 afterwards I was worn out, like a person who had 
 been contending with a strong giant ; at other 
 times it was impossible to resist at all ; my soul 
 was carried away, and almost always my head 
 with it — I had no power over it — and now and 
 then my whole body as well, so that I was lifted 
 from the ground. This has not happened to me 
 often : once, however, it took place when we were 
 altogether in choir, and I on my knees on the point 
 of communicating. It was a very sore distress to 
 me, for I thought it a most extraordinary thing, 
 and was afraid it would occasion much talk ; so 
 I commanded the nuns — for it happened after I 
 was made prioress — never to speak of it." 1 And 
 again with reference to bilocation, that is the power 
 of appearing at a distance, I am not so certain as 
 I once was. I have never come across a person 
 who had seen a phantom of the dying, although I 
 have frequently reached such stories within one 
 1 Life, xx. 4, 5. 
 
112 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 remove from the subject of them. And if persons 
 at the point of death can thus appear, it is not 
 altogether clear why others who are in ordinary 
 health may not do so. Hence again I am not 
 so certain as I once was that St Alphonso di 
 Liguori could not preach a sermon in church while 
 he was also confessing penitents at home. Mother 
 van Valckenissen too " had the gift of bilocation, 
 appearing in several places at the same time, 
 shedding a trail of delicious fragrance wherever 
 she passed." 1 On the whole these stories seem 
 somewhat far-fetched, and I hang towards unbelief 
 in this particular. But I should not now stigmatise 
 the narrator of such a story as a fool and a liar. 
 For what am I to say to Mrs Besant who declares 
 that she can leave her body at will ? 2 
 
 But perhaps, as my friend says, levitation and 
 bilocation are purely physiological facts (supposing 
 that is, that they are verified), and are only on 
 the outskirts of the life of the spirit. The same 
 is to be said about the curious enumeration of 
 symptoms which M. Huysmans dwells upon as if 
 they were the very secret of the mystical life. He 
 speaks of the sufferings of Mother van Valckenissen 
 and of St Catherine Emmerich as though the 
 spiritual life were a department of pathology. 
 Still, there is a certain reasonableness in this 
 after all. 3 In the Christian life, the body is sub- 
 limed by being taken up into the life of the spirit, 
 
 1 Huysmans, Cathedral, Eng. trans., 98. 
 
 2 Borderland, vol. ii., 216. 
 
 3 En Route, 141 (Eng. trans.). Cathedral, 95 (Eng. trans.) 
 
ECSTASY 113 
 
 and it cannot be indifferent to us when certain 
 physiological events are found to accompany the 
 noblest human experiences. The tendency to 
 dwell upon the physical sufferings of Jesus is justi- 
 fied when we bear in mind that they accompanied 
 the crisis of His earthly mission, and so the crucifix 
 becomes a truer and more universal symbol of 
 human life than the superficial beauty of the Hermes 
 of Praxiteles. It is curious, however, that some 
 shrink from the visible representations of the 
 Passion, who yet find a satisfaction in singing the 
 most sensuous hymns. I have never been able to 
 understand why those who use the most figurate 
 language possible about sacred events should yet 
 find fault with others who make use of visible re- 
 presentations ; why, for instance, it should be right 
 to sing Cowper's hymn, There is a fountain filled 
 with blood, and wrong to make use of the Stations 
 of the Cross. It seems probable that even the 
 visible exhibition of suffering has its office to fulfil. 
 There are many persons who steadfastly close their 
 eyes to the sorrow of the world. For them it must 
 be wholesome to be reminded of the great refining 
 agency in human life, the crucible in which self is dis- 
 solved away, — or petrified ! And so we come back 
 to our starting-point. The physical accompaniments 
 of the mystical life are perhaps nothing more than 
 the natural expression, in the countenance and bear- 
 ing, of the soul's changes, and all the strange symp- 
 toms of which some writers have said so much are 
 unimportant in comparison with the states of 
 
1 14 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 mind which they accompany. At the same time, 
 if the highest forms of the spiritual experience 
 find a necessary counterpart in a certain external 
 expression, we cannot be indifferent to that 
 expression. 
 
 The soul is perhaps never so completely or- 
 ganised, even in the most advanced religious life, 
 that all its experiences come together in one 
 universe of thought, feeling, and desire. Im- 
 pulses break up the momentary peace, seeming 
 to rise from unexplored abysses as though from 
 another world. This is especially the case when 
 we attempt to school ourselves to a state in 
 which some of our powers fail to find their 
 natural expression. We can hold them in check 
 for a time, but at last they tend to break all 
 barriers and it may be that, at some unusually 
 favourable opportunity, they carry us away. In 
 nearly every kingdom of the mind there are 
 these insurgent principles. " Sometimes," Bunyan 
 said, " when I have been preaching, I have been 
 violently assaulted with thoughts of blasphemy, 
 and strongly tempted to speak the words with 
 my mouth before the congregation." x The mere 
 sense of what is binding upon us sets in relief 
 these opposing impulses, and marks their lawless 
 character. As Augustine said of his robbing an 
 orchard, the mere fact that it was not permitted 
 attracted him. Sin is literally created by the 
 law. The apparently external character of the 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 293. 
 
ECSTASY 115 
 
 lawless impulse, that is its variance from our better 
 self, finds expression in the belief that it is an 
 evil spirit, and St John of the Cross unconsciously 
 mixes myth with his psychology by setting the 
 evil spirit over against and parallel with other 
 motives. Sometimes the revolt of nature against 
 the system we would impose upon her becomes 
 successful over the whole field. There is a limit 
 beyond which even the control of religion may 
 not pass, under penalty of entire expulsion from 
 the life ; hot because of any intrinsic imperfec- 
 tion in the religious ideal, but because the equili- 
 brium of the soul is a dynamical one, not statical, 
 and the entire disregard of any set of powers, 
 means the ultimate disorganisation of the human 
 nature of which they are an intrinsic part. The 
 strictest sects have often passed into an entire 
 lawlessness, antinomianism. " My calling lying 
 in the country, I happened to light into several 
 people's company, who, though strict in Religion 
 formerly, yet were also swept away by these 
 Ranters. These would also talk of me of their 
 ways, and condemn me as legal and dark ; pre- 
 tending that they only had attained to perfection 
 that could do what they would and not sin." 1 
 
 The feeling that an evil impulse is after all 
 something external, produces the belief in posses- 
 sion by evil spirits, and when this fact is visualised 
 in hallucinations, we are met by the belief in 
 devils. It is only when the evil impulse persists 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 45. 
 
Il6 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 that it seems to be thus personified. More 
 modern expressions for the same events are fixed 
 idea for the persisting impulse ; and obsession, 
 instead of possession by an evil spirit. Bunyan 
 gives a pathetic account of his obsession by a 
 fixed idea, and speaks of it as a devil. 1 Not only 
 so ; Wesley records a similar experience which 
 he interprets in the same way as Bunyan. " I 
 was a little surprised at some who were buffeted 
 of Satan in an unusual manner by such a spirit of 
 laughter as they could in no wise resist, though 
 it was pain and grief unto them. I could scarce 
 have believed the account they gave me had I 
 not known the same thing ten or eleven years 
 ago. Part of Sunday my brother and I then 
 used to spend in walking in the meadows and 
 singing psalms. But one day, just as we were 
 beginning to sing, he burst out into loud laughter. 
 I asked him if he was distracted, and began to 
 be very angry and afterwards to laugh as loud as 
 he. Nor could we possibly refrain, though we 
 were ready to tear ourselves in pieces ; but we 
 were forced to go home without singing another 
 line." 2 Sydenham had already recognised hysteria 
 in men before Wesley was born ; that state in 
 which human beings tend to act upon suggestion ; 
 to imitate unreasoningly ; to obey unreasoningly. 
 And there could scarcely be a better example of 
 its beginnings than in the story told by Wesley. 8 
 Or perhaps we had better say that we have here 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 38. 2 Journals, May 9, 1740. 
 
 3 Havelock Ellis, Man and Woman, 280. 
 
ECSTASY 117 
 
 one condition of hysteria, neurasthenia " which is 
 a general condition of agitation of the nervous 
 system, and is found with especial frequency 
 in both men and women who overstrain their 
 brains, in artists and writers and those who are 
 over-strenuous in social movements." 1 Although 
 in neurasthenia there is really deficient power, 
 there appears in accordance with a well-recognised 
 law of nervous stimulation to be an increase of 
 nervous energy. This is because there is a de- 
 crease of nerve resistance, and the nervous system 
 responds too readily and too emphatically to 
 slight degrees of stimulation. This exaggerated 
 excitability which is characteristic of neurasthenia, 
 is therefore closely associated with that loss of 
 complete control which is found to be an essential 
 element in all hypnotic phenomena. 
 
 We are now prepared to take up a topic re- 
 ferred to before — conversion by hypnotic sugges- 
 tion. 2 The reader will perhaps remember that in 
 the other kinds of conversion there was a more 
 or less prolonged period of preparation for the 
 change, as the soul came to harmony of in- 
 tellectual judgment or to peace after stress. As 
 against these modes, instantaneous conversion 
 seems explicable by saying that the mind is 
 occupied with a suggestion when it is in a 
 suggestible state, when that is, it is subject to 
 neurasthenia. It is fortunate, of course, that the 
 same nervous weakness which lays a man open 
 
 1 Havelock Ellis, Man and Woman, 279. 2 P. 93. 
 
Il8 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 to control by passing impulses should now and 
 then subject him to a good impulse ; but this 
 weakness is not a normal state, and there is 
 something inexpressibly repulsive in the idea 
 that the religious life should necessarily begin in 
 this way. Jesus did not so view conversion. 
 The leavening of meal, the growth of the seed, 
 the finding of hidden treasure, the recovery of a 
 lost silver coin exactly contradict the widespread 
 idea that divine truth is apprehended suddenly 
 and at once. It is first the blade, then the ear, 
 then the grain in the ear. " In the matter of 
 conversion," says Newman, " my own feelings 
 were not violent but a returning to, a renewing 
 of, feelings under the power of the Holy Spirit, 
 which I had already felt and in a measure acted 
 on when young." 1 The methods of the re- 
 vivalist, however, are cleverly calculated to throw 
 the soul off its balance and to seize it in its 
 moment of humiliating weakness. There is an 
 unholy art of forcing the pace of the soul as it 
 draws near to God ; for which purpose it is 
 necessary to produce that unnatural excitement in 
 which the soul is at the mercy of the passing 
 impulse. But there is a perilously slight division 
 between religious excitement of this kind and 
 more earthly excitement. Such methods are in 
 truth a return to the methods of the nature 
 religions, and are often accompanied by similar 
 consequences. In this connection pride is often 
 
 1 Letters, i. 109. 
 
ECSTASY 119 
 
 vigorously denounced as a hindrance in the way 
 to God, when what is really meant by pride, is 
 that simple manliness which refuses to resign 
 self-reverence and self-control at the bidding of 
 presumptuous ignorance. Yet after all religion 
 is also the medicine for the excitement in which 
 sometimes it takes its rise. When the stirrings 
 of the spirit find an outlet in appropriate ac- 
 tivities, the feelings are clarified, deepened, and 
 relieved. It is the true glory of contemporary 
 religious life that it insists upon good works, not, 
 indeed, as part of man's bargain with God, but as 
 the natural expression of enthusiasm. St Teresa 
 passes an unconscious criticism upon her mode of 
 life when she says : " The inward stirring of my 
 love urges me to do something for the service of 
 God ; and I am not able to do more than adorn 
 images with boughs and flowers, clean or arrange 
 an oratory, or some such trifling acts, so that I 
 am ashamed of myself." One can imagine the 
 Spanish nun with her enigmatical expression — 
 something like that of La Gioconda — moving 
 about the little convent chapel vainly endeavour- 
 ing to soothe her restless spirit as she plied the 
 brush and duster. " I used," she says, " to try 
 exterior good works in order to occupy myself." 1 
 Yet I do not think she can fairly be charged 
 with having trifled her time away. There is 
 room for persons with a contemplative bent in 
 religion, and one who sets others a-thinking does 
 
 1 Life, xxx. 18, 25. 
 
120 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 many times more at second hand, sometimes, than 
 could have been done at first hand. It is a vulgar 
 materialism that exalts the lower above the higher ; 
 Jesus after all praised Mary and not Martha. 
 
 The physical accompaniments of religious ex- 
 citement culminate in a kind of trance, and this 
 in turn often leads to after-consequences in the 
 forms of visions and voices. These we shall 
 reserve for further consideration. We shall also 
 consider in detail later the intellectual relations 
 which are expressed outwardly by the experi- 
 ences with which we are now dealing. 
 
 For we cannot isolate the things of reason 
 from those of sense. There is a sensuous aspect 
 of divine truth which is inseparable from it in 
 our present experience and cannot be overlooked 
 with impunity. " I cannot help thinking," said 
 General Gordon, " that the body has much to do 
 with religion." 1 We cannot clearly think of God 
 without some, at least, of the physical stirrings 
 which St Teresa and others describe in an ex- 
 treme form. The judgment even when it is 
 occupied with religion cannot work in a vacuum. 
 To regard God without particular apprehensions 
 of the imagination is "to destroy Christianity 
 under the pretence of purifying it." 2 
 
 How do we come to know God and to com- 
 mune with Him ? Unless we are to suppose that 
 each soul is enclosed in a self-existent unity, we 
 
 1 Qu. C. Patmore, Rod, Root and Flower, p. 121. 
 
 2 Qu. id., 125. 
 
ECSTASY 121 
 
 must admit that it enters into relations of de- 
 pendence with something beyond itself, and this 
 act of reaching out beyond itself comes to self- 
 consciousness in communion with other souls and 
 again with God. We have already marked off 
 some of the more immediate effects of the realised 
 common life, in the contagion, and the intensify- 
 ing of feeling. We are now going to note some 
 of the peculiar accompaniments of the idea of 
 God's presence when vividly realised. There can 
 be no doubt about the psychological energy of 
 this idea. " I was not strong enough to bear 
 any vivid sense of God's presence," Dale says of 
 himself when he was recovering from an illness. 
 In fact he seems to have shrunk from the idea 
 as too much for him, and declares that the " divine 
 strength shows no sign of its presence except in 
 the success of our work." J For the vivid realisa- 
 tion of the presence of God brings pain. " The 
 enraptured soul," says St Teresa, " is, as it were, 
 crucified between earth and heaven, enduring its 
 passion. Only the agony carries with it so 
 great a joy that I know of nothing wherewith 
 to compare it. It is a sharp martyrdom full 
 of sweetness : for if any earthly thing be then 
 offered to the soul, even though it may be that 
 which it habitually found most sweet, the soul 
 will have none of it." 2 In fact it may be said 
 that the result of these experiences is to render 
 the ordinary duties of life distasteful and to 
 1 Life, 621. a lb., xx. 14. 
 
122 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 suspend the powers of the soul. Teresa dwells 
 upon the pain which accompanies the cessation 
 of these periods of rapture and the way in which 
 everything is forgotten. She views the ordinary 
 and regular operations of thought as so many 
 distractions. " The restless little butterfly of 
 memory has its wings burnt now and cannot 
 fly." 1 There is, therefore, a very real conflict 
 between the religious and the scientific temper. 
 Enough, perhaps, has been said, notably by Mill 
 in his autobiography, upon the danger of culti- 
 vating the power of analysis too far, and of its 
 deadening effect upon the feelings. We must 
 remember also that the unrestrained indulgence 
 in religious emotion paralyses the judgment and 
 the will. " I had," Bunyan declares, " two or 
 three times, at or about my deliverance from 
 this temptation, such strange apprehensions of 
 the Grace of God that I could hardly bear up 
 under it, it was so out of measure amazing, when 
 I thought it could reach me. I do think, if that 
 sense of it had abode long upon me, it would 
 have made me incapable for business." 2 The great 
 mystics are very emphatic in their warnings about 
 this, and one of them is quoted by Tauler as 
 saying that " overflowing spiritual emotions con- 
 sume the spirit." In consequence the soul passes 
 at times from the heights of ecstasy to an abyss of 
 gloom, and heavenly rapture is succeeded by a re- 
 vulsion, of which we shall treat in the next chapter 
 under the title of the dark night of the soul. 
 1 Life, xvii. 9; xviii. 19. z Grace Abounding, par. 252. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 
 
 Rhythms of feeling — Despair — Ennui — Bad temper — Course of 
 night described — Its two stages : purification of the senses and 
 of the spirit — Peace — Augustine — Bunyan — Humility and de- 
 tachment of view — Melancholy — Cruelty — Toleration. 
 
 THE life of religious feeling is not uniform. 
 It moves in great rhythms ; and exaltation 
 is followed by depression. The saint falls some- 
 times from an immediate consciousness of the 
 divine presence to the blackest depths. " I was 
 now so taken," says Bunyan on one occasion, 
 " with the love and mercy of God that I re- 
 member I could not tell how to contain until I 
 got home. I thought I could have spoken of 
 His love and told of His mercy to me even to 
 the very crows that sat upon the ploughed lands 
 before me had they been capable to have under- 
 stood me : wherefore I said in my soul with much 
 gladness, ' Well, would I had a pen and ink here 
 I would write this down before I go any further, 
 for surely I will not forget this forty years hence.' 
 But, alas, within less than forty days I began to 
 question all again, and by times fell to my old 
 courses again, which made me begin to question 
 
124 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 all still." 1 How futile then is the attempt to 
 reach an immovable certainty of feeling ! " It 
 is impossible," says Herrmann, "for the pious 
 mystic to gain any such assurance of an inward 
 truth as cannot possibly be buried and lost 
 altogether amid the alternation of excitement 
 and reaction." 2 There is a pathetic passage in 
 Renan's life ; in his time of disillusion he imagines 
 that others too have traversed the same path. 
 "He cannot consider the obscurity which en- 
 velopes the end of St Paul without reflecting 
 that the convert may be converted more than 
 once ; the disenchanted saint may have passed 
 over to the creed of Ecclesiastes and the Sceptics. 
 Convinced that he had given his life for a dream, 
 Paul may have wandered despairing, resigned, on 
 some Iberian shore, aware of the nothingness of 
 life." 3 Of course there is very little doubt that 
 he too, like St Peter, died the death of a Christian 
 martyr outside the walls of imperial Rome. But 
 a similar question about St Paul presented itself 
 to the mind of Bunyan, with the further possibility 
 of bad faith. " Though we made so great a 
 matter of St Paul and of his words, yet how 
 could I tell but that in very deed, he being a 
 subtle and cunning man, might give himself up 
 to deceive with strong delusions, and also take the 
 pains and travel to undo and destroy his fellows ? " * 
 
 1 Grace Abounding, par. 92. 2 Communion with God, 151. 
 
 3 Life of Renan, Darmesteter, 210. 
 
 4 Grace Abounding, par. 98. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 125 
 
 Such doubts as these are the immediate re- 
 flection of changed feelings, and are to be dis- 
 tinguished from the examination of the grounds 
 of a truth before we accept it. Bunyan had 
 before his eyes the example of Spira, an advocate 
 of Padua, who, alarmed by the threats of per- 
 secution, recanted the reformed doctrines which 
 he had embraced, and spent the remainder of his 
 days in unavailing regrets. " Being desperate," 
 says Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholy, " by 
 no counsell of learned men could [he] be com- 
 forted ; he felt, as he said, the pains of hell in 
 his soule, in all other things he discoursed aright, 
 but in this most mad. Frismelica, Bullovat, and 
 some other excellent physicians, could neither 
 make him eat, drink, or sleep ; no persuasion 
 could ease him. Never pleaded any man so well 
 for himselfe as this man did against himselfe, and 
 so he desperately died. Springer, a lawyer, hath 
 written his life." 1 This, perhaps, is the true 
 explanation of the alarm which doubt inspires 
 in some devout minds, lest a passing surge of 
 feeling should sweep the soul in a course that 
 after all is repugnant to its underlying convictions. 
 The idea of predestination in which St Paul found 
 comfort, is at such moments of tumult a source of 
 alarm, lest the persisting part of our life should 
 be that which conflicts with our main interest. 
 Nor is this the only shape to which such fear 
 gives rise. Brother Ruffino, one of the com- 
 1 Part 3, Sec. 4, Subs. 3, Mem. J. 
 
126 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 panions of St Francis, is recorded to have under- 
 gone a course of self-torture like that of Bunyan, 
 with this difference, that whereas Bunyan feared lest 
 he had committed the unpardonable sin, Ruffino 
 thought that he was predestined to be lost. 1 
 
 But there are deeps less profound than these. 
 Short of despair the soul in its weariness becomes 
 the victim of intolerable ennui. This is perhaps 
 a more common form of revulsion after excite- 
 ment. Bunyan speaks with regret of his dead- 
 ness, dulness, and ccfldness in holy duties, his 
 wanderings of heart, his wearisomeness in all 
 good things, his want of love to God, His ways 
 and His people, with this at the end of all. " Are 
 these," he asks, " the fruits of Christianity ? are 
 these the tokens of a blessed man ? " 2 St John 
 of the Cross would answer that they are. For he 
 describes them as being the gloom through which 
 the soul is conducted on its way. " The sensi- 
 tive and spiritual appetites," he says, " are morti- 
 fied, and cannot taste with relish anything human 
 or divine ; the feelings are checked and cannot 
 move or strive ; the imagination is bound and 
 unable to form any fit thought ; the memory is 
 extinguished, the intellect darkened, the will also 
 is narrowed and barren, and all the powers are 
 emptied, and beyond all these things, a thick 
 and heavy cloud oppresses the soul, confining 
 it and keeping it alien and separate from God." 3 
 
 1 Little Flowers of St Francis, c. xxix. 
 
 2 Grace Abounding, par. 256. 3 Dark Night of the Soul, ii. 16. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 127 
 
 Such reactions are the price which the soul pays 
 for the efforts in which it seeks to go beyond 
 itself. But this weakness may be guarded against, 
 and even, as St John of the Cross suggests, made 
 a means of further progress. There is then no 
 reason for surprise when the soul falls into this 
 state. " I am not saying that men should not 
 seek to be devout, nor that they should not stand 
 with great reverence in the presence of God, but 
 only that they are not to vex themselves if they 
 cannot find even one good thought." 1 At the 
 same time it is often produced by religious 
 affectation. When the soul pretends to graces 
 which are denied to it, the effect passes quickly, 
 and " aridity is the result." 2 
 
 This weariness is the source of that shortness 
 of temper, which, as St Teresa says, is a char- 
 acteristic failing of some devout persons. " At 
 times the devil sends so offensive a spirit of 
 bad temper that I think I could eat people up, 
 nor can I help myself. I feel that I do some- 
 thing when I keep myself under control, or 
 rather our Lord does so, when He holds back 
 with His hand anyone in this state from saying 
 or doing something that may be hurtful to his 
 neighbour or offensive to God." 3 If the affections 
 are thus expended upon the objects and circum- 
 stances of worship, there is but a poor remainder 
 of love available for those among whom the 
 rest of the daily life is spent. 
 1 Teresa, Life, xxii. 18. 2 lb., xv. IJ. ' lb., xxx. 15. 
 
128 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Having in this way established the reality of 
 the dark night of the soul in its two forms of 
 weariness and despair, we may now proceed, 
 under the guidance of St John of the Cross, to 
 trace its course. Although the Spanish mystic 
 has those in view who live in the cloister, yet 
 since the cloister simply presents in an exag- 
 gerated form some of the characteristics of the 
 religious life however spent, his descriptions will 
 be nearer to the religious life passed in the midst 
 of ordinary duties than might have been expected. 
 
 There are two stages in this night ; the night 
 of the sense in which the soul is purified and 
 stripped as far as sense is concerned, and so made 
 ready for the spirit ; and there is in the second 
 > place the night of the spirit in which the soul is 
 again purified and stripped even of the spirit, that 
 so it may attain the union of love with God. The 
 night of the senses is experienced by the many ; 
 that of the spirit is confined to those who have 
 already made considerable progress in the religious 
 life. 1 In popular religion disease is supposed to 
 furnish the trials which St John includes under 
 the night • of sense ; it is pathetic and ludicrous 
 sometimes to find the results of unwholesome 
 surroundings, want of cleanliness and bad cook- 
 ing, treated as part of the necessary discipline of 
 life, and the victims of their own and others' in- 
 competency treated as though, like Job, their 
 misfortunes were a special token of the divine 
 1 St John of the Cross, Dark Night of the Soul, i. 8. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 129 
 
 interest. The reason perhaps why disease should 
 gain this religious meaning is after all not far to seek. 
 In the first place, it cuts off the individual for a 
 time from his surroundings, and thus reproduces the 
 artificial conditions of the cloister ; in the second 
 place, the desires and impulses which are the 
 expression of physical health fade away and 
 leave the spirit quiet. But the likeness goes 
 further ; after a time the soul shrinks from its 
 confinement, becomes infinitely wearied, and tends 
 to irritability. But fortunately disease is no longer 
 glorified in this way, and so the religious life has 
 to be considered more after the fashion of the 
 Spaniard. 
 
 " The soul at first," he says, " is filled with 
 pride, and refuses to see any fault in itself." 1 
 Again you will find many discontented with 
 the spirit which they have received from God, 
 and spending more time in seeking consolation 
 than in good works. Others are harassed by 
 unsuitable and improper feelings in sacred places, 
 and these, says the saint, are to be attributed 
 partly to the fact that the spirit shares in the 
 imperfections of sense, partly to our very shrink- 
 ing from ideas of this kind, and partly to an evil 
 spirit, which, of course, accounts for everything 
 not otherwise clearly explained. 2 Even friend- 
 
 1 No one who tries to remain susceptible to spiritual values can 
 fail to shrink at the burst of self-glorification with which the English 
 race greets the new century, and thanks God it is not as the Spaniard 
 and the Frenchman. 
 
 2 Dark Night of the Soul, i. 4. 
 
130 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 ship, we are told, is a hindrance unless it is of a 
 purely spiritual character. The difficulty of the 
 spiritual way produces disappointment and resent- 
 ment, and one form of this is the anger with which 
 we view the offences of others, " regarding our- 
 selves as the lords and masters of virtue, a circum- 
 stance which is opposed to mildness of the spirit." 
 The saint cannot fairly be charged here with 
 making a covert attack upon any of our present 
 national characteristics, for he died in 1591. 
 " Then," he says, " there are the Epicureans, who 
 seek the delight of the spirit rather than true de- 
 votion. True devotion consists in patience that 
 perseveres in prayer, humility and self-distrust, 
 and the desire of pleasing God alone." 1 There 
 is a desire even for the Eucharist which passes 
 bounds, and prayer can be indulged in for the 
 sake of sensible delights. In fine, these persons 
 are " like children who are moved to action, not by 
 reason, but by taste and sense," and fall into this 
 imperfection, that they become lukewarm and re- 
 miss in treading the true way of the cross. 
 Lastly, their disappointments inspire them with 
 disgust for spiritual things, and at last they taste 
 the sadness which all the time they are shunning. 
 " For whereas they endeavour in spiritual things 
 to walk along the broad path and to live accord- 
 ing to the propensity of their will, they find no 
 slight sorrow and repugnance in treading the 
 narrow way of life." 2 
 
 1 Dark Night of the Soul, i. 6. 2 Op. cit., i. 7. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 131 
 
 St John distinguished between the obscure night 
 of the sense and mere physical disorder, and marks 
 off three qualities by which we may detect it. 
 First, there is the absence of relish for any created 
 thing ; second, the anxiety lest the soul is turning 
 back from God ; and, thirdly, the incapacity for 
 meditation. » 
 
 It is at these moments of weakness that men 
 specially feel the need of an adviser, or confidante. 1 
 There is a danger at this stage lest the soul should 
 either turn back, or at least should cease to make 
 further progress. Here especially, therefore, haste 
 is dangerous. The idea of God in the soul cannot 
 at once mould it wholly to itself, and must work 
 through long periods of spiritual silence. 
 
 From this night there springs a due knowledge 
 of our misery in that we are incapable of serving 
 God as we ought ; a knowledge of the divine per- 
 fections by contrast with ourselves ; and then 
 spiritual humility, from which, in turn, the love 
 of our neighbour springs. 
 
 And yet the soul has not yet reached a perfect 
 state of rest. It is now exposed to even more 
 serious temptations. " For to some," says the 
 saint, " a messenger of Satan is sent, a spirit of un- 
 cleanness which scourges their senses with abomin- 
 able and strong temptations, torturing the spirit 
 with foul thoughts and the imagination with visible 
 representations. And this at times is to them a 
 torture more heavy than death itself." 2 There is 
 
 1 P. 283. 2 Dark Night of the Soul, i. 14. 
 
132 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 little doubt that, for some minds, indulgence in 
 religious emotion predisposes to excesses of a less 
 innocent kind. 1 The scandals which sometimes 
 disgrace the profession of religion are not always 
 the token of hypocrisy on the part of their subjects, 
 but of an unbalanced emotional character which 
 runs the gravest dangers when it is once loosed 
 from its moorings. 
 
 A second temptation is that which mingles all 
 their thoughts and imaginations with intolerable 
 blasphemies. 2 Bunyan anticipates the hero of En 
 Route when he says : " I had not been long a par- 
 taker at that ordinance (of the Supper) but such 
 fierce and sad temptations did attend me at all 
 times therein, both to blaspheme the Ordinance, 
 and to wish some deadly thing to them that did 
 eat thereof; that lest I should at any time be 
 guilty of consenting to these wicked and fearful 
 thoughts, I was forced to bend myself all the while 
 to pray to God to keep me from such blasphemies." 3 
 In the third place, a further accursed spirit is sent 
 to exercise them, which so obscures their sense as 
 to fill them with a thousand scruples and per- 
 plexities, that they can never satisfy themselves. 4 
 This may be compared with the state which often 
 follows upon conversion. 5 But we can easily dis- 
 tinguish the first scruples of the awakened moral 
 sense from the haunting doubts which beset the 
 soul as it becomes weary of the spiritual world. 
 
 1 P. 94. 2 Dark Night of the Soul, i. 14. 3 Grace Abounding, 253. 
 4 Dark Night of the Soul, i. 14. » P. 82. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 133 
 
 When the first night, that of the senses, is over, 
 the spirit, like one freed from a dark prison, lives 
 with satisfaction in divine things. But even now, 
 times of dryness, of darkness, and oppression come, 
 which presage the coming night of the spirit. 
 Those who through this night are to pass from 
 ■meditation to contemplation, are not only entangled 
 still in the traces of old habit, but in particular, 
 says St John, are mocked by visions and voices. 
 " Those who think themselves to be indulged above 
 others with spiritual communications, are made to 
 believe in many empty visions and false prophecies, 
 so that they presume and think that God and His 
 saints commune with them. Hence they lose 
 reverence and the holy fear which is the key and 
 guardian of all the virtues." 1 It is sometimes 
 supposed that the mystical life consists in the hear- 
 ing of voices and the sight of apparitions. There 
 can be no greater mistake. The author of the 
 Imitation uses language like that of St John in 
 warning his readers ; " the merits of a man are not 
 to be estimated by his having many visions or 
 consolations." 2 We shall examine in the next 
 two chapters some typical examples of voices and 
 visions, and shall find, I think, that on the whole 
 they have been set below the inspiration of judg- 
 ment and intention. 
 
 The purification of the spirit is necessary for 
 the sake of the sensitive life, inasmuch as the im- 
 perfections and disorders of the sensitive part have 
 1 Dark Night of the Soul, ii. 2. 2 Imitation of Christ, iii. 7. 
 
134 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 their root and power in the spirit. 1 It is but too 
 often assumed that the regulation of what St John 
 calls the sensitive life, is enough for the good 
 ordering of the whole life. This, however, is but 
 the cleansing of the outside of the platter. The 
 probe of the religious discernment goes deeper 
 than that, " and judges the desires and thoughts of 
 the heart." This indeed is the condemnation of 
 a man's own self in the very centre of his being, 
 and is accompanied by pain and torment. Yet 
 by these pains the soul is made ready to enter into 
 the realm of the oversoul ; to receive and assimilate 
 the highest levels of the universe of experience. 
 Newman, in the Dream of Gerontius, has used this 
 thought to explain the intermediate state. 
 
 " O happy, suffering soul ! for it is safe, 
 Consumed, yet quickened by the glance of God" 
 
 What, on its negative side, is the purification of 
 the spirit, is on its positive side a certain influx 
 of God into the soul ; and this influx " contem- 
 platives call infused contemplation or mystical 
 theology." 2 But the act of apprehending divine 
 truth is itself painful. " These things Ulysses, The 
 wise bards also Behold and sing. But oh, what 
 labour I prince what pain ! " 3 When the soul 
 breaks away from its anchorage, and puts out by 
 itself over the divine sea, and is alone with the 
 
 1 Dark Night of the Soul, ii. 3. 
 
 2 Ibid., ii. 5. For mystical theology, see last chapter. 
 4 Matthew Arnold, The Strayed Reveller. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 135 
 
 stars, it feels the anguish of separation and shivers 
 in its loneliness. It has to endure the loss of all 
 its natural supports and apprehensions. " Such 
 men descend alive into hell, and are cleansed by 
 it as though in purgatory." 1 The fruit of these 
 austere afflictions is a passion of divine love which 
 is granted to the soul. For God never grants 
 mystical wisdom without love. 2 
 
 I am sure the reader who has followed our 
 course up to the present will be able to translate 
 the expressions of the Spanish mystic into more 
 familiar terms. St John is now developing the 
 thought which we have already had expressed in 
 the words of Vauvenargues, " Great thoughts spring 
 from the heart!' And then with deep insight, St 
 John goes on to show that " the touch of divine 
 fire is felt in the will, before the touch of perfect 
 intelligence is felt in the intelligence." s He escapes 
 the mistake of the superficial psychologists who 
 represent the feelings as dancing attendance upon 
 the judgment. On the other hand, the feelings 
 are kindled before the judgment is illumined. 
 
 When it is said that " the sensitive and spiritual 
 powers are lulled to sleep in order that they may 
 be illumined by a supernatural light," 4 reference is 
 made to the fact that all true insight demands a 
 certain rising above the individual's interests and 
 prejudices. " O spiritual soul, when you see your 
 desire darkened, your feelings barren and re- 
 
 1 Dark Night of the Soul, ii. 6. s 'Ibid., ii. 11, 12. 
 
 3 Ibid., ii. 13. * Ibid., ii. 16. 
 
136 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 strained, your faculty for all exterior exercises 
 rendered unfit and impotent, be not therefore 
 afflicted, nay, rather think that a great good 
 fortune has befallen you, since now by taking 
 these powers from you God has freed you from 
 yourself." 1 
 
 The soul gains this peace, which comes as the 
 dawn after the dark night, through substantial 
 contact with the divine nature. 2 Bold as this 
 assertion is, it gains a meaning, I think, if we 
 view it in connection with the oversoul. Through 
 the discipline of austerity and sorrow the soul 
 rises above the mists of earth until it is touched 
 by " the splendours of the firmament of time" 
 
 The reader is not to regard the description 
 which I have taken from The Dark Night of the 
 Soul as holding good universally in all its cir- 
 cumstances. The course of each soul is, in a 
 sense, peculiar to itself. St John, however, may 
 serve as a guide to the general features of this 
 night. Let us now supplement his account from 
 the experiences of others. His thoughts are those 
 of the cloister. Let us go beyond the walls of 
 this cloister into the open world under the sun 
 and clouds of heaven. 
 
 Augustine traces similar pictures of spiritual 
 discipline. " I strove towards Thee and was 
 repulsed by Thee that I might taste death." 
 " The disturbed and darkened vision of my mind 
 was being healed from day to day by the keen 
 
 1 Dark Night of the Soul, ii. 16. " Ibid., ii. 24. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 137 
 
 salve of wholesome pains. I became more 
 wretched, and Thou nearer." 1 
 
 Bunyan, with even fuller revelation of himself, 
 describes his alternate gloom and confidence. 
 " At another time, though just before I was 
 pretty well and savoury in my spirit, yet suddenly 
 there fell upon me a great cloud of darkness, 
 which did so hide from me the things of God and 
 Christ, that I was as if I had never known or 
 seen them in my life. I was also so overrun in 
 my soul with a senseless, heartless frame of spirit, 
 that I could not feel my soul to move or stir 
 after grace or life in Christ. I was as if my loins 
 were broken, or as if my hands and feet had been 
 tied or bound with chains. At this time I also 
 felt some weakness to seize upon my outward 
 man, which made the other affliction the more 
 heavy and uncomfortable." 2 But as Bunyan 
 recovers his more normal condition, all the old 
 ideas begin to shine again ; the familiar words 
 of Scripture with which he had perhaps wearied 
 himself, regained their old force and even an added 
 meaning. And so he speaks of his temptations 
 to doubt or disregard certain doctrines being 
 followed by a revelation of them. 3 He then goes 
 on to claim the attainment of the mystical union 
 which St John speaks of. " The Lord," he says, 
 "did also lead me into the Mystery of Union 
 with the Son of God ; that I was joined to Him, 
 
 1 Con/., iv. 15 ; vi. 16 ; vii. 8. 2 Grace Abounding, par. 261. 
 
 3 Ibid., par. 127. 
 
138 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 that I was flesh of His flesh and bone of His 
 bone." It is the business of«the psychologist to 
 translate such expressions as these from their 
 figurate and pictorial form into a more universal 
 one, and to mark off the intrinsic character of 
 such experiences whatever be the view taken of 
 their objective reference. For the present we 
 must be content with a reference to p. 136, reserv- 
 ing further explanations for the chapter upon 
 Human and Divine Love. 
 
 The discipline by which the soul is thrown 
 back upon itself, has for its result one of the 
 typical Christian virtues, humility. In its ex- 
 aggeration, however, this very excellence can 
 become one of the most noisome of faults. It 
 is sometimes paraded as an excuse for that idle- 
 ness which shrinks from the common responsibili- 
 ties. The day of reckoning, again, which awaits 
 low cunning, is turned aside sometimes by the 
 nauseous pretence that well-deserved castigation 
 is a trial sent by God. There are persons who 
 presume on an affectation of piety to cheat their 
 neighbours, and when discovered in the act, cast 
 themselves for the part of the good man in dis- 
 tress. There are others for whom humility is 
 simply an inverted pride. " I fell," says St 
 Teresa, " into another extreme. I begged of 
 God and made it a particular subject of prayer, 
 that it might please His Majesty whenever any- 
 one saw any good in me, that such a one might 
 also become acquainted with my sins, in order 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 139 
 
 that He might see that His graces were bestowed 
 on me without any merit on my part ; and I 
 always greatly desired this. My confessor told 
 me not to do it. But almost to this day if I saw 
 that anyone thought well of me, I used, in a 
 roundabout way or anyhow as I could, to con- 
 trive that he should know of my sins ; that 
 seemed to relieve me. All these little fears and 
 distresses and semblance of humility, I now see 
 were imperfections ; for a soul left in the hands of 
 God cares nothing for good or evil report." * 
 Humility, then, does not consist in parading one's 
 weakness. It turns upon the infinite contrast 
 between the moral ideal and the actual state of 
 the soul, and finds expression in a certain candid 
 self-distrust. But such a quality taken alone is 
 also equivalent to a paralysed will. Where, how- 
 ever, it is genuine, it does not come alone. The 
 discipline which teaches how far the soul is to 
 distrust itself, also discloses the extent of its 
 powers, and consequently the extent to which it 
 may trust itself. Humility, therefore, is only 
 tolerable when it is found as the companion of 
 positive excellences. Alone it is simply the 
 masque of sloth ; and the disrepute into which 
 religious orders fell in the sixteenth century was 
 largely due to the cloak which they offered to 
 the numerous class who shrink from all exertions. 
 But to some the candid self-estimate which 
 humility involves only comes by way of rebound 
 1 Life, xxxi. 17, 18. 
 
140 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 from exaggerated confidence. And during the 
 time that the soul is thus purging itself in self- 
 contempt it falls into a contrary exaggeration. 
 " Thou didst set me before my face," says Augus- 
 tine, " that I might see how vile I was, how dis- 
 torted and begrimed, how spotted and covered 
 with sores." 1 Now at such times as these the 
 soul has a right to seclude itself. For there is 
 something unseemly in public self-humiliation, 
 and the veil which hides the spirit's frailty ought 
 seldom to be drawn. Yet sometimes the adora- 
 tion in which common worship properly consists 
 is replaced by public confessions in which the 
 pathology of the soul is exposed to gratify a 
 morbid curiosity. 
 
 But when in the ordinary occasions of life 
 sparks of this virtue are struck out, the case is 
 different. At such, times humility passes into 
 more or less exquisite irony, that is, when the 
 self-judgment of a really excellent character is 
 brought sharply up against the self-assertion 
 which is the convention of daily life. " When 
 a hot-headed young man called Vincent de 
 Paul an old fool, the saint knelt down and 
 asked his pardon for any occasion he might 
 have given to call him so." 2 
 
 Humility in this sense leads in the world of 
 judgment to a detachment, in which things 
 stand out in clear and accurate relations. " In 
 the eyes of Infinite Wisdom," says St Teresa, 
 
 1 Augustine, Con/., viii. 7. 2 Life, by Wilson, 214. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 141 
 
 " a little striving after humility and a single act 
 thereof are worth more than all the science in the 
 world. This is not the time for discussing, but 
 for understanding plainly what we are, and pre- 
 senting ourselves in simplicity before God, who 
 will have the soul make itself as a fool." 1 The 
 modesty which has characterised many of the 
 greatest minds is this virtue in its intellectual 
 application. Humility consists then in replacing 
 a subjective by an objective point of view, and is 
 the source of a certain grandeur and realism of 
 manner in the conduct of life which may be com- 
 pared to the manner of Velasquez in painting. 
 The poor in spirit see truth clearly, and so the 
 kingdom of heaven is theirs. When the shadow 
 of self is expelled the judgment is illumined, and 
 deals with more insight, both with the realm of 
 perception and of practice. The detachment 
 from self further produces a serenity which is 
 of the utmost value in the transaction of busi- 
 ness. Some one remarked of St Vincent de 
 Paul, " At whatever time I went to him, though 
 it was often very late and far into the night, 
 or perhaps at other times when he was much 
 occupied and engaged in business with others, 
 he always received me with the same kindness, 
 and answered me with a gentleness and charity 
 which I cannot express." 2 
 
 Perhaps the effect which detachment from self 
 produces in the things of the mind, illustrates iest 
 
 1 Life, xv. 13. 2 Life, by Wilson, 212. 
 
142 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the dependence of the perception of truth upon the 
 intention. Through the different phases of the 
 moral life those truths disclose themselves which, 
 in sum and in their systematic inter-connection, 
 make up the content of the Christian revela- 
 tion. Hence from time to time, as we study the 
 Christian experience, we shall find ourselves on 
 the verge of those positive statements of fact, 
 which taken together form a creed. 
 
 There are some, however, who would hastily 
 dismiss the whole subject of this chapter as 
 belonging in reality to medicine, and would re- 
 gard the variations of feeling which characterise 
 the religious life as merely the symptoms of 
 physical disorder. Let us recall a distinction 
 which we have found necessary. We ought not 
 to think of what is healthy and normal, even in 
 physiology, as being confined within too narrow 
 limits ; the plasticity of the human body is very 
 great, and admits of large stresses in this or that 
 direction, provided that the total strain does not 
 go beyond a certain amount. If this were not so, 
 the exertions in which genius expresses itself 
 would be impossible. This consideration may be 
 applied to those special cases in the life of the 
 ordinary man which arise from time to time. 
 Genius, then, and the crises of life, are in their 
 degree so many plumblines let down through 
 the abysses of human nature, so many victorious 
 protests against the doctrine of the average 
 — that refuge of sufferers from the incurably 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 143 
 
 commonplace. The variations of feeling are in 
 a sense the pulse of the moral life, and when 
 they cease that life ceases. And so we must 
 not be misled by Burton, who, when he treats 
 of Religious Melancholy, lumps together without 
 due discernment the symptoms of health and 
 disease. But even this is a less fault than that 
 of regarding both under the one head of disease. 
 It would be incredible if the book were not before 
 my eyes, that any man pretending to some know- 
 ledge of human nature should group together St 
 Francis of Assisi, Luther and Savonarola, as 
 religious lunatics.i 
 
 At the same time, religious excitement acting 
 upon certain constitutions is a fruitful source of 
 insanity. But for this, the reader must be referred 
 to the works of physicians. An attentive perusal 
 of such works will justify the caution, and indeed 
 alarm, which unregulated religious enthusiasm in- 
 spires among all thoughtful persons. Indeed, 
 during the next two chapters we shall be moving 
 on the borderline of insanity. The hallucinations 
 of sight and hearing which we shall consider in 
 the seventh chapter, are taken by some writers as 
 conclusive proof of its presence ; and the intimate 
 relation between religious and sexual emotion — to 
 which the eighth chapter is partly devoted — comes 
 to light specially in certain cases of mental dis- 
 order. But so far are the facts to which we shall 
 refer from being symptoms of insanity, that they 
 
 1 Lombroso, Man of Genius, 258-263. 
 
144 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 are found for the most part amid quite normal 
 conditions. 
 
 We will bring the present chapter to a close by 
 considering a disorder of the emotions, which is, 
 so to speak, directed upon the fellows of the sub- 
 ject and not upon himself ; namely, cruelty, which 
 is in a sense a kind of externalised melancholy. 
 It first manifests itself as a kind of hardness and 
 coldness in presence of the claims of natural ties 
 and of friendship. We may explain this in part 
 as a craving for solitude, and also as a feeling of 
 shyness before others, which is a frequent and 
 painful result of deep contemplation. There is a 
 tenderness in such ties which melts the unnatural 
 aloofness of asceticism, and so the ascetic is in- 
 stinctively on his guard against what is a condem- 
 nation passed upon his mode of life. " Desire to 
 be familiar only with God and His angels," says 
 the author of the Imitation, " and fly the acquaint- 
 ance of men." x "I was afraid of all company," 
 said Fox, " for I saw them perfectly where they 
 were, through the love of God which let me see 
 myself." 2 And the watchful eye of St John of the 
 Cross unmasks those friendships which, although 
 contracted under spiritual pretexts, satisfy more 
 simple human cravings. Hence the relief with 
 which a lover of his kind, like Louis Stevenson, 
 finds himself after the chill of the Trappist 
 monastery in that brave world where, after all, 
 he " was free to wander, free to hope, free to love." 
 
 1 Imitation of Christ, i. 8. 3 Journal, 1647. 
 
THE DARK NIGHT OF THE SOUL 145 
 
 There is an intrinsic selfishness in certain forms 
 of the religious temper which reveals itself un- 
 mercifully. Monica, for instance, so shrank from 
 the early heresies of her son, that she was un- 
 willing at first that he should live under the same 
 roof with her and share the same table. It re- 
 quired a dream to reconcile her to Augustine's 
 presence. 1 St Teresa says, " I have never been 
 able to form friendship with, nor have any comfort 
 in, nor any particular love for, any persons whatever, 
 except those who, as I believe, love God and who 
 try to serve Him." 2 When Bunyan was afflicted 
 with the fears of his damnation, he used to wonder 
 when he found " professors much distressed and 
 cast down when they met with outward losses, as 
 of husband, wife, child, etc. Lord, thought I, what 
 ado is here about such little things as these ! . . . 
 I should account these but small afflictions, and 
 should bear them as little burthens. A wounded 
 spirit, who can bear ? " 3 There is nothing more 
 naive in literature than that etc. of Bunyan's. Much 
 has been said about the indifference of St Francis 
 Borgia to his family ties. He scarcely reaches the 
 ideal Bunyan lifts up. There is no doubt that we 
 have here the mainspring of the persecuting spirit. 
 If other men are only deserving of friendship so 
 far as they conform to our own religious beliefs, it 
 is almost inevitable that we should refuse tolera- 
 tion to those who disagree with us. Still less is 
 it to be wondered at that strenuous spirits, nurtured 
 
 1 Conf. Hi. 11. a Life, xxiv. 8. 3 Grace Abounding, par. 85. 
 
 K 
 
146 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 in the cloister, should carry the principle to its logi- 
 cal conclusion, and attempt to rid the world, even 
 by violent means, of those who, being, as Wesley 
 says, 1 " born in the image of the devil," can very 
 well be spared. The Christian Church has had 
 to learn the important lesson of toleration from 
 the thinkers whom it has at the same time branded 
 as heretics. With the exception of the Quakers — 
 who, it must be said in fairness to the others, have 
 not often had the power — there is no Christian 
 body of importance which has not attempted to 
 extend its own views, and to repress those of its 
 opponents, by the use of violence. The Jesuit 
 moralists were among the first professedly Christian 
 thinkers to suggest reasonable grounds for the 
 toleration of heretics. It is unfair, therefore, to 
 them to dwell exclusively (as most controversialists 
 have done) upon the evil consequences of their 
 moral teaching. If they accommodated the rules 
 of conduct too much to worldly maxims, they also 
 learnt from the world some of that easy toleration 
 of differences in opinion which is part of the 
 " wisdom " of the world. 2 
 
 1 Journal, Sept. 13, 1739. 
 
 2 Janet, la Morale, Bookiii., c. iii. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 VOICES AND VISIONS 
 
 Visions and voices compatible with sanity — Fourfold stages of 
 vision in Blake — Relation to fasting — Vision lower than in- 
 tuition — Effect of solitude — Suggestion — Subjective character 
 of visions and voices — Opening of the world of imagination — 
 Reflection — Relation to passion — Objective validity, how 
 tested. 
 
 ARE visions and voices perceived apart from 
 the ordinary physical conditions compatible 
 with sanity ? As we have seen, there are many 
 persons who answer this question offhand in the 
 negative. As against such persons it will be 
 sufficient to point out that hallucination is merely 
 a matter of degree, and that everyone is subject 
 to slight hallucinations of sight and hearing. 
 
 In the next place, it is to be noticed that the 
 visions and voices with which we are to deal in 
 this chapter, are not all of the character of hallu- 
 cinations. They are not always projected upon 
 the outer world, but seem rather to be ideas 
 vividly presented to the mind in a visible or 
 audible form. No one has drawn this distinction 
 more emphatically than St Teresa. And first as 
 to " divine locutions " : — 
 
148 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 " The words are very distinctly formed, but by 
 the bodily ear they are not heard. They are, how- 
 ever, much more clearly understood than they would 
 be if they were heard by the ear. It is impossible 
 not to understand them, whatever resistance we 
 may offer. When we wish not to hear anything in 
 this world we can stop our ears or give attention 
 to something else, so that it we do not hear, at 
 least we can refuse to understand. In this locu- 
 tion of God addressed to the soul there is no 
 escape, for in spite of ourselves we must listen." 1 
 
 In like manner she marks off intellectual from 
 ordinary vision. " I was once with a person," — 
 she says — " it was at the very beginning of my 
 acquaintance with her — when our Lord was 
 pleased to show me that these friendships were 
 not good for me ; to warn me also, and in my 
 blindness which was so great, to give me life. 
 Christ stood before me, stern and grave, giving 
 me to understand what in my conduct was offen- 
 sive to Him. I saw Him with the eyes of my 
 soul more distinctly than I could have seen Him 
 with the eyes of my body. The vision made so 
 deep an impression on me that though it is more 
 than twenty-six years ago, I seem to see Him 
 present even now. I was greatly astonished and 
 disturbed, and resolved not to see that person 
 again. It did me much harm that I did not 
 then know it was possible to see anything other- 
 wise than with the eyes of the body." 2 Though 
 1 Life, xxv. 2. 2 Ibid., vii. II. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 149 
 
 the saint frequently had visions of angels, she 
 saw them only by this intellectual vision, except 
 on one occasion which she describes. 1 Blake 
 held that ghosts did not appear much to imagi- 
 native men, but only to common minds who 
 could not see the finer spirits. A ghost, he 
 considered, was seen by the gross bodily eye, a 
 vision by the mental eye. " I assert for myself," 
 he said, "that I do not behold the outward 
 creation, and that for me it is hindrance and not 
 action. ' What ! ' it will be questioned, ' when 
 the sun rises, do you not see a round disc of fire 
 somewhat like a guinea ? ' ' Oh, no, no ! I see 
 an innumerable company of the heavenly host 
 crying, " Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God 
 Almighty ! " I question not my corporeal eye 
 any more than I would question a window con- 
 cerning a sight. I look through it and not with 
 it.' " 2 Of course there are differences between the 
 visions and the voices which come to different 
 persons, but cases like those of Blake and the 
 Spanish nun justify us in affirming that the soul 
 may enter into states other than the ordinary 
 ones, and this without being the victims of hallu- 
 cinations or the subject of insanity. At these 
 times there is apparently an exalted perception 
 of ideas such that the intuition of visible forms 
 seems to replace the indirect and abstract reflec- 
 tion which is the more customary form of thought. 
 It has been marked off as an unusual quality of 
 1 Life, xxix. 16. 2 Vision of the Last Judgment. 
 
ISO THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Newton's genius that he was enabled to solve by 
 the method of Euclid problems which lesser men 
 had to undertake by analytical geometry. He 
 thus furnishes a close parallel to that part of 
 poetic inspiration with which we are now dealing, 
 and which Mill described so well when he con- 
 trasted himself with Carlyle, as the thinker with 
 the seer. More than this ; there is reason to 
 believe that poetic vision is more congenial to 
 the unspoilt human being than abstract reflection. 
 The soul wanders away from the visions of Eden 
 and is disciplined in the wilderness, but it does 
 not rest until it has returned again to its home 
 and is surrounded by the imagery of the heavenly 
 courts. Mr Yeats speaks of a little company of 
 Irish mystics who cultivate the power of vision 
 at the present time. They " have taught for 
 some years a religious philosophy which has 
 changed many ordinary people into ecstatics and 
 visionaries. Young men who were, I think, 
 apprentices and clerks, have told me how they 
 lay awake at night hearing miraculous music, or 
 seeing forms that made the most beautiful painted 
 or marble forms seem dead and shadowy." x I 
 have had but one visionary experience as far as I 
 remember, and that of a very simple character. 
 Before falling to sleep one night, the illuminated 
 spaces which can be seen in the field of vision 
 when the eyes are closed, changed into an ex- 
 quisite succession of kaleidoscopic patterns, re- 
 
 1 Dome, N.S., vol. i. 233. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 1 51 
 
 peated over a surface like the pattern of an 
 Oriental rug, or of draperies in fine stained glass. 
 What struck me most was the regularity with 
 which the patterns were repeated. But this, like 
 the visions of Mr Yeats' friends, is of a simple 
 order. While St Teresa marks off intellectual 
 vision from that of the bodily eye, Blake multi- 
 plies the stages of vision from two into four. In 
 his supreme moments he seems to enjoy a fourfold 
 vision, each stage including the one below it. In 
 the following lines Newton is used to denote the 
 relation of the commonsense world to its experi- 
 ence : — J 
 
 " Now I a fourfold vision see 
 And a fourfold vision is given to me. 
 Tis fourfold in my supreme delight, 
 And threefold in soft BeulaKs night, 
 And twofold always. May God us keep 
 From single vision and Newton's sleep ! " 
 
 Perhaps, then, it will be well if we lay aside for 
 a time the indulgent contempt with which visionary 
 experiences are usually greeted. As we have seen, 
 the gates of paradise may perhaps be closed to us, 
 unless the tendency of human beings to eat too 
 much is counterbalanced by periods in which the 
 digestion may recover its normal condition. Too 
 much indeed has been said about the painful char- 
 
 1 1 may remind the reader of the distinction already drawn be- 
 tween the methods of physical science and that of a psychologist, 
 and also of Schopenhauer's distinction between the spheres of 
 natural science and of morals — a distinction drawn in his essay 
 on The Fourfold Root of the Sufficient Reason. 
 
152 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 acter of ascetic practices. Listen to Robert Louis 
 Stevenson as he speaks of the monastery of Our 
 Lady of the Snows : " Without doubt the most of 
 mankind overeat themselves ; our meals serve 
 not only for support, but as a hearty and natural 
 diversion from the labour of life. Yet, though 
 excess may be hurtful, I should have thought 
 this Trappist regimen defective. And I am 
 astonished, as I look back, at the freshness of 
 face and cheerfulness of manner of all whom I 
 beheld. A happier nor a healthier company I 
 should scarce suppose that I have ever seen. 
 They seemed all firm of flesh and high in colour ; 
 and the only morbid sign that I could observe, 
 an unusual brilliancy of eye, was one that served 
 rather to increase the general impression of vivacity 
 and strength." 1 On this side at least there is 
 then no antecedent presumption against the 
 normal character — I do not say the average 
 character — of mystical experiences. A man is 
 not necessarily the victim of a monomania be- 
 cause he is temperate ! And we have seen 
 that in themselves the experiences of the visionary 
 do not bear the character of disorder. And so we 
 will leave this topic with the quotation from Dr 
 Tylor : " The opening of the refectory door must 
 many a time have closed the gate of heaven to 
 the ascetic's gaze." 
 
 But if we have to defend the visionary life 
 from the comparative method of the anthro- 
 
 1 Journey through the Cevennes, 97. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 153 
 
 pologist as something with a well-marked char- 
 acter of its own, we are also bound to join Blake 
 in distinguishing it from the power of seeing 
 ghosts. There is a wide chasm, indeed, between 
 the intuitive imagination of the seer, and the 
 phantasms which come by fits and starts to 
 those who, as Blake says, are bound down to 
 single vision. The true visionary sees too many 
 ghosts to believe in them in the vulgar sense. The 
 experiences of the spiritualist do not interest us, 
 except in so far as they bear a meaning, a test 
 which is usually fatal to them. 
 
 Yet the visionary experience has to yield to 
 a something higher. " The Hebrews were aware 
 that the vision, in which spiritual truth is clothed 
 in forms derived from the sphere of the outer 
 senses, is not the highest form of revelation." x We 
 shall consider this point in a later chapter (p. 231). 
 
 Visions and voices come specially to the soli- 
 tary. When Jesus retires into the desert He is 
 confronted with an evil spirit in a visible shape. 
 Even amid the conditions of modern life, however, 
 it is not necessary to go out into the desert or 
 into the cloister to gain some of the solitude for 
 which the soul craves at times. " There is only 
 one absolute solitude attainable, and that little 
 infinite world we call the heart, may be carried 
 silent and remote as well among indifferent 
 throngs and the maze of the infinitesimal and 
 unimportant, as beside still waters in woods, 
 1 Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel (1895 ed.), 220. 
 
1 54 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 among the solitudes of the hills, under the stars." 1 
 Perhaps one of the reasons why in popular relig- 
 ion so little is said nowadays about these experi- 
 ences, is that religious exercises are mainly of a 
 public character. There is little encouragement 
 of the practice of meditation. Even the reading 
 of the Bible is, after all, a check upon religious 
 advance, unless it is accompanied by reflection 
 and aspiration ; 2 and so although the use of a 
 crucifix and of the images of sacred personages 
 and events is to be sternly questioned, nay, con- 
 demned, so far as it replaces the reading of the 
 Bible, yet the harm is not wholly upon one side. 
 Those persons (of whom there are many) who 
 cannot penetrate through the written word to 
 the idea conveyed, find in pictorial representa- 
 tions the starting point for reverie and day- 
 dreams. Even undisciplined souls can break loose 
 in this way from the grinding monotony of the 
 commonplace into another world ; and this world 
 takes shape and colour and utterance, especially 
 for the solitary. In this use of pictures the most 
 ignorant and the most educated are at one. The 
 paintings which summarise the ideas of a re- 
 ligious society, and the methods of a school of 
 painters, are capable of giving a pleasurable im- 
 pulse to the thoughts, which is strangely misunder- 
 stood by the half-educated. If what has been 
 advanced about visions is true, the use of religious 
 art becomes indispensable for the full expression 
 1 Fiona Macleod, Dome, N.S., ii. 208. a Peter ii. 3, 16. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 155 
 
 of the soul. For it is maintained by some that 
 the visions and voices with which we are dealing 
 are in reality echoes of previous experiences. If 
 so, it is surely important that the mind should be 
 led to dwell upon beautiful and pathetic forms 
 and sounds, so that in its musings it may be 
 attended by objects of beauty and charm. In 
 this respect the middle ages were more fortunate 
 than the present. The ornaments of churches 
 were the embodiment of a whole system of 
 legends and symbolic fancies, and the popular 
 mind found already to hand a rich treasure house 
 of poetic inspiration. This, instead of contradict- 
 ing the spirit of the Bible, was for the most part 
 a helpful vestibule to divine truth, as the sculptured 
 portals of Chartres lead to the sanctuary within. 
 Left to itself the soul is unequal to the creation 
 of a complete world ; unless it can share in the 
 pictorial tradition, invention flags and a few forms 
 are harped upon in a morbid manner. It is the 
 same with voices. Unless the verbal memory is 
 well-stored and preferences are cultivated, a few 
 hackneyed phrases haunt the mind and weary it. 
 Blake could not defy the tradition of poetry and 
 design with impunity. The freshness of his early 
 lyrics is overcast by the uncouth and cumbersome 
 system into which he forced his later inspirations, 
 and the weirdness of the illustrations to his pro- 
 phetic books has to be attained in spite of a certain 
 repetition of one or two motives. In this particular 
 we can compare Blake instructively with one or 
 
156 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 two others. He resembles Bunyan, whose mind, as 
 we are told, was possessed by one or two impres- 
 sive texts from time to time. But when we set 
 Blake's autobiographical poems, such as Jerusalem 
 and Milton, over against the Pilgrim's Progress, 
 we feel that from the artistic standpoint Bunyan 
 is at a great advantage, in that he criticises his 
 own ideas in the light of the Bible. The high 
 literary excellence of the authorised version — if 
 Blake had been susceptible to it — might perhaps 
 have saved him from the extravagances into which 
 he fell. Unfortunately he directed his attention 
 to those books of the Bible which are the least 
 formal in their treatment, the prophetic books of 
 the Old Testament, and the Revelation in the New . 
 While the simplicity and directness of Oriental 
 narrative is faithfully reflected by Bunyan in the 
 Pilgrim's Progress, we may fairly regret that 
 Blake did not submit to that self-judgment 
 which is an indispensable preliminary to artistic 
 creation on a large scale. He regarded his ideas 
 as communicated to him by a direct inspiration, 
 such that it would be blasphemous to modify the 
 shape in which they were expressed. His latest 
 biographers affirm that " a trance-like absorption 
 of his whole nature accompanied his finest 
 writing, a mood from which he returned to the 
 ordinary conversation of life as a man from 
 another land. Feeling this keenly, he could not 
 but attribute the authorship of his life's work to 
 influences which his ordinary self did not contain." 1 
 
 1 Ellis and Yeats, i. 89. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 157 
 
 It is the reward of the study of Blake that his 
 autobiographical poems reveal a spiritual pro- 
 gress and pilgrimage glittering through the mist 
 of vision and symbol in which they are entangled. 
 St Teresa also is fortunate compared with Blake 
 in that the voices she heard expressed themselves 
 in well-constructed and poetic sentences, a cir- 
 cumstance, doubtless, which may be explained 
 from the saint's familiarity with the dignified 
 language of the Roman service books. Her 
 visions, again, reflect the forms she was familiar 
 with in paintings ; " on one of the feasts of St 
 Paul, when I was at mass, there stood before me 
 the most Sacred Humanity, as painters represent 
 Him after the resurrection." 1 And a certain 
 gloominess which characterises some of her 
 visions seems to be connected with the manner 
 of the Spanish school. The subjective character 
 of such visions and voices is emphasised by the 
 bishop of Durham. " It is not to be supposed 
 that even Moses saw the heavenly things as they 
 are. He saw them as he had the power to see, . 
 i.e. according to human apprehension. So St 
 Paul heard the divine voice in Hebrew." 2 In 
 other words, truth is always disclosed to the 
 individual under the forms proper to his experi- 
 ence. Hence it is possible to draw inferences 
 from the visions of a prophet to his surroundings 
 and career, just as the similes of a poet tell their 
 story about him. 
 1 Life, xxviii. 4. * Commentary upon Epistle to the Hebrews, 216. 
 
158 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 There is a close likeness between the solitude 
 which is craved by the student, and that of one 
 who is engaged in religious meditation. So far, 
 in fact, is such solitude from being unnatural, that 
 it seems to be a condition of certain degrees and 
 operations of thought. In solitude the concen- 
 tration of thought is rendered more easy by 
 withdrawal from the more noisy effects of the 
 ordinary surroundings. As the outer world thus 
 grows dim, the inner world begins to glow and 
 tremble, until our very ideas take form and colour 
 and utterance. Now the world of ideas is not a 
 chaos ; it is an organised sphere which strives 
 after a being and unity of its own ; it is the 
 mode in which the oversoul asserts' itself. And 
 although the visions and voices which come to 
 the solitary are of a lower degree than the 
 rational inspiration of the true prophet, they are 
 an improvement on the impulses which come 
 directly from our surroundings, considered, that 
 is, as motives and guides to action. 1 It is in 
 this sense that we are to interpret Tertullian 
 when he says, " Perhaps the majority of men 
 learn to know God from visions." 2 
 
 Yet it would be a mistake to refer visions and 
 voices solely to the effects of solitude. As we 
 have already seen, the presence of a large number 
 of human beings together in one place produces 
 certain physical effects, among which is a certain 
 tendency to receive suggestions. Hence, if one 
 
 1 Mind, N.S., vi. 189. 2 Be anima, 47. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 159 
 
 person in a company sees a vision or hears a 
 voice, it is very probable that others will do so 
 too. "As Polycarp entered into the stadium, a 
 voice came to him from heaven, ' Be strong, 
 Polycarp, and play the man.' And no one saw 
 the speaker, but those of our people who were 
 present heard the voice." * In bringing forward 
 this instance I do not mean to say that sugges- 
 tion and imitation exhaust the meaning of such 
 occurrences. It may be that the mere external 
 likeness of the experience to which these terms 
 offer an explanation, is conditioned by processes 
 imperfectly understood at present, and that 
 suggestion and imitation, instead of denoting the 
 cause, simply point to the occasion, of such experi- 
 ences. And if the presence of a multitude is 
 sometimes a predisposing cause to the reception of 
 such impressions, it is also no insuperable obstacle 
 to the voices and visions that come to an in- 
 dividual alone. When St Catharine of Siena 
 accompanied Niccol6 Tuldo to execution, she 
 was so exalted in spirit that she had a vision. 
 " Then," she says, " the God-man appeared as 
 though one were looking upon the sun's bright- 
 ness, and stood plainly there and received the 
 blood ; in his blood a fire of holy longing, given 
 and kept hid in his soul through grace." 2 Such 
 an example as this beautifully illustrates Blake's 
 theory of double and treble vision. " The worlds 
 
 1 Letter of Smyrnceans, 9. 
 
 2 Symonds, Renaissance, new ed., iv. 151. 
 
160 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 of loving service and illumination," to use Symonds' 
 phrase, interpenetrate. And the solitude, or again, 
 the social excitement in which the inner worlds 
 were opened for the first time, are not necessary 
 afterwards for their apprehension. 
 
 The reader is now in a position to estimate the 
 effect of the visible representations of the Passion 
 upon an excited multitude. Fra Roberto da Lecce 
 was preaching in Perugia in 1448. On Good 
 Friday, the friar assembled all the citizens and 
 preached ; and when the moment came for the 
 elevation of the crucifix, " there issued forth from 
 San Lorenzo, Eliseo di Cristoforo, a barber of the 
 quarter of St Angelo, like a naked Christ with the 
 cross upon his shoulder and the crown of thorns 
 upon his head, and his flesh seemed to be bruised 
 as when Christ was scourged. The people were 
 immensely moved by this sight. They groaned 
 and cried out misericordia, and many monks were 
 made upon the spot." 1 The same minds that 
 could treat such representations as if they were 
 real, would also be not unlikely to attribute a 
 certain degree of reality to the stirrings which issue 
 in hallucination. For it is to be observed that the 
 tendency to act upon a mental image intensifies 
 it. This circumstance is regarded by those in- 
 structors who advise persons who are troubled by 
 doubts, to act as if they were not troubled by 
 them. But, after all, this is merely to touch the 
 surface of the soul. We have here at the best but 
 
 1 Symonds, Renaissance, i. 479. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 161 
 
 double vision, but the first step taken from the 
 commonplace, and the emotions that go no further 
 than this pass away without effect, like the ruffling 
 of the ocean by a chance breeze. The Italian 
 preachers worked mainly upon the imagination of 
 their audiences, or rather upon their phantasy. 
 (We will keep imagination for a nobler sense.) 
 The mere pictorial representation of the life of 
 Jesus, unless it is suffused with moral ideas, has 
 no permanent effect upon the soul. Surprise is often 
 expressed that external devotion has been so often 
 found conjoined with downright villainy. So long 
 as devotion merely affects the senses through ex- 
 terior practices and objects, and declines to go 
 further, the will, or — if the use of this term is 
 objected to — the centre of the soul remains un- 
 affected. It is interesting that this fact should be 
 very clearly exhibited in the life of Benvenuto 
 Cellini. He found himself no less at home in the 
 religion of his time than in the murders and ex- 
 cesses with which his Autobiography is crowded. 
 There seemed no contrast for him between religious 
 practices and acts of violence. When he was im- 
 prisoned in St Angelo, he was visited by good 
 angels, until, as he says, " I proceeded to reckon 
 in my own case upon God's assistance, both be- 
 cause of His divine power and mercy, and also 
 because of my own innocence ; and at all hours, 
 sometimes in prayer and sometimes in communion 
 with God, I abode in these high thoughts of Him. 
 There flowed into my soul so powerful a delight 
 
162 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 from these reflections upon God, that I took no 
 further thought for all the anguish I had suffered, 
 but rather spent the day in singing psalms and 
 divers other compositions on the theme of His 
 divinity." 1 At the same time we must remember 
 that, in the absence of police, Cellini's contem- 
 poraries fought to some extent, each for his own 
 hand, and that such murders done in revenge 
 would lie no heavier on their consciences than the 
 killing of an opponent on the field of battle by a 
 soldier, or the execution of a murderer on the 
 consciences of those engaged in the deed. Hence 
 the assassin of Lorenzino de' Medici, as he ran 
 drenched with blood through Venice after the 
 event, could take refuge in a church and fervently 
 commend himself to the Divine protection. 2 
 
 The noblest kind of vision is that which is 
 accompanied by an effort of the reason. As we 
 have just seen, the sensuous realisation of divine 
 truth is very partial and imperfect. There is, as 
 St John of the Cross points out, a double process 
 of purification ; first the night of the senses and 
 then of the spirit. And anyone who merely 
 passes through the first stage is, like Cellini, in- 
 capable of grasping the most obvious moral dis- 
 tinctions when they happen to fall outside his 
 private code of honour. Isolated words and visions 
 therefore acquire importance so far as they are 
 connected with dominating ideas. For some, the 
 Bible furnishes the objective test which they apply 
 1 Symonds, Translation, p. 238. * ib. pref. xvii. 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 163 
 
 to such events : " That which purports to come 
 from God is received only in so far as it corre- 
 sponds with the sacred writings ; but if it varies 
 therefrom ever so little, I am incomparably more 
 convinced that it comes from Satan than I am 
 convinced it comes from God, however deep that 
 conviction may be. In this case there is no need 
 to ask for signs, nor from what spirit it proceeds, 
 because this varying is so clear a sign of the 
 devil's presence, that if all the world were to assure 
 me that it came from God I would not believe it." x 
 Blake, on the other hand, is an example of the 
 harm which may come from hearing voices, and 
 seeing visions, without applying to them any dis- 
 criminating test. His inspirations and visions 
 ceased to have meaning ; and it is worthy of note 
 that the finest work of his later years, The Illus- 
 trations to the Book of Job, was produced with the 
 thoughts and images of another mind to hold him 
 in check, and, in this sense, was not the offspring 
 of the purest invention. There is a manner of 
 vision at once more abundant than that of the 
 Spanish saint, and more self-determined than that 
 of Blake, in which the visionary power moves to- 
 wards the execution of a great architectonic idea, 
 where the visions are summoned like spirits from 
 the vasty deep at the will of a sovereign imagi- 
 nation, and image forth ideal objects with that 
 mixture of the sensuous and rational which is not 
 only the germinal notion of the Christian religion, 
 1 Teresa, Life, xxv. 17. 
 
164 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 but also the form in which poetic creation is found 
 at its highest. It is interesting to trace the 
 gradual advance of the prophets of the Old Testa- 
 ment towards this manner. At first there are the 
 isolated visions of an Isaiah, or the succession of 
 disconnected pictures in which the thought of 
 Zechariah expressed itself. But later the prophetic 
 imagination begins to take a wider sweep and con- 
 structs the world of the Son of Man, and so lays 
 down some of the lines upon which the author 
 of Revelation was to raise his City of God. In 
 genuine inspiration, however, the vision comes as 
 it were with overflowing hands, and more than 
 suffices the formal requirements of thought ; for 
 it ripples over into superfluities of detail, like the 
 exquisitely painted texture of the garments in a 
 picture by Veronese. On the other hand, a poverty- 
 stricken fancy can scarcely attain to the merest 
 outline, and leaves its thought a vanishing allegory. 
 The divine breath that once made ideas so living 
 that they seemed to have hands and feet, ceases ; 
 and the deserted soul half mechanically continues 
 to wreathe itself about with shadowy phantoms — 
 desiccated skeletons — of thought, which are only 
 handed down because they satisfy a craving that 
 owed its rise to more living works. The book 
 of Daniel is followed by the book of Enoch, and 
 the Apocalypse of John by the Shepherd of Hermas. 
 The transition from hallucination to inspired 
 vision is marked by the use of symbolism. This 
 will occupy us in the next chapter (p. 175). 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 165 
 
 The fulness of the visionary experience depends 
 largely upon the passions of the soul. Without 
 passionate feelings, thought as well as impulse 
 fades away, and the quiet of the feelings is some- 
 times only purchased at the cost of the cessation 
 of thought. The aspirations in which the soul is 
 attracted to its objects determine both the in- 
 tensity with which the soul directs itself upon 
 them, and the quarter also towards which it is 
 to turn. Only so far as love fixing itself upon 
 its goal spreads therefrom and annexes to its 
 sovereignty the neighbouring spheres, is inspira- 
 tion possible. And so there is a very close corre- 
 spondence between the course of human affection 
 generally and the course of the aspiration of the 
 soul towards divine things. This is the original 
 endowment of the soul ; its love. The colour 
 taken by its experiences is borrowed from that 
 which is without ; a soul's love is its own. 
 
 What guarantee is there, you may ask, against 
 the most arbitrary claims to inspiration ? I reply 
 by another question : how have such arbitrary 
 claims been dealt with in the past ? They are 
 brought to the bar of an illuminated mind. By the 
 widespread, if not universal consent of the most 
 powerful and enlightened races, there are certain 
 examples which furnish, so to speak, a touchstone 
 of feeling ; and as a matter of fact these examples 
 may be summarised for us in the attitude and 
 temper of Jesus. Some have attempted to use 
 the life and death of Jesus as a positive limita- 
 
166 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 tion to the soul's domain, as though nothing 
 were to be accepted which was not already 
 included in that supreme example. But this 
 has never been affirmed or indeed admitted by 
 the most sympathetic exponents of that life. If 
 we put the rule in another form, and say that 
 every experience is valid which does not posi- 
 tively conflict with the meaning of that life, 
 we shall be guarded against those theologians 
 who claim to confine the free action of the 
 human spirit. In the next chapter [p. 177] we 
 shall see how the spirit of Jesus leaves room 
 for the poetic apprehension of the world in 
 the Christian scheme. Yet in a sense He may 
 claim to have embraced this in Himself in a 
 special manner. Sufficient justice has not always 
 been done to Jesus as poet, that is to say, 
 to His use of life in order to bring out what is 
 truly individual, and at the same time universal, 
 in it. The true poet affirms ; and in the light of 
 his affirmation what is unreal is found to lose 
 courage and to slink away, like the accusers of the 
 woman taken in adultery. And so there is really 
 no need for fear lest the insistence upon these 
 principles which Jesus embodied in His earthly 
 career should contract the liberty of the painter 
 and the poet. Of course Jesus belonged to an- 
 other race than ours, and it is difficult always 
 to allow for racial differences. But I think it 
 might fairly be maintained, as a proposition to 
 be dealt with purely on literary grounds, that 
 
VOICES AND VISIONS 167 
 
 His influence is really more universal than the 
 genius of Shakespeare,— I mean universal in the 
 sense of including every aspect of truth. In 
 fact, as against the classical world Christianity 
 has created the individual, that is to say, one 
 who is more than the citizen of the ancient state, 
 more than a particular in a whole ; and so Jesus 
 may claim that He made possible the course 
 which was taken by the genius of the greatest 
 romantic poet. The sympathies of Jesus were 
 not less realistic than those of Shakespeare. He 
 sought life out through its least guarded forms, 
 in the market, the street and the tavern, in such 
 a way as to offend His more rigid contempor- 
 aries ; and He detected even in the lowest of the 
 low a spark of the divine. Against Him the life 
 of His time grouped itself in the most sublime 
 and tragic contrasts, and furnished the prophetic 
 fulfilment of Aristotle's famous maxim, in that 
 the most critical event in history was also the 
 most tragic. Those, therefore, have been at war 
 with the religion of the cross who have measured 
 its bounds by their own preferences, and defined 
 the Love of God by their own ignorance. The 
 City of God is inconceivable without the poet and 
 the discoverer. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 
 
 Religion as controlling emotion — As sustaining emotion by stable 
 sentiments — As affording it an outlet — As diffusing it — Sym- 
 bolism — Artistic invention — Feeling and intensity of vision — 
 Unity of feeling — Use of Canticles — The religious vocation- 
 Friendship — Heroic temper demanded — The unconscious love 
 of God — Impartiality demanded — Family love — The worship 
 of the Virgin — Saint and woman — Bunyan — Erasmus and 
 Jowett — Wesley — Whitefield — Intimacy of God — The absolute 
 companion — Wordsworth — Jesus and poetic truth — Prayer — 
 Feeling reciprocated by God. 
 
 IT might fairly be said that one of the main 
 offices of religion was to introduce order 
 into the affections, not by repressing them, but 
 by assigning their limits and affording them also 
 an additional and appropriate outlet. " It is," as 
 Joubert says, " the poetry of the heart." The 
 practices which attach specially to the Christian 
 religion may be ranged, then, under two heads, 
 first, as producing certain feelings ; second, as 
 affording relief to other feelings. 
 
 Through suggestion in its various forms, and 
 notably by conscious imitation, a certain tone of 
 feeling is gradually diffused through the religious 
 
 168 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 169 
 
 society, and acts unconsciously also upon those 
 who are formally outside the pale of the religious 
 sentiment. But it not only produces a certain 
 tone of feeling by affording outlet for correspond- 
 ing activities ; the feelings in question are both 
 deepened and strengthened. For unless feeling 
 thus gains touch with practice, it quickly fades 
 away. But even this is far from being the whole 
 of the truth. All serious religious revivals within 
 the Christian world have attempted to do thus 
 much. The great mediaeval Italian preachers 
 set in movement currents of repentance and 
 works of charity, and took in hand the remedy 
 of the most glaring abuses, but their influence 
 passed away and left scarcely a mark upon the 
 national life. 1 And they failed for this reason ; 
 they set no fresh current of thought in motion. But 
 unless this is done, unless emotion is spiritualised 
 by its association with large and profound ideals, 
 it degenerates into the merest beating of the air, 
 as aimless as the gyrations of dervishes. It is 
 only in so far as our experience is systematised 
 that the life of emotion passes into the more 
 stable form of sentiment. " Emotions," a recent 
 writer points out, " are in a sense adjectival, and 
 tend to qualify a more stable feeling. Whereas 
 the specific organisation of our sentiments — affec- 
 tion for our friends, the home sentiment, and 
 every sentiment that we can use the term ' love ' 
 to express, as love of knowledge, art, goodness, 
 1 Symonds, Renaissance, i. 485. 
 
170 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 love of comfort, and all our interests, as interest 
 in our health, fortune and profession, interest in 
 books, collections, self-interest — these, so far from 
 being mere adjectives and qualifying other feel- 
 ings, are the relatively stable centres to which the 
 first attach themselves, the substantives of those 
 adjectives, the complex wholes which contain in 
 their possible life-history the entire gamut of 
 the emotions." 1 
 
 Now the articulation of the emotions is not a 
 process that can be left to itself. With that 
 optimism which is one of the most subtle forms 
 of the psychological fallacy, the same writer re- 
 marks that the emotions tend always to build 
 themselves into more stable and complex feel- 
 ings, " and these are the sentiments, which in their 
 turn become the centres of attachment of the 
 organised emotions." On the contrary, I think 
 it is truer to say that the emotions which are knit 
 together are continually tending towards dissolu- 
 tion. The influence of authority and tradition, 
 on the one hand, and effort towards certain ends 
 on the other, are the constructive factors in the 
 emotional life ; but they are sometimes over- 
 balanced by destructive factors, notably the 
 deadening effect of custom which continually 
 tends towards producing a moral gangrene. 
 The doctrine of sin, therefore, is a truer criti- 
 cism of life than the easy promises of moral 
 advance which are offered by the descriptive 
 1 Shand, Mind, N.S. 18, 218. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 171 
 
 psychologist. The religious experience is thus 
 a corrective of our other experience. Only by 
 a continual effort towards the ideal can the soul 
 maintain itself in possession of the religious senti- 
 ment. Much indeed of the religious life is expli- 
 cable as the degeneration and dissolution of the 
 sentiments when this effort is relaxed. The 
 excesses which sometimes accompany religious 
 excitement, and the revulsion which follows it are 
 instances of this disintegration of sentiment, this 
 putrefaction of the moral fibre. Divine truth, 
 therefore, is like the spirit brooding over the 
 waters, which are the symbol of the senses, and 
 forever creating therefrom a firmament anew. 
 
 Not only does religion control emotion, bring- 
 ing it into relation with truth and organising it ; 
 religion also furnishes an outlet for it. " The 
 celebrated shrines of Europe — Rome, Compostella, 
 Monte Gargano, Canterbury — acted like lightning 
 conductors to the tempestuous devotion of the 
 mediaeval races." J For the more quiet and 
 ordered forms of devotion fail sometimes to relieve 
 sufficiently the pent-up emotions of many natures, 
 and an artificial relief is found in more extrava- 
 gant outbursts, such as those already described in 
 the fifth chapter. 
 
 The reader is now, perhaps, in a position to 
 
 understand why religious excitement should lead 
 
 to those very excesses which it is one of the main 
 
 offices of religion to control. Religion does not 
 
 1 Symonds, Renaissance, i. 473. 
 
172 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 repress the feelings ; it reduces them to order, and 
 brings them to what is a more or less unstable 
 equilibrium. Hence if excitement reaches a certain 
 pitch, this equilibrium is destroyed ; the contend- 
 ing impulses are no longer held in check ; and in 
 their isolation they exhibit the worst forms of 
 license. Those raptures and ecstasies which occu- 
 pied us in the fifth chapter are like storms upon 
 the ocean of the senses, storms in which the 
 foundations of the deep are in danger of being 
 upheaved. Unless, therefore, along with its power 
 to thrill, religious teaching brings with it also a 
 power to calm and to control, it is a source of 
 moral danger. 
 
 It is one of the services of the fine arts to 
 religion, that they select just those aspects of 
 sensible and transient things which can best con- 
 vey the eternal and ideal, and so the feelings 
 which direct themselves upon what is sensible are 
 tuned also to the more permanent harmonies. Now 
 since the feelings are most intimately bound up with 
 — if indeed they are not sometimes identical with 
 — the reverberations produced in the soul by ex- 
 ternal impressions, it is obvious that the surround- 
 ings of worship are inevitably a school of emotion 
 and also of taste. We have learnt to distinguish 
 between the more permanent sentiment and the 
 passing emotion, so that we shall not be afraid of 
 raising the ministry of art to too lofty a place by 
 saying that it gives form to emotion, that is to say, 
 it moulds the material which is to be built up into 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 173 
 
 the abiding life of the soul. And what Joubert 
 remarks of the Roman ceremonial is also true in 
 their kinds for other orders of religious worship ; 
 " it bends the soul to courtesy." 
 
 When the emotional life is directed towards an 
 object, it tends to be diffused at the same time 
 upon that which surrounds its object. And while, 
 in one sense, emotion marks out the lines which 
 our thoughts are to take, at the same time it moves 
 and diffuses itself along the lines which thought 
 has already taken. In this manner, emotion 
 conquers fresh realms for itself. In this process, 
 further, emotion finds in the use of symbols one 
 of its most efficient engines. Instead of remain- 
 ing confined within the most obvious sources of 
 emotional impulses, the soul spreads its sails to 
 catch the finer breezes of things, and so is swept 
 down the mysterious tides of the senses to un- 
 explored islands of the spirit. In this way a 
 life which, at first sight, seems only to tantalise 
 the soul with its promise of interest, is made to 
 surrender, by a strange alchemy, the glittering 
 metal which is hid in its clay. 
 
 But it is only so far as the life of emotion is 
 purified and regulated that the soul can enrich it- 
 self from these new fields. It is no reply to this, 
 to point to the disorderly lives of many artists. In 
 the first place, the artist has to put himself under 
 the severest discipline; and in the second place, it 
 is not certain that their life is, in reality, more dis- 
 orderly than the life of their more commonplace 
 
174 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 contemporaries. In fact, the very vision which is 
 enjoyed by the great artist is in itself a token of 
 nobility of soul, so that there is some justification 
 for those who are inclined to condone the irregular 
 lives of some artists by reference to their character 
 in its fulness. The pioneer is to be judged by a 
 standard other than that which we apply to those 
 who tread along the path he has struck out. At 
 the same time, there is not much need for this 
 charity, which is perhaps after all an impertinence. 
 The greatest artists of Italy, in the sixteenth 
 century, were not far from being also the best 
 representatives of her moral life. Cellini is not 
 the type by which we are to measure his fellow- 
 craftsmen. There is, moreover, a certain innate 
 dignity which attaches to handicraft. Only so far 
 as a man works with his hands as well as with his 
 brain, can he continue his labours without risk to 
 his health, physical and moral ; and under the 
 present conditions of industrial life, the artist is 
 almost the only workman who can, without re- 
 serve, set himself to do his best. Hence it 
 would seem that a painter or sculptor has some- 
 thing in his favour, even from our present point 
 of view. 
 
 Richness of emotional life determines the in- 
 tensity of that vision with which we were occupied 
 in the last chapter. It is thus one of the main 
 conditions of inspiration ; others being the clear- 
 ness of discrimination and the power of combining 
 by which the soul's buildings are wrought out. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 175 
 
 Now of these factors the passion is found in the 
 early years of life ; the insight, in the later years. 
 In this way each age of life has after all its 
 appropriate share of poetic endowment. Since 
 the ruins of time build mansions in eternity, the 
 heritage of passion in which youth seems to 
 spend itself, can be so husbanded as to suffice 
 for later needs. 
 
 But rich as that heritage is, not only can it 
 be squandered — a topic on which moralists have 
 said more than enough — it can also be hoarded 
 like fairy gold, until the morning comes and the 
 gold is found to be changed into withered leaves. 
 The coward who shrinks from following his 
 deepest impulses defrauds himself, and he is just 
 as much bankrupt at the last as the reckless 
 spirit who has ridden his coursers to the world's 
 end. 
 
 Symbolism, then, by furnishing new objects 
 for the emotions increases their volume, and the 
 most powerful symbols will be those which are 
 drawn from the most moving experiences. Not 
 only so, through the symbol and the emotion 
 together, the soul makes an advance in thought. 
 For the soul which has begun to reflect on the 
 ultimate truths of life, seems at first incapable of 
 giving shape to its thoughts, or, at least, it gives 
 them an inadequate shape. When, however, under 
 the guise of symbol a whole range of emotion is 
 suggested to it, the soul creates an object for 
 itself from these emotional stirrings, and projects 
 
176 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 it outwards on to reality. The very dimness with 
 which alone such an object can be presented to 
 the mind, is conformable to the limitations under 
 which God is apprehended. He can be thought 
 of as the object of desire, and of aspiration, and 
 can so be loved ; and this without falling into an 
 illusory definiteness of idea. Symbol, then, which 
 professedly does not represent its object but some- 
 thing else, through which appropriate feelings are 
 to be suggested, rises to its height when, as in 
 the traditional interpretation of The Song of Songs, 
 the language of the most ardent human passion 
 is employed to figure the ardour of the soul 
 towards God. 
 
 Again, ordinary human affection craves for 
 objects on which it may spend itself, and this 
 quite apart from any thought of immediate self- 
 satisfaction in the narrower sense. 1 And where it 
 lacks sufficient scope in the usual relationships of 
 life, it is ready to direct itself upon other interests, 
 and in this manner to give increased richness 
 and variety to the common life of which it is a 
 participant. It has already been noticed that 
 the vast size of the modern state admits to an 
 unusual degree of the specialised activities of 
 individuals. There is room for the visionary and 
 the artist, the metaphysician and the discoverer, 
 as well as the rank and file of the human army. 
 And so from a right point of view such individuals 
 are not to be regarded as abnormal, but rather as 
 1 Mackenzie, Ethics? 97. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 177 
 
 the organs of certain highly specialised functions. 
 Such men fulfil their part largely by turning those 
 desires which guide the rest of mankind to the 
 ordinary goods of life, upon special objects of 
 desire. Hence such lives, even those of the 
 cloister, are not fairly to be compared with the 
 ordinary life, as though they were in any serious 
 sense distorted or mutilated. 1 They are literally 
 inspired, in that they move upon certain objects 
 by a kind of natural summons, a vocation which 
 consists in their special powers. 
 
 It may seem a somewhat bold assumption that 
 the mode in which the soul directs itself upon 
 its object is the same in kind whether that object 
 is a material possession, a person, or an ideal. 
 This is the assumption which underlies symbolism, 
 and is only strange when we lose sight of the 
 intrinsic unity of the mental process. In reality 
 the desire of the soul moves from one object to 
 another in an ascending scale, or rather is capable 
 of so doing, until it is at last turned upon the 
 supreme object of desire with the cry of St 
 Augustine : " Too late have I loved Thee, O 
 beauty so old and so new, too late have I loved 
 Thee." 2 " For this is the right way to the objects 
 of love," says Plato, " beginning from these beauti- 
 ful things, ever to go forward for the sake of 
 yonder beauty, using them as stepping-stones 
 from one to two and from two to all beautiful 
 
 1 Mackenzie, Ethics? 363, who marks the limits of this principle. 
 * Conf. x. 27. 
 M 
 
178 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 forms, and from beautiful forms to beautiful 
 actions, and from beautiful actions to beautiful 
 doctrines, until from them it comes to that 
 doctrine which is the doctrine of nothing else 
 than of yonder beauty, and at the last should 
 know the true beauty." 1 And so there is some- 
 thing profoundly philosophical in the use of The 
 Song of Songs to typify the communion of the 
 soul with its ideal. The passion which is ex- 
 pressed by the Shulamite for her earthly lover 
 in such glowing phrases becomes the type of 
 the love of the soul towards God ; while the 
 blandishments of worldly ideals are represented 
 by Solomon, who is unable to detach the heart 
 of the girl from her shepherd. 2 And in their 
 degree other human relationships are a school of 
 affection by which the soul is drawn out of itself 
 and so fitted for the love of God. 
 
 For the human will is something which is 
 for ever going beyond itself. When desire ceases, 
 life ceases too. This is merely another aspect of 
 the emotion which for ever wells up in the soul. 
 And so it is a fruitless inquiry whether there is 
 any state in which the will is entirely satisfied ; 
 for if it were satisfied it would cease to be. But 
 in all its stages we can distinguish between the 
 will that remains conscious of itself and that which 
 is lost in its object. In intellectual pursuits the 
 self-conscious will finds its realisation in culture ; 
 the will that loses itself in its object becomes the 
 1 Symposium, 21 1. 2 Driver, Introduction O.T., 3 ah. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 179 
 
 discoverer and the thinker. So in religion, the 
 self-conscious will is determined upon its own 
 salvation ; the will which is directed solely upon 
 its object is lost in adoration of the supreme 
 ideal and forgets itself. Only those souls which 
 can lose themselves in this way really attain to 
 the highest reaches of the religious life and touch 
 the heroic. 
 
 One of the reasons why popular religion in 
 England seems to be coming to the limits of its 
 power, is that it has contented itself so largely with 
 the commonplace motives which, after all, find 
 sufficient exercise in the ordinary duties of life. 
 Unless God is presented under the attributes of 
 the divine majesty, in such a way as to summon 
 forth a heroic effort of the soul to come to its own 
 in Him, religion is degraded to a level below the 
 ordinary standards of honour, and does not appeal 
 to the high spirit which is the natural temper of a 
 free citizen in a free state. When religion is re- 
 presented as the most refined way of providing 
 for the ultimate future, and a not unprofitable in- 
 vestment for the present, it is classed on its own 
 showing with the business pursuits, which even 
 those who are engaged in them treat, not as ends 
 in themselves, but as means. Yet, unless the 
 divine ideal is presented as an object of desire in 
 and for itself, because of its intrinsic beauty and 
 authority, it is no longer completely effective. The 
 God of Calvin may have been an ideal which was 
 effective in producing a moral renovation, but it is 
 
180 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 permitted to doubt whether such an ideal ever in- 
 spired that disinterested passion of love, which is 
 the highest form of the soul's communion with 
 God. "He moves the world," says Aristotle, " as 
 the object of its desire." 
 
 There is some reason then for the suspicion with 
 which the world sometimes looks upon the motives 
 of professedly religious people. A man who re- 
 gards the inner life and revelation of God as merely 
 the means to his own future wellbeing, is scarcely 
 likely to be more respectful to the claims of friend- 
 ship, and will see in his friends so many tools to 
 be used for a time and then laid aside. On the 
 other hand, when the love of God consists in 
 the irresistible attraction of the soul by the divine 
 beauty, a similar disinterestedness is diffused upon 
 the various relations of life. It is no longer hypo- 
 critical to speak of friendship as illumined by the 
 love of God, or to declare that true friendship is 
 that "which is assured by God among those who 
 cling to Him in the love which is spread abroad 
 in our hearts through the Holy Spirit." 1 In fact, 
 therefore, a man who loves his friends with this 
 disinterested love, and is even at the same time 
 insensible to the love of God, is nearer to the life 
 of the spirit than the man who loves God with 
 the afterthought that, on the whole, he is doing a 
 prudent thing. But this does not exhaust this 
 truth. One who loves his friends with this dis- 
 interested love is at the same time a participant, 
 1 Aug., Conf. iv. 4. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 181 
 
 though an unconscious one, in the love of God, and 
 is a Christian without knowing it. " Greater love 
 hath no man than this, that he would lay down 
 his life for his friends." And the quality of friend- 
 ship is not often so poor among men of the English 
 race that it will not meet this test. The colliers, 
 who are branded sufficiently for the superficial 
 observer by the noisy way in which some of them 
 spend their hours of recreation, furnish every year 
 a tribute of heroes who readily sacrifice their life 
 in the work of rescue, and thus vindicate their 
 citizenship of the celestial kingdom. At these 
 times the heart victoriously beats its way through 
 theological cobwebs and declares to itself, without 
 fear of contradiction, that such men are safe in the 
 hands of God. We must not be told that this is a 
 merely emotional view of such acts. There must 
 be a reason for this assurance, and we must fit it 
 into our system, if we have one. 'Is it not because 
 at such supreme moments, the human soul is 
 actually one with the divine will, not only in in- 
 tention but in act ? The saints have always been 
 great lovers. And great lovers have been saints. 
 " He that loveth not his brother whom he hath 
 seen, cannot love God whom he hath not seen." 
 
 I have spent some time upon the relation of 
 friendship to the Christian life, because this topic 
 is usually passed over, or confused with the relation 
 of the Christian to his fellows in the religious society 
 to which he belongs. Now, under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, it is dangerous to claim any considera- 
 
1 82 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 tion for professedly Christian persons, which is 
 not at the same time conceded to those who make 
 no such profession. In other words, the Christian 
 profession gives no rights beyond those which are 
 due to a common humanity. People are afraid to 
 look this obvious and important principle in the 
 face; but it is only thus that we can guarantee tolera- 
 tion and justice to every one even in a professedly 
 Christian community. There is a certain morbid 
 tendency towards persecution in some religious 
 minds, and so those religious societies which treat 
 the Christian profession as a ground for differential 
 treatment, are not only likely to be intolerant and 
 unjust, 1 but they also encourage hypocrisy in those 
 persons who are inclined to that odious vice, and 
 who make use of it to trade upon the prejudices 
 of their neighbours. The only privilege enjoyed 
 by the professedly religious person is that he is 
 called upon to be more ready than others for acts 
 of self-sacrifice. Nor is he allowed to repay him- 
 self for his self-sacrifice by any notoriety. He has 
 to avoid advertisement as far as possible. Unlike 
 the heroes of the stories of Mr Sheldon, the truly 
 religious person is the last in the world to perform 
 his good deeds with the idea that he has an admir- 
 ing or critical or hostile crowd of onlookers. He 
 does not seek to be marked off in any way from 
 others, and leaves his example to take care of 
 itself. "There is nothing outwardly," Coventry 
 Patmore says, " to distinguish a ' saint ' from 'com- 
 1 Cf. end of chapter six. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 183 
 
 mon persons.' I have known," he says, " two or 
 three such persons, and I declare that but for the 
 peculiar line of psychological research to which I 
 am addicted, and hints from others in some degree 
 akin to these men, I should never have guessed 
 that they were any wiser or better than myself, or 
 any other ordinary man of the world with a prudent 
 regard for the common proprieties. I once asked 
 a person more learned than I am in such matters 
 to tell me what was the real difference. The reply 
 was that the saint does everything that any other 
 decent person does, only somewhat better and with 
 a wholly different motive." 1 Hence it is not only 
 extremely dangerous but also extremely difficult to 
 discriminate between religious, and other, persons. 
 And the cases where this discrimination has been 
 attempted, combine the ludicrous and the tragic 
 in about equal proportions. They have given a 
 Tartuffe to comedy, and to the tragic muse all the 
 melancholy volume of religious persecution. 
 
 But to return, it is impossible that the area of 
 friendship should be co-extensive with that of the 
 Christian society. " The man who has many 
 friends," says Aristotle, "has no friends." If it 
 were necessary, the right of the soul to exercise 
 its preferences within the limits of the Christian 
 society, might be shielded by the example of Jesus. 
 The Christian profession involves neither the sacri- 
 fice of our own proper reserve, nor the duty of in- 
 truding upon the proper reserve of others. 
 
 1 Rod, Root and Flower, 160. 
 
1 84 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 If it may be claimed that the individual has 
 come to his rights largely under the influence of 
 the ideas which Jesus set in motion, it is not less 
 true that the family life which is so congenial to 
 the Teutonic races has been specially supported 
 by the forms of Christianity. In fact it may even 
 be maintained that the richness and depth of 
 Teutonic emotion has been added to the sum 
 of the Christian tradition. It would be a mis- 
 take, however, to suppose that even Christianity 
 created the family. It was already realised in a 
 very noble type in pagan Rome ; and perhaps the 
 very appeal which the new faith made to the family 
 instincts prepared the way for its reception in the 
 Roman empire. " The early fathers recognised 
 a spirit kindred with their own in the sanctities 
 of the Roman family, and were met half-way by 
 their antagonists of the better kind. 1 The patriotic 
 Roman who dwelt fondly upon the religion of 
 Numa, and sought to restore it, could not over- 
 look the resemblance between his aspirations and 
 the new rule of conduct. Once more, it might 
 seem to him, the marriage tie was regarded as 
 sacred ; once more the minds of the young 
 were shielded from pollution, and the passionate 
 communion with the dead upon which the re- 
 ligion of primitive times was based, revived in 
 the life of the catacombs, and the veneration of 
 martyrs." 2 Hence it is somewhat difficult to dis- 
 
 1 Augustine, de civitate Dei, v. 12. 
 
 2 Author in International Journal of Ethics, 1897, p. 283. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 185 
 
 tinguish between the Roman and the Christian 
 in the beautiful passage in which St Augustine 
 speaks of his dead parents. " Inspire, O my 
 Lord and God, inspire Thy servants my brethren, 
 Thy sons my masters, whom I serve with voice, 
 heart, and pen, that as many as shall read these 
 words, may remember at Thy altar Monica Thy 
 servant, with Patricius, once her husband, through 
 whom Thou didst wonderfully bring me into this 
 life. May they, in this transitory light, remember 
 my parents with kindly affection ; and my brothers 
 under Thee their Father, in the Church their 
 catholic mother ; and my fellow-citizens in the 
 eternal Jerusalem for which the pilgrimage of 
 Thy people longs from its setting out till its 
 return ; that what she last requested' of me, may, 
 by the prayers of many, be more richly granted 
 to her through my confessions than my prayers." 1 
 In so far as religious feeling is a kind of purified 
 summary of all human feeling, it will represent in 
 its own way each of the deepest impulses of the 
 heart, and where satisfaction is denied it will 
 reach other compensations in other ways. There 
 is a maternal element in the religious idea that 
 has given rise to the worship of the Virgin-mother 
 in whom the tenderness and sadness of the deepest 
 feelings is personified. To one who studies re- 
 ligious dogma in relation to the facts of con- 
 sciousness, it is clear that the worship of the 
 Virgin was one of the forces that softened and 
 1 Con/, ix. 13. 
 
1 86 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 humanised the fierce spirits of the middle ages. 
 And the reaction to which the excessive honour 
 paid to the mother of Jesus led, left the sterner 
 reformers with a God who was simply the harsh 
 oriental deity as He is depicted in some of the 
 Psalms and in the book of Joshua. Thus of the 
 two contending parties each insisted on one aspect 
 of the truth to the exclusion of the other. It is a 
 striking fact that a new worship of the Divine 
 Mother is springing up in such a way that her 
 attributes are no longer centred upon Mary, but 
 upon the Supreme. " If any feel their weakness 
 as little children feel it, let them know that the 
 Spirit of God broods over them as a mother over 
 her babe." x And so the pictures of the Mother 
 and the Child, on which the religious feeling of 
 the mediaeval world so largely spent itself, have a 
 meaning that is never likely to be lost entirely. 
 
 Human love is the root from which all other 
 love springs. And it is instructive to trace the 
 behaviour of the different forms of the religious 
 spirit to those human passions with which it is 
 so mysteriously bound up. The fire of heavenly 
 love passes back very easily into an earthly flame. 
 There is scarcely anything more common than to 
 find the natural impulse of ordinary affection 
 tricking itself out in the garb of religion. And it 
 is not easy to say how far the custom of celibacy 
 may not have arisen among the clergy in order to 
 avoid an almost inevitable confusion between two 
 1 G. A. Smith, Isaiah i. 246. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 187 
 
 overlapping groups of emotions. If this explana- 
 tion is correct, we have* for all that, only deter- 
 mined the occasion, and not the cause of celibacy, 
 which found its origin in a certain mystical exalta- 
 tion of the unmarried state. Yet if celibacy seems 
 an extreme measure, some eminently religious per- 
 sons who have married have not been strikingly 
 fortunate — as though the raptures of the heavenly 
 state disqualified them for more commonplace 
 circumstances. I will not speak at length of Sir 
 Thomas More who married again within six weeks 
 of the death of his first wife, nor of Hooker, who 
 was advised so disastrously by his mother-in- 
 law, but will come straight to John Bunyan, who 
 speaks with the accents of the monk rather than 
 the lover. '' In this I admire the wisdom of God 
 that he made me shy of women from my first 
 conversion until now. Those know and can also 
 bear me witness, with whom I have been most 
 intimately concerned, that it is a rare thing to 
 see me carry it pleasant towards a woman. The 
 common salutation of Women I abhor, 'tis odious 
 to me in whomsoever I see it. Their company 
 alone I cannot away with. I seldom so much as 
 touch a woman's hand, for I think these things 
 are not so becoming me. When I have seen 
 good men salute those Women that they have 
 visited or that have visited them, I have at times 
 made my objection against it ; and when they 
 have answered that it was but a piece of civility, 
 I have told them it is not a comely sight. Some 
 
1 88 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 indeed have urged the Holy Kiss ; but them I 
 have asked why they made baulks? Why did 
 they salute the most handsome and let the ill- 
 favoured go? Thus how laudable soever such 
 things have been in the eyes of others, they have 
 been unseemly in my sight." * How serious this 
 temptation must have been to a susceptible per- 
 son, may be gathered from a letter of Erasmus, 
 who visited England just about a century before. 
 " To mention but a single attraction, the English 
 girls are divinely pretty ; soft, pleasant, gentle and 
 charming as the muses. They have one custom 
 which cannot be too much admired. When you 
 go anywhere on a visit the girls all kiss you. 
 They kiss you when you arrive. They kiss you 
 when you go away, and they kiss you again when 
 you return. Go where you will it is all kisses ; 
 and my dear Faustus, if you had once tasted how 
 soft and fragrant those lips are, you would wish to 
 spend your life here." 2 There is a picture of the 
 great humanist in the Louvre, in that fine square 
 room where the masterpieces are brought together, 
 in which Holbein portrays him, with an expression 
 not unlike another humanist of our own day, who, 
 though unmarried, was in later life susceptible to 
 the charm of women's society. Bunyan's pilgrim 
 would not even take his wife with him on the 
 heavenly way. Erasmus and Jowett seem to 
 move through life, if we may judge them by 
 their letters, attended by the graces. In the 
 1 Grace Abounding, 316. * Froude, Erasmus, 42. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 189 
 
 pure air of the Christian society relationships 
 are possible that would be scandalous among 
 persons of less regular lives. For the most 
 exquisite forms of the social life are sheltered 
 under that delicacy of feeling which is the flower 
 of religion. Hence it is unfair to attribute to the 
 Christian spirit the uncouthness of Bunyan, or 
 again of Whitefield. Whitefield, in his letter to 
 Miss E., speaks with great contempt of the 
 language of strong feeling. " The passionate 
 expressions which carnal courtiers use, I think 
 ought to be avoided by those who marry in the 
 Lord." 1 Miss E., however, was insensible to the 
 religious correctness of Whitefield's attitude, and 
 left him to his fate. He married a widow. White- 
 field's biographer, who, for unconscious humour, 
 runs Whitefield hard, remarks very sagely upon this. 
 " A young female of eminent piety and zeal might 
 have fallen in with his habits and plans, and even 
 found her chief happiness in sustaining his mighty 
 and manifold undertakings, like Paul's Phoebe ; but 
 a widow, who had been ' a housekeeper ' " (her own) 
 " many years, and that in the retirement of Aber- 
 gavenny, in Wales, could hardly be expected to un- 
 learn the domestic system of the country nor to 
 become a heroine for the world." Both Whitefield 
 and some others forgot " the eternal womanly." 
 Mrs Whitefield and her compeers were not entirely 
 fortunate ; they perhaps thought they were marry- 
 ing men, and found themselves tied to theological 
 
 systems. 
 
 1 Life, by Phillips, 180. 
 
190 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 It was a wise provision therefore that The Song 
 of Songs was retained in the canon. Religion is 
 " the poetry of the heart '' after all. The com- 
 mercial spirit that makes the love of the soul 
 towards God an investment for eternity can 
 scarcely be expected to treat the love of women 
 in a less practical spirit. And yet Whitefield might 
 have read in his Bible the following verses : 
 
 Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon thine 
 arm ; for love is strong as death, jealousy is cruel as the 
 grave, the flashes thereof are Hashes of fire, a very flame of 
 the Lord. 
 
 Many waters cannot quench love, neither can floods drown 
 it : if a man should give all the substance of his house for 
 love he would utterly be contemned. 
 
 There is, therefore, no intrinsic derogation to 
 the love of the soul towards God when it is set 
 alongside the love of women, and of friends. 
 We have rather found that the disinterested self- 
 sacrifice of unpretending human beings puts to 
 shame the love of God which is professed by 
 some ; and after we have thus tried to imagine 
 a purer love of the soul towards God, we have 
 come back to the common relationships of life 
 with a quickened insight. 
 
 I can imagine some to object that God can 
 never be so realised by us as to be the object 
 of love in the same way as human beings are. 
 The reason is plain ; such persons regard God 
 as an intellectual ideal (under whatever name 
 they may call Him) in such a way that they 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 191 
 
 never sink into the depths of that mystical fire, 
 which certainly animates some souls in their 
 thoughts of God. Jowett, indeed, considered it 
 impossible, at this distance of time, to represent 
 the person of Jesus to the mind as of one who 
 still lived. But this thought is met by a canon 
 laid down by Ritschl. " It is one of the conditions 
 of religious faith that what it contains in thought 
 should be represented as present." There is a 
 classical passage in Newman's Apologia, in which 
 he speaks of himself as resting " in the thought 
 of two and only two absolutely and luminously 
 self-evident beings, myself and my Creator." In 
 a like spirit St Teresa says we must in the be- 
 ginning consider " that in the whole world there 
 is only God and our soul." x Now in the case of 
 these two, it may be said that they were in- 
 fluenced by tradition, and that we have not here 
 the primitive attitude of the mind to the belief in 
 God. Yet Prof. James traces out the lines along 
 which the idea of God emerges as implicit in the 
 moral judgment, and this as an original experience. 
 " The emotion that beckons me on is undoubtedly 
 the pursuit of an ideal social self (i.e. the in- 
 dividual in his relations to others), of a self that 
 is at least worthy of approving recognition by 
 the highest possible judging companion, if such 
 companion there be. This self is the true, the 
 intimate, the ultimate, the permanent me which 
 I seek. This judge is God, the Absolute Mind, 
 the ' Great Companion.' " 2 
 
 1 Life, xiii. 13. 2 Textbook of Psychology, p. 192. 
 
192 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 In some mysterious way the apprehension of 
 God, as it is thus described by James, seems not 
 so much to lead to Him as already to be in itself 
 a kind of participation in His nature, as though, 
 to use a figure, He gave Himself to us in so far 
 as we came to know Him. " God Himself," says 
 Teresa, " is essential virtue from Whom all virtues 
 proceed." 1 Or to put the same truth in the 
 converse form, we come to know Him in so far 
 as He gives Himself to us. Let us return, how- 
 ever, to the more cautious mode of statement 
 with which we began. The oversoul is at once 
 the mode in which the highest capacities of the 
 soul are realised, and also the Being over against 
 the soul on which the soul depends. This Being 
 is hinted at in our deepest experiences, of which 
 the poets are the exponents. Wordsworth formu- 
 lates the idea of the " Great Companion " in a 
 more restrained manner when he writes : 
 
 "I have felt 
 A presence that disturbs me -with the joy 
 Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime 
 Of something far more deeply interfused, 
 Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, 
 And the round ocean, and the living air, 
 And the blue sky, and in the mind of man ; 
 A motion and a spirit, that impels 
 All thinking things, all objects of all thought, 
 And rolls through all things." 
 
 There can be no doubt first, of the intimacy of 
 
 these experiences, second, of the love which is 
 
 1 Life, xiv. 6. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 193 
 
 directed to their object. When we go still further 
 and " believe largely," we are led into a more 
 definite sphere of utterance, and approach the 
 dogmas of theology. 
 
 Augustine, in some striking sayings, reflects the 
 intense manner in which he realised the divine 
 companionship of which Prof. James speaks. 
 " The abysses of the human conscience are 
 naked in His eyes. The ear of God knows 
 the utterances of his soul and the cry of his 
 imagination." And from the idea that God is 
 the allwise, there comes the idea that He is 
 also the all-loving. " Thou didst know what I 
 was suffering and no man knew. Thou findest 
 pleasure in us and so regardest each of us as 
 though Thou hadst him alone to care for." And 
 then answering the doubt which inevitably arises, 
 " I loved Thee and not a phantasm in Thy 
 place." 1 
 
 In the language of St Teresa, the attitude 
 of the soul towards God (which is just coming 
 to self-consciousness in Wordsworth, and in St 
 Augustine has spread from the perception to 
 the heart), reaches a more intimate form still. 
 " God, in His great mercy, will have the soul 
 comprehend that His Majesty is so near to it 
 that it need not send messengers to Him, but 
 may speak to Him itself and not with a loud 
 crying, because so near is He already that He 
 understands even the movements of its lips." 2 Of 
 1 Con/, x. 2 ; xii. 7 ; iii. 1 1 ; viii. 3. 2 Life, xiv. 7. 
 
 N 
 
194 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 course it is open to anyone to say that in these 
 last utterances we are already passed from reality 
 to fancy, and to take up the objection already 
 present to the mind of the African saint, that 
 these emotions are directed upon a phantasm. 
 Such an one, however, is bound also to put on 
 one side the affirmations of Wordsworth. What 
 religion does for thought is analogous to what it 
 does for the feelings. Just as religion organises 
 the feelings not so much by creating new ones 
 as by setting them in their proper amount and 
 relation, so theology does not impose upon the 
 soul anything really alien to its nature, but, under 
 the influence of religious passion, fuses into one 
 clear ray the broken colours which are trans- 
 mitted to the soul through the differing mediums 
 by which it is surrounded. At least this is the 
 mark of a genuine theology as distinguished from 
 mere wordspinning. Hence in Ritschl's phrase, 
 " the wisdom of the schools must be brought to the 
 test of actual comparison with the phenomenon 
 of consciousness which has to be explained." 1 
 
 Now it is a strange thing that the school of 
 Ritschl, at the same time that it lays such great 
 stress on the voice of consciousness, expressly dis- 
 card from the inner life all those phenomena in 
 which, perhaps, the soul is most vividly conscious 
 both of itself and of God. If the lines of the poet 
 mean anything, they point to a contact of the 
 soul with God, of which the possibility is expressly 
 1 History of Doctrines of Justification and Reconciliation, 256. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 195 
 
 denied by Ritschl outside the historical fact of the 
 life and death of Jesus. 
 
 Herrmann, indeed, translates the thought of 
 Wordsworth into a more formal expression when 
 he says : " Every man to whom religion is some- 
 thing more than a store of knowledge, or burden 
 of commandments, experiences at times a certain 
 stirring of feeling within him, amid which alone 
 he is able to gain due profit from all that is of 
 religious significance. At such a time God makes 
 Himself felt and sets the man in that inward 
 condition which is blessedness. Without this ex- 
 perience of God all the rest is so empty and vain 
 that it does not deserve the name of religion. It 
 is in such experience that we find the very essence 
 of religion, that sweet inalienable possession of the 
 soul." (But) " we have not yet described what; is 
 peculiarly characteristic of Christian piety." 1 Now 
 it is quite true that religious feeling cannot be 
 content to remain at the stage described by Words- 
 worth. But that is no reason for the attempt 
 to discredit this stage of experience. And in 
 particular, when Herrmann asserts that, according 
 to mysticism, Christ leads the man who has be- 
 come His disciple up to the threshold of blessed- 
 ness, but then the mystic steps alone across that 
 threshold, I set against this the saying of St 
 Teresa, to which reference has already been made : 
 " What I would say is, that the most Sacred 
 Humanity of Christ is not to be counted among 
 1 Communion with God, 17. 
 
196 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the objects from which we have to withdraw." 1 
 So again St John of the Cross declares that in 
 the withdrawal of the soul into itself, Christ and 
 His most Sacred Humanity are not to be forgotten. 2 
 At the same time, the mystical writers would have 
 saved Herrmann from the exaggeration with which 
 he says : " We do not merely come through Christ 
 to God, it is truer to say that we find nothing in 
 God but Christ." Religious enthusiasm is no 
 excuse for exaggeration of the truth. Wordsworth, 
 for example, is raised by his love of nature and of 
 humanity to an intuition of the divine, and it is 
 simply impossible to wrest his experience in the 
 way described by Herrmann. The doctrine of 
 the Trinity not only guarantees the traditional 
 estimate of the person of Jesus, it also does much 
 more ; it makes it possible to include in the 
 Christian idea of God all those thoughts which are, 
 so to speak, the vestibule to the apprehension of 
 Christ. Hence we can treat the poetic apprehen- 
 sion of nature and of history as integral parts in 
 the Christian revelation. We have already seen 
 that there was a poetic aspect of the career of the 
 Saviour, in which the loftiest form of poetry, the 
 tragic drama, was realised by Him, not only as the 
 sublime protagonist, but as moved by the catholic 
 sympathies of the tragic poet. In this sense it 
 may at once be affirmed that the attitude of 
 Wordsworth is implicitly included in the vision of 
 Jesus. But that is not what the Ritschlean means. 
 
 1 Life, xxii. 11. 2 Ascent of Mount Carmcl, III. c. i. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 197 
 
 He tries to simplify the Christian Religion by 
 stripping from it everything which is not explicitly 
 formulated in the account which the New Testa- 
 ment gives of Jesus as a historical personage. But 
 we have seen that the intimacy of the soul with 
 God is to be understood in a wider sense. 1 
 
 At the same time, Jesus completes the views of 
 the world which are held by the poet and the scien- 
 tific man. The poet introduces into life certain 
 preferences, and singles out what is of more value 
 than the rest ; the scientific man determines what 
 is real and what is not. Jesus unites the work of 
 the poet, and of the scientific man ; He " gives us 
 a vision of the power of the Good over the Real." 2 
 " We arrive at the thought of omnipotence because 
 we are obliged to pay to Jesus the homage of 
 believing that He must succeed, even if all the 
 world beside be against Him." And " God makes 
 Himself known as the power that is with Jesus." 
 In this way the communion of the soul with God 
 is completed. Through the life of Jesus the Divirte 
 nature is disclosed to us in a more intimate way 
 than is possible to one who remains merely at the 
 standpoint of the poet or of the scientific man. 
 The idea of a divine companion thus gradually 
 receives shape until it is fused in one harmonious 
 whole, the idea of God as that idea is transformed 
 for us when we realise the life of Jesus. 
 
 The aspiration of the soul towards its invisible, 
 or if you like ideal, companion is a prayer, which, as 
 
 1 P. 167. 2 Herrmann, op. cit., 96. 
 
198 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 St Teresa says, may be " not with noise of words, 
 but with a heartfelt desire to be heard." This 
 aspiration is not in itself necessarily pleasant at 
 first. In fact it would seem somewhat excep- 
 tional for the first efforts at this devotion to be 
 accompanied with a sensible sweetness. Hence, 
 "the soul which begins to walk in the way of 
 mental prayer with resolution, and is determined 
 not to care much, neither to rejoice nor to be 
 greatly afflicted, whether sweetness and tender- 
 ness fail it, or our Lord grants them, has already 
 travelled a great part of the road." 1 Prayer is 
 the expression of the love of the soul towards its 
 invisible companion — a love which " does not con- 
 sist in tears, nor in this sweetness and tenderness 
 which we for the most part desire, and with which 
 we console ourselves, but rather in serving Him 
 in justice, fortitude, and humility." 2 It follows 
 that every aspiration towards these ends is of the 
 nature of prayer, and that every man at some 
 time or other engages in this implicit prayer. 
 " Most men, either continually or occasionally, 
 carry a reference to the ideal judge in their breast. 
 . . . It is a much more essential part of the con- 
 sciousness of some men than of others. Those 
 who have the most of it are probably the most 
 religious. But I am sure that even those who 
 say they are altogether without it deceive them- 
 selves and really have it in some degree." s 
 
 1 St Teresa, Life, xi. 21. 2 Ibid. 
 
 3 James, Textbook of Psychology, 193. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 199 
 
 To the aspiration of the soul towards God 
 there seems to answer a condescension of God 
 towards the soul. " Thou takest delight in us," 
 says St Augustine. Those who are the subjects 
 of the deepest insight and passion speak of them- 
 selves as though they were taken possession of by 
 another. Now we must guard against misunder- 
 standing here. The way in which spiritualistic 
 " mediums " are thought to be governed by their 
 " controls " is a caricature of any theory which 
 sets out to give a consistent explanation of the 
 facts of inspiration. The soul does not stand 
 over against " the fountain light " of all its day in 
 an independent isolation, like the medium whose 
 own personality seems to be expelled for a time 
 by that of another. 1 On the contrary, the re- 
 lation between the soul and " the master light of 
 all our seeing " is such that the soul comes most 
 to itself when it is thus invaded by what at first 
 sight seem external influences. There is an order 
 in the way in which such influences disclose them- 
 selves to the soul, although it is not the same 
 perhaps in any two cases. And the descriptions 
 which the mystics give are to be taken as in the 
 main autobiographical rather than valid also for 
 others. Still we will hear St Teresa as she de- 
 scribes the stages of prayer. After the first 
 laborious aspirations, the soul in the second stage 
 begins to be recollected, that is, to attain a certain 
 equilibrium of impulse and thought. " This is a 
 
 1 James, Textbook of Psychology, 213. 
 
200 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 gathering together of the faculties of the soul 
 within itself, in order that it may have the fruition 
 of that contentment in greater sweetness ; but the 
 faculties are not lost, neither are they asleep ; the 
 will alone is occupied in such a way that without 
 knowing how it has become a captive, it gives a 
 simple consent to become the prisoner of God, 
 for it knows well what it is to be the captive of 
 Him it loves." x The reader would find it instruc- 
 tive to apply this description to the way in which 
 the soul is drawn towards any other ideal, say, as 
 it slowly becomes conscious of its vocation. In 
 the third degree of prayer, the soul passes into an 
 ecstatic state which is compared by many mystical 
 writers to intoxication. This may be distinguished 
 from the nervous disorders described in chapter v., 
 by considering the mode in which the soul ex- 
 presses itself at such times. In his moments of 
 loftiest inspiration the soul of the artist rushes 
 upon its object with a kind of frenzy, that has in 
 it something akin to intoxication, and yet for all 
 that, the works executed at such times are often 
 masterpieces. I am thinking especially of the 
 fury with which Michelangelo would throw him- 
 self upon rough blocks of marble in order to 
 disengage thence his buried ideas. A French 
 scholar of the sixteenth century saw him in one 
 of these moments of inebriation. " I am able to 
 affirm that I have seen Michelangelo, at the 
 age of more than sixty years, and not the 
 x Lije, xiv. 3. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 201 
 
 strongest for his time of life, knock off more chips 
 from an extremely hard marble in one quarter 
 of an hour than three young stonecutters could 
 have done in three or four — a thing quite in- 
 credible to one who has not seen it. He put 
 such impetuosity and fury into his work, that I 
 thought that the whole must fly to pieces ; hurling 
 to the ground at one blow great fragments three 
 or four inches thick." 1 Now stories like these 
 make it easier to believe St Teresa when she 
 describes the fervours into which she fell ; and 
 this the more because her writings exhibit a 
 clearness and precision of thought and phrase 
 that are as far as possible removed from the in- 
 articulate ravings or drivel which is one of the 
 symptoms of the lower kind of ecstasy. In the 
 last place the soul seems to attain a substantial 
 union with God. The first impulse of the great 
 mystical writers seems to be to shrink from de- 
 scribing the crowning stage of the aspirations of 
 the soul, inasmuch as it rather seems to come 
 from beyond the being of the soul. In this 
 respect such writers follow the precedent set for 
 them in another quarter. The operations of 
 genius directed to artistic creation, or to dis- 
 covery, or to mechanical invention, seem to elude 
 reduction to the common terms of daily life. 
 We need not, therefore, be surprised if the highest 
 endeavours of the soul towards the spiritual ideal 
 refuse in like manner to conform to what is 
 1 Symonds, Michelangelo, i. 101. 
 
202 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 commonplace. Hence we must not concede, 
 without further consideration, that the obscurity 
 of this part of psychology arises from the fact 
 that its subject matter is shifting and unreal. 
 
 The aspirations of the soul towards the ideal 
 have been translated by the great theologians into 
 statements about the divine nature. Augustine, 
 in the Confessions, especially does this. And these 
 aspirations furnish us indeed with more than partial 
 clues to that nature. For the virtues do not 
 attach to God simply as attributes which inhere, 
 but they find their substantial existence in Him. 
 He is not simply good, wise, beautiful, but is 
 actually goodness, wisdom, beauty. It is not diffi- 
 cult to read in this traditional form of statement 
 that God is regarded as an Ideal. So long, how- 
 ever, as we treat the different parts of the Ideal in 
 their separation, we fail really to understand them, 
 or their relation to worship. But when we think 
 of goodness, wisdom, beauty, power as brought to- 
 gether into a system, and traced, however dimly, 
 in the actual course of experience as by Words- 
 worth, we are on the way to an apprehension of 
 the divine nature, which is not far from the orthodox 
 one. And so the relation of the soul to its ideal 
 is correctly brought out in a saying attributed to 
 St Gregory, that " when a soul truly desires God, 
 it already possesses Him." 
 
 Thus the divine ideal appears as a psychical 
 
 universe, 1 and such a universe so far as it enters 
 
 1 A universe in psychology denotes a system of ideas united to- 
 gether by their reference to an object. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 203 
 
 the individual experience, as it were absorbs that 
 experience into itself, while at the same time the 
 soul seems to be active in the process. In the same 
 sense St John of the Cross speaks of God as the 
 centre of the soul, or again of wisdom as absorbing 
 the soul into itself. 1 What has been described as 
 the Night of the Soul is the negative aspect of 
 this process, in which the soul is stripped of that 
 which conflicts with the new universe of thought 
 and feeling. 
 
 Again, we must not suppose that this account 
 of the presence of God in the soul is meant to 
 exhaust the divine nature — an impossible thought. 
 At the same time, those who admit the existence 
 of those ideals which are included under the divine 
 name, can at least go thus far with us. No one 
 can deny that the presence of this divine ideal 
 has been historically operative in human souls, 
 whatever further objective references be granted, 
 or denied. 
 
 We are now able to deal with a statement of 
 Mr Bradley's to which reference has already been 
 made. 2 If the divine nature consists, in part, in a 
 systematic ideal of which goodness, wisdom, beauty, 
 power, are constituents, we can imagine without 
 self-contradiction, that it is actually present in the 
 soul in such a way that there is an inward com- 
 munion of the soul with God, and not merely a 
 communion mediated by external occurrences. At 
 the same time this assertion must be limited by 
 1 Living Flame of Love, verse I, line 3. 2 C. Hi., end. 
 
204 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the converse assertion ; that in this communion of 
 the soul with its ideal, it finds itself by going be- 
 yond its first experience. We have thus returned 
 to the standpoint of an earlier chapter, and find 
 the oversoul not only pointed at in certain circum- 
 stances of the social experience, but as realised in 
 the aspirations of the individual. 
 
 It is convenient to retain this term oversoul, for 
 it will remind us (a) that the revelation of God to 
 the soul is conditioned by its capacities, and is not 
 a full revelation of Him ; (b) that it is made to 
 the soul in common with other souls — for God is 
 no private possession ; (c) that He is revealed 
 not only in the commonplace events of life, but 
 still more in the heroic sphere, which not so much 
 lies over as penetrates the other, as " the tragedy 
 of the commonplace,'' to use Maeterlinck's phrase. 
 
 Lastly, since, as we have seen repeatedly, a 
 thought that is to live must burn, we can view the 
 passionate realisation of the Ideal as a living flame 
 of love in which the soul's aspirations are fused 
 into one. Since, at the same time, the life of the 
 soul is at these levels both its own and also not 
 its own, we may speak of this living flame of love 
 as infused from without. The reader who finds in 
 this last statement a certain exaggeration, is re- 
 quested to consider what was said about psycho- 
 logical optimism; 1 namely, that the unassisted soul 
 has no necessary tendency towards the good, and 
 to remember that the soul does not develop solely 
 1 P. 170. 
 
HUMAN AND DIVINE LOVE 205 
 
 from within, and that as between the soul and God 
 everything that comes to the soul is to be referred, 
 in a sense, to Him. 
 
 The third aspiration in The Lord's Prayer, there- 
 fore, when it is realised, constitutes actually the 
 union of the soul with God, a union which takes 
 place in the will and, therefore, at the same time, 
 in the depths of the soul. It is a question, there- 
 fore, whether there was not a certain justification 
 for the action of the primitive church which held 
 that only those who were truly entering upon the 
 religious life could use this prayer. For in it the 
 soul begins by claiming consciousness of its own 
 relationship to God, and goes on to assert the 
 union of its own will with the divine will. If 
 prayer was not degraded so often from the level 
 of aspiration to that of mere request, the true 
 meaning of prayer could not be thus overlooked. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SYMBOL AND RITUAL 
 
 The beauty oi God — Dignity of handicrafts — Use of symbols — In 
 expressing truth— In affecting the mind — Symbolism of the 
 word and the act — The visionary as the creator of symbols — 
 Blake at Felpham — His symbolic system — Symbol as causing 
 visionary experiences — Validity of symbolic method. 
 
 IT is very seldom that God is spoken of as 
 beautiful. That this should be so, marks 
 two facts : first, that the true dignity of the 
 beautiful is not understood ; second, that the 
 divine ideal is imperfectly grasped. God seems 
 to have revealed Himself to the ancient world 
 largely through the sense of beauty. Cicero 
 remarks " that the beauty of the universe and 
 the order of the heavenly motions compel man 
 to confess there is an excellent and eternal 
 Nature, and that It is worthy of the veneration 
 and wonder of the human race." 1 Dr Arnold, 
 in commenting upon this passage, called the 
 attention of his pupils " to the contrast between 
 Christian faith and love, and that creed of later 
 paganism which made ' the feelings of man towards 
 the Deity to be exactly those with which we gaze at 
 a beautiful sunset.' " 2 Yet this view of the divine 
 
 1 Dedivinalione, ii. 148. 2 Life, by Stanley, after letter 307. 
 206 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 207 
 
 nature is unexceptionable as far as it goes, and is 
 only to be condemned for its deficiencies, not for 
 its positive character. Moreover, it emphasises 
 just that view of God which is absent from the 
 thoughts of most Englishmen. For it is possible 
 to blaspheme God under His attribute of beauty 
 as well as under that of truth or of holiness. 
 And, on the other hand, we may worship Him 
 under this attribute no less than under His other 
 attributes. Wordsworth felt the deficiency of the 
 religious temper of his times in this particular, and 
 is half conscious of the source from which he drew 
 his inspiration. " Little we see in Nature which is 
 ours," he cries. " Great God ! I'd rather be a Pagan, 
 suckled in a creed outworn." If the self-possessed 
 poet could be moved to such an outburst by the 
 England of the early years of this century, his 
 language could hardly be less violent if he saw 
 the unlovely guise in which quiet country towns 
 and villages have grown into mean and squalid 
 centres of industry. This disfigurement of the 
 earth is plainly in contravention of the Divine 
 Will. For the beauty of Nature through which 
 God reveals Himself has its fellow in the beauty 
 of human handiwork, a beauty which has only 
 been lacking to any serious extent since the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century. Augustine 
 could say of the craftsmen of his time, " The 
 beauties which pass through the souls of artists 
 to their fingers come from that Beauty which is 
 over their souls, and for which my soul sighs by 
 
208 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 day and night." 1 And those who have filled 
 their eyes with the grace of cities like Oxford 
 and Bruges and Florence, where the mediaeval 
 spirit still colours material things with a visionary 
 beauty, will not hesitate to extend the utterance 
 of St Augustine to the more humble work of the 
 carpenter and stonemason. " Raise the stone and 
 there thou shalt find Me, cleave the wood and there 
 am I." 2 The Preacher had spoken of the dangers 
 and hardship which attach to the life of the 
 artisan. 3 Jesus, on the other hand, promises to 
 be present with His fellow-craftsmen in 1 their 
 labour, and fulfilled His promise in the art which 
 could raise the wooden fl^che of Amiens, and 
 choose and set the stones of Netley. It is a 
 religious work, therefore, to educate human 
 beings in the appreciation of beautiful objects 
 in order that they may recognise the beauty of 
 the King, that beauty for which Augustine sighed 
 day and night, and which he now enjoys. 
 
 Again the dignity of human labour loses one 
 of its main safeguards when the products of 
 that labour are expelled from the house of God, 
 and are replaced by mechanical productions. The 
 sympathetic analysis of Gothic architecture in 
 which Mr Ruskin has led the way, shows beyond 
 all gainsaying, how, on the one hand, the beauty 
 of mediaeval work turns upon the personal ex- 
 pression which can be traced even in the most 
 clumsy productions, and, on the other hand, how 
 
 1 Conf. x. 34. a Logiajesu, 5. 3 Ecclesiastes x. 9. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 209 
 
 the independence with which each man worked 
 reacted upon his powers of imagination. The 
 Oxford Movement has derived part of its vigour 
 from the appeal which it makes to the sense of 
 the sublime and the beautiful, and in particular 
 has furnished, in the building of new churches, 
 a field in which the principles laid down by 
 Mr Ruskin have been brought to a successful 
 test. The mediaeval arts of painted glass, mosaic, 
 woodcarving, illumination, embroidery, have been 
 recalled to life, and have saved some men with 
 powers of design and execution from missing their 
 calling in less congenial work. At the same 
 time the labour market has been, to that extent, 
 relieved of competing hands. It is a cause of 
 deep regret that in England so few religious 
 bodies have realised their responsibilities in the 
 erection of places of worship, and that, outside 
 the influence of the Oxford Movement, there is 
 not one religious building in ten which is other 
 than a most lamentable exhibition of ignorance 
 and bad taste. Now, since as we have seen there 
 is a very close connection between the dignity 
 and the happiness of labour on the one side, and 
 its proper employment on the other (p. 174), no 
 one can say that the circumstance before us is 
 an unimportant one even from the standpoint of 
 spiritual religion. Spiritual religion, as we can- 
 not too often remind ourselves, does not in the 
 Christian view consist in a withdrawal from the 
 visible into the invisible, nor in a postponement 
 
210 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 of all interests to a future life ; it is rather the 
 interpenetration of common things by a sense of 
 the mystery which underlies them, and of the 
 purposes to which they should tend. And so 
 the mode in which material things are taken up 
 into the service of man, and especially into his 
 service when he is worshipping God, has a strange 
 correspondence with the assumption of the human 
 into the divine in the life of Jesus. Thus stone 
 and wood and metal are, as it were, lost to 
 themselves, and transmuted by a kind of alchemy 
 into something higher by the touch of the creative 
 artist, and this transmutation constitutes their 
 symbolism which I shall now attempt to describe. 
 
 But, we must note, there is another kind of 
 symbolism than that of material things. Not 
 only are the visible surroundings of human life 
 transformed by their reference to their true end, 
 but the sayings, actions, and events of life are 
 capable of a like transformation. There are thus 
 two distinct fields in which symbolism can be em- 
 ployed. There is the symbolism of visible things 
 in the work of the painter, sculptor, builder, and 
 other craftsmen ; and the symbolism of ideas and 
 actions as used by the poet, the teacher, the seer, 
 and the minister of religion. 
 
 But it may be asked, why should symbols be used 
 at all ? Why should not facts be stated with the 
 utmost clearness, and then left to themselves ? 
 
 In the first place, there are many truths which 
 are properly expressed through visible forms, and 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 211 
 
 can hardly be expressed in any other way. For 
 example, historical facts cannot be properly under- 
 stood without the aid of maps, of pictures, and 
 of portraits, either literal or representative. The 
 life of Jesus cannot be realised definitely merely 
 through the verbal descriptions contained in the 
 gospels. These must be supplemented by the 
 pictorial Geography of Palestine, and by repre- 
 sentations of oriental manners. When Carlyle 
 was writing his History of Frederick the Great, 
 he surrounded himself with pictures of the places 
 and the persons he was describing, in order that 
 through their means he might form the most 
 vivid idea possible. And so the personification 
 of the virtues in their beauty, or the vices in 
 their deformity, gives a support to those who 
 find it hard to present to themselves virtue and 
 vice in the abstract. 
 
 This illustration brings us to the second use of 
 symbols. Although they are necessarily partial 
 presentations of the truth, they affect the mind 
 more strongly than the bare abstract truth itself. 
 A rough picture is often better than none, and 
 the parable is better than the ethical definition. 
 Round the symbol with its appeal to the sense 
 there radiates a glow upon the associated ideas. 
 The memories of foreign travel come to life again 
 as we look upon and handle the photograph, or 
 the weapon, or the coin that we have brought 
 back with us. Those books which have been used 
 in the intimacy of the soul with itself, whether the 
 
212 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 book of devotional exercises in religion, or, in 
 poetry, the favourite garden of verses, are like 
 springs from which the familiar feeling flows. 
 
 From this effectiveness of the symbol there 
 springs a kind of hypnotising power which leads 
 both to use and abuse. On the one hand, it 
 turns familiar objects into fetishes, and so far as 
 the initiative of the conscience is destroyed, this 
 use of symbols passes into idolatry. But the 
 initiative of the conscience is not capable of being 
 thus weakened unless the character is affected in 
 other ways as well. And as we have seen, under 
 the" head of ecstasy, the leaders of revivals often 
 appeal to this very same susceptibility and lay 
 hold upon the soul through a kind of hypnotism. 1 
 In each case there is a falling back from the 
 method of Jesus to that of the nature religions. 
 And yet taken in itself the use of symbols is 
 unable to degrade the spiritual life in this way. 
 There are limits within which the physical excite- 
 ment of the religious meeting and the physical 
 effect of the material symbol can be made to 
 subserve spiritual ends, and just as certain forms 
 of religious mania which occur almost exclusively 
 among persons who are subject to Calvinist in- 
 fluences, 2 must not lead us to regard the moderate 
 use of religious excitement as worthy of con- 
 demnation, so, on the other hand, the use of 
 religious symbols as a means of exciting emotion 
 need not be surrendered because some people 
 
 1 P. 118. 2 Ribot, Psychology of the Emotions, 324. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 213 
 
 make fetishes of them. For me a spreading 
 landscape or a richly-coloured sunset excite emo- 
 tions not unlike those which I experience at 
 the theatre when the poet lights up the abysses 
 of the soul ; or — I speak simply of externals — 
 when the gorgeous ceremony of a festival of the 
 Church presents in like manner to the outward 
 sense the mode in which life can be raised from 
 its daily level to heights which in the daily life 
 we are for ever being made to forget. These 
 things are not the one thing necessary in religion. 
 But there are degrees and they have their place. 
 
 Not only therefore are symbols a permissible 
 mode of conveying the truth ; the symbolic 
 manner sometimes rises to the limits of the 
 sublime. There is only one thing more sublime, 
 and that is the full possession of the truth itself. 
 " Jesus," says Eusebius, " was adorned by the 
 Father, not with symbols, but with the truth 
 itself, and He gave to His followers no longer 
 types or images, but the virtues themselves 
 unadorned, and a heavenly life." x But Jesus, 
 in conveying these divine truths, made use of 
 parables and comparisons in such a way, that 
 those to whom He spoke were not infrequently 
 at a loss for His meaning. 2 And yet He never 
 dispensed with parables — a method which con- 
 veys a truth of a higher degree through a lower 
 truth or a simpler one. In fact, it may be 
 said that no teacher has ever been more sceptical 
 
 1 Hist. Eccl. i. 3. 2 Luke viii. 10. 
 
214 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 about the power of his hearers to enter at once 
 into the full possession of the truth than Jesus. 
 He employed the symbolic method, therefore, and 
 so He disciplined the soul by forcing it to realise 
 — not only the truth — but also the act of mind 
 by which the truth is apprehended, and without 
 which truth is only known from the outside as 
 something given, and not as something which we 
 can gain for ourselves. "God," says Tertullian, 
 in a phrase which calls to mind the figure of the 
 Father in the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, " God 
 stretches a hand to Faith, which can be more 
 easily helped by images and parables, both of 
 words and things." 1 There cannot be anything, 
 therefore, more harmonious with the temper of 
 Jesus than the symbolism which, as though the 
 parables had been crystallised, turned the great 
 cathedrals into sacred books. 
 
 Again there is not only a symbolism of the 
 word in which Jesus characteristically expressed 
 Himself: He used also a symbolism of action. 
 He taught humility by the washing of the feet of 
 the twelve. He broke bread in a characteristic 
 manner to which He gave, and the Church follow- 
 ing Him has ever given, the most sublime interpre- 
 tations ; as though the isolated act had in itself 
 something of the power to compel eternity, and 
 as though the repetition of that act " represents a 
 real transfer of power." 2 It would be possible in 
 this way to consider the reference of His conduct 
 1 De anima, 43. 2 Life oj Ji. W. Dale, 360. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 215 
 
 at the different crises of His life, so far as it has 
 been recorded, and to mark off the way in which 
 each act, as it were, reached beyond itself towards 
 some deeper meaning. And so the mere imitation 
 of the external circumstances of the life of Jesus 
 has ever been held to possess a certain spiritual 
 efficacy, as though His poverty and sufferings 
 had, in themselves, a certain meaning which ex- 
 tended beyond Himself. 
 
 He has not left us therefore merely with thought 
 separated from its visible and tangible embodi- 
 ment, nor with ethical precepts cut off from the 
 personality in which alone they gain meaning. 
 (An ethical precept without an example is like 
 a photograph of nobody in particular.) But the 
 thought and the precept are at once expressed 
 and realised. And so symbol consists in the 
 successive degrees in which thought and reality 
 come to coincide, till it ceases at the point of 
 their complete identification in Him. Abstract 
 thought lies on the under side of symbol. 
 
 Now the visionary for whom thought is rising 
 from the abstract into the world of figurate ex-_ 
 pression, is the creator of symbols. In order that 
 we may be enabled to understand the mode in 
 which the visionary experience leads to the use of 
 symbols, we will listen to Blake's own account of 
 the way in which he was inspired to write his 
 symbolic poems Jerusalem and Milton. 
 
 Blake was taken down from London into the 
 country to Felpham by a patron, Hayley, the 
 
216 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 friend of Cowper. There he lived for three years 
 by the seashore, and " enjoyed for a time a new 
 and ampler illumination." 
 
 " Felpham," he says, " is more spiritual. Heaven 
 opens here on all sides her golden gates, her Win- 
 dows are not obstructed by vapours ; voices of 
 celestial inhabitants are more distinctly heard, 
 and their forms more distinctly seen, and my 
 cottage is also a shadow of their houses." As 
 he walked along the seashore he was haunted by 
 the forms of Moses and the prophets, of Homer 
 and Milton. They seemed to him to be " majestic 
 shadows, grey but luminous, and superior to the 
 common height of men." 1 These and other vague 
 personages seemed to communicate to him the 
 matter of his great poem. " I may praise it," he 
 says, " since I dare not pretend to be any other 
 than the secretary ; the authors are in Eternity. 
 This poem shall by Divine assistance be pro- 
 gressively printed and ornamented with prints and 
 given to the public. But of this work I care to 
 say little to Mr H, since he is as much averse to 
 my poetry as he is to a chapter in the Bible." 
 But the opposition of Hayley to the visionary 
 life was echoed in certain moods of Blake's own. 
 And he seemed to himself to be tempted at times 
 to turn his back on prophecy and to take advan- 
 tage of the openings which Hayley, with the best 
 intentions, kept offering to him. Blake might have 
 become a fashionable painter of miniatures, and in 
 1 Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist., 35, 71. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 217 
 
 this way have attained a competency. He pre- 
 ferred to break with the world and with Hayley. 
 To this decision we owe the splendid designs 
 which are found scattered through the Milton 
 and the Jerusalem. And it would be hazardous 
 to affirm that Blake's genius would have shone 
 forth so characteristically in the illustrations to 
 Blair's Grave and the book of Job, had he come 
 to any other decision. But it was not arrived at 
 without a struggle. " If we fear," says Blake, " to 
 do the dictates of our angels, and tremble at the 
 task set before us, if we refuse to do spiritual acts 
 because of natural fears or natural desires, who 
 can describe the torments of such a state ? " In 
 this time of doubt the spirits no longer conversed 
 with him. " They were angry at Felpham," he 
 used to say. But the state of torment came to an 
 end. " Though I have been very unhappy I am 
 so no longer. I have travelled through perils and 
 darkness not unlike a champion. I have conquered 
 and shall go on conquering. Nothing can with- 
 stand the fury of my course among the stars of 
 God and in the abysses of the accuser. None can 
 know the spiritual acts of my three years' slumber 
 on the banks of the ocean, unless he has seen 
 them in the spirit, or unless he has read my long 
 poem descriptive of these acts ; for I have in these 
 years composed an immense number of verses on 
 one grand theme similar to Homer's Iliad or Milton's 
 Paradise Lost ; the persons and machinery entirely 
 new to inhabitants of earth, some of the persons 
 
21 8 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 excepted. I have written this poem from imme- 
 diate dictation, twelve, or sometimes twenty or 
 thirty lines at a time without premeditation, and 
 even against my will. I mention this to show 
 you what I consider the grand reason of my being 
 brought down here. I consider it as the grandest 
 poem that the world contains. Allegory addressed 
 to the intellectual powers, while it is altogether 
 hidden from the corporeal understanding, is my 
 definition of the most sublime poetry." And the 
 allegory of this poem turns, we are told, in another 
 place upon " the three years' trouble " at Felpham. 
 
 The elaborate myths, figures, terminologies, 
 which are employed by Blake in these poems are 
 not to be regarded as his whole meaning. They 
 are the vehicle of his experiences, rather than the 
 experiences themselves. Hence there still remains 
 a task after the covering of symbolism is removed 
 from his thoughts. The thoughts themselves must 
 be placed in some sort of relation one to another. 
 
 For Blake, as for so many other mystics, the 
 human form is the leading symbol. On the one 
 hand, it represents the universe ; sun, moon, stars 
 and earth. There is a fine design at the end of 
 the first book of Jerusalem, in which the heavenly 
 bodies are represented upon the body of Albion — 
 a thought which is worked out in the Purple Island 
 of Phineas Fletcher. Hence we can understand 
 such verses as these : 
 
 The Blue 
 Of our immortal Veins and all their Hosts fled from our limbs 
 And wandered distant in a dismal night clouded and dark. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 219 
 
 " Man," says Swedenborg, " is a microcosm or 
 little universe, because the created universe is man 
 in an image." The head of man, according to 
 Blake, is the south, his feet the north, his heart is 
 the east, and his loins the west. Or again, his 
 head is the sun, his heart the moon, his feet the 
 earth, and his loins the stars. Such comparisons 
 are frequent throughout the mystic writings of all 
 ages. 
 
 But this outward universe is a delusion. Blake 
 is persuaded that "distance is but a phantasy." 
 Our life in the external world is but a sleep in 
 Ulro. Hence the appearances of the things in 
 the world are unmeaning apart from their symbolic 
 interpretations. It is Blake's task, therefore, to 
 open the immortal Eyes of Man inwards into the 
 Worlds of thought. We have seen how the human 
 form corresponds to the world without ; let us now 
 trace its correspondence with the world within. 
 Plato had placed the reason in the head, the 
 courageous temper in the heart, desire below the 
 heart. In a somewhat similar fashion Blake 
 denotes the imagination by the head, the emo- 
 tions by the heart, desire by the loins, and the 
 life of sense perception by the feet. Here we 
 have the four Eternal senses, or Zoas, to use 
 Blake's term. Single vision is the Zoa, Urthona, 
 who is in the north, that is, in the feet. Tharmas 
 represents the twofold vision. The threefold vision, 
 who, as one of the Zoas, is called Luvah, answers 
 to the heart. The fourfold vision, who, as one of 
 
220 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the Zoas, is called Urizen, answers to the head. 
 Again the Zoas correspond with the sense organs ; 
 Urizen with the eyes, Luvah with the nostrils, 
 Tharmas with the tongue, Urthona with the ear. 
 
 Answering to the four Zoas — the four eternal 
 senses — are the four spaces. Urizen should be in 
 Eden, the Portals of the brain where The Eternal 
 Great Humanity Divine planted his Paradise ; 
 Luvah is threefold in soft Beulah's night ; Tharmas 
 is the Parent power darkening in the west; Urthona 
 is in the sleep of Ulro. All these complicated 
 statements with which, I fear, the reader is be- 
 coming confused, may be expressed in a table 
 very simply : — 
 
 Universe. 
 
 Man. 
 Head 
 
 
 Mind. 
 
 
 S Sun 
 
 Imagination 
 
 Urizen 
 
 Eden 
 
 E Moon 
 
 Heart 
 
 Emotion 
 
 Luvah 
 
 Beulah 
 
 W Stars- 
 
 -sea Loins 
 
 Desire 
 
 Tharmas 
 
 Generation 
 
 N Earth 
 
 Feet 
 
 Sense-perception Urthona 
 
 Ulro 
 
 The reader who bears this table in mind will find 
 that he has a sufficient key to Blake's meaning 
 to enable him to enter upon the study of the 
 prophetic books. Those who compare this table 
 with the tables given by the editors of Blake, 
 will observe that it differs somewhat from their 
 interpretation. The four Zoas are not placed on 
 the same level as by them, but are arranged 'in 
 an hierarchy according to the four eternal senses 
 which they represent In the next place, it 
 makes for clearness if we remember that in 
 Jerusalem the main interest is within the mind, 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 221 
 
 and that the human form and the outward uni- 
 verse are always spoken of as symbols. 
 
 I have dwelt upon the symbolism of Blake at 
 what some readers may think a disproportionate 
 length, because he exhibits in an exaggerated, 
 and perhaps morbid manner, those workings of 
 the imagination which, in the case of others, have 
 furnished the visions of Ezekiel ; of the seer of 
 Patmos ; of Dante, in whom also as in Blake, 
 vision was allied in the closest manner with 
 symbol. It is to be noted that the example of 
 Blake suggests an explanation of what in the 
 Apocalypse, for instance, seems irrelevant. Blake, 
 regarding himself as the secretary of authors who 
 were in heaven, would not presume to alter what 
 he heard. So, too, we may suppose that the 
 author of the Apocalypse would be carried by his 
 vision into detail which was not entirely deter- 
 mined by his leading thoughts. Hence, too, in 
 Dante the poetry of The Divine Comedy over- 
 flows the limits set to it by the symbolic intention 
 of the poem. Unfortunately Blake thought him- 
 self lifted beyond criticism even by himself, and is 
 a standing disproof of Mr Ruskin's saying that the 
 imagination is infallible. In him prophetic utter- 
 ance is far more artless than in the case of the least 
 disciplined of the prophets of the Old Testament. 
 
 Symbolism furnishes the materials upon which 
 the visionary power may work. Blake, as it 
 were, converses with himself in a language which 
 he has partly received from tradition, partly con- 
 
222 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 structed for himself. The system of Swedenborg, 
 which Blake modifies and extends in so remark- 
 able a manner, is itself based upon a certain 
 heritage of comparisons and analogies, which, 
 although they are arbitrary and misleading when 
 we regard them as statements of fact, yet for all 
 that turn upon and express analogies of feeling. 
 In order that we may follow out this method far 
 enough to gain an idea of its use, we will take 
 the familiar analogy between the garden of Eden 
 and the human soul as yet innocent. Whatever 
 may be said about the one, may in a correspond- 
 ing sense be said about the other. The trees of 
 the garden are like the affections of man running 
 up into perceptions ; the beasts of the garden are 
 like the affections of man running up into impulses 
 and desires. 1 The four methods of prayer which 
 occupied us at the end of the last chapter are 
 illustrated by St Teresa through comparison with 
 the watering of a garden, and when it is re- 
 membered that water in the mystical writers 
 universally signifies truths, the saint's comparison 
 becomes more explicit still. So for Savonarola 
 the grasses and plants denote the intellect craving 
 for knowledge, and beasts denote fierce appetites. 2 
 We must distinguish carefully between this mode 
 of interpretation, the strictly symbolic one, in 
 which everything is referred to the life of the 
 soul, and those other interpretations by which 
 there is reference to the course of events, whether 
 
 1 Swedenborg, Apocalypse Revealed, 400, 567. 
 
 2 Life, by Villari, 1896 ed., n. to chapter vii. 
 
SYMBOL AND RITUAL 223 
 
 the Jewish nation, or the Christian Church mili- 
 tit and again triumphant. 1 From these latter 
 mdpoints symbolism passes into prediction. 
 
 In spite of the reaction against the extent to 
 lich the use of symbolism has been carried by 
 sdiaeval and mystical writers, 2 there can be no 
 lubt of its validity within certain limits. The 
 saning of an occurrence is not exhausted when 
 i physical relations have been enumerated. It 
 .s still to be related to the characters of the 
 ul and again to the whole course of human 
 story. And the symbolic method is in this 
 spect like tragedy, which presents things in a 
 ore universal and philosophical manner than 
 e annalist. Unless, therefore, poetry and re- 
 gion are to vanish from life, man will continue 
 
 penetrate below the surface of events to wrest 
 eir secret bearing upon his soul ; and we must 
 erefore agree with Newman when he says that 
 t may almost be laid down as an historical 
 ct that the mystical interpretation and ortho- 
 ixy will stand or fall together." 3 
 
 Hence, too, the use of symbolism as a means 
 ' which the poetic temper is communicated 
 en to those in whom there is the least of the 
 letic spirit. And so we can almost agree with 
 ake's definition of the most sublime poetry as 
 dlegory addressed to the intellectual powers 
 lile it is altogether hidden from the corporeal 
 
 1 Life, by Villari, 1896 ed., p. 118. 
 
 2 Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, c. iii. passim. 
 8 Essay on Development, 324. 
 
224 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 understanding." There is no doubt whatever 
 that to the average man of the day, whose read- 
 ing is confined to the newspaper and the finely- 
 chopped and hashed-up contents of the popular 
 magazine, all great poetry, music, fine art, and 
 religion, is as a sealed book. The proof of this 
 is that anything above mediocrity is scarcely 
 ever presented to him. For him the book of 
 life remains closed. In his firmament there are 
 no stars ; only the lamps in the streets and the 
 footlights of the music hall. And even these lose 
 their poetry (so cleverly revealed by the muse of 
 Arthur Symons) when he looks upon them. The 
 great majority of men move from the enchanted 
 garden of passion into the toilsome pilgrimage 
 of after-life, and find too late that they have 
 forgotten to bring with them the talisman of 
 romance, the talisman which in its myriad forms 
 is the safeguard i against ennui and dryness of 
 spirit. To those who have not yet lost all sensi- 
 tiveness of temper, in whom feeling is not yet 
 petrified, the seer, the artist, and the poet come, 
 and from their own abundant stores of invention, 
 make up what is lacking in others. But there 
 is a time beyond which such repentance is im- 
 possible. Prof. James says that the ideas which 
 a man gets before he is twenty-five have to serve 
 him throughout life. To those for whom the 
 fatal hour has tolled and tolled too soon, nothing 
 remains but to tread the earth for the rest of their 
 tale of years, phantoms in the guise of men. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 
 
 piration higher than symbolism — Ecstasy and prophecy — The 
 spiritualistic trance — Obsession by ideas — "Speaking with 
 tongues " — Vision and prophecy — Parable and thought — Feel- 
 ing and insight — Prophecy and prediction — Savonarola — His 
 visions and trances — Exegesis — Prophecies — As statesman — 
 Cromwell as prophet — Religious enthusiasm as opposed to 
 liberty and freethinking. 
 
 ^7E have vindicated the normal character of 
 i V certain kinds of vision, and also the 
 lidity of the symbolic method. Some of those 
 10 have come thus far, may have done so with 
 certain repugnance, as though it was dangerous 
 -and indeed it is — to leave even for a short 
 ne the solid ground of common experience. In 
 :t this temporary journey into the mysterious 
 ly becomes permissible when the soul is dona- 
 ted by ideas which flow from the central body 
 
 truth, or in other words, which contribute to 
 press that ideal which is drawing the world 
 
 itself. For it is to be remembered that the 
 :ellectual ideal is not yet fully expressed, any 
 )re than the moral ideal is yet fully realised. 
 le proportions of the different parts of the 
 lole system of truth do not reveal themselves 
 
2Z6 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 to the analytical method. And, therefore, just 
 as the preferences of certain minds lay down 
 canons of moral judgment to which the rest of 
 mankind feel more or less bound to conform, 
 so in the intellectual world certain souls reach 
 heights of insight from which everything is seen, 
 not under the more or less accidental and transi- 
 tory aspects of the actual, but, in Spinoza's phrase, 
 under the form of eternity. It is not essential 
 that these men should express themselves under 
 the forms of vision or of symbol, though there is 
 a certain propriety sometimes in the use of these 
 means. But such inspiration reaches its highest 
 forms in those who have risen above symbol and 
 parable to the direct communication of the truth. 
 Jesus is not only the master of the symbol and 
 the parable. He is also one who speaks fin the 
 most explicit manner possible. Take, for in- 
 stance, His saying : " God is a spirit, and they 
 that worship Him must worship Him in spirit 
 and in truth." There is no doubt of His mean- 
 ing when He sets out thus to make statements in 
 the ordinary forms of speech. It is only so far as 
 vision and symbol rise ultimately into this clear- 
 ness of utterance that prophecy really comes to its 
 own — the " forth-speaking " of that which is seen. 
 The ecstatic states, therefore, into which some 
 persons fall are so far from being the natural 
 accompaniments of prophecy, that in themselves 
 they tend to discredit the prophetic gift so far as 
 we understand by that gift the vision of things 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 227 
 
 der the form of eternity." At the same time 
 tualist mediums exhibit a prophetic gift of a 
 :r order. (It is not the fact of inspiration that 
 teresting, but what the prophet is inspired to 
 
 Some persons drivel by a kind of inspiration.) 
 innot do better than quote the description 
 n by Prof. James who has a right to be heard 
 vhat was in its origin an American product : 
 sdiumistic possession in all its grades seems to 
 1 a perfectly natural special type of alternate 
 onality, and the susceptibility to it in some 
 l is by no means an uncommon gift in persons 
 
 have no other obvious nervous anomaly. 
 
 phenomena are very intricate and are only 
 beginning to be studied in a proper scientific 
 The lowest phase of mediumship is auto- 
 ic writing, and the lowest grade of that is 
 re the Subject knows what words are coming 
 feels impelled to write them as if from without, 
 n comes writing unconsciously, even whilst 
 iged in reading or talk. Inspirational speak- 
 
 playing on musical instruments, etc., also 
 ng to the relatively lower phases of possession 
 diich the normal self is not excluded from 
 icipation in the performance though their 
 ative seems to come from elsewhere. In the 
 lest phase the trance is complete, the voice, 
 ;uage, and everything are changed, and there 
 3 after memory whatever until the next trance 
 es. One curious thing about trance utterance 
 leir generic similarity in different individuals. 
 
228 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 The ' control ' here in America is either a 
 grotesque, slangy, and flippant personage (Indian 
 ' controls ' calling the ladies ' squaws,' the men 
 ' braves,' the house a ' wigwam,' are excessively 
 common), or if he ventures on higher flights he 
 abounds in a curiously vague optimistic philo- 
 sophy-and-water, in which phrases about spirit, 
 harmony, beauty, law, progression, development, 
 etc., keep recurring. It seems exactly as if 
 one author composed more than half the trance 
 messages, no matter by whom they are uttered. 
 Whether all subconscious selves are peculiarly 
 susceptible to a certain stratum of the Zeitgeist, 
 and get their inspiration from it, I know not, 
 but this is obviously the case with the secondary 
 selves which become developed in spiritualist 
 circles. There the beginnings of the medium 
 trance are indistinguishable from those of hypnotic 
 suggestion. The subject assumes the r61e of a 
 medium simply because opinion expects it of him 
 under the conditions which are present, and carries 
 it out with a feebleness or vivacity. proportionate 
 to his histrionic gifts." 1 
 
 Now on this description I wish to offer a few 
 remarks. First, it seems to me that the alterna- 
 tion of personality is a phrase which goes beyond 
 the minimum amount of hypothesis which, by 
 the principle of Parsimony, we ought to employ. 
 If we assume that the subject is susceptible to 
 hypnotic suggestion, the cases seem to consist in 
 1 Textbook of Psychology, 213, 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 229 
 
 the obsession by groups of ideas which, as the 
 " control " develops, are increased and organised, 
 and so in reality constitute the " control." In the 
 second place, the excitement of the subject is due 
 in part to the presence of an expectant company 
 who crowd together to gaze on the symptoms 
 which their own presence causes, like the loafers 
 who gather round anyone who is taken ill in the 
 street, and, through the contagion of their presence, 
 increase his discomfort by shutting off the fresh 
 air. That the group of ideas which obsess 
 spiritualist mediums exhibit so much internal 
 stability and again so much family likeness, 
 points to two explanations : first, that such 
 organised groups of ideas seem to have a kind 
 of dependent existence, like parasitic growth upon 
 trees ; and in the next place, that they seem to 
 derive from some common source or sources. For 
 how anyone could be said to have an alternate 
 personality is far from clear. I therefore prefer 
 to suppose the personality to remain, but to be 
 the subject of such obsession. The other cir- 
 cumstance suggests painfully that the oversoul 
 may under some circumstances be not so much 
 irrational as derationalised, if I may coin such a 
 word. But there is an escape from a thought 
 which is both alarming and also a contradiction 
 of the order of the universe. No one who follows 
 carefully the procedure of the medium can escape 
 the suggestion that he is really inducing a disease 
 upon himself. He overlays the life of the soul 
 
230 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 with an experience which begins in hypnotic 
 suggestion and is then cultivated by repetition. 
 Hence he exhibits under a morbid form the 
 action of the time-spirit which in more sane 
 minds exerts the beneficent influences described 
 by Wordsworth. 1 There were similar traces of 
 this the lowest form of inspiration in the primitive 
 church. Hence the excitement which, at Pente- 
 cost, accompanied that dawning presence of the 
 Holy Spirit by which the Christian society was 
 fused into the Church, had for its quite natural 
 accompaniments those circumstances which St 
 Luke, writing in the spirit of his age, sets in 
 what is perhaps an undue prominence. It is 
 strange that even the words of St Paul have not 
 availed to put the ravings of trance at their proper 
 value over against genuine prophecy. When he 
 is dealing with the outburst of trance-utterances at 
 Corinth, he says, " I had rather speak five words in 
 the church with my reason than ten thousand words 
 in a strange tongue." Prophecy, he affirms, con- 
 sists not in speaking mysteries but " in building 
 up the soul in comfort and consolation." 2 
 
 We have seen that there are certain offices 
 which are performed for thought by the pictorial 
 imagination. 3 But unless this is controlled and 
 guided by clearly apprehended truths, it fails to 
 pass into the region of genuine prophetic utterance. 
 It neither builds up nor consoles nor comforts. 
 The greatest prophets have not always seen the 
 1 P. 192, supra. 2 1 Cor. xiv. * P. 211, supra. 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 23 1 
 
 most visions. Moses was distinguished from his 
 contemporaries by the fact that God spoke to him 
 neither in dark speeches nor in vision nor in dream, 
 but mouth to mouth openly. Isaiah has but one 
 great vision which indeed seems rather a poetic 
 creation than anything presented to the senses. 1 
 
 Robertson Smith tries to point out the true 
 nature of prophecy in a compact statement. " As 
 a rule, the supreme thought which fills the prophet's 
 soul, and which comes to him not as the result of 
 argument but as a direct intuition of divine truth, 
 an immediate revelation of Jehovah, is developed 
 by the ordinary processes of the intellect." 2 Yet 
 a contradiction lies on the surface of this state- 
 ment. We cannot separate the development of 
 the thought from the thought itself. And a 
 thought which is of another kind than the familiar 
 products of mind cannot therefore be developed 
 by the " ordinary " processes of the intellect. The 
 intuitive apprehension of the truth is precisely 
 opposed to the slow method of the discursive 
 reason which builds up its knowledge by a suc- 
 cession of percepts. The description by Mill of 
 the difference between his own mind and Carlyle's, 
 will again illustrate this point. 3 Let us say then 
 that the prophet unfolds the meaning of his 
 intuition in a mode which is more or less appro- 
 priate to it. Often, however, he is unequal to 
 this task. Language breaks down under the 
 
 1 Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel, 220. 
 
 2 lb., 221. s P. 27, supra. 
 
232 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 stress that he puts upon it, and he is forced to 
 convey his thought through symbols, in visions, 
 and parable. Or it may even be that he is un- 
 equal to the task of expression that his intuition 
 imposes upon him, and, like Plato, he takes refuge 
 in figurate presentations and in myths. 
 
 It is obviously impossible, then, to describe the 
 way in which a prophet comes to his intuition of 
 divine truth, in a universal formula. For the truth 
 cannot be completely separated from the mode of 
 its apprehension, and each soul is isolated from other 
 souls in a life which for the most part is unique. 
 
 Although, however, we cannot give an adequate 
 account of prophetic insight, we can take note 
 of one or two of its circumstances. There is a 
 mysterious tie between justness of feeling and 
 balance of apprehension. Wisdom is knowledge 
 guided by right feeling. 1 And, therefore, " the 
 prophetic insight into Jehovah's purpose is the 
 insight of spiritual sympathy." 2 Now, we cannot 
 attribute the inspiration of which in some mys- 
 terious sense men seem to be the recipients and 
 not the originators altogether, to an external cause 
 without at the same time referring the feelings 
 which form the positive constituents of insight, 
 to the same quarter. No serious psychologist can 
 admit for a moment such an abstraction. And 
 yet, undoubtedly, it seems rather hard to see how 
 feeling can be communicated. Hard as it may 
 be, however, the difficulty is no greater than the 
 1 Stones from the Quarry, 27. 2 Prophets of Israel, 233. 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 233 
 
 communication of thought. Are we to speak of 
 the oversoul as having feeling? We are bound 
 to do so if we speak of it at all. If we suppose 
 the oversoul to be touched with feeling, we come 
 to the completely Christian notion of the Holy 
 Spirit. " Because we love before all the masters 
 of the ordinary reason, Kant, Spinoza, Schopen- 
 hauer," says Maeterlinck, "that is not a motive 
 for repulsing the masters of a different reason 
 which is a fraternal reason, and which will perhaps 
 be our future reason." 1 In this way by con- 
 sidering the case of the individual prophet, we 
 have reached the same conclusions as those which 
 offered themselves when we considered the presence 
 of the spirit in the Christian community. 2 
 
 The common idea of prophecy is that it is 
 equivalent with prediction. Of course, prediction 
 separated from that intuition of truth which consti- 
 tutes the credential of the prophet, can never be 
 more than a happy hit ; or, at least, there are no well 
 certified instances which lead to a contrary opinion. 
 The prophet declares the tendency of things in 
 the light of his knowledge of their nature, but he 
 does not, as a rule, know with certainty whether 
 these tendencies will be counterbalanced by other 
 tendencies or not. Hence it is a mistake to think 
 of prophecy as a mere anticipation of the almanac. 
 Time, upon which prediction turns, is not ordin- 
 arily of the essence of the truth. Jesus Himself 
 does not seem to have prophesied His own tragic 
 
 1 Trisor des Humbles, 162. 2 Pp. 62 ff., supra. 
 
234 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 death as something which in itself was bound to 
 occur, but as the necessary result of His mission 
 under the state of things then existing. 
 
 In order to understand the nature of prophecy 
 we will take the case of a man who, in his single 
 person, exhibited nearly all the marks which attach 
 to the successive degrees of prophecy, Savonarola. 
 He will exhibit, too, the workings of a truly in- 
 spired soul amid surroundings more like those of 
 modern times, and of one who, like Blake, gave 
 the rein to his visionary and imaginative powers. 
 
 As soon as Savonarola put on the cowl of a 
 Dominican, he was often observed by his brother 
 monks to be in a state of trance. When at a later 
 time he is journeying to Florence, a mysterious 
 stranger appears to him when he is wearied, and 
 conducts him to his destination. 1 Three years 
 after this " two visions were shown to him which 
 he was forced to accept as revelations from heaven." 
 
 The night before his last advent sermon he 
 beheld in the middle of the sky a hand bearing 
 a sword, upon which these words were inscribed : 
 " Gladius Domini super terram cito et velociter." ' 2 
 He heard many clear and distinct voices promising 
 mercy to the good, threatening chastisement to 
 the wicked, and proclaiming that the wrath of 
 God was at hand. Then suddenly the sword was 
 turned to the earth ; the sky darkened ; swords, 
 arrows, and flames rained down ; terrible thunder- 
 
 1 Life, Villari, 89. 
 
 2 The Sword of the Lord upon the earth soon and quickly. 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 235 
 
 claps were heard, and all the world was a prey 
 to war, famine, and pestilence. The vision ended 
 with a command to Savonarola to make these 
 things known to his hearers. A second vision 
 appeared to him when he was preaching in San 
 Lorenzo on Good Friday. He saw another vision 
 in which a black cross rose from the city of Rome, 
 and reaching the heavens stretched its arms over 
 the whole earth. Upon the cross was written, 
 Crux Irae Dei?- The sky was densely black, 
 lightning flashed, thunder pealed, there came a 
 storm of wind and hail. From the centre of 
 Jerusalem rose a golden cross, shedding its rays 
 over the whole world, and upon this was written, 
 Crux Misericordiae Dei? and all the nations flocked 
 to adore it." Savonarola was so convinced of the, 
 authority of these and similar visions that he 
 based his preaching on them, setting them along- 
 side of " reason and the Bible." 3 
 
 Savonarola's imagination was further stimulated 
 by the uncontrolled method of his interpretation 
 of Scripture. In addition to the literal sense, 
 he interpreted also by reference to the spirit, to 
 morality, to the history of the Jewish and of the 
 Christian Church, and also by reference to the 
 Church triumphant. " In this manner Savonarola 
 found confirmation in the Bible for every thought, 
 inspiration, and prophecy, that he imagined, and 
 for all he beheld." 4 His imagination which thus 
 
 1 The Cross of the Wrath of God. 
 
 2 The Cross of the Mercy of God. 
 
 3 Life, Villari, 154/. 4 lb., 119- 
 
236 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 played round the literal sense of biblical state- 
 ments, would find sufficient scope for nearly all its 
 flights without leaving the limits laid down by 
 orthodoxy. And so, instead of finding in the 
 language of the Bible a check upon his visionary 
 impulses, he was impelled further in the same 
 direction. 
 
 There is a curious piece of self-revelation in 
 which Savonarola shows that his visions are to 
 be distinguished from mere hallucinations, and 
 partake rather of the nature of visualised thoughts. 
 Speaking of some of his more extravagant visions 
 which had been sharply criticised, he says : " I did 
 not intend to say that my mortal body had been 
 in paradise, but only that I had seen it in mental 
 vision. Assuredly in paradise there be neither 
 trees nor waters, nor stairs nor doors, nor chairs ; 
 therefore, but for their ill-will, these men might 
 easily have understood that all these scenes were 
 formed in my mind by angelic intervention!' 
 There is a family likeness between these ex- 
 periences of Savonarola and the visions of 
 Blake, and we can compare with this utterance 
 of Savonarola a precisely similar one which 
 Blake made (p. 2 1 7). In both men the visionary 
 is partly the master, partly the servant of what 
 he sees. But we now come to this remarkable 
 fact ; that the thoughts which in this way derived 
 partly from the Florentine's own initiative, partly 
 from an external source — whatever that source 
 may have been, whether it was rooted in past 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 237 
 
 experience, or derived from an ideal which 
 operated as something given — guided him to 
 forecast the future of Italy in a most marvellous 
 manner. He not only had the prophetic insight 
 by which he could read the signs of the times ; 
 he was also endowed with a foresight through 
 which he read the future in a manner for which 
 the commonplace considerations of psychology 
 fail to account, and we are forced to take refuge 
 in terms like " inspiration," or " the influence of 
 the oversoul," phrases which do not so much solve 
 a problem as set it before us to be solved. 
 
 It is perhaps impossible to account for a gift of 
 this kind, any more than for other endowments of 
 a genius. But we can at least note in Savonarola 
 some circumstances which afforded to such a gift 
 free exercise. He was steeped in the Summa of 
 St Thomas Aquinas, through which the tradition 
 of classical philosophy and the austere passion of 
 the Scriptures were focussed upon him. He had 
 no interests outside his vocation ; and his vocation, 
 in form at least, was that of seeking the best 
 things. The simplicity of his mode of life, which 
 is symbolised for the traveller to Florence in that 
 cell at St Mark's, saved him from the social futili- 
 ties in which the lowest sets the measure for the 
 highest. But neither his studies nor his vocation 
 nor his ascetic temper withdrew him from affairs 
 and the beauty of the world. He " opened schools 
 for the study of painting, sculpture and architec- 
 ture, and for the art of transcribing and illuminat- 
 
238 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 ing manuscripts." a Yet his powers best displayed 
 themselves in public affairs. He not only devised 
 a constitution for his city which commended itself 
 as the best possible one to the greatest thinkers 
 of his time ; he also induced his countrymen to put 
 it into practice. His isolated predictions fall into 
 the background as we set before our eyes the 
 magnificence of this, the greatest achievement of 
 Savonarola. The reformer makes credible the 
 gifts of the prophet. His mind like an ^Eolian harp 
 hung amid the trees of his own Florence, returned 
 answering echoes to the breath of the Spirit. 
 
 At the beginning of this series of studies I 
 ventured to hope that in the light of the re- 
 ligious experience studied upon its concrete and 
 actual side, we should understand somewhat 
 better the workings of the minds, which under 
 a too narrow view, had been set down as dis- 
 eased. After we have seen in Savonarola a 
 combination of the visionary and the states- 
 man, we shall be able to approach the character 
 of Cromwell with the sympathy which is neces- 
 sary to understand it. I do not mean by sympathy 
 that we are to take a partisan view of the great 
 Protector, but that we are to see in him that 
 mixture of gold and dross which in its varying 
 degrees forms the good man and the bad man 
 alike. " In the worst men there is something of 
 good, and the best are not without a tinge of 
 depravity." 2 Dean Church, when he is review- 
 1 Life, by Villari, 165. 2 Tertullian, de anima, 41. 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 239 
 
 ing Carlyle's Life of Cromwell, takes offence at the 
 scriptural colouring of Cromwell's vocabulary, and 
 is on the verge of stigmatising it as cant. 1 The 
 fact of the matter seems to be that the Old Testa- 
 ment furnished to Cromwell and his supporters (as 
 it has done to Kruger and the Boers), a philosophy 
 of history and politics which was at once simple 
 and figurate, while his opponents were conversant 
 with the abstract ideas of the schoolmen and their 
 complex casuistry. Whenever a man's life gets out 
 of gear with his professions he uses cant, and Crom- 
 well's friends had no monopoly of it. The Puritan 
 conscience was like other consciences ; it became 
 stretched in the wear and tear of political conflicts. 
 
 Cromwell deserves the name of prophet for 
 a twofold reason. His philosophy of life drawn 
 from the Old Testament — crude and partial and 
 inflexible as it was — was a truer exponent of the 
 English spirit than the statecraft and manage- 
 ment which grew up round the court of the 
 Stuarts. In the second place, he gave a lead 
 to a powerful class hitherto silent and unacknow- 
 ledged, and so unsealed a fountain of energy which 
 little by little began to pulse through the nation's 
 veins, until the national youth was renewed. 
 
 In studying the careers of the Florentine and 
 the English reformers, we are met by one or two 
 striking points of agreement. Firstly, the ambi- 
 tion for a cause tends to pass into a personal 
 ambition, and the slight passed upon the man 
 1 Occasional Papers, i. 25. 
 
240 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 gains the aspect of a wrong done to his principles. 
 George Eliot in Romola has suggested the lines 
 along which even Savonarola moved towards 
 arbitrary and tyrannical methods. Florence be- 
 came restive under a religious dictatorship. Eng- 
 land had to endure a religious dictatorship doubled 
 with a military one. No prophet has a monopoly 
 of the truth which he is called upon to declare, 
 and the temporary victory of a party is dearly pur- 
 chased at the price of freedom and honesty, neither 
 man nor party being necessary to the triumph 
 of truth. Hence there is no reason for regret that 
 the Protectorate of Cromwell formed but an epi- 
 sode in the political history of England. His ideas 
 were carried out with more caution and more 
 efficiency by the Whig statesmen of the next 
 century. Cromwell and his supporters were carried 
 away by religious enthusiasm, but they cared very 
 little for freedom of thought. This complement 
 of religious liberty had to wait for the less en- 
 thusiastic but wiser advocacy of men like Locke. 
 
 The religious partisan is often ready to sacrifice 
 the free personalities of his fellows so that his own 
 favourite type of the religious life may prevail ; 
 and, in seeking to attain this end, such men refuse 
 to the subjects of their handling the compliment 
 of sincere and candid utterance. Popular prejudice 
 has identified the Society of Jesus with these two 
 failings. As a matter of fact, St Ignatius simply 
 reduced to system the method by which religious 
 propaganda has for the most part moved. For 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 241 
 
 these two qualities are the usual accompaniments 
 of the enthusiasm which alone is able to move 
 the world ; and the spirit which has reached the 
 standpoint of complete toleration in matters of 
 thought, and of impartial pursuit of the truth, serves 
 no longer under the banner of partisan religion, 
 but has reached the standpoint of quietism, and 
 of the scientific method. Hence we must take 
 account of the limits which the religious spirit 
 imposes in these two directions. 
 
 Newman, therefore, in marking off his opposition 
 to Liberalism, draws attention to an intrinsic atti- 
 tude of the religious spirit. Since the thirties, the 
 principle of laissez faire has translated into politics 
 the doctrine of the unlimited freedom of the in- 
 dividual, and has disclosed its own imperfections. 
 Human beings, in the abstract, have no rights, 
 but only as members of an organised society ; 
 and the religious propaganda which attempts to 
 bring them into social relations of a special kind, 
 involves, therefore, a certain intrusion upon the 
 hitherto unlimited activities of the individual. 
 
 In the second place, religion, so far as it rests 
 upon preferences and judgments of value, em- 
 phasises certain aspects of truth, and so deserts 
 the neutral standpoint of science. Or to use 
 Schopenhauer's convenient distinction, the suffi- 
 cient reason sought by science is of one kind, that 
 of religion is of another kind. 
 
 How then are we to reconcile this opposition 
 of religion and freedom ? The religious spirit seems 
 
 Q 
 
242 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 to stand in an apparent hostility to that freedom 
 and love of truth upon which are laid the founda- 
 tions of modern civilisation. May we reconcile 
 the opposition in this way, namely, that religion 
 must attain its ends without sacrificing either the 
 personality of the individual, or doing violence to 
 truth ? Religion must exercise its compulsion by 
 means which leave unaffected the civil freedom of 
 the individual ; it must attract rather than impel. 
 In the second place, the preferences which it marks 
 off as its own are conditioned by the objective sys- 
 tem of truth, in which the scientific method moves. 
 Hence, further, it is clear that the specifically 
 religious spirit requires to be checked on the one 
 hand by the love of civil freedom, and on the other 
 by the scientific spirit. Apart from these checks 
 religion degenerates into a tyranny over both body 
 and mind. It would appear from this that the 
 more wholesome tone of religious life which charac- 
 terises Teutonic countries is not due to the form of 
 their religious life since it does not contain within 
 itself its own checks. For example, the republic 
 of Geneva, under the government of Calvin, was 
 despotic in the extreme. Yet it did its work in 
 spite of the offences which liberty suffered. Pro- 
 testantism, therefore, is not the cause of the free- 
 dom which we enjoy. Rather both Protestantism 
 and the civil life of Protestant nations are referable 
 to the peculiar genius of the nations which have 
 embraced Protestantism. Or to put the same 
 thing in another way, Protestantism translates into 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 243 
 
 the religious life those institutions which express 
 and guarantee the freedom of the individual in 
 civil life. Yet for all that it is not clear that the 
 religious life is capable of being entirely trans- 
 formed after this manner. The attempt is some- 
 times made to determine problems of taste on the 
 lines of universal suffrage, an attempt which always 
 fails. For in the fine arts it is the opinion of the 
 connoisseur that counts. In the same way it would 
 seem that in the more searching value-judgments 
 of the religious spirit, the principle of authority 
 has a wider scope than is always allowed in a free 
 state. Liberty runs into extremes and needs the 
 restraint of religion. 
 
 In the next place the religious temper is directed 
 to other ends than the scientific temper. The 
 former passes judgments of value ; the latter, 
 judgments of fact. The religious spirit, therefore, 
 is not affected, except incidentally, by changes in 
 the subject matter upon which it operates. At the 
 same time the scientific spirit has created for it- 
 self an immense and increasing field of knowledge 
 for which the religious spirit does not supply the 
 necessary instruments, and the limits are marked off 
 quite clearly to which the religious spirit is forced 
 to submit. The Protestant, until the last few 
 years, has attempted to shut his eyes to this fact 
 by a forced interpretation of the Scriptures. The 
 Roman Catholic has shelved the business of recon- 
 ciling the two methods by referring their differences 
 to an external authority. 
 
244 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 We are now in a position to understand more 
 clearly the nature of prophecy. It announces 
 estimates of the true worth of things which are 
 not yet clearly realised. Jesus began His preach- 
 ing by declaring the advent of whole classes of 
 men — the meek, the poor, the persecuted — to 
 consideration and power throughout the world, 
 just as Cromwell brought to view the worth of 
 the middle classes in England. He did not pre- 
 scribe one form of political constitution rather 
 than another ; and historically the Christian re- 
 ligion is reconcilable with many forms of polity. 
 For example, the conversion of India to Chris- 
 tianity, supposing it to be carried out, would not 
 necessarily fit the peoples of India for self-govern- 
 ment. And it is not certain that the Russian 
 Government is mistaken in its extreme suspicion 
 and hostility towards western ideas. The political 
 element in Protestant forms of Church government 
 makes the Protestant churches the allies of freedom 
 in free countries. It is an interesting problem to 
 enquire how far they are adapted to introduce the 
 Christian religion to savage or to subject races. The 
 missionary efforts of the present are not comparable 
 in success to the conversion of the Franks, the 
 Celts, the Teutons, the Slavs, by a church which 
 spoke with the accents of dogmatic authority 
 and offered a visible system of sacramental grace. 
 And, on the other hand, the religious life among 
 the Christianised negroes of North America falls 
 far short of the hopes that missionary enterprise 
 
PROPHECY AND INSPIRATION 245 
 
 suggests. Evangelical Protestantism speaks as man 
 to man, and assumes, therefore, that a great part 
 of its work has already been done for it. But 
 there are peoples who need tutelage, and cannot 
 walk alone. The constitution 1 of the Roman 
 Church, then, which is really the absolutism of 
 a government like that of Russia translated into 
 terms of religion, may be more suited to peoples 
 which have not yet passed beyond the absolute 
 form of government, and are still in the condition 
 of tutelage. For before conscience can be para- 
 mount in the individual life it must already be 
 realised in part in social institutions, and in most 
 cases finds an external form in the opinion of the 
 Christian society. It is questionable whether the 
 converts to Christianity among savage races can 
 enter upon the moral life without the support of 
 this opinion as interpreted for them by a recog- 
 nised and authoritative teacher. 
 
 What, then, is required for the conversion of 
 India or of Africa is not merely the presentation 
 of the Christian religion in the social and political 
 guise in which it is adapted to the most civilised 
 nations in the world, but the use of means which 
 answer to and express the character of those to 
 whom it is offered. Miss Kingsley has pointed 
 out the danger of treating the natives of Africa 
 from the standpoint of modern Europe. 
 
 1 I am not speaking now of dogma. 
 
 Note. — For the subject-matter of this chapter, see Vaughan, 
 Stones from the Quarry, Sermon V. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 
 
 Metaphor in religious definitions — Legal metaphor supplemented by 
 the mystics — Will, as natural process (i) — As more than natural 
 process (ii) — Individual will and will of society — Self-culture a 
 contradiction— Progress a social fact — Conversion and progress 
 — Evangelical idea too narrow — Imitation of enthusiasm by 
 spasmodic conversion — Sin inevitable — Detachment and soli- 
 tude — Use of asceticism — Scientific knowledge and theological 
 progress. 
 
 NEARLY all the language of religious defini- 
 tion and description consists of metaphors, 
 comparisons, thrown out at certain elusive and 
 sometimes inscrutable experiences. The relation 
 of the soul to God has been viewed mainly in 
 two ways. The one way is to compare Him with 
 light illumining an object. There are many 
 traces of this in the older Jewish literature ; and 
 when Jewish and Greek thought flowed together 
 in one stream, the famous figure in the Republic 
 of Plato, where the Idea of the Good is compared 
 with the sun in the visible world, reinforced the 
 language of the Jewish hymn-writers and seers. 
 The other way is to view the relation between 
 God and the soul through the analogies of the 
 law court. God is either the judge or the pro- 
 secutor or the plaintiff, and the soul is the 
 246 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 247 
 
 prisoner at the bar. It is to the legal bent of 
 the mind of St Paul that the forensic turn of so 
 much Christian theology is due, and thousands of 
 writers have occupied themselves in rabbinical dis- 
 quisitions upon justification without contributing 
 one new thought either to religion or to law. 
 The reason is not far to seek. The soul stands 
 over against God as a personality which is at the 
 same time dependent. And theologians have been 
 engaged on the impossible task of reducing all 
 the intimacies which grow out of this relation- 
 ship to a single type. The good citizen moves 
 through life in a well-ordered state without enter- 
 ing the precincts of the law court, at any rate as a 
 criminal. And theologians have treated the whole 
 human race as if it were simply criminal, and 
 nothing more. The same genius for law which 
 built up the Roman code threw itself upon the 
 analogous aspect of the religious life. It is worthy 
 of notice that " the doctrines of reconciliation and 
 justification are precisely those which have found 
 their development exclusively in (the western) por- 
 tion of the Church," 1 that is to say, in that part 
 where Roman, as opposed to Greek, influences 
 have prevailed. Again, it is precisely upon these 
 doctrines that the first distinctly Protestant theo- 
 logy was directed. Even the kingdom of God 
 becomes in the theology of Calvin a huge system 
 of arbitrary police, of which the government of 
 Geneva offered the earthly type. 
 
 1 Ritschl, History of Justification and Reconciliation, 21. 
 
248 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Compare with this monotonous harping on one 
 string the celestial harmony of the parables of 
 Jesus, in which mankind is figured as the husband- 
 man in a field ; the returning prodigal ; the house- 
 wife looking for the lost coin ; the seeker after 
 hidden treasure ; the petitioner of an unjust judge ; 
 while the more gloomy comparisons seem to have 
 been directed not so much against the whole 
 world as against the nation that rejected Him. 
 
 Mystical writers, by their comparisons, have sup- 
 plemented and enriched the arid method of more 
 formal theologians, and Ritschl fails to do them 
 justice when he says that " the so-called mystical 
 form of religious ideas is wont to rest upon the 
 reduction of relations which pertain to the will, 
 to the forms of a natural process." 1 The Song of 
 Songs, with its glowing human passion, does not 
 fall under Ritschl's condemnation, and it has been 
 largely used by the mystics in their descriptions. 
 God is portrayed by them under the form of a 
 lover as worthily as under the form of a barrister 
 at the criminal bar. And then as to the rest of 
 Ritschl's statement, there is a twofold aspect of 
 the will which requires to be brought out by two 
 corresponding modes of expression. While the 
 relations which pertain to the will must be capable 
 of reduction to the forms of a natural process, 
 this does not exhaust the meaning of " will." On 
 the one side, the will is conditioned by, or rather 
 enters into, a chain of cause and effect, and is thus 
 1 Ritschl, History of Justification and Reconciliation, 8. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 249 
 
 comparable in its changes to natural processes, 
 although at the same time it is itself a unique 
 natural process. On the other hand, it is a 
 natural process which is conscious of itself and 
 so seems to rise beyond the natural order. 
 Hence we may say that so far as the will is 
 determined it may be illustrated by analogies 
 from nature ; so far as it is self-conscious or " free," 
 it discloses itself in moral relations of which the 
 legal relation is a somewhat unimportant type. 
 
 We have already traced some of the experi- 
 ences of the soul on the side of the aspiration 
 towards God : we shall now consider the love of 
 the soul towards God as it translates itself into 
 specific modes of life ; and in so doing we shall 
 try to keep in view the double aspect of this 
 aspiration, as comparable to a natural process on 
 the one hand, and as self-initiated on the other. 
 
 But the will in this twofold aspect is realised 
 in the Christian society of which it is not the 
 originator but the offspring. The Christian 
 Church like the State is not to be regarded as 
 the mere sum of individuals, but as the organism 
 of which the individual is a member ; and in the 
 Christian life no less than in the life of the State, 
 we must take account of the factor through which 
 the individual is no longer isolated but taken up 
 into something higher. 1* his factor reveals itself 
 as a common ideal to which the society tends, 
 an ideal not so much possessing reality as claim- 
 ing it, and subduing the society to itself. But in 
 
2SO THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the realm of the spirit this claim to existence is 
 as good as existence. Or, in other words, it is 
 only so far as the individual lays hold upon and 
 realises this common ideal, that he can be said 
 to exist in the moral world at all. Hence, in 
 coming to itself, individuality is transcended by 
 something higher. The scientific man loses him- 
 self in acquiring the objective temper of science ; 
 the artist in realising an ideal beauty ; the 
 Christian in realising the kingdom of heaven. 
 
 In this ideal, man and God come together. 
 We may speak either of the movement of this 
 ideal towards man, as a light that breaks in upon 
 him, or of his movement towards it, as though 
 he were drawn by it. Some readers may take 
 alarm at what they may consider statements with- 
 out foundation. Yet, however we express ourselves 
 now, we can rest upon certain facts ; that there is 
 an ideal ; that it is appropriated by the soul ; 
 that as so appropriated it seems to constitute the 
 true being of the soul ; that it does not arise in 
 the soul left to itself and apart from the company 
 of other human beings ; that therefore it is super- 
 induced upon the soul. 
 
 The notion of self-culture lays an unreal stress 
 upon the individual, as though in his solitary 
 discipline he were already at hand in the fulness 
 of his being, and could come to complete satis- 
 faction within the limits of his own nature. In 
 the light of history this notion of self-culture does 
 not satisfy. Culture itself is a social product, 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 251 
 
 and self-culture, therefore, is a contradiction. As 
 soon as we realise this inadequacy of the soul to 
 account for itself from within, we are thrown 
 upon the notion of Another towards Whom we 
 move, and Who draws us. We need not scruple 
 when we talk of the Ideal about using terms 
 which refer to persons. In the natural world we 
 are concerned with things ; in the world of spirit 
 things do not count except in their relation to 
 persons. Hence it would be inaccurate to speak 
 of an ideal as a thing at all, unless, indeed, we 
 dwell upon a part of it isolated from the rest. 
 
 Spiritual progress, therefore, is not like a series 
 of states developing themselves entirely from 
 within. It consists rather in going beyond one's 
 first self and so finding one's ultimate self. This 
 last phrase of going beyond one's self is to be 
 taken in a plain and not in a paradoxical sense. 
 The interaction of individual beings in a realm 
 of persons involves a transcending of self which 
 is at the same time an affirmation of self in the 
 highest form possible. 
 
 Now this self-transcending can take place only 
 in relation to other persons. Hence it is a false 
 show of self-sacrifice when it is performed in 
 partial or complete isolation, as in the cloister or 
 the hermitage. Hence further the importance of 
 humanitarian love in the religious scheme, such 
 love being, as it were, the condition by which 
 alone the spiritual life, in its true sense, is 
 made possible. Let me use an illustration from 
 
252 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 physiology. The office of the blood, it is said, 
 is to furnish a special environment for all the 
 constituent organs of the body, an environment 
 in which they live and from which they draw 
 their nourishment. In the same way humanitarian 
 love may be said to be the life-stream in which 
 the Christian virtues flourish. Now under some 
 conditions the cloister, and even the cell, have 
 been the only places where the Christian ideal 
 could be pursued, inasmuch as the world still " lay 
 in the wicked one." But obviously the growth 
 of the Christian character is much more rounded 
 and complete when it takes place in the fulness 
 of social life than when it is forced in the atmo- 
 sphere of an exclusive community. 
 
 We can now draw an important inference about 
 conversion. It is surely clear from the general 
 course of our discussion that in a Christian country, 
 under ordinary circumstances, there can be marked 
 off no such absolute beginning of the religious 
 life as is ordinarily understood in conversion. In 
 conversion the spiritual impulse becomes conscious 
 of itself in a special degree, but it must be there 
 before it can become conscious of itself. Hence 
 conversion is rather to be viewed as marking a 
 stage in a progress which has already been begun, 
 and not as the absolute beginning. 
 
 Further, the fundamental importance of love as 
 a spiritual motive has caused it to be viewed as 
 equal to the whole of the spiritual life, as though 
 a mere aspiration towards God exhausted the 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 253 
 
 whole range of possibility in this sphere. Hence 
 the extravagant language which the leaders of some 
 religious revivals have indulged in, as though there 
 was nothing more to be sought in the spiritual 
 life beyond a bare aspiration. But unless the 
 aspiration of the soul towards God is translated 
 into its different forms and effects, it tends to 
 die away into a mechanical and barren turn of 
 mind. This seems to be the weak point in the 
 current Evangelical view of the Christian life, and 
 has been pointed out with great emphasis by 
 Dr Dale. 1 When once the individual has made 
 public profession of the aspiration towards God 
 in the act of conversion, he is encouraged to 
 induce as many others as possible to the same 
 act, and is at once caught up into a social 
 machinery directed towards this one purpose. 
 From this somewhat narrow view of the divine 
 nature and the divine purpose, there follow the 
 intellectual barrenness which distinguishes so 
 strangely the Evangelical movement. It has 
 contributed little or nothing to theology, nothing 
 to the science of ethics, 2 and has stood aloof 
 from and discouraged science, poetry, philosophy, 
 and the fine arts. The answer is sometimes 
 made that the method has succeeded. So also 
 has the society of Jesus, which unites to a like 
 mediocrity of standard, a patronage of culture 
 even more fatal to its object than the traditional 
 opposition of some religious schools. To identify 
 1 Life, 349. 2 lb., 34»- 
 
254 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the glory of God with a single aim, laudable in 
 itself as it may be, whether it be the prosperity of 
 a religious order or the universal prevalence of one 
 temper of mind, is to deny part of the divine 
 nature and to be a partial atheist. 
 
 For God is interpreted through our apprehen- 
 sion of Him, and our knowledge is limited by 
 our capacity to receive Him. " Simple people," 
 says Eckhart, " conceive that we are to see God 
 as if He stood on that side and we on this. It 
 is not so : God and I are one in the act of my 
 perceiving Him." 1 
 
 The passion of religious enthusiasm, never- 
 theless, is the main factor in religious progress. 
 " Enthusiasm may do much harm and act at 
 times absurdly, but calculation never made a 
 hero." 2 Now there is a curious imitation of this 
 enthusiasm to which reference has already been 
 made, namely, the impulses which suggestion 
 creates in weak minds by a kind of hypnotism ; 3 
 and although this is a beneficent contrivance by 
 which weakness takes refuge under the shadow 
 of the Cross, it is not here that we are to look 
 for the genuine exhibition of religious passion. 
 Not only so, the facility with which as we are told 
 conversion may be effected in five minutes, makes 
 the successful missioner somewhat inclined to 
 assimilate sounder but more recalcitrant material 
 to the same process. It is by a very natural 
 
 1 Quoted by Taulcr, Life and Sermons, E. trans., 80. 
 
 2 Newman, Essay on Development, 329. 3 P. 118, supra. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 255 
 
 reaction against such valetudinarianism that 
 healthy natures have shrunk from the religious 
 profession altogether. Some of the most manly- 
 spirits have preferred to keep locked up in their 
 own breast the affection which the person of 
 Jesus inevitably inspires, rather than to give a 
 handle for the intrusion of religious busybodies 
 upon what is infinitely sacred. 
 
 But in a richly endowed emotional nature the 
 waking of the religious spirit to self-consciousness 
 is quite unlike the caricature which springs up in 
 the revival meeting, and rather resembles the un- 
 sealing of the fountains of the deep. Along with 
 the new affection there comes " a new strength 
 and might in all powers outward and inward." x 
 And the feelings which urge on to new fields of 
 action also direct towards new fields of truth. 
 Such pure fires of love kindle an explosion of 
 light. To be freed from the blinding effects of 
 a sordid self-interest in its various kinds, leaves 
 the glance of the spirit clear for a wider outlook. 
 
 Yet no finality can be attained even through 
 the deepest love. The soul is never dispensed 
 from the effort which each new situation and the 
 corresponding duty impose upon it. But it is 
 impossible to be quite certain always what one's 
 duty is, and we are not always sincere with our- 
 selves in determining it. Hence it may be laid 
 down as an axiom of the spiritual life that the 
 conduct even of the best men is tinged with sin. 
 1 Tauler, op. tit., 46. 
 
256 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 (I say of the spiritual life, because the conditions 
 of outward conduct imposed, first by positive law 
 and then by social custom, are relatively easy to 
 fulfil by the person of a truly good intention.) 
 Here, after all, is the partial justification of the 
 forensic view of the attitude of God to man. Man 
 is for ever condemned and drawn forward by his 
 ideals. Hence, too, the Christian Church can 
 never claim to be perfect over against a sinful 
 world. Hence, again, the intentions must be 
 submitted to the most searching scrutiny if we 
 are to avoid self-deception. And yet — so difficult 
 is right conduct — it is dangerous to carry this 
 scrutiny further than the larger issues of life, or 
 else action is paralysed altogether. 
 
 But such refinements as these are not for most 
 men. The schooling of self to obey the plain law 
 of conduct is enough to task and to exhaust all 
 their energies. In their despair of attaining self- 
 mastery even amid the usual surroundings of life, 
 men have fled to special means, to self-torture and 
 solitude, that they might win this indispensable 
 victory. 
 
 It is to be borne in mind that the populations 
 among whom the Christian religion first spread, 
 were like the neighbouring Semitic nations which 
 " know no mean between asceticism and un- 
 restrained self-indulgence." 1 And although the 
 more northern nations are also, on the whole, 
 more temperate, this is only partially true. It 
 1 Smith, Prophets of Israel, 91. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 257 
 
 may be said of the working classes in England 
 to-day that in great part " they know no mean 
 between asceticism and unrestrained self-indul- 
 gence " so far as intoxicants are concerned. The 
 teetotal movement, therefore, is analogous in every 
 way to the monastic system as an expedient in 
 face of an incurably weak will. And although 
 the monastic system has shown itself susceptible 
 to the gravest abuses, it seems to have been a 
 witness to ideals of conduct higher than those 
 which at the time could be attained in daily life. 
 It is true that the genius of the Teutonic races for 
 family life puts to shame the artificial virtues of 
 the monastery ; but it is not certain that the tone 
 of the monastery was as bad as that of the market 
 and street. " I do not believe," says Dr Jessopp, 
 "that any man of common fairness and candour 
 could rise from the examination " (of the historical 
 evidence) " with any other impression than that 
 as a body the monks of the thirteenth century 
 were better than their age. Vicious and profligate, 
 drunken and unchaste as a class they certainly 
 were not." x The true weakness of the monastic 
 system lies in another direction than this. In the 
 first place, it withdraws from public life precisely 
 that class of persons who should be engaged in it. 
 Who can say, for instance, how much contem- 
 porary France and Spain and Italy are suffering 
 from the retirement of just those persons in whom 
 reflection and self-criticism are strongest ? In the 
 1 Coming of the Friars, 139. 
 R 
 
258 th;e soul of a christian 
 
 second place, the monastic life tends, like academic 
 life, to drop from its high profession down to trivial 
 gossip and disputes, precisely for lack of those 
 absorbing interests which are found in the inter- 
 course of politics and social life. If these limits 
 of monasticism are borne in mind, there are some 
 things to be said for the life in common of persons 
 of one way of thinking. It is easier to maintain 
 unpopular and unfashionable standards of thought 
 and practice with the aid even of a small environ- 
 ment. The university settlements in large towns 
 are adaptations of the monastic system to modern 
 circumstances ; and under a conscientious and able 
 administrator many a mediaeval monastery must 
 have been, in its way, a similar centre of good 
 works and more or less sound learning. 
 
 In one detail the mediaeval monastery was 
 strikingly modern. Its inmates knew to the full 
 that weariness which is sometimes thought to be 
 a product of the nineteenth century. In the 
 pilgrimage of the spirit this weariness has been 
 already dealt with under the name of the dark 
 night of the soul. 1 Souls less serious than others 
 were content to yawn through long periods of 
 ennui. St Bernard complains of those who would 
 sleep in choir. 2 
 
 But there were orders of a stricter rule, in which 
 the likeness between the life of the cloister and 
 of the world almost disappeared, orders in which 
 every means was taken to repress natural inclina- 
 
 1 P. 126, supra. a Serm. vii. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 259 
 
 tions. There is no need here to describe in detail 
 the arrangements made with this end in the regu- 
 lations of the stricter orders such as the Carmelites 
 and Carthusians. What is of more interest, is to 
 note that individuals living in the world have used 
 special disciplines. For example, " Sir Thomas 
 More," says an unknown biographer, " used often to 
 punish his body with discipline, especially every 
 Friday, great saints' eves, and at the four times of 
 Ember week, with whips made of knotted cords. 
 He used to wear a cilice (i.e. hair shirt), yea, often 
 when he sat as High Chancellor in judgment seat. 
 But because he would not be noted of singularity, 
 he conformed himself outwardly to other men of 
 the same state and vocation. This no person did 
 know but his daughter Margaret, whom he best 
 trusted : causing her sometime, as need required, 
 to wash his shirt of hair." 1 So far as the needs 
 of the body seem to hamper human freedom, it is 
 at least comprehensible how the wish to assert this 
 freedom should lead to practices like those of the 
 Chancellor of Henry the Eighth. Nor is it just 
 to ascribe them to the wish to be laying up a store 
 of merit. They are simply one of the many forms 
 in which religious scruples express themselves. 
 Moreover they are not without a practical value. 
 There is no need perhaps to go as far as Sir 
 Thomas More, but something of the kind is recom- 
 mended by one of the most genial of living men, 
 William James. He offers as " a final practical 
 1 Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Biography, ii. 82. 
 
260 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 maxim " : " Keep the faculty of effort alive in you by 
 a little gratuitous exercise every day. That is, be 
 systematically ascetic or heroic in little unnecessary 
 points ; do every day or two something for no other 
 reason than that you would rather not do it, so that 
 when the hour of dire need draws nigh it may find 
 you not unnerved and untrained to stand the test." 1 
 It may beaffirmed,therefore,that a touch of austerity 
 is natural to any complete religious system. Those 
 who scout it in religion, employ it themselves in 
 business and sport. It is not true, as some would 
 say, that daily life always offers enough oppor- 
 tunities for self-repression, although perhaps it does 
 so in the majority of cases. Our national love of 
 comfort places many persons, especially in the well- 
 to-do classes, in positions where the friction of life 
 is reduced to a minimum ; and the consequence is 
 that such persons pass their lives in an atmosphere 
 of unreality. 
 
 The office of ascetic practices is to enable the 
 spirit to rise above dependence upon its surround- 
 ings, so that it may see beneath its feet " every 
 fear, inexorable fate, and the dread tumult of 
 death." But after all, this is a somewhat mechani- 
 cal method ; and the same end is attained more 
 quickly by the impulse of aspiration, or by the 
 contemplative temper. 
 
 Detachment from external conditions is some- 
 times sought under the form of a desire for soli- 
 tude, solitude being necessary alike for recollec- 
 1 Textbook of Psychology, 149. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 261 
 
 tion and speculation. The practice of solitude 
 is indeed one form of asceticism, and is also a con- 
 dition of spiritual advance. A great part of the 
 misery of the poor comes from the fact that their 
 lives are spent so much in common owing to their 
 confined surroundings ; and so they fall into a 
 restless habit, for which companionship and gossip 
 is at once the satisfaction and the further stimulus ; 
 while the cheap magazine is as it were gossip con- 
 tinued into moments of solitude, the clamour of 
 the mob trespassing upon the divine silence. 
 
 We have dealt already with another mode of 
 progress, under the head of aspiration. Alongside 
 of aspiration and ascetic practices there comes, as 
 the third mode of progress in the spiritual life, the 
 acquisition of knowledge. It would seem possible, 
 though not necessary, that a mind which is per- 
 petually conversant with the order of nature, must 
 get attuned at the same time to the moral order. 
 However this may be, the discipline which is 
 offered by scientific investigation, produces a cer- 
 tain modesty and self-control, which is indistin- 
 guishable from the sanctity of the noblest saints. 
 There are few names in the calendar which suggest 
 personalities as attractive as those of Spinoza and 
 Darwin. Unfortunately the benefits conferred by 
 devotion to theology and to literature appear 
 to be of a somewhat more mixed kind. The 
 wranglings of controversialists in religion, and the 
 acerbity of the great English scholars, are some- 
 times excused ; but the patience and the confessed 
 
262 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 ignorance that go with the advance of natural 
 science into the unknown, furnish a check which 
 is sadly needed by the theologian and the scholar, 
 for whom so much rests upon arbitrary conjecture. 
 On the other hand, when the knowledge of natural 
 science is acquired at second hand by persons who 
 have not observed for themselves — a method which 
 has been stereotyped in the regulations of the 
 Science and Art Department — the very certainty 
 and completeness of scientific statement as far as 
 it goes, renders the natural sciences, when pursued 
 in this way, inferior as a discipline to the less 
 certain and less dogmatic methods of literature 
 and history. The type of mind which it is pro- 
 ducing, falls far short of the expectations which the 
 advocates of scientific education have encouraged. 
 For it unites the faults of superficiality and self- 
 satisfied dogmatism. The results of this misuse 
 of natural science are seen in the trend of general 
 opinion. The prevailing temper of the public is 
 one for which knowledge of the laws of nature is 
 simply the means that there may be more to eat 
 and drink and wear ; and it overlooks altogether 
 the true meaning of scientific training. It is suffi- 
 ciently rebuked in a saying of Comte, " The loftiest 
 aim of all the sciences is not to minister to the 
 arts of life, but to satisfy the fundamental necessity 
 of the intellect to know the laws of phenomena." 
 
 It is not to be expected that persons who 
 neglect the profounder aspects of natural science 
 and disdain the philosophic method of reflection, 
 
ILLUMINATION AND PROGRESS 263 
 
 should in theology say much worth listening to. 
 And so Dale could declare, with an irony of which 
 he was, perhaps, not unconscious : " I can see no 
 signs that we are on the eve of discovering any 
 great provinces of religious truth that have hitherto 
 been unknown to us." 1 Serious reflection, in which 
 truth is sought without prepossession, is neither 
 useful for trade, nor does it bear immediately upon 
 conduct ; and so we must join with Dale in the 
 expectation that theology is not going to revive in 
 England at present. " To the earlier neglect, and 
 to the recent disparagement of Christian Dogma 
 as a scientific study, I attribute very much of the 
 poverty and confusion of theological thought, very 
 much of the religious uncertainty, and some of the 
 more serious defects in the practical religious life 
 of our churches which are causing anxiety to many, 
 and to some, serious alarm." 2 Hence, alongside 
 of aspiration and of ascetic practices, the method 
 of speculation also is a way to God, a way which 
 should be the special characteristic of the present 
 age. 
 
 The scrupulous attempt to reach the truth as 
 far as possible, is always misunderstood by those 
 for whom the love of the truth for its own sake is 
 incomprehensible. Even Dale was accused of 
 being a Jesuit ; and it is maintained by some 
 that, in spite of the Apologia, Newman must be 
 considered to fall below our English standard of 
 veracity. " I kept guarding," says St Augustine, 
 1 Life, 624. 2 lb., 573- 
 
264 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 " in my inner perception the integrity of my per- 
 ceptions ; and in the trifling thoughts which are 
 suggested by trifling things, I was delighted in 
 the truth." * There are very few persons who can 
 say honestly what is said here, and yet only such 
 persons have any right to sit in judgment upon 
 Newman and Dale. 
 
 The progress of the soul in these three 
 directions which we have considered, is also 
 effective in realising the divine nature. By love 
 the soul regards God as a Person ; through the 
 efforts which are involved in moral discipline it 
 learns to see in Him the Master of souls ; through 
 the scientific apprehension it finds in Him, on the 
 one hand, the immanent ground of things, and on 
 the other, their compelling ideal. We have seen 
 how God is related to the soul as a Person ; in 
 the next chapter we shall consider the conduct of 
 the moral life through which His nature as a moral 
 guide is revealed ; while in the last chapter we shall 
 try to sum up under the head of mystical theology 
 such other conclusions about His nature as seem 
 to be accessible upon the lines of the investigation 
 which we have pursued. 
 
 1 Conf. i. 20. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 
 
 The freedom and dependence of the soul — The latter emphasised in 
 mediaeval system — Relation to obedience, humility, and docility 
 — Character of clericalism — Quietism — Direction — Secrecy — 
 Veracity — Its limits — Casuistry — Its limits — Direction in the 
 spiritual life — Qualities of a director. 
 
 THERE are two related aspects of the soul 
 of which account must be taken in any 
 view of the religious life which aims at complete- 
 ness. On the one hand, the soul is capable of a 
 certain amount of initiative, and from the feeling 
 of this power there arises the sense of spiritual 
 freedom. Hence it is that where Church organi- 
 sation represses the individual, or refuses him 
 adequate expression, there is a reaction and a 
 tendency to form new religious bodies. This 
 tendency is often most vigorous where the re- 
 ligious spirit is most alive. It is in England, 
 America, and Russia, that there is at the same 
 time the greatest intensity and the widest differ- 
 ences of religious opinion. 
 
 On the other hand, even the most self-reliant 
 feel at times the need of an object upon which 
 
 to lean. Those who have carried themselves the 
 
 265 
 
266 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 most bravely before the world have sought now 
 and then, in private it may be, some person to 
 support them against that terrible sense of weak- 
 ness and isolation which rebukes even the strongest 
 heart at times. This sense of weakness is, there- 
 fore, an intrinsic character of the soul. It is also 
 the spring of many excellences. 
 
 There is a special reason why we should dwell 
 upon this topic. The fundamental difference be- 
 tween the two chief parties at the Reformation 
 was not so much one of doctrine as of practice. 
 The mediaeval Church with its compact organisa- 
 tion had encroached gradually upon the freedom 
 of the individual until he was as clay in the hands 
 of an ecclesiastical caste. Even as early as St 
 Chrysostom the claims of the priesthood reached 
 a pitch beyond which nothing further remained. 
 " Men who had their abode and occupation in the 
 world were entrusted with the control of celestial 
 things, and received a power which God gave neither 
 to angels nor to archangels. For it has not been 
 said to them, ' whatsoever ye bind on earth shall be 
 bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever things ye 
 loose shall be loosed.' For the rulers of the earth 
 have power to bind upon earth, but only over the 
 body, but this bond lays hold upon the soul and 
 passes through the heavens ; whatever the priests 
 do below is confirmed by God in heaven, and 
 the Master affirms the intention of His servants." 
 And again, " the interval between the pastor 
 and those over whom he exercises pastoral care 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 267 
 
 is as great as that which holds between man as a 
 rational being and the irrational creatures." 1 In 
 a similar spirit St Bernard speaks with concern of 
 " those who dare to tread the ways of life without 
 a guide and preceptor, being at once disciples and 
 masters in the spiritual life." 2 
 
 The Reformers had not to deal with an ideal 
 system in which, as Father John of Cronstadt 
 says, the priest is an angel and not a man, but 
 with one in which the defenders of the priesthood 
 were content if they could prove that priests were 
 no worse than other people. A class which 
 undertakes the direction of the conscience and 
 does not rise above the average character, is on 
 the way to giving occasion of scandal. But there 
 is no need to rake up the faults of the ecclesi- 
 astics of the sixteenth century, in order that we 
 may find objections to the direction of the con- 
 sciences of all mankind by any class whatever. The 
 qualities required in a director are of such a kind 
 that they can only be found now and then. 
 
 At the same time, the gain which has come 
 from increased religious freedom has not been un- 
 mixed with loss. There are some virtues which 
 can only flourish when the relation of dependence 
 — which is not less real than the freedom of the 
 soul — is expressed in the positive organisation of 
 life. Obedience, docility, and humility are often 
 enjoined upon others by persons who would turn 
 them to account ; but for all that they have their 
 
 1 Chrys., de sacerd., 94, 183. 2 Sermon, 77. 
 
268 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 place. And although in exaggeration these 
 virtues issue in superstition and servility, the 
 absence of them results in restlessness, in dis- 
 courtesy, and in the ignorant self-assertion which 
 is fatal to the finer graces of mind and spirit. 
 
 We have already seen how humility is con- 
 nected with a genuine self-knowledge; it has also 
 a bearing upon practice. In the form of a readi- 
 ness to repress oneself it passes into obedience. 
 " There is no obedience," says St Teresa, " where 
 there is no resolution to suffer." x The Jesuits 
 have carried to its furthest pitch the cultivation 
 of an obedience which does not, as in the case of 
 a soldier, stop with the external act, but reaches 
 the very depths of the soul. And in this way 
 they have carried out a great psychological ex- 
 periment. The uniform character of mind which 
 is thus produced issues, of necessity, in that 
 mediocrity to which reference has been made. 
 But we must not make this stereotyped character 
 into an insuperable objection against the spiritual 
 exercises of Loyola. The mediocrity in question 
 is the form which is taken by that sacrifice of self, 
 to which the rules of Ignatius lead. But, in a 
 less degree, a similar self-limitation is involved in 
 all human organisation ; and it will be found that 
 this is a tax that must be paid universally. The 
 unconscious compulsion of social life keeps each 
 man more or less to his calling and office in the 
 community, and refuses him the free exercise of 
 1 Life, xxvi. 4. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 269 
 
 all his powers. There is therefore a certain natural 
 grace in accepting the position in which we are 
 placed, affirming on the one hand our own rights, 
 and, on the other hand, respecting the claims of 
 others. The discontent which is the motive power 
 of much necessary social reform, is when carried 
 into daily life, fatal to its usual courtesies. 
 
 Along with the self-control which makes it pos- 
 sible to fall into one's place, and to obey, there 
 goes the readiness to learn and what answers to 
 it in the realm of practice, the willingness to con- 
 fess to an error. " I beseech you," Cromwell 
 wrote to the General Assembly of the Kirk of 
 Scotland, " think it possible you may be mis- 
 taken." 1 When this temper is carried into politics, 
 it leads to an opportunism which is the precise 
 opposite of that tendency to act upon a few 
 principles which Mill has described as doctrin- 
 airism. The opportunist judges each case upon 
 its merits as far as possible in the light of general 
 moral principles. The doctrinaire applies a 
 formula which is inflexible and indifferent to the 
 context in which it is used. From opportunism 
 in the sense which we have described, there arises 
 that quality in ecclesiastical statesmanship which 
 baffles the secular critic. The rough and ready 
 standards of the ordinary mind can be made the 
 subject of foresight and calculation. But when the 
 moral judgment is freely applied without refer- 
 ence to party divisions, such calculation becomes 
 1 Carlyle, Life and Letters of Cromwell, letter cxxxvi. 
 
270 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 impossible. On the other hand, the course of 
 the ecclesiastical politician does not move in vacuo. 
 He, too, has his interests, his party, to defend, 
 while he perplexes his opponents and rivals by 
 the subtlety of his motives and his combinations. 
 At the same time, owing to the natural limita- 
 tions of his life, being cut off from the clash of 
 contending wills and the discipline of business, he 
 falls short in some respects of the usual standards 
 of public affairs, as in many respects he passes be- 
 yond them. And although the prejudice against the 
 political churchman is partly due to his claim to 
 act from high motives, it is not without warrant 
 in the actual experience. " St Bernard," Dean 
 Church tells us, " is a warning to all Christian 
 explorers and expounders of truth — a warning all 
 the more emphatic for the singular disinterested- 
 ness of his purpose and the success of much that 
 he attempted — not to be tempted by the influence 
 which their work in retirement has given them, 
 into those entangling and difficult paths of public 
 activity from which, when a man has once entered 
 upon them, it is hard to draw back, and in which 
 it is so easy for the thinker, the divine, the 
 teacher, to pass into the religious partisan, the 
 religious manager and meddler and contriver, 
 forgetting at once in the purity and elevation of 
 his purpose and in the intoxication of his success 
 the inherent snares and danger of power in any 
 human hands." 1 
 
 * Occasional Essays, i. 237. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 271 
 
 If docility leads to opportunism in the prime 
 movers of affairs, it leads also to pliancy in their 
 instruments ; and combines with the obedience 
 already noted to render an ecclesiastical party far 
 more formidable than its numbers would lead one 
 to expect. At the same time, such a party is often 
 itself deceived into an exaggeration of its resources. 
 A momentary failure brings the whole complex 
 organisation to the ground, and contemporaries 
 viewing the scattered components are surprised 
 that so few should have wielded such power. Of 
 this quality mediaeval architecture furnishes a 
 parable, as it took the small stones which were not 
 enough for the builders of antiquity, and lifted 
 them into pointed arches and vaults, from which 
 if one voussoir is removed the whole collapses. 
 
 Just as the Romanist party exhibited in this 
 concrete fashion the finer flower of its characteristic 
 qualities, so on the other hand the Puritans of 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were dis- 
 tinguished by a rugged independence in which 
 human freedom finds a majestic, if gaunt expres- 
 sion. The admiration which is deservedly given 
 to the Roman organisation finds its counterpart in 
 the impressiveness of the individual character of 
 many of the Reformers. On the other hand, if 
 the Romanist has sacrificed the individual to social 
 qualities, the opposite holds good of his opponents 
 in religion : they have often lost sight of social 
 relations. And yet the purity of the family life, 
 and a touch of austerity which goes along with 
 
272 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 this purity, have furnished among the German races 
 types of unassuming and unaffected courtesy, which 
 rival the more formal manners of the Latin races. 
 Having said this much, I shall take upon myself 
 to point out an imperfection in bearing which 
 follows straight from a favourite, but questionable, 
 practice of some religious bodies. The practice 
 of public confession, in the various forms of the 
 " experience " meeting, often breaks down the re- 
 serve which is the soul's best armour. Persons 
 who have surrendered their inmost citadel in this 
 way, in turn display an eagerness to break through 
 the defences of others ; an eagerness which puts 
 its objects instinctively on their guard against in- 
 trusion. Sometimes, however, young people are 
 taken unawares, or in a moment of weakness, by 
 these ill-advised, yet well-meaning advances. Those 
 who are responsible, in any way, for the training 
 of the young, will view with apprehension such 
 methods of discipline, an apprehension which is 
 based upon experience of their results. Moreover 
 when a young convert carries the temper so pro- 
 duced into the world, he offends against those 
 valuable habits by which society guards the self- 
 respect of its members, and brings his religious 
 profession into an ill-odour, which it is far from 
 deserving. 
 
 It is perhaps comprehensible, therefore, how apart 
 from the traditional hostility of some schools to 
 fine art, the temper which has just been described, 
 in itself and apart from religious tenets, has dis- 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 2;3 
 
 couraged the growth of an artistic tradition of any 
 kind. For music and painting and sculpture and 
 architecture are as it were the flower of a rich and 
 harmonious social tradition. 
 
 Yet there is a religious spirit which rises above 
 party ; which treats religious practices whether 
 these are controlled by public and private confes- 
 sion or not, as a means to an end. For, after all, 
 the details of Church administration which have 
 given rise to so many disputes, do not in them- 
 selves necessarily touch the depths of the soul ; 
 and it is there that the great events of life take 
 place. Neither confession nor the abstention from 
 confession avail as such, but the entrance upon the 
 life of the spirit. The soul can retire "far from 
 the shore, far from the trembling throng, whose 
 sails were never to the tempest given" Per- 
 sons who have reached this state sometimes show 
 certain disinclination towards the external usages 
 of religion. Molinos and Madame Guyon and the 
 Society of Friends have united in like manner a 
 responsiveness to spiritual motions combined with 
 a shrinking from outward expression. At the same 
 time it is doubtful whether such a temper of mind 
 will ever become general ; and religious organi- 
 sation which is bound to keep the great mass of 
 mankind in view, cannot be expected to adjust 
 itself to the needs or aspirations of a small 
 minority. Visible symbols and external practices 
 are employed in varying degrees by all bodies of 
 Christians except perhaps the Society of Friends. 
 
274 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 Now the same mode of argument can be em- 
 ployed in reference to direction. There are some 
 persons who go through life without ever seeking 
 the advice of others on matters of conduct. But 
 these are, after all, an insignificant minority ; and 
 it is tacitly agreed that willingness to be advised 
 is a kind of duty. Now there are very few persons 
 occupying positions of trust, even of a modest 
 kind, who have not received confidences and been 
 asked for advice and direction in circumstances of 
 perplexity ; and the question at once arises whether 
 this aspect of the pastoral office is to be recognised 
 or not. If the lawyer and the physician are con- 
 sulted in the most intimate way upon cases of 
 conscience, the Christian minister will be also. 
 And the very claims which his position makes of 
 itself, will assure to him an authority which cannot 
 safely be left undefined. Such a relationship in- 
 volves a certain bond of secrecy ; and, on the 
 other hand, demands a certain understanding of 
 the relative importance of duties when they seem 
 to conflict, that is, a knowledge of casuistry. 
 
 First, as to the duty of secrecy : confidences 
 received lay the recipient under the obligation to 
 use all lawful means in order to protect them. 
 The person who turns Queen's evidence is felt to 
 sacrifice in so doing his honour as a man ; and this 
 feeling is grounded upon a just view of the moral 
 relations involved. In a similar though a less 
 degree, persons engaged upon secret service break 
 a contract upon which they enter implicitly by 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 275 
 
 their mere conversation with other men. The 
 correspondents of the daily press, therefore, also 
 move upon the borderland of what is forbidden by 
 a strict code of honour. The person who tells lies 
 to another in order to protect a secret, and the 
 person who breaks a confidence in order to publish 
 it, are scarcely entitled to throw stones at one 
 another. 
 
 For it may be taken as a maxim of conduct 
 — though perhaps it would be difficult to defend 
 it in the abstract — that no person is under an 
 obligation to declare to everybody who likes to 
 question him the whole of his knowledge. I will 
 go further, and say that there are some things which 
 men are bound to keep hidden. You who lift 
 your brow indignantly at this, will you undertake 
 to describe publicly every action of your life? 
 You dare not ! Public confession, as in the 
 Divorce Court or elsewhere, can never take place 
 without a certain danger to morals. The practice 
 of private confession was begun because of the 
 scandals which were caused by that public con- 
 fession which some would bring in again. Hence 
 those persons who condemn both public and 
 private confession, affirm in reality that unpopular 
 maxim with which I started ; that men are not 
 bound to declare the whole of their knowledge. 
 
 Of course this is quite a different thing from 
 saying that they are justified in lying. Only 
 those who have an end to serve, or who think 
 confusedly, will say that silence about a fact is 
 
276 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 always equivalent to a lie. And so, although 
 the duty of speaking the truth is plain and of 
 easy application in most cases, and although any 
 attempt to exaggerate the difficulty of speaking 
 the truth meets with the most merited suspicion, 
 it is a treason to Truth herself to say absolutely 
 and without qualification that the whole truth must 
 always be spoken. 1 Ignorant writers sometimes 
 speak as if a man was bound always to declare 
 the whole of what is in his mind. Such a practice 
 would render social life first intolerable and then 
 impossible. We maintain silence sometimes about 
 our beliefs in religion and politics, about our in- 
 tentions in business, about our preferences and 
 dislikes towards the persons we live with. Still 
 this silence is not lying. But I am not going 
 to leave the matter here. It is very easy for any- 
 one to say that, in the abstract, and apart from 
 practice, truth must always be spoken. And 
 yet, to quote a distinguished English moralist, 
 " most persons would not hesitate to speak falsely 
 to an invalid if this seemed the only way of 
 concealing facts that might produce a dangerous 
 shock ; nor do I perceive," says Prof. Sidgwick, 
 " that anyone shrinks from telling fictions to 
 children on matters upon which it is thought 
 well that they should not know the truth." 2 I 
 will add another case. Modesty often dictates 
 statements which are untrue in intention and in 
 expression, that is to say, lies. On this case if 
 1 Matt. ix. 30 ; xxi. 27. 2 Methods of Ethics, 5 316. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 277 
 
 on no other the universal obligation to veracity 
 breaks down, and the man who declines to admit 
 this exception is indistinguishable from a fool. 
 
 Are we to say then that men are not always 
 bound to tell the whole truth ; sometimes not even 
 to tell the truth at all ? And if so, how are we 
 going to escape the descent to the abysses of hell, 
 of which lying constitutes both the top and the 
 bottom ? The exceptional cases I have taken are 
 known to be such. No sensible man thinks that 
 truth is at stake when we conceal it in the interests 
 of the invalid, or of childhood, or of modesty. 
 Nor, again, is truth always imperilled by the ex- 
 pedients we adopt to protect confidences. Is it 
 always imperilled in the ordinary conscience by 
 the deceit which a spy has to practise in the 
 interest of his country, or a correspondent in the 
 interest of his newspaper, or an advocate in the 
 interest of his client ? If you think so, how are 
 you to read your daily paper, or employ a lawyer, 
 or enjoy our national security ? 
 
 Turn from these cases to the relations of social 
 life, of politics and religion. As we have seen, 
 the cases where lying becomes a venial offence 
 are few and simple, and are understood to be 
 such. If, therefore, it is ever said that a man may 
 depart from the truth in social life outside the cases 
 mentioned (p. 276), or in politics, or in religion, it 
 is the same as if one said that lying was an under- 
 stood convention in these three spheres ; that, in 
 a word, social relations are a tissue of lies, that 
 
278 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 politics is a tissue of lies, that religion is a tissue 
 of lies! And the person who extends lying beyond 
 the very narrow and well-defined limits which have 
 been marked out, is guilty of the consequences 
 to which attention has been drawn. The clever 
 parliamentarian who deceives the right person, in 
 the right place, and at the right time ; the re- 
 ligious agent who does not scruple to use means 
 despised by ordinary men of honour ; the man of 
 affairs who goes beyond the conventional limits 
 of the lie, are already in the depths of hell, when 
 they flatter themselves they are just looking over 
 the brim of the pit. But these cases do not 
 justify us in thinking that a man is to be con- 
 demned who without making use of false statements 
 protects a confidence from being broken. 1 
 
 Let us turn next to the duties of a director in 
 the cases of conscience submitted to him. I am 
 supposing him now to be dealing with a perplexed 
 conscience not with the confession of a penitent. 
 It is not difficult to see that in practice there must 
 often be a conflict of duties. Each man in addi- 
 tion to the duties he owes to himself and to God 
 is the subject of other duties which arise out of 
 the numerous relations in which he finds him- 
 self to other persons. To take a simple instance, 
 which indeed arises out of the question which we 
 have just considered, how far is the obligation to 
 
 1 For simplicity's sake, I suppose the confidence to be referred 
 to the past. Confidences about intentions render their recipients 
 accomplices, if the intentions involve future wrong-doing. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 279 
 
 tell the whole truth counterbalanced by considera- 
 tions of expediency and of respect for the feelings 
 of others ? " According to the current assump- 
 tions of the writer and the preacher, the one 
 commanding law is that men should cling to 
 truth and right if the very heavens fall. In 
 principle this is universally accepted. To the 
 partisans of authority and tradition it is as 
 much a commonplace as to the partisans of the 
 most absolute and unflinching rationalism. Yet 
 in practice all schools alike are forced to admit 
 the necessity of accommodation in the very 
 interests of truth itself. . . . The interesting 
 question in connection with compromise obviously 
 turns upon the placing of the boundary that 
 divides wise suspense in forming opinions, wise 
 reserve in expressing them, and wise tardiness in 
 trying to realise them, from avowed disingenuous- 
 ness and self-illusion, from voluntary dissimulation, 
 and from indolence and pusillanimity." x This is 
 a question of casuistry. For, in spite of the pre- 
 judice against the term, there is plenty of the 
 thing. No one will accuse the author of Com- 
 promise of blurring moral distinctions and of 
 unfaithfulness to the truth ; yet he, as well as 
 the writers attacked by Pascal, affirms the possi- 
 bility that one duty may conflict with another, 
 that the course of right conduct is not always 
 quite clear, that allowances are to be made for 
 circumstances. It is easy to lay down and to 
 1 Morley, Compromise, 3. 
 
280 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 praise maxims of conduct ; what is difficult is to 
 realise them in each particular case. 1 
 
 Casuistry consists in the application of general 
 rules to special cases. 2 We must distinguish be- 
 tween the use of casuistry by the individual as a 
 means of illumining his own judgment, and the 
 dependence of one man upon another in cases of 
 difficulty. Just as medical men when they are 
 ill themselves, put themselves in the hands of a 
 fellow-physician, because, among other reasons, 
 they would find it difficult to take an external 
 and impartial view of their own case, so, in 
 cases of conscience, there seems reason to expect 
 that the moral judgment may be warped by the 
 feelings, and that an external adviser may be of 
 great assistance. The use of casuistry, then, would 
 seem to be that it substitutes for the uncertain 
 guidance of the feelings a more reasoned method. 
 On the other hand, right conduct is for the most 
 part attained by a kind of tact that comes from 
 practice. Hence it is only in exceptional cases, 
 and where there is a real doubt, that casuistry is 
 necessary. On the whole, feeling is found to be 
 a sufficient guide. But it only holds as a guide 
 within the limits of what is familiar, and breaks 
 down amid strange or altered conditions. 
 
 The prejudice then which is so widely and 
 
 deservedly felt against casuistry seems to be 
 
 directed against its application where there can 
 
 be no doubt about what is right ; that is to say 
 
 1 Matt, xxiii. 3, 4. a Sidgwick, op. cit., 99. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 28 1 
 
 when it is transferred, from what Mr Morley calls 
 the boundary, to the sphere where moral rules are 
 certain. 
 
 Hence the conclusion must be drawn that the 
 pulpit can never be the source of particular moral 
 instructions ; that is to say, it can never lay down 
 the line of conduct to be pursued in a particular 
 case by particular persons without the danger of 
 falling into the faults of the casuist. It is not the 
 business of the Christian teacher, therefore, to deal 
 with doubtful cases, but to lay down those general 
 principles from which each man is to draw his 
 own conclusions. Hence it is that the excursions 
 of the clergy into politics, both national and muni- 
 cipal, are so rarely successful. For " it is not 
 prudent, scarcely even safe, for a preacher to go 
 beyond general rules." 1 Only when the judg- 
 ment is illumined by the knowledge of the lead- 
 ing circumstances of each case, can it speak with 
 anything like certainty ; and this knowledge is 
 usually only possible to those who are immedi- 
 ately conversant with the affairs in question. 
 
 It is not difficult to draw the line between one 
 who occasionally consults another in cases of per- 
 plexity, and one who continually leans upon the 
 judgment of another. The latter course is a great 
 temptation to the indolent and irresolute. For the 
 mere coming to a decision is itself a somewhat 
 exhausting process, and to some persons it is a 
 positive source of pain. But it is only by such 
 1 Purcell, Life of Manning, i. 439. 
 
282 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 independent decision made from time to time 
 that the will is braced up, and becomes truly 
 self-governing, or autonomous. To rely upon 
 the will of another is to surrender this freedom. 
 Just as perplexity drives some to seek an adviser, 
 so remorse drives others to seek consolation by 
 unbosoming themselves in the act of confession. 
 Here, again, harm seems to arise in the exten- 
 sion to all cases of a practice which is useful in 
 special cases. Where the mind is possessed in a 
 morbid way by a fixed idea, the expression of that 
 idea in words to another seems to lift the sub- 
 ject outside it. " In my university days," says 
 James, " a student threw himself from an upper 
 entry window of one of the college buildings, and 
 was nearly killed. Another student, a friend of 
 my own, had to pass the window daily in coming 
 and going from his room, and experienced a 
 dreadful temptation to imitate the deed. Being a 
 Catholic, he told his director, who said, ' All right, 
 if you must you must,' and added, ' Go ahead and 
 do it,' thereby instantly quenching his desire. This 
 director knew how to minister to a mind diseased." 1 
 This example will suggest considerations as to the 
 way in which other temptations may sometimes be 
 lightened by advice from a wise director. 
 
 On the whole it would appear that the tendency 
 
 of the confessional is to an indulgent view of sin, 
 
 and the penitent is let off more easily by another 
 
 than by his own conscience. The practice of 
 
 1 Textbook of Psychology, 446. 
 
DIRECTION, CONFESSION, CASUISTRY 283 
 
 the Jesuits in this direction is well known and may 
 be paralleled by an anecdote of St Vincent de 
 Paul. He " was frequently heard to say that he 
 had only three times in his life spoken sharply 
 in finding fault, thinking at the time there was 
 cause to do so, and that he had repented ever 
 since, for that it had done no good ; whereas, on 
 the contrary, he had never failed by gentle words 
 to obtain what he desired." 1 
 
 In addition to the dangers already pointed out, 
 p. 272, public confession in its various forms is a 
 school of hypocrisy. When a number of persons 
 of different sexes, or of different ages, undertake 
 to relate their experiences, there must be one of 
 two alternatives ; either a full confession which is 
 for many reasons impossible, or a partial and 
 therefore misleading one. If the confessor hears 
 in private what should scarcely be said by one 
 human being to another, we can judge whether 
 public confession is likely to be edifying. And 
 so, I repeat, if private confession sometimes leads 
 to scandal, public confession leads to hypocrisy. 
 
 In the third place, advice is sometimes sought 
 in the conduct of the devotional life. In spiritual 
 things " we have great need of a director and of 
 conference with spiritual persons." 2 Both St 
 Teresa and St John of the Cross dwell upon 
 the harm that is often done when incompetent 
 persons undertake the difficult office of direction. 
 
 1 Life, Wilson, 220. 
 
 * Cf. supra, p. 131, St Teresa, Life, xix. 23. 
 
284 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 " I have met with souls cramped and tormented, 
 because he who directed them had no experience : 
 that made me sorry for them. Some of them 
 knew not what to do with themselves, for directors 
 who do not understand the spirit of their penitents 
 afflict them soul and body and hinder their pro- 
 gress." 1 
 
 The cure of souls, then, in the elaborate form 
 which we have just considered, demands qualities 
 of mind and heart which are far from frequent, 
 and make the onlooker wonder at the presump- 
 tion of those who undertake such offices without 
 personal fitness or preparation. St Chrysostom 
 said, " the weakness of my soul makes me useless 
 for this ministry." 2 
 
 1 St Teresa, Life, xiii. 21. 2 De sacerd., 124. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 
 
 The winning of the soul — Spiritualising of experience — Feeling and 
 judgment — Tradition — Scholasticism — Its relation to moral 
 consistency — Origen and Thomas— Mystical theology — Dis- 
 interested thought as revelation, especially in ethics — Direction 
 towards God — Practice of His presence — The divine nature — 
 The form of eternity— The Trinity. 
 
 THE soul is not present in all its complete- 
 ness from the first. It has to be gained 
 amid the tumult of experience. Augustine speaks 
 of himself as being gathered together after the 
 dispersion in which he had been broken into 
 fragments, while, turning from God, he had faded 
 away into a multitude of things. 1 His intentions 
 were divided, his thoughts were divided. " There 
 is," he says, " a spiritual sickness when the mind 
 fails to rise up as a whole, lifted by truth." z 
 The very conflicts of heart and thought in 
 which Augustine passed his life, seem to have 
 made him more susceptible to the nature of that 
 spiritual harmony after which he strove. He 
 unites the aspirations to intellectual and to moral 
 unity in his maxim : " Every part is base which 
 does not agree with its own universe." 3 
 
 1 Conf. ii. I. a lb., viii. 9. 3 lb., iii. S. 
 
 285 
 
286 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 We have already considered the tendency 
 towards unity from the side of the individual 
 soul, as directed towards the universes of in- 
 tellectual and moral judgment and of feeling. 1 
 We are now going to consider the same process 
 on its side towards God as a revelation of His 
 nature. For it is impossible to distinguish except 
 in thought between an experience on its human 
 and on its divine side. 2 Taken in its detail, there 
 is but little in human experience to suggest and 
 embody the divine nature, but when human life is 
 viewed as a whole, and the various relations be- 
 tween its parts are made out, they point to a solu- 
 tion of the enigma of life and a clue to its mazes. 
 
 In this way human experience is made to 
 reveal its spiritual meaning. This is indeed the 
 method of philosophy generally. Nevertheless, 
 the attempt has been made to construct a re- 
 ligious philosophy not from any experience but 
 by the mere juxtaposition of texts of Scripture. 
 But such a method is self-condemned. Thought 
 cannot take place in that way. Not only so ; 
 the Scriptures themselves thus regarded lose all 
 spiritual signification. It is not the record, but 
 the life recorded which is divine. Unless the 
 events described in Scripture and the ideals por- 
 trayed in it are referred to God, the Scripture is 
 no more than any other history. And on the 
 
 1 89^1 Cf. Vaughan, Stones from the Quarry, p. 52. 
 
 2 The terms "subjective" and " objective " are nearly equiva- 
 lent to these two aspects of an event. 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 287 
 
 other hand, the history of any age is spiritualised 
 when it is referred to Him. 
 
 In this reference we can mark off the feeling 
 which suffuses it from intellectual apprehension. 
 We are now going to leave on one side the 
 feeling, in order to concentrate ourselves upon 
 the intellectual apprehension, or judgment. This 
 judgment may be analysed into the affirmation 
 of an object, and the direction towards it. , Let 
 us make this clear. There is in the religious 
 attitude towards God, first, the aspiration 1 towards 
 Him ; second, the direction of the thoughts upon 
 Him ; third, the affirmation of His being. This 
 is the natural order in which the religious appre- 
 hension works as an original power. In the 
 religious tradition this order is inverted. There 
 is first the affirmation of God's being in dogma ; 
 second, the presentation of God in religious in- 
 struction ; third, the aspiration towards Him in 
 common worship. This is the natural order 
 in which religious truth must be communicated 
 and handed down. In this way, that which 
 has been gained in the experience of the saints 
 becomes the common property of mankind, like 
 that which has been gained by the investigations 
 of scientific men in the sphere of natural truth. 
 And so we reach the conclusion of St Thomas 
 Aquinas that theology which starts from the 
 Scriptures may draw conclusions also from saints 
 and thinkers in their degree. 2 
 
 1 I.e. a feeling. 2 Summa, i. I, 8. 
 
288 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 It is not difficult to trace in St Paul and St 
 John a certain scholastic element. By this it is 
 meant that they cast their thoughts into certain 
 moulds or forms of thought. The beginning of 
 the Fourth Gospel is a sufficient answer to those 
 who say that Christianity does not admit of a 
 philosophic presentation. The case is even more 
 pronounced with the apostle to the Gentiles. The 
 suggestions of Jewish ritual and of Rabbinical 
 tradition give the form to Paul's thoughts about 
 the career of Jesus. But the very suitability of 
 this method to the communities among whom Paul 
 worked, renders him difficult of comprehension 
 amid the entirely transformed surroundings of 
 modern times. Only so far as we translate theo- 
 logical statements into the universal terms of 
 human experience do they retain their meaning. 
 And, with all its faults, this was at least the ideal 
 of the scholastic philosophy which culminated in 
 the Angelic Doctor. The pages of the Summa 
 Theologica have still a fulness of human interest 
 for those who can read between the lines, ,an 
 interest comparable to that of the Divina Corn- 
 media ; the Summa containing, as it were, the 
 core of thought round which Dante built his 
 poem. Compared with the Summa, the theo- 
 logical system of Calvin which shuts itself up to 
 the letter of scripture and cuts itself off from the 
 whole course of mediaeval thought, is a retro- 
 gression. It no longer finds us. 
 
 For scholasticism rests upon the search for 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 289 
 
 consistency. In conduct it shows itself in that 
 scrupulous self-examination by which the inten- 
 tions and acts are drilled into complete conformity 
 with a given standard. In the world of thought 
 it attempts to solve all contradictions and to 
 bring every side of experience to unity. " Sacred 
 thoughts will never be at variance." 1 And the 
 attempt of St Thomas to bring into one great 
 harmony the whole of the theology and philosophy 
 of his time, has furnished an example which will 
 have to be followed by every theology which is 
 to retain more than a transient importance. It 
 is not as though the Summa involved any breach 
 with, the primitive tradition. Its method had 
 already been laid down by Origen, although for 
 that matter the Summa is only a partial realisa- 
 tion of that method. The universality of Origen is 
 shown by the fact that subsequent controversialists 
 of all parties drew upon him. 2 Since in Origen, 
 Greek philosophy is reconciled with the Christian 
 experience, we may expect that his method will 
 not be exhausted by Thomas, for whom Greek 
 philosophy was only available at second hand. 
 And so we come to the precise contrary of the 
 conclusion reached by Dr Hatch in his Hibbert 
 Lectures. It is not a question of separating 
 Christianity from philosophy in general, and in 
 particular from Greek philosophy. Unless thought 
 about the Christian tradition is to be forbidden, 
 it will move along lines already foreshadowed in 
 1 Tertullian, de anima, 21. 2 Harnack in Bnc. Brit. 
 
2go THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 the history of the past. What is required is to 
 distinguish between the original elements in the 
 tradition and later reflection upon them. But in 
 so doing we are not bound to reject the later 
 elements as worthless. 
 
 We have already become familiar with an aspect 
 of thought which is pointed at in the term revela- 
 tion. The soul does not develop all its experiences 
 from within itself. It gains them in its intercourse 
 with the surroundings of its life. And the same 
 holds good in the highest realms of thought. The 
 objective constitution of the world of thought is 
 not entirely created from within the mind. It is 
 disclosed through the operations of the mind, but 
 it goes beyond those operations. They are directed 
 towards an object, — an object which, no less than 
 sensible objects, is pointed at, not exhausted (p. 7). 
 " What I am obliged to think may represent a 
 real development depending on law, and a system 
 which is not confined to my individual course of 
 consciousness." * Thus there is a passive stage in 
 reflection at which thoughts seem to come to us 
 rather than to arise within us. All this arises out 
 of the dependence of the soul when we consider it 
 as a person in an ordered realm of persons (p. 50). 
 
 Hence there is a real, though somewhat ex- 
 aggerated, meaning in the utterances of St Teresa 
 about mystical theology. "In mystical theology 
 the understanding ceases from its acts because 
 God suspends it." Or, again, God is said "to 
 1 Bosanquet, Essentials of Logic, 13. 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 291 
 
 accomplish in an instant the labour of twenty 
 years and without any fatiguing of the under- 
 standing." 1 When the mind reaches the attitude 
 of self-forgetfulness and laying aside all prepos- 
 sessions sets itself to receive the truth, it may be 
 said to cease from the acts of the understanding ; 
 and in so doing it reaches the temper for which re- 
 flection of the highest kind first becomes possible — 
 that objective temper in which the soul sees things 
 in a clear light. This is the purity of heart upon 
 which the divine vision follows, the stillness that 
 is required for the knowledge of God. 
 
 Hence there is a very genuine difference be- 
 tween the attitude of religious reflection and the 
 reflection that is conversant with immediate in- 
 terests. In this respect scientific and philosophic 
 reflection partake of the character of revelation, 
 in so far as these two modes of thought represent 
 an advance of the soul beyond itself. 
 
 We can mark off a similar advance in the 
 sphere of conduct. When a man rises above his 
 private interests to the love of God, he is enabled 
 by a kind of revelation — that is a disclosing of 
 truth already there — to see the duties which 
 attach to his own station or that of another man, 
 in a way which is quite impossible to one who is 
 governed by the ordinary motives of self-interest. 
 This higher mode of thought, then, is no pro- 
 perty of the lonely devotee or thinker, but is 
 attainable by every person of good intention. The 
 
 1 Life, xii. 8; xvii. 3. 
 
292 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 spiritual peace in which God comes to the soul 
 is available upon earth — that is amid the daily 
 circumstances of life — for men of good intention. 
 Hence the criticism which Ritschl directs against 
 the mystical standpoint falls to the ground. 1 For 
 the mystic, ethics may take an equal position with 
 abstract speculation, the mystical temper being 
 shown even more in the silent affirmations of con- 
 duct than in the explicit thought. Or rather the 
 principles upon which we act, are those also which 
 give rise to any real thought. Mysticism consists 
 primarily in a mode of life, and then in a mode of 
 reflection. Mysticism was described as a habit of 
 mind that discerns the spiritual in common things, 
 and so transfigures them into revelations of the 
 divine. 2 How is it to be described on its active 
 side ? it is a mode of life which is governed not by 
 the isolated promptings of instinct at first or even 
 at second hand, but by an ideal. Hence, so far 
 as religious life consists only in obedience to ex- 
 ternally imposed rules of conduct and belief, it is 
 not yet mystical. And it only becomes mystical 
 when the objects of conduct and belief are stated 
 in the terms of the spiritual experience, an experi- 
 ence which is made our own. 
 
 The direction of the soul, therefore, towards God 
 takes two shapes ; on the one hand all conduct is 
 referred to Him as its end, and, on the other hand, 
 the course of the world is viewed in relation to 
 Him as Governor. But in these acts of reference 
 1 Theologie u. Metaphysik, 28. 2 Supra, p. 41. 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 293 
 
 God communicates Himself to the soul in such a 
 way that many persons have preferred to regard 
 the qualities described, as graces infused into the 
 soul. This relation is brought into clear conscious- 
 ness by what may be called the practice of the 
 presence of God, in which these acts of the mind are 
 related to Him as their ground. " The injunction 
 to private prayer calls for faith in such a way that 
 the sight and hearing of Almighty God are believed 
 to be present in secret." 1 I am inclined to doubt 
 whether the presence of God is realised so often as 
 the glib use of the theological vernacular would 
 lead one to think, and will appeal to a passage in 
 the life of Dale. The idea of God has scarcely 
 ever received more eloquent expression than in 
 the writings of the Birmingham preacher ; and 
 yet he has had the candour to disclose, at least to 
 himself, the fact that the hold of the spirit upon 
 God varies from time to time. On one occasion he 
 acknowledges to himself that he was " too weak to 
 find much direct consolation in the eternal springs 
 of strength and joy. God was a kind of back- 
 ground to everything — hardly discerned but there ; 
 this was all." 2 
 
 For the religious world in general the practice 
 of the presence of God tends to yield to that of 
 the presence of Christ, as described by St Teresa. 
 " The soul may also place itself in the presence of 
 Christ and accustom itself to many acts of love 
 directed to His sacred Humanity, and remain in 
 1 Tertullian, de oratione, i. a Life, 611. 
 
294 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 His presence continually, and speak to Him, pray 
 to Him in its necessities, and complain to Him of 
 its troubles ; be merry with Him in its joys, and 
 yet not forget Him because of its joys." 1 There 
 is no doubt that for many persons the idea of God 
 is entirely represented in the person of Jesus. It 
 is an interesting and important question how far 
 we ought to be content with this, a question that 
 most theologians seem to have refused to meet 
 in the fear lest doubts should be cast upon their 
 orthodoxy. One or two considerations may be 
 raised. We have seen that a complex ideal can 
 only become articulate in a person ; 2 and so the 
 love of Jesus, in whom the different virtues com- 
 bined in perfect harmony, is far more efficacious 
 in helping men to realise the divine love and justice 
 than if they contemplate the divine attributes in 
 an unreal isolation. It is obviously impossible for 
 the human mind to compass the being of God ; 
 and unless the Supreme were presented in an 
 Object conformable to the limitations of the human 
 mind, it is difficult to see how the adequate wor- 
 ship of God could be attained. At the same time 
 there are those who forget that such a view of the 
 person of Christ as that which is indicated here, has 
 for its presupposition the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 Unless the human life of Jesus is viewed against 
 the background of the divine, it loses its meaning. 
 Through observing the limitations of human 
 nature it is possible to rise to a partial and incom- 
 1 Life, xii. 3. 2 P. 15. 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 295 
 
 plete, but yet positive idea of God. This seems 
 to be pointed at in the method of " Dionysius, 
 the Areopagite." Over against the dependent 
 nature of man, God stands as that which exists in 
 itself. " Other things," says St Augustine, " I found 
 neither to be altogether, nor yet not to be. They 
 were, since they were from Thee ; they were not, 
 since they were not what Thou art." 1 Further, 
 in that which exists of itself, there can be nothing 
 which is merely accidental. 2 God is not just and 
 merciful, but rather justice and mercy themselves. 
 And men are only just and merciful in so far as 
 they partake of the divine nature. " All other 
 truths depend on this Truth, as all other loves 
 on this Love, and all other grandeurs on this 
 Grandeur." 3 Further, the relation between that 
 which is dependent and that on which it depends, 
 is not solved by the idea of creation only. God is 
 the maintainer of the universe : "just as the soul 
 animates the body, so God animates the soul. God 
 is the life of life." 4 He is, to quote a poet who 
 worshipped God without naming him — 
 
 That light whose smile kindles the universe. 
 
 That beauty in which all things work and move. 
 That benediction which the eclipsing curse 
 
 Of birth can quench not, that sustaining Love 
 Which through the web of being blindly wove 
 
 By man and beast and earth and air and sea 
 Burns bright or dim, as each are mirrors of 
 
 The fire for which all thirst. 
 
 Conf. vii. 11. 2 Summa, I. iii. 6. 3 Teresa, Life, xl. 7. 
 4 Augustine, Conf. x. 6, cf. p. 70, supra. 
 
296 THE SOUL OF A CHRISTIAN 
 
 In such a nature evil can only be present as a 
 privation of good. In the case of human freedom, 
 however, God seems to have set limits to Himself, 
 in order that mankind might reach the utmost 
 limits of being which were possible to a dependent 
 existence. The only thing, therefore, in the uni- 
 verse that is positively evil seems to be a perverted 
 will, just as the only thing that is positively good 
 seems to be the good will. 
 
 Things, as such, are products of a limited ap- 
 prehension ; things are, in fact, modifications which 
 give definite expression to the true existence. 1 
 But so soon as their true aspect is realised, they 
 cease to exist independently ; they are no longer 
 things in the ordinary sense of the word. In their 
 place appear limited participations in the one true 
 existence. Their reality 2 is derivative. So long, 
 therefore, as we continue to regard them in their 
 apparent independence, they are not truly under- 
 stood. Only when they are viewed as part of the 
 universe in their relation to God, do we begin to 
 know them. But this direct reference to God is 
 not usual ; between God and the individual thing 
 there stands the system to which it belongs, Nature. 
 The reference, therefore, of things to the order of 
 the world is one step on the way to their reference 
 to God. When, however, we pass from the course 
 of the world to its ground, the distinctions of time 
 and space lose their importance. This is a genuine 
 
 1 Erdmann, History of Philosophy, E. trans., ii. 63. 
 
 2 = thing-hood. 
 
MYSTICAL THEOLOGY 297 
 
 advance in thought, and is marked off by St John 
 of the Cross. When the soul is uplifted to the 
 divine manner of apprehension, it feels and judges 
 about things in the same way as God, to whose 
 sight " a thousand years are as yesterday when it 
 is past." * At the same time we may not treat 
 the timeless view of things as if it were the final 
 one. Ideas apart from their historical expression 
 are meaningless. If, on the one hand, things are 
 unreal apart from their ground, on the other hand 
 if their ground did not so express itself, it is as 
 good as nothing. Hence it may be said that the 
 world is as necessary to God as God is to the 
 world ; Or in other words, that it is the necessary 
 expression of His being. Hence there is a recip- 
 rocal relation between the two which is formulated 
 in the relation which holds between the Father and 
 the Son in the Trinity. We begin by distinguish- 
 ing appearance from that of which it is the appear- 
 ance ; and we end by attributing to each factor — 
 the appearance and the ground, — a necessity by 
 which they stand over against one another and yet 
 are united ; and this necessity finds its expression 
 in the life of the Spirit. 2 
 
 1 Living Flame of Love, verse I, line 6. 
 
 2 Stones from the Quarry, p. 52. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Alfonso di Liguori, his bilo- 
 cation, 112. 
 
 Angels, their office, 66. 
 
 Antinomianism, 115. 
 
 Apostles' Creed, legend of ori- 
 gin. 7- 
 
 Aristotle, 167, 180. 
 
 Arnold, Dr, on pagan idea of 
 God, 206. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 134. 
 
 Artists, favourable circumstances 
 of their life, 1 74. 
 
 Augustine, on the apprehension 
 of God, 32 ; excessive scruples, 
 84 ; seeks to satisfy his reason 
 in religion, 89 ; passes through 
 dark night, 136; his self- 
 abasement, 140 ; prayer for his 
 parents, 185 ; on communion 
 with God, 193 ; truthfulness, 
 264 ; on nature of God, 295. 
 
 Autobiographies as touchstones 
 of dogma, 21. 
 
 Bad temper, 127. 
 
 Baxter, Richard, on moderate 
 men, 56 ; on certainty in re- 
 ligion, 92. 
 
 Belief, its three stages, 15. 
 
 Bernard, his sermons on The 
 Song of Songs, quoted, 54, 
 258 ; on the need of a director, 
 267 ; as a politician, 270. 
 
 Bilocation, III. 
 
 Biographies of religious persons, 3. 
 
 Blake, called mad by dyspeptics, 
 12 ; his philosophy, 35 ; as 
 
 prophet, 38 ; his poverty, ib.; 
 simplicity, 40 ; mysticism, 41 ; 
 shut himself from nature, 42 ; 
 his manuscripts destroyed by 
 an angel (Irvingite), 44 ; per- 
 sonifies powers of mind, 47 ; 
 prophetic books, 48 ; on 
 ghosts, 149 ; visions, ib. ; on 
 fourfold vision, 151 ; fails in 
 self-criticism, 156; does not 
 test his visions, 163 ; at 
 Felpham, 216; his symbol- 
 ism, 218. 
 
 Bosanquet, on objective system 
 of thought, 290. 
 
 Bradley, F. H., on Communion 
 of Souls, 67, 203 ; on working 
 power of identity, 69 ; on dis- 
 honest theologians, 70. 
 
 Bunyan, excessive scruples, 82 ; 
 cynicism, 84 ; caricatures scep- 
 tical method, 91 ; tempted to 
 blaspheme, 114; exhausted 
 by enthusiasm, 122 ; harassed 
 by doubts, 123 ; feels ennui, 
 126 ; his dark night, 137 ; 
 makes light of bereavement, 
 145 ; on the Holy Kiss, 187. 
 
 Burton, 143. 
 
 Calvin, government of Geneva, 
 
 242, 247 ; compared with 
 
 Aquinas, 288. 
 Camisards, 107. 
 Carlyle, as man of genius, 27 ; 
 
 compared with Newton, 150 ; 
 
 his method of work, 211. 
 
30o 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Casuistry, 279 ; denned, 280 ; 
 
 forbidden in pulpit, 281. 
 Catharine of Siena, 159. 
 Catholic faith demands spiritual 
 
 disinterestedness, 10. 
 Cellini, visited by angels, 161 ; 
 
 not a typical artist, 174. 
 Christianity, a positive religion, 
 
 95- 
 
 Chrysostom, on pastoral office, 
 266, 284. 
 
 Church, R. W., on Cromwell, 
 239 ; on St Bernard, 270. 
 
 Comparative Method, 18. 
 
 Comte, on purpose of scientific 
 training, 262. 
 
 Confession, public, 272 ; private, 
 283. 
 
 Conversion, Evangelical theory 
 of, 19 ; c. iv. ; by hypnotic 
 suggestion, 117 ; not an abso- 
 lute beginning, 252. 
 
 Cowper, writes sensuous hymns, 
 
 "3- 
 
 Cromwell, as prophet, 238 ; as 
 herald of middle-class, 244, 
 269. 
 
 Dale, on hypnotism, 74 ; re- 
 grets his lack of discipline, 
 93 ; shrinks from sense of 
 God's presence, 121 ; on Evan- 
 gelicalism, 253 ; on English 
 theology, 263 ; called a 
 Jesuit, ib.; on idea of God's 
 presence, 293. 
 
 Dante, symbolism, 221 ; theo- 
 logy, 288. 
 
 Dionysius, Areopagita, 295. 
 
 Direction, 274^ 
 
 Disease, as a heaven-sent trial, 
 128. 
 
 Donne, breaks his word, 85. 
 
 Dream of Gerontius, 134. 
 
 Ecclesiastical, history, 3 ; 
 
 politics, 270. 
 Eckhart, 254. 
 
 Emotion, attaching to sentiment, 
 
 169. 
 Ennui, in religious life, 126. 
 Enthusiasm, 254. 
 Erasmus, and the reformers, 55 ; 
 
 and English customs, 188. 
 Evangelical theory of salvation, 
 
 mechanical, 73 ; its defects, 
 
 253- 
 
 Evidence, subjective, when ade- 
 quate, 9. 
 
 Evil, its nature, 296. 
 
 Family life, 184. 
 
 Feeling, imperfectly interpreted 
 by psychologists, 25. 
 
 Fox, George, on shaking of 
 buildings, 8 ; on the souls of 
 women, 85 ; denounces poetry 
 and music, ib. ; his mission, 
 87 ; his countenance changed, 
 99. 
 
 Francis of Assisi, 65. 
 
 Francis Borgia, compared with 
 Bunyan, 145. 
 
 Friendship, a hindrance, 130 ; 
 its limits, 183. 
 
 Genius, and the oversoul, 71. 
 
 Gibbon, on Athanasius, 3. 
 
 God, defined by Augustine, 70 ; 
 how known, 120 ; knowledge 
 of, brings pain, 121 ; com- 
 munion with, 190 ff ; as 
 beautiful, 206 ; His nature, 
 
 295- 
 Goethe, quoted, 3. 
 Gordon, General, 120. 
 Gregory, on desire for God, 
 
 202. 
 Guyon, Madame, 273. 
 
 Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, 289. 
 Health, influence of, on religion, 
 
 100. 
 Heine, on the Holy Spirit, 35. 
 Heraclitus, on depths of the 
 
 soul, 26. 
 
INDEX 
 
 301 
 
 Herrmann, on religious thought, 
 21 ; on Christ as content of 
 idea of God, 22 ; on assur- 
 ance, 124; on scientific ap- 
 prehension of God, 195 ; on 
 work of Jesus, 197. 
 
 Hooker, inspired, 54 ; his un- 
 lucky marriage, 187. 
 
 Humanism, and theology, 54. 
 
 Humility, 138, 268. 
 
 Huysmans, his view of symbols, 
 41 ; pathological mysticism, 
 112. 
 
 Hypnotism, effect of, 74; and 
 religious revivals, 76. 
 
 Hypocrisy, 2, 283. 
 
 Idealist, a bad observer, 2. 
 Ignatius Loyola, method, 240. 
 Imagination, fallible, 221. 
 Individual, notion of, 15. 
 Inspiration of judgment, 62 ; of 
 
 feeling, 64 ; its highest form, 
 
 226. 
 Introspection leads to excessive 
 
 scruples, 81. 
 Isaiah, his visions, 164. 
 
 James, William, on the emo- 
 tions, 25 ; on idea of God, 
 191 ; on ideal companion, 
 198 ; on spiritualist mediums, 
 227 ; recommends discipline, 
 
 259- 
 
 "Jerks,'' as a religious exercise, 
 106. 
 
 Jessopp, on monastic life, 257. 
 
 Jesuit, training leads to medi- 
 ocrity, 73 ; moralists preach 
 toleration, 146 ; systematic 
 propaganda, 240 ; patronage 
 of culture, 253; obedience, 
 268 ; confessors, 283. 
 
 Jesus, finds outcasts congenial, 
 76 ; on conversion, 1 18 ; is 
 visited by evil spirit, 153 ; as 
 poet, 166 ; His prayer, 205 ; 
 use of symbols, 213 ; as an 
 
 explicit teacher, 226 ; as 
 herald, 244 ; His parables, 
 248. 
 
 John, as thinker, 288. 
 
 John of the Cross, on the 
 sublime, 25 ; on the nature 
 of spirit, 29 ; uses myth in 
 psychology, 115. 
 
 Joubert, quoted, 57, 168. 
 
 Jowett, 188, 191. 
 
 "Jumpers" in Wales, 108. 
 
 Keswick Convention, its 
 
 effects, 104. 
 Kingsley, on spiritual life, 11. 
 Kingsley, Miss, on African prob- 
 
 blems, 245. 
 Kipling, Rudyard, on intrusion, 
 
 75- 
 
 Levitation, 1 10. 
 Locke, as advocate of liberty,240. 
 Locutions, divine, Teresa on, 147. 
 Lombroso, his method, 71, 143. 
 Luther, 86, 95. 
 
 Lying, sometimes practised by 
 good men, 276. 
 
 Macleod, Fiona, 29, 153. 
 Maeterlinck, on demands of soul, 
 
 24 ; on new birth, 29. 
 Manning, Cardinal, 80. 
 Martineau, Dr, his ethical 
 
 system, 43. 
 Michel Angelo, his fury, 200. 
 Mill on Carlyle, 27. 
 Milton, claims inspiration, 63. 
 Miraculous events not incredible, 
 
 8 ; in N.T., 109. 
 Molinos, 273. 
 Monasticism, its imperfections, 
 
 257- 
 
 Monica shuns her heretical son, 
 145. 
 
 Montaigne, on reading character) 
 87. 
 
 More, Thomas, 187 ; his self- 
 discipline, 259. 
 
302 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Morison, Cotter, on St Ber- 
 nard, 3. 
 
 Morley, John, on casuistry, 279. 
 
 Mysticism defined, 41 ; distin- 
 guished from symbolism, ib., 
 and from vision, 42 ; and 
 from discursive reasoning, ib., 
 in conduct, 292. 
 
 Mystics, neglected by psycholo- 
 gists, 23 ; company of Irish, 
 ISO. 
 
 Nations, ascertainment of their 
 true minds, 28. 
 
 Neurasthenia, 117. 
 
 Newton as intuitive thinker, 150. 
 
 Normal, distinguished from 
 "morbid" and "average," 
 12 ; interpreted by reference 
 to community, 13, 98. 
 
 Newman, his motto, 4 ; on re- 
 ligious apprehension, 7 ; on 
 conversion, 74, 118 ; on 
 liberalism, 241 ; accused of 
 deceit, 263. 
 
 Obsession, 116. 
 
 Opportunism, 269. 
 
 Origen, his universality, 289. 
 
 Original sin, meaning of, 96. 
 
 Oversoul, 14 ; how to be under- 
 stood, 46 ; c. iii. ; its impli- 
 cations, 204. 
 
 Oxford Movement, its effect on 
 handicrafts, 209. 
 
 Parsimony, principle of, 10,46. 
 Paul, his conversion, 72 ; on 
 
 prophecy, 230; his Christ- 
 
 ology, 288. 
 Physiognomy, 99. 
 Plato, 177, 246. 
 Poetry, Blake's definition of, 
 
 223. 
 Polycarp, his martyrdom, 159. 
 Prayer, 197. 
 Protestantism and nationalgenius, 
 
 242, 245. 
 
 Psychology, its method, 1 ; de- 
 scriptive, 24 ; W. James on, 
 26 ; romantic, 47. 
 
 Purple Island, 218. 
 
 Pusey on Inspiration, 54. 
 
 Reincarnation, 97. 
 
 Renan, on historian of religion, 
 16 ; disillusioned, 124. 
 
 Revelation, principle of, 10. 
 
 Revivals in U.S.A., 106. 
 
 Ribot, on study of emotion, II. 
 
 Ritschl, on systematic theology, 
 17 ; on Holy Spirit, 61 ; on 
 mystical union, 70; on assur- 
 ance, 81 ; on mystical method, 
 248. 
 
 Roberto da Lecce, 160. 
 
 Roman Spirit, 53 ; in Protestant 
 theology, 247. 
 
 Romanism and absolutism, 245. 
 
 Ruffino, 126. 
 
 Ruskin, compared with Blake, 
 36 ; and architectural design, 
 208. 
 
 Saint, defined, 20 ; psychology 
 
 of, 44 ; physiognomy of, 100 ; 
 
 not outwardly marked, 183. 
 Satan, at Chapel-en-le-Frith, 108. 
 Savonarola, symbolism, 222 ; 
 
 prophetic career, 234 ff. 
 Scholasticism, 289. 
 Science, as a discipline, 262. 
 Self-culture, its limits, 250. 
 Sermons, often unreal, 3 ; their 
 
 effect due to social factor, 103. 
 Sheldon, his stories, 182. 
 Shelley, quoted, 295. 
 Shepherd of Hermas, 164. 
 Sidgwick, on veracity, 276 ; on 
 
 casuistry, 280. 
 Sin, created by law, 114; 
 
 doctrine of, 170. 
 Smith, G. A., on intellectual 
 
 gifts, 34- 
 Smith, Robertson, on prophecy, 
 
 231. 
 
INDEX 
 
 303 
 
 Social factor in religion, 102. 
 
 Socrates, inspired, 54. 
 
 Solitude, effect of, 101 ; Fiona 
 Macleod on, 153. 
 
 Song of Songs, 176, 178, 190, 
 248. 
 
 Soul, unity of, 33 ; as artist, 49. 
 
 Spinoza, 51, 261. 
 
 Spira, his melancholy, 125. 
 
 Spiritual things, include sense- 
 factor, 43. 
 
 Spiritualism, 227 ff. 
 
 Stevenson, R. L., on monastic 
 life, 144 ; on Trappist regimen, 
 152. 
 
 Stout, G. F., quoted, 51. 
 
 Strauss, his method, 10. 
 
 Swedenborg, his psychology, 
 47 ; on microcosm, 219 ; 
 system of, 222. 
 
 Symbolism, relation to feeling, 
 41 ; underlying assumption, 
 177 ; its two fields, 210. 
 
 Symonds, J. A., 159, 160, 162. 
 
 Symons, Arthur, 224. 
 
 Teetotalism, 257. 
 
 Teresa, on spiritual advance, 77 ; 
 her cynicism, 84 ; on prose- 
 lytising, 87; learns without 
 words, 88 ; finds her soul 
 divided, 89 ; countenance 
 changed, 99 ; on influence of 
 bodily health, 100 ; her levi- 
 tation, no ; her trivial 
 occupations, 119; on locu- 
 tions, 148 ; on intellectual 
 vision, id. ; her style coloured 
 by liturgy, 157 ; on communion 
 with God, 193 ; on prayer, 
 199 ; on confessors, 284 ; on 
 mystical theology, 290 ; on 
 idea of Christ's presence, 293. 
 
 Tertullian, on religious psycho- 
 logy, S ; on visions, 158 ; on 
 
 symbolism, 214 ; on human 
 character, 238 ; on presence of 
 God, 293. 
 
 Theosophy, 30. 
 
 Things, their nature, 296. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, on tradition, 
 287 ; the Summa, 288, 295. 
 
 Trinity, doctrine of, as a formula 
 for religious life, 14 ; West- 
 cott on, 59 ; presupposed in 
 worship of Christ, 294 ; how 
 realised, 297. 
 
 Tylor, E. B. , on the effects of a 
 good meal, 12, 152. 
 
 Universe, in logic, defined, 6. 
 
 VALCKENISSEN, Mother van, 112. 
 
 Ya.ughan,Stones/rom the Quarry, 
 referred to, 245, 286, 297. 
 
 Verbal inspiration, 20. 
 
 Vincent de Paul, r 65 ; called a 
 fool, 140; his serenity, 141 ; 
 as a confessor, 283. 
 
 Virgin, worship of, 185. 
 
 Visions, no sign of spiritual pro- 
 gress, 133 ; twofold and four- 
 fold, 151. 
 
 Wesley, interrupted, 86 ; 
 humour of, id. ; treatment of 
 hysteria, 104 ; and French 
 prophetess, ib. ; himself 
 attacked by hysteria, 116. 
 
 Westcott, on Trinity, 59 ; on 
 visions and voices, 157. 
 
 Whitefield, on his own court- 
 ship, 189. 
 
 Will, nature of, 248. 
 
 Women, the souls of, 85. 
 
 Wordsworth, quoted, 192, 207. 
 
 Yeats, W. B., 150. 
 Zechariah, his visions, 164. 
 
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Fiction 
 
 33 
 
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34 
 
 Messrs. Methuen's Catalogue 
 
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Fiction 
 
 35 
 
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36 
 
 Messrs. Methuen's Catalogue 
 
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Fiction 
 
 37 
 
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