CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY V»v FROM The Estate of ■T.G.Schurman _, Cornell University Library BL 2001.F23O9 3 1924 023 004 629 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023004629 THE RELIGIOUS QUEST OF INDIA EDITED BY J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt. LITERARY SECRETARY, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS, INDIA AND CEYLON AND H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., Ph.D. SECRETARY OF THE COUNCIL OF THE AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME ALREADY PUBLISHED INDIAN THEISM By Nicol Macnicol, M.A., D.Litt. Pp. xvi+292. Price 6s. net. THE HEART OF JAINISM. By Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, M.A., Sc.D. (Dublin). Pp. xxiv + 336. Price 7s. 6d. THE TREASURE OF THE By James Hope Mow/ton, MAGI. REDEMPTION HINDU AND CHRISTIAN. D.Litt., D.D., D.C.L. Pp. xv + 273. Price 8s. 6d. By Sydney Cave, D.D. (Lond.). Pp. xii + 263. Price 10s. 6d. IN PREPARATION THE RELIGION OF THE By H. D. Griswold, M.A., Ph.D. RIGVEDA. HINDU ETHICS BUDDHISM . THE RITES OF TWICE-BORN. THE By John McKenzie, M.A., Wilson College, Bombay. By K. J. Saunders, M.A., Literary Secretary, National Council of .Y.M.C.A., India and Ceylon. By Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, M.A., Sc.D. (Dublin), Raj- kot, Kathiawar. EDITORIAL PREFACE The writers of this series of volumes on the variant forms of religious life in India are governed in their work by two impelling motives. I. They endeavour to work in the sincere and sympathetic spirit of science. They desire to understand the perplexingly involved developments of thought and life in India and dis- passionately to estimate their value. They recognize the futility of any such attempt to understand and evaluate, unless it is grounded in a thorough historical study of the phenomena investigated. In recognizing this fact they do no more than share what is common ground among all modern students of religion of any repute. But they also believe that it is neces- sary to set the practical side of each system in living relation to the beliefs and the literature, and that, in this regard, the close and direct contact which they have each had with Indian religious life ought to prove a source of valuable light. For, until a clear understanding has been gained of the practical influence exerted by the hajaits of worship, by the practice of the ascetic, devotional, or occult discipline, by the social organization and by the family system, the real impact of the faith upon the life of the individual and the community cannot be estimated ; and, without the advantage of extended personal intercourse, a trustworthy account of the religious experience of a community can scarcely be achieved by even the most careful student. II. They seek to set each form of Indian religion by the side of Christianity in such a way that the relationship may stand out clear. Jesus Christ has become to them the light of a 3 iv EDITORIAL PREFACE all their seeing,- and they believe Him destined to be the light of the world. They are persuaded that sooner or later the age-long quest of the Indian spirit for religious truth and power will find in Him at once its goal and a new starting- point, and they will be content if the preparation of this series Contributes in the smallest degree to hasten this consumma- tion. If there be readers to whom this motive is unwelcome, they may be reminded that no man approaches the study of a religion without religious convictions, either positive or negative : for both reader and writer, therefore, it is better that these should be explicitly stated at the outset. More- over, even a complete lack of sympathy with the motive here acknowledged need not diminish a reader's interest in following an honest and careful attempt to_ bring the religions of India into comparison with the religion which to-day is their only possible rival, and to which they largely owe their present noticeable and significant revival. It is possible that to some minds there may seem to be a measure of .incompatibility between these two motives. The writers, however, feel otherwise. For them the second motive reinforces the first : for they have found that he who would lead others into a new faith must first of all understand the ■ faith that is theirs already— understand it, moreover, sympa- thetically, with a mind quick to note not its weaknesses alone but that in it which has enabled it to survive and has given it its power over the hearts of those who profess it. The duty of the Editors of the series is limited to seeing that the volumes are in general harmony with the principles here described. Each writer is alone responsible for the opinions expressed in his volume, whether in regard to Indian religions or to Christianity. THE RELIGIOUS QUEST OF INDIA AN OUTLINE OF THE RELIGIOUS LITERATURE OF INDIA BY J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt., Oxon. HUMPHREY MILFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY 1930 TO MY WIFE FOREWORD This book has been written from an overwhelming sense of personal need. On every occasion when I have tried to think my way through the history of any one of the chief Hindu sects or philosophies, or to realize the origin and growth of some doctrine or discipline, I have found my way barred, because the religious literature is so imperfectly known. Numberless friends have expressed in conversation and correspondence the same feeling of helplessness. In order to deal with any one of these subjects it would be necessary for the student to under- take first of all a long and difficult investigation into the sources. The Vedic literature has been studied with the utmost care by a company of brilliant scholars ; certain sections of the philosophical literature have been critically examined ; the classical Sanskrit literature is well known ; and portions of the literature of Buddhism and of Jainism have been carefully described ; but on the mass of the books produced by Hindu sects and on great sections of Buddhist and Jain literature very little labour has yet been expended ; while no attempt has ever been made to deal with the religious history as an undivided whole which must be seen as one long process of development before the meaning of the constituent sects or religions can be fuUy understood. Consequently, the question arose whether it would not be possible to write a sketch of the whole religious literature of India. I was under no illusions as to the magnitude and the difficulty of the undertaking ; and I was very painfully conscious of the slenderness of my own linguistic preparation for the task. On the other hand, I believed that, from the point of view of the study of religions, what was wanted was x FOREWORD not so much fresh critical study of individual books as a clear comprehensible survey of the literature so far as critical inquiry, translations, and the publication of texts have made it known, so that the student might be able to begin the study of any part of it with intelligence, and to find his way without serious difficulty to all the existing literature, modern as well as ancient, which deals with the section of the field in which he is interested. It was quite clear that to bring together all that is already known about Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain literature, whether in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, or the modern vernaculars, and exhibit it as one historical development, would be extremely illuminating. The three religions are moments in a single religious movement ; and they have reacted on each other throughout their history. Vernacular religious books are as truly a vital part of the growth of the sects as their more formal Sanskrit manuals are. For a full understanding of the history, the whole must be envisaged as one great movement. I was also conscious that during the last twenty years a very large number of elements in the religious and literary history have been illuminated by fresh discoveries. A good deal of work has been done on the vernacular literatures, and masses of sectarian works in Sanskrit have been unearthed. Yet most of these important advances lie buried in notes in learned journals, in prefaces to texts, in catalogues, in articles in encyclopaedias, or in obscure monographs. They have not yet found their way into any text-book of the literature or of the religions. For example, the problem of the date of the philosophical Sutras has quite recently been brought much nearer solution, and the result is a general clarifying of the perspective in one of the most important periods. Numerous books, articles, and stray observations have shed welcome rays of light on these systems and their history. Professor Keith's Vedic works contain masses of historical and chronological observations referring to the whole of Vedic and sub-Vedic FOREWORD xi literature. Professor Hopkins's book, The Great Epic of India, throws a flood of light on the religious changes of the time when the epics were gradually being formed. The serried phalanx of details exhibited in GueVinot's splendid thesaurus has never been worked up into a history of Jain literature. Numerous works describe or throw light on sections of the literature of Buddhism; yet no one has reduced them to a single ordered narrative. H. P. Sastrl's catalogues of Nepalese manuscripts, Vidyabhushana's volume on mediaeval logic, Bhandarkar's work on the sects, and Schrader's volume on the Vaishnava Samhitas, each contain notable contributions to religious and literary history. Finally, translations from various Indian tongues have in recent years brought many of the more interesting texts within reach of the student of religions. Another consideration which helped me to get over the feeling that it was extremely rash to undertake such a book was the fact that I have had personal religious intercourse with members of most of the modern sects which come under review, and that, in the ordinary course of my work, I am able to meet Indian scholars and in conversation to receive from them detailed information not otherwise obtainable. Careful students are well aware that, if the religious history of India is to be understood, each of the leading sects of the three religions must be described by itself. Yet, if each is dealt with in isolation, where will the general movement make itself felt, and how shall we perceive the rise of changes common to all the sects? Clearly the unity of the history in all its length and breadth must be regarded as broken /and diversified, on the one hand, by numerous religious com- munities which, so to speak, lie parallel to each other, and, on the other, by successive waves of change each of which has swept over all the communities in existence at the time of its appearance, and has modified each in some degree. How, then, were these two forms of variation to be exhibited in a con- tinuous narrative ? I have attempted to divide the milleniums xii FOREWORD covered by the growth of the literature into periods correspond- ing as nearly as possible to the great waves of change in belief and practice, and within each period to group the books, as far as possible, according to the religion, the sect, and the sub-sect to which they severally belong. The result of this method of procedure is to throw the broad changes marked by the periods into bold relief and to indicate clearly which sects were active within each period ; but it has this disadvantage that, in the case of every sect which has been prominent through several periods, the history is cut up into as many pieces. But this disadvantage is more apparent than real ; for the student who wishes to deal with a single community will probably find it a rewarding piece of work to study first the whole history throughout a number of periods, and then to re-read consecutively the portions which deal with the particular community. The reason why the investigation ends with the eighteenth century is this, that from that point Western influence began to act on the Indian mind, and the new forces thereby released are still only in process of being revealed ; so that it is not yet possible to write an account of them in any way comparable with the other chapters of the book. In my Modem Religious Movements in India an attempt has been made to sketch the religious organizations which have made their appearance since the dawn of the new day. In preparing the book I have tried to make the narrative readable, if possible; despite the great compression which is necessary, if the subject is to be set forth within the compass of a single volume. I have, therefore, mentioned in the text only volumes of outstanding importance, and have relegated all the rest of the detail involved to the Bibliography. Thus the advanced student had better use the two parts of the book together. The narrative is meant to give an outline of the history and to exhibit the position and influence of the chief masses of the literature and of the leading thinkers and writers, while the Bibliography is meant to supply lists of all FOREWORD xiii the more important religious works, of the best critical books and articles written on these in modern times and of all available translations. For two reasons I decided not to give particulars about editions in the original tongues : these are so numerous that it would take much space to catalogue them, and it is clear that, from the point of view of the average student of religions, books in the original languages are almost useless. The text of each chapter is divided up by means of headings, so as to exhibit the sectarian relationships, and is then further subdivided into short sections, consecutively numbered, to facilitate reference. In the main part of the Bibliography the books of each sect or school are arranged as far as possible in historical order, and consecutively numbered, the dates and the numbers being printed in emphasized type, so that the chronology may stand out clear and the numbers may readily catch the eye. It may be well also to point out the unavoidable limitations of the work. First of all, the whole of the secular literature is dropped out of sight. Secondly, since our aim is the study of the religions, the emphasis falls throughout on the religious rather than on the literary aspects of the books. Thirdly, our attention is restricted to the literature as the chief source of knowledge of the religions, and no attempt is made to deal, except in the most incidental way, with other sources, epigraphy, archaeology, art, and what not. Again, while the nature of the task makes it necessary to say a great deal about the religions, the work is not a history of the religions but a sketch of the religious literature. It may also be well to warn readers that large elements of Indian religion scarcely appear in our pages at all. Those cults which have produced no literature are necessarily outside our survey. I owe a great deal of the most reliable information in the book to the assistance of friends. The subject is so vast and involves so much accurate knowledge that it was clear from the outset that I should have to rely largely on the help of others. xiv FOREWORD I owe the greatest debt of all to a number of Indian scholars who have most generously given me of their very best. I sub- join a list of my chief helpers with the subjects on which they have given me information : Mahamahopadhyaya Vindhyesvarl Prasad of the Sanskrit Library, Benares : The Vedanta and the Smartas. Dr. Ganga Natha Jha, Allahabad : The Karma Mimarhsa. Dr. Laddu, the Sanskrit College, Benares : The Bhagavatas and early MarathI literature. The Rev. Francis Kingsbury, United Theological College, Bangalore: Tamil literature and the history of the Tamil Saivas. A. Govindacharya Svamin, Mysore City : the SrI-Vaishnavas. Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur, and another dis- tinguished Vira Saiva : the Vlra Saivas. Pandita M. L. Sastri, Broach and Poona : the Vallabhacharyas. Prof. Bhagavata Kumara Gosvami 1 Sastri, M.A., Hoogly : the Chaitanya sect. Pandita Radha Charana Gosvaml 2 Vidyavaglsa, Honorary Magistrate, Brindaban : the Nimbarkas. Dr. V. V. Ramana Sastri, Tanjore : the later Saiva literature. Dr. M. Krishnamacharya, Tanuku, Kistna dist. : chrono- logical questions. Mr. JusticeJ. L. JainI, Indore: the Digambara Jain Secondary Canon. Mr. P. P. Subramanya Sastri, 3 Balliol College, Oxford : Appaya Dlkshita, and Sakta worship among Smartas. So many Missionaries have been of service to me that I must not attempt to mention them all. The late Dr. K. S. Macdonald of the United Free Church Mission, Calcutta, set about gathering material on the Hindu Tantras a few years before his death, and persuaded a number of his friends to analyse or translate one or more Tantras each, 1 He is a lineal descendant of Vamsivadana, one of the companions of Chaitanya. See p. 308. 2 He comes of a Madhva stem. 3 He is a lineal descendant of Appaya Dikshita's brother, Achan Dlkshita. FOREWORD xv in order to help him in the study. The MS. material which he left, most obligingly placed at my service by Mrs. Macdonald, has helped me considerably with the later history of the Sakta sect in Bengal. These MSS. may be found on p. 389. of the Bibliography, each described as belonging to the Macdonald MSS. I owe a special debt to my friend the late Rev. J. J. Johnson of the Church Missionary Society, Benares, who passed suddenly away shortly after my visit to him in December, 1 9 1 7. It will be 'something of a consolation for my heavy loss if I bear testimony here to his worth. He was thoroughly well known all over India among Hindu scholars and ascetics for his beautiful Sanskrit speech and his interest in Hindu philosophy. Every one called him Pandit Johnson. How often did the three of us meet — Mr. Johnson, his loved and trusted friend, Mahamahopadhyaya Vindhyesvarl Prasad, a scholar of rare judgement who has been already mentioned, and myself. We met so because of my inability to express myself in the classic tongue of India, and our procedure was always the same. I asked my questions in English, and Mr. Johnson expressed them in Sanskrit. I was then usually able to follow the Sastri's Sanskrit replies, but if I failed to catch a point Mr. Johnson again interpreted. Now that he is gone Benares can never again be the same to me. To the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd, of Udaipur — charming host and beloved missionary — I owe the settlement of the date and history of Mira Bai, the Rajput princess whose lyrics of passionate devotion for Krishna have won her endur- ing fame. A pair of Poona friends, the Rev. Dr. N. Macnicol and the Rev. A. Robertson, have given me most generous help toward the interpretation of the religion and the poetry of the Maratha. saints and the elucidation of Manbhau problems. To all others, whether Indians or Missionaries, who have answered my questions, orally or by letter, or who have led me to fresh sources of information, I wish to express my unfeigned gratitude and thanks. xvi FOREWORD My teacher, Prof. A. A. Macdonell of Oxford, read the first and second chapters of the book in manuscript, and made many N valuable suggestions. For the assistance of his ripe Vedic scholarship I am deeply grateful. Prof. A. Berriedale Keith of Edinburgh read the whole manuscript, and sent me a large number of critical notes which have saved me from blunders, from dangerous statements, and from reliance on weak evidence, and have suggested numerous fresh points of view. For such help no thanks can make an adequate return. But while I owe much precious information and help to -these scholars, Indian and European, they must not be held responsible for any statement in the text ; for I have not accepted all their conclusions. The final historical judgement in every case is my own. It is therefore quite possible that my suggestions as to what the history behind the evidence is in any particular case may seem to them quite unjustifiable. This is above all likely to happen in the case of the sects. Dr. Berriedale Keith is certainly of opinion that I have been a good deal too optimistic in attempting to assign in- dividual Puranas, Tantras, and Upanishads to the chronological periods adopted in the book. I have, however, in each case indicated that the ascription is tentative and at best only probable ; and it has seemed wise even to run the risk of being discovered in error, in the hope that the tentative history may stimulate further investigation. Letters indicating errors or omissions or fresh points of view will be very warmly welcomed. To Dr. James Morison, Librarian of the Indian Institute, Oxford, who has faithfully carried out the long toilsome task of revising the proofs, I wish to offer my sincere gratitude. n Frenchay Road, Oxford. December, 1 91 9. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION : x to y. i i. Rik, I-IX 4 ii. Rik, X; Saman; Early Yajus 15 iii. Brahmanas, Atharvan, Aranyakas 23 II. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE: y to 200 B.C. . 33 i. Transmigration and Karma 33 ii. The Twice-born and their Literature 36 iii. The Epics 44 iv. Systems of Release . . . . 5 1 A. The Upanishads . . , . , . .52 B. Many Schools 60 C. The Buddhist School 62 D. The Jain School 73 III. THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM: 200 B.C. to A.D. 200 78 i. Hinduism . 79 A. The Twice-born and their Literature .... 79 'B. The Epics . . 83 C. The \ Bhagavadgita 86 D. The Philosophies . 92 E. The Didactic Epic 95 F. Vaishnava Material in the Didactic Epic ... 96 G. Saiva Material in the Didactic Epic .... 101 ii. Buddhism 103 A. Hlnayana ... 103 a. Sthavira Literature . t 104 b. Sautrantika Literature 106 c. Sarvastivadin Literature 107 d. Mahasanghika Literature 109 e. Buddhist Worship 1 10 B. Mahayana Ill a. The Full Mahayana 112 b. The Paradise Mahayana 117 C. Buddhism in China 1 18 iii. Jainism 119 ' b , (! xviii CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE IV. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS : a.d. 200 to a.d. 550 . 122 i. Hinduism 122 A. The Philosophies 122 a. The Karma Mimamsa 125 b. The Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta . . .126 c. The Sankhya . 129 d. The Yoga 131 e. The Vaiseshika 133 /. The Nyaya 134 B. The Pin-anas 136 C. The Orthodox Twice-born and their Literature . 140 D. Vaishnava Literature 143 E. Saiva Literature 145 F. Brahma Literature 148 G. Durga Literature 149 H. Saura Literature . . . , . 151 ii. Buddhism 153 A. Hlnayana Literature 154 B. Maha.ya.na Literature . 157 a. The Madhyamakas 159 b. The Vijnanavadins 160 iii. Jainism 162 A. sVetambara Literature 163 B. Digambara Literature 165 V. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS: a.d. 550 to a.d. 900 . . 167 i. Hinduism 168 A. The Philosophies 168 a. The Karma Mimamsa 168 b. The Vedanta 1 70 c. The Sankhya 176 d. The Yoga 177 e. The Vaiseshika 177 /. The Nyaya 1 77 s B. The Puranas 178 C. Smartas and their Literature 179 D. Vaishnava Literature . . . . . .181 a. Bhagavata Literature 181 b. Paficharatra Literature 182 1. Tamil Vaishnavas 187 2. The Narasirhha^Sect ... . . . 188 3. The Rama Sect 189 CONTENTS xix CHAP. V. E. 3aiva Literature . (cont.). a. Pasupata Saivas . I. The Lakullsas 2. . The Kapalikas 3. TheNathas b. Agamic Saivas . 1. Tamil Saivas 2. Kashmir Saivas F. Sakta Literature . \^tx. The Tantras b. Mantra, Yantra, Mudra c. The Cult . G. Saura Literature . H. Ganapatya Literature . ii. Buddhism . A. The Hlnayana B. The Mahayana . a. The Madhyamakas b. The Vijfianavadins C. The Sakta Movement iii. Jainism .... A. Svetambara Literature B. Digambara Literature VI. BHAKTI : a.d. 900 to A.D. 1350 i. Hinduism . . . A. The Philosophies a. The Karma Mimamsa b. The Vedanta c. The Sankhya d. The Yoga . e. The Vaiseshika /. The Nyaya . B. The Puranas C. Smarta Literature D. Vaishnava Literature a. General b. Bhagavata Literature 1. The Bhagavata Purana 2. The Bhagavatas . 3. The Bhaktas of the Maratha country ba xx CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE VI. 4. The Madhvas • 235 {cont.). 5. Radha .... • 237 6. The Vishnusvamls . 238 7. The Nimbarkas .... • 239 c. Pancharatra Literature . 240 1. The Sri-Vaishnavas . 240 2. The Manbhaus .... • 247 . 3. The Narasiriiha Sect . . 249 4. The Rama Sect .... . 249 E. Saiva Literature . 251 a. Pasupata Saivas ..... I . The Lakulisas . 251 . 251 2. The Kapalikas .... 3. The Gorakhnathls . 252 • 253 4. The Rasesvaras .... • 254 b. Agamic Saivas I. The Sanskrit School of Saiva Side • 255 lhanta . 255 2. Tamil Saivas .... • 255 3. Kashmir Saivas . . 258 4. Vlra Saivas ..... • 259 F. Sakta Literature . 265 a. The Left-hand School . 265 b. The Right-hand School . c. The Bhakti School .... . 267 . 269 G. Saura Literature . 269 H. Ganapatya Literature . 270 I. Dharma Literature . . 271 ii. Buddhism . A. The 3aktas .... . 272 . 272 B. Buddhist Lands .... • 274 iii. Jainism A. sVetambara Literature .... • 277 • 277 B. Digambara Literature .... . 281 VII. MUSLIM INFLUENCE, A.D. 1350 to a.d. 1800 . 284 i. Hinduism . 285 A. The Philosophies a. The Karma Mimamsa . 285 . 285 b. TheVedanta . 286 c. The Sankhya d. The Yoga . .... e. The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya . . 288 . 289 . 289 CONTENTS xxi CHAP. PAGE VII. B. Reconciliation of Systems . 290 (ami.). C. The Hindu people . 292 D. Smarta Literature • 293 E. Vaishnava Literature . 296 a. General . 296 b. Bhagavata • 297 i. The Bhagavata Community • 297 2. Maratha Bhaktas .... . 298 3. The Madhvas • 302 4. The Vishnusvamls .... • 3°4 5. The Nimbarkas .... • 305 6. Radha-Krishna Literary Verse . 3°5 7. The Chaitanya Sect . 307 8. The Vallabhacharyas 312 9. The Bhakta-mala .... 317 10. The Radha-Vallabhls 318 11. The Hari-Dasls .... 318 12. The Svarni-Narayanis 318 c. Paficharatra 319 ■ 1. The ^ri-Vaishnavas .... 319 2. The Satanis 321 3. The Manbhaus . . . 322 4. The Ramanandls .... 323 d. Reformed 330 I. Kabir and his Influence . 33° 2. The Kablrpanthts .... 335 3. The Sikhs ... 336 4. The Dadupanthls 34. 1 5. The Lai Dasis 342 6. The Satnamls 342 7. The Baba Lalls 344 8. The Sadhs 344 9. The Charan-Dasls 344 10. The 3iva-NarayanIs 345 11. The Garlb-Dasis ... 345 12. The Ram-Sanehls 345 F. Saiva Literature 346 a. General ........ 346 b. Pasupata Saivas 347 1. The Gorakhnathls 347 c. Agamic Saivas 349 1. Sanskrit School of 3aiva Siddhanta . 349 2. Tamil Saivas 35o XX11 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE VII. 3. Sittars 352 (cont.). 4. Kashmir &aivas 3S 2 5. Vlra^Saivas 353 G. Sakta Literature 353 a. The Left-hand School 353 b. The Right-hand School 357 c. The Bhakti School . ... . . -359 ii. Jainism 359 A. Svetambara Literature 359 B. Digambara Literature 360 BIBLIOGRAPHY 362 INDEX 407 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES AND THE BIBLIOGRAPHY Acworth, BM. AMG. II. AMG. V. AR. ARAD. Arunachalam, STT. Avalon, HG. Avalon, SP. Avalon, TGL. Avalon, TT. B. Barnett, HI. Barth, RI. BEFEO. Beng. Bhandarkar CV. Bhandarkar, EHD. Bhandarkar, R. Bhandarkar, VS. Bhattacharya, HCS. BI. Bloomfield, A V. Bloomfield, RV. BMCTB. BSOSL. Chanda, IAR. Chatterji, HR. Chatterji, KS. Chaukh. Acworth, Ballads of the Marathds, London, 1894. Feer, Analyse du Kandjour, Annates du Musie Guimet, II, Paris, 1881. Feer, Traductions du Kandjour, Annates du Musie Guimet, V, Paris, 1883. Asiatic Researches. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department. Studies and Translations from the Tamil, by P. A., Madras, 1898. Arthur and Ellen Avalon, Hymns to the Goddess, London, 1913. Avalon, The Serpent Power, London, 1919. Avalon, Tantra of the Great Liberation (Mahanir- vana T), London, 1913. Avalon, Tantrik Texts, London, 1913 ff. Brahmana. Barnett, Heart of India, a vol. of translations, London, 1908. Barth, Religions of India, London, 1906. Bulletin de I' E cole Fran false d'Extrime-Orient. Bengali. Bhandarkar Commemoration Volume, Poona, 1917. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan, Bombay, 1884. Bhandarkar, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit MSS., Bombay. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism &°c, GRUND- RISS, 1913. Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, Calcutta, 1896. Bibliotheca Indica, a series published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Bloomfield, Atharvaveda, GRUNDRISS, 1899. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, New York, 1908. British Museum Catalogue of Tamil Books, London, 1909. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, London. Chanda, Indo-Aryan Races, Rajshahi, 1916. Chatterji, The Hindu Realism, Allahabad, 1912. Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivism, Srinagar, 1914. Chaukhamba Series, Benares. XXIV ABBREVIATIONS CII. Colebrooke, ME, Comm. Cowell, SDS. CTr. Deussen, AGP. Deussen, PU. Deussen, SUV. Deussen, SV. DS. Duff, CI. Dutt, M T. EB. Eggeling, SMIO. ERE. ETr. FTr. Garbe, IC. Garbe, SY. Getty, GNB. Gover, FSSI. Govindacharya, R. Govindacharya, YMD, Grierson, LH. Griffis. Griffith, RV. Growse, M. Growse, R. GRUNDRISS. GSAI. GTr. Guennot. Hall. Haug, AB. Hillebrandt, RL. Hoernle, MRBL. Corpus Inscriptionarum Indicarum. Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, I. London, 1 837. Commentary. Cowell and Gough, The Sarva-darsana-sahgraha of Madhava? London, 1908. Chinese translation. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophic, Leipzig, 1906. Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Edinburgh, 1906. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad's des Veda, Leipzig, 1897. Deussen, System of the Vedanta, Chicago, 1912. Dharmasutra. Mabel Duff, Chronology of India, London, 1899. Dutt, A Prose English Translation of the Maha- nirvana Tantram, Calcutta, 1900. Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Xlth ed. Sanskrit MSS. in India Office, 1887. Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Edinburgh. English Translation. French Translation. Garbe, Indien und das Christentum, Tubingen, 1914. Garbe, Samkhya und Yoga, GRUNDRISS, 1896. Getty, Gods of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, 1914. Gover, Folk-songs of Southern India, London, 1872. Govindacharya, Life of Ramanuja, Madras, 1906. Govindacharya, ETr. of Yatindra Mata Dipika, Madras, 1912. Grierson, Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindu- j/aWj-Calcutta, 1889. References to pages. Griffis, Religions of Japan, New York, 1904. Griffith, The Hymns of the Rigveda Translated, Benares, 1896. Growse, Mathura, 3 Allahabad, 1883. Growse, The Ramayana of Tulsi "Das* ETr., Allahabad, 1887. Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Alter- tumskunde (Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan Re- search), Strassburg. Giornale della SocietcL asiatica italiana, Firenze. German Translation. Guerinot, Essai de Bibliographie Jaina, Paris, 1906. References to pages. Fitzedward Hall, An Index of the Indian Philo- sophical Systems, Calcutta, 1859. Haug, Aitareya Brahmana, Bombay, 1863. Hillebrandt, Ritual-Litteratur, Vedische Opfer und Zauber, GRUNDRISS, 1897. Hoernle, Manuscript Remains of Buddhist Literature, Oxford, 1 9 16. ABBREVIATIONS XXV Holtzmann, MBH. Holtzmann, Das Mahdbhdrata, Kiel, 1892-5. Hopkins, GE. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New York, 1901. Hopkins, ION. Hopkins, India Old and New, New York, 1901. Hopkins, RI. Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1908. Hopkins, Ruling Caste. J A OS. 1889. Hopkins, YT. Hopkins, Yoga-technique, JAOS. XXI lb, 333. H. P. Sastri. H. P. Sastrl, A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and selected Paper MSS. belonging to the Durbar Library, Nepal, Calcutta, I. 1905 ; II. 1915. The Indian Antiquary, Bombay. International Oriental Congress. Indische Studien, i85off. Italian, Translation. P. T. Srlnivasa Iyengar, Outlines of Indian Philo- sophy, Benares, 1909. Journal Asialique, Paris. Jacob, Eleven Atharvana Upanishads, Bombay, 1891. Ausgewdhlte Erzahlungen in Mahardshtri, Leip- zig, 1886. Jacobi, Das Rdmdyana, Bonn, 1893. Jaini, Outlines ofjainism, Cambridge, 1916. Journal of American Oriental Society. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. J ha, Prabhakara School of Piirva Mimdmsa, Allahabad, 191 1. Jhaveri, Milestones in Gujarati Literattcre, Bom- bay, 1914. JoUy, Recht und Sitte, GRUNDRISS, 1896. Journal of the Pali Text Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Ancient India, London, 1911. Keith, Aitareya Aranyaka, Oxford, 1909. Keith, Sdmkhya System, Calcutta, 1918. Keifh, Taittiriya Samhita, Harvard, 1914. Kennedy, Hindu Mythology, London, 1831. Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, GRUND- RISS, 1896. Kingsbury & Phillips. Hymns of the Tamil Saiva Saints, Calcutta, 1920. Krishna Sastrl, SI I. H. Krishna Sastri, South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras, 1916. Krishnasamy Iyer, Sri Sahkardchdrya, Madras, Natesan. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, Oxford, 1909. 'See pp. xiv-xv. Macdonell, Sanskrit Literature, London, 1900. Macnicol, Psalms of Marathd Saints, Calcutta, 1919. IA. IOC. I.St. ITr. Iyengar, Outlines JA. Jacob, EA U. Jacobi, AEM. Jacobi, R. Jaini, OJ. JAOS. JASB. JBBRAS. Jha, PSPM. Jhaveri, MGL. Jolly, RS. JPTS. JRAS. K. Aiyangar, A I. Keith, AA. Keith, SS. Keith, TS. Kennedy, HM. Kern, MIB. Krishnasamy Aiyar. Macauliffe. Macdonald MSS. Macdonell. Macnicol, PMS. XXVI ABBREVIATIONS Mitra. Madhava, SDS. Madhava, Sarva-darsana-sangraha. MBH. Mahabharata. MB V. Misra Brothers, Misra Bandhu Vinode, Allahabad, 1916. R. L. Mitra, Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal, Calcutta, 1882. Mitra, Notices. Mitra, Notices of Sanskrit MSS., Calcutta. Monier Williams, BH. Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, London, 1 891. Mod. Rev. The Modern Review, a monthly, Calcutta. Moulton, EZ. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, London, 1913. Moulton, TM. Moulton, Treastire of the Magi, London, 1917. Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB. Mrs. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Early Buddhists, London, of the Sisters, 1909; of the Brethren, 191 3. Mrs. Stevenson, HJ. Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Heart of fainism, Lon- don, 191 5. Muir, OST. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, London, 1858 ff. Miiller, ASL. Max Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature? London. i860. Miiller, SS. Max Miiller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London, 1899. , Nallasvami Pillai, SJB. Nallasvami Pillai, Siva Jnana Bodham, Madras, . . . l8 9S- Nallasvami Pillai, 556 1 . Nallasvami Pillai, Studies in Saiva Siddhanta, Madras, 1911. Bunyiu Nanjio, The Chinese Buddhist Trifiitaka, Oxford, 1883. References to entries. Oldenberg, Buddha, London, 1882. Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Ufianishaden und die Anfange des Buddhismus, Gottingen, 1915. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin, 1 894. Oriental Translation Fund of the Royal [Asiatic Society. Purana. Padmanabhachar, LTM. Padmanabhachar, Life and Teachings of Madhvacharyar, Coimbatore, 1909. Pargiter, The Markandeya P-urana, translated, Calcutta, 1904. Pargiter, The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, Oxford, 1913. Peterson, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit MSS., Bombay. Pischel, Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen, Strass- burg, 1900. Pope, The Tiruvasagam, Text, Intro.^ETr., Oxford, 1900. Poussin, Bouddhisme, Opinions sur I'Histoire de la Dogmatique, Paris, 1909. Poussin, Vasubandhu et Yasomitra,'^ Troisieme Chapitre dtl'Abhidharmakosa, London, 1914-18. Poussin, The Way to Nirvana, Cambridge, 1917. Nanjio. Oldenberg, Buddha. Oldenberg, LU. Oldenberg, R V. OTF. P. Pargiter, MP. Pargiter, PTDKA Peterson. Pischel, GPS. Pope, TV. Poussin, Opinions. Poussin, V. 6V» Y. Poussin, WN. ABBREVIATIONS XXVll Powlett, Ulwur. Prak. Prasad, SBS. Powlett, Ulwur, a District Memoir, Allahabad, 1878. Prakrit. Rai Balesvar Prasad Bahadur, Sant Bant Sahgra- ha, Allahabad, 1915. Quackenbos, SPM. Quackenbos, The Sanskrit Poems of Mayura with Edna's Chandisataka, New York, 1917^ Rajagopalachariar, VRI. t. Rajagopalachariar, The Vaishnavite Re- formers of India, Madras. , R. A. Sastri, Anandalahiri. R. Anantakrishna Sastri, Anandalahari, ,_ ' Palghat, 1899. R. A. Sastri, Lalitd. R. Anantakrishna Sastri, Lalitdsahasranama, with > Bhaskararaya's comm., in ETr., Madras, 1899. Rhys Davids, American Lectures on Buddhism, New York, 1901. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, London, 1880. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, London, 1903. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, London, 1899. Rhys Davids, History of Indian Buddhism, Lon- don, 1897. Rice, Kanarese Literature, Calcutta, 191 8. Russell and Hira Lai, Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces, London, 1916. Samhita. M. Srlnivasa Aiyangar, Tamil Studies, Madras, 1914. ( Sanskrit. Sarkar, Chaitanya's Pilgrimages and Teachings, being the middle part of the Chaitanya-charita- amrita in English, Calcutta, 1913. Sacred Books of the East, Oxford. Sacred Books of the Hindus, Panini Office, Alla- habad. , Schomerus, Der Saiva Siddhanta, Leipzig, 1912. Schrader, Introduction to the Pdnchardtra and the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, Madras, 1916. Schroeder, Indiens Litteraturund Kultur, Leipzig, 1887. Seidenstiicker, PBU. Seidenstiicker, Pali Buddhismus in Uebersetzun- % gen, Breslau, 191 1. Sen, Chaitanya and his Companions, Calcutta, 1917. Sen, History of Bengali Language and Literature, Calcutta, 191 1. Sen, Vaisnava Literature of Mediaeval Bengal, Calcutta, 1917. Sen, Vahga Sahitya Parichaya, selections from old Bengali literature, Calcutta, 1914. Seshagiri Rao, SSTM. Report on the Search for Sanskrit and Tamil MSS., Madras. Siddhanta Difiika. A monthly magazine, Madras, 1897-1913. Rhys Davids, ALB. Rhys Davids, BBS. Rhys Davids, BI. Rhys Davids, DB. Rhys Davids, HIB. Rice, KL. Russell and Hira Lai. 5. S. Aiyangar, TS. Sansk. Sarkar, CPT. SBE. SBH. Schomerus, SS. Schrader, IP AS. Schroeder, ILK. Sen, CC. Sen, HBLL. Sen, VLMB. Sen, VSP. xxvm ABBREVIATIONS SJM. Sanskrit Journal of Madras. SKPAW. Sitzungsoerichte der Koniglichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. Sanskrit MSS. in the India Office, London, 1887. Suali, Introduzione alio Studio della Filosofia Indiana, Pavia, 1913. Sukhtankar, Teachings of Vedanta ace. to Ramd- nuja, Wien, 1908. Tamil. Telugu. Upanishad. Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, London, 1912. Vidyabhushana, MSIL. Mediaeval System of Indian Logic, Calcutta, 1909. Vincent A. Smith, Early History of India} Oxford, 1914. V. Smith, History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Oxford, 191 1. Walleser, Der dltere Vedanta, Heidelberg, 1910. Warren, Buddhism in Translations, Harvard, 1896. Watters, Ou Yuan Chwang, London, 1904. Weber, History of Indian Literature, London, 1892. Westcott, Kabir and the Kabir Panth, Cawnpore, 1907. Whitney and Lanman, A V. Whitney and Lanman, Atharva-veda Sam- hita, in ETr., Harvard, 1905. Wilson, Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindtts, 2 London, 1861. Wilson, Vishnu Purana, London, 1864. Wilson, Select Works, London, 1 861. Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus, London, 1871. Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, Leipzig, Vol. I, 1908, Vol. II. i, 1913. Woods, The Yoga-system of Patanjali, Harvard, 1914. Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesell- schaft, 1847 ff. SMIO. Suali, Introduzione. Sukhtankar, TVR. Tarn. Tel. U. Vedic Index. V. Smith, EHI. V. Smith, HFA. Walleser, DA V. Warren, BT. Watters. Weber, H1L. Westcott, Kabir. Wilson, Sects. Wilson, VP. Wilson, Works, Wilson, TH. Winternitz. Woods, Yoga. ZDMG. CHAPTER I THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION: x toy. § i. The investigations of the past century have shown clearly that the people who conquered India and created the Hindu religion and civilization belonged to that ancient race, now usually called Indo-European, from which sprang the Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic, Italic, Hellenic, Armenian, Persian, and other peoples. This kinship is visible in the speech of the invaders, 1 in numerous details of their culture, 2 and also in their religion. 3 From a comparison of the beliefs and practices of these many nations it is possible to form some idea of the religion of the parent Indo-European race. The basis of the religion was an animistic belief in a very large number of petty gods, each of which had a special function ; but the people had already advanced to the conception of a few glorious heavenly gods (Sanskrit deva, Latin deus, &c), each a representative of one of the greater aspects of nature. Sky, thunder, sun, moon, fire, wind, and water were the chief of this new group of great gods. They were worshipped with sacrifice, accompanied with potent formulae and prayer, the offerings being either laid out on grass for the gods to eat or wafted to them on the fire and smoke of the altar. Ancestors were also worshipped as powerful beings who from the other world watched over their descendants. There was thus already some sort of belief in immortality. Magic was highly regarded and much used. The family was patriarchal in 1 Max Mtiller, Lectures on the Science of Language. 2 Max Muller, Biographies of Words. 3 Schrader, art. 'Aryan Religion', ERE.; Hillebrandt, RL. i-io; Bloomfield, /?K 99-149. B a THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION character ; marriage was universal ; and sons were ardently desired. § 2. We cannot tell where the home of this ancient race was, nor at what times and places the great historical peoples hived off from it ; but we can trace with certainty the invaders of India, in that stage of their life which immediately preceded the invasion. 1 A people, partly nomadic, partly agricultural, lived for a considerable time somewhere in Central Asia, perhaps just to the north of the Hindu Kush. Finally they separated into two groups, perhaps by a process of migration so slow as to leave them unconscious that they had fallen apart, the one moving through Afghanistan into India, the other spreading over the wide territory which bears their racial name, Iran. This word is simply a variant form of Aryan, the name used by their brothers, the invaders of India. We may therefore speak of the period before the separation as the time of Indo-Iranian unity. There is sufficient evidence available to enable us to form a clearer picture of this period than of the far earlier Indo- European period. Most of our knowledge arises from a com- parison of the Veda, the earliest Indian literature, with the earliest literature of the Iranian peoples, viz. the Avesta, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians of ancient Persia. A careful comparative study of the two reveals the fact that the Indo- Iranian people had advanced beyond the early Indo-European faith. The religion centres in the heavenly gods and the animistic divinities are far less prominent. There can be little doubt that among the gods reverenced were Varuna, Mitra, Soma, Aryaman, Indra, the Asvins (i.e. the Dioskouroi), and two semi-divine figures, Vivasvant and Yama. All occur in both literatures except Varuna, Indra, and the Asvins. These are not definitely vouched for by the Avesta? but they are named in an inscription found by Winckler at Boghaz Keui in 1 See Keith on The Early History of the Indo- Iranians, Bhandarkar C.V., 8i. 2 Yet Indra and Nasatya (i.e. the Asvins) occur as demons in the mythology of the Avesta. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 3 Asia Minor and believed to date from 1400 B.C.; 1 and there are so many points of resemblance between Ahura Mazdah, the God of Zoroaster, and the Varuna of the Rigveda that one is almost driven to believe the two to be identical in origin. 2 There were three forms of sacrifice in use among the early people, the shedding of oblations of grain and milk on the sacred fire, the setting forth of basins of an intoxicating beverage (Sansk. soma, Avestan, haomd) for the gods to drink, and the sacrifice of animals. Soma had already been deified, and the priests had begun to sing hymns as an accompaniment to the ritual with which it was offered. The presence in the Avesta of a considerable number of ritual terms and designations of priests, which are exact equivalents of technical words and phrases found in the Vedas, 3 proves that the basis of the liturgy and the ritual of the Vedic and the Zoroastrian religions had already taken shape. One most remarkable conception, the idea of law physical and moral as a fixed divine order, was formed at a very early date. It is already found in Persian proper names at a very early date, possibly 1600 B.C., in the form arta, and it appears in the Rigveda as rita, and in the Avesta in the form asha. The time when the people fell into two parts is unknown. Some scholars would give it an extremely early date, while others assign it to the middle of the second millenium B.C. § 3. Hindus wrote no formal history at any period ; for the early centuries there are no archaeological remains that throw any light on the course of events ; nor is any definite informa- tion provided by nations outside India ; so that the religious and epic literature forms the only sources of information available. Yet, though it is impossible to write the history, it is possible to learn much about the religion of that early time from these ancient books. 1 It mentions Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya (i. e. the Asvins) as gods. Thus the high antiquity of Varuna is assured. 2 Moulton, EZ. 61 ; Bloomfield, RV. 132 ff. 3 Hillebrandt, RL.11; Haug, AB. I. 61. B % 4 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION In this chapter we deal with the development of the religion from the moment when the tribes entered India down to the time when the doctrine of transmigration and karma arose, and we divide the whole period into three sections, in order to exhibit more clearly the growth of ideas and insti- tutions. i. Rik, I-IX. § 4. The Rigveda, the earliest literature of India, is a large collection of hymns connected in various ways with the sacri- fices, the domestic ceremonies, and the religious speculation of the time. These hymns were composed by the invading Aryan tribes, at last severed from their brothers who were destined to produce Zoroaster and make Persia famous. When the earliest hymns were composed, they were settled in the territories forming the basin of the upper Indus and its tributaries ; but thereafter they gradually spread farther east. But the invading Aryans, tall in stature and of fair com- plexion, did not form the main population. Scattered about among them and around them and over the plains of North India were innumerable tribes of short, dark people with whom they were frequently at war, and whom they called- Dasyus and Dasas. The hymns of the Rigveda give no indication that the Aryan tribes thought of themselves as being strangers in India or as being in any way related with another people away to the west. They seem to regard themselves as belong- ing to the soil on which they live. On the other hand, they are certainly very conscious of the differences between them- selves and the Dasas, and they regard their hostility towards them as not only natural but inevitable. These two races represent the chief elements in the ethnology of India- to this day, and from them and the mutual influence they have exercised on each other have come, in the main, the civiliza- tion and the religion of India. In the study of the evolution of the religion of India we shall constantly be tempted to give our undivided attention to the Aryan race and community ; THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 5 but to neglect the large part piayed throughout the history by the aborigines is to fail to grasp facts of great significance. § 5. In the following sentences we combine the few fragments of information given in the hymns about the dark tribes. They are said to have a black skin, and the difference in colour (varna) between them and the fair Aryans is frequently referred to. They are called anas, which probably means ' noseless ', i. e. snub-nosed. They were arranged in clans ; they had considerable wealth; and they built forts, for them- selves, frequently on hills ; but there is no reason to think that in civilization they were at all comparable with the Aryans. The differences between them and the Aryans on which the hymns lay most stress are religious. The following epithets are applied to them : ' not sacrificing ', ' devoid of rites ', ' addicted to strange vows ', ' god-hating ', ' without devotion ' ; and they are probably the people referred to as sihia-dei)dk, ' those whose god is a phallus '. As many of these people were captured by the Aryans in war and reduced to slavery, the word dasa came to bear the meaning of ' slave '. § 6. The picture which the hymns enable us to form of the Aryans shows us an early but not a primitive people ; for they had made considerable progress in material civilization. Yet they were still a simple race ; for they had neither coinage nor writing, and had little idea of number or measure. Their trade existed only as barter, the cow being the unit of exchange. They lived in wooden houses and built small forts on hills, to which they retired when hard pressed in war. There was no caste among the Aryan tribes at this time. We certainly find a triple division of the people— warriors, priests, and commons ; but there was no hard-and-fast law prohibiting intermarriage and commanding each son to follow his father's occupation. Yet the aristocratic warriors and priests stood out very distinctly from the common people, and it is only of the aristocracy that we have anything like adequate information. Though in race, religion, and language the Aryan 6 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION tribes were one, they had not reached the idea of forming themselves into a nation ; nor had they a sovereign or a war- leader. Each tribe was independent and had its chief, who presided over his people in peace and led them in war. War led occasionally to a coalition of tribes. Their literature shows that this people had a striking genius for language. Alone among all the languages of Indo-European speech their tongue, with the cultured literary language known as Sanskrit which grew out of it, retains each element in easily recognizable form. It has thus proved of very signal service to the science of philology. §7. The Rigveda, which is not only the first monument of the Indian genius but the earliest literature produced within the Indo-European family of peoples, is a collection of 1,017 hymns (with eleven extra uncanonical pieces) distributed in ten books. Perhaps we shall find our way into the signifi-„ cance of the collection most readily if we attempt to sketch the way in which it seems to have come into existence. We have seen above that, already in the Indo-Iranian period, the exhilarating drink made from the soma-plant had been deified, that a special ritual in which this divine drink was offered to the gods was in use, and that the singing of a hymn was an integral part of the ritual. This is the historical tap-root of the Rigveda. The invaders of India carried these customs with them, and continued the com- position of hymns for the Soma-ritual in their new country. Since the hymn was sung, the priest who sang the hymn was called the Singer, Udgatri. But poetry and the hymn would not be restricted to a single use. Hence a custom arose, probably after the Aryans had entered'India, that the leading priest, the Sacrificer, Hotri, who was responsible for offerings made in the fire and for animal-sacrifice, should recite, in honour of the god he was worshipping, a poem or hymn of praise, Rich. Then, as the ritual increased in detail, an assistant was appointed to undertake the manual acts of sacrificing (adkvara). He was therefore called Adhvaryu, THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 7 and the recitation of praises became the Hotri's chief duty. 1 Although the ritual was now divided into three strands, there were no distinct orders of priests corresponding to these divisions. Each officiant was merely called Hotri, Udgatri, or Adhvaryu, for the time being, according to the duty he undertook at the sacrifice. 2 § 8. Men believed that the sacrifices were mighty to influence the gods and bring down gifts from them. Therefore every chieftain and noble among the Aryans was eager to secure the help of a skilled priest, and was glad to pay him hand- somely for services which brought victory and wealth from the gods. Hence we find existing among the people a number of priestly families of high standing and influence. The priest taught his sons the precious secret lore which enabled him by conducting sacrifices in the right way to win the favour of the gods for his patrons. It was in these priestly families that the composition of hymns to the gods was practised. Each priest did his utmost to produce as beautiful a hymn as possible, in order to please and move the divinity for whom the sacrifice was held. Then the priest taught his sons the best hymns he had composed ; so that in each family there arose a body of hymns which were greatly treasured, and were orally transmitted from father to son, along with the directions for the work of the altar. Naturally, the priestly families competed for the patronage of the greatest chieftains and the wealthiest nobles, and in the struggle found the quality of their hymns a matter of vital importance. We must therefore picture to ourselves a time of eager poetic emulation, during which metres, stanzas, and refrains were gradually perfected and polished. A very dignified and expressive literary dialect was thus gradually evolved. This dialect is closely related, it is true, to the common vernacular, yet it employs stately words and phrases 1 Haug, AB. I. 17. a Muir, OST. V. 350, with a reference to a passage in Yaska; Hille- brandt, RL. 13. fr THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION which would rise to the lips only in moments of exaltation, and here and there uses well-known and effective archaisms. Thus there arose the first literary dialect of India. As time went on, the influence of the priests tended to increase. The ritual be.came steadily more complex, and the need of skilled sacerdotal help more pressing. Naturally, hymns were written for the various festivals, anniversaries, and sacrifices. The literature thus tended to become more artificial. The hymn prepared for a special sacrifice, and written so as to fit into its chief incidents or features, would be more appro- priate, but probably less inspired than a hymn arising from a spontaneous outburst of religious feeling. How the father taught his sons the family heritage of technical lore and hymns we do not know. Each experienced priest probably conducted a sort of rudimentary school for the benefit of his sons and nephews, in which he taught them orally all the hymns and priestly lore traditional in the family. 1 § 9. The Rigveda 2 preserves seven groups of hymns which belonged to as many families. Each of these bears the name of a patriarch, 3 and to him in each case most of the hymns in the family collection are ascribed. As authors of hymns these patriarchs are called Rishis, seers. The names of the eponym Rishis of the seven families are : Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishtha, Kanva. There were other families which possessed hymns, but, clearly, these seven were the most famous of all. It seems certain that these family collections grew up gradually and that many singers contributed to each collection ; for each family was as it were a distinct school of poetry. But a moment came when, by some means or other, the hymn-collections belonging to the six families named first 1 See RV. VII. 103. 2 For the growth of the Rik see Macdonell, 40 ff. 3 That is, is spoken of as the Atri book, the Vasishtha book, &c, because the name in each case occurs in many of the hymns of the book as the name of the seer or of the family of which he is the spokesman. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 9 above were all taught together in a single school. Each collection was still kept distinct; but the collections were taught in order, the one after the other, to the same pupils, instead of being each retained and handed down in a single family. There was thus formed the body of poetry now con- tained in Books II-VII of the Rigveda. How this unification was effected we do not know. The emergence of a very powerful chieftain, determined at all costs to have the whole of the best poetry at the command of his own chief priest, would account for it ; and as the Brahmanic culture first took definite shape in the holy land of Kurukshetra, the land of the Kurus, the modern Sirhind, one is tempted to think that it was some vigorous Kuru prince who commanded that the hymns of the six families should all be taught together ; but there is no distinct evidence. When brought together in the school, the six collections seem to have been taught in ascending order, each succeeding collection containing more hymns than its predecessor : but later interpolations, by increasing the number of the hymns irregularly, have somewhat disturbed the arrangement. The hymns in each of the six collections are in the main arranged according to a common method. They are distributed in groups according to the gods they are addressed to, and within each of these groups they are arranged in descending order according to the number of stanzas each contains. § 10. Later, a large number of hymns disposed in nine groups was introduced into the school. Each group was believed to be the work of one poet * or family, all the nine being quite distinct from the six already mentioned. These hymns were given the first place in the whole body of literature belonging to the school, being taught before the six original collections. They now form the latter half of Book I of the Rigveda, beginning with the fifty-first hymn. The whole collection now amounted to lb + II-VII. 1 The names are Savya, Nodhas, Parasara, Gotama, Kutsa, Kakshlvan, Paruchchhepa, Dirghatamas, Agastya. io THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION Still later two further additions were made to the hymn material of the school. As these two collections each contain a large number of hymns from the last of the seven famous families mentioned above, 1 the family of Kanva, and have also a number of common features, it is likely that they had a common origin, and were introduced to the great school at the same time. One group was prefixed to the old material, the other affixed. So that the body of sacred poetry now stood thus : la + lb + II-VII + VIII. Then the ninth book came into existence. It consists exclusively of Soma hymns dedicated to Soma Pavamana, ' clearly-flowing Soma '. Hymns which belonged to each of the seven great families represented in Books II-VII I are gathered together here. This collection is thus a sort of preliminary Samaveda. Though collected later than the hymns of Books I-VIII, the hymns of Book IX are perhaps as early as any in the whole collection. It is probable that by this time the whole body of hymns of praise (richas), regarded by the priests as precious know- ledge (veda), was called Rigveda. We now attempt to understand in outline the religion reflected in Books I-IX of the Rik. § ii. The following are the names of most of the noticeable gods of the Aryans, disposed as the people were accustomed to arrange them, in three categories, according as their function was exercised upon earth, in the region of the air, or in the heaven of light : Lower gods: Agni, Soma. Middle gods: Indra, Maruts, Rudra, Parjanya, Vayu, the Ribhus. Upper gods: Vishnu, Surya, Savitri, Piishan, the Asvins, Ushas, Aditi and her three sons, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman. But these three lists are not exhaustive. Several other divinities are named ; waters, rivers, and mountains are recognized as divine; and tools and implements, especially the sacrificial 1 § 9- THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION n implements, receive adoration and are expected to hear and answer prayer. • Indra is the most prominent god in the Rigveda ; for more than one-fourth of the hymns are dedicated to him. He is primarily the regent of the sky. Young and strong, brilliant as the sun, ruddy and golden, he comes riding in his far- shining car to the sacrifice, eats the flesh of bulls and buffaloes, drinks vast quantities of soma, and listens to the hymns recited and chanted in his honour. These stimulate his vital energies and rouse him to his utmost courage. He then assails with thunderbolt and lightning-flash the malevolent demons who keep the rain locked up and swiftly defeats them. The cloud-castles are stormed, and the waters, set free, rush down in fierce torrents on the earth. Naturally this heavenly warrior became the national god of the Aryan invaders. He is praised as the monarch of heaven and earth, the controller of the destinies of men, and the friend and helper of those who offer him sacrifice. Agni and Soma, who come next after Indra in prominence in the Rigveda, are also nature-divinities, the one Fire, the other the intoxicating drink made from the soma-plant ; but they both owe their great position to their connexion with the ritual. The two chief forms of sacrificing were the offering of milk, butter, grain, and flesh in the altar-fire, and the setting out of great bowls of soma on the sacred grass for the gods to drink. Since through the fire the offerings are presented to the gods, Agni is the great priest of the gods. Soma lives in the divine plant of that name which is the drink of the gods in heaven, and which, transplanted to earth", exhilarates man and delights all the gods at the sacrifices. Both gods are spoken of as doing the work of creator and upholder of the universe. The hymns of the ninth book were sung at the sacrifices in honour of Soma. Varuna is the noblest figure in the Rigveda. He is con- nected with the day-sky, the night-sky, and the waters. But he has lofty cosmical functions as well. He upholds heaven 12 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION and earth, and he is the supporter of all beings. He wields all the powers of rita, i.e. divine law, both physical and moral ; therefore his ordinances are fixed and can never be shaken. All natural things are subject to them, and he watches to see whether men obey his lofty laws. He rewards the righteous, punishes the wrongdoer (frequently with dropsy), and releases the sinner from his sin when he comes with prayer and oblation. He is the wise guardian of immortality. But the most significant trait in his character is this, that he is always righteous. We have already seen that Varuna is the Vedic counterpart of Ahura Mazdah of the religion of Zoro- aster. He must have been a god of distinctly ethical character in the period before the Indo-Iranian people fell apart, and in his prominence in the Rigveda and in the lofty attributes which he wears we must see evidence of an Indian development parallel to Zoroaster's selection of Mazdah to be the one god of his high ethical monotheism. It begins to look as if the two movements may have been roughly contemporaneous ; for scholars are more and more inclined to assign to Zoroaster a date about iooo B.C. rather than the traditional date of 600 B.C. 1 But Varuna failed to reach supremacy ; the warrior Indra became the leading divinity of the Rigveda ; and India failed to develop an ethical theism. > , The religion of the Rigveda is probably the most interest- ing polytheism reflected in any literature. It certainly has not the grace and charm of the pantheon of the Homeric poems ; but it stands nearer the origin of the gods, and enables us to see them at the most significant stage of their evolution. All the great, and nearly all the minor gods, are deified natural phenomena, and the interest of the presentation springs from the fact that they are still identified with those glorious things and yet are distinguished from them. They are still thought of as being actually dawn, sun, moon, sky, rain, wind, thunder, fire : men actually offer sacrifice to the 1 Moulton, TM. 6, 13 ; Oldenberg, LU. 4. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 13 reddening dawn, to the sun as he mounts the heavens, and to the crackling fire on the hearth ; yet each god is conceived as a glorious living being who has his home in heaven, and who comes sailing in his far-shining car to the sacrifice and sits down on the sacred grass to hear, his own praises recited and sung and to receive the offerings. Further, each divinity is held to have influence on things far beyond that phase of the physical, world which is his source. He is believed to be able ; to give his worshippers blessings of many kinds, victory, prosperity, cattle, wealth, children. The greatest gods are connected with the creation and upholding of the world, and Varuna holds in his hands all divine law, both physical and moral. This ambiguous position then — each glittering -god still struggling to release his gorgeous wings from the clinging chrysalis of his natural source — gives them their peculiar charm and interest, and shows us mythology in the making ; but it also prevents the development of distinct personality in the gods and makes them natural rather than moral beings, v Though there is much superstition in the Rigveda, and even the great gods, with the exception of Varuna, are not beings of holy character, yet the black arts are held in check, and human sacrifices, cruel rites, eroticism, and other horrors are noticeably absent. The religion is, on the whole, a healthy, ' happy system. Neither asceticism nor austerity, neither pessimism nor philosophy, disturbs the sunshine of that early day.* §ia. The worship reflected in the hymns circles round the great sacrifices, which are to be carefully distinguished from the simple oblations which each householder offered in the household fire daily. The great sacrifices were not public acts of worship attended by all the people, like the sacrifices of Israel, of Greece, or of Rome. A chieftain, a noble, or any other wealthy man simply employed the necessary priests and had the rites carried out for himself. A sacrifice held by a chieftain would have a sort of public significance, if it was intended to secure prosperity 14 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION for his rule or victory in war ; yet, even in that case, it was a personal act, and benefited, in the first instance, the sacrificer and his family alone. The sacrifices were held in the open air or in a shed erected for the purpose near the house of the sacrificer. No temples or sacred places existed in those days. The word vedi, i. e. altar, seems to denote in the Rigveda the area on which the rite was carried out. It was strewn with sacred grass, that the gods might come and sit down on it. Upon the vedi the oblations were laid out ; and there also were the sacred fires prepared. The chief oblations were milk, melted butter, grain, and cakes. The Adhvaryu shed them on the fire and muttered his formulae the while. At certain points in the ceremonies the Hotri recited hymns. In the Soma-sacrifice the priests brought the twigs of the soma plant, expressed the juice with the press-stones, purified it, mixed it with milk, and then poured it into basins and set it out on the altar for the gods to drink. The soma-hymns were sung by the Udgatri while the Adhvaryu was busy with these ritual acts. The sacrificer, being by the rites admitted to the company of the gods, then drank of the divine beverage, and was thereby made a new man. 1 The priest also drank of the soma. Animal sacrifice — the goat, the ox, the cow, the ram, or the horse — accompanied both the fire-oblations and the soma-rites. The animals were killed and cut up according to rule, and pieces were laid out on the altar, while certain parts were burned in the fire. The horse-sacrifice had already a highly developed ritual, several hymns specially composed for it being found in the Rik? The flesh was divided between the sacrificer and the priests. Without the help of skilled priests, these great sacrifices were quite impossible. Hence an advanced sacerdotal train- ing already existed, and is alluded to in the hymns. By the time the nine books of the Rik were gathered, the priests 1 Haug, AB. I. 60. a I. 163, 163 ; IV. 38, 39, 40. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 15 formed a distinct profession, though they had not yet developed into a caste. § 13. The boons which the worshippers ask for are in most cases material blessings, prosperity, wealth, cattle, rich crops, chariots, wives, children, health, long life, protection from danger, victory in war, and rich spoil. Yet not infrequently immortality is prayed for. There are also numerous prayers for release from sin and its consequences. Usually sacrifice, a hymn, or faithful worship, is made the ground forthe gift of pardon and health, but once or twice something approach- ing real penitence appears. Yet the overwhelming impression made by the Rigveda is that the spirit of religion is worldly and indeed tends to be mercenary. § 14. There are many passages in which the highest cosmical and divine functions are attributed to Indra, or Agni, or Soma, or some other god. How was it possible to attribute these lofty powei's now to one god, now to another ? To describe this pose of mind Max Miiller coined the word Henotheism, the elevation to supremacy of one god at a time. While the poet invokes the god, he is to him the only possible Supreme, and he does not stint his praises by any thought of another ; yet the following day he may ascribe the same lofty powers to a second divinity. To this may be added the thought that, monotheism being the only fully rational faith, the human mind, in proportion to its purity, reverence, and openness, is unconsciously drawn towards it. But we must also recognize that the gods of the Rigveda do not stand out in clear indivi- duality and distinctness the one from the other. They are personifications of nature, lack character, and tend to melt into one another. ii. Rik, X ; Saman ; Early Yajus. § 15. There followed a considerable interval of time during which these nine books were used as the hymn-book of the tribes. The life of the people was expanding, and they were extending their hold on the country. They had now reached 16 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION the upper waters of the Jumna ; and the fertile band of country between the Jumna and the Ganges was being occupied farther and farther south. Many of the better aboriginal tribes had been brought into friendly relations with the Aryans, and were settling down beside them to serve as labourers or as household servants. These accepted aborigines were called Sudras. The position of the priests was steadily becoming more prominent and assured. In consequence, social distinctions were becoming deeper and more marked. The priests were more and more unwilling to intermarry with the other classes ; and the Aryan community as a whole wished to avoid mixture with aboriginals, both those accepted as Sudras and those excluded as Outcastes. The power of the priests over the gods was more and more recognized, their services more highly appreciated. Hence they were now frequently asked to assist in marriage and funeral ceremonies, which in earlier days were conducted entirely by the house-father himself, and to perform certain magic rites for individuals, both men and women. Religious unrest was producing philosophical speculation and also a tendency to the practice of austerities. Naturally this varied and growing activity led to the composition of new hymns. Many of them were meant for the old sacrifices, others for use at weddings, funerals, and the feast in com- memoration of the fathers ; some dealt with those religious and philosophical questions which were beginning to trouble the advancing community ; and others were composed for use as incantations in sorcery and magic. § 16. Finally, some scholar gathered together a very varied collection of 191 pieces, and it was introduced into the schools and taught as the last section of the oral curriculum of hymns. There were now ten groups of hymns, the ten books of the Rigveda. As the first book also contains 191 hymns, the whole became a noble series of ten collections, the first and the last balancing each other in the number of their hymns. There can be no doubt that the hymns of the tenth THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION if book belong to several different periods. Some of them are quite old ; most are clearly subsequent to the hymns of the first nine books ; and a few are very late indeed. The ninetieth hymn, usually called the Hymn of Creation, contains a number of developed philosophical concepts, refers to the Caste system, and mentions the names of at least three of the Vedas. Thus we must recognize that, when the collection was completed, the Samaveda and the Yajurveda were already in existence, at least in some primitive form, and that the Caste system was at least taking shape. §17. The interpretation of the Rigveda is not yet scientifi- cally certain in all respects. No ancient commentary on- the whole work has come down to us, though there are manuals , dealing with certain groups of phenomena, which date from 500 B. c. or earlier. The earliest commentary preserved on the text as a whole was written in the fourteenth century, by the great scholar Sayana. Thus there need be no surprise if there are many passages in the hymns which are still incom- prehensible. The age of the Rigveda is still very uncertain. Max Muller in his Ancient Sanskrit Literature, published in 1859, suggested iaco to 1000 B.C. as the lowest limits that could be postulated for the composition of the Vedic hymns, and 1000 to 800 B. C. for the formation of the collections. Others are inclined to believe that longer time is required for the develop- ment ; while a few are convinced that the hymns imply the lapse of thousands of years. Scholars seem to incline towards Miiller's dates rather than to these extreme figures. 1 §18. With the increasing elaboration of the sacrifices, and the consequent emergence of many new duties for the priests, division of labour became unavoidable. It proved more and more necessary that a man should restrict himself to the functions of a Hotri, an Udgatri, or an Adhvaryu, instead of 1 Muller, ASL. 572; Macdonell, 11-12; Winternitz, I. 246 ff. ; Thibaut, Hindustan Review, Jan. 1904; Jacobi, JRAS. 1909, 721; Oldenberg,//?^. 1909, 1095 ; Keith, TS. I. clxvi; JRAS. 1909, 1 100. C 18 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION attempting to become proficient in all three. Hence the need for a distinct education for each type of priest made itself felt. Perhaps in the formation of the ninth book of the Rik, which consists exclusively of Soma r hymns, we may trace the beginnings of the movement. But a time came when some- thing more was required. In the case of the man who sang the strophes at the Soma- sacrifice, the Udgatri, two forms of training were required. He had to learn to sing, readily and accurately, all the tunes that were used in the many distinct Soma-sacrifices, and he had also to know which strophes were required for each sacrifice and in what order they were sung. Therefore, that the young priest might master all the tunes thoroughly and have any one at command at any moment, each was connected with a single stanza of the right metre, and the teacher made his pupils sing it over and over again, until tune and stanza were firmly imprinted, in indissoluble association, in the memory. In the Kauthuma school at least, the Udgatri student was taught 585 tunes, married to as many single verses. The whole collection of stanzas was called the Archika, i. e. the book of praises. For mnemonic reasons, the stanzas are arranged in several large groups according to the deities to whom they are dedicated, and the groups are subdivided into sets of ten. Then the strophes used in the ritual of the Soma-sacrifice were arranged in the order in which they were sung, and were taught to Udgatri students in this form instead of the Rigveda. The practical value of this step will be at once apparent. The young priest, in committing the strophes to memory, learnt also at which sacrifices and at what point in each sacrifice they were used. There are 400 strophes in the collection, the great majority consisting of three stanzas each, the whole comprising 1,335 stanzas. This collection was called the Uttararchika, or second praise-book. All the stanzas contained in the two Archikas, with the exception of seventy-five, are taken from the Rigveda ; so that, from the point of view of the hymns, these books are of little interest in comparison with THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 19 the Rik. These two, the musical collection and the sacrificial liturgy, were taught in special schools; and, since the knowledge, veda, which they taught was the songs or chants, samani, required for the sacrifice, it was called the Samaveda, and the schools were called schools of the Samaveda. In those early days the music, as well as the stanzas, was taught orally ; but, at a considerably later date, when writing began to be used in the schools for various purposes, tune-books, called gams, were prepared. In these the tunes were indicated by a system of musical notes, and the words of the hymns were set down precisely as they were sung, with many vowels prolonged, many syllables repeated, and other extra-textual syllables interpolated at various places. These interpolated syllables, called stobhas, praises — e. g. hun, hin, kai, hau, hoyi, huva, hoi, &c. — are the exact counterpart of the jubila interpolated in Plain-song in the ninth and tenth centuries. 1 There were two ganas connected with the Archika, one Gramageyagana, for use in the village, the other Aranyagana, for use in the case of those texts which, for one reason or another, were held so sacred as to be sung only in the seclusion of the forest. § 19. From the earliest days it had been customary for the sacrificer, the Hotri, to accompany each ritual-act of the sacrifice with some short phrase, either to indicate its signi- ficance, its purpose, or the god for whom it was meant, or to invoke some blessing with it, or to prevent the act from having a dangerous result. The priest muttered these phrases, taking care that he should not be overheard. They were of the nature of incantations and dedications rather than prayer and praise. When the recitation of hymns of praise became the chief duty of the Hotri priest, and the working-priest, the Adhvaryu, was appointed to do the manual acts, the latter naturally took over also the duty of muttering these ritual formulae : the name is yajus, plural yajumshi. Rather later still, it became customary for the Adhvaryu to utter, at certain points in the ritual, in addition to the old formulae, 1 Fox Strangways, Music of Hindustan, 255. C a ao THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION praises and prayers consisting of stanzas taken from hymns of the Rigveda or from other sources. Probably about the time when the schools of the Samaveda came into existence, or rather later, the training of the Adh- varyu took a fixed traditional form in special schools conducted for 'the purpose. The essential part of the tradition was the body of ritual formulae in prose and the prayers in verse which accompanied the ritual acts; but detailed instruction, in one form or another, must have been also given about the ritual acts themselves. The mass of material having for its nucleus the formulae, yajumshi, which accompanied the ritual, gave the Adhvaryu the knowledge, veda, necessary for his work, and was therefore called Yajurveda. "\ 20. The formation of these special schools for Udgatris and Adhvaryus necessarily led to the old schools of the Rigveda becoming special training-schools for the Hotri priests. We must also conclude that, from the time of the rise of these .new schools, there were three distinct orders of priests; but there was no rule precluding a priest from exercising the functions of two, or even of all the three orders, provided he had acquired the necessary training. The mass of men, however, would be content with the curriculum of a single - school. By this time the priests had become a closed caste and called themselves Brahmans. Each Brahman priest received his education in one of the three types of schools ai ,d was known thereafter as a member of the school. § ai. In our first survey we dealt with the first nine books 6i the Rik ; so that the fresh literature which we now examine is the tenth book of the Rik, the Saman and the original Yajurveda. For practical purposes we may take Books I- XVIII of the White Yajus as representing, with fair accuracy, the extent of the original work. Since nearly the whole text of the Samaveda is taken unchanged from the Rik, it is not of so much importance as the other two sources. The most prominent features of the new situation are these : the com- munity is now sharply divided into four groups by caste THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 21 distinctions — Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras ; and there are three orders of priests, each possessing a Veda taught in schools belonging to the order. The religion reflected in the literature is wider and more varied than it appeared in the glimpse we had in the Rik, I-IX. The prose formulae muttered by the Adhvaryu in accompaniment to the ritual acts are clearly a very old constituent of the cult, older indeed than the hymns; but the actual formulae contained in the Yajurveda are probably of very varied age : some may be very old, others quite new ; so that we must be cautious about attributing the whole to very early times. But, although the individual phrases are of indeterminate age, the fundamental thought involved in them, especially the magic character of the whole system, is clearly old. With this agrees the magic power attributed to the tunes sung by the Udgatri priests, and to the metres of the hymns. Hence the presence in the tenth book of the Rigveda of a considerable number of ^ incantations for use in private magic rites probably does not indicate any new access of faith in these operations, but merely an increased willingness on. the part of priests trained in the schools to officiate in these ceremonies. The priests; are more prominent than ever ; for they are now an organized body, the chief of the four castes, and are believed to wield almost limitless supernatural power. The pantheon has not changed materially in the interval ; but priestly authority and magical conceptions seem to be, gradually weakening the. position of the gods, and there is evidence of the existence of considerable religious unrest and. scepticism and of various efforts made to cope with it. The gods and their attributes appear in our source in all essentials the same as they do in the first nine books of the Rigveda ; yet certain changes are visible. A few new gods make their appearance; some divinities, notably Ushas, Varuna, and Parjanya, receive less attention than formerly, while others have risen to new prominence. Of these the most noteworthy are Vishnu and Rudra, who have already begun 33 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION that mysterious upward movement, which gradually raised them above all their Vedic compeers, and made them the two supreme divinities of modern Hinduism. So far as our evidence goes, it would seem as if Vishnu owed his first elevation to his being identified with the sacrifice by the Adhvaryu priests. In that sense his name occurs in hundreds of passages in the Yajurveda. One of the more prominent elements of the same work is the Satarudriya, a famous hymn of praise to Rudra, which is decisive evidence of his growing importance. § 33. The existence of the three Vedas enables us to get a more vivid idea of the sacrifices which formed almost the whole cult of the gods. The great sacrifices were either obligatory or voluntary. Of the obligatory rites the most noteworthy were the New Moon and the Full Moon sacrifices and the sacrifice to Ancestors observed every month," and a few similar observances which occurred less often. Of the voluntary ceremonies the most elaborate and expensive were the Soma-sacrifices. The Asvamedha or Horse-sacrifice was meant to secure all blessings for a prince, including even imperial sway. Another type of ceremony, which any wealthy man might undertake, was the Agnichayana, or the building of a fire altar of great elaboration of design. § 23. There are a number of hymns in the tenth book of the Rik, which seem to have been taught in the schools with a view to being used in the contests of wit which closed the sacrifices. There are two collections of riddles, and about a dozen dialogues ; but the largest and most interesting group are speculative pieces springing from the new religious situation. One is a hymn in praise of faith, one describes the ascetic, and another deals with tapas or self-mortification, while the remainder, eleven in number, form the fountain- head of Indian philosophy. In our first survey we learned that priests trained in the schools had begun to practise private magic and to use certain hymns contained in the Rigveda as spells. By the time the tenth book was compiled THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 33 things had gone farther : a large number of incantations are included in it. There is no hint of the doctrine of transmigration in our sources. Men live and die once. They pray that they may live a hundred autumns. When good men die, Yama guides them to his heavenly home and there they live in immortality and joy. They are then called the Fathers. iii. Brahmanas, Atharvan, Aranyakas. § 2,4. We have already seen that a number of spells for use in magic are contained in the Rik. The character of these poems proves that the old-world incantations which the Aryans, in common with other Indo-European peoples, had been accus- tomed to use had, in the main at least, given way before a new type of spell, written in polished language and metre, on the model of the hymns to the gods. Doubtless, hundreds of these were being used by sorcerers, exorcists, and magicians, although only a few found their way into the hymn-book of the priests ; and the process of composition continued after the canon of the Rigveda was closed. The incantation- priest had no lack of wealthy clients ready to pay well for his magic arts and poetical charms instinct with supernatural power. Hence numerous hymns from the Rigveda were turned to these purposes ; philosophic poems were perverted to more mysterious uses, their sounding phrases and incom- prehensible concepts rendering them most formidable to the ear; and many new incantations were composed to fit into the detailed ritual of magic, both black and white. The man of muttered charms was usually summoned also to do the priestly duties in the domestic ceremonies, which were observed at the time of birth, marriage, death, and such like. § 35. Then, during the period of the Brahmanas, a school was formed for the training of this class of priests, and quite naturally a great collection of these incantations was made the text-book of the school. This text-book is the Atharva- veda. It has come down to us in two recensions, named 94 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION Saunakiya and Paippalada. The former is the text in ordinary use, and it alone has been edited, translated, and examined in detail. A single birch-bark manuscript of the Paippalada was found in Kashmir in 1874, and a facsimile reproduction has been published. There is a good deal of difference between the two recensions in the way in which the hymns are arranged ; and about one-eighth or one-ninth of the contents of the Paippalada MS. is fresh material, found neither in the Saunakiya recension nor in any other Vedic collection. Since so little investigation has been carried out on the new text, we shall confine our attention to the Sauna- kiya or Vulgate. It is probable that the Atharvaveda was built up to its present proportions in various stages, but we do not know the history. Each of the two recensions consists of twenty books, but the order by no means corresponds. In the Vulgate it is clear that Books XIX and XX are late additions. Books I to XVIII fall into three divisions. The first covers Books I to VH, and consists in the main of short hymns, arranged in accordance with the number of stanzas they contain, and without reference to their subject-matter. The second contains Books VIII to . XII and consists of long hymns on miscellaneous subjects. , v In the third division, Books XIII to XVIII, each book consists of hymns which are marked by essential unity of subject. Various attempts have been made to decide how these three groups were brought together, but no unanimity has yet been reached. Scholars point out that a number of the shorter spells of the Atharvaveda agree in purpose and method, and to some extent also in form, with charms found in the folk-lore of other nations of the Indo-European race ; so that the roots of the practices of this Veda go very far back indeed. About 1,200 of the 5,ooo stanzas contained in the work are taken from the Rigveda. But the bulk of the fresh material is of later origin. 1 Part of it is in prose, the rest in verse. The 1 So Oldenberg, R V. 15: Keith, agrees. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 25 compilation of the eighteen books took place long after the completion of the Rigveda, during the period of the Brahmanas. For a long time the Atharvan collection held a very humble position as compared with the three sacrificial Vedas. It was not accepted as a Veda at all. The trayividya, triple knowledge, was all that men recognized. To this day in certain parts of South India it is almost unknown. § 26. The priestly schools soon became great and learned associations each with a splendid reputation. The student had first of all to learn the Veda of his school with perfect accuracy from the lips of his teacher. He had then, in the second place, to receive a great deal of instruction as to his duties at>the altar, and numerous explanations of the meaning of the hymns, the ritual acts, and such like. The instructions were called vidhi, the explanations arlhavada. ^ For some time these lectures were given by the teacher in an unfettered way in his own language ; but gradually in each school the material took more definite form, and finally was handed down in stereotyped language from teacher to pupil, genera- tion after generation. Naturally, it was in prose. Every piece of instruction of this type was called a Brahmana, either as being the utterance of a Brahman, or as an exposition of religious truth {brahman). H In contrast with these Brahmanas, the hymns and prose formulae which were recited, sung, or muttered during the sacrifices were called mantras. The word inantra means originally religious thought, prayer, sacred utterance, but from an early date it also implied that the text was a weapon of supernatural power. Since these Brahmana lectures were expositions of the sacrifice, the hymns, and the praye'rs, the teachers of the Yajurveda took the very natural course of inserting them at various points among the material on which they were meant to throw light. In the schools of the Rik and the Satnan, however, this course was not followed. The teachers were probably so impressed with the divine character of the hymn- 26 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION collections that they felt they could not disturb the sacred arrangement of the text. In any case in both these schools the expository lectures were gathered into a separate collection, which was called Brahmana. Then the teachers of the Vajasaneya school of the Yajurveda were led by this example to a similar course. They separated out all the Brahmana sections from the sacrificial formulae and the verses of their Veda, and formed a Veda and a Brahmana out of them. In this way the schools of the Yajurveda fell into two groups, and the old mixed collection of mantras and Brahmanas was called the Black Yajus, while the new unmixed collection of hymns with its separate Brahmana was called the White Yajus. As the Brahmana material in each school was constantly growing, the Veda as handed down in the various schools of the Black Yajus soon showed considerable differences. It has come down to us in four distinct forms called Samhitas. See table below. At a later date one of these schools of the Black Yajus, the Taittiriyas, followed the common practice thus far that, on the formation of a fresh body of Brahmana material, they did not introduce it into the already mixed Veda, but formed it into a separate Brahmana. This new book is really a continuation of the Brahmana material within the Samhita of the school. The continued branching of the schools, and the constant addition of fresh Brahmana material to the old, must have led in the long run to the existence of a very large number of Brahmanas, differing more or less from one another. In the chances and changes of history, much of this literature has been lost. Thus, what survives to-day is but a small part of what once existed. The following table shows the various Samhitas of the Yajurveda which contain Brahmana material, and also the ancient Brahmanas : THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 27 saMhitas and brahmanas Schools. A. Rigveda 1. The Aitareyins 2. The Kaushltakins B. Samaveda I. The Tandins 2. The Talavakaras C. Yajurveda 1. The Kathakas 2. The Kapishthala- Kathas 3. The Maitrayaniyas 4. The Taittirlyas 5. The Vajasaneyins Samhitas containing Brahmana material. 1. Kathaka 2. Kapishthala-Katha Maitrayani Taittiriya Brahmanas. 1. Aitareya , 2. Kaushitaki or Sahk- hayana 1. a. Panchavimsa b. Shadvimsa c. Chhandogya 2. Jaiminiya or Tala- vakara (including Upanishad B. and Arsheya B.) Kathaka, preserved in part in the Taittiriya Aranyaka Taittiriya Satapatha § 27. One's first reading of a Brahmana is an extraordinary- experience. It seems as if the men who composed these interminable gossiping lectures had left realities far behind them, and were living in a dreary realm of shadowy gods and men and topsy-turvy morality and religion, in which nothing belongs to the world we know except the sacrificial meats and drinks and the fees paid to the priestly dreamers. Yet in the midst of this waste of arid ritualism and childish speculation one finds the beginnings of grammar, of astronomy, of etymo- logy, and of the philosophy of the Atman. There are also legends and narratives which are forerunners of the Epic, and numerous rules of conduct out of which finally arose the Hindu dharma. The Indian mind was by no means dead, although sacerdotalism was drunk with supremacy and in its folly and arrogance was hastening the day of revolt. > § 28. In addition to the Brahmana portions of the Black 28 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION Yajurveda, only the following six Brahmanas are ritual text- books of importance : Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Panchavimsa, Talavakara, Taittiriya^ Satapatha. The Shadvimsa is an appendix to the Panchavimsa, and the CJihandogya deals only with domestic rites. It is impossible to set down this mass of material in strict chronological order, because each Brahmana is a collection of pieces of different age and origin ; yet, if we omit the Kapishthala-Katha Samhita and the ..K'athaka B., which have survived only in fragments, the following repre- sents, on the whole, the order in which these books arose : i. The Maitrdyam, Kathaka, and Taittiriya Samhitas, which cannot be safely arranged in any chronological order ; a. the Aitareya Brahmana ; 3. the Panchavimsa ; ,4. the Taittiriya ; 5. the Jaiminlya ; 6. the Kaushitaki; 7. the Satapatha. § 29. To the Brahmanas there are appended chapters, written in the main in Brahmana language and style, but differing somewhat in contents. Usually these chapters begin with material scarcely distinguishable from the Brahmana itself, but gradually shade off through mystic allegory into philosophic speculation. Usually the ritualistic and allegorical parts are called Aranyaka,' and the philosophic, Upanishad; but sometimes the whole receives the title Upanishad, The Upanishads will be dealt with in our next chapter; for in them first appears the mighty doctrine of transmigration and karma ; but' we consider the Aranyakas here. Parts of these ' Forest- treatises ' (from aranya, forest) describe the ritual and give incidental mystic explanations, and are thus indistinguishable from Brahmana teaching, except that here and there we meet chapters which add stringent rules to the effect that the rites are to be kept secret and carried out only for certain persons. Similar secrecy is sometimes enjoined in the Upanishads. Side by side with these are found chapters which are exclu- sively given up to allegorical expositions of the ritual, and are clearly meant not for ritual use but for meditation. Finally there are passages which teach the student to practise medita- tion on the allegorical meaning of certain sacrifices instead of THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 29 the actual performance of the ritual. In none of these ritual- istic or allegorical chapters is the doctrine of transmigration and karma taught. § 30. All scholars agree that the Aranyakas were meant to be studied in the forest. 1 But who were the .men who studied them? During the time when the Brahmanas were coming into being, an order of hermits who resided in the forests of India appeared. They gave up all the business of the world and devoted themselves to a religious life. Their practice in general had three aspects, tapas, i. e; austerities, sacrifice, and meditation ; but there was more than one rule, so that practice varied considerably. In some cases sacrifice was given up altogether ; and the great and elaborate sacrifices must have been always impossible. These facts about the order are taken from the Dharmasutras. 2 Very vivid pictures of the life occur in the Ramayana? agreeing perfectly with what has just been said. When a student had completed hiseducation, \ he was allowed either to remain with his teacher for life, or to marry and settle down as a householder, or to retire to the woods as a hermit. 4 The earliest name used to designate a hermit seems to have been. Vaikhdnasa 5 (from Vikhanas, the traditional author of the rule), but later Vdnaprastha, forest-dweller, came into use. It was at a much later date that there came into use the ideal rule for the life of the twice- born man, that his life should be lived in four stages, asramas as a student, householder, hermit, and monk. 6 > Now Sayana makes a remark which seems to mean that the ^ Aranyaka was the Brahmana of the hermit ; 7 and certain modern scholars, especially Deussen, have accepted that view. The varied character of the contents of the Aranyakas — ritual, 1 The ancient evidence is 'conclusive. See Ramanuja, Srihhashya, SBE. XLVIII. 645, and Sayana quoted by Keith in his Aitareya Ar. 15. 2 Gautama, SBE. II.195 ; Vasishtha, SBE. XIV. 45 ; Baudhayana, SBE. XIV. 259 ; 291 ; Apastamba, SBE. II. 155. 3 See II. Ivi ; III. i ; v ; vi ; vii ; xi ; xii. * Chhandogya U. II. 23, I. 6 Gautama, DS. III. 26. c Deussen, ERE. II. 128 ff. 7 Aranyavratarilpam brahmanam : see Deussen, PU. 2n. ; Keith AA.1S-' 30 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION secret explanation, allegory, and internal instead of external sacrifice — fits perfectly into the varying practice of the hermits of the forest ; so that one is tempted at first sight to conclude that these treatises were' actually prepared for the Vana- prasthas. But Oldenberg J and Berriedale Keith 2 believe that the Aranyakas were held to be texts of such sacredness that they could with safety be repeated only in the seclusion of the forest. The Aranyagana of the Samaveda would then be a parallel case. Professor Keith believes that the Aranyakas were taught to priests, just as the Brahmanas were. The difference lay in the secrecy necessary for the forest treatises. For our purpose, however, it is unnecessary to decide the question. We require merely to distinguish those chapters which separate themselves from the Brahmanas by their stress on allegory, secrecy, and meditation, and from the philosophic Upanishads by the absence of the doctrine of transmigration, whatever their original purpose may have been. The chief texts are : {Aitareya Aranyaka. • ° ' {Kaushitaki Aranyaka. Black Yajus : Taittirtya Aranyaka, I-VI. White Yajus : Brihadaranyaka = Satapatha B. XIV, i-iii. §31. The point at which we take our third survey is just before the appearance of the doctrine of transmigration and karma in the literature. The literature in existence at that time and surviving to our day comprises the four Vedas, the six old Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas. Since we have already dealt with the Rik, the Saman, and the early Yajus, the literature which forms the source for this survey is : 1. The later portions of the Yajurveda. a. The Atharvaveda. 3. The six old Brahmanas. 4. The Aranyakas. 1 LU. 148 ff. 2 AA. 15, 257 n. 10. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 31 By the time to which our survey refers the Aryans had spread over North India at least as far as Behar, but the district between the Jumna and the -Ganges was still the centre of Brahmanical culture. Probably all the books of out- source arose in that region. 1 We cannot fix the date of our survey chronologically; for the estimates of scholars show considerable variation. At the time we seek to envisage there were already many petty princedoms in North India, contain- ing numerous towns, and wealth and culture were growing. While the country between the Jumna and the Ganges was recognized as the central hearth of the religion and education of the time, there were seats of civilization in the Punjab, in the far North- West, and as far east as the modern Patna. Not only the four great castes but many of the modern mixed castes and sub-castes were already in existence. The Brah- manical schools had greatly increased in number. Each Veda had its own multitude of schools, divided into subordinate groups according to the recension of the Veda they used, and further subdivided according to the Biahmana they recognized. At some quite unknown date, but certainly before the end of the period, the work of the Vedic schools had become widened, so as not only to provide a specialized training for priests but also to give a religious education to all boys of the Brahman, Kshatriya, and Vaisya castes. Every boy belonging to these castes went to school immediately after undergoing the ceremony of initiation. Since this ceremony thus became the entrance to a spiritual training, it was called the boy's second birth. Hence these three castes came to be spoken of as twice-born, and wore the sacred thread. Sudras and women were excluded from the schools ; and only Brahmans could teach. The priest and the sacrifice were now supreme and omni- potent, and in consequence the religion had become pitifully degraded. The sacrifice was conceived as a magic system irresistibly wielding all powers in earth and heaven, and the 1 Vedic Index, I. 165. 32 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION priests who held the system in their hands were regarded as gods on earth. Hence, though the gods nominally retain their old place, they have become of very little account, stripped of nearly all their real power by the priests and the sacrifice. Like the demons, they sacrifice, when they want to obtain anything. Vishnu, Rudra-Siva, and Prajapati alone are prominent, because of their relations with the new sacer- dotalism. Magic is supreme everywhere, in the sacrifice, in the Atharvan rites in the home, and in the discipline of the Vanaprastha in the forest. Morality has almost altogether lost its hold in the cult. The result could not but be an unbearable inner dissatisfaction in the best men. Hence we find some eagerly pressing forward towards new light along philosophic lines, following the lead given by the poets of the speculative hymns mentioned in our second survey. Two concepts of great importance, the Brahman and the Atman, were separately evolved and then identified, thus forming together a most significant philosophic term for the absolute. 1 There were other conceptions also which were undergoing modification: in the Brahmanas there are a number of passages 2 in which there is reference to the possibility of re- peated death in the other wor.ld, and men shudder at the thought. 1 Oldenberg, LU. 44-59. 2 lb. 27 ff. CHAPTER II TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE: y to 200 B.C. i. Transmigration and Karma. § 32. The immense influence which the doctrine of trans- migration and karma has exercised on almost every element of Indian thought renders its appearance an event of such extreme significance as to make it the natural starting-point of a new period. > The date is not known even approximately. Indian history in the stricter sense opens only with Alexander the Great's invasion of the Punjab in 336 B.C. ; so that all previous events possess only a relative chronology. The life of the Buddha, now approximately dated 560-480 B.C., forms the starting-point for the conjectural dating of earlier occur- rences. Behind his activity we can descry the rise of the philosophy of the Upanishads, and behind that again the emergence of the belief in transmigration and karma. 1 The whole of the literature of the chapter shares this uncertainty ; only a relative chronology is possible. It is a very remarkable fact that the belief of the early people with regard to birth, death, and the other world underwent such a complete change at this period in their history. There is no trace of transmigration in the hymns of the Vedas ; only in the Brahmanas are there to be found a few traces of the lines of thought from which the doctrine arose. In the Upanishads, however, and in all later Hindu literature, the doctrine is universally accepted, and enters as an active force into almost every element of Hindu thought. 1 See Keith, JRAS. 1909, 574; SS. 15 ; Oldenberg, L U. 288; Poussin, WN. 1 off.; Waddell,//?^5. 1914, 661 ff. D 34 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE Through the spread of Buddhism the doctrine was accepted by the population of the centre, the east, and the south of Asia. It is thus impossible to exaggerate the importance of the change with which this chapter opens. It has been clearly demonstrated that the immediate sources of both, the conceptions — transmigration and karma — are to be found in the Brahmanas ; x yet the two are found linked together in a doctrine of moral requital for the first time in the Upanishads. The creation, therefore, of this master-conception is unquestionably the work of the Aryan „j mind. Yet the suggestion which many scholars have made, that the idea of transmigration must have come from totem- istic aboriginals who believed that after death their souls lived in animal bodies, may be, after all, partly true ; for the Aryan people were not only in daily contact with aboriginals but had already suffered large infusions of aboriginal blood. -< ■ ) §33- The theory is that souls are born and die many times, and that a man's conduct in one life determines his position in the next, good conduct being rewarded, and evil conduct punished.* In the earliest passages 2 in which the doctrine appears, that is all that is stated ; but soon it received a more definite form : Those whose conduct has been pleasing, will quickly attain a pleasing birth, the birth of a Brahman, or a Kshatriya, or a Vaisya; but those whose conduct has been abominable, will quickly attain an abominable birth, the birth of a dog, or a hog, or an Outcaste. 3 and this form it was which became the basis of the orthodox Hindu belief. Caste is the chief element of the requital of one's action. The word for action, karma, is used for the mysterious power which, according to this doctrine, causes all action to work itself out in requital in another life. The conception was soon deepened and broadened. It was recog- nized that a man's body, mind, and character, and also all the 1 Oldenberg, LU. 26-35. 2 Brihadaranyaka, U. III. 2, 13; IV. 4, 5. 8 Chhandogya, U. V. ir, 7. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE $$ details of his experience were elements of the requital. Men also recognized that, since each life is the requital of foregoing action, and since the actions of each new life demand another for their reward or punishment, the process of birth and death, samsara, can have had no beginning, and can have no end. The soul was therefore eternal. It would be well to notice that the theory took form among polytheists, and included gods, demons, animals, and plants in its sweep as well as men : there was no living being that was not subject to the law of rebirth. Nor was there any divine power that controlled the process : the concept of a Supreme, exalted high above all the gods, had not risen on the minds of the men who created the doctrine. The doctrine would seem to have met a need of the time, for it steadily spread among cultured men throughout North India. Clearly the belief was a moral advance on earlier ideas; for it gave all conduct a moral meaning, and made every man realize the seriousness of life and his personal responsibility. Its evil effects did not become evident at once. For centuries this conception of the world sufficed for multitudes of thinking Hindus, and it still suffices for the unthinking masses ; but for others, very soon, an addition became necessary. § 34. We have seen that in the age of the Brahmanas a few men were already struggling to reach philosophic conceptions of the world which might form a more satisfactory basis for the religious life than the gross ritual and magic of the sacrifice. Terror-struck at the prospect of repeated death in the other world (an idea frequently referred to in the Brahmanas), men longed for release from that fate ; and some believed they had found it in the conviction that the gods and all the spiritual powers of the world are deathless, and that the man who, knowing this, brings his own spirit into union with these powers, wins a sure immortality. 1 The doctrine of trans- migration now seemed to explain the grip which the things of 1 Oldenberg, L U. 3 iff. D a 36 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE sense have on the human spirit ; it also quickened the desire for release from the bondage of sense and death ; but the unbroken series of births and deaths seemed to make the achievement of immortality and release more difficult than ever. How was escape possible ? Hence there arose a pas- sionate desire to find some means of deliverance ; and from that passion sprang all the noblest forms of Hindu religious thought, and Buddhism and Jainism as well. Indeed, it is but the simple truth to say that karma and rebirth, with release, have given Indian religious thought its peculiar flavour, v § 35. One of the chief historical facts to be realized at this point is this, that, during this period, South India was gradually inoculated, and at last thoroughly interpenetrated, with the religion and culture which had been taking shape in the north. Three political events must also be mentioned, the conquest of the Punjab by Darius, Alexander's raid, and the rise of the Maurya empire ; for the third, which was a direct reaction from Greek domination and an imitation of the Persian system, proved of very large significance for the history of Buddhism. ii. The Tw.ice-born and their Literature. ■§ 36. The three twice-born castes — Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas — formed now a large educated community, sharply divided among themselves, yet far more deeply cut off from the vast Sudra community which served them, and from the unclean Outcastes with whom they would have nothing to do. The whole of the literature described in our first chapter was their exclusive possession, and much more was destined to come into existence during the period. But, though they kept themselves rigidly separate from Sudras in all religious matters, it seems probable that Sudra worship soon began to exercise an influence on them. We deal, first of all, with what is, strictly speaking, the literature of the twice-born, namely works written in expo- TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 37 sition of the earlier literature. In all these books the doctrine of karma and rebirth is accepted as true, and here and there the Upanishad theory of release also finds reflection. § 37. We mention first what is clearly the earliest form of Indian philosophy, although its earliest surviving document cannot be dated earlier than the fourth century after Christ, and although in its inception it was in no sense philosophical It is clear that the Karma Mlmarhsa in some form came into existence quite early during this period. It is, as will be ex- plained later, a method of Vedic exegesis, dealing primarily with the sacred texts which give injunctions for the sacrifices. Its interest for us at this point is twofold, first because it is to this day the special system of the orthodox twice-born man, and secondly because it retained for many centuries certain features characteristic of the time of its birth, and indeed retains some of them to this day. The Mlmarhsa reflects the time when the average educated man was frankly polytheistic, and thus atheistic from the point of view of theism or pantheism, when he accepted rebirth and karma but felt no need of release, and when, like the average unreflecting man, he took a realistic view of the world. For the understanding of the developments of this period it is of great importance to realize that this was the state of mind of nearly all educated men * in the earlier, and probably of the vast majority in the later, part of the period also. § 38. We take next the literature of the Vedic schools. The basis of all the training is still the process of laying up in the memory the hymns of the Veda of one's school and the long chapters of the Brahmana. But a large amount of ancillary material has now to be mastered by the student as well as the fundamental texts. The sciences of Vedic expo- sition, phonetics, grammar, metre, etymology, &c, the begin- nings of which are found in the Brahmanas, have each grown in width and complexity as well as in accuracy. The sacrifices, both minor and major, have- grown steadily more intricate 1 Cf. Oldenberg, LU. 31. 38 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE ' and more numerous, and the dharma, i. e. the law of conduct, has become a large body of detailed injunctions. Hence, to enable the student to carry in his mind the vast and varied masses of information which he required to know, a new method of teaching was created, the sutra-mtthod. The essential feature of the method is the committing to memory of a long series of very abbreviated phrases, which serve as a sort of classified index of the particular subject dealt with. The method was of service in proportion to the care with which the subject was arranged, and to the skill with which the mnemonic phrases were composed. A series of sutras is more or less incomprehensible by itself; it has always a com- mentary attached to it, either oral or written, which fills up the gaps and expounds the thought. There are four types of sutras which are of large significance for the religious life, namely the Srauta, the Grihya, and the Dharma manuals, and the magic-books. The Srauta-sutras get their epithet Srauta from the fact that they are directly founded on the hymns and the Brahmanas, which a_re sruti, i.e. revelation in the highest sense. The Grihya manuals are called grihya, i.e. domestic, because they describe the minor sacrifices and the ritual acts obligatory on the family. The Dharma manuals lay down the rules of the dkarma, i.e. the Hindu law of conduct. Of the Srauta-sutras a dozen survive, of the Grihyas also a dozen, or thirteen, if the Kausika be included, and of the Dharma manuals six ; while there are four noteworthy books on magic. It is as yet impossible to give' any definite chronology of the sutras ; but all the surviving works of the Srauta, Grihya, and Dharma classes (called as a group the Kalpa-sutras) probably belong to the fifth, fourth, or third centuries. 1 Nor is it yet possible to set them out in the order of their origin. 2 § 39. The Srauta-sutras are hand-books prepared for the use of priests with reference to the greater Vedic sacrifices, i.e. 1 See the discussions by Keith, A A. 21-5; TS. I. xlv-xlvi. 2 But see Keith, TS. I. xlv. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 39 those for which three or more sacrificial fires, and priests belonging to each of the three orders, were necessary. Thus each Srauta-sutra depends on one of the three Vedas, and contains instructions only for the order of priests corresponding to that Veda. Hence in order fully to understand the cere- monial of any single sacrifice, it is necessary for the student to read together the sections on that sacrifice in three Srauta- sutras. For this certain other manuals, called Paribhashas, which show how the three strands of the sacrifice, fit together, are used. § 40. The Grihya-sutras deal with three groups of subjects. The first group contains general and detailed rules for the simpler sacrifices, which were performed on the domestic fire by the householder himself, if he were a Brahman, or by a priest appointed by him for the purpose. These offerings are of three types : (a) melted butter, oil, or milk poured on the fire ; (b) cooked cakes ; and (c) animal sacrifices. The second group of subjects are the eighteen sacraments, solemn cere- monies connected with the great moments of life, such as birth, the first solid food given to the child, his tonsure, hi9 initiation as a religious student, his return home after his education, and marriage. The third is a mixed group, including house-building rites, the funeral ceremony, the sVaddhas, or offerings to the spirits of deceased ancestors, and minor observances. As in all these ceremonies there is but one series of ritual acts and liturgic utterances, the Grihya- sutras of the three Vedas differ very little from each other except in the Vedic stanzas they quote. The Karma Mimamsa, we may remind ourselves, existed in order that every injunction covered by the Srauta and Grihya sutras should be . faithfully performed. Learned Mlmam- sakas were usually present at the greater sacrifices to guide everything. § 41. The Dharma-sutras deal not with sacrifice but with conduct. The word dharma means that which is obligatory, and is thus similar to the Latin religio. It is used in several 40 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE senses, which vary chiefly in their scope : first, Hinduism as a whole is the dharma, just as to Buddhists Buddhism is the dhamma ; second, the whole religious law, as expressed in the Srauta, Grihya, and Dharma codes ; third, the laws of conduct : this is the ordinary meaning, as in the Dharma-sutras and the later Dharma^astras ; and fourth, the law of a caste, as in the Gita frequently. The Dharma-sutras contain regulations for the four asramas or- forms of Hindu life, viz. the student, the householder, the hermit, and the ascetic, and the following special subjects : the king, civil law, criminal law, marriage, inheritance, funeral rites, penances, and excommunication. Originally the Dharma-sutras were each meant to be used only by members of its own school, but later a number of them became recognized as valid for all twice-born men. The basal principle upon which this law of conduct rests is the supreme obligation of the caste system. By that a man's profession and religious duties are determined, as well as his place in Hindu society. The Brahman is the priest, teacher, and judge ; the Kshatriya is the ruler and warrior ; the Vaisya turns to agriculture, industry, or trade ; the Sudra is the servant of these three twice -born castes. The Outcastes are untouchable and are shut out in their filth and their poverty. >\ All the provisions of the laws of property and crime are conditioned by caste : the higher a man's caste, the greater his rights ; the higher the caste of the criminal, the less his punishment ; the higher the caste of the wronged party, the greater the penalty. », It is well to note that in the time of these sutras each man chooses his own asrama, i. e. whether he is to remain a student, or become a householder, a hermit, or a sannyasi : these modes of life have not yet become a series through which each man is expected to pass. Amongst the fresh regulations, we note two of supreme importance for the family — the rule that a girl should be married before puberty, 1 1 Gautama DS. XVIII. 21-23; Vasishtha DS. XVII. 6*9-70; Bau- dhayana DS. IV. 1, 11-12. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 41 and the rule that no widow who has borne children should remarry. 1 § 43. The religion reflected in the sutras 2 is polytheistic and ritualistic. There is no trace of divine incarnation in them, and no approach to theism. The philosophy of the Atman is mentioned as a subject of meditation for the sannyasl ; and in one sutra it is heartily commended to the student on the ground that there is no higher object than the attainment of the Atman. 3 Necessarily, the whole of the Vedic religion is represented — the soma-cult, the fire-cult, animal sacrifice, and the numerous magic rites. Temples and images also appear side by side with these ancient methods of worship, but we are told nothing about the temple-cult, the reason seemingly being that it stands outside the Vedic faith. The old pantheon remains, but several new divinities appear, chiefly abstractions — Dharma, religious law ; Kubera, wealth ; Kama, Cupid. Brahma, whom we meet in the Aranyakas, has also an honoured place. The worship of snakes, mountains, rivers, and pools is also found ; and cow-pens are reckoned among holy places. The doctrine of transmigration and karma is recognized as true by every one, but the old eschatology is still in use ; so that there is no unity of treatment. Readers will note how close the resemblance is to the religion of the original Epics. § 43. The appearance during this period of the sutra-texts on Magic shows that the practice of the old methods of magic was still a very living part of the religion ; but we must notice that these ceremonies did not form part of the obliga- tory ceremonial law (kalpa), but are extra and voluntary. The chief text, the Kausika-sutra which belongs to the Athar- vaveda, is first of all a Grihya-sutra, but also gives a great deal of detailed information about magical ceremonies, and makes much that is far from clear in the Atharvan quite compre- 1 Gautama DS. XVIII. 4-17 5 Vasishtha DS. XVII. 55-68, 74. 3 See the careful sketch by Hopkins, RI. 242-63. 3 Apastamba DS. I. 8, 22-3. 4»-' TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE hensible. The Rigvidhdna describes the magical effects pro- duced by the recitation of hymns or single verses of the Rigveda ; while the Samavidhana Brahmana shows how the chants of the Samaveda may be used for superstitious practices. 1 The Adbhuta Brahmana also belongs to the Samaveda, and deals with portents and the means to avert their evil influence. We may also mention here the Gopatha Brahmana of the Atharvaveda, which is a late text of very varied character, depending on the Vaitana-sutra. § 44. Subsidiary sutras also existed on the measurement of altars and were called Sulva-sutras, from the word for a measuring line, on Phonetics, Siksha, Grammar, Vyakarana, Etymology, Nirukta, Prosody, Chhandas, and Astronomy, Jyotisha. There were also special forms of the text of the Rigveda and various ancillary works on minor matters. iA large part of this literature is of no interest for our subject, as, from the modern standpoint, it is purely secular. But there is one of these secular books which we must mention, because of the immense influence it has exerted over language in India, and its consequent importance for Indian history. We refer to the Ashtadhyayl or Eight Chapters of Panini on Vyakarana, Grammar. Panini lived at Taxila in the far north-west, seemingly about the middle of the fourth century B.C. 2 He may have been alive when Alexander and his army were entertained in the city with royal magnificence. In him culminated the move- ment to make the speech of the Vedic schools a thoroughly musical, trustworthy, intelligible, and polished instrument ; and his book has been the norm of the Samskrita, i. e. the cultured, speech ever since. Down to his time this language had gradually changed ; but from the moment when in the schools of India his book became the standard, Sanskrit became an unchangeable language. By his day great differ- ences had already arisen between the polished tongue and 1 For the date of these texts, see Keith, TS. I. clxvii. 2 Keith, TS. I. clxviii. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 43 the current forms of speech : Sanskrit was becoming incom- prehensible to the uneducated man.- Herein lay its dis- advantage and still lies. But, on the other hand, it remains permanently intelligible to all cultured men throughout India, while each vernacular is restricted to its own domain, and also changes so rapidly that usually in three or four hundred years its best literature is as foreign to the vulgar as Sanskrit itself. The whole of this sutra-literature was recognized as reve- lation of the second grade and was called smriti, remembrance, in contrast with literature of the highest grade, which, as we have already seen, was called sruti. § 45. A famous work on politics, Kautilya's Arthasastra, which has recently come to light, though not a religious work, must be mentioned here on account of the large amount of detailed information it affords incidentally as to the condition of religion and morals in Magadha, towards the end of the period. According to tradition, Kautilya is another name for Chanakya, Chandragupta's Brahman minister ; but critical inquiry tends to lead to the conclusion that the work is the text-book of a school of politics, and that, while probably part of it is the work of Chanakya, it has been redacted and interpolated. 1 Yet its evidence is of great value, if we give its date rather wide limits, say from 300 to 100 B. C. It is a work which no one dealing with Hindu ethics can afford to neglect. The information it gives about government, law, crime and its punishment, and the social and economic state of the country is of very great importance. Its evidence with regard to the religion of Magadha is most interesting. The popular belief was a wide and varied polytheism ; for not only are the great gods and many of the minor divinities of Hinduism mentioned, but the worship of mountains, rivers, trees and fire, of birds, snakes, and cows and other animals, is regarded as of great value as a prophylactic against pestilence, cattle-disease, demons, fire, floods, drought, famine, 1 Keith, Jfi AS. 1916, p. 130. But see also K.V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, Some Considerations on Ancient Indian Polity, Madras, 1916. 44 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE and other calamities. Numerous ceremonies, incantations, and magical arts are recommended for such purposes also. Readers will note how well this fits in with the evidence of the epics and the sutras. Another aspect of the book is its eschatology. It does not seem to mention transmigra- tion, karma, or release at all. In all these features the work is very similar to the edicts of Asoka. The following is the basis of the moral and religious teaching of the treatise : The observance of one's own duty leads one to heaven (svarga) and infinite bliss (anantya). When it is violated, the world will come to an end owing to confusion of castes and duties. Hence the king shall never allow people to swerve from their duties. . . . For the world, when main- tained in accordance with the injunctions of the triple Veda, will surely progress, but never perish. 1 This is precisely the position of the Karma Mimamsa. The work recommends the Sankhya, Yoga, and Lokayata philo- sophies. The first and the last of the three are atheistic, and it is practically certain that at this date the Yoga was so also. iii. The Epics. § 46. The epics of India, the Mahabharata and the Rama- yana, which were originally heroic narratives, became in the course of their history religious works, and are of extreme importance as evidence on the subject of the religion of the common people and with regard to the rise of the sects of Hinduism. But they are so vast that they are apt to rill the virgin inquirer with utter dismay ; and in the case of the Mahabharata, the contents present such an extraordinary medley — explained to us as arising from interminable inter- polations and the operations of countless editors each with a policy of his own — that they deepen the feeling to blank despair. Yet, taken in the right way, they .ought to prove very fruitful. The parts of each poem must be read at the points of the history where they appeared. 1 I. iii. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 45 Scholars seem to be coming steadily nearer unanimity as to the three essential moments in the history of the epics. They are practically the same for both. All three stages are very fully represented in the Mahabharata, but it is in the Ramayana that the first and the second can be most easily studied, while the third, which is only faintly represented in it, attains enormous proportions in the Mahabharata. They are as follows : A. The epics composed as popular poems : sixth, fifth, or fourth century B. c. B. The epics changed into sectarian poems by Vaishnava priests : second century B. c. C. Vaishnava theism in both epics : the Mahabharata becomes a huge encyclopaedia of theology, philo- sophy, politics, and law : first and second cen- turies A. D. There is perhaps not quite so much unanimity with regard to the dates suggested as to the three distinct movements. 1 All would acknowledge further that fragments of material found their way into the Mahabharata in still later centuries. § 47. In this chapter, then, we deal only with the first stage. The roots of popular epic poetry lie very far back, in dramatic stories in the Vedic hymns and narratives in the Brahmanas ; 2 and it is probable that the first attempts at actual epics (possibly indeed a rudimentary Mahabharata, or Ramayana) go back as far as the age of the Brahmanas ; for since the epic is popular, and its language is Sanskrit, it must have originated at a time when the warriors in the chieftain's hall understood heroic songs in Sanskrit, that is, a time when the popular and the cultured speech were still near enough to be practically, one. That in India, as in Greece, the epic arose from the song that glorified the noble deed, stands out clearly 1 Holtzmann, MBH. I. sff.j I26ff.; 1528".; Jacobi,/?.24fi\; 60 ff.; iooff.; Macdonell, SL. 285-6; 305-12; Hopkins, GE. 397-8; Winternilz, I. 38off.; 423 ff. _ a Macdonell, 280-1 ; Keith, AA. 196 n. 19. 46 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE in the ancient evidence. The early songs were sung ; and the more elaborate compositions founded on them were either sung or recited with eloquent declamation and dramatic" gesture. 1 Scholars agree that the first rounded Mahabharata and the first completed Ramayana arose from these earlier efforts, and that they both appeared in the same age, between 600 and 300 B. C. ; 2 but unanimity has not. yet been reached on the question as to which came first. 3 For our purpose, however, the question is of little importance. We need merely re- cognize that both were already in existence by 300 B. C. and that both may have arisen a good deal earlier. The features of the two epics, the place where they arose, the way in which they were formed from earlier pieces and other interesting problems, are discussed by the critics. 4 Strictly speaking, the original epics ought not to come into our survey ; for they were not composed as religious works, but as heroic poems. Yet their subsequent history changed them into religious works of very great importance, and the original material is a source of religious history all the more valuable because it is indirect. § 48. We shall take the shorter epic first, as it is easier to detach the original Ramayana from its accretions than to •reach the genuine Bkarata amidst the immeasurable masses of extraneous material in which it is buried. Scholars agree that of the seven books of which the Ramayana consists, the whole of the first 5 and the seventh books are later additions. Thus Books II-VI represent the genuine old epic. But even 1 Holtzmann, MBH. I. 52 ff. ; Hopkins, GE. 363-7. 2 Macdonell, SL. 285 ; 306-7; Hopkins, GE. VI ; Keith, JRAS. 1915, 318 ff. 3 Jacobi puts the Ramayana first, R. 60 ff. ; so Macdonell, SL. 306, but see also ERE. X. 576; Hopkins sets the Bharata epic first, then the Ramayana, then the Pandu epic, GE. 60-1 ; 238-9. 4 Jacobi, R. ngff. ; Holtzmann, MBH. I. 15 ff. ; Macdonell, SL. 310; Hopkins, GE. 79 and passim. 6 With the exception of verses 5 to 8 of Canto V, which Jacobi, R. 55, believes formed the first lines of Valmlki's work. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 47 in these books there are numerous passages that have been foisted on the text by reciters. Most of them are either Variants, which make the details of the story harder to follow, or repetitions, which weary the reader intolerably ; so that, before scanning text or translation, it would be well to put up a danger-signal beside each morass. 1 Estimates of the date of Valmiki's work vary from the sixth to the fourth century B. C. 2 Valmlki's poem helps us to understand the religion the more because it is a secular work ; for it gives us an un- disturbed reflection of some aspects of the popular faith. And we do well to look at it carefully ; for from a very early date the work has been read as a mirror of character ; and in its enlarged form the Ramayana is still the first of all Vish- nuite scriptures. Religion, then, in the original work is still frankly polytheistic and external. There are no sects. Every one acknowledges all the gods ; and worship is made by means of sacrifice, usually animal sacrifice. There is no mention here of the philosophy of the Atman. The shnnydsl never appears ; but at every turn the ancient vanaprastha. There is no approach to anything like a theism. The idea, of divine incarnation never occurs ; Rama from beginning to end is a man and only a man : he is a great hero, but there is no suggestion that he is in any sense a god. Most of the old gods of the Veda are mentioned ; and there is no monarch among them, although Indra may receive a little more re- cognition than the others. A number of new divinities have taken their places among the famous early gods, especially Kama, Kubera, Sukra, and Karttikeya, and the following goddesses : Ganga, the Ganges, with Lakshml and Uma, the 1 The following are the chief interpolations recognized by Jacobi : IL 41-9, 66-93, 107, 17-m, 117, 5-119; HI. 1-14; IV. 17-18,40-43,45-7; V. 41-55, 58-64, 66-8 ; VI. 23-40, 59-60, 69, 74-5. Besides these, there is one very late canto which would confuse the reader seriously, Viz. VI. 1 19. 2 Jacobi,-^?. 100-112, inclines to the sixth, or even the eighth century. The latest careful review of the question is by Keith, JRAS. 1915, 318. He inclines to the fourth century as the true date, and Macdonell agrees : ERE. X. 576. 48 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE wives of Vishnu and Siva. Semi-divine animals, Sesha, the snake, Hanuman, the monkey, Jambavan, the bear, Garuda, the eagle, Jatayus, the vulture, and Nandl, Siva's bull, are quite prominent. Vishnu and Siva, who in the later Vedas and the Brahmanas are far more important than they are in the Rik, here maintain that prominence. Snakes, trees, rivers, and lakes are also worshipped. It is of importance to note that temples and images of the gods are common, and that animal sacrifice is the usual offering. There is no allusion to the phallus of Siva. Innumerable superstitions haunt the religious consciousness. The doctrine of transmigration and karma is everywhere accepted and applied to life, but it is not yet full grown. Men do not understand all its implica- tions, and parts of the old scheme of things still survive. §49. The original heroic Mahabharata is much harder to isolate, chiefly because it was redacted with greater care and persistence by the priests than the companion poem. It is referred to in the epic' itself; for in the first section of the first book as it stands to-day, we are told that the Bharata consists of 8,800 verses, of 34,000 verses, and of 100,000 verses. These three computations correspond to the three stadia in the composition of the poem referred to above. Thus the work we are thinking of here contained 8,800 verses. No scholar has yet undertaken to separate out the component passages, and reform the ancient work ; so that it cannot be studied precisely in the same w,ay as the original Ramayana ; but the student may form some idea of its character by reading one of the oldest episodes, Nala, 1 or Savitrl, 2 or the famous gambling scene, 3 or some of the battle-scenes from Book VIII or IX, though even in these the trail of the redactor will be crossed here and there. Then scholars are quite able to see the religious charac- teristics of the old poem, though they cannot extricate it from the clinging mass of fresh growth. The religion is polytheistic and ritualistic through and through ; sectarianism has not yet 1 III. 52 ff. Mil. 292 ff. 3 II. 46-73. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 49 appeared ; there is no theism in it, no divine incarnation, no exposition of the Atman doctrine. The three chief gods seem to be Indra, Brahma, and Agni, but the whole of the old pantheon survives. Dharma, i. e. Law, and Kama, Love, appear as divinities, and Krishna appears also, but whether as god or man is not yet known with certainty. Epic society is dominated' by caste ; yet there is far more social freedom than at later stages of Hindu history ; and women in particular have a good deal of liberty. Brahmans, in contravention of the regular rule, .often become warriors. Hindus have not yet become vegetarians : everybody eats beef. The polyandry of Draupadi is clearly a historical trait which has persisted in the story, despite its naturally repulsive character. § 50. One of the chief problems of this period is the rise of the god Krishna, who seems to haye had as one of his epithets the title Vasudeva. Some scholars believe that in^the original Mahabharata he was a man and only a man, 1 and that he was deified at a rather later date. Others affirm that he is always a god in the Mahabharata?' Of these some suppose that he was originally a vegetation-spirit, others that he was a sun-god. It is certainly clear that he was already a god of some sort in the fourth century B. c. ; for in Panini's grammar 3 Vasudeva and Arjuna appear as a pair of divinities. Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta about 300 B.C., has a sentence which seems to mean, that Krishna was wor- shipped at Mathura and Krishnapur. In the Mahanarayana Upanishad^ which is probably not later than the third century B.C., there is a litany in which the title Vasudeva is used as an epithet of Vishnu, which seems to mean that Krishna was already in some sense identified with Vishnu. Finally, in the Mahabhashya 5 of Patanjali, which was probably written about 150 B.C., Vasudeva is spoken of as a divinity. 1 Hopkins, ION. 105 (but see below) ; Grierson, ERE. II. 541 ; Garbe, 1C. 210. 2 Keith, JRAS. 1915, 548 ; Hopkins, GE. 395, n. 3; RI. 467-8. 3 iv". 3. 98. * I- 31. 6 On Panini, IV. 3. 98. E 50 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE Sir R. G. Bhandarkar J has a notable theory of "his own on the subject. He distinguishes between Vasudeva and Krishna. He believes that Vasudeva was originally a man belonging to the Satvata tribe, that he lived in the sixth century B.C., if not earlier, and that he taught the people of his tribe a monotheistic religion. Some time after his death he was deified by his own people and identified with the one personal God whom he had preached. He was thereafter identified, first with Narayana, then with Vishnu, and finally with the cowherd god 331. 8 XVIII. v. 46; vi. 97; Hopkins, GE. 48. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 139 than the fourth century. But the actual number of existing works recognized as Puranas is twenty ; for the Harivamsa, which forms the conclusion of the Mahabharata, is one of the earliest and greatest of the Puranas, and must be reckoned as such ; and both the Siva and the Vayu, one of which is usually excluded from the list, ought to be included. There are besides many secondary documents, known as Upapuranas. The twenty recognized works are the following eighteen, as found in the list in the Vishnu : 1. Brahma, a. Padma, 3. Vishnu, 4. Siva, 5. Bhagavata, 6. Naradiya, 7. Markandeya, 8. Agni, 9. Bhavishya, 10. Brahmavaivarta, 11. Lihga, ia. Varaha, 13. Skanda, 14. Vamana, 15, Kurma, 16. Matsya, 17. Garuda, 18. Brahmanda — with the Harivamsa and the Vayu added. § 158. Thus the roots of the Puranic literature go back to early dates, but most of the material is late. Even a cursory study shows that there have been innumerable additions, excisions, and alterations made in the course of the centuries. Very few Puranas have a settled text : differing recensions exist, and countless fragments of many types are found in MSS., either incorporated in a Purana, or claiming to belong to one. The sectarian Purana is essentially an old text partially rewritten for a 'sectarian end, or an old text with a sectarian document incorporated in it ; and this process of contamination has been continued through all the centuries since the Gupta period. Ancient legends about the sectarian gods, masses of sectarian theology, philosophy, ritual, and art, manuals of politics, war, astrology, medicine, rhetoric, and grammar, and mahatmyas (i.e. panegyrics) of temples and other places of pilgrimage, now form a large part of the con- tents of the Puranas. Thus even if the precise date of the original compilation of each of the twenty Puranas were definitely known, we should still be compelled to judge the age and origin of each section on its own merits. But very little of this critical work has yet been done ; so that only tentative conclusions can be given at present ; and critical 140 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS study will prove fruitful only if the Puranic material is exam- ined in the closest possible relation to the history of the sects. We propose to fit Puranic material into our outline of the history in two ways. First, we shall give a list in each chapter of those Puranas or sections of Puranas which seem to belong to its period ; and secondly we shall use those sectarian Puranic documents whose connexions can be discerned to help to complete our sketch of the literature of each period. § 159. It is clear that the Harivamsa belongs to this period, but there is no absolute proof with regard to any other docu- ment. Yet we propose, tentatively, to assign the following Puranas and parts of Puranas to this perio"d, since the evidence in each case seems to favour the ascription. They are briefly discussed below in the sections which deal with the sectarian literatures, and in each case the reasons for ascribing them to this period are stated. The sect of Vishnu : Harivamsa and Vishnu P. „ Siva : Sections in Vayu P. „ Brahma: First Khanda of Padma P. ; portions of Markandeya P. „ Durga : Hymns in Harivamsa ; Chandl Ma- hatmya of Markandeya P. „ Surya : Section of Markandeya P. ; Brahma Parvan of Bhavishya P- C. The Orthodox Twice-born and their Literature. § 160. The slow yet steady weakening of the ancient sacri- fices prescribed in the Srauta-sutras seems to be one of the chief features of orthodox life during this period, while the simpler rites laid down in the Grihya-sutras were more and more practised and also widened in their scope. The popular gods took their place in the worship of the home, and were honoured with a ritual taken from the Grihya-sutras. At this time also the word Smarta began to be used for the orthodox twice-born man who does not offer the Srauta sacrifices, while PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 141 Srauta became the term for the man who still keeps up several or all of the Srauta rites. The word Smarta occurs first of all in this sense in the Parisishtas to Baudhayana's Grihya-sutra. Smarta comes from Smriti ; and the idea is that the Smarta's worship depends upon smriti, i. e. the sutras, and in particular on the Grihya-sutra of the school to which he belongs. For the whole group of orthodox twice-born men the final exposition of the Karma Mlmarhsa, the Nyaya, and the Vaise- shika in sutras — all three being systems which orthodox householders favoured — and the codification of the ancient dharma in the lawbooks during those centuries must have been of signal importance ; while the writing of the Parisishtas now attached to the Baudhayana Grihya-sutras seems to have arisen directly from the emergence of the Smartas. The chief works on the sacred law belonging to this period are the Vishnusmriti^ the Vaikhdnasa Grihya and Dharma- sutras, the Yajnavalkya Dharmasastra and certain Pari- sishtas or appendices tacked on to the Baudhayana Grihya- sutra. The earliest of these works is the Vishnusmriti, which is later than the Harivamsa, and the latest is the Yajnavalkya Dharmasastra, which borrows passages from the Vishnusmriti and speaks of Ganesa. The Baudhayana Grihya- sutra is of peculiar interest for the history of the Smarta community ; for it is sometimes called the Smdrta-sutra in MSS. ; l and its Parisishtas contain rules for their cult. 2 It would be well if they could, be critically edited. The Yajna- valkya Dharmasastra stands in close relationship to Manu and is also an orthodox work. The legal material of the Vishnusmriti is in prose sutras, and seems to have been taken over almost unchanged from the Dharma-sutra belonging to the Charayanlya-Kathakas, one of the ancient schools of the Black Yajurveda ; but some rules have been altered and a few new ones added. The 1 Biihler, SBE. XIV. xxx. 2 I am informed that the worship of the five gods is dealt with in them ; see § 207. 142 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS reviser has also introduced a short chapter at the beginning, in which we are told that the goddess of the earth received this whole body of law from the lips of the supreme Vishnu, and added two at the end in praise of Vishnu and his consort Sri. Krishna receives no special mention. The code is thus a Vaishnava work arranged for the use of some Vaishnava community, most probably the Bhagavata, as is suggested at many points by the commentator Nandapandita. 1 The Vai- khanasa Sutras are also Vaishnava, and as there are found in the Tamil south to-day Vaishnava temples in which Vai- khanasa, as distinct from Pancharatrd, Samhitas 2 are used for the ritual, it is probable that this also was prepared for a special Vaishnava community. § 1 6 1. It was seemingly during this period that the worship of Vishnu and Siva as equal, or as one, was instituted ; for the fullest exposition of the theory on which the cult rests occurs in the Harivamsa? One might think that the worship of Siva and Vishnu as one was a compromise meant to reconcile warring sectaries, but facts suggest another explana- tion. The word Bhagavata has two meanings in modern Hinduism. It is first an epithet used of Vaishnavas generally, as those who use the Bhagavat-sastra, or body of works which revere Vishnu as Bhagavan. It is used, in the second place, of a special community of Vaishnavas, found to-day in most parts- of South India, who really adore Vishnu, but recognize the equality of the two gods and keep up the use of Vedic rites. They are therefore recognized as Smartas. It is of great importance to distinguish this community of Vaishnava Smartas from the sectarian Vaishnavas called Pancharatras. We may be sure that the passage in the Harivamsa, which reflects the double worship, comes from the Bhagavatas. An Upanishad was written later to establish the doctrine of the identity of Vishnu 1 SBE. VII. pp. 155 tt. ; 208 n. 2; 268. 2 See § 211 and § 212. 3 Chap. 184, lines 10660 ff. Cf. Muir, OST. IV.; also Winternitz, I. 386. For the Harivamsa, see § 159 and § 162. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 143 and Siva, the Skanda U. 1 The godhead conceived in this way is designated Harihara, Preserver-Destroyer. An inscription dating from A.D. 538-9 2 shows that the Bhagavata community was already in existence during this period ; for it not only uses the word Bhagavata but quotes their famous mantra, Om namo Bhagavate Vdsudevdya. The presence in the Harivamsa of the classical text on the metaphysical equality of Vishnu and Siva, and of several other passages which fit in with the theory, 3 naturally suggests the question whether the Harivamsa may not be a Bhagavata Purana corresponding to the Vishnu P., which clearly belongs to the Pancharatra Vaishnavas. The emergence about the same time of two Puranas so similar in their attitude to Krishna would thereby find an explanation. The contents and significance of the Harivamsa are dealt with below. D. Vaishnava Literature. § 1 6a. The Harivamsa and the Vishnu P. are Krishnaite works prepared with the utmost care and skill from old materials, so that the popularity and the ancient influence of the Puranic literature may be used to strengthen the cult of Vishnu. It is suggested above 4 that the Harivamsa may be a Bhagavata document, while there is no doubt that the Vishnu P. sprang from the Vaishnava sect known as Paricha- ratras. They must in any case be considered together. The Harivamsa clearly cannot be dated later than A. D. 400, and the Vishnu P. is so like it in most of its features that it is probable that it belongs to the same general date. Both contain a good deal of cosmic matter, but it is in their treat- ment of the Krishna-legend that they are most significant. They presuppose the whole Mahabharata story, but they tell in great detail the sports and exploits of his youth, which are 1 See § 210. 2 The Khoh copper plates of Maharaja Sariikshobha, belonging to the year 209 of the Gupta era. 3 cxxxi. 741 ff. ; cxlv. 8199 ff. ; cclxvi-cclxxxi ; cccxxiv. See Winternitz, I. 384 ff. 4 § 161. 144 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS merely alluded to in the epic. Perhaps three stages in the development of the legend may be detected. The dramatist Bhasa, who probably dates from the 'third century A. D., has a play called Bdlacharita, which tells the story of Krishna's youth, as its name indicates. In it the Halllsa sport is merely an innocent dance. In the Vishnu P. there are already various erotic touches which go a good deal further ; while in the Harivamsa the whole story of his youth is told at much greater length and the Halllsa is treated as involving sexual intercourse. 1 In any case it is the life of Krishna, and, above all, the legend of his youth that gives these works their significance ; and the fresh material they contain, doubtless drawn from legends which had long been current in and about Mathura, could scarcely be surpassed in power to attract, to interest, and to amuse the common people. Here we have Krishna and his brother pictured in a series of feats of strength and cunning, killing giants and circumventing rogues, the whole lighted up with coarse country humour of the broadest type, and, along- side, scenes of rustic merrymaking in which the young god captures the hearts of all the young wives, and keeps up the dance and the revel all night long. The Harivamsa had the immense good fortune to be accepted as a fitting close to the Mahabharata, and in conse- quence has enjoyed unlimited popularity and influence. The Vishnu P. is the best representative of the whole class of sectarian Puranas, since it is purely Vaishnava in its teaching from beginning to end, and yet retains with considerable faithfulness the character of the old unsectarian Puranas. It is divided into six books, all of which, with the exception of the fifth, are in the main ' cosmic ' in character, though distinctly Vaishnava in theology. The fifth book tells the story of Krishna and is the heart of the Purana, as has just been shown. In its theology the Vishnu follows, in the main, the Gita and the other Vaishnava documents of the didactic 1 Chanda, IAR. 86 ff. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 145 epic, but it speaks of Krishna as being an incarnation of an exceedingly small portion of Vishnu. The appearance of these two great works sufficiently attests the great place which Krishna held in Hindu thought at the time. Thibaut's conjecture as to the influence of the Gita on the Vedanta-sutras, and the unquestioned fact that about this time the Song rose to a place of authority on an equality with the Upanishads 1 are further proofs of the influence of the Vaishnava movement. § 163. The Ma/id 2 is a short Upanishad which voices the Vaishnava conviction that Narayana, i.e. Vishnu, is the eternal Brahman, that from him come the twenty-five principles of the Sankhya system, and that Siva and Brahma are subordinate deities, creations of his meditative power. It is the oldest Vaishnava Upanishad, and probably comes from our period. It is quoted by Ramanuja. 3 E. Saivct Literature. § 164. In the didactic epic, as we have seen, a theology named Pasupata is woven round the god Siva. This system makes its appearance next in the earlier part of the Vdyu P. The bulk of the Purana probably belongs to the fourth or fifth century, but the date of this Pasupata section is not yet known. The material, however, stands so near the Saiva material of the Epic in character that we are inclined to place it in this period rather than in the next. It contains a good deal of ' cosmic ' material very little modified, the philosophy following in the main the teaching of the theistic Yoga.' Chapters n to 15 deal with Pasupata Yoga, the various forms of physical and intellectual practice which were tradi- tional in the sect. 4 Here also occurs a Mahatmya of Mahesvara, and a hymn of praise in honour of Nilakantha, both names of Siva. 1 See § 144. 2 Deussen, SUV. 743. 3 SBE. XLVIII. 522. 4 Pasupata ascetics are called urddhva-retasah, Pasupatas tapasvinah, and bhasmoddhiilitavigrahah. L 146 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS . § 165. But there is one passage which introduces us to a sub-sect of the Pasupatas, viz. the Lakulisas. After an enumeration of the Kalpas, there comes an account of the ages (yugas) which form divisions of the present Kalpa. Of these twenty-eight are enumerated, and Siva promises to become incarnate in each. The last of the prophecies runs that, when Krishna shall be incarnate as Vasudeva, Siva, by means of his Yoga powers, Will enter a dead body left un- guarded in a burning-ground at Kayarohana,.and will appear as an ascetic named Lakull. Kusika, Gargya, Mitra, and Kaurashya will be his disciples, and will practise Pasupata Yoga, smearing their bodies with ashes and dust. 1 Now an inscription in an old shrine near the temple of EklirigjI, fourteen miles from Udaipur, says that Siva was incarnate in the country of Broach and carried a rod (lakula) in his hand, whence the place was called Kayavarohana, i.e. descent in a body. The Cintra prasasti says that Siva became incarnate at Karohana, in the Lata country, and that, for the strict performance of Pasupata vows, there appeared in bodily form four pupils, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurushya, and Maitreya. Karwar in the Baroda State is held to be the place, and a temple of Lakullsa still stands there. We have then, in the prophecy of the Vayu, the earliest notice of the Lakullsa-Pa^upatas. The history of the sect has been worked out by Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar. A temple belonging to it was assigned by Fergusson to the seventh century ; it can be traced in inscriptions from Rajputana south to Mysore, from the tenth century downwards, and large numbers of Lakullsa images have been found in Gujarat and Rajputana. These images are different from all other images of Siva : in them the god has but two arms, he holds a short club in one of his hands, and the penis is naked and erect. The two arms find an explanation if Lakull was a human ascetic ; the club is the lakula from which he takes his name ; 1 Cf. the account of Pasupata ascetics in Atharvasiras U. : see § 113- PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 147 and the penis naked and erect recalls the linga-passages of the epic discussed above. 1 It thus seems likely that the sect was founded by a Pasupata ascetic named Lakull, i.e. the club-bearer, who taught a form of Pasupata doctrine, and was recognized as an incarnation of Siva. Since the name Lakull does not occur in the Mahabharata, it is likely that the sect arose after the epic and before the Vayu, perhaps about the third or fourth century. 2 Now, given the belief that Siva has been incarnate in this, the twenty-eighth, Mahayuga as Lakull, attended by four disciples, the schematizing Indian imagination, which created a long series of Vaishnava incarnations before Krishna, a long series of Buddhas before Gautama, and a long series of Trrthakaras before Mahavira, would soon discover the names of the other incarnations and of the four disciples of each. - The sect would then have a line of divine teachers worthy of comparison with the list of avataras in the Vaishnava sect ; and that is precisely what we have in the Vayu. It is very noticeable that the doctrine of avataras, which was not adopted at the time of the epic, is now accepted, and that the very form of the story confesses that it is copied from the Krishna- incarnation. § 166. It is probable that the bulk of Saivas throughout this period belonged to no sub-sect, but continued their worship of the god in accordance with ancient usage, as so many do to-day, without troubling about sects and theology, but our information is very scanty. About the Tamil Saivas a little is known, but there is practically no literature to catalogue. Nakklra Deva, who lived at some time during the period, seems to have been a writer of eminence, but only one of the works attributed to 1 See § 1 10. The epithet Urddhva-retas, which occurs in these passages, is used here of Lakullsa ascetics Jn the sense of ' chaste '. 2 This date is certainly very speculative ; for the passage may possibly have been interpolated after the writing of the original Purana; but it is at least more likely to be near the date than Bhandarkar's suggestion, the first century A. D. L 3 148 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS him is accepted by scholars as genuine, the Tirumuruhattup- padai, a poem in honour of the god Muruha, i.e. Subrahmanya, F. Brahma Literature, § 167. A Brahma sect also appears in the literature. In the Markandeya P. and in the first Kharida of the Padma P. 1 he is identified with the eternal Brahman of the Upanishads. There can be little doubt that these passages belong to this period, for only during these centuries was the sect of Brahma prominent. In the Markandeya he is spoken of as unborn, changeless, imperishable, unknowable, the source of prakriti and of souls, while in the Padma, Brahma and Brahman, the instrument and the first cause of creation, are represented as the same, the primeval, excellent, beneficent, and supreme Brahman in the form of Brahma and the rest, is the creation and the creator, preserves and is preserved, devours and is devoured, v the first immaterial cause being, as is common in the pantheism of the Puranas, also the material cause and substance of the universe. 2 The greater part of the first Khanda of the Padma forms the Pushkara Mahatmya, or panegyric of Pushkara, the holy lake in Rajputana, where stands the one famous temple of Brahma to-day. Here we had better also say a word about the doctrine of the Trimurti, according to which the one supreme Reality is manifested as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. It appears first in two passages in the Maitrayana U. In the first of these 3 there is merely the statement that the three gods are the highest manifestations of the bodiless Supreme. In the second 4 it takes philosophical form : as prakriti, the imper- ceptible base of nature, consists of three strands, sattva, rajas, and tamas, 5 so the one Supreme is manifested in the three gods, Vishnu being sattva, Brahma rajas, and Siva tamas. 1 The Padma P. is named from the lotus in which Brahma appears at the creation. It was thus a Brahma Purana from the beginning. 2 Wilson, Works, III. 24. 3 IV. 5-6. " V. 2. « See § 147. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 149 Such is the original form of the doctrine. But, since each" sect identified its own gocj with the supreme Brahman, the trimurti has a, distinct form in each. To the Vishnuite Vishnu-Brahman is manifested in three gods, Brahma, a subordinate Vishnu, and Siva, 1 while to the Saiva, Siva- Brahman is manifested in Brahma, Vishnu, and Bhava. 2 A similar scheme was set forth by Sauras, 3 by the worshippers of Brahma, 4 by Ganapatyas, 5 and by Saktas. 6 The Nim- barkas and other sects identify Krishna as distinct from Vishnu with Brahman, and thus have a scheme of their own. 7 The doctrine has never been a living element in the religion of the Hindu, although it often appears in literature and now and then in sculpture. It may be well to notice how utterly unlike the Christian doctrine of the Trinity this unstable theory is. It always involves four gods, one Supreme and three manifestations, and the phrase in the Matsya P. which has been often mistranslated ' One God and three persons ', really means ' One image, three gods ', 8 and it does not cover the one Reality behind these manifestations. G. Durga Literature. § 1 68. The worship of the goddess Durga also comes to the surface in the literature at this point. The earliest passage occurs in the Mahabharata? and celebrates Durga as the slayer of Mahisha, and as a virgin goddess, who dwells in the Vindhya mountains, delights in wine, flesh, and animal sacrifice, and upholds heaven by her chastity, but is also the sister of Krishna, 10 and like him is dark blue in colour and 1 MBH. III. cclxxii. 46. 2 Lihga P. I. xviii. 12 ; Muir, OST. IV. 330. 3 Ramayana, VI. cvi. 19. Cf. Wilson, Sects, I. 19. * Markandeya, P. xlv. 19. 6 ERE. VI. 175 f. 6 See Avalon, TGL. xxiv. 7 Bhandarkar, VS. 79; "Wilson, Works, III. 93. 8 Eka milrtis trayo devah. It is suggested by images such as the trimurti in the Elephanta cave. 9 IV. vi. 10 This refers to the story of Yoganidra, which appears first in the Harivaihsa and the Vishnu P. 150 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS wears a crest of peacock feathers. Here, as it would' seem, a virgin goddess worshipped by the wild tribes of the Vindhyas has become connected with the Krishna myth. No connexion with Siva is suggested. The next passage is also from the epic, 1 and is noteworthy for this, that while the goddess is still connected with the Krishna legend, and is represented as delighting in the blood of Mahisha, she is now definitely made the wife of Siva, and is addressed as Uma. She is also identified with the Vedas, the Vedanta, chastity, and many other things, but is no longer regarded as a virgin. Two hymns in the Harivamsa? and the episode in the Markandeya P., known as the Devi-mahatmya or Chandi- mahatmya, show a still greater advance. The Harivamsa probably dates from the fourth, and cannot be later than the fifth, century ; and the Chandi-mahatmya almost certainly comes from the sixth century at latest ; for it forms the chief background of Bana's Chandlsataka, an ode to Chandi in a hundred verses which was written at the court of the emperor Harsha early in the seventh century. 3 The narrative of the Chandi-mahatmya celebrates the mighty deeds of the goddess and refers to her daily worship and autumnal festival, while the three hymns contained in it and the hymns from the Harivamsa contain the theology of the cult. A Devi-worshipping sect is here formed, and by the same method as we have seen adopted by the Vaishnavas and the Saivas : the Devi is identified with the Brahman of the Upanishads, and is thus made the one Reality, and set far above all other divinities. The concept of the divine sakH i finds here its earliest expression. The idea seems to spring from the conviction that the Supreme, if he is to remain 1 VI. xxiii. 2 Chaps, lix and clxvi. 3 The argument of Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar, JBBRAS. XXIII. 74, is scarcely convincing ; for the line in question may, conceivably, have been a common ascription of praise, and thus, as it stands in the inscription, may not be a quotation from the Chandi at all. 1 Markandeya P. XCI. 4; 10. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 151 beyond the sway of the law of karma, must be inactive. But if the god is inactive, may not his spouse be his sakti, energy, and be extremely active ? Hence she is more worthy of worship, and the practical man will be more inclined to apply to her when he wants to get something done for him. The narrative describes in great detail the furious rights in which the goddess destroyed certain demons who were threatening the gods. Here her limitless power and her terrific appearance find forcible, even ghastly, expression. She devours unnumbered foes and drinks their blood. There is no detailed account given of her cult, but it is clear that animal sacrifice was offered, and flesh and wine were used. It is probable that human sacrifice was also practised. The goddess promises that she will never desert a temple in which the Dew-mahatmya is read daily, and this document is still one of the chief works in use among Saktas. It is also called the Chandi, from one of the names of the goddess, and the Saptasati, because it runs to seven hundred couplets. As the story of Yoganidra is not told in the Mahabharata, but first appears in the Harivamsa and the Vishnu P., the hymns in the Epic are probably later than the main sections of the didactic Epic, while the hymn in the Harivamsa and the Devi-mahatmya are still later. 1 H. Saura Literature. § 169. The sun was worshipped in several forms in the time of the Rigveda, and the prominence of the cult may be partially gauged by the supremacy of the Gayatri among Vedic prayers. In the form of morning and evening prayer finally arranged for all twice-born men the sun has an established place. 2 In the great Epic we meet for the first time the sect of Sun- worshippers, the Sauras. When Yudhishthira Jeaves his chamber in the morning, he encounters one thousand 1 For a full exposition of these early passages see Bhandarkar, VS. 142. 2 lb., 15 if. 153 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS Brahman Sun-worshippers who have eight thousand followers, 1 and the theology of the sect appears in a number of docu- ments belonging to this period, notably passages in the Mahabharatcty the Ramayana, and the Markandeya P., and an inscription of the fifth century. The character of the passage from the Markandeya P., as compared with the other Saura documents here dealt with, proves that it belongs to this period. Surya is the eternal Brahman, the supreme Spirit, the Self-existent, the Unborn, the soul of all creatures, the cause of all things, the foundation of the world. On him ascetics desirous of emancipation meditate. He is the Vedas and all the gods. He is the Lord of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Thus far the sect and its ideas seem to be purely Hindu. § 170. But as early as the first century A.D. the Persian sun- god.Mithra (Sanskrit, Mihira), was introduced into Northlndia; for his name and effigy appear on coins. 2 Then, at later dates, there is much fuller evidence in the literature of the presence of Persian elements in the cult of the sun. The first fragment is a line which occurs in the Vishnu P. and elsewhere, the original reading of which speaks of Magas as the Brahmans of Sakadvipa, i.e. of Magians as the priests of the Scythian country, or Iran. 3 Next in age, probably, comes the Brahma Parvan of the Bhavishya P- Samba, the son of Krishna, according to this authority, was afflicted with leprosy and was cleansed by the help of Surya. In gratitude to the god he built a temple in his honour where Multan now stands, and, as a result of instructions received from Narada, took a miraculous journey to Sakadvipa, and brought thence Magian priests for the temple. The narrative mentions Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian girdle, Avyahg a, the twigs, Bar sorn, which the Magian priest holds in his hand during worship, and other particulars. The rule is also laid down that the installation and consecration of images and temples of the 1 MBH. VII. Ixxxii. 14-16. 2 Chanda, JAR. 225. 3 Vishnu P. II. iv. 69-70 ; MBH. VI. xi. 35-8. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 153 sun should be carried out by Magians. Varaha Mihira, whose name proclaims him a devotee of Mihira'; and who was an authority on astronomy and astrology, wrote about A.D. 550. 1 He makes it plain that in his day Surya was represented in his images in Persian fashion, and he lays down the rule for the installation and consecration of these images and their temples by Magians, using the very sloka 2 which occurs in the Purana. This unique passage then in the Bhavishya P., with its extremely accurate reflection of Zoroastrian practice and ideas, and its agreement with Varaha Mihira, is much more likely to belong to this period than the next. It is probable, as Bloch argues, 3 that the name Samba is taken from the ancient Persian tale of Sam, and also that the theory that the sun-god cures leprosy, which was long current in India, comes from Persia. Since, however, the name of the god, Surya, and the name of the sect, Saura, are Sanskrit, and since the whole of the theology is, like the Saiva theology, a reflex of the teaching of the Gltd, it is clear that the sect was purely Hindu in origin, and that the Zoroastrian features are secondary. ii. Buddhism. §171. In India, during the three centuries of this period, the Mahayana reached the summit of its strength and splendour, and several branches of the Hinayana continued to show great vigour. In Ceylon, during the fourth and fifth centuries, there was a great outburst of literary activity, almost exclusively the work of monks. The religion also continued to make progress in Khotan and Kuchar in Central Asia, where, in addition to Zoroastrian propaganda, it now had to face both Christianity and Manichaeism. 4 In China 1 Macdonell, 318. 2 Brihat S., LX. 19. Vasu, Mayurabhanja, 3, assumes that the sloka is quoted from the Bhavishya P., and on that basis dates the passage before A.D. 550, but the sloka may have been in common use : we cannot be sure that it is quoted from the Purana by Varaha Mihira. 3 ZDMG. 1910, 733. i 'ERE. art. ' Manichaeism'. 154 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS great advances were made. At the beginning of the fourth century the emperor gave permission, for the first time, to his subjects to become Buddhist monks. 1 Henceforward the faith laid a far stronger hold on the people. In A.D. 37a Chinese monks introduced the religion into Korea 2 ; and in A.D. 399 Fa Hian, the first Chinese pilgrim to leave home in search of Buddhist learning and texts, arrived in India. A. Hinayana Literature. § 17a. We take Hinayana literature first, and begin with Ceylon. The monks there made full use of all the commen- taries on the sacred books which were procurable from India, but they soon began to write themselves. At first they translated these Indian works into Sinhalese, leaving only the verses scattered about in the prose untranslated, but at last they began to try what they could do in Pali, which had become to them the sacred language of their religion. Hence in the fourth century there opened a brilliant period of Pali literary activity. Amid the numerous works prepared at this time perhaps the most interesting is the Nidanakatha, an introduction to the commentary on the Jataka-book, which shows that devotion for the Buddha was moving forward in Ceylon on the same lines as in North India, though more slowly. This expository activity culminated in Buddhaghosha. He seems to have been born a Brahman and to have become an accomplished Hindu scholar ; but, converted to Buddhism, he became a monk and laboured in the Mahavihara in Anuradha* pura, Ceylon, in the first half of the fifth century A.D. He absorbed the whole Buddhist system as taught there with all its learning, and became its classic representative. His first work was the Visuddhimagga, or Way of Purity, a systematic exposition of the Buddhism of the Pali books of very high quality. Thereafter he composed, on the basis of all the Sinhalese and Pali work done before him, a series of great 1 Hackmann, 78. 2 lb. 85. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS' 155 commentaries on the chief books of the Pali canon. In these works, while the life of the Buddha as a monk is still clearly realized, he is also thought of as a sort of divine being exercising cosmic powers, as in the Mahayana. Dhammapala, a scholar trained also in the Mahavihara, lived on the" coast of India opposite Ceylon and wrote Pali commentaries at a date a little later. His conception and outlook are the same as Buddhaghosha's. The Dipavamsa, the Island Chronicle, and the Mahavamsa, the great Chronicle, are Pali epics, the former an artless work in rough language written in the fourth century, the latter a work of genius, comparable with the great Indian kdvyas, composed -in the last quarter of the fifth century. Both rest on irregular notes of events kept in the Mahavihara and ancient Pali verses scattered in the commentaries, and both are partly historical but largely legendary. § 173. We know very little about the history of the Hlnayana sects in India or about fresh literature composed by them during the period ; but it is quite clear that they were very active in propagating their teaching in China and in Central Asia, for a great deal of their literature was translated. The permission granted at the beginning of the fourth century to the Chinese to become monks led to the translation of the Vinaya texts of four Hlnayana schools within a period of twenty years, a.d. 404-24. We take the ancient Canon first. The four leading collec- tions of the Sutra Pitaka — the Dirgha, Madhyama, Samyukta, and Ekottara Agamas, as they are called in Sanskrit — were translated into Chinese. 1 Three distinct renderings of the Dharmapada 2 are mentioned. Of Sthavira texts the Questions of King Milinda, 3 Buddha- ghosha's commentary on the Vinaya Pitaka, 4 and scores of little tracts were translated into Chinese. 6 1 Nanjio, 545, 542, 544, 543- 2 H>. 1365. 1353, 1321. 3 lb. 1358. * Winternitz, II. i. 152. 6 Nanjio, 615; 638; 645; 665; 670; 674; 693; 696; 698-700; 703; 707-10 ; 761 j 1113; 1327. 156 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS - The Sarvastivadins were probably the most vigorous of the Hinayana schools. The influence of their philosophy, known as Vaibhashika, is shown by Vasubandha's criticism, which Sanghabhadra attempted to answer in his Nyayanusara-sastra. Two of the chief books of their Vinaya were translated into Chinese in A.D.404, 1 and, probably about the same time, parts were rendered into Kuchean. 2 It is probable that much of their Sutra Pitaka was translated into Chinese, but it is im- possible as yet to identify the texts. Parts of the Sanskrit originals have been found in Central Asia: 3 The chief text of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma was translated into Chinese in A.D. 383,* and at the same time, or rather later, several of the Abhidharma commentaries. 6 The old Sarvastivadin Buddha -biography had now become the famous Mahayana work, the Lalita Vis tar a. 6 It was the Mahasanghika Ekottara Agama that was ren- dered into Chinese in A. D. 384-5/ and their Vinaya followed in A.D. 416. 8 The Dharmagupta and the Mahlsasaka schools, which were related to the Sarvastivadins, were also active. The Dharma- guptas had a famous life of the Buddha, the Abhinishkramana Sutra, which was in use during this period. The Dharma- gupta Vinaya was translated into Chinese in A.D. 405 , 9 and fragments of Vinaya texts in mixed Sanskrit, written during our period, have been found in Kuchar in Central Asia, which show a close relationship at least with the Dharmagupta texts. 10 The Mahlsasaka Vinaya was the last of the four to be ren- dered into Chinese. It was done in A. D. 434. 11 Finally we may take here Aryasiira's famous work, the Jatakamala, which seems to belong to the fourth century. 1 Nanjio, I US, 1 160. Two of the commentaries on the Vinaya were also translated; 1135,1136. 2 Hoernle, MRBL. 357 ff. 3 lb. 166 ff. 4 Nanjio, 1273. 6 1D - 1264, 1279, 1289. 6 § 174. 7 ERE. IV. 836 ; Nanjio, 543. 8 Nanjio, 11 19. 9 Nanjio, 1 1 17. 10 Hoernle, MRBL. 4, 9. u Nanjio, 1122. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 157 He belonged to the school of Asvaghosha, and his brilliant series, of Buddhist tales has many of the qualities of the Sutra- lamkara. B. Mahay ana Literature. § 174. We take Mahayana literature next. It is quite clear that the Great Vehicle grew and extended during our period more rapidly than the Hlnayana, thus proving itself better fitted for the circumstances of the time than the older school. The Lalita Vistara, one of the greatest of Buddhist books, seems to have reached its present condition at some time during our period. Originally the Buddha-biography of the Sarvastivadins, it was taken over by Mahayanists and re- written, possibly by several hands. Although written partly in verse and partly in prose, and consisting of material drawn from many sources, early and late, it is yet a unity, a work of genuine epic strength and interest, and charged with religious belief and feeling which carried it to every part of central and eastern Asia. The Buddha is conceived as the Supreme, boundless in power and wisdom, and he is represented as surrounded by multitudes of Bodhisattvas nearing Buddhahood. In the middle watch of the night, while he sits in profound medita- tion, there shoots out from the crown of his head a ray of light which passes through the heavens and rouses all the gods to attention. They sing a hymn of praise to the exalted Buddha, and, throwing themselves at his feet, beg him to reveal the Lalita Vistara to the world. Yet, though the writers of the Mahayana thus raise the Buddha to the place of the Supreme, they do not make him altogether a god : they retain some consciousness of his human life, and recognize that he possessed a real body which has left actual relics on the earth. A new edition of the Saddharma Pundarika, x containing six fresh chapters, 2 appeared, probably early in the third 1 Nanjio, 138. 2 Chaps, xxi-vi. SBE. XXI. 158 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS century ; for it was translated into Chinese about A. D. 300. One of these chapters, chap, xxi, deals with dkdranls, spells, i. e. words, phrases, or prayers believed to be filled with magic power, and marks the time when this particular superstition laid firm hold of the Mahayana. The next chapter tells how the Bodhisattva Bhaishajyaraja, i. e. King of Medicine, burnt his body in honour of the Buddha ; and young Buddhists are urged to burn a finger, a toe, or a whole limb, in order to win great merit. Thus the old Hindu tapas, self-torture, which Gautama condemned utterly, has reappeared in Buddhism. Another chapter describes and explains the transformation which the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara undergoes in his efforts to save men. No matter how frightful may be the danger a man stands in, this chapter affirms that, if he but think of Avalokitesvara, he will be saved. This explains how, trans- formed into a goddess, he became a divinity of mercy to China and Japan. § 175. Several fresh books belonging to the Paradise Maha- yana seem to have been written during the period. Two of these become very famous, the shorter Sukhavati and the Amitayur-dhyana-sutra. The shorter Sukhavati is scarcely perceptibly different in teaching from the larger work. The main purpose of the Amitayur-dhyana-sutra is to teach people by meditation to see the paradise Sukhavati in hypnotic vision, so that through this meditation they may obtain entrance to it at death, but it also shows in some degree the influence of the Madhyamika school and of the Vedanta. Vasubandhu's Aparamitayus-sutra-sastra sums up the texts of the Paradise Mahayana. To the same general type of teaching belong three famous sutras. The early prose Karandavyuha glorifies the Bodhi- sattva Avalokitesvara, who is made so much of in the Sadd- harma Pundarlka ; the Buddhavatamsaka (or Gandavyuhd) is devoted to another Bodhisattva, Manjusii ; 1 while the Karuna- pundarika tells of a Buddha named Padmottara, i. e. Supreme 1 ERE. I. 95. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 159 Lotus, and his wonderful paradise, Padmadhatu, i. e. Lotus- land. The Makdsannipdta, of which the writer has no description, gave its name to a class of works in the Chinese Canon. The Suvarnaprabhdsa and the Samadhiraja represent the full Mahayana teaching verging towards the magic spells, the trances, the goddesses, and the inchoate theism of the Tantras. All these Mahayana works were translated into. Chinese. § 176. One of the developments of Mahayana Buddhology belonging to this period occurs so frequently that it had better be mentioned here. Each Buddha has three bodies, the dhar- makaya, or body consisting of the law, construed by the Madhyamakas as the void, by the Vijnanavadins in an idealist sense, the sambhogakdya, or body of bliss, which he wears for ever in his supramundane state and which is comparable with the glorious bodies of the great Hindu gods, and the nirmana- kdya, the formed or magical body, which he wore on earth, and which is comparable with the body of a Hindu avatara. 1 a. The Madhyamakas. § j 77. Teachers of the Madhyamaka philosophy were clearly very active during the period. Aryadeva seems to have fol- lowed Nagarjuna in the first half of the third century. Nanjio gives a list of his commentaries and original works. The last of these, the Svadhishthdna-prabheda, has recently been found in Nepal. Two of the most famous of the Prajna, texts, the Vajrachchhedika Prajndpdramita and the Prajndparamitd- hridaya-sutra, seem to belong to this period. Max Miiller says that the Vajrachchhedika is ' one of the most widely read and most highly valued metaphysical treatises in Buddhist literature ', while the Hridaya-sutra is ' the most widely read Buddhist text in Japan'. Proof of the popularity of the Vajrachchhedika in Khotan is found in the complete MS. of the original Sanskrit text, and theJMS. of the old Khotanese version, both found by Sir Aurel Stein and now published. 1 Poussin, ERE. I. 97. 160 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS There is also a famous Madhyamaka work on the ten stages {bhumis) of the career of the Bodhisattva, called the Dasa- bkumika-sutra, on which Vasubandhu wrote a commentary. 1 It was originally a chapter of the Buddhdvatamsaka-sutra. b. The Vijndnavddins. § 178. A new Buddhist philosophy of very great importance arose about A.D. 300, the leading writer being Asahga, the eldest of three Brahman brothers, who became Buddhists of the Sarvastivadin school. Asahga, however, soon passed over to the Mahayana. His idealist system has two names : from the side of its metaphysics it is called Vijndnavada, ' Thought- system,' because it teaches that nothing exists except thought, while from the side of its practice it is called Yogachara, Yoga- practice, because the end can be reached only by the long- continued practice of meditation. The external world is illusion : only thought exists. All individual intellectual products are also mere phenomena, products of the alaya- vijnana, the storehouse of intellectual impressions and forms in each individual, which is the sole foundation of the false belief in the existence of a self. But even the alayavijnana itself has but a relative reality as compared with the one and universal bodhi, ' Wisdom,' which is held and manifested by all Buddhas. In order to attain bodhi, it is necessary to become a Bodhisattva under the Mahayana, and practise yogachara through all the bhumis, stages, of the Bodhisattva career. Yet in this intellectual philosophy the use of dhdranls, spells, is constantly commended, and the belief that the Bodhi- sattva attains vast miraculous powers, vibhutva, is explicitly taught, The foundation text is Asanga's Yogdchdra-bhumi- sdstra, which survives only in Chinese, and is the chief scripture of the Shin-gon sect of Japan. 2 One chapter, however, called the Bodhisattvabhilmi, was used as a separate work and sur- vives in Sanskrit. It deals with the stages of the Bodhisattva career, and is thus the Vijnanavadin work corresponding to 1 Nanjio, 11 94. 2 Griffis, RJ. 249. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 161 the Madhyamaka Dasabhumika-sutra> Another work of his, the Mahayanasutralamkara, is a set of karikas, or memorial verses, accompanied by a prose commentary, the commentary as well as the text being by Asariga. It is a clear, systematic statement of the philosophy. He left other works 2 also. The famous text-book, Mahayana-sraddhotpada-sastra, attributed to Asvaghosha, seems to teach Asanga's system. The Lahkavatara-sutra, one of the greatest Mahayana texts, represents the Buddha as visiting Ravana in Ceylon. The teaching is Vijnanavadin, yet in some points it seems to go beyond Asahga and to draw very near the teaching of the Vedanta, that the human soul is God. It is a controversial work and attacks the Sankhya, Vaiseshika, Nyaya/Pasupata, and other Hindu systems. § 179. Vasubandhu, 3 Asanga's youngest brother, passed over to the Mahayana at a fairly late date. Hence his works are partly Hlnayana, partly Mahayana. His greatest work, the Abhidharma-kosa, is founded on the Sarvastivadin Abhi-' dharma, and has very close connexions with its chief scripture, yet he has expressed in this, work the fundamental conceptions of Buddhism with so much skill and clearness that it is a standard work with all the sects. Chinese and Tibetan translations survive, but the original Sanskrit is lost. The Abkidharma-kosa-vydkkyd, however, a commentary on it in Sanskrit by Yasomitra, survives, and is much used by modern scholars. Amongst his many works we may mention his Tarka- sastra? the earliest systematic logic by a Buddhist, and the Paramarthasaptati, a refutation in seventy verses of the seventy verses of the Sankhya Karika? § 180. A very large number of texts, Hlnayana as well as Mahayana, were translated into Chinese during this period. Then, in A.D. 518, almost at the end of the period, the first collection of Buddhist Chinese texts was made by order of 1 See § 177, and cf. ERE. II. 745. 2 Nanjio, 1245, 1184, 1236. 3 For his date see § 146. 4 Nanjio, 1252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 76. 6 See § 146. M 1 6a PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS the Emperor, and in 520 a list of the books in the Tripitaka as translated was drawn up, which still survives. 1 Chinese Buddhism thus created a sacred canon of its own. Towards the end of our period Chinese Buddhism had become so great that, in A.D. 526, the Patriarch of the Buddhist Church was removed from India to China. 2 iii. JAINISM. § 181. The history of Jainis'm during this period is not yet well known, but it seems to have continued to make progress in many parts of the country. The Digambaras were active in the Kanarese country 3 and also in Tamil-land. Svetambara Jains were clearly growing in influence and numbers in North India from Bihar in the east to Kathiawar in the west. The collection and publication of the Svetambara Canon at Valabhi at the beginning of the sixth century gives vivid expression to the fact that Kathiawar had now become the leading centre of Jain influence. As the Buddhist sects created from the living vernaculars of the day several literary dialects (e. g. MagadhI, Pali, mixed Sanskrit) and used them for their sacred books, so the Jains created their own sacred dialect, which they call Ardha-Magadhl, i. e. Half-Magadhi, but which modern scholars usually call Jain Prakrit. In this ancient speech, then, the books of the Svetambara Canon, and also a number of Digambara works, are written. But in Jain commentaries, tales, and poems we meet with a younger Prakrit which is called Jain Maharashtn, because, though it is closely related to, it is not yet identical with, Maharashtn, the linguistic ancestor of modern Marathl. 4 But Jain writers from the time of the Gupta empire used Sanskrit when they wanted to appeal to the learned public of India in treatises on philosophic and religious subjects. 1 Nanjio, p. xxvii. 2 Hackmann, 80. 3 See a long series of Digambara inscriptions, Guerinot, 224. 4 Pischel, GPS. p. 19; Winternitz, I. 14 ; Jacobi, ERE. VII. 467. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 163 A. Svetambara Literature. §183. We begin with Svetambara literature. Jain tradition tells us that the books of the Canon were collected, edited, and reduced to writing at Valabhi in a Council of which Devarddhi was president, 980 years after the death of Maha- vlra. The initial date may have been held to be either 527 B.C. or 467 B.C. Jacobi is inclined to take thejatter, which would give us A.D. 514 as the date of the Council. As the gathering of the Council and the arrangement and publication of the voluminous books of the Canon would involve considerable organization and expense, and as the dynasty of Valabhi rose to power about A.D. 490 or 495, 1 it would seem to be more likely that the great task was undertaken in A. D. 514 than sixty years earlier. It is thus probable thatthe Svetambara Canon dates from the beginning of the sixth century. It will be remembered that the Canon said to have been arranged at Pataliputra consisted of twelve Anga. 2 Tradition runs that the fourteen Purva, which formed the contents of the twelfth Anga, were gradually lost in the following centuries, but that the eleven were faithfully preserved and incorporated in the new Canon at Valabhi. According to a list in the Ca.non, there were sixty treatises included in it besides the Anga. 3 § 183. Jains acknowledge that these sixty books came into existence in the interval between the two Councils ; and there are certain traditions about the authorship of several of the documents. 4 Jacobi gives it as his opinion that these sixty books were collected ' probably in the first centuries before our era', and that 'additions or alterations may have been made ' down to the time of the Council at Valabhi ; 6 while Weber 6 gives it as his opinion that the compilation of the Anga as well as the other books took place between the second and the fifth centuries A.D. In any case there must have been 1 V. Smith, EHI. 327 ; Mabel Duff, CI. 308. 2 See § 70. 3 In the Nandisutra : Weber, IA. XVII. 283. * Weber, IA. xvii. 281. ° SBE. XLV. p. xl. 6 IA. XVII. 289. m a 1 64 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS a good deal of literary activity between A.D. aoo and 500. It is probable that the Nandlsutra and part of the Kalpasutra are by Devarddhi himself. 1 § 184. We must now ask what has happened to the books of the Canon since the beginning of the sixth century, and we are at once confronted with the fact that a very large part of the contents have been lost. The Canon to-day consists of forty-five documents. Weber 2 calculates that of the books other than the* Angas edited at Valabhi nearly as many have been lost as there are preserved. But the disappearance of a large number of the books is not the only fact to be noticed. Jacobi and Weber 3 tell us that many of the surviving works consist of incoherent parts, and that the commentaries, based on texts older than those available to-day, show that large sections have disappeared, while numerous passages have been interpolated. The texts are thus in a very unsatisfactory condition. § 1 85. We now turn to extra-canonical literature. Two of the most famous of the early writers were connected with Pataliputra, and apparently flourished during the time of Gupta prosperity. Umasvati tells us himself 4 that he wrote the Tattvarthddhigama-sutra at Pataliputra. It is a philoso- phical work, comparable with the sutras which lie at the foundation of the Hindu philosophies, and deals with all the main constituents of the Jain system. It has been much used by both the sects. As the work refers to Patanjali's Yoga- sutra, 5 while a commentary on it was written by Siddhasena- gani, whose date is the first half of the sixth century, it is probable that Umasvati belongs to the fifth or the fourth century. Tradition connects Siddhasena Divakara also with Pataliputra, and he is quoted by Siddhasenagani, so that he too belongs to the time of Gupta dominance, whether to the fourth 1 Weber, I A. XVII. 291 ; XXI. 213; Jacobi, SBE. XXII. lii. 2 1A. XXI. 373. 3 Jacobi, Kalpasutra, \Z\i.; Weber, I A. XVII. 287 ff. 4 Vidyabhushana, MS1L. 9. 5 Woods, Yoga, xix. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 165 or the fifth century. He wrote a hymn of praise in Sanskrit verse, the Kalyanamandirastotra, which Jains greatly treasure, also the Nyayavatara, a Sanskrit poem in thirty-two short stanzas, which forms the earliest Jain work on Logic. Siddhasenagani seems to have been a contemporary of Devarddhi and to have been one of the earliest of those who wrote bhashyas l in Prakrit on the books of the Canon. He is also the author of the first commentary on Umasvati's great work. He is thus parallel to Vatsyayana and Sahara Svamin 2 who wrote their bhashyas a little earlier. § 186. It seems clear that the Jains of Gujarat began to produce a popular literature in Prakrit at a very early date ; and there is abundant evidence to show that down to the ninth century at least they continued to produce a copious and varied Prakrit literature, which must have proved of large service to general culture. From our period only one Jain work of importance in Prakrit seems to have survived ; but Jacobi assures us that its' statements and its style unite to prove that many Prakrit works preceded it. It is called the Paiimachariya, and is a Jain adaptation of the Ramayana of Valmlki. The author is said to have been Vimala Suri. Jacobi is inclined to place it in the third or fourth century. 3 It is thus almost as early as Hala's famous anthology, the Sattasal. B. Digambara Liter attire. § 187. The Digambaras possess no ancient Canon parallel to the Svetambara books. As we have seen above/.they have a list of sacred books which they say they once possessed, but which are now no more. They pronounce the Sve- tambara books apocryphal, and there is this amount of truth in the charge that the Svetambaras undoubtedly modified the 1 For the niryuktis and bhashyas see Leumann, ZDMG. XLVI. 581 ff. 2 See § 153. 3 For the whole subject see Jacobi's article in the Modern Review (Calcutta), Dec. 1914. 4 See § 135. i66 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS ancient books, after the separation, so as to bring them into full consonance with their own standards. Yet among the books which the Digambaras possess, and which have a place in their Secondary Canon, 1 there are at least two which bear the names of books of the Svetambara Canon, viz. the Surya- prajnapti, and the Chandraprajnapti. The whole problem of the relation of the Digambaras to the early literature needs to be cleared up. § 1 88. But there are two Digambara writers who seem to belong to our period and whose works are well known to-day. One is Vattakera, author of the Mulachara, a work on conduct. It corresponds to the Acharahga-sutra of the Svetambara Canon, and is said to be an adaptation and summary of that work. Another book on conduct, the Trivarnachara, is also attributed to him. The other writer is one of the greatest names in early Digambara history, Kundakundacharya. Ten fundamental works of great importance, which have been much expounded and studied, were written by him. They are in Prakrit verse, and deal with the whole Digambara system. It seems to be impossible as yet to fix the dates of these men. 1 See § 257. CHAPTER V THE SAKTA SYSTEMS A. D. 550-9OQ. § 189. The date with which our chapter opens is meant to coincide with the time when the Sakta systems began to appear; for they are unquestionably the most noteworthy product of these times. The exaltation and the adoration of goddesses is manifestly the first characteristic of these new theologies ; but other forms of faith and practice were very prominent : an immense extension of the use of magic spells ; a belief in the existence of occult channels and ganglia in the human frame, and in the presence of the goddess herself — coiled up like a snake and asleep — in the chief ganglion ; a new type of hypnotic meditation believed to be potent to wake the goddess ; and, in some sects, the inclusion in the cult of foul, gruesome, and degrading practices. During this period the sects became more highly organized than ever before. In addition to the Sakta element already described, each sect was expected to possess an Upanishad and a manual; — the Upanishad to prove that its teaching had come by revelation and was in full consonance with the Vedanta ; the manual to provide a statement of the theology of the sect, a directory of its occult yoga practice, rules of conduct and ritual, and directions for the preparation of images and the building of temples. Each sect had its own order of sannyasls. Each was also expected to train a number of gurus for its cultured members. The layman received initiation, diksha, and regular instruction in the philosophical theology of the sect from his guru, just like an 168 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS ascetic. Finally, each sect had its own mantra and sect-mark, tilaka. One of the most noticeable features of the period is the great series of philosophic thinkers and exegetes who adorned the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, chiefly in the North, Scarcely less important is the great company of itinerant poet-musicians, both Vaishnava and Saiva, who filled the temples of the Tamil country with their devotion and their song. Buddhism was carried to Japan in the sixth, and to Tibet in the seventh century, while long-continued emigration carried both Hinduism and Buddhism to Cambodia, Sumatra, and Java. But India received as well as gave. A company of Persian Zoroastrians, hunted to the death by their Muham- madan conquerors, found asylum in India at the beginning of the eighth century : their descendants are the Parsis of to-day. i. Hinduism. A. The Philosophies. a. The Karma Mimamsa. §190. During the first half of the period, the Karma Mimamsa produced two famous scholars, Prabhakara, who is known as Guru, and Kumarila, who is called Bhatta. Both expounded Sahara's Bhashya, but they differed in some degree in their interpretation of the system and founded rival schools. The date of Prabhakara in unknown, but it is clear that he preceded Kumarila. His work, the Brihati, is purely an exposition of the Bhashya : he does not criticize Sahara. 1 Kumarila, who seems to have lived in the first half of the eighth century, 2 wrote a commentary on the Bhashya in three parts, in which he frequently differs from Sahara : a. Slokavartika : verse : on the first part of Chap. I. 1 Jha, PSPM. 12. 2 VzX\i Iz82 > I2 96, I3 J 7- 8 lb. 680. 4 lb. Col. 441. ao8 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS qualities of the Bodhisattvas, and prophesies the coming fall of Buddhism. The first chapter of the latter work is a dis- cussion between Buddha and the creator Brahma, in which the former reasons from Buddhist premises to the conclusion that there can be no creator. § 243. The ancient monastery of Nalanda in Behar gradually developed, probably in the sixth century, into a great Buddhist university, where thousands of students and numerous teachers of all the schools, both of the Hinayana and the Mahayana, taught and disputed and wrote. A picture of the buildings, manner of study, teaching, disputation, and worship, may be gathered from the memoirs of Hiouen Tsang and I Tsing. From about A.D. 600 to 850 it is possible to trace the succes- sion of scholars, especially in the Madhyamaka and Vijnana- vadin schools. A continuous series of manuals on each of these philosophies was produced there, and many were trans- lated into Chinese and Tibetan. Here we can notice only the more noteworthy books. a. The Madhyamakas. § 344. The greatest names of the Madhyamaka school were Chandrakirti and Santideva. Chandraklrti, who lived in the , first half of the seventh century, is famous for his Prasannapada, an excellent commentary on Nagarjuna's Karika, and for his M adhyamakavatara, which deals with .the whole doctrine of the Mahayana as well as the Madhyamaka system. Santideva, who lived about the middle of the seventh century, wrote three works, Sikshasamuchchhaya, Sutrasamuchchhaya, and Bodhicharyavatara, the first and the last of the three being famous. The Sikshasamuchchhaya is a summary of Mahayana teaching according to the Madhyamaka school in twenty-seven verses, karikas, accompanied by a bulky prose commentary which consists largely of extracts from the literature. The double work forms an excellent manual of the teaching. The Bodhicharyavatara, i. e. ' Entrance on the Wisdom-life ', is a noble poem in praise of the ideal of the Mahayana, the THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 309 life of the Bodhisattva. It is so filled with living devotion, tenderness and passion that M. Barth compares it to the Imitation. The root idea is that only by self-sacrifice can the Bodhisattva help to win the world to wisdom and reach enlightenment himself. Therefore must the novice practise charity and compassionate feeling, worship the Buddhas and celestial Bodhisattvas with all the rich accompaniments ofthe Mahayana cult, and prepare himself by careful thought and steady discipline to meet all the difficulties of the long journey and to suffer martyrdom for the sake of others. In both these works Santideva seems to go farther than other teachers in this regard. He says the Bodhisattva must not shrink from taking upon himself all the sins and tortures of the damned. The doctrine of vacuity must also be plumbed. b. The Vijnanavadins. § 245. Chandragomin was the chief scholar of the Vijnana- vadin school. He lived early in the seventh century, and was thus the contemporary and opponent of Chandraklrti. He is famous as a poet, a learned writer, a logician, and a gram- marian. Two of his works have been preserved in Sanskrit, the 'Sishyalekhadharma-kavya, a romantic poem of the refined classical style, and his grammar, 1 and one, his logic, survives in Tibetan. C. The Sakta Movement. § 246. A new movement, which really amounted to a disastrous revolution, arose in Buddhism during this period, the Tantrik movement. It is in all things parallel with the Tantrik movement in Hinduism ; and, like it, it was repudiated by the best schools of the parent faith. How was such a thing possible in Buddhism ? — Because the main conceptions of polytheistic paganism" had never been repudiated and condemned. 2 All Buddhists believed in the Hindu gods and 1 Vidyabhushana, JASB. 1907, no. 2. 2 Poussin, Opinions, 343 ff. P aio THE SAKTA SYSTEMS demons, the' need of honouring them, the supernatural power of sainthood, the occult potency of yoga-practices, both physical and mental, and the power of magic spells. Although these things were kept in the background in early Buddhism, they were not killed, and in the Mahayana they got the opportunity to grow and spread. The numerous Buddhas and celestial Bodhisattvas of the Mahayana — above all Avalo- kitesvara — conceived like Hindu divinities in heavens of glory and pleasure, and worshipped in like manner, opened the door wide to Hindu superstition. § 347. The full system appears in the Tantras. Every Buddha and every Bodhisattva has here a wife, his sakti ; a new esoteric cult — in all points the same as the Hindu chakra- puja — has been formed, in which wine, worrfen, flesh, magic syllables, spells, postures, and diagrams are the most prominent features ; eroticism rises in the literature, justified by Gautama's life in the harem before he became an ascetic ; hypnotic yoga- practice, with all the Hindu theories of occult centres of power in the body and in the letters of the alphabet, is recommended ; the guru, who is identical with Buddha, must be obeyed with- out question ; and a quasi-pantheistic philosophy, based on the Madhyamaka system of vacuity but closely related to Vedantism, declares that all men are Buddhas. Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, says that Buddhist Tantras were first written in the sixth century, and he may well be right. We can trace these books in the first half of the seventh century, but no evidence is yet available to carry them farther back. The Tathagata Guhyaka, a perfect specimen of the class, must belong to the first half of the seventh century ; for it is already quoted by Santideva in the middle of that century 1 ; and the Tantras which Subhakrishna, Vajrabodhi, and his pupil Amoghavajra translated into Chinese in the second decade of the eighth century, 2 must belong to the latter half of the seventh at latest, for Vajra- bodhi died in his seventy-first year in 772, and his name and 1 Winternitz, II. i. 262. 2 Nanjio, cols. 443-8. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS an the name of his pupil contain the word vajra, which was a distinctive epithet of the new system. This word, which originally meant thunderbolt and diamond, and which had been commonly used in the Mahayana in these senses, is used in Tantrism as an esoteric word for penis, the ideas of power and preciousness connected with thunderbolt and diamond being carried over with it. The new system took shape within the Mahayana, and was probably for some considerable time scarcely distinguished from it. Even when its nature had become quite clear, and the system as such was frankly repudiated, a good deal of its poison remained in the Mahayana. The aim of the movement is clearly the acquisition of power. Erotic, gruesome, and magic rites are used, in order to secure the help of the most mighty supernatural beings known to the devotee, and hypnotic practices and mighty spells, which are believed to be potent in a thousand ways by themselves, are regularly employed. § 348. From the immense mass of Buddhist Tantrik works the Chinese canon 1 enables us to sever a large number belonging to this period, but most of them are but names to us. Yet a few of the early Tantras are known. The Tathagata Guhyaka, which must date from about A.D. 600, 2 is evidence that the system had been already formed in all its main features by that time. It contains instructions for esoteric worship, meditation, and yoga-practice, has much to say about magic spells, diagrams, and postures, and in obscenity and superstition it is not exceeded by anything later. It may be compared with the Hindu Kubjikamata T., s which probably belongs to the same century. In some points the Tathagata Guhyaka is an extreme work ; for it recom- mends the use of ordure in worship and in food, a feature which comes from the Kapalikas. The Mahavairochana- abhisambodhi, translated into Chinese in A.D. 724, and pre- served also in the Tibetan canon, is one of the most important 1 Nanjio, cols. 444-8. 2 See § 247. - 3 See § 231. P a ai3 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS Tantras. The Buddha is here the whole universe. Vajrabodhi and his disciple Amoghavajra, who introduced Tantrism into China, seem to have given the chief Tantras of their school the epithet Vajrasekhara. 1 These also would afford clear evidence of the character of seventh-century Tantrism in India. I Tsing, the Chinese pilgrim, between 700 and 712, translated the Suvarnaprabhasottamaraja, a Vijnanavadin work, essentially a fuller and later form of the Suvarna- prabhasa, but showing many Tantrik features. The Pancha- krama, which probably comes from the ninth century, is an elaborate treatise on Tantrik Yoga, while the Mahamegha- siiira, 2 which belongs to the sixth century, is a manual of magic. The Sragdhara-stotra, an artistic poem in fhe kavya style in honour of the Buddhist goddess Tara, by Sarvajna-mitra of the ninth century, may serve as an example of the best Tantrik odes. § 349. Dharanls, i. e. magic spells, form a part of the Mahayana system, but they found a still wider field in Tantrism. The power of a dharanl may be obtained by pronouncing it once or many times, by writing it over and over again, or by agitating mechanically the paper on which it is written. In Tibet they are twirled in prayer- wheels, or fastened to trees and poles and fluttered by the wind. They are used in worship, in meditation, in hypnotic practice, and in magic. A few of the more potent were incised in stone and set up in temple or monastery. Syllabic spells such as krurii, krim, phat are so much more powerful because they are meaningless. The famous mantra of Avalokitesvara, Om mani padme hum, ' Orh, the jewel in the lotus ', 3 is the best example of a phrase spell. There are also numerous spells in the form of short or long sutras. Perhaps the most famous of all is the Pratyangira Dharanl, which is of very 1 Nanjio, cols. 444-8. 2 Nanjio, 186, 187, 188, 244, 970; Winternitz, II. i. 3 Some scholars believe that Manipadme is a proper name in the vocative: see Thomas, JRA S. 1906,464; Francke, JRAS. 1915,397. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 313 early origin. It is found in all the canons and was incised in stone in many places. The Mahamayuri is a collection of spells against snake-bite dating from the seventh century at latest. Such collections were common. § 350. Buddhism was introduced into . Tibet in 747 by Padmasambhava. and the monastic order was established two years later. The founder was a Tantrik scholar, but the Buddhism of Tibet may be most fairly described as the Maha- yana with Tantrism included. The translation of Buddhist books into Tibetan was begun soon after the introduction of the religion. In the middle of the ninth century the king, Ral-pa-Chan, employed a large number of Indian and Tibetan scholars in the work of translation, and the bulk of the existing canon thus came into existence. iii. Jainism. § 351. One of the most noteworthy features of Jainism at this time is its almost complete immunity from the poison of Saktism ; and this healthy freedom is still characteristic of the religion. Goddesses are praised in hymns and represented in temples, but do not receive worship, and there is no foul ritual. The Sakta Yoga, 1 with its nadls and chakras in the human frame, is accepted, but it is not very prominent. A. Svetdmbara Literature. § 252. Gujarat, and especially Valabhi, remained the chief centre of Svetambara activity throughout this period. The sect was now in possession of a formed canon of sacred books. It had been written and published, and copies had been placed in all the chief monasteries. The best Svetambara scholars thus naturally set to work to make these precious documents intelligible to all who cared to read them. The sect also took a very worthy place in the production of popular literature in Prakrit. A few scholars distinguished themselves in logic. 1 For some account of Jain Yoga, see Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, no; Garbe, SY. 39; Guennot, 469. 214 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS Amongst the numerous literary men who. were attracted to the court of the Emperor Harsha at Kanouj in the first half of the seventh century we find Manatuhga, a Svetambara poet, who is remembered on account of his stotras, the Bhaktamarastotra and the Bhayaharastotra. These stotras are rather sacred odes to be recited by an individual than hymns for congregational singing. Bappabhatti, who lived in the latter half of the eighth century and won for Jainism King Ama of Kanouj, the son and successor of Ya^ovarman, is the author of another famous ode, the Sarasvatlstotra. Mallavadin (early ninth century) wrote on logic. Haribhadra, one of the very greatest of all Jain authors, lived in the latter half of the ninth century. He was born and brought up a Brahman, and when he became a Jain was able to use his Brahman culture to help the religion he had chosen. He is famous as a writer on Jain doctrine and conduct, as one of the most brilliant of commentators, and as a competent writer on logic. 1 He also did something for popular Prakrit literature. Yet he is best known to-day for his Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya, a treatise dealing with six philosophical systems, the Buddhist, Nyaya, Sankhya, Jain, Vaiseshika, and Karma Mlmamsa. In case some reader should remark that the Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are practi- cally one, he adds a brief account of the atheistic and materialistic Lokayata to make the number up to six. Amongst other works he composed several manuals of Jain teaching. 2 Another famous Svetambara scholar named Silanka was a contemporary of Haribhadra. These two, wishing to bring the study of the Jain sacred texts into the open scholarly life of India, wrote fresh commentaries on them in Sanskrit, and also translated large parts of the old expository literature into Sanskrit. Haribhadra was a little more conservative than Silanka ; for here and there in translating he left stories and other well-known sections in the old Prakrit. Of Sllanka's 1 Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 48 ff. 2 Gue'rinot, 71; Peterson, III. 34-5. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 215 great body of work a good deal has been lost, but his com- mentaries on the Acharahga and Sutrakritahga sutras, and a portion of his work on the Avasyaka survive. The com- mentary on the Acharanga was finished in A. D. 863. Of Haribhadra's work there remain expositions of the Prajna- pana, Jambiidvlpaprajnapti, Dasavaikalika, and Avasyaka. It is noticeable that these brilliant commentators lived just a little later than Sankara and VachaspatimisYa. § 253. As we have already seen, the Jains took a worthy part in the production of popular literature in Prakrit. Most of it is lost beyond recall, but a few masterpieces belonging to this period survive and enable us to form some idea of its range and its value. A Jain anthology, consisting of 704 epi- grammatic stanzas, well worthy to stand beside Hala's famous Sattasai, has been preserved. It is named the Vajjalagga, and it was arranged by Jayavallabha. Its date is probably the eighth or ninth century. Haribhadra also wrote a book in Prakrit, the Samaraichchhakaha, which consists of nine romances. As he says himself in the introduction, he wrote the book for the purpose of giving instruction in Jainism, and chose the romantic method in order to attract readers. The book proved very popular, and was later put into Sanskrit. A pupil of Haribhadra's, Siddharshi by name, is the author of an allegorical work in Prakrit, written in A.D. 906, the Upamitibhavaprapanchakathd. It is a view of human life in which the virtues and the vices figure as persons. Jacobi "speaks of it as ' a work of rare originality ' and says it is worthy of comparison with the Pilgrim's Progress. The work was later abbreviated by two Jain authors. 1 B. Digambara Literature. § 254. The chief centre of Digambara activity throughout this period was a section of South India, corresponding to the Mysore and the southern part of the Maratha country. The sect enjoyed the favour of the Chalukya kings, who ruled at 1 Guirinot, pp. 79, 148, 155. ai6 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS Badaml (Vatapl) from the middle of the sixth to the middle of the eighth century, and received much support and recogni- tion from their successors, the Rashtrakutas, whose capital at first was Nasik but afterwards Manyakheta farther south. 1 They had also considerable influence in the Tamil country. The literature of the period is extremely rich and varied. Perhaps its most strikingly notable aspects are Jain dogmatics and ethics, legendary literature in the form of Puranas, and logic. It is to the Digambara Jains that we owe the rise and early growth of Kanarese literature : they used it for popular literature. § 255. Samantabhadra, who came between Umasvati and Kumarila, and thus probably flourished about A. D. 600, wrote the Gandhahastimakdbhashya, the chief Digambara com- mentary on Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigama-sutra. The intro- duction, called Devagamastotra or Aptamlmamsa, a Sanskrit poem of 115 stanzas, is regarded as the best exposition of the Jain method of dialectic, known as Syadvada, i.e. the ' may-be ' doctrine, and of the Jain conception of a Tirthakara as an omniscient being. Its influence on Jain logic was very great. It contains a review of contemporary schools of philosophy, including the advaita Vedanta. He is also the author of two famous hymns of praise, and of two books on Jain conduct, one of which, the Ratnakaranda-Sravakachara, is much used. 2 Akalanka, a junior contemporary of Kumarila and a senior contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, probably lived about A.D. 770. His most famous works were a sacred ode, the Akalanka-stotra, and a commentary on the Afitami- maihsa named Ashtasatl. In addition to Samantabhadra's famous work, five com- mentaries on Umasvati ought to be mentioned, the first called Sarvarthasiddhi by Pujyapada, c. A.D. 700, the second, Tattvarthatikavyakhyalamkara, which is believed' to be by Akalanka, the third an anonymous work named Rajavdrtika also written in the eighth century, the fourth Slokavartika by 1 Smith, EH1. 427 ff. 2 The other is Yuktanusasana. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS ai7 Vidyananda c. 800, and the fifth a Kanarese work, which seems to have perished, the Chudamani by Srlvarddhadeva, whose date is unknown. To the ninth century belongs an anonymous work on Jain philosophy called Jayadhavala, which finds a place in the Digambara Secondary Canon. 1 A brief catechism in Sanskrit, Prasnottaramala, dealing with Jain topics, is said to have been written by Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta king who reigned from A. D. 815 to 877 and was a munificent patron of the Digambara Jains. Three famous logicians, Vidyananda, Manikyanandin, and Prabhachandra, were contemporaries, and may be dated about A. D. 800. § 256. We now turn to popular poetry. Raviklrti, who lived in the first half of the seventh century and wrote in Kanarese, is the author of the Jinakathe* He built a temple and inscribed on it a eulogy of Pulikesin II, which is our chief source of information about him. He was followed by a number of poets who produced Digambara Jain Puranas in Sanskrit. The earliest of these was Ravishena, who is the author of the Padma Pur ana and probably lived in the second half of the seventh century. The Harivamsa P. was written by Jinasena in A. D. 783. During the reign of Amo- ghavarsha I (A. D. 815-77), wno has been already mentioned, there lived Jinasena, 2 pupil of Virasena, and his disciple Gunabhadra, the chief authors of the Digambara Puranas. Jinasena wrote the first forty-three chapters of the A di P. or Trishashtilakshanamahapuranasangraha, and is also the author of the Parsvabhyudaya, an imitation of Kalidasa's Meghaduta. 1 See § 257. J The current identification of the authors of the Harivamsa P. and the Adi P. rests on the similarity of name only, and is clearly untenable. Not only is there no mention of the Harivamsa in the Prasasti of the Uttara P., where it could not have been passed over, if it had been Jinasena's work, but the ascription of both works to the same author is chronologically almost impossible : the Harivamsa was composed in 783 ; Jinasena, pupil of Virasena, was alive in 837, the date of the Jayadhav8.la.tika (JBBRAS. 1894, 226), and his pupil Gunabhadra completed the Uttara P. not long before 898. I owe this note to Prof. Keith. 3i8 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS Gunabhadra completed the Purana left unfinished by his master, and wrote the Uttara P. He is also the author of the Atmanusasana. A detailed analysis of the Harivamsa P. by R. L. Mitra gives a very clear idea of the contents of Jain Puranas. It is an imitation of the Hindu Harivamsa. It contains numerous legends of the Jain Tlrthakaras, mythical histories of the ancient dynasties which we meet in the Mahabharata and Puranas, and amongst them the whole story of Krishna ; but the heroes are represented as Jains and every event speaks in favour of Jainism. Laws of conduct, religious rites, and other ceremonies also bulk large. The chief monument of Jain literary activity during this period in Tamil is the Naladiyar, an anthology of four hundred quatrains on moral and religious subjects, compiled probably in the eighth century. § 257. The Digambaras, as we have seen, acknowledge that they once possessed a Canon, which has been long lost. In place of it they now recognize a sort of Secondary Canon. It might probably be better described as the framework of a Canon ; for, while there are four classes of works recognized, there seems to be no fixed list of books for each, although there are a few works which always find a place in the frame- work. It seems probable that this Secondary Canon dates from the end of this period, for it bears the mark of the time, as will be readily recognized. We fit into the framework the books which were already in existence before the end of the period. All these are now recognized as belonging to the Canon. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 219 DIGAMBARA SECONDARY CANON. 1 . Prathamanuyoga (legend and history) : Padma, Hari- vamsa, Trishashtilakshanamaha and Uttara Puranas. 2. Karananuyoga (the universe) : Suryaprajnapti, Chan- draprajnapti, and Jayadhavala. 3. Dravyanuyoga (philosophy) : Pravachanasdra, Sama- yasara, Niyamasara, Panchatthiyasamgahasutta, all by Kunda- kundacharya ; Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigama-sutra with the following commentaries, a. Samantabhadra, Gandhahastima- habhashya; b. Pujyapada, Sarvarthasiddki; c. Akalarika, Tattvarthatikdvydkhydlamkara ; d. Rajavartika ; e. Vidya- nanda, Slokavartika; f. Srlvarddhadeva, Chudamani; and the Aptamlmamsa of Samantabhadra, with the works on dialectic and logic dependent thereon, a. Akalanka's Ashtasali; b. Vidyananda's Ashtasahasri, and c. Aptaparlksha ; d. Mani- kyanandin's Parikshamukha, and e. Prabhachandra's Prameya- kamala-martanda. 4. _ Charananuyoga (practice) : Vattakera's Muldchdra and Trivarndchdra and Samantabhadra's. Ratnakaranda- srdvakdchdra. CHAPTER VI BHAKTI A. D. 900 TO 1350. § 258. The sects which ruled the development of Hinduism during these centuries received their inspiration in large measure from the enthusiastic bhakti of the wandering singers of the Tamil country described in our previous chapter. Much of the peculiar fervour and attractive power of the Bhagavata Purana comes from the devotion of the Alvars, and the introduction of their lyrics into the Sri-Vaishnava temples produced great changes and prepared the way for Ramanuja. So the hymns of the Saiva singers inspired Manikka Vackakar, while their introduction into the temples gave the community a splendid uplift and made possible the creation of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. Ramanuja's influence, in turn, told powerfully on all the sects. The two greatest books of the period are his Sri-bhashya and the Bhagavata P. From them come two streams of bhakti characteristic of the period, the one quiet and meditative, the other explosive and emotional. The latter type of devotion can be felt in the atmosphere everywhere from the thirteenth century onward. The Muhammadan conquest of North India (1193-1*03) was an immeasurable disaster. to Hinduism as well as to the Hindu people, and it gave Buddhism its death- wound. i. Hinduism. A. The Philosophies. a. The Karma Mimamsa. § 259. The history of the Mimamsa school during these centuries seems to be a blank until quite the end of the period. Then, probably about A. D. 1300, flourished ParthasSrathi BHAKTI cm Misra, 1 who wrote, among a number of other works on the Karma Mimarhsa, the Sastra-dipika, which, on account of its popular modern style, soon found readers, aiid has, since then, been more studied than the ancient manuals. He faith- fully follows Kumarila. But, if we know little about the school itself during the period, we hear a good deal about the system outside. It is very prominent in the Prabodhachandrodaya, 2 a drama which was produced about A. D. 1065 and is described below. 8 In the case of most of the theistic sects which rose to the dignity of a presentation of the Vedanta in accord with their own convictions, we find that they held the Karma Mimarhsa as well as the Vedanta, and taught that karma, action, as well as jndna, knowledge, was necessary for the winning of release. 4 This is true of the Bhagavatas, Sn-Vaishnavas, M^dhvas, and Vishnusvamis, and possibly of others. b. The Vedanta. § 260. Quite at the beginning of our period there appears a noteworthy bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras by a scholar named Bhaskaracharya, and therefore often called the Bhas- kara-bhashya? Its interest lies in this that its standpoint is, not advaita, but bhedabheda ; yet it is not one of the modern sectarian commentaries but definitely of the same type as the lost Vedanta work of Asmarathya mentioned in the Sutras. 6 Bhaskara does not name Sahkara, yet he attacks him all through the commentary, and Bhaskara, in turn, is assailed by Udayana in the Kusumahjali. As Udayana's date is about A.D. 980, Bhaskara must have written between 850 and 980, and 1 His date is unknown, but as the earliest known reference to the work is in Madhava's Nyayamalavistara (§ 338), the above conjecture is not likely to be far from the truth. See Ramamisra Sastri, Miinamsa-sloka- vartika, Intro., Benares, 1898. 2 Taylor's Tr., pp. 13, 14, IS. 49. 6l > 78 f. 3 § 270. See § 285. 5 Thus Thibaut is mistaken in thinking that Ramanuja's Sribhashya is the earliest surviving bhashya after Sahkara. 6 See SBE. XXXIV. xix. 333 BHAKTI thus probably at some point near the beginning of the period. 1 He attacks the Paiicharatra Vaishnavas also. Yadava Prakasa of Conjeeveram wrote a fresh advaita bhashya about A.D. 1050, but, at a later date, was won over to Vaishnavism by his own pupil Ramanuja. It is not known whether the Yadava- bhashya survives or not. But the main history of the school of the Vedanta during these centuries seems to consist in the continuous study of Saftkara's Bhashya with the help of Vachaspati's Bhamatl. This belief is confirmed by the most outstanding advaita work of the period, the "Veddnta-kalpataru, which was written by Amalananda just before A.D. 1360: it is an ample exposition of the Bhamatl. Two popular advaita works might quite naturally find mention here, the Prabodhachandrodaya and the Yoga- Vasishtha-Ramayana ; yet as their connexions are more with householders than sannyasls, they are dealt with elsewhere, 2 § 361. But the most startling feature of the progress of the Vedanta during the period is the rise of the sectarian bhashyas. The movement seems to have been created by a single man, Ramanuja ; for the great success of his Srl-bhdshya stirred so much emulation that every sect was impelled to endeavour to produce a bhashya that would justify its theology. As each of these theistic bhashyas will be discussed in connexion with the sect which created it, there is no need to deal with them at length here. The dates of a few of them are still uncertain, yet we may with safety conclude that the following appeared during the period : Ramanuja's Sri-bhashya, Madhva's Sutra- bhdshya, Vishnusvami's Brahma-sutra-bhashya, and Srlnivasa's Veddnta-Kaustubka? The Kusumdnjali of Udayana, which is discussed under the Nyaya philosophy, 4 may be mentioned here as further evidence of the great vogue of theism at this stage of Hindu history. Here also we may mention an extraordinary work, which, 1 See the Bhumika to Vindhyesvarl Prasad's edition of the Bhashya. 2 See 8 270. 3 See the table below, § 340. 4 See § 265. BHAKTI 223 though it shows a sceptical and destructive spirit, yet maintains the chief positions of the advaita Vedanta, the Khandana- khandakhadya, i. e. The Sweets of Refutation} by Sriharsha, the date of which is the latter half of the twelfth century. The chief Upanishad commentator during the period was Sankarananda, the guru of Madhava, the advaita Vedantist. He must have flourished in the first half of the fourteenth century. Madhva, the founder of the Madhva sect, left dvaita commentaries on ten of the chief Upanishads. c. The Sankhya. § 262. During these centuries no noticeable manual of the Sankhya philosophy appeared, and the system seems to have undergone very little modification. It is described by Alberuni, the Muhammadan scholar, in his work on India dating from A.D. 1030. d. The Yoga. § 263. The Yoga system remained almost stationary also. The only outstanding work belonging to the period is the Rajamartanda, a commentary on the Yoga-sutra, ascribed to Bhoja, King of Dhara (1018-60). It is clear and easy but of no great value. Alberuni deals with the Yoga as well as the Sankhya, and Garbe is inclined to believe that he used the Rajamartanda. If that be so, it must have been written during the earliest years of the king's reign. The new Yoga of Gorakshanatha, which is described below, 2 found no entrance into the school of Pataiijali. e. The Vaiseshika. § 264. In, the tenth century two very noteworthy thinkers wrote on the Vaiseshika system. Udayana, a writer of great clearness and force, left two works on the system. The first is the Kirandvali, or ' Necklace of Rays ', which is a com- mentary on Prasastapada's Bhdshya. The other work, written 1 See also § 265. 2 § 302. 324 BHAKTI in A.D. 984, is called the Lakskanavall, or ' Necklace of Defini- tions ' of Vaiseshika terms. Sridhara, the second writer, who belonged to the south-west of Bengal, is the author of a com- mentary on Prasastapada called the Nydya-Kandall, which has been used as an authoritative manual ever since it was written in A.D. 991,. f. The Nyaya. § 365. Udayana- wrote also on the Nyaya system. His work, which is an exposition of Vachaspati's Tika, is called the Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-parisuddhi. But Udayana is most famous for his Kusumdnjali, i. e. ' Handfuls of Flowers ', a metrical treatise in seventy-two memorial couplets with a para- phrase in prose, the purpose of which is to prove the existence of God. The fact that the work is frequently called the Nyaya Kusumdnjali, coupled with the settled theistic teaching of the school, makes it natural we should refer to it here. Cowell, in his text and translation, 1 bespeaks a hearing for the work because, though obscure and technical, it professes to grapple, from a Hindu standing-point, with the world-old problem, how the existence of the Supreme Being is to be proved ; and perhaps those who are interested in the history of philosophy may turn over some of the pages with curiosity, especially when they occasionally recognize old familiar arguments and objections in their quaint Oriental disguise. From the eleventh century onwards the Nyaya and Vaise- shika form practically one combined school. The syncretism commences with Sivaditya's Sapta-paddrtha-niriipana? which probably belongs to the eleventh century. It is continued in a twelfth-century work which has been widely used, the Nyaya Chintdmani of Gangesa, in the Tarka-bhasha of Kesava of the thirteenth century, and in Sankara Misra's Vaiseshika-Sutro- paskdra, written in the fifteenth century. This syncretistic school has been ably described by Suali. 3 1 P. v. 2 See Keith on Suali, JRAS. 1914, 1089. 3 Introduzione alio Studio della Filosofia Indiana. BHAKTI a»5 From the point of view of logic and dialectic, great interest attaches to that section of the Khandanakhandakhadya l which criticizes logic : The object of Harsha is to prove that the logicians with their as- sumption of the reality of existence were guilty of a complete blunder, and his mode of doing so is the simple one of taking each of the defini- tions set up by the Nyaya school and proving it to be untenable. 2 § %66. During the tenth and eleventh centuries logic was cultivated by Buddhists at Vikramaslla, but the last name mentioned by Vidyabhushana is Sankarananda, 3 whose date is about A.D. 1050. Among the Jains logic was continuously studied, and logical works were produced throughout the period. Devasuri* of the twelfth century was the greatest of their writers on logic, but there were many others. § 367. Madhava's Sarvadarsanasaitgraka may be recom- mended to the student as a most helpful outline of the chief systems current in India towards the end of the period, though its date falls within the limit of the next period. 5 B. The Pur anas. § 268. The emergence of the Bhagavata P. is a fact of signal importance, but it is discussed at another point. 6 If there was already a Canon of eighteen Puranas in the ninth century, the rise of the Bhagavata to a position of such authority as to require recognition in the Canon would create a difficulty. The confusion which the lists show to-day may be the direct result of that circumstance. 7 In the present state of Puranic study, it is very hard to date individual documents occurring in Puranas, but the evidence 1 See § 261. . 2 Keith, JRAS. 1916, 377- 3 MS1L. 142. " lb. 38. 6 See § 345. 6 See § 272. 7 If the old Canon stood as follows :— Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Siva, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vam'a'na, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, Brahmanda, the substitution of the Bhagavata for the Siva, followed by various attempts to find a place for the expelled Purana, would account for all the phenomena. Q aa6 BHAKTI available suggests that the following may belong to the period : Vaishnava : Narasimha Upapurana ; part of the Patala Khanda of the Padma P., which praises the Bhagavata ; the Uttara Khanda, which is Sri- Vaishnava. Saiva : Vayavlya S. of the Siva P. Sakta : Devi Bhagavata Upapurana. Saura : Brahma P. xxi-xxviii. Ganapatya : Ganesa Upapurana. C. Smarta Literature. § 369. The most noticeable piece of Vedic literature pro- duced during this period is Bhatta Bhaskara Misra's 1 com- mentaries on the Taittirlya Samhita, Aranyaka, and Upanishad of the Black Yajus. He lived in the Telugu country, belonged to the Atreya Sakha of the Taittirlya school, and wrote his commentary on the Samhita in A.B. 1188. 2 Hemadri, a learned Brahman, held the office of chief minister at the Yadava court in the Maratha country under two kings towards the end of the thirteenth century, and was clearly a man of much influence. He wrote an encyclopaedia of orthodox Hindu observances, the Chaturvargachintamani, a work of large importance to Smartas. § 270. Several pieces of popular literature written from the standpoint of the advaita Vedanta during the period were probably meant for Smarta householders rather than for sannyasis, and ought therefore to be mentioned here. At the court of Klrtivarman, the Chandel king of Jejaka- bhukti, about the year 1065 and possibly in the city of 1 To be carefully distinguished from Bhaskaracharya who wrote the Bhaskara Bhashya, above, § 260. 2 The Sloka in the Bhashya r on the Samhita. in the Mysore Text reads Nishpavake sake, 1410 in the Saka era, i.e. 1488-9. But the commentary is unquestionably earlier than Sayana. We must therefore suppose that the sloka ought to be read nishpapake sake, 1 1 10 Saka, i.e. A. D. 1 188-9. The confusion of p and v in a South Indian MS. is a very likely error. I owe this note to Prof. Keith. Cf. also Seshagiri Rao, SSTM. 1893-4, p. 3. BHAKTI 237 Khajuraho, there was produced a Sanskrit drama called Pra- bodhachandrodaya, i.e. The Moonrise of Wisdom. The author was a sannyasl named KrishnamisYa. The play is an allegory of the deliverance of the human spirit from the temptations and delusions of the world. Vishnu-bhakti stirs up Discrimina- tion, and, using the Upanishads, Faith, Good Sense, and their numerous allies, inflicts a signal defeat on Delusion, Love, Greed, and their many attendants. The rise (udaya) of Wisdom {prabodha) naturally follows, and the human spirit realizes its own absolute identity with God, renounces Action, and adopts dispassionate Asceticism as the only right rule of life. The number of abstract conceptions which take part as persons in the play make it rather hard to follow, but it contains abun- dance of life and movement also. Apart from the fact that Vishnu-bhakti plays a leading part, there is no aggressive Vaishnavism in the play. The supreme Brahman is definitely called Vishnu, and several times his incarnations are referred to, especially Krishna, but it goes no further. There are no references to Vaishnava literature, and Lakshml is mentioned only once. The philosophy is pure Advaitism. The scenes in which followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Materialism, the Karma Mimamsa, the Sankhya, Yoga, and Nyaya philosophies and the Kapalika form of Saivism are represented in discussion with one another are amongst the most vivid and interesting in the play. In the great battle the Buddhists, the Jains, and the materialist Lokayatas, or Charvakas, range themselves with Kama and the Vices under their general, Moha, while Vaishnavas, Saivas, and Sauras gather round .the goddess SarasvatI, and are aided by all the six orthodox philosophies and by Grammar and the Virtues to inflict a signal defeat on the atheist host. When the question is raised how these ever- hostile Hindu disputants brought themselves to any common action, a sufficient reason is found in hostility to the common foe, and we are told that wise men perceive that the orthodox sects and philosophies are only seemingly opposed to each other, that in truth they all celebrate the one Reality. So far Q3 238 BHAKTI as the writer knows, this is the first time the idea of the inner harmony of the Hindu systems finds " expression in Hindu literature. The Yoga- Vasishtha-Ramayana is one of many Sanskrit poems written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to popularize a philosophy or the theology of a sect. It is scarcely parallel with the Adhyatma Ramayana ; for the story of Rama here serves merely as a dramatic setting for the exposition of the Vedanta. It is a very long and diffuse poem, running to some 32,000 stanzas. The system taught is the advaita Vedanta, but there already appears in it that admixture of Sankhya ideas which is still more prominent in Madhava and Vijnana Bhikshu. The value of yoga is also emphasized. It may date from about A.D. 1300, or earlier. The Right-hand movement among Saktas, which is described below, 1 can be traced from the period, and is probably older. As all its connexions are with Vedic Hinduism, it ought to be mentioned here as affecting the religious practice of many Smartas. D. Vaishnava Literature. a. General. § 271. The only type of general Vaishnava literature belonging to this period consists of translations or adaptations of the Epics. It is important to realize that vernacular versions of ancient religious books are usually literary rather than religious in their influence. The Mahdbharata appeared in Tamil in the tenth century and in Telugu in the eleventh, while the Ramayana was rendered in Telugu about 1100 and in Tamil in the twelfth century. Jain adaptations of the two Epics were written in Kanarese verse, the Mahabharata in the tenth, the Ramayana in the eleventh. But all the greatest Vaishnava literature was produced by the Sects. 1 §3i7- BHAKTI 229 b. Bhagavata Literature. i. The Bhagavata Pur ana. § 272. About the beginning of this period the Bhagavata P. seems to have been born from- the Bhagavata community; and during the following centuries a number of new sects sprang from the influence of the Purana. Under this heading we therefore comprehend all the work produced both by the parent body and the dependent sects. Of the two dominating events of this period the earlier is the appearance and the influence of this great Purana. No theory of its date and origin yet advanced has been accepted by scholars as satis- factory. Can sufficient fresh evidence now be produced to bring the problem nearer solution ? § 273. The work has several characteristic features. While the Harivamsa and the Vishnu P. each gives some account of Krishna's youth spent among the gopas and gopls of Vrinda- vana and its neighbourhood, they deal with the whole life of Krishna. The Bhagavata scarcely refers to his later life, but spends all its strength over his boyhood and youth. Secondly, the gopls play a very large part in the work. Radha does not appear : she is a later creation. Yet there is a favourite among the gopls who wanders alone with Krishna ; and the other gopis remark that she must surely have worshipped Krishna in a former life with more devotion than the rest, and in that way must have won her favoured position. The Bhagavata is really a great work. What distinguishes it from all earlier literature is its new theory of bhakti ; and therein lies its true greatness. Some of its utterances on this subject are worthy of a place in the best literature of mysticism and devotion. A careful study of those passages will convince the student that they are expressions of a living religious experience. 1 We may with absolute certainty conclude that the work arose in some centre where there was a group of 1 This element may be most conveniently studied in the Bhaktirat- navalf, a collection of bhakti passages from the Bhagavata made by a Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl. 330 BHAKTI Vaishnava ascetics who lived a life of fervent devotion, and that the writer's religious experience was rooted there. In this rich religious element lies the chief source of the power of the Bhagavata. Hence the hold it has had on some of the best Vaishnava communities and on many of the noble minds of India. Bhakti in this work is a surging emotion which chokes the speech, makes the tears flow and the hair thrill with pleasure- able ^excitement, and often leads to hysterical laughing and weeping by turns, to sudden fainting fits and to long trances of unconsciousness. We are told that it is produced by gazing at the images of Krishna, singing his praises, remembering him in meditation; keeping company with his devotees, touching their bodies, serving them lovingly, hearing them tell the mighty deeds of Krishna, and talking with them about his glory and his love. All this rouses the passionate bhakti which will lead to self-consecration to Krishna and life-long devotion to his service. Such devotion leads speedily to release. Thus the whole theory and practice of bhakti in this purana is very different from the bhakti of the Bhagavad- gita and of Ramanuja. But we must also recognize in the Bhagavata the presence of another fresh element of a very different character, a long series of highly erotic passages which go far beyond anything the Vishnu P. and the Harivamsa contain, and which seem to consort ill with the high devotion to the Lord and the service of his saints which we have been considering. In these passages Krishna's dalliance with the gopls is described in sensuous and glowing poetry which captivates the Hindu heart. The tenth book, which contains them, has been trans- lated into all the chief languages of India. Yet the author expects these highly wrought narratives of the" passions of the gopls to stimulate bhakti. The utter self-abandonment of their love for Krishna has come to be regarded as a symbol of spiritual devotion. Meditation on these scenes is expected to produce that passionate bhakti which is regarded as the BHAKTI 231 highest religious experience. This, the leading religious idea of the Bhdgavata, lies at the foundation of the whole series of sects which sprang from it. Another noticeable feature of the Purana is this, that its philosophic teaching stands nearer to Sankara's system than to the theistic Sankhya which dominates earlier Puranic works. § 274. All scholars agree that it is the latest of the eighteen Puranas. Old material has been incorporated into it, but as a work it is the latest of all. In the fourth chapter of the first book of the Purana itself there is a passage which implies that it was composed last of all the eighteen ; and there is a late section in the Padma P. which states that Vyasa pro- mulgated the Bhdgavata last of all as the extracted essence of all the rest. Hindu estimates of the age of the work vary to an extra- ordinary extent, some assigning it to the earliest times, others attributing it to Vopadeva, a well-known scholar of the second half of the thirteenth century. Even in the time of Srldhara SvamI, the author of the most famous commentary on it, who probably lived about A.D. 1400, there were Hindus who said it had been written by Vopadeva, a fact which seems to imply that scholarly Hindus of those days suspected that it was a late production. All European scholars have spoken of it as a late work, but, while Colebrooke, Burnouf, and Wilson accept the suggestion that it is the work of Vopadeva, students to-day are inclined to give it a higher date. And the truth is that it is quite impossible to believe that Vopadeva was the author; for Madhva, who regarded it as fully inspired and used it in the creation of his sect, lived at least fifty years earlier than Vopadeva. Vopadeva's name became associated with the Purana because he wrote several books on it. But the belief in its inspiration implies its existence for some con- siderable time before the days of Madhva's activity; and, fortunately, we possess another piece of evidence which proves clearly that it was already recognized as an authoritative work some two centuries before Madhva wrote. Alberuni, in %$z BHAKTI his work on India, which was completed in A.D. 1030, gives us the list of Puranas as it was in the Vishnu P. in his day r and it is precisely the same as the list in our MSS. of to-day. Thus it is absolutely clear that by 1030 the Bhagavata had not only been written but had already gained such acceptance as to have won its present recognized • place as the fifth of the Puranas. We must, then, acknowledge that it can scarcely have been written later than, say, A. D. 900. § 375. Can we discern where it was written ? There is a passage in the eleventh book J which suggests that it may have been in the Tamil country. The passage runs thus in English : Men born in the Krita, Treta, Dvapara ages wished to take birth in the Kali age, because they knew that in this age would be born great souls devoted to Narayana. These souls would be thinly scattered in various places ; but in the Dravida land they would be found in some numbers, living by the side of such rivers as the TamraparnT, Kritamala, Payasvini, Kaveri the holy. Then in the Bhagavata Mahatmya, a. late appendix to the Bhagavata, there is an episode 2 which bears on the question, but which cannot be understood unless we distinguish care- fully between ordinary bhakti and the bhakti of the Bhaga- vata P. In this episode bhakti, incarnate as a young woman, says, ' I was born in Dravida '. Now to say that the bhakti of the Svetasvatara Upanishad, the Git a, and the early Puranas was born in Dravida would be absurd ; but if we realize that, in this appendix to the Bhagavata, bhakti necessarily means the passionate and many-sided devotion of the great Purana, there is no difficulty, and it becomes clear that the work asserts that this bhakti arose in Tamil-land. Now, it was in the Tamil country, by the side of the rivers just mentioned, that those Vaishnava poet-singers who are known as Alvars composed their hymns and went from shrine to shrine, singing and dancing in fervent devotion before images of Vishnu and 1 XI. v. 38-40. It is quoted in another connexion by Govindacharya, JRAS. 191 1, 949. 2 I. 27. Grierson,/^..?. 191 1, 800. BHAKTI 233 his Avataras. Their period is the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries. No other group of early Vaishnavas exhibit so much excitement in their bhakti. Further, many of the temples they frequented were dedicated to both Vishnu and Siva. 1 We may thus be certain that the ministrants of those temples were Bhagavatas, and that a considerable section of the people belonged to that community. Now, if in the Tamil-country there was a group of Bhagavata ascetics who felt the same devotion as the Alvars and expressed it in similar fashion, we should have precisely the ' great souls devoted to Narayana ' mentioned in the Bhagavata, and in such circumstances the bhakti referred to in the Bhagavata Mdhdtmya would be born. § 276. It thus seems natural to conjecture that the Bhaga- vata was written about A. D. 900, in the Tamil country, in some community of ascetics belonging to the Bhagavata sect who felt and gave expression to the bhakti characteristic of the work. If it arose in such a centre, the advaita philosophy would inevitably be one of its characteristics, and it would naturally receive the name Bhagavata. 2. The Bhagavatas. § 277. We now turn to the sects. If the Purana arose in the way we suggest, one would expect that it would gradually find acceptance among Bhagavatas all over the country ; and that clearly happened. Whether in the Tamil, Telugu, Kana- rese, or Maratha districts, the Bhagavata P. is the chief scripture of the Bhagavatas. The Narada-bhakti-sutra and the Sandilya-bhakti-sutra are brief compendiums of the bhakti system, probably meant to be committed to memory by ascetics. Both are clearly dependent on the Bhagavata P., and neither mentions Radha. The Narada is simple both in language and thought, and is practical in aim ; the Sandilya is sutra-like and philosophic, its standpoint being bhedabheda. The Bhagavatas of the south 1 Krishna Sastrl, SIT. 72. »34 BHAKTI use only the Narada. It is probable that it was produced among the Bhagavatas at quite an early date. The con- nexions of the Sandilya-sutra, which has been much used in the north, are still obscure. It may be a Nimbarkite document. It seems clear that the Vasudeva and Goplchandana Upani- shads 1 are Bhagavata books"; for the Urddhvapundra made with a single line of creamy goplchandana, which these Upanishads praise, is the Bhagavata sect-mark. As Nara- yana wrote commentaries on them, they belong to this period. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, Vopadeva, a famous grammarian belonging to the Maratha country, wrote several works on the Bhagavata P., the chief of which were the Harilila, which is an abstract of the Purana, and the Muktaphala, which sums up its teaching. His name thus became associated with the Purana, and the myth about its authorship arose. 3. The Bhaktas of the Maratha country. § 378. The Vaishnavas of-the Maratha country are Bhaga- vatas, but it is not known when the Bhagavata P. began to be used by them. In the thirteenth century the movement became a popular one, and all their literature is "in the vernacular ; so that there are marked differences between them and the Bhagavatas of the Tamil and Kanarese districts. The unbroken tradition of the country is that the Bhakti movement began with a poet named Jnanesvara, who is popularly called Dnyandev or Dnyanoba. According to another tradition, which appears in the Bhakta Mala, he was a disciple of Vishnusvami. JnanesVara is the author of a work in Marathl verse on the Bhagavadglta called the Jnanesvari, which runs to 10,000 couplets. Its date is A. D. 1390. The work is advaitist in tone, but it also lays great stress on yoga, and the author 1 Jacob, EA U. 5 ff. BHAKTI 235 says he is the disciple of Nivrittinath, the disciple of Ganinath, the disciple of Gorakhnath. 1 He is also the author of the Haripath, a collection of 38 abhangs, or hymns. His poetry decidedly shows the influence of the Bhagavata, and his note is that of an enthusiastic bhakta. Tradition makes him the greatest of a group of saints. His poems are philosophical in tone and full of reflective thought, and have had a great and lasting influence on the educated classes. There need be no doubt that he was the coryphaeus of the whole bhakti move- ment of the Maratha country. It is not at all unlikely that he should have also come under the personal influence of Vishnusvami, who was probably his senior by some thirty or forty years at most. 2 Tha-t would account for the fact. that, while scholarly Maratha Bhagavatas still use the old Bhagavata mantra, Om namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya, the mantra in common use is Rama-Krishna Hari, which is the Vishnusvami Mantra. 3 It ought to be noticed, however, that Jnanesvara and the other Maratha bhaktas do not, like Vishnusvami, recognize Radha. He is also the author of the A mritanubhava, an ad vaita Saiva philosophical work in MarathI verse. He was thus a true Bhagavata, honouring Siva as well as Vishnu, and following Sankara in philosophy. 4. The Madhvas. § 279. The first sect directly founded on the Bhagavata P. seems to have been the Madhvas. They are simply an off- shoot from the Bhagavatas, the sole reason for the schism being the detestation in which the founder held Sankara's Vedanta. Madhva (1199-1278), 4 the founder, was born at Udipi in South Kanara, and organized his sect in the early decades of the thirteenth century. While still quite young, he Became a sannyasi, and received a training in Sankara's system. But in addition to the regular Vedanta treatises, he gave much time to the Aitareya U., the Mahabharata, and 1 This statement occurs in his Amritanubhava. 2 See below, § 281. 3 See § 281. * Bhandarkar, VS. 58 f. ; Grierson, ERE. VIII. 232. 2^6 BHAKTI the Bhagavata P. This last work clearly dominated his religious life. Before his period of training was over, he broke away from Sankara. Soon after, he began public discussion, and gradually formed a system for himself, based in the main on the Bhagavata P. He was successful in gathering a community of some size and in winning a number of notable converts. The theology which he taught is in many points like Ramanuja's ; but the philosophy is frankly dualistic. He distinguishes very sharply between man and God, and thus stands further away from Sankara than any other exponent of the Vedanta-sutras, except perhaps Vishnu- svaml. Apart from the theology, his system is very similar to that of the Bhagavata sect. The centre of the religion is the adoration of Krishna by bhakti, as taught in the Bhaga- vata, without recognition of Radha ; but all the other avataras . are reverenced. Siva also is worshippped, and the five Gods are recognized. Madhva's chief works are his Bhashya and Anuvydkhyana, both on the Vedanta-sutras. The Bhashya is a comparatively short prose treatise, which seeks to show by an array of proof- texts that Madhva's explanation of the Sutras is the only right one. The texts are drawn from (a) the Rigveda, {b) the Upanishads and the Gita, (c) the Puranas, the Vaishnava Samhitas, and other late works. The book is thus of very little interest except as an account of the teaching of the sect. 1 His exposition of the Bhagavata, the Bhdgavata-tatparya- nirnaya, and a companion volume on the Mahdbharata are also works of considerable importance for the sect. He wrote commentaries on ten Upanishads. The followers of Sankaracharya opposed and persecuted Madhva with a good deal of bitterness ; so that ever since 1 It also gives us many quotations from the Puranas and Samhitas which ought to be useful as revealing in part the condition of these texts in his time. The Samhitas quoted are the Bhagavata, Varaha,Narayana, Purushotta?na, Parama, Mayavaibhava, which occur in Schrader's list, IP AS. 6 ff. ; and the Vyoma, Brihat, and Maha besides. The Brihat is quoted by Madhava in his exposition of Madhvism : SDS. v. BHAKTI 237 those days there has been little love lost between the two groups. Madhva believed himself to be an incarnation of Vayu, and, probably as a result of Sankarite persecution, he taught that Sarikara was a reincarnation of an obscure demon named Manimat who appears in the Makdbhdrata. 1 About half a century after Madhva's death, J.ayatirtha was the head of the sect. His commentaries on the founder's most important works are amongst the chief books of the sect. 5. Radha. § 380. Neither the Bhagavatas, nor the Madhvas recognize Radha : they do not go beyond what is contained in the Bhagavata. But all the later sects who depend on the great Purana do recognize Radha. We must therefore ask whence her story came. We have seen above that in the Bhagavata P. there is a gopl whom Krishna favours so much as to wander with her alone, and that the rest of the gopls surmise that she must have worshipped Krishna with peculiar devotion in a previous life to have thus won his special favour. This seems to be the source whence Radha arose, and it is probable that the name Radha comes from the root rddh in the sense of conciliating, pleasing. She is thus the pleasing one. In what book she first appeared is not yet known, but an Indian scholar 2 suggests to me that it may have been the Gopdla- tdpanl- Upanishad, which contains an account of Radha, and is reverenced by all Radha-worshipping sects. Two early sects recognize Radha, the Vishnusvamls and the Nimbarkas, but the chronology and the relationships are 1 3ankara's demon-origin is mentioned in Madhva's exposition of the Mahabharata. After his death, Pandit Narayana, the son of one of his disciples, published two Sanskrit works, the Manimanjari and the Madhvavijaya, in which the theory of the two incarnations is fully set forth. See Grierson, ERE., VIII. 232. It is possible that the Sankara- vijayas were written as a counterblast to these Madhva works. A long polemic against Madhvism has also been interpolated into the Saura Purana. 2 Pandita Radha. Charana Gosvaml of Brindaban. 238 BHAKTI still obscure. Tradition , sets the leaders in the following order, Madhva, Vishnusvami, Nimbarka ; arid that order seems to fit in with their teaching ; for Madhva does not recognize Radha at all, and Vishnusvaml's theology is very similar to Madhva's, while Nimbarka strikes out quite a new line for himself. Yet the seemingly natural may not be the historical order. There is one historical fact which necessarily suggests a doubt : it is quite clear that Radha was worshipped and praised in song in North India before Madhva's day ; for Jayadeva's Gltdgovinda belongs to the end of the twelfth century. There is a tradition in Bengal that Jayadeva was a Nimbarkite ; but in the Gitagovinda Radha is the mistress, not the consort, of Krishna, as she is in Nimbarka's theology. 1 Sufficient evidence does not seem to be available to settle the question, but we may conjecture that the myth of Radha grew up quite spontaneously at Brindaban on the basis of the narrative of the Bhagavata P., and that her worship was organized there, perhaps about A. D. noo, and thence spread to Bengal and elsewhere. If that is the history, Jayadeva's poetry, on the one hand, and the rise of the two sects, on the other, are easily explainable ; and it is possible that Nimbarka may have developed his Radha-theology at Brindaban while Vishnusvami was forming his simpler system in the south. 6. The Visknusvamls. § 28 1 . Of Vishnusvami very little is known, but it is believed that he belonged to the South. His system is precisely like the" Madhva system, except that Radha is acknowledged. She is simply Krishna's favourite among the gopls, his mistress. Vishnusvami, like Madhva, is a dualist, quite as pronounced as Madhva, if not more so. Tradition states that he wrote commentaries on the Gita, the Veddnta-sutras, and the Bhagavata P. His Bhagavata-bhashya is referred to by 1 He lived under Laksmana Sena, King of Bengal, who reigned c. 1170- 1200 (Smith, EHI. 403) ; and some of his verses appear in the Sadukti- karnamrita, an anthology by Jsridhara Dasa, which dates apparently from A. D. 1205. The chronology is also opposed to his being a .Nimbarkite. BHAKTI 239 Srldhara Svamin in his comment on Bhagavata P. I. 7 ; and it is said that the work survives, but it has not been seen by any scholar. In Madhava's Sarvadarsanasahgraha there is a reference to Vishnusvami's devoted adherent, Srikanta Misra, 1 and to a work by him named Sahara-siddhi, the teaching of which is clearly dualist. The Bhakta-mala says that Vishnu- svaml was also the teacher of Jnanesvara, the Maratha bhakta ; and the story is probably true. 2 In any case it is clear that the sect was widespread and popular for centuries. 3 The sectarian mantras are said to be Oih Rama-Krishnaya namah, and Om Rama-Krishna Hari. The Vishnusvamls and all other Radha-worshipping sects use the Gopalatapaniya U. and the Gopalasahasranama. The Bhagavatas, the Madhvas and the Vishnusvamls, like Ramanuja, 4 uphold the Samuchchhaya doctrine ; i. e. they teach that, in seeking release, men should perform their full religious duty as Hindus as well as seek the knowledge of Brahman, while Sankara' finds release in knowledge alone. 7. The Nimbarkas. § 28a. Nimbarka was a scholarly Bhagavata from the Telugu country who settled at Brindaban, accepted the story of Radha, and created a sect of his own. The date is uncer- tain. 5 Nimbarka's philosophic position is bheddbheda, dualistic monism. 6 He was considerably influenced by Ramanuja, and, like him, laid great stress on meditation. He goes far beyond Vishnusvami in his account of Radha- She is Krishna's ' Cowell, p. 141. 2 See § 278. s For a suggestion with regard to the Narada Pancharatra, see § 377. 4 See § 285. 5 See Bhandarkar, VS. 62. * As Nimbarka's original name is said to have been Bhaskara, it has been suggested that he is identical with Bhaskaracharya, who wrote the Bheddbheda bhashya about A. D. 900: see § 260. But the mere co- incidence of name is scarcely sufficient to outweigh the following .con- siderations. It is extremely unlikely that one man should write a pure Vedanta bhashya and also a sectarian Vritti; and, as our knowledge of the literature stands at present, it would seem probable that the name of Radha and her worship appeared at Brindaban at a date considerably later than Bhaskaracharya, say about A. D. 1100. 24o BHAKTI eternal consort, and lives for ever with him in the Cow-world, Goloka, far above all the other heavens. Like her lord, she became incarnate in Brindaban, and was his wedded wife there. The story of the gopls remains unchanged. To Nimbarka Krishna is not a mere incarnation of Vishnu : he is the eternal Brahman, and from him springs Radha, and also uncounted gopas and gopls, who sport with them in Goloka. Nimbarka thus necessarily centred ajl his devotion on Krishna and his consort, to the exclusion of other gods. He thus gave up the Smarta position of the Bhagavatas, and became fully sectarian. All the later sects owe a great deal to him. He wrote a short commentary, a sort of Vritti, on the Vedanta-sutras called Vedanta-parijata-saurabha, and a poem of ten stanzas, the Dasaslokl, which contains the quintessence of his system ;" but the Bhashya of the sect is Srlnivasa's Vedanta-Kaustubha, a lengthy work of considerable merit. Later leaders also produced scholarly works. Nim- barkas use the Gautamlya S. 1 for" their ritual ; and the Krishna section of the Brahma-vaivarta P- seems to be a Nimbarka document interpolated into the Purana. The Sdn- dilya-bhakti-sutra may be of Nimbarkite origin. 2 c. Pancharatra Literature. i. The Sri- Vaishnavas. § 383. The Sri- Vaishnavas of the Tamil country reached the summit of their history during these centuries, and became the model on which many other sects sought to form their literature and organization. The introduction of the singing of the enthusiastic lyrics of the Alvars 3 into the temple service of the sect is an event of much importance. The use of Tamil in the worship brought the cult nearer the people; and the rich and passionate devotion of the hymns made the bhakti of the sect more vivid and real. The man to whom Vaishnavas 1 Schrader, IP AS. 7, no. 44. a See § 277. s See § 217. BHAKTI 341 owe the change is Nathamuni. 1 His date has been disputed, but the end of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh century seems to satisfy the evidence best. 2 He gathered the hymns of Nammalvar and of the other Ajvars, arranged them in four groups of about a thousand stanzas each, and set them to Dravidian music. The whole collection is called Nalayira Prabandkam, or book of four thousand hymns. He also suc- ceeded in arranging for the regular singing of these hymns in the great temple of Srlrangam at Trichinopoly, where he resided. The practice spread to other shrines, and now obtains in most of the more important temples. But Nathamuni was also a theologian and teacher. Under him a school of combined Sanskrit and Tamil scholarship arose at Srlrangam, 3 whence he is called the first Acharya of the sect. The study of the Nalayira Prabandkam was one of the Ghief parts of the curriculum, and a series of commentaries was written on them. The succession of teachers is Nathamuni, Pundarlkaksha, Ramamisra, Yamunacharya. Of the second and third 4 very little is known, but the fourth, who was the grandson of Nathamuni and lived in the middle of the eleventh century, was a competent scholar and left several significant works. He was a sannyasi, like the other teachers of the school. His chief books are the Siddkitraya, which seeks to establish the reality of the human soul in opposition to the school of Sankara, the Agamapramanya, on the authority of the Vaish- nava Agamas or Samhitas, and the Gitartha-sahgraha, an exposition of the Bkagavadgita, all in Sanskrit. In these works is found the earliest statement of the Visishtadvaita philosophy, of which Ramanuja is the classical exponent. § 284. Ramanuja received his early philosophical training 1 He was the grandfather of Yamunacharya, whom Ramanuja succeeded at Srlrangam. 2 He was a contemporary of Nambi and of Rajaraja the Great. See § 3° 6 - 3 At quite an early date another school rose in the neighbourhood of Tinnevelly. Govindacharya,/ff^45. 1912, 714. 4 But see Rajagopalachariar, VRI. R 242 BHAKTI in Conjeeveram from a teacher belonging to the school of Sankara, named Yadava Prakasa, 1 but he disagreed with his guru and adhered to the modified 'monism which was taught at Srlrangam. He was still a young man when Yamunacharya died. Although he had not been trained in the school, he was already so prominent as a Vaishnava scholar that he was invited to succeed him. He accepted the invitation, but did not settle down to teaching until he had learned all he could from former pupils of the school. The appointment gave him control of the temple of Srlrangam as well as of the school, and also a sort of pontifical authority in the sect. He was most suc- cessful as a teacher and controversialist. For some twenty years he lectured, held discussions and wrote books. The sect grew steadily in influence. He produced three philosophical works of importance, the Vedarthasahgraha, which seeks to show that the Upanishads do not teach a strict monism-, the Sribhashya, a commentary on the Vedanta-sutras, and a Gita- bhashya. The Sribhashya is a fine piece of work. ' § 285. The system taught in these works antagonizes San- kara's illusionary monism with great skill and thoroughness, and also opposes the Bhedabheda system of Bhaskaracharya. 2 Ramanuja follows a long succession of theistic scholars, the most famous being Bodhayana, who lived before Sankara and wrote a gloss, Vritti, on the Vedanta-sutras, now unhappily lost. 3 The following summary of the system is abridged from Thibaut : 4 There exists only one all-embracing being called Brahman, who is endowed with all imaginable auspicious qualities. The Lord is all- pervading, all-powerful, all-knowing, all-merciful ; his nature is funda- mentally antagonistic to all evil. He contains within himself whatever exists — material or immaterial — and is the 'internal ruler' of all. Matter and souls, as forming the body of the Lord, exist in two different, periodically alternating, conditions. During the period of world-rest, matter and souls being apart from bodies, their intelligence is in a state of contraction. The Lord is then said to be in his casual condition. When the period comes to an end, creation takes place owing to an act of volition on the Lord's part. Unevolved matter 1 See § 260. * See § 260. • See § 193. * SBE. XXXIV. xxviiff. BHAKTI 443 then, evolving, acquires its sensible characteristics, while souls enter into connexion with bodies, and their intelligence undergoes expansion. Owing to former actions, souls are implicated in the process of transmigration ; and from this Release is possible only through true knowledge of the Lord, which rests on a study of the scripture and consists in constant devotion (bhakti) to him and meditation (upasana) on him. The released soul enters paradise and enjoys intercourse with the Lord for ever. The Lord is a personal being. Brahman is but another name for Narayana- Vishnu, the god of the Vaishnava sect. Warm-hearted devotion to a god must have been a frequent element in early Hindu religious feeling, and as early as the Svetasvatara U., which probably dates from about the fourth century B.C., we find it spoken of as an important part of the highest religion. In the Glta its place is more distinctly affirmed. Here in the school of Ramanuja it becomes still more prominent, for it is the loftiest and most important factor in the means of deliverance. It remains, however, quiet and meditative, an aspect of man's reaching out towards fuller knowledge of God, and thus very different from the bhakti of the Bhdgavata P. Ramanuja holds, in opposition to Sankara, that the man who wishes to win release ought to continue to do his duties as a Hindu while he seeks the knowledge of Brahman with a view to final release. Works and knowledge are both necessary for the great end in view. This is called the Samuchchhaya or ' combination ' doctrine. The serious seeker ought therefore to study the Karma Mlmamsa as well as the Vedanta. This theory is then typified in the fact that san- nyasis of the school of Ramanuja do not lay aside the sacred thread. They continue the worship of Vishnu and may even act as ministrants in temples as well as heads of monasteries. 1 1 Sri-Vaishnava sannyasis are quite a distinct order from Sankara's Dasnamls. Only Brahmans are admitted, and they carry a triple danda in contrast with the single danda of Sankara's Brahman sannyasis : see § 198. The two orders are distinguished as Ekadandis and Tridandis. Ramanuja's convert, Yadava Prakasa, wrote the Yati-dharma-samuch- chhaya on the duties of Tridandis : Govindacharya, R., 73. Non-Brahman Sri- Vaishnava ascetics are called Ekangas. R 2 244 BHAKTI § 286. The writing of the Srl-bhashya was a most important event for the Srl-Vaishnavas. It was doubtless meant in the first instance to provide the sect with a clearly expressed philosophy in full accordance with its beliefs and its ancient literature, a matter of great moment for the training of teachers and ascetics. But it was not merely of large practical value. The dignity of the sect was vastly enhanced when it was brought into living connexion with the Vedanta by this illus- trious work. It was the first sectarian bhSshya ever written. We may realize how valuable an acquisition it was felt to be from the long array of similar works produced during the fol- lowing seven centuries. 1 It is also probable that Ramanuja hoped, by linking the sect to the Vedanta, to get rid,' to some extent at least, of the reproach of heterodoxy which had dogged the sect throughout its history. 2 His own punctilious observation of caste rules in the matter of food and intercourse with other castes was doubtless intended to help in the same direction. § 287. There were two types of Vaishnava temples in the south in his day, one class using Paiicharatra Sarhhitas for their ritual, the other using Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas, 3 the latter class being probably Bhagavata shrines. Ramanuja did all he could to unify the sect by substituting Paiicharatra for Vaikhanasa manuals wherever he could win over the authorities. 4 § a 88. While he held strictly by the ancient rule that none but the twice-born may read the Upanishads, he was most eager to teach both Sudras and Outcastes the doctrine of Vishnu-bhakti. In this he was a faithful disciple of the Alvars, In certain places he arranged that the Outcastes should have the privilege of visiting the temple one day in the year. But there is no reliable evidence for the statement, so often made, that he ate with Outcastes, or that he took any step to alter 1 See § 340. 2 See § 94 and § 215. 8 See § 211 and § 384. 4 Rajagopalachariar, VRf.4; Padmanabhachar, L TM. 252; Govinda- charya, R. 142. BHAKTI 345 their social position. 1 He maintained the ancient Hindu restrictions in all their fullness. His position is clearly revealed in the use of the pavitra, or thread of purity, with which Sudra and Outcaste adherents of the sect are invested. It is a low- caste sacred thread. Acknowledgement is thus made that they are capable of receiving spiritual religion, yet they are kept rigorously apart from the twice-born. The Satanis 2 are a group of people of Sudra caste whom he taught and con- nected with the sect, but no suggestion was made that their caste status should be altered. He took a journey through India for the dissemination of his system, and seemingly with great success. He went south to Ramelvaram, up the west coast through Malabar and the Maratha country to Gujarat, the north-west, and Kashmir, and returned by Benares, Purl, and Tirupati to Srlrangam. The wide influence of the sect in later times was probably largely due to what he was able to accomplish during this journey. §389. In A. D. 1098 Kulottunga I, the Chola king, started a persecution against the Vaishnavas, and Ramanuja was obliged to flee. He withdrew to the Mysore, and there made the acquaintance of the Crown Prince 3 of the Hoysala dynasty. The royal family and a large proportion of the people were Jains, but the prince was won over by Ramanuja and took a new name to mark his conversion, Vishnuvardhana. For a long period Ramanuja resided in Mysore, chiefly at Melkote, teaching and discussing and building, and Vaishnavism became firmly planted. The Chola persecutor died in 1118, and in 1 1 22 Ramanuja returned to Srlrangam, where he died in 1137. 4 He is worshipped as an incarnation in the temples of the sect. 1 See especially the early Tamil Life translated by Govindacharya, Chap. X, and Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 141. 2 See § 385. 3 He succeeded to the throne about ten years later and reigned until a.d. 1141. Rice, JRAS. 1915, 527 ff. 4 The chronology of his early life is still doubtful. Tradition places his birth in a.d. 10 17, but the whole life becomes more comprehensible if we suppose he was born about 1050 and succeeded Yamuna about 1080. A record which was recently found in his monastery in Melkote, Mysore, makes it plain that he arrived in Mysore in 1098 and left in 1 122 : JRAS. 1915, 147 ff. 346 BHAKTI- § 290. There is no lack of early biographical material. Not to speak of contemporary poems and such like, which' arose in the school, his early life is dealt with in the Bhutapurl Md- hatmya (Bhutapurl is Sri Perumbudur, where he was born), a section of the Harita Samhita, while in other Sarhhitas his later activities are dealt with. The Isvara Samhita speaks of Sathakopa, i.e. Nammalvar, and Ramanuja, contains a Mahat- mya of Melkote in Mysore, and enjoins the use of the Tamil hymns of the Nalayira Prabandham. The Brihad Brahma Samhita also refers to Sathakopa and Ramanuja, and speaks of the Dravida land as the place where Vishnu's devotees abound. These texts must be old, the sections dealing with Ramanuja being probably twelfth-century interpolations. Finally, in the thirteenth century, a detailed Life was written in Tamil by Pinbalagla-Perumal-Jlyar. § 291. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, or possibly early in the fourteenth, the head of the school of Srlrangam was Pillai Lokacharya. He wrote a brief treatise in San- skritized Tamil, the Artha-panchaka, or Pentad of Truths, which is a very excellent summary of Srl-Vaishnava doctrine. Sudarsana Bhatta, who ruled at Srlrangam towards the close of our period, may be mentioned as having written a com- mentary on the Bhdgavata P., which, though not mentioned by Ramanuja, had in the interval won itself a place in the sect. § 292. The mantra of the sect is the famous early mantra, Om namo Ndrayanaya. 1 A sect-mark and the branding of symbols on the body are in use, in accordance with the rules of the Sarhhitas. The sect and its system are both called the Srl-Vaishnava Sampradaya, i.e. the tradition with regard to Sri (i.e. Lakshml) and Vishnu. No other Hindu sect is more 1 The old erroneous statement, so often repeated, that the mantra of the sect is Om Ramaya namah, comes from Wilson (Sects, 40), and probably arose from the idea that the ,mantra of Ramanuja must be the same as Ramananda's : see § 387. Sri-Vaishnavas use also a secret mantra called the Dvaya, or dual mantra, which is clearly phallic, referring to £ri and Vishnu : Govindacharya, R. 14, 48, 52. BHAKTI 347 exclusive in its allegiance ; the worship of Siva or any god other than Vishnu, his consorts, and his representatives, is forbidden. Radha is not acknowledged at all. In matters of food and caste SrI-Vaishnavas are extremely strict. The sect ministers to all the four castes, while for many centuries the outcastes were taught Vishnu-bhakti, and several outcaste names occur in the list of Sri-Vaishnava saints. Yet the strength of the sect is in the Brahman community. Every Sri-Vaishnava Brahman bears one of two names, Acharya or Aiyangar. %. The Manbhaus. § 293. The Mahanubhavas (i.e. men of the great experience) or Manbhaus are a Vaishnava sect found in the Marathl- speaking area, who claim a high antiquity for their system but acknowledge that their organization dates from the thirteenth century. Several noteworthy characteristics, which they have in common with the Vira Saivas, are probably to be explained as due mainly to racial and local facts, partly to the influence of Ramanuja. The more noteworthy of these features are these : Both are rather more heterodox than ordinary Vaish- nava and Saiva sects, so that Hindus frequently deny that Manbhaus are Hindus at all, and some Vira Saivas deny that the Vira Saiva sect is a Hindu community. They are both strictly sectarian, Vira Saivas worshipping Siva alone, Man- bhaus recognizing Krishna alone. Both sects refuse to worship images, though each worships a symbol of its own god. In each sect all full members may dine together. Both sects are strictly vegetarian, both bury their dead, and in both the ascetics are of far more importance than the temples. Each sect claims to have five founders. Any caste-Hindu is welcomed as a full member in either sect if he is willing to undergo initiation. Round each of the two sects there is a circlet of half-converted groups who do not keep the full law. As the Vira Saivas are about a century older than the 248 BHAKTI Manbhaus, it is possible that the latter may have followed the example of the former sect in some points. § 294. The unexplained figure of Dattatreya hovers shadowy and indistinct behind Manbhau history. The sect claims him as the source of its system. If, as is possible, a real historical sannyasl is concealed in this mist, his connexions were with the Mafatha country and with Yadavagiri (i.e. Melkote) in the Mysore. 1 He is usually represented as a sannyasl with three heads, so that he stands for the trimurti, and he is accompanied by four dogs and a cow, which stand for the Vedas and the earth ; but Manbhaus deny that they worship him in this form. To them he is an incarnation of Krishna. Chakradhar, who flourished in the middle of the thirteenth century, seems to be the actual founder of the sect as we know it. He was followed by Nagadeva Bhatta, who was a con- temporary of Ramachandra, the Yadava King (1 271-1309), and of Jnanesvara, 2 the author of the Jnanesvarl. He did a. great deal to propagate the community. Of their later history very little is yet known. It is clear that they have suffered from orthodox opposition. Krishna is to them the Supreme, and they will worship no other god. ' There are many devatas, but only one Parame- svara.' They have, therefore, their own places of worship, and will not enter ordinary temples. Instead of an image, they have in their shrines a quadrangular or circular whitewashed terrace, which they worship in the name of. God. The nature of their worship seems to be unknown. They speak of Datta- treya as their founder, and therefore call their system the Dattatreya Sampradaya, the Sri-Datta Sampradaya, the Muni Marg (the reference being to Dattatreya), or the Man- bhau Panth. But while they speak of Dattatreya as their original founder, they say they have had a fresh founder in each of the four yugas, 1 The Manbhaus connect him with the Sahyadri Hills, while the Yadavagiri Mahatmya of the Narada P. tells how he visited Yadavagiri in the Mysore. See § 289. 2 See § 278. BHAKTI 349 They thus recognize five pravartakas, propagators (also called the P anchakrishna)} and have a mantra connected with each. When any one wishes to become a Manbhau, he must repeat the five mantras and accept initiation from a Manbhau monk. § a 95- They fall into two well-marked groups, ascetics and householders, ascetics again falling into two distinctly organ- ized groups, monks and nuns. On the monks rests the sect with its teaching, discipline, and worship. Monks and nuns are carefully kept separate. Their chief scripture is the Bhagavadgita, but they have a large literature of their own in Marathl. In consequence of the persecution they were subjected to, they adopted a modi- fied Marathl alphabet for their literature, so as to keep it secret. This is one of the reasons why it Is still so little known. Amongst their oldest books are the Lila Samvad, the Lila Charita, and the Sutrapdth. Perhaps we may take these as belonging to this period. The Dattatreya U. 2 and the Dattdtreya S. 3 are probably also connetted with the movement. 3. The Narasimha Sect. § 296. Very little is known about the activities of the Narasimha sect during this period, but it is clear that the god was still popular. The huge monolithic image at Vijayanagar is proof that the dynasty favoured him. There are still many families in which he is the patron of the family. The Nara- simha S.^ may belong to this period. The Narasimha Upapurana, which has been already mentioned, 5 was translated into Telugu about a.d. 1300. 4. The Rama Sect. § 397. Serious members of the Ramaite sect, whose early literature has been already noticed, 6 found it hard to reconcile the entirely human words and actions of Rama and S Ita in Books II-VI of the Ramayana n with their belief that Rama 1 Darsan Prakas, 58. 2 No. 112 in the list, p. 364. 3 No. 61 in Schrader's list, IP AS. p. 7. * Schrader, IPAS. 8. 6 See § 218. " See § 219. 7 See § 48. 85° BHAKTI is the eternal God. The Adhyatma Rdmayana, or spiritual Ramayana, in seven books, bearing the same names as the books of the early Epic, tells the whole story afresh with a view to meeting these difficulties. The theology is advaita throughout, but Sakta elements are added, so that Slta has a place beside the eternal Rama. In order to shield Slta from the reproach of having been carried away by Ravana and kept in his harem, she enters the fire, leaving only an illusory Slta behind her, before the appearance of the demon ; and the real goddess does not return until the fire-ordeal at the end of the story. When Rama at any point talks as a man, it is explained that his divine consciousness is temporarily clouded by maya. Release is obtainable in Rama alone ; fervent bhakti is the path to release ; and a Rama mantra is taught. 1 The man who wishes to obtain release must give up works altogether ; for they only bind the soul to samsdra. The work is thus opposed to the Samuckchhaya 2, doctrine. It contains the Rama-hridaya 3 in eight slokas and the Rama-gitd 4 in fifty- six slokas, compendia of doctrine meant to be committed to memory for constant repetition and meditation. The work clearly depends not only on the Rdmayana and the advaita Vedanta but also on the Bhdgavata P. and the Ramaite Agastya Samhitd 5 mentioned above. 6 There were already many Ramayanas 7 in existence when the book was written. Among these there was undoubtedly the Pampa-Rdmdyana? a Jain version of the Epic in Kanarese 9 ; and possibly the author may have known the Yoga- Vasishtha, the Adbhuta, and the Bhusundi Ramayanas. There existed also an Adhyatma Ndrdyana, which is several times quoted by Madhva in his Bhashya. The date of the work is probably the thirteenth or fourteenth century : Eknath, the MarathI poet, who died in A.D. 1608, calls it a modern poem. 10 It was translated into 1 III. 8, 34. 2 See § 195 and 285. * I. i. 4 VII. v. 6 See III. ii, iii; IV. iv; VI. v. 6 § 219. 7 II. iv. 77. 8 Some of the episodes in the Adhyatma are like episodes in the Pampa- Ramayana. 9 Rice, KL. 30, 33. 10 Bhandarkar, VS. 48. BHAKTI 251 Malayalim in the seventeenth century. There is also a Kana- rese version. 1 There can thus be no doubt about the existence of an old sect which found release in Rama alone. Was it in the south or the north ? It would be perilous to be dogmatic : but the relations of the literature thus far tend to indicate the south rather than the north. There is no distinct Ramaite sect in the Tamil country to-day, but there are many Rama-bhaktas, i.e. sadhus, who find salvation in Rama. These, in all proba- bility, are survivals of the old sect. E. Saiva Literature. a. Pasupata Saivas. § 398. A fifteenth-century commentator, Advaitananda, gives us in his Brahmavidyabharana a clear sketch of Pasu- pata theology which enables us to realize the essentials of the system. The five categories mentioned by Sankara 2 really give the roots of the system : (a) the cause, Pati, (b) the effect, nature and Pasu, (c) yoga practices, (d) Vidhi, requirements, i.e. various necessary practices, (e) Duhkhanta, release from sorrow. They taught that true knowledge of the cause and effect, constant yoga practice and meditation, and the regular fulfilment of the rules of the order were all necessary for the attainment of the end in view. The rules enjoin bathing and sleeping in ashes, expressing exultation by laughter, dancing, singing or bellowing, and pretending to be asleep, sick, lame, in love, or mad. In release the soul was believed to attain the divine perfections. The chief scripture of the sect seems to have been a sutra-work called indifferently Pasupati-sutra or Pasupata-sastra, but it does not seem to have survived. 1. The Lakulisas. § 299. Of the Lakulisas, a branch from the main Pasupata stem, we have an account by Madhavacharya, 3 the fourteenth- 1 This Kanarese version contains a Madhva interpolation. Padmana- bhachar, LTM. 133. 2 SBE. XXXIV. 434 ff. 3 In SDS. See Cowells's tr. 103. 252 BHAKTI century Vedantist. The teaching seems to be identical with the Pasupata theory just sketched. The differences seem to have been confined to the practices enjoined, e.g. bathing and sleeping in sand instead of in ashes. Madhava quotes a number of books, but in most cases he gives no indication whether the books belong to the main Pasupata sect or to the Lakullsa branch, and all the literature seems to have perished. Throughout the period the sect was most active in Gujarat, Rajputana, and the Mysore, as is made clear by many inscrip- tions. They are well summarized by Bhandarkar. 1 a. The KapdliUas. § 300. No Kapalika literature seems to have survived ; so that for this period as well as the previous one we are dependent on scattered notices. The references to them in the Sahkara-digvijaya imply that they were still active during these centuries. Then, in the Prabodhachandrodaya, a drama produced in A.D. 1065 which we have already used, 2 a Kapa- lika ascetic and a Kapalim are brought on the stage and Kapalika practice is described and illustrated with great vividness. The evidence of the Malatl-Madhava z is here corroborated. Kapalika ascetics are practically Saktas : the characteristic elements of Sakta-worship — human sacrifice, strong drink, and sexual licence — appear, and with them the Sakta jewellery of human bones, the elaborate system of yoga, and the superhuman powers that spring therefrom. The Kapalika, besides, dwells among the ashes of the dead, and eats and drinks out of a human skull. In this play a Buddhist and a Jain ascetic appear on the stage, and are reduced to a very miserable plight by the Kapalika and the nun who accompanies him. Ramanuja's few sentences 4 on the system corroborate the erotic element of this account ; for he says the Kapalika meditates on himself as seated in the pudendum muliebre. 6 1 VS. 1 19-20. 2 See § 270. s See § 234. 4 Sribhashya, SBE. XLVIII. 520 f. 6 Cf. § 325. BHAKTI 353 3. The Gorakhnathls. § 301. The Gorakhnathls (Gorakshanathls) seem to be closely related to the Kapalikas. They form a sort of inchoate sect ; for Gorakhnath {Gorakshanatha) is worshipped in many temples in North India, especially in the Punjab and Nepal ; yet the laity does not seem to be organized. The ascetics, who are usually called Kanphata Yogis, i.e. Split-eared Yogis, are the strongest part of the sect. It is most probable, but not certain, that the movement sprang from a yogi named Gorakhnath. §302. Goraksha seems to be a name of Siva; a great many wonderful tales have gathered round the name of Gorakhnath, who is said to have founded the sect of Gorakh- nathls; and both Tantrik Hinduism and Tantrik Buddhism glorify the whole company of sainted Nathas ; so that one is tempted to take all the tales as so much mythology. Yet Gorakhnath is probably a historical character; for the Kanphata Yogis are a well-defined group of ascetics, and the rise of a new type of Yoga literature, with which his name is associated, is clearly connected with the appearance of the order. It seems most probable that he flourished about the beginning of the thirteenth century ; for the earliest historical reference to him yet noted "occurs in the Amritanubhava of Jnanesvara, the Maratha bhakta, whose floruit is A. D. 1290.' Gorakhnath's name is associated with the rise of a new type of yoga, which has had a considerable vogue in certain circles but has never found its way into the ancient school of yoga. It is called Hatha-yoga, and its most distinctive element is the theory that, by certain ritual purifications of the body and certain prescribed physical exercises, the supreme concentration of mind called samadhi in the old yoga can be attained. It therefore deals with a large number of strange bodily postures (dsana), 2 purifications of the channels of the body (sodhana), 1 See § 278. 2 ' The later Yogin relies on dsana, the older muni on upasana ' : Hopkins, J A OS. XXII. ii. 334^ 254 BHAKTI modes of breath-regulation (prandyama), and exercises in which posture, breathing, and attention are combined (mudrd), and which bring with them miraculous powers. To Hatha- yoga is usually added in the later books Raja-yoga, a more intellectual discipline to which the physical training is then subordinated. Gorakhnath is said to be the author of two Sanskrit treatises, Hatha-yoga 1 and Gorakska-sataka, 2, and on them depends the later literature, which is dealt with in the next chapter. 3 Several works in Hindi verse exist which 'are also attributed to the leader ; but as their date is said to be the middle of the fourteenth century, 4 clearly they cannot be assigned to him, unless it b^e found that an earlier date is possible for them. They may have been written by his followers. There thus seems to be sufficient ground for believing that Gorakhnath was a noted yogi, that he lived and founded his sect somewhere about A.D. iaoo, and that early stories connected with the name Goraksha and the Nathas gathered round his head after his death. 4. The Rasesvaras. § 303. Another Saiva school is described by Madhava, 5 which was called the RasesVara or Mercury system, but does not seem to have survived. The peculiarity of their teaching was this, that they thought that, without an immortal body, release could not be attained, and that the only way in which an immortal body could be developed was by the use of mercury, rasa, which, they declared, was produced by the creative conjunction of Siva and his spouse. After the acquisition of a divine body, the aspirant, by the practice of yoga, wins an intuition of the Supreme, and is liberated in this life. A number of ancient teachers of the school are named, and several philosophic manuals. 1 This book does not seem to exist to-day, but see Hall, 17. 2 Hall, 18 ; Aufrecht, Cat. Sansk. MSS. in Bodleian Library, 236. 3 See § 423. 4 Misra Bandhu Vinode, 21. 6 SDS., ch. ix, Cowell, 137. BHAKTI a,55 b. Agamic Saivas. i. The Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhanta. § 304. In his Sarvadarsanasangraha 1 Madhava describes what he calls the Saiva Dar£ana, and quotes in illustration of its teaching six of the Agamas, as many writers, and several anonymous works. All the literature is in Sanskrit, but, apart from the Agamas, none of it seems to have survived. Several writers, however, belonging to the school lived at dates later than Madhava ; and these are therefore described in our next chapter. We call it the Sanskrit school of Saiva Siddhanta. This school and the teaching of the Tamil Saivas as contained in the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta are usually treated as one, 2 but it seems quite clear that they are distinct. The Sanskrit school has in the main a following of Brahmans, many of them being temple-ministrants, its Vedantic standpoint is Visishtadvaita, and its literature is in Sanskrit ; while the following of the Tamil school is almost entirely non-Brahman, its Vedantic standpoint is Advaita 3 or, according to other writers, Bhed- abheda, 4 and all its literature is in Tamil. a. Tamil Saivas. § 305. The literature of the Tamil Saivas belonging to this period is extremely rich in lyrical poetry, theology, and historical legend. The chronology is still obscure in many points, but the relations of the larger events are fairly clear. Pattinattu Pillai, who probably lived in the tenth century, is the author of some beautiful devotional verse, which, along with the work of several minor authors, found a place in the sacred Canon ; s but a number of poems of a highly monothe- istic and Puritan character, which belong to a much later date, 1 Cowell, 112. , , 2 e. g. see Cowell's tr. of the Saiva Darsana in Madhava s SDS. s Nallasvami, SSS. 63, 67, 68, 88, 244. The standpoint is sometimes called 3ivadvaita. 4 So Umapati, Tiru-arul-fiayan, lxxv. 6 In the Eleventh Tiru-murai. 356 BHAKTI have been erroneously assigned to this tenth-century poet. They are dealt with below. 1 §306. Nambi-andar-nambi was a contemporary of Natha- muni the Vaishnava leader and of Rajaraja the Great, the Chola king (a.d. 985-1018). He gathered the Tamil hymns of The Three into one collection, named it the Tevaram, i.e. DEVARAM, the Divine Garland, and with the help of Rajaraja had them set to Dravidian music. He then arranged to have them sung in the chief shrines. An inscription of Rajaraja's shows that he introduced them into his magni- ficent temple at Tanjore. Sung by a special choir, quite distinct from the priestly ministrants, they gave the worship a fresh interest and splendour without disturbing the ancient Sanskrit liturgy. Manikka Vachakar's glorious verse was probably too recent to find a place in this collection. § 307. Nambi's name is also connected with the formation of a larger body of Tamil scripture, which is called the TIRU MURAI, i.e. the Sacred Books. He collected most of the Saiva hymns then in existence and grouped them in eleven books ; 2 and the collection was completed by the addition of a twelfth in the twelfth century. The contents are : (a) the Tevaram, (6) the Tiruvachakam, (c) the Tiru Isaipa, lyrics by nine authors, (d) the Tirumantram, (e) miscellaneous poems, including Nambi's own works, (/) the Periya Puranam, or Great Legend, a Liber Sanctorum, forming the Twelfth Book. Sekklrar, the author of the Periya Puranam, the Great Legend, may be dated in the first half of the twelfth century. It is a poem in seventy-two cantos on the lives of the sixty-three Saiva saints of the Tamil country, and is founded on a decad of Sundarar's and the Tondar-tiruv-antadi, which is one of Nambi's poems. No work is more loved by Saivas than the Periya Puranam. To about the same date we may assign a famous translation, the Skanda P., done into Tamil verse and called the Kanda Puranam, by Kanchi-Appar of Conjeeveram. 1 See § 426. 2 He began the compilation in the reign of Rajaraja and finished it under his son Rajendra I. BHAKTI j»57 § 308. Thus far the Tamil Saivas had no formulated theology of their own but were dependent on the Agamas, which are probably of northern origin and are in Sanskrit. The defect was remedied by a brilliant school of thinkers, who were also Tamil poets, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Meykanda Deva, who is regarded as the fountain of the dogmatic, was a Sudra and lived early in the thirteenth century on the bank of the Penner river to the north of Madras. He translated twelve Sanskrit sutras from the Raurava Agama l into Tamil verse. To this work, which is known as Siva-jnana-bodha, 'Instruction in Knowledge of Siva ', he added a few notes in Tamil prose, and a series of logical analogies also in prose in support of his reasoning. The system which this work unfolds is called the Saiva Siddhanta, or ' Reasoned Saiva system '. He was also a noted teacher and had many pupils. His most famous disciples are Arulnahdi Deva and Manavachakam Kadandan. The latter is famous for his Unmai Vilakkam, a treatise in fifty-four stanzas consisting of questions and answers on the main points of Siddhanta teaching. The former wrote the Siva- jnana-siddhi, a noted work in two parts, of which the first is a criticism of other Indian schools of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism, while the second is a full statement of Saiva Siddhanta teaching so put as to form a rich commentary on his teacher's masterpiece, and to meet, if possible, all objections to the Saiva Siddhanta. Arulnandi's disciple was Marai-jnana-sambandha, a Sudra and the author of Saiva- samaya-neri. A Brahman named Umapati from the temple in Chidambaram became a disciple of his, ate the leavings of his food and was in consequence excommunicated. But he became the supreme theologian of the sect, and left numerous works, eight of which are included among the canonical books of the Siddhanta. The following is the list : 1 See § 225. Umapati Sivacharya ■! 258 BHAKTI THE FOURTEEN SIDDHANTA SASTRAS. Uyyavandan (A) . 1. Tiruvuntiydr Uyyavandan (B) a. Tirukkalirruppadiyar Meykanda Deva 3. Siva-jnana-bodha .... 14. Siva-jnana-siddhi Arulnandi J , J . , 1 5. Irupavirupathu Manavachakam Kadandan 6. Unmai-vilakkam I 7. Siva-prakasa 8. Tii r u-artd-payan 9. Vind-venba 10. Porripakrodai 11. Kodi-kavi 1 a. Nenchu-vidu-tutu 13. Unmai-neri-vilakkam 14. Sahkalpa-nirakarana The four — Meykanda Deva, Arulnandi, Marai-jfiana-samban- dha, and Umapati — who together form a succession of teachers and disciples, are known as The Four Santana Acharyas, i. e. teachers forming a continuous series. There are two of the writers whose dates are not known with certainty, the two Uyyavandans. They are said to have nourished in the latter half of the twelfth century, but it is possible that they may belong to the school of Meykanda. It is possible that the development of this dogmatic was influenced in some degree by the literature of Kashmir Saivism ; for the later stands quite near the earlier system ; yet Siddhantists do not recognize the Kashmir literature as authoritative ; and it is much more probable that the Tamil Siddhanta was influenced by the Sanskrit Siddhanta. The two are quite closely allied. 1 The tradition in the sect is that Meykanda was directly taught by some one from Kailasa. 3. Kashmir Saivas. § 309. All we know about Saivism in Kashmir during this period is summed up in the growth of its literature ; and it 1 This stands out in Madhava's essay, SDS. VII. BHAKTI 259 seems to have been the more philosophic side of the system represented by Somananda's Siva Drishti that ruled the development, although the study of the earlier literature was still kept up. The chief followers of Somananda are his pupil Utpalacharya, who is the author of the Isvara-pratyabhijna- kdrikas; Abhinavagupta (about A.D. 1000) who expounded Utpala's Karikas in two commentaries, wrote several works on the Saiva Agamas and a summary of the Pratyabhijna doctrine called Paramarthasara ; and finally Kshemaraja of the eleventh century, who wrote the Siva-siitra-vimarsim. After Kshema- raja the movement died down ; yet the literature probably influenced Saivism in South India during the thirteenth and later centuries. 4. Vtra Saivas. §310. The Vira Saivas, also called Lingayats, are a sect which seems to have been founded on the borders of the Karnatak and the Maratha country in the middle of the twelfth century, and soon attained considerable proportions, spreading rapidly towards the south, especially in the Kanarese country. Lingayats believe that the sect is extremely old, and that it was merely reorganized in the twelfth century, but it seems to be rather more probable that, while most of the elements united in the sect are old, the sect itself came into being about A.D. 1160. 1 In the Karnatak for centuries the mass of the people had been either Saivas or Digambara Jains : the new sect seems to be essentially a fresh formation meant to give Saivas a more definite theology and a closer organization, and to win over the Jains to the worship of Siva. Two features of the sect — the great prominence of the monasteries, and the large measure of religious and social equality which full Lingayats enjoy within the sect— are probably in part imitations of Jainism. Racial characteristics may also have played a part in forming the organization; 1 Bhandarkar believes it came into existence about a century earlier VS. 134. s a . a6o BHAKTI for, as we have already seen, 1 Lingayats and Manbhaus, a Vaishnava community formed in the Maratha country about a century later, have a large number of common features. Both morality and bhakti are very prominent in Lingayat teaching. Critical scholars have usually held that the founder of the sect was Basava, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri, who became King at Kalyan in A. D. 1156, but Fleet is inclined to believe that Ekantada Ramayya of Ablur, whose career is mentioned in an early inscription, was the real leader, and that Basava came in as a political and military auxiliary. The tradition is that the sect was founded by five ascetics — Ekorama, Panditaradhya, Revana, Marula, Visvaradhya 2 — who are held to have sprung from the five heads of Siva, incarnate age after age. These are regarded as very ancient, and Basava is said to have been but the reviver of the faith. Yet the early literature shows that the five were all his contemporaries, some older, some younger. But the whole early history is still very obscure ; and, until the early literature, Sanskrit, Kanarese, and Telugu, has been carefully read and compared with the inscriptions, this darkness is likely to remain. § 31 1. The organization of the sect is sufficiently noteworthy. Five original monasteries, the first heads of which were the five ascetics, must first be noted : Monasteries. First Mahants. 1. Kedarnath, Himalayas. Ekorama. 2. Srl-saila, near Nandyal. Panditaradhya. 3. Balehalli, West Mysore. Revana. 4. Ujjini, Bellary boundary, Mysore. Marula. 5. Benares. Visvaradhya. In every Lingayat village there is a monastery, and each is affiliated to one of the five original monasteries. The Jangamas are a caste, and from them come nearly all Lingayat ■ x See § 295. 2 These five are mentioned in the Suprabheda Agama. BHAKTI 261 Gurus. Every Lihgayat must belong to a monastery and must have a guru : he need not visit a temple at all. Lingayats regard Siva as the Supreme, and must worship him only: that is the meaning of the name of the sect, Vlra Saivas, stalwart Saivas, worshipping Siva alone. Then, the modes of their worship of Siva are two: each Lihgayat worships his own Jangama guru ; and he worships the small linga 1 which he wears in a reliquary hung round his neck, whence the other name of the sect, Lihgayat, lihga-wearers. Image-worship is prohibited. When a boy is born, the father sends for his guru, and the ashtavarna, eight-fold ceremony, which makes the baby a Lihgayat is performed : guru, linga, vibhiiti, rudraksha, mantra, Jangama, tlrtha, prasada. These eight are held to be ' coverings ', protections against sin. When a young Lihgayat chooses a guru for himself, a cere- mony is held in which five pots, representing the original mahants of the five great monasteries, are used. These are placed precisely as the symbols used by Smartas in their private worship are placed. 2 Four are so placed as to form a square, while the pot which represents the monastery to which the chosen guru is affiliated is placed in the centre. A Lihgayat worships privately twice a day before meals. He sits down, takes his linga from its reliquary, places it in the palm of his left hand, and goes through the prescribed forms of meditation and adoration in that posture. Meditation is in accordance with the six slhalas. 3 When the guru visits the home, an elaborate ceremony, padodaka, i. e. the washing of the feet of the guru, is performed, at which all the family, and possibly friends as well, are present. 1 The linga is to the Lingayat what the sacred thread is to the twice- born Hindu. No full Lingayat may wear the sacred thread, even if he be of the best Brahman blood. 2 See § 352. 3 These are six stages of spiritual progress, through which the Lingayat passes in seeking union with Siva, bhakti, mahesa, prasada, pranalihga, sarana, aikya. 262 BHAKTI The head of the house also worships the guru. The guru sits down in Yoga posture, and the householder, sitting before him, goes through the sixteen operations of Hindu worship, and other elaborate ceremonies. There are a few Lingayat temples, most of which have been built as memorials to individuals, but they do not form a necessary part of the organization of the sect. §312. The word Jangama is used in two senses, first for a member of the caste, and secondly for a practising Jangama. Only the latter is worshipable. Most Jangamas marry and earn their living. Those who wish to become practising Jangamas must remain celibate They must also be trained in a monastery and receive diksha, initiation. The whole sect . is in the hands of these practising Jangamas. They are of two classes, Gurusthalas and Viraktas. Gurusthala Jangamas are trained to perform all domestic ceremonies and to act as gurus, and a number of them will be found in every village monastery. These village monasteries, which are the real centres of Lingayat organization and life, and the five original monasteries are called Gurusthala^ monasteries, because they are guru schools and residences. But there are a few monasteries of another type, in which philosophical and theological instruction is' given, and in them Virakta Jangamas are trained. They are usually called Shatsthala monasteries, because in them the six sthalas or stages in the process of reaching union with Siva are taught. The duty of Viraktas is to teach. §313. The social construction of the community, as it is to- day, is difficult to understand, and the history behind it is still more difficult. Lingayats affirm that Basava did away with all caste distinctions, whether with regard to religious privileges, intermarriage, or interdining, but that at an early date the community fell away from this practice. It would be un- pardonable to speak dogmatically about Basava's teaching 1 Gurusthala monasteries fall into two sub-classes, Sishyavarga and Putravarga. BHAKTI 363 until the early literature has been critically examined, but, in the light of other cases in which similar claims have been made, only to be proved untenable when carefully investigated, it is surely wise to reserve judgement. A somewhat similar condition of affairs in the Manbhau sect suggests the idea that the original community in each case may have consisted of a number of social groups among whom caste restrictions were still very elastic. A desire to win over the Jains may have helped to perpetuate the freedom. In order to understand the present position of affairs, we must distinguish between full Lirigayats and semi-Lirigayats. Among the latter Lingayat practice is imperfect and caste restrictions are confessedly rigid. Of these semi-Lingayats there are two groups. The first are the Aradhya-Brahmans, 1 who are found mainly in the Kanarese and Telugu districts, and are clearly half-converted Smartas. They wear both the sacred thread and the liriga. In their private worship they are Lingayat, but they intermarry with Smarta Brahmans, a Smarta performs the wedding ceremony for them, and they will not dine with other Lirigayats. The second group are the Outcaste Lirigayats, for whom no Jangama will perform the full ceremonies, and who are not admitted in any sense to Lingayat society. Amongst full Lingayats caste restrictions in marriage remain rigid, but all are free to dine together. As a matter of fact Jaftgamas and certain high-class business families do not usually interdine with the rest. When the guru visits a disciple, they dine together. §314. All full Lingayats bury their dead, and no thought of pollution is associated with the place of burial. They are vegetarians and strict abstainers. Child-marriage is con- demned, and widow remarriage is allowed, but some sections of the community have fallen back. Vira Saivas are taught that each person may attain Release 1 In Mysore there is a group known as Aradhyas, who are pure Lingayats and do not wear the sacred thread. 364 BHAKTI in this life by practising the prescribed meditations and passing through the six stages. Bhakti holds a large place in their practice. Their philosophy 1 shows very clearly the influence of Ramanuja, and from an early date the teaching and litera- ture of the Tamil Saivas exercised a considerable influence on them. §315. Lingayat literature is mostly in Kanarese and San- skrit, but there are also several rather important books in Telugu. Unfortunately, so little critical study has as yet been spent on them that, in many cases, it is impossible to assign dates or to sketch their contents. One of the very earliest works is the life of Panditaradhya, the Mahant of SrI-Saila. It was written in a mixture of Sanskrit and Telugu by Somanatha, who lived at Palakurki near Warangal during the reign of the first Prataparudra, i. e. in the last decades of the twelfth century. He is also the author of the. original Basava Pur ana, which is in Telugu verse. There is another important work in Sanskrit which may be even earlier, the Srikara-bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras : its date is discussed in our next chapter. There are also a number of Lingayat documents in the Agama literature. 2 The Sukshma is entirely Lingayat, while the Suprabheda, Svayambhuva, Kamika, Paramesvara, and Vdtula all contain Lingayat material. It is probable that these sectarian works are of fairly early date. Of great importance for popular Lingayatism are the early Kanarese sermons known as Vachana. Some are attributed to Basava himself, others to later men. The character of the Kanarese in which some of these are written proves that they belong to the thirteenth century at latest. 3 There are then the Kanarese Puranas, which are of various dates. The Siddharama (the legendary life of the first Mahant of Sholapur) for example, by Raghavanka, the pupil of Hari- 1 See Bhandarkar, VS. 134 ff. 2 Seep. 193. 3 My informant is Rao Sahib P. G. Halkattr of Bijapur, who has translated those attributed to Basava into English. Unfortunately they are still unpublished. BHAKTI 265 hara, is a fourteenth-century work * ; and several others may belong to the same century. F. Sdkta Literature. a. The Left-hand School. § 316. A considerable list of Tantras can be formed which seem to date from the tenth or the eleventh century. A MS. of the Brahma- Yamala bears the date A.D. 1052, 2 and a MS. of the Nityahnikatilaka, a work dealing with the daily rites of the Kubjika sect of Saktas, is dated 1 197 3 ; while in the works of two Saiva scholars belonging to Kashmir, Abhinava- gupta, whose floruit is A.D. 1000, and his disciple Kshemaraja, there are quotations from the Devi- Yamala, Kulachuddmani, Kalottara, Kulasdra, Amritesa, and Malinl-vijaya Tantras* Clearly these cannot be dated later than the tenth century. Lakshmidhara, a scholar who lived at Warangal towards the end of the thirteenth century, 5 quotes from the Vamakesvara T. a list of sixty-four Tantras, which is almost the same as the list found in MSS. of that Tantra to-day. As the Vama- kesvara was already an authoritative work in his time, it must be a good deal older. The Kulachuddmani T. also contains a list of sixty-four Tantras, which is very similar to the Vama- kesvara list. In each of these lists there are three groups of Tantras which we may take to be characteristic of the first half of .the period, eight Bhairavas, eight Bahurupas.and eight Yamalas. These last — the Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Lakshml, Umd, Skanda, Ganesa, and Graha Yamalas — receive their name from Yamala, a pair, the reference being to a divinity and his sakti in sexual union. The pose is called Sambara in Nepalese Buddhism and Yab-yum in Tibetan Buddhism, and images of this character were common. 6 In their character 1 Rice, KL. 43. 2 H. P. Sastri, II. xxii. 3 lb. I. lxiv. 4 Hall, 197 f. ; Chatterji, KS. 38. 6 See Intro, to Saundaryalahari by A. Mahadeva Sastri and Pandita- ratnam K. Rangacharya. But see also below, p. 389, n. I. H. P. Sastri, II. vii. ; Getty, GNB. 181 and passim. There are similar sculptures on some of the temples at Khajuraho. 366 BHAKTI these Tantras are parallel with the Buddhist Tantras which appear in the Tibetan Canon, and in Chinese translations, in the tenth and eleventh centuries. 1 Some of the names coincide, Sambara, Jala-Sambara, Kalachakra, Mahakala. The Saundaryalahari is a famous ode to the goddess in a hundred stanzas, of which Stanzas 1-41 are frequently pub- lished as a separate ode under the name Anandalahari. The whole is usually ascribed to Sankaracharya, but serious scholars regard the ascription as a mistake. Lakshmldhara, the scholar already quoted, who belongs to the end of the thirteenth cen- tury, has a valuable commentary on it. As he unhesitatingly accepts the authorship of Sankara, there must be a tradition of some age to that effect behind him. The work thus goes back to a fairly early date, but it is not yet possible to be more definite. Another work often by mistake 2 attributed to. Sankara, the Prapanchasara T., rather a foul book, has been much used and has had many commentaries written upon it. We cannot be mistaken in assigning it to this period. Along with it we may take two books belonging to the Kaulas, who are amongst the extremest of the Saktas, the Kaula U. and the P arasurama-Bhargava-sutra. Of the latter we are told that it is ' a complete exposition of all branches of the Kaula system ', and that ' the worship of Devi according to the Kaula marga is generally based on the directions given in this work.' 3 Of the Kaula U. we are told that it is a work in terse prose, the ethical code of the Kaulas. It is enigmatic, and its directions are vague and indistinct. It hints that the shackles of ritualism cannot lead to liberation, which can be secured only by throw- ing off the blind restrictions imposed by social conventions. There are some half a dozen other Sakta Upanisha'ds, all of which probably belong to this period. These are as follows : two Tripuratapaniya Upanishads, modelled on the Nrisimha- tdpanlya works, the Tripura, Skatchakra, and Bhavana 1 See § 324. 2 From confusion with a non-Tantrik work of the same name. 3 From an anonymous essay in SJM. III. (1897). BHAKTI 267 Upanishads, and finally the Devi U., included in the fivefold Atharvasiras 0'., 1 which doubtless rests on an original Sakta Upanishad. The Tripura U., which consists of sixteen stanzas and claims to belong to the Sakala Sakha of the Rigveda, gives a brief outline of the philosophic basis of the Sakta system and describes the various modes of worship in use. The Saradatilaka T. is a work of very great authority, written by Lakshmana Desika, a scholar belonging to the eleventh century. The book deals almost exclusively with spells (mantras) and sorcery, and scarcely mentions ritual. It is thus rightly connected with SarasvatT, who as goddess of speech is called Sarada. It opens with a philosophy of creation and of human speech. It describes and classifies mantras, gives rules for the preliminary arrangements necessary for the use of mantras, for initiation, and for the use of the sacrificial fire. The body of the work deals with the formation and employment of mantras. A few mudras are described and many yantras. The last chapter is on Tantrik Yoga. The Shatchakra U., mentioned above, deals, as its name implies, with the six chakras of occult force supposed to lie in the human body. As Narayana commented on it, it must belong to this period at latest. The Bhavana U., also mentioned above, teaches that the human body may itself be considered a Sri-chakra. We may also note two vernacular Sakta works belonging to this period, a Bengali poem on Chandl belonging to the thirteenth century and a Telugu translation of the Markan- deya P., the date of which is about 1300. b. The Right-hand School. § 317. There seems to be no evidence in the early literature of the existence of any Devi- worshipping sect which repudiated the coarser elements of the ritual, or of Devi-temples in which animal sacrifice was not permitted. All seem to belong to 1 See § 207. , 368 BHAKTI what is now called the Left-hand ( Vamachari) section of the Sakta teaching and cult. But from the thirteenth century, if not earlier, we hear of Sakta scholars who followed the pure path of the Right-hand (Dakshinachdri) section, and also of Right-hand literature. In Gujarat and in South India to-day there are many Devi-temples in which no animal sacrifice is permitted. The individual scholars with their private practice and the temples with their public cult seem to be both con- nected with the Smarta community, and the cult is in full conformity with Vedic usage. Can it be that these facts point back to a mediaeval reformation ? It is curious that, in tradi- tion as well as in the pseudonymous Sankaravijayas, there is said to have been such a movement, and it is attributed to Sankara. For example, in Conjeeveram local tradition says he compelled the goddess Kamachlamma, i.e. the Love-eyed Mother, to give up human sacrifice. A very remarkable image of Sankara is worshipped in her temple there, 1 and the ministrants are Nambutiri Brahmans, who declare themselves descendants of priests introduced from Malabar by Sankara. 2 § 318. The first scholar, so far as we know, who follows the Right-hand path is Lakshmldhara, who has been already mentioned. His name as an initiate was Vidyanatha. In his commentary on sloka 31 of Saundaryalaharl he gives the list of sixty-four Tantras discussed above, and also gives two other lists as follows : Misra or Mixed Tantras : (1) Chandrakala, (3) JyotisvatI, (3) Kalanidhi, (4) Kularnava, (5) Kulesvan, (6) Bhuvanesvarl, (7) Barhaspatya, (8) Durvasasa. Samaya or Subha, i. e. Pure, Tantras : (1) Vasishtha, (3) Sanaka, (3) Suka, (4) Sanandana, (5) Sanatkumara. By Mixed Tantras he seems to mean books which give instruc- tions for the worship of the goddess with a view both to earthly blessings and release, while Pure Tantras teach only 1 See a print from a photograph in my Primer of Hinduism, 119. 2 Maclean, ERE. VII. 646. BHAKTI 369 the way to release. They teach how by meditation and yoga practice the Devi may be raised from the Muladhara, through four other chakras, to Ajna, and thence to the Sahasrara. 1 This practice is called Srlvidyd. Unfortunately this last group of five works is not yet known, and no account of them can be given. c. The Bhakti School. § 319. There is another form of Right-hand worship among Saktas which has come from the influence of the Bhagavata P. Release is sought by the path of enthusiastic emotional bhakti towards the goddess. The chief scripture of this discipline is the Devi Bhagavata, which is usually reckoned one of the Upapuranas. The devotees of the goddess, however, deny that it is one of the Upapuranas and affirm that it is the original work to which the fifth place among the Puranas belongs by right, and that the Krishna Bhagavata was written by Vopadeva about A. D. 1300. A remark which Srldhara 2 makes at the beginning of his great commentary on the Bhagavata P. enables us to realize that this claim was already common in his day. It is thus clear that the Devi Bhagavata, being- posterior to the Bhagavata P. and prior to Srldhara, who lived about A.D. 1400, belongs to this period. It is not yet possible to say anything about the date of the Agastya- siitras, 3 which expound the bhakti of the Devi Bhagavata and are thus parallel to the Narada and S dndily a-sutras. G. Saura Literature. § 320. It is probable that the splendid rise of the chief sects of the Vaishnavas and Saivas during our period gradually weakened the cults of the Sun, Ganesa, and other minor_gods. The Sauras have an honourable place in the Prabodhachandro- daya.* There were several great temples built to Surya during the early centuries, 5 but towards the end the popularity of the ' See Avalon, TGL. cxxxii ff. 2 See § 326. s See the essay in SJM. III. (1897). * See § 270. 6 Notably Mudhera in Gujarat and Kanarak in Orissa. 27° BHAKTI god waned. There is very little literature to notice. A few chapters 1 in the Brahma P. containing the theology of Surya and the praise of Orissa and of the temple of the Sun at Kanarak, and the song of the Sun-god in Bengali recently published by Mr. Dinesh Chandra Sen 2 may belong to this period, and the great inscription at Govindapur in the Gaya district by the poet Gangadhara, 3 which dates from A.D. 1137, is a Saura document. H. Ganapatya Literature. §331. The Ganapatya sect clearly continued active during the early centuries of this period, even if it decayed towards the close. The usual sectarian mantra seems to have been Sri Ganesaya namah, while the sect-mark was a circlet of red minium on the forehead. The most important document of the sect, apart from the Upanishad described above, 4 is the Ganesa Purana, 5 the bulk of which consists of legends in glorification of Ganesa, including stories of his having cured leprosy, but also deals with the theology and the worship of the sect and details the thousand names of the god. Ganesa as the supreme Brahman can be known only by mystical con- templation, but he may also be worshipped through his images in the usual Hindu way. The Mudgala P. is also a Ganapatya work, but seemingly of later origin. The date of the Sahkara Digvijaya is very doubtful, but it may with safety be regarded as reflecting facts belonging to the latter half of the period. It speaks of the Ganapatyas as divided into six sub-sects, according as they worship Maha-Ganapati, Haridra Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati, Navanita-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati, and Santana-Ganapati, while one section of the Uchchhishta- Ganapatyas revered Heramba-Ganapati and had very foul 1 XXI-XXVIII. 2 VSP. I. 23-4 ; 164-71. 3 Efiigrafihia Indica, II. 338. * See § 239. ° The legends are briefly described by Stevenson, JRAS. VII. 319. The reference to Moresvar, noted by him, is probably an inter- polation. BHAKTI 271 rites. 1 Many of these forms of the god occur also in the Mudgala P., 2 and a number of them are still to be seen in images in South India, 3 but the sects have all disappeared. Yet, as the sect decayed, the position of the god as a minor divinity, the god of obstacles and success, adored by all Hindus, became firmly established. He is praised in this sense in the Skanda P.* and elsewhere. To this period also belongs a singular document which gives one of the many variant myths about his birth and his elephant head, the Ganesa-Khanda of the Brahmavaivarta P. 5 The story is told to glorify Krishna as the Supreme, this part of the Purana being probably of Nimbarkite origin. 6 I. D karma Literature. §322. The gradual decay of Tantrik Buddhism in Bengal and Orissa left a deep but not altogether healthy deposit in Hinduism. In most cases it was the old sects that received the deposit, but in one case at least there was a fresh growth. The central member of the Buddhist Triratna — Buddha, Dharma, Sangha — gave birth to a new Hindu god, Dharma, whose worship spread abroad and produced an important literature in early Bengali, which bears many marks of its Buddhist source. The prime scripture is the Sunya Purana? a lineal descendant of Nagarjuna's Sunyavada, by Ramai Pandita, which seems to come from the eleventh century. It deals with both theology and ritual. One of the chief names connected with the cult is Lau Sen, King of Maina in Bengal in the eleventh century, who worshipped Dharma, and from whose heroic feats a famous legend arose. This story forms the basis of a series of Bengali romances known as the Dharma- 1 They were unclean Saktas, like the Buddhists who adored Heramba. 2 This work catalogues thirty-two forms of Ganapati, while the Sarada- tikaka T. speaks of fifty-one forms : Krishna Sastri, SII. 173. 5 lb. 165-76. 4 Skanda P., Prabhasa Mahatmya. See Kennedy, HM. 352. 6 Wilson, Works, III. 103 ff. 6 See § 282. 7 Sen, HBLL. 372 BHAKTI mangal poems, written from the twelfth century onward. The earliest writer was Mayura Bhatta. 1 ii. Buddhism. A. The Saktas. § 323. The Tantrik University called Vikramasila, on the Ganges, founded early in the ninth century, rose to splendour about the opening of this period and showed a great succession of scholars for two centuries. Yet the religion was slowly dying, poisoned by Tantrism and weakened by Hindu violence and criticism. Few books were produced except Tantrik works and manuals of logic, 2 and even these failed towards the end of the eleventh century. Islam destroyed Buddhism, in India in the great conquest of the North just before A.D. 1200. § 324. There is a considerable number of Tantras and related works which, from their common features, and from the dates at which they were translated into Chinese and Tibetan, would seem to belong to the tenth century or thereabouts. One of the most distinctive, the Srikalachakra T., is said to have been written in A.D. 965. The Chandamaharoshana, He-vajra, Heruka, Dakinl-jala-sambara, , Manjusri-mula, and Bhuta- datnara Tantras, and the Manjusri-nama-sahgiti 3 (called also Paramartha-ndma-sahgiti), in which a long list of the names of Manjusri forms a hymn of praise, belong to the same time and class. § 335. In these there appears first an intensification of the erotic features of Tantrism. 3 New Buddhas, each with his sakti, make their appearance, e. g. Heruka and VajrayoginI, . and the high religious value of intercourse with women is more insisted on than ever: It was probably as a result of this 1 Sen, HBLL. 30 ff. 2 VidyabhushanaT MSIL. 135 ff. " Vajrasattva utters the Chandamaharoshana T. from the pudendum muliebre of Vajradhatvlsvari. Cf. the Buddhist Tantrik monk in Act III of Prabodhachandrodaya (pp. 34 f. in Taylor's tr.), which was produced about A. D. 1060, and see § 300. BHAKTI *73 movement that the practice of representing in scripture these Buddhas in sexual union with their spouses arose, a practice which appeared also in Hinduism. 1 In Bengal the erotic Buddhism of this period was called Sahaja. 2 Romantic love for beautiful girls was made the path to release. Very little of the literature of the school remains, but it is reflected later in the poetry of Chandidas, the Hindu sakta, and its foul' practice long infected' Bengal. § 326. The second fresh feature of these works is a theistic or pantheistic theology, 3 the final outcome of the Mahayana theory of the three bodies of the Buddha 4 and of the idealism of the Vijnanavada school, especially as expressed in the term alayavijnana? The movement was also powerfully influenced by the Vedanta, by the theism of the Nyaya, and by Saivism. The universe and all Buddhas come from an eternal being called Adi-Buddha, i. e. the original Buddha, and Svayambhu, i. e. the self-existent, the process being represented by the triple system of Dhyani-Buddhas, Dhyani-Bodhisattvas and Manushi-Buddhas, as follows : ADI-BUDDHA. Dhyani-Buddhas. Vairochana Akshobya Ratnasam- Amitabha bhava Samanta- bhadra Manushi- Buddhas. Dipankara v Kanaka- Kasyapa Gautama Amoghasiddha Dhyani-Bodhisattvas. Vajrapani Ratnapani Avalokite- Visvapani Maitreya The three grades of being are suggested by the three bodies of the Buddha, while the five beings in each grade come from the original five Buddhas of early Buddhism, the three Former 1 See § 316. a Kumaraswamy, The Dance of Siva, 103 (New York, 1918) ; Sen, HBLL. 37. s See Poussin, ERE. art. 'Adi-Buddha'. * See § 176. 5 See § 178. T 274 BHAKTI Buddhas, Gautama, and the coming Buddha, for these are the Manushi Buddhas of the third grade. The theory was developed alongside Tantrism, which teaches that every Buddha and every Bodhisattva has a wife. By five acts of his contemplative power (dhydndj, the Adi- Buddha creates five Dhydni-Buddhas. The Dhyani-Buddhas have nothing to do with man or the world, but live in thought- ful peace in nirvana. Each, however, has a son who is a Dhyani-bodhisattva and has never been a man. Through him, in turn, aMdnushi-Bttddha, i. e. a human Buddha, is brought into being, and a world within which the Manushi-Buddha plays his part. In most of the forms of this theology the eternal One is personal, so that the system is distinctly theistic, e. g. the Aisvarika system of Nepal, but in others, where Vijnanavadin thought is prominent, the idea tends to exclude personality and thus to approach the pantheistic conception of Brahman as held by Sankara and other Mayavadins. The system is found most often in Tantrik works, such as the Srikdlachakra T., but it was held by Mahayanists also ; for it appears in the Gunakdrandavyuha, which is a new .poetic version of the old Kdrandavyiiha. 1 B. Buddhist Lands. § 327. Buddhism lingered on in great weakness in Bengal, where a few pieces of literature may be traced, 2 until the six- teenth century, when the last groups of Tantrik .monks and nuns were absorbed by the Chaitanya sect. 3 In Orissa the faith has survived in disguised forms down to the present time. 4 But if Buddhism died out in India proper, it continued to thrive elsewhere. § 328. In Nepal, in the first part of the period, we trace the rise of the Aisvarika, or Theistic, system explained above, and fresh literature seems to have been written. It is in Nepal 1 See § 175. ■> Sen, HBLL. 15-55. 3 See § 370. 4 Vasu, Archaeological Survey of Mayurabhunja, Chap. II. BHAKTI 275 that the theistic Gunakdrandavyuha 1 is found. The same theology appears in the Svayambhu P., which is a Mahatmya of Nepal and probably is as late as the twelfth or thirteenth century. 2 The Dasabhumlsvara is a later recension of the Madhyamaka Dasabhumaka-sutra? augmented with rdsum^s in Prakrit verse. It is found in Nepal. The most interesting fact about Nepalese Buddhism is that its sacred books were in Sanskrit, and the great majority of existing Sanskrit texts, whether Mahayana or Tantrik, have been found there. They can be most conveniently studied in R. L. Mitra's Nepalese Buddhist Literature. No traces of a Nepalese Buddhist Canon have been found. The character of the texts found there would naturally lead to the conclusion that the books in use in the middle ages must have been very similar to those of Tibet, i. e. the literature is Mahayana with a considerable infusion of Tantrik works. Further, while there is no real Canon, there is a curious sort of substitute for one : Nine very famous works — eight of them being Mahayana sutras, the ninth, one of the greatest of the early Tantras — are held in special reverence and receive regular divine worship. The following is the list : THE NINE DHARMAS. j. Ashtasahasrika Prajnapdramitd. 2. Gandavyuha. 3. Dasabhumlsvara. 4. Samadhiraja. 5. Laiikdvatdra-sutra. 6. Saddharma-pundarlka. 7. Tathdgata-guhyaka. 8. Lalita-vistara. 9. Suvarnaprabhasa. 1 See § 326. 2 This inference rests on a reference to Radha (Mitra, 254) : See § 280 3 See § 177. T a 276 BHAKTI § 329. Buddhist literature in Pali has been written in Ceylon continuously until our times, 1 and also in- Burma from the eleventh century downwards. 2 § 330. In A. D. 972 the Chinese Canon, as it then was, was printed from wooden blocks. Numerous editions followed ; for the blocks were often destroyed by fire or by civil war. But many new translations, especially of Tantrik works, were added between A. D. 972 and the beginning of the fourteenth century. 3 Since then there has been no change. The full Canon was printed in the fourteenth century, and has since been frequently published.* § 331. Corea and Japan did not translate the sacred books, but contented themselves with the Chinese Canon. It is important to realize how wide a field the Chinese Canon — a set of rather imperfect translations — has had for its influence. A few years ago, stimulated by the example of the Christian Scriptures in Japanese, one of the Amida sects 6 published Japanese versions of the three Sukhavati texts which they regard as supremely valuable, but until then no Japanese could read a Buddhist text in his own tongue. § 332. Though the bulk of the Tibetan translations had been made by the end of the ninth century, more were added in the eleventh, and a few as late as the thirteenth century. The following quotation gives some facts about the Canon as published : The whole forms a series of over three hundred volumes, each of which with its wooden covers makes a package about 26 in. long, 8 in. broad, 8 in. deep, and weighing about 10 lb. The volumes generally are in the form of xylographs, or prints from carved wooden blocks, as with ancient Chinese books, no movable type having been employed ; occasionally MS. sets of the entire canon are to be found. The sacred texts consist of two great collections : (a) the canon, and • (b) the commentaries. 1 Winternitz, II. i. 174-81. 2 Mabel Bode, Pali Literature of Burma. 3 Nanjio, Cols. 450-8. 4 Nanjio, Intro, xxii. 6 i. e. sects that worship Amitabha. BHAKTI 277 The canon, or Ka-gyur (vulgarly Kanjur), 'translated word', forms a series of one hundred, or in some editions, one hundred and eight, volumes, and comprises 1,083 distinct books. It is divided into seven great sections, as compared with the three divisions of the Pali canonical scriptures, or Tripitaka. The commentary Tan-gyur (vulgarly Tanjur) is a great encyclopaedic library of ancient lore on metaphysics, logic, composition, arts, alchemy, &c, including the commentaries of ancient Indian Buddhist writers, Nagarjuna and others, and also some texts by Tsong-Kha-pa and other Tibetan saints. 1 About A. D. 1306 Jenghfz Khan the Mongol conquered Tibet. His grandson Kublai Khan, converted to Buddhism by a Tibetan abbot, gave this abbot and his successors temporal power in Tibet in A. D. 1270, and opened Mongolia to Buddhism. The abbot, with the aid of a staff of scholars, carried out the stupendous task of translating the whole Tibetan Canon into Mongolian. The Mongol script is a modi- fication of Syriac which had been introduced into Central Asia by Nestorian missionaries. Thus Indian Buddhist litera- ture received a sudden expansion of influence, and was carried wherever the Mongols went. 2 iii. JAINISM. A. Svetambara Literature. § 333* Svetambara literature was already very rich and varied at the opening of this period, and during the first three centuries it rose to its utmost splendour and strength, dis- playing all its variety and brilliance in its chief representative Hemachandra. Then came the Muhammadan conquest of the North, in which Jains were cut to pieces, harried, and persecuted in the same way as Hindus and Buddhists were. The fact that the community survived at all is proof of the strength of its character and organization, but it has never regained its former influence and splendour. The work of elucidating books of the Canon in the classical 1 Waddell, ERE. VII. 789. ' ERE. VII. 786. ^78 BHAKTI style in Sanskrit, so brilliantly begun by Haribhadra and Silanka in the ninth century, was carried forward by another pair of writers, Abhayadeva of the eleventh century, who took Silanka for his model, and Malayagiri of the twelfth century, who followed Haribhadra. There were other scholars — notably Santisuri, Devendragani and Tilakacharya — who did further expository work of real value in Sanskrit. Snchandra- suri, a junior contemporary of Hemachandra, left a number of Prakrit commentaries. Several works of genuine religious power were written during the period, especially by Hemachandra and Asada; and Jain apologetic, dogmatic, and philosophy were eagerly cultivated. Criticism of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy was very popular, the writers usually following the example of Haribhadra and calling their works ' Six systems '. A number of famous saered odes were composed, the most notable writers being Sobhana, his brother Dhanapala, and Abhayadeva the expositor. Innumerable romantic tales both in Sanskrit and Prakrit appeared. Dhanapala, Devendragani, and Devabhadra wrote in Sanskrit, while Hemachandra's Vasudeva Hinda is in Prakrit. Closely allied to these is the prabandha, a narrative of a semi-historical character consisting of a series of stories about well-known men of the recent past, and also the charita, or biography of a Jain saint. Both of these types of books minister to the instinct which seeks to know the facts of men's lives, but they are first of all edifying literature, and for that reason the tales are treated with a good deal of freedom. Hence, while a great many of the stories, especially those of more recent date, contain historical elements, legend plays a large place in them. 1 Most of these books are in Sanskrit, but a few are in Prakrit, e.g. Gunachandra's Mahavlra- charita. § 334. During the first half of the period the powerful influence of the Vedanta leads to the acceptance among Jains 1 Biihler, Hemackandra, 6 ; Tawney, Prabandhachintamani, Preface. BHAKTI 279 of a sort of Brahman, an eternal spirit behind the Tirthakaras : ; and the idea survives here and there to this day, but it has never really modified or weakened the essential atheism of the system. This faint reflection of Vedantic thought in Jainism is curiously similar to the far more powerful Adi- Buddha doctrine in Buddhism. § 335- The following seem to be the most outstanding personalities among the writers of the time. Two brothers belonging to the latter half of the tenth century, Sobhana and Dhanapala, the latter a protege" of both Munja and Bhoja, kings of Malwa, distinguished themselves greatly as writers of sacred odes in Sanskrit. Dhanapala's Riskabhapanchasikd, fifty stanzas in praise of Rishabha, one of the Tirthakaras, is well known, while Sobhana's hymns are still more famous. Dhanapala's Tilakamanjarl, a volume of tales in highly artificial Sanskrit, is. worthy of comparison with the Yasastilaka by the contemporary Digambara scholar Somadeva. Abhayadeva is the greatest name among Svetambaras of the eleventh century. Following the example of Sllanka, he wrote Sanskrit commentaries on nine of the chief canonical works, viz. the third to the eleventh Angas inclusive, and many other texts. Of his original works the best known is an ode to Parsvanatha called Jayatihttyanastotra, which he is said to have composed, as a plea for release from a disease, while standing in worship before that Tirthakara's image. Devabhadra (1086-1169), a famous logician, completely defeated the Digambara scholar Kumudachandra in a con- troversy on the question of the salvation of women, held at the court of Jayasimha at Anhilvara-patan in Gujarat in a. d. 1 1 24, and thereby prevented the Digambaras from getting a foothold in the city. But the greatest of all Svetambara writers is Hemachandra, who lived from 1089 to 1 1 73, and spent most of his life in Anhil- 1 IA. VII. 106 ; Rice, Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions, 103 ; Suali, GSAI. IX. 28; Barth, Rl. 146. 280 BHAKTI vara-patan the capital of Gujarat. He had great influence at court from A. D. 1 1 25 onwards, and still greater after 1 159, when he won over king Kumarapala to Jainism. He was a writer of extraordinary industry, scholarship, and versatility. His chief religious books are the Yogasastra, a treatise on Jain ethics and asceticism, and the Vltaragastuti, a poem in thirty-two stanzas in praise of the passionless life, both written to establish his royal convert in the faith. His three works in the field of legendary history and biography, already referred to, are the Trishashti-saldkd-purushackarita, a Jain history of the world, its appendix, the Parisishtaparvan, which contains the lives of the Jain prophets and teachers, and his biography of Mahavira, the Mahaviracharita. His Vasudeva Hindq, a large collection of romantic tales, told in Prakrit and mostly in prose, may be set beside Haribhadra's Samarai- chchhakahd. He is also the author of a Jain Ramayana, the Ramacharita. But his literary activity was not merely religious but covered almost the whole field of the culture and science of mediaeval India. He wished to give Jains the fullest possible opportunity of becoming educated and capable men. He therefore wrote on logic, grammar, rhetoric, poetics, lexicography, and politics. His Sanskrit and Prakrit grammars and lexicons are weighty scientific works which have been widely used. Asada came of the royal family of Bhilmal in Gujarat. One of his sons died young, and a Jain teacher did his best to give him religious consolation. The bereaved father wrote in 1 191 the Vivekamanjari in memory of his son, working the teacher's words of consolation into beautiful verse. Another of his works, the Upadesakandali, is praised as being rich food for pilgrims on the road to Release. Jinadatta's Vivekavilasa, which was written about A. D. 1220, is a sort of summary of religious knowledge, including sketches of systems other than Jain. Amarachandra, a noteworthy poet of the middle of the thirteenth century, wrote for the Jains the Bdlabhdrata, BHAKTI a8i a sketch of the Mahdbhdrata in some 6,500 Sanskrit verses, and a Kavya on Padmanabha, the Jain Tlrthakara who is expected to appear next. He is also the author of three works on poetics. Prabhachandra is the author of the earliest life of Hema- chandra, the Prabhavakacharita, which appeared about is5°> while his contemporary Devendrasuri is remembered because he wrote five of the six Karmagranthas. Merutuhga (A) flourished early in the fourteenth century, and is most famous for his Prabandhachintamani. The first four chapters of this prabandha contain a good deal of valuable history and biography, but the remainder is legend. He also wrote the Munjaprabandha in Prakrit. Rajasekhara is the author of Prabandhakosa (published in 1349 at Delhi), which is of considerable value, and a collection of tales called A ntarakathasangraha. B. Digambara Literature. § 336. The Digambara literature of the period is not so rich as the' Svetambara, yet it has considerable variety and a large part of it is in Kanarese. Commentaries were written on several of Kundakunda's works, and Nemichandra (late tenth century) produced a number of fresh philosophic books of considerable importance. Numerous puranas both Sanskrit and Kanarese appeared, and legendary history and biography were not neglected. Amongst the most popular works are Jain versions of the Epics in Kanarese. At the beginning of the tenth century lived Amritachandra, a brilliant commentator. He expounded three of the works of the early Digambara scholar Kundakunda, the Samaya- saraprabhrita, the Panckatthiyasamgakasutta, and the Prava- chanasara, and wrote a work on the Digambara categories, the Tattvarthasara, and the Purusharthasiddhyupaya on the means whereby man may reach perfection. Balachandra (c. 1 100) wrote a commentary on the Prabhritasdra, another of Kundakunda's works. a8o, BHAKTI One of the most famous of Kanarese poets is Pampa, who wrote in 941 his Kanarese adaptation of the Mahabharata, which is known as the Pampa-Bharata, or the Vikramarjuna Vijaya. He is also the author of the Kanarese Adi Purana. We notice next the Yasastilaka of Somadeva, a series of tales told in very artistic Sanskrit, to recommend the Jainism of the Digambara sect. It is technically a katha, i. e. a com- position in prose which breaks into verse when the story becomes surcharged with feeling.' It is a work of great literary power, which would have held a high place in Sanskrit literature, had it not been Jain. It was written in A. D. 960 under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. Chamundaraya was chief minister to the Western Ganga king Marasimha II and also to his successor Panchaladeva. They reigned in Mysore. He is noteworthy first as having erected at Sravana Belgola a colossal image of Gommatesvara about A. D. 980, and secondly as being the author of the Chamundaraya Purana, which is the earliest existing work in Kanarese prose and is dated A. D. 978. It gives an account of each of the twenty-four Tirthakaras. One of the teachers whom Chamundaraya revered was Nemichandra Siddhanta-chakravartl, who is the author of five dogmatic works in Prakrit verse, which have been much used, Dravya-samgraha, Gommatasara, Labdhisara, Ksha- panasara, and Trilokasara. The Dravyasamgraha and the Trilokasara are always included among the books mentioned under the Secondary Canon. He seems to be the Nemi- chandra who lived about A.D. 990 and wrote the first Kanarese novel, Lllavatl. The Paramatma-prakasa is a Sanskrit work in 344 stanzas by Sn-Yogindra Acharya, but the date is not known. The purpose of the work is to oppose theistic teaching, and the method employed is to try to show that the human soul is the truly divine spirit. Numerous Vedantic terms are used. Asadhara, a layman and a native of the country by the BHAKTI 283 Sambhar lake, fled, while still a young man, from his home, at the end of the twelfth century, to escape the violence of the Musulman invaders and took refuge in Dhara. There he became a learned Jain, and wrote fourteen works, most of them on the Jain faith. The most famous of these is the Dharmamrita, or Nectar of Religion, which describes the duties of Jain ascetics and laymen. His Trishashtismriti is a collection of stories about sixty-three persons drawn from the Jain Puranas. There were a number of notable men among the Kanarese Jain poets. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna — all tenth-century men — are called the three gems, but Abhinava Pampa also deserves a place beside them. Pampa's A di Purana is said to be ' unequalled in style among the Kanarese poets '. His Kanarese Mahabharata, called the Pampa Bhdrata, in which he identifies his own princely patron Arikesari with Arjuna, is also much admired. The fame of Ponna and Ranna rests in each case on a Kanarese Purana. Abhinava Pampa, who flourished about A. D. 1100, is also the author of a Purana, but it is his Pampa Ramayana that has brought him glory. It is a Jain recast of the ancient story. The whole atmosphere is Jain, and all the heroes are faithful to the Jain faith. We may also mention the Jlvaka-Chintamani} a Jain Tamil Kavya or romance in verse, written probably in the tenth century. 1 Barnett, BMCTB. 4. CHAPTER VII MUSLIM INFLUENCE A.D. 1350 TO 1800. §337. The new factor in the religion of India during these centuries is the influence of Islam. That influence seems to be scarcely traceable in the literature before 1400 ; but we choose 1350 as the opening year of the new period, because it is most probable "that further research will succeed in discerning its activities a good deal earlier. Islamic ideas* are not so gener- ally diffused- as the great elements which have hitherto formed the distinguishing features of our periods, but they seem to be of greater importance than any other force operative during these centuries. It was, in the first instance, through the teaching of Sufis that Islam found entrance to Hindu hearts. They fraternized with Hindu ascetics and gurus ; and each learned to respect the other's religious faith and life. But not until the last quarter of the fifteenth century did the movement show any notable force. Kablr was the man through whom the leading ideas were popularized. From his time the condemnation of idolatry and polytheism became frequent. But large sections of Hinduism show little or no reaction to the influence of Islam. Perhaps the extraordinary rise of the vernaculars from the fourteenth century onwards may be partly due to the serious weakening of Sanskrit scholarship consequent on the impover- ishment of Hinduism and the destruction of Hindu schools and monasteries by the invaders. Akbar, who had come to the throne in 1542, transformed the character of the empire by his policy of giving Hindus equal rights with Muslims and admitting them to the highest positions in the army and the administration. He thereby MUSLIM INFLUENCE 285 not only gave Hinduism freedom once more to raise its head, but greatly changed the feeling of Hindus towards the Empire. He had many Hindu works translated into Persian, and his great-grandson, Dara Shikoh, followed his example. i. Hinduism. A. The Philosophies. a. The Karma Mimamsa. § 338. From the very beginning of this period to the middle of the seventeenth century there was great activity in the Karma Mlmarhsa school. Three authors produced each a famous treatise, and a very large number of ancillary works appeared. The earliest, written during the first decades of our period, is Madhava's Jaiminiya-nyaya-mala-vistara, a full exposition of the system in verse, accompanied by a commentary in prose. Colebrooke says : It follows the order in Jaimini's text ; not by way of paraphrase, but as a summary (though the title rather implies amplification) of its purport, and of approved deductions from it ; sometimes explaining separately the doctrine of Bhatta and of Guru, under each head ; at other times that of the old scholiast ; but more commonly confined to that of Bhatta alone ; yet often furnishing more than one application to the same text, as Bhatta himself does. 1 This work has had a great vogue, partly because of its clearness, largely also because the verses could be easily committed to memory. The author and his brother Sayana were closely connected with the court of Vijayanagara and with Sankara's monastery at Sringerl. They are amongst the most illustrious of Hindu scholars. Apa Deva 2 wrote, about A.D. 1630, an elementary manual, the Mimamsa-nyaya-prakasa, which is usually called the Apadevl and has been much studied, because it is easy. Then Khandadeva (died 1665) produced the 1 ME. I. 300. 2 His son, Ananta Deva, author of the Smriti Kaustubha, wrote at the command of Baz Bahadur Chandra of Kumaon, who died in 1678. Duff, CI. 281. a86 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Bhattadipika, which has won itself an honoured place because of its brilliant logical reasoning. Appaya Dlkshita 1 (155a- 1634) has a treatise in verse on the Mimamsa which was much talked of in its day, the Vidhi-rasayana : in it he attacks Kumarila. The Mimarhsa has been atheistic, in the sense of not recog- nizing the Supreme, throughout its history ; yet that has never hindered Smartas, who almost to the last man recognize the Brahman of the Upanishads, from making full use of the system. Vedahta-Desika 2 in his Sesvara Mimamsa main- tains that Kumarila acknowledged the existence of God, and other writers have argued that the acknowledgement of God is quite consistent with its principles. b. The Vedanta. § 339. During this period an immense number of treatises were written on the advaita Vedanta, commentaries, super- commentaries, summaries in prose and verse, and partial expositions. Here we note only a few of the more noteworthy manuals. At the beginning of the period there appeared the Paiichadasl by Bharatltirtha and Madhava, an independent exposition in verse of the whole system running to fifteen chapters, as the name implies. It betrays the tendency, which went further later on, to bring into the Vedanta ideas belonging to the other systems, especially the Sankhya. In the fifteenth century, Advaitananda wrote the Brahma-vidyabharana, a prose commentary on Sankara's Bhashya which Colebrooke found useful. His disciple Sadananda is the author of a brief outline of the Advaita in prose called the Vedanta-sara, which forms a useful introduction to the philosophy ; but the student must realize that contamination of the Vedanta from the Sankhya proceeds further in it than in earlier works. Madhu- sudana Sarasvati, a sannyasl of the Sarasvati order, flourished before A.D. 1550, and wrote a well-known work on the nature of release in the Advaita, the Vedanta-kalpalatika. He belongs 1 See § 354. 2 See § 381. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 287 to the group who believe that all the six systems of Hindu philosophy teach essentially the same doctrine. 1 Vijnana Bhikshu's Vijnanamrita is a dualist bhashya, an attempt to prove that the dualism of the Sahkhya can be established within the Vedanta. 2 § 340. Several fresh sectarian bhashyas were written during this period. The following table may be found useful : SECTARIAN BHASHYAS. Approx. Name of Philosophic date. Author. Sect. bhashya. Standpoint. 1085 Ramanuja SrI-Vaishnava Sri-bhdshya Visishtadvaita 1230 Madhva Madhva Siitra-bhashya Dvaita XIII VishnusvamI VishnusvamI Brahma-sutra- bhashya Dvaita XIII Srlnivasa Nimbarka Vedanta - kau- slubha Bhedabheda c. 1400 Srikantha Saiva S aiva-bhashya Visishtadvaita XVI Vallabha Vallabha- charya Anubhashya Suddhadvaita ? Srlpati Lihgayat Srikara-bhashya Sakti-visisht- advaita ? Suka Bhagavata Suka-bhashya Visishtadvaita XVIII Baladeva Chaitanya Govinda- bhashya Achintya- bhedabheda § 341. A scholar named Narayana, who, coming later than Sankarananda, the guru of Madhava, probably lived early in this period, wrote commentaries on many Upanishads, and gives a list of fifty-two Upanishads which is of considerable historical importance. The Muktika U. contains a list of 108 Upanishads of considerable interest. In the year 1656 Dara Shikoh, one of the sons of the Mugal Emperor Shah Jahan, gathered a number of pandits at Delhi and got them to translate fifty Upanishads into Persian. Anquetil Duperron, the French scholar who went to India to study Zoroastrianism in the latter part of the eighteenth century, obtained a copy of See § 346. 2 His position is explained in § 342. 388 MUSLIM INFLUENCE this work, and when he returned to Europe translated it word for word into Latin. This was the form in which the Vedanta first reached Europe. c. The Sankhya. § 34a. Throughout this period the Sahkhya Karika con- tinued to be much read ; for Madhavacharya's summary of Sankhya doctrine in his Sarva-darsana-sahgraha, written about A.D. 1380, is based on it ; and several commentaries on it and on Vachaspati's Sahkhya-tattva-kaumudl have been written. But there are two other expositions of Sankhya teaching which have also been largely used, the Sahkhya-sutras and the Tattva-samasa. The date and the author in each case are quite unknown. Max Mtiller thought that the Tattva- samasa was older than the Karika ; but scholars of to-day do not follow him. Clearly, it is much more likely that these two are comparatively late works ; for there is no clear reference to either before the fifteenth century. The Tattva-samasa represents a form of arrangement of the Sankhya principles considerably different from the form exhibited in the Karika. The Sahkhya-sutra gives a good deal of space to criticism of the other philosophical systems, including the Vedanta ; yet it makes a very great advance towards the Vedantic conception of God. Keith says 1 : The work makes remarkable efforts to prove that its views are in full accord with scripture, to which it attributes conclusive value, and endeavours to show as accordant with the Sarhkhya itself the statements in scripture regarding the personality of God, the unity of the absolute, the joy which is asserted to be part of the nature of the absolute, and the heavenly bliss acknowledged in the Vedanta as a step on the way to final release. Indeed the text goes so far as to hold that obedience to the traditional rules of action has a good effect towards securing final re- lease, and to talk of the attainment of the nature of the absolute. The Sutra thus approaches the doctrine, which became very popular during this period, that all the six Hindu systems can 1 SS. 94. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 289 be shown to be in harmony with each other. There are other developments of doctrine of less interest. 1 In the middle of the sixteenth century there lived in the vicinity of Benares a Sankhya sannyasl named Vijnana Bhikshu who carried this movement a little farther. His fundamental conceptions seem to havebeen those of the ancient theistic system called Sahkhya- yoga. In any case he was a Sankhya dualist, and yet a theist, conceiving God not as the universal spirit, but as a special soul, perfect and ever free. He wrote a bhashya on the Sankhya Sutra, the Sahkhya-pravachana-bhashya. In it he gives expression to the conviction that all the six systems are authoritative, in spite of their differences. Sankhya sannyasis are now,so rare that it is of interest to know that, as late as 1 9 1 2, a learned Sankhya yati named S vaml Hariharananda was alive and teaching in Calcutta. 2 d. The Yoga. §343. Three useful works on Yoga produced during this period may be mentioned. Madhava's chapter on the subject in his Sarvadarsanasahgrahaic. A.D. 1 380), Vijnana Bhikshu's Yogasarasahgraha (mid. sixteenth century), and Ramananda Sarasvatl's commentary on the Yoga-sutra, called Maniprabha, written about A.D. 1600. x Yogis of this great old school have become very rare. I have never had the good fortune to meet one. e. The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya. § 344. The work of the combined school of Vaiseshika and Nyaya was vigorously pursued by Annam Bhatta and Visva- natha Pafichanana, who were Vaiseshikas, and by Jagadlsa and Laugakshi Bhaskara, who were Naiyayikas. All four lived somewhere about 1600. The Bengali school of New Logic started with Vasudeva Sarvabhauma, 3 who taught at Nuddea from 1470 to 1480, but was brought to full intellectual free- 1 See the fine analysis in Keith, SS. 92 ff. 2 Chatterji, HR. xiv. ? Sen, CC. 80 ff. Sarvabhauma became an enthusiastic follower of Chaitanya. U 390 MUSLIM INFLUENCE dom by his pupil, Raghunatha Siromani. There was a long succession of teachers thereafter down to the end of the seventeenth century. 1 § 345. The most famous of the numerous critical summaries of philosophical systems written in India saw the light about A.D. 1380, the Sarvadarsanasahgraha of Madhava. Sixteen systems are sketched, arranged so as to form a gradually ascending series. First come the materialistic Charvakas, the Buddhists and the Jains, then six of the sectarian theologies,- and finally the Hindu philosophies, 2 the. whole series culmina- ting in the Vedanta. 3 B. Reconciliation of Systems. § 346. We noticed above 4 the statement made in the Prabodhachandrodaya that the six systems of Hindu philo- sophy are not mutually exclusive systems but that they all celebrate from various points of view the same^ glorious and uncreated God. Vijnana Bhikshu, 3 the sixteenth-century Sankhya sannyasi, who is a theist, acknowledges that the Sankhya system and the Karma Mimamsa are atheistic, yet he holds that all the systems are authoritative, and reconciles them by distinguishing between essential and practical truths, the latter being false or imperfect theories inculcated with a view to some practical end, and therefore to be neglected in a general survey. Similarly, Madhusudana SarasvatI 6 wrote rather later : The ultimate scope of all the Munis, authors of these different systems, is to support the theory of illusion, and their only design 1 See a full statement by Manamohan Chakravarti mJASB. Sept. 1915, pp. 259 ff. 2 These are seven instead of six, because Panini's grammatical teaching is included, on account of his theory of the eternity of sound. 3 In the vulgate text of the work there is no essay on the Vedanta, the explanation probably being that readers were expected to turn to the Panchadah. Recently, however, a text was published in Poona on the basis of a manuscript discovered in Tanjore, in which an essay on the Vedanta completes the work. Is this essay genuine? ' 4 In § 270. s See § 342. 8 Prasthanabheda : Muir, OST. IV. 102. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 291 is to establish the existence- of one Supreme God, the sole essence ; for these Munis could not be mistaken since they were omniscient. But as they saw that men, addicted to the pursuit of external objects, could not all at once penetrate into the highest truths, they held out to them a variety of theories, in order that they might not fall into atheism. Misunderstanding the object which the Munis thus had in view, and representing that they even designed to propound doctrines contrary to the Vedas, men have come to regard the specific doctrines of these several schools with preference, and thus become adherents of a variety of systems. § 347. Most modern Hindu scholars occupy a similar stand- point. Mr. J. C. Chatterji's statement 1 may be taken as representative. The Nyaya, Vaiseshika, and Karma Mimarhsa systems are all realistic ; the Sankhya and the Yoga are dualistic ; the Vedanta monistic. From this he proceeds : Thus, in reality, there are only three metaphysical systems of the Hindus. These systems again are not considered as mutually contra- dictory. They are regarded as forming a graduated series in which the three systems form, as it were, three great standards, suited to different types or grades of minds — different intellectual (and only intellectual) capacities and temperaments. § 348. The position of Kabir, 2 and all his school, seems at the first glance to be still wider ; for in him there is a recon- ciliation of Islam and Hinduism ; but the truth in it is far simpler, surer, and more practical. For the reconciliation is between one school of Islam and one school of Hinduism, the latter already seriously modified by the laying aside of idolatry. § 349. But the boldest of all is Akbar's Divine Faith, the Din Ildki, 3 which was meant to sum up all religions, a creation which died with its own imperial creator. A little later, Hindu pandits at the court of Aurungzebe suggested to Bernier 4 the idea that there might be many true religions, all proceeding from the one God. § 350. Early in the eighteenth century, Prannath taught, at 1 HR. 5. 2 See § 396. 3 V. A. Smith, Akbar, 209 ff. 4 Travels, 328. U 2 29a MUSLIM INFLUENCE Panna in Bandelkhand, that all the religions of India were reconciled in his own person, since he was at once the Christian Messiah, the Mohammedan Mahdi, and the Nishkalahkavatara, ' the stainless incarnation ', of the Hindus, and expressed the dogma in his Kulljama Saheb} C. The Hindu People. § 351. The Hindu people are still roughly divisible into the three old groups. There is first the mass of the common people, caste or outcaste, who belong to no sect, but acknow- ledge all the gods and worship whichever they think is likely to help at the moment. There come next the orthodox twice-born men, who acknowledge all the gods and worship them with Vedic rites, and in addition hold some religious philosophy, either monistic or theistic. The third group are the Sectarians. Each sect holds a theistic theology, worships its own god as the personal Supreme, and identifies him with the Brahman of the Upanishads. Groups of the uncultured common people may be found here and there, especially in the south, who cling intelligently to a sectarian theology and cult. As will be evident from our survey, Hinduism produced a long series of great sects from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. From about 1550, however, the effort rapidly weakened and died away. One of the most noteworthy facts in the history of the religion since 1700 is the steady persistent decay of the sects 2 all over North India and also in wide regions farther south. Multitudes have drifted back to undifferenced polytheism, carrying with them the merest shreds of the old thought. Uneducated pujdrts 3 with their numerous images and mongrel ritual strengthen the reactionary movement. This fact makes fruitful research exceedingly difficult over wide areas. 1 Wilson, 3 1 5 f . ; Griswold, Forman Christian College Magazine, July and Nov. 1905; Growse, M. 230 ff. ; JASB. XLV1II. 171; Russell, TCCP. 216 ff. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Khan of Qadian is an exact modern parallel : see Walter's Ahamadiya Movement, Calcutta, 1918. 2 See Chanda's statement, JAR. 143 ff. s I.e. temple-ministrants. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 393 D. Smart a Literature. § 35 2 - The orthodox twice-born fall into two groups. The first, the Srautas, who still perform some of the ancient Srauta sacrifices, are so few in most parts of India that they are seldom distinguished from the much larger group, the Smdrtas, who content themselves with the worship of the five gods and the observance of the Sandhya, i. e. the daily prayers. In South India and in Gujarat the" word Smarta connotes, in addition, allegiance to Sankara's Vedanta ; but in North India the Smarta is free in philosophy. He may follow Sankara ; he may accept the Nyaya system ; or he may find satisfaction in an attempt to blend Ramanuja's theism with the strength and simplicity of Sankara's thought. The worship of the five gods in Panchayatana Puja is observed at home. 1 Images, or stone and metal symbols, 2 or diagrams, or earthen- ware pots, may be used to represent the divinities. The image or symbol of the god whom the worshipper prefers is placed in the centre, and the other four are so set as to form a square around the central figure. 3 § 353. Hindu temples are supposed to fall into two classes, Smarta and Sectarian. In a Smarta temple, whether it is dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, Ganesa, or some other god, the ritual and liturgy ought to be Vedic, and the five gods ought to be worshipped. In sectarian temples, the ritual and liturgy ought to be Tantric (i. e. based on the Sarhhitas in a Vishnava temple, on the Agamas in a Saiva temple, and on 1 In Gujarat and in the Tamil country Smartas may be found who no longer worship the five : they worship Siva and reverence the others. 2 The more usual symbols are : Vishnu, the Salagrama pebble ; £iva, the Narmadesvara pebble ; the Devi, a piece of metal, or the Svarnarekha stone found in a river in South India; Surya, a round piece of Suryakanta, i. e. sun-stone, or of sphatika, i. e. crystal ; Ganesa, the Svarnabhadra, a red slab from a stream near Arrah. 8 A Smarta Brahman one day invited me to have a look at his domestic chapel. It was a very small room. The sacred place was about two and a half feet square, and was sunk some six inches below the main level. In the centre of this little quadrangle stood_ the linga, while an image stood in each of the corners, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, and Ganesa. 394 MUSLIM INFLUENCE the Tantras in a Sakta temple), and the chief deity ought to be some form of the god of the sect, even if other divinities are also recognized. As a matter of fact, in the north, com- paratively few pure Smarta temples are to be found x ; and, while in the south and west sectarian temples are managed with a good deal of strictness, in the north laxity is wide- spread. Pujaris are usually men of little education, and they very naturally tend to introduce images of popular gods in addition to the divinity of the temple, and to follow their own whims in matters of ritual. In most Saiva temples in North India a Smarta Brahman can go forward to the linga and perform his own worship in accordance with the directions of the Grihya-sutra of his own charana. The pujari of the temple conducts the puja of sixteen operations (shodasa upachard) at certain- fixed times, but the Smarta Brahman's worship is quite independent. In South India this personal worship in the temple is not permitted. In many Saiva temples in the north, all worshippers, including women, are allowed to approach the linga, place a few iilva leaves upon it, and pour some Ganges water over it, while they mutter their mantras or prayers. Most Smartas give their preference to Siva, but others are Vaishnava or Sakta in their leanings, and in earlier times, doubtless, many, like Raja Birbal, 2 were Sauras. § 354. The first fifty years of the period are memorable for the brilliant Vedic and philosophic work done by the brothers, Madhava and Sayana. Madhava's three books, the Nyaya- 1 A temple may be found here and there in which the five gods are arranged according to rule. Thus in the Vallabhacharya temple in Udaipur the main temple is the shrine of Krishna, while £iva has a small shrjne in the NE. corner, Durga in the N W., Surya in the SW., and Ganesa in the SE. In £aiva temples in Gujarat one frequently finds, in addition to the linga, images of the Devi and of Ganesa, while Vishnu is represented by a tortoise, and Surya is not pictured, because he is visible in the sky. There is usually an image of Hanuman also. Frequently there is no separate image of the Devi : she is represented by a snake coiled round the lower half of the linga. This is the concept of Kundalinl from Sakta Yoga : see § 232, and cf. Krishna Sastri, SIX. 185, n. 1. 2 V. A. Smith, Akbar, 165. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 395 mala-vistara on the Mimarhsa, the Panchadasl on the Vedanta, and the Sarvadarsanasahgraka, a review of philosophic systems, have been dealt with above under the philosophies ; but the style as well as the subject would inevitably make each a work of very great interest to thinking Smartas. The works of Sayana (died 1387), on the other hand, deal directly with the literature on which the orthodox twice-born depend. A series of valuable commentaries on the Rigveda, the Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka, and on the Taittirlya Samhita, Brahmana, and Aranyaka of the Black Yajurveda were written in whole or in part by Sayana. They have been of large service to Hindu scholars ever since, and European scholarship owes them a great debt. The Prasthdnabheda of Madhusudana Sarasvati, who has been already mentioned, is interesting as showing the orthodox method of regarding the various philosophies and sectarian systems with their literature. The title of the work means ' Varieties of the Ways ', i.e. to God. In Bengal Raghunandana Bhattacharya (c. a.d. 1500) dealt fully with the detailed religious duty of the Hindu in his Ashtavimsati Tattva, a work greatly treasured by the orthodox. Appaya Dikshita, 1552-1624, one of the most famous Smarta scholars of the time, produced a large number of books on very varied subjects. Amongst his religious works is the Sivarkamanidipika, a Sanskrit commentary on Sri- kantha's Saiva-bhashya, which has been much used. 1 In his later years he followed the right-hand practice of Saktism. 2 One very practical type of Smarta literature consists of manuals, usually called prakarana-granthas, written for the purpose of applying Mimarhsa principles to the ceremonies enjoined in smriti books, and forming an offshoot from the Mlmamsa proper. One of the earliest and chief of these is the Smriti-Kaustubha, written by Ananta-deva, son of the author 1 See § 424. s See § 270 and § 317. 296 MUSLIM INFLUENCE of the Apadevl} They may be found in local forms in all parts of the country. Mukundaraj is the author of an exposition of the Vedanta in Marathi verse called the Vivekasindhu, which is much admired. It has been referred to the reign of Jaitrapal, King of Devagiri in the Maratha country at the end of the twelfth century, and has therefore been called the earliest piece of Marathi literature, but the character of the language scarcely bears out the claim. It does not seem to be nearly so ancient as the language of the Jnanesvart? Further, Mahipati, who wrote lives of many of the Marathi poets, makes him a contemporary of Tukaram. His date is thus quite uncertain. The Yoga-Vasishtha-Ramayana, discussed above, 3 was widely used. It is mentioned and quoted by Bharatltirtha and Madhava in the Panchadasi ; and thejiiand- Vasishtham, an adaptation in Tamil verse by Alavantar Madavappattar, appeared about A.D. 1600. E. Vaishnava Literature. a. General. § 355- The most prominent type of general Vaishnava literature produced during the period consists of free renderings and adaptations of the Epics and the Puranas in the ver- naculars. The Mahabharata appeared in a Bengali dress in the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Tamil in the fifteenth, in Kanarese about 1,500, and in Hindi in the nineteenth century. The Ramayana was produced in Bengali in the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Malayalim in the fifteenth, in Kanarese in the sixteenth, in Hindi in the seventeenth, and in Oriya at a later date. Three Vaishnava Puranas, the Vishnu, Varaka, and Padma, were translated into Telugu in the fifteenth century. It would be unwise to lay much religious stress on these versions. The bulk of serious Vaishnava literature arose in the sub-sects. 1 See § 338. 2 See § 278. s § 270. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 397 b. Bhdgavata. 1. The Bhdgavata Community. §356. Probably about A.D. 1400, Sridhara Svaml, Mahant of the Sankarite monastery, Govardhana, in Purl, wrote a commentary on the Bhdgavata P., the Bhdgavata Bhdvdrtha Dlpikd, which is by far the most famous exposition of the work. He was clearly an excellent scholar, and he must have had access to a very trustworthy tradition. He begins his commentary with the distinct statement that the great Purana was not written by Vopadeva. The fact that this theory was already current proves that Sridhara wrote at a time considerably later than A.D. 1300, when Vopadeva flourished. As the commentary was well known everywhere by the end of the fifteenth century, Srldhara's floruit may reasonably be placed about A.D. 1400. His interpretation of the Purana is advaitist, since he was a follower of Sankara ; and since the Bhdgavata itself tends to be monist, his Dlpikd is usually regarded as most authoritative. The Purana was translated into many languages, either completely or partially, during the period. It appeared in Telugu and Bengali in the fifteenth century, in Braj and Persian in the sixteenth, in Marathi and Kanarese about A.D. 1600, in Gujaratl and Malayalim in the seventeenth century, and in Hindi in the nineteenth. A sectarian bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras, which is called the Sttka Bhashya, and which purports to be a Bhagavata work, seems to have been written late in this period. Its standpoint is Visishtadvaita, and the texts used to establish the teaching of the bhashya are drawn from the Bhdgavata P., Upanishad texts being cited only as subsidiary evidence. The author is called Sukacharya, and is said to have been the founder of the Bhagavata monastery at Talkad in Mysore, but the work is probably pseudonymous. It is a suspicious circumstance that a Bhagavata bhashya should be not advaita but visishtadvaita. Further, no Sukacharya appears in the 298 MUSLIM INFLUENCE guruparampara of Talkad, nor yet among the gurus of the Matha of Mulubazil, the only other Bhagavata monastery in Mysore, while the authorities of both monasteries refuse to recognize the Suka Bhdshya as a Bhagavata work. 1 The Bhagavatas, being both Smartas and devotees of Vishnu, occupied from the first rather an unstable position between the orthodox and the sects, and their acceptance of the Bhagavata P. deepened the difficulty for them. The results are visible in their history. In the Mysore and the Tamil south they are a scattered community possessing very few temples of their own and only a few monasteries. They worship in Sn-Vaishnava temples but distinguish themselves from Sn-Vaishnavas by wearing the ancient sect-mark, a single upright line of cream-coloured goplchandana, 2 and by using the Bhagavata mantra. 3 Occasionally individual Bhagavatas pass over to the Sri-Vaishnava community. In the Kanarese country on the western coast they still maintain themselves, although greatly outnumbered by Madhvas, and have a number of temples. Throughout these wide areas they still venerate Siva as well as Vishnu, observe Vedic rites, and are recognized as Smartas. They recognize no commentary on the Bhagavata except Srldhara's. All the other sects dependent on the Bhagavata P. have experienced the same difficulty of maintaining the Vedic position, and most are in consequence now frankly sectarian. 1. Maratha Bhaktas. §357. There seems to have been an interval of quite a century after Jnanesvara before another star of any magnitude arose among the Maratha Bhagavatas. The next notable singer is Namdeva. There is a local tradition to the effect 1 I am deeply indebted to Mr. R. Narasimhachar, Director of Archaeo- logical Research in Mysore, who, at my request, wrote to Talkad for information with regard to the age of the bhashya, and elicited the facts stated in this sentence. 2 See § 277. s See § 161. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 299 that he and Jnanesvara met at least once, while in the Bhakta- mala they are regarded as master and disciple. In conse- quence of this Namdeva has usually been placed at the end of the thirteenth, and the beginning of the fourteenth, century ; but his Marathi is of such a character that Sir Ramakrishna Bhandarkar is inclined to date him a century later. 1 Now, a number of his hymns occur in the Sikh Granth, and he is regarded as one of a few bhaktas who, coming just before Ramananda, prepared the way for him. There seems to be sufficient evidence to show that Ramananda nourished in the second and third quarters of the fifteenth century ; so that "Na.mdeva.'s floruit would be somewhere about 1400 to 1430. Mr. Balesvar Prasad, who is a most careful student of Hindi literature, gives 2 A.D. 1423 as his floruit, which agrees per- fectly with the above reasoning and with Sir Ramakrishna's conjecture. This chronology is finally established by one of Namdeva's own abhahgs, 'Gone are the saints', 3 which makes it absolutely clear that Jnanesvara and his saintly companions lived long before him. He was a tailor, shimpi, by birth and occupation, but he spent his life propagating bhakti in the Maratha country and in the Punjab. In his verse the influence, of Islam first appears in the Maratha country. He and those who followed him criticized idolatry with some severity but continued the use of idols. A large body of Marathi hymns are attributed to him, and a con- siderable number of Hindi hymns appear under his name in the Granth, the whole forming a mass of verse of very high quality. A careful comparison of the two groups would probably throw further light on the man and his life. He was influential in the Punjab as well as in the Maratha country, as is proved by his hymns in the Granth and by a shrine dedicated to his memory and still in use at Ghuman in the Gurdaspur district. 4 Another Maratha singer, Trilochan 1 V s. 92 . l SBS. II. 26. 3 Macnicol, PMS. 41. " Macauliffe, VI. 39. 300 MUSLIM INFLUENCE by name, seems to have been a contemporary of Namdeva, but very little is known about him. Three of his Hindi hymns appear in the Granth, but his Marathi hymns, and even his memory, seem to be lost in his native land. The next leader of eminence among the Maratha bhaktas is Eknath (died 1608), who was a Brahman and lived at Paithan. He is said to have spoken and acted in opposition to caste, and to have suffered for his zeal. But he has been most influential through his Marathi verse translations from the Bhagavata P. 1 He left also a collection of twenty-six abhangs called Haripath. In philosophy he was a monist, like Mukundaraj and JfianesVara. Tukaram (1608-49) was a petty shopkeeper. He is passionately devoted to Vithoba, and his personal religious life is reflected with great vividness in his moving lines — his longing for God, his humility, his sense of unworthiness, his boundless need, his trust in God, and his appeals and prayers for help. It is his own religious life that occupies his soul ; as in most forms of Hinduism, there are but few traces of the passion for winning others. His worship centres in the image of his god. He is conscious of Vithoba s omnipresence, and his spirituality, and yet somehow the invisible God is identified with the adored image before which the worshipper bends. His hymns are of a very high order, and are probably the largest religious influence in the Maratha country. There is scarcely a theological or philosophical system to be found in his writings, but so far as philosophical thinking may be traced, he tends to be a monist. Sivajl, the man who welded the Maratha race into a strong people, rose to prominence in the last few years of Tukaram 's life, and he sent some of his councillors to beg him to come to court, but Tukaram sent him a few stanzas instead. Narayana (1608-81), who later took the name of Ram Das, probably under the influence of the Ramanandl move- ment, was also a poet, but his verse has not laid hold of the 1 farts of these are sung in Sanklrtan in the temple at Pandharpur. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 301 people in the same way as Tukaram's. Yet he exerted great personal influence over Sivaji from 1650 onwards. His poem, Dasabodha, contains much shrewd wisdom, but it is philo- sophical rather than religious. A small sect, the Ram-dasis, still perpetuate his name, wear a sect-mark, and use a secret mantra of their own. The head-quarters are at Sajjangarh, near Satara, where there is the Samadh of Ram Das, a temple to Ram Chandra, and a Ram-dasi monastery. There are many sadhus belonging to the sect. A Brahman poet, named Sridhara, rose to great fame and popularity during the first quarter of the eighteenth century. His leading works present in stirring Marathi verse the great stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. His influence is not directly religious, except in so far as the stories he reproduces have a religious character. Mahipati, who flourished later in the same century, gave his strength to writing the lives of devotees and saints. § 358. The Bhagavatas of the Maratha country to-day form a popular bhakti movement, the literature of which, apart from the Bhagavata P- itself and Sridhara's commentary, is all in the vernacular. The god is Vitthal or Vithoba ; both these names are merely local variations of Vishnu. The chief centres are Pandharpur, Alandi, and Dehu, but there are numerous shrines throughout the country. In the chief temple of Pandharpur Vitthal wears a curious sort of crown, which the priests say is Siva's lihga ; so that the image, standing for both gods, is truly Bhagavata. Vitthal has several consorts installed near him, each in a separate shrine, Rakmabai (i.e. RukminI), Radha, Satyabhama, and Lakshml; but it is noteworthy that Radha takes no place in Marathi literature. Mahadeva, Ganapati, and Surya are also installed ; so that, taking Lakshml as devl, the five gods are still wor- shipped there. No Outcaste is admitted to Bhagavata temples in Maharashtra. Namdeva's head, represented in brass, is placed on the lowest step of the stair which leads up to the gate of the temple; and the shrine of an Outcaste named 3oa MUSLIM INFLUENCE Chokamela 1 is on the opposite side of the street. Monthly and annual pilgrimages are made to the chief sacred places. The pilgrims are called Warkaris. Those who have made the pilgrimage a number of times are allowed to carry a red banner. As they march along, they shout 'Dynanoba, Tukaram ', and sing Abhangs. There are also hired singers called Haridasis, who sing MarathI Abhangs and portions of Eknath's translations from the Bhagavata in the temple of Pandharpur. One of the best institutions of the movement is called Harikatha, a sort of sermon in song which the leader opens by shouting aloud several times, Jai Rama-Krishna Hari. He then sings a number of hymns and other texts in verse, expounding each in prose. This method of mingled song and exhortation is found in the south also, where the singer is called Bhagavata and the musical sermon is called Kalakshepam. § 359. The bhakti movement in Gujarat remains Smarta in general character to the present day. The two chief temples are dedicated to Ranachor Rai, i.e. the king who left the fight, an allusion to the occasion on which, according to the mythology, Krishna left Mathura and came to Dwarka. These two great shrines are at Dwarka and at Daker near Ahmadabad. In both the ritual is still conducted in accordance with Vedic rules. 3. The Madhvas. § 360. The history of the Madhva sect during this period is not yet known ; so that all we can do is to give some account of the literature, so far as scholars have dealt with it. A Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl, who belonged to Tirhut and probably lived in the second half of the fourteenth century, made a selection of the finest utterances on bhakti in the Bhagavata, and arranged them according to subject in thirteen groups. He called each of these collections a string of gems, and named the whole Bhaktiratnavali, or ' Necklace 1 He was a Mahar. His poetry survives, and parts of it are very fine. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 303 of Bhakti Gems ', the best introduction to Bhagavata bhakti. It was translated into Bengali by Lauriya Krishna Dasa early in the fifteenth century. It was a later Madhva ascetic, Isvara Purl, who won Chaitanya 1 to the faith. The new leader amgly repaid the Madhva community for this service. During his southern tour, 1509-1 e, he stimulated Madhvas by his preaching and his enthusiastic singing. It is probable, indeed, that it was he that started Sankirtan and Nagarklrtan in the sect ; for there seems to have been little emotional singing before his day. In any case the first great outburst of Kanarese hymn- writing among Madhvas came shortly after his visit. The chief singer was Purarhdar Das, but there were many others. One of the most noted Madhva scholars, Sri Vyasa Raja, was a contemporary of Chaitanya. He lived in the south and wrote a number of works which are still much used. In the eighteenth century another group of enthusiastic bhaktas produced Kanarese hymns in praise of Krishna. The chief writers were Timmappa Das and Madhva Das. About the same time lived Chidananda whose Kanarese work Haribhakti-rasayana, the ' Sweets of Devotion to Krishna ', is well known. The Harikalhasara, a clear account of Madhva doctrine in Kanarese prose, the date of which I do not know, is a very popular book. There are also many Kanarese translations of Sanskrit works. They are almost without exception Vaishnava, and many of them are probably the work of Madhvas, but they are rather entertaining poems than religious books. Yet they must have helped the Madhva cause. Between 1508 and 1530 the Mahabharata was rendered into Kanarese by a number of writers, and about 159.0 the Ramayana was trans- lated by a poet who called himself the younger Valmlki, Kumara Valmlki. The Bhagavata P. was translated about the same time, and rather later a special translation of the tenth book, known as Krishna Lilabhyudaya, was written by 1 See § 364. 304 MUSLIM INFLUENCE a Madhva named Venkaya Arya. Th&Jaimini Bharata by Lakshmlsa Devapura, the date of which is 1760, is a descrip- tion of the wanderings of the horse for Yuddhishthira's horse- sacrifice, but the aim in view is the praise of Krishna. Madhva ascetics are sannyasls belonging to Sankara's Dasnamls. Madhva himself and his chief disciples belonged to the Tlrtha order, but in the later history many were Purls or Bharatis. 4. The Vishnusvamis. § 361. The history of the VishnusvamI sect is very obscure throughout this period. Since the seventeenth century they have been very weak ; and the absence of a strong tradition is sufficient to account for the lack of information. Bilvamangala, a VishnusvamI ascetic, is remembered because of his Krishnakarnamrita, a Sanskrit poem on Krishna and Radha which has been much admired. There are stories which connect him with Calicut and with the foundation of the temple of Padmanabha at Trivandram, Travancore. He probably lived early in the fifteenth century. Another scholar belonging to the sect, Varadaraja by name, wrote a tika on the Bhagavata P. A manuscript of it, about 200 years old, lies in the library of the Sanskrit College, Benares, but it has not been examined. The date of the writer is unknown. The rise of the Chaitanya and Vallabha 1 sects at the beginning of the sixteenth century bore very heavily upon the Vishnusvamis and the Nimbarkas ; and the Vishnusvamis were in the long run almost completely absorbed by the Vallabhas. The sect is now extremely small. At the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in Fehruary, 1918, I met some half a dozen VishnusvamI ascetics. They wore the old sect-mark on their foreheads, and talked freely about the sect. Two monasteries, they averred, still survive, one at Kankraoli near Udaipur in Rajputana and one at Kamban near Bhurtpore in 1 See § 364 and § 372. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 395 the U. P. They also say that Vishnusvaml's Bhagavata- bhdshya still survives, and that a copy lies in each monastery. They use'two books, the Vishnu-rahasya and the Tattvatraya, which they ascribe to Vishnusvami. 5. The Nimbarkas. § 363. The history of the Nimbarkas from 1350 to 1500 is unknown, but a reorganization of the sect appears to have been carried out about A.D. 1500, whereby the householders of the community were placed under one pontiff and the sannyasis under another. The succession in each case seems to have been faithfully kept up until to-day. The first pair of leaders, Ke^ava Kashmiri, the head of the lay division, and his brother-in-law, Harivyasa Muni, head of the ascetics, were contemporaries of Chaitanya and Vallabha. Ke^ava Kashmiri was a well-known scholar and commentator. His Krama- dlpikd, a manual of the ritual, consists in the main of extracts from the Gautawdya S. The Nimbarkas practise a very quiet type of Sahklrtan, the hymns for which were written by Harivyasa Muni and Sri Bhatt, who lived about the same time. It is probable that the Sanklrtan was suggested by the practice of the Chaitanyas. 1 The two chief centres of the Nimbarka sect to-day are Salimabad, south of Ajmere, and Brindaban. The succession of the pontiffs in each case has been preserved, 2 but not much is known about the history. They have suffered from the competition of the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas, like the Vishnusvamis, but not to the same extent. They still possess a number of temples at Brindaban and elsewhere. 6. Radha-Krishna Literary Verse. § 363. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a great deal of Radha-Krishna literature was written in North India. Chandi-Das, who belonged to Jayadeva's district of Bengal and 1 I owe many of these facts about the Nimbarka sect to Mr. Radha. Charana GoswamI, Honorary Magistrate, Brindaban. 2 Growse, M. 147 ; Bhandarkar, VS. 62. X 3 o6 MUSLIM INFLUENCE flourished about 1380 to 1420, though a Sakta, 1 wrote Radha- Krishna hymns of great power in Bengali ; and Vidyapati, who belonged to Tirhut, and used Maithill, the dialect of that part of India, produced in the middle of the fifteenth century Radha-Krishna lyrics which not only pleased his own people, but captured the heart of Bengal when re-expressed in Bengali. It seems most likely that Umapati Dhara also, whose Krishnaite songs in Maithill and Bengali have recently been made known, belonged to Tirhut and was a contemporary of Vidyapati. Narsing Mehta, a Brahman belonging to Junagadh in Kathiawar and a famous GujaratI poet, wrote many Radha-Krishna lyrics which are very popular, but are also rather erotic. His flowering time may be placed at 1450-80. Mlra. Bal, a princess of the house of Merta in Jodhpur, became the wife of the heir-apparent to the Mewar throne, but he died before the assassination of his father, the great Kumbha Rana, in 1469. 2 Left a widow, and rather un- graciously treated by her brother-in-law, who had succeeded to the throne, she left Chittore and became a disciple of Rai Das, 3 the Ramanandl, and then a devotee of Krishna. Her Radha- Krishna lyrics in Braj are very-famous but rather disappoint- ing. There are also numerous songs in GujaratI attributed to her, some of them containing an erotic element. The two groups require to be critically examined together. It is not known whether any of these poets belonged to the Vishnu- svami or the Nimbarka sect. As Chandi Das was a Sakta, the others also may have written Krishnaite verse without belong- ing to any Krishnaite community. Yet this rich literature proves the vogue of the teaching of the two sects. 1 Hence his name, Servant of Chandi, the goddess. 2 My information comes from the palace records of the Mewar family. I am greatly indebted to my friend the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd of Udaipur for ascertaining the actual facts. Much legend has gathered round Mlra Bal's name. 3 She mentions him in three of her lyrics. See § 393. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 307 7. The Chaitanya Sect. § 364. Two new sects were founded at the opening of the sixteenth century, the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas. Val- labha was probably the earlier of the two, but we take Chaitanya first because his teaching and practice • stand in closer relation to the earlier sects. Visvambhara Misra (1485-1533) was born in Nuddea, in Bengal, and made himself a name as a student and teacher of logic and grammar while still young. In A. D. 1507 he was won to a serious life and the practice of the passionate bhakti of the Bhagavata P. by Isvara Pun, a Madhva sannyasi. He at once began to preach, and disciples and supporters gathered round him, notably Advaitacharya, an old and revered Vaishnava scholar, and Nityananda, who for many years had been a Madhva. But he came also under the influence of the Nimbarkas and the Vishnusvamis, and used with great delight the songs of Jayadeva, Chandl Das, and Vidyapati. He thus went beyond his Madhva teachers, and gave Radha a very prominent place in his thought and his worship. He spent a great deal of time singing Radha-Krishna hymns with his followers, rousing them to devotional excitement (sankir- tand). Frequently he led them out through the city in procession, dancing and singing with such fervour and con- tagious emotion as to carry the people away in devotional raptures (nagarkirtana). These new methods were destined to prove very fruitful. In 1509 he became initiated as a Bharati sannyasi by a Madhva,, Kesava Bharati, and took the name Krishna Chaitanya. . He then went to Purl in Orissa to the temple of Krishna (here called Jagannath, Lord of the World), but for some years he spent most of his time in long journeys in the south and in the north. He was already believed to be an avatara of Krishna by the people of Nuddea, and his cult had begun. From about 1516 he lived at Purl. His adherents increased rapidly from the time he became a sannyasi, notably x a 308 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Sarvabhauma, the greatest authority on logic of the day, Pratapa Rudra, the King of Orissa, and Ramananda Rai, Pratapa Rudra's Brahman minister. Rather later, he won two scholars who were destined to become the theologians of the faith. He gave them new names, Rupa and Sanatana, and sent them to Brindaban to seek out the old sacred sites (then lying desolate through Muslim fury) and produce a Sanskrit literature for the sect. Several of his disciples became accom- plished hymn-writers, especially Narahari Sarkar, Vasudeva Ghosh, and Varhsivadana. They wrote not only Radha- Krishna hymns but songs in praise of Chaitanya, called Gaur Chandrika ; for his beauty and fair complexion had brought him the name Gaur Chandra. He passed away in 1533- Chaitanya was neither an organizer nor a writer. He left the organization of the sect to Nityananda, while Rupa and Sanatana took up the task of expressing the theology. Nor can we be sure that he had a settled system in his mind ; though it was probably he that decided that the philosophic position of the sect should be the Bhedabheda of Nimbarka rather than the Dvaita of Madhva. His chief reading seems to have been the Bhagavata P. with Sridhara's commentary, the lyrics of Jayadeva, Vidyapati, and Chandl Das, the Brahma Samhita and the Krishnakarnamrita} His power over men came from the reality of his religious experience, from the overpowering emotions which he exhibited when gazing on a divine image or discoursing on Krishna and his love, and from the sincerity and contagious passion of his new modes of praise. He made the Radha-Krishna myth the basis of his teaching and worship, because, as he tells us himself, the Hindus had nothing else that could touch the hearts of men so power- fully. 2 In his hands the unpleasing tale was unquestionably used in masterly fashion for noble ends. 1 He brought manuscripts of the two last-mentioned works back with him from the south. 2 Sen, HBLL. 536. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 309 The historian of Bengali literature describes the Vaish- nava community in Bengal as utterly stunned and crushed by the passing of Chaitanya : From 1533 to 1590 1 the Vaisnava community of Bengal lay enervated by an overpowering feeling of forlornness. The sankirtana parties lost all heart, and their great music which had taken the country by surprise and flooded it with poetry, broke in the midst of their enthusiastic per- formances, and sounded no more on the banks of the Ganges. The companions of Chaitanya, mute and stricken with a sense of their great loss, one by one departed from the world ; and the history of this period shows no striking feature of the Vaisnava movement and no activity of any noteworthy nature. 2 But, though literature failed and music died away, the sect lived on. Nityananda continued to organize the community and give it rules of conduct ; and his son Virachandra carried on the work after his father's death, receiving as many as 2,500 Buddhist monks and nuns into the newascetic orders in one day. 3 § 365. Rupa and Sanatana and some others had been settled in Brindaban for some years before the death of Chaitanya, and the little community continued to grow. The leaders, six of the companions of the Master — Rupa, Sanatana, with their nephew Jiva, Raghunatha Das, Gopala Bha'tta, and Raghunatha Bhatta — were known as the six Gosvamls, a word which had come to mean authoritative religious leaders. These men preached, taught, and won converts, but their chief task was to form the theology and the ritual of the sect and to express both in dignified San- skrit literature. They wrote on bhakti, philosophy, and ritual, and produced commentaries, dramas, and lyrics, each work having a bearing on the faith, worship, or everyday life of the community. No Bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras was produced at this time, but Jlva's Satsandarbka, a philo- sophical and theological work of large compass, more than made up for the lack. The Hari-bhakti-vilasa on the ritual was composed by Sanatana, but was attributed to' Gopala 1 Probably a slip for 1570. a Sen, VLMS. 68. ° lb. 164. 3io MUSLIM INFLUENCE Bhatta. They sought out all the ancient sacred spots in and around Mathura and Brindaban, and described them in the Mathura = mahatmya, now a portion of the Varaha P., and in the Braj-bhakti-vilasa. It was they that established the pilgrimage round the sacred places of Mathura and Brinda- ban called the Ban-jatra. They also arranged and started the annual festival, the Ras = Ilia. § 366. An awakening in Bengal about 1570 led to the writing of five distinct works on Chaitanya's life within a very few years. Two of these were in Sanskrit, the others in Bengali. One of these was Kavikarnapura's Sanskrit drama, the Chaitanyachandrodaya, the title suggested by the Prabodhachandrodaya, the scenes taken from Chaitanya's life. Another was Vrindavana Dasa's Chaitanya Bhagavata, a beautiful life in Bengali verse. But much though the Gosvamis of Brindaban admired the Chaitanya Bhagavata, they desiderated a fuller and completer work. Accordingly, at their • request, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, in seven years of unremitting labour, produced the Chaitanya-charitamrita (158a), which is now the standard life of the leader. Mr. D. C. Sen calls it 'the most erudite and instructive work in Bengali about Chaitanya and his followers.' It is on the whole historical, yet there is a considerable admixture of legend. Many members of the sect commit the whole long poem to memory. § 367. It was a fortunate circumstance for the Gosvamis that the great Akbar mounted the Mogul throne during the earlier years of their residence at Brindaban ; for, through his religious tolerance, they were able not only to continue their religious and literary work without molestation but also to erect a series of magnificent temples in Brindaban. They received the large sums of money necessary for these beau- tiful works of art from certain Rajput princes and other wealthy men whose favour they had won. § 368. During the first forty years of the seventeenth century the Chaitanya movement produced in Bengali a MUSLIM INFLUENCE 311 group of brilliant hymn-writers. The greatest of the choir was Govinda Das, but Jiiana Das, Balarama Das, Jadunan- dana Das, and Raja Vlra Hamvira produced work of striking excellence also. At the beginning of the eighteenth century Baladeva wrote for the sect a bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras, calling it the Govinda-bhashya and giving its philosophic point of view the distinctive name ackintya-bkedabheda, thus confessing that the relation between God and the soul is in the last analysis inconceivable. § 369. Among the Chaitanyas, as in certain other sects, the rules of caste were relaxed in the matter of religious privileges. Any person could become a member of the community, share its worship, and read its books. There were a few of the ascetics who were ready to eat with faithful bhaktas, no matter what their caste was ; but there does not seem to be any evidence that Chaitanya ever broke his caste. Then, most of these breaches of caste-law soon passed away ; and the rules of marriage and of the priestly function of the Brahman were never disturbed. Only lineal descendants of the personal companions of Chaitanya l are recognized as Gosvamis. These rule the monasteries and control most of the temples. § 370. Chaitanya was a sannyasi of the Bharati order- of Sankara's Da£namis, and a few of his companions also accepted sannyasa, but Nityananda and Virachandra intro- duced the easier discipline of the modern sadhu, calling the ascetics Vairagis and Vairaginls, precisely as Ramananda did. These orders were soon flooded with thousands of con- verts from the degraded Sakta Buddhist orders, then 1 pass- ing through the last stage of decay in Bengal. The con- sequence was that great impurity prevailed, despite the fact that marriage was permitted. To this day these ascetic orders have a very bad reputation even among members of the sect. 1 There are a few exceptions to this rule, especially in Orissa. 312 MUSLIM INFLUENCE § 371. In the temples of the sect the chief images are Krishna and Radha, but Chaitanya with Advaita and Nitya- nanda are also installed in each temple. There are also a number of temples dedicated to Chaitanya himself. San- klrtana plays an important part in the worship. As in the sects of Tamil India, this vernacular psalmody is an extra which does not interfere with the ritual of the Sanskrit liturgy. The Kirtanlya or head-singer and his choir sit in the jagamohana, the section of the temple in front of the main shrine, and sing to the accompaniment of cymbals and drums ; and now and then there is dancing as well. It is the rule to sing one or more Gaur Chandrika as a sort of interpretative preparation for the Radha-Krishna hymns, a series of which is sung on each occasion. Sankirtan parties are now and then held in private houses also, and are kept up for many hours, hymns illustrative of many forms of religious emotion being rendered. A number of sects of rather doubtful teaching and morals claim some connexion with Chaitanya. The Kartabhajas, the Darbesh, and the Shains show the influence of Islam and are more or less respectable, but the Bauls and the Kishori- bhajas are ho better than the left-hand Saktas. 8. The Valldbhacharyas} § 372. Vallabha, or Vallabhacharya (1479-1531), a Brahman belonging to the Telugu country and a contem- porary of Chaitanya, 2 was born in Benares, the son of a member of the Vishnusvami sect. He received a Sanskrit education and wandered about for several years meeting scholars in disputation. Mention is specially made of his vanquishing Smarta scholars at the court of Krishnadeva of Vijayanagar (1509-29). The details of his life are by no 1 I have received much, help in the understanding of this community from Pandit Magan Lai Sastri of Broach and Poona, who is a sincere Vallabha and also a competent scholar. 2 But he was not his father-in-law : the two men had the same name, but that is all the basis the story has. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 313 means clear nor yet the influences that went to the making of his sect. His relation to the Vishnusvami sect especially requires to be cleared up. There need be no doubt, how- ever, about the teaching of the sect ; for there is abundance of literature ; but it waits to be studied. Vallabha called himself an incarnation of the god Agni. He acknowledged no human teacher but said he learnt his system direct from Krishna. Yet it seems absolutely clear that he took over from Nimbarka the theory of Krishna as the eternal Brahman, of Radha as his eternal spouse and of the highest heaven where they sport. He calls his philosophic system Suddhadvaita, i. e. pure monism, but his monism is certainly not so rigid as Sankara's. It is called pure monism in contrast with the ' impure ' monism of Sankara, whose system includes the doctrine of maya and does not lay stress on bhakti. Vallabha acknowledges that men of knowledge may rise to release by means of know- ledge, but his way is the way of bhakti. Bhakti is the means, but it is also the end ; for bhakti is higher than knowledge ; and the true bhakta will live and sport for ever with Krishna. According to Vallabha, bhakti is given by God : it comes by his grace. The word for grace in the system is pushti. This use of the word is founded on a passage in the Bhagavata P} I am assured that the word pushti is never used in the literature as a name for Vallabha practice. § 373- The following is an outline of the theology of the sect. Krishna, who is Brahman — reality, intelligence, joy — alone exists. From him there go out, as. sparks from fire, the material world, souls, and the antaryamin, or indwelling, god. In souls, which are atomic and identical with Brah- man, the balance of the three gunas being upset, the attri- bute of joy is concealed ; so that they are seen to possess only reality and intelligence as attributes. Released souls rise to Krishna's heaven, which is far above the heavens of Vishnu, Siva, and Brahma, and there, by the favour of 1 II. x. 4. The lild in Book VI is called Poshana. 314 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Krishna-Brahman, they attain to the pure condition of his divine nature. Krishna's heaven is called Vyapi-Vaikuntha, and in it is a heavenly Vrindavana and glorious forests. From Krishna's side springs Radha, and from the pores of the skin of Krishna and Radha come millions of gopas and gopls and also cattle and all the denizens of the woods. Krishna and Radha sport eternally in the celestial Vrindavana with their devotees. The loftiest aspiration of a Vallabha is to become a gopi and sport with Krishna in his heaven. The cult is called seva, service of Krishna. There are eight times of worship daily in each temple. 1 The mantra of the sect is Sri Krishna saranam mama. § 374- One extraordinary peculiarity of this sect is the position held in it by Vallabha's son Vitthalnatha and his descendants. No one can become a guru of the sect, or own one of the temples of the sect, except a descendant of Vitthalnatha in the male line. The pujarls in the temples are paid servants of the guru to whom the temple belongs. Along with this there goea the old Hindu doctrine that the guru is god. Since the faithful Vallabha who is devoted to Krishna ought to dedicate everything to Krishna, and since the guru is Krishna, the highest teaching of the sect leads the faithful bhakta to shower his wealth on his guru. This is the more significant since a large percentage of the rich business class of Western India belong to the sect. Origin- ally, the title given to gurus was acharyas, teachers, but when they became wealthy, they began to live as princes ; and since then they .have been called Maharajas. Each Maharaja lives in a house which is also a temple, and in it he has a reception-room next the room in which Krishna is worshipped. Since the guru is Krishna, he must be worshipped as Krishna. This worship is performed in the reception-room, and in many cases the worship of the guru is more elaborate and passionate than the worship of 1 Wilson, Works, I. 126 ff. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 315 the god. The ritual and the liturgy remind the worshippers of the story of the gopls; and, whether they be men or women, they look forward to becoming gopls and sporting with Krishna in Goloka. In worshipping the Maharaja, women shower their devotion upon him as being actually Krishna, the darling of the gopis. Hence, when the Maha- raja is a vicious man, they are in the utmost danger. There has been a great deal of immorality in certain cases. Accord- ing to my informant, these abuses arose in the eighteenth century. He assures me that there is no basis for them in the literature. § 375- I n certain cities societies have been formed among Vallabhas which meet from time to time in the Ras-mandali, or circle of holy sport. An equal number of men and women meet and take a meal together, after which there is pro- miscuous intercourse. The circle gets its name from Krishna's dalliance (ras-lila) with the gopls, but its methods are copied from the chakra-puja of the left-hand Saktas. The facts about the Maharajas and the Ras-mandali were made public in a suit for libel which was heard in Bombay in 1862. A full account of it is given in The Sect of the Maharajqhs'. Another very remarkable fact in the history of the Val- labhas is the absorption of the Vishnusvami sect. There is no close connexion in doctrine. Vishnusvami's philosophy is dualistic, and he regards Radha as a woman, Krishna's mistress at Brindaban. Vallabha's philosophy is monistic, and he holds Radha to be the eternal spouse of Krishna. Yet for a long time there has been a saying common in North India to the effect that the Vishnusvamls and the Vallabhas are the same, which is true only in the sense that, since most Vishnu- svamls have entered the Vallabha fold, there is now no difference between them. The idea that the two sects are one can be traced back to the middle of the seventeenth century, and was probably one of many means employed by the Vallabhas in the process of absorbing the sect. It is usually said that Vallabhas reckon themselves as belonging to the Rudra 316 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Sampradaya along with the Vishnusvamis, but that is a mistake. §376. Vallabha wrote a number of scholarly books in San- skrit, both commentaries and original works, in exposition of his system. There are first three fundamental works : — the Vedanta-sutra-anubhashya, the Subodhini, which is a com- mentary on the Bhagavata P., and a manual of his doctrine in verse, the Tattva-dlpa-nibandha, which is accompanied by a gloss in prose called Prakasa ; and then seventeen short poems. The chief of these is the Siddhanta Rahasya, in which he tells how Krishna gave him his revelation. He left nothing in Hindi. Giridharaji and Balakrishna Bhatta are two early leaders whose Suddhadvaitamartanda and Prameyaratnarndva are systematic Sanskrit works of con- siderable value. Of more recent scholars Gosvami Sri Puru- shottamaji seems to be the most noteworthy. The Narada Pancharatra, the text of which was published in Calcutta a good many years ago, has thus far proved an enigma, and it will remain such until it is carefully read in the light of the history of the sects. From a superficial glance one might conjecture that it is an old Vaishnava Samhita inter- polated or partly re-written, first by Vishnusvamis and then by Vallabhas. Vallabha had four noteworthy disciples, and his son Vitthal- natha, who succeeded him, had also four ; and all the eight lived in the Braj district, i. e. Mathura and Brindaban and the country round, and wrote religious poetry. They were called the Ashta Chhap, literally the Eight Seals, or die-stamps, pro- ducing genuine poetic coin. They used the local dialect of Hindi, which is called Braj. 1 Hence, since their time all vernacular Krishnaite poetry has been written in Braj. Many other Vallabha singers followed them. By far the greatest of these lyric poets was Sur Das, the blind poet of Agra, who flourished seemingly in the latter half of the sixteenth century. He was a- singer of wonderful power. Besides writing Radha- 1 Grierson, LH. 20. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 317 Krishna songs, he reproduced in beautiful verse a large number of episodes and passages from the Bhagavata P. There was also a far less admirable Vallabha literature in Braj which laid a good deal of stress on the erotic side of the Krishna myths. Perhaps the most prominent are Gokul Nath's Chaurdsl Barta (1551), i.e. eighty-four tales, and the Braj Vildsa (1743) by Braj Basi Das, which is the popular authority for Radhas life and loves. A long list of these books is given by Growse. Dayaram (1763-1852), one of the greatest of Gujarat! poets, was a Vallabha. Much of his verse is erotic. 9. The Bhakta-mala. §377. One of the most important modern bhakti books is the Bhakta-mala? or Garland of Vaishnava Saints. It is not a sectarian work but a most catholic effort to commemorate the greatest figures in many sects. We deal with the work here because the author, Nabhajl, though not a Vallabha him- self but a Ramanandi, was a disciple of the Vallabha poet Agra Das, and was asked by him to write the Garland. Priya Das, who wrote the gloss, was a follower of Chaitanya. In those days some of the Vaishnava bhaktas of the north did not make much of these sectarian distinctions. Nabhajl flourished when Giridharajl was head of the Vallabhas and Tulsi Das was still alive, i. e. between 1585 and 1633. 2 The Bhakta-mala is a poem in old Western Hindi and mainly in the Chappai metre. It is an extremely compressed work, and, like a sutra, is scarcely comprehensible apart from its commentary, which is a most valuable exposition of the text, though written about a century later. The Garland is a most useful work, though parts of its contents are legendary. It has been imitated and adapted in several of the vernaculars. 1 See Sir G. Grierson's articles, JRAS. 190.9, 607 ; 1910, 87, 269. 2 For this information I am indebted to Mr. Syama Biharl Misra of Allahabad, one of the authors of MB V. 3i8 MUSLIM INFLUENCE 10. The Radha- Vallabhis. §378. Hari Varhsa, also called Hit Jl, was much indebted to both the Madhvas and the Nimbarkas, but he founded a new sect in Brindaban about 1585, the Radha- Vallabhis. The chief temple of the sect still stands there, dedicated to Radha-Vallabha, Radha's darling, Krishna. The founder left three works, the first Radha-sudha-nidhi, 170 couplets in Sanskrit, the others, Chaurdsl Pada and Sphut-pada, both in Hindi. Many works were written by his followers. They are Saktas, placing Radha above Krishna. A member of the sect said to me in Brindaban, in December 1917 : ' Krishna is the servant of Radha. He may do the coolie- work of building the world, but Radha sits as Queen. He is at best but her Secretary of State. We win the favour of Krishna by worshipping Radha.' 11. The Hari-Dasls. § 379- Svami Hari Das, who lived at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, founded the Hari Dasis, and appears to stand close to Chaitanya irt his teaching and sympathies. He left two poems in Hindi, the Sadharan Siddhdnt and the Raske Pada. The sect still owns a fine temple in Brindaban. ia. The Svaml-Ndrayanis. § 380. In Gujarat there is an active reforming sect called Svaml-Narayanls who worship Krishna and Radha. The founder, Sahajananda, or Svaml-Narayana, disgusted with the gross immorality of the Vallabhas, began shortly after 1804 to denounce them and to teach a purer system. He soon gathered a large company of followers and a sect was formed. Jetalpur, twelve miles south of Ahmadabad, is the head-quarters, but there are temples elsewhere also. In worship they frequently use pictures instead of images. Besides the householders, who form the body of the sect, there are two orders of ascetics. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 319 Their philosophy is the Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja, but in their theology they follow Vallabha. They conform strictly to Hindu law, keeping the rules of caste with great care ; they worship the five gods and they are vegetarian in diet. They retain the Vallabha mantra. They have produced a good deal of Gujaratl poetry. c. Pancharatra. 1. The Sri- Vaishnavas. § 381. Among the Sri- Vaishnavas, Vedanta-desika was head of the school in SrI-rangam just after the middle of the four- teenth century, 1 and proved a prolific writer as well as a stimulating teacher. A poet of some power as well as an exact scholar, he wrote numerous books in both Sanskrit and Tamil, commentaries, dogmatic manuals, controversial works, and poems. One of his most famous works is an allegorical drama, the Sankalpasuryodaya, and another is the Satadushani, a controversial work against Sankara's system. §382. He had a number of active theological opponents, who wrote and spoke against him freely, and the outcome of the controversy was the formation of two schools within the community, which finally led to a serious schism. He is recog- nized as the leader of the northern school, the Vada-galai. Ramya-jamatri-muni (1 370-1443), also called Manavala-maha- muni, is recognized as the leader of the southern school, the Tengalai. He taught at SrI-rangam rather later than Vedanta- desika. His commentaries are scholarly works and have been much used, but his original writings are of little importance. Since the days of the two leaders the gulf between the sub- sects has become deeper. They differ in doctrine on a number of minor points, 2 but, unfortunately, the schism which has resulted from the difference of opinion is much more serious than the doctrinal differences. Each sect has seized as many 1 He was a contemporary and friend of Madhava, and is quoted in SDS., Cowell, 76. 2 Govindacharya,/j'?^5. 1910, 1103; 191 2, 714. 320 MUSLIM INFLUENCE of the temples as possible and numerous law-suits have resulted. So deep is the division that it prevents intermarriage. The northern school stands in general nearer the central Vaishnava doctrine, and in. questions concerning Sri stands nearer the Sakta theology, while the southern school repre- sents more fully the special theology of the Sri- Vaishnava sect. While both schools use both Sanskrit and Tamil, the southern uses both the Tamil language and the hymns of the Nalayird Prabandham more than the northern does. In consequence of the division, two forms of the sect-mark have been evolved, the southern having a slight prolongation down the nose. Widows belonging to the southern school do not undergo tonsure. The northern pontiff has his seat at Trivallur, while his southern rival resides at the Ahobila Monastery at Nan^ ganur, near Tinnevelley. § 383. Appaya Dikshita (1552-1624), though a Smarta Saiva, commented on several Sri- Vaishnava books, especially the works of Vedanta-desika. The Yatlndramaladipika, i. e. Light on Ramanuja's Opinions, a useful summary of Sri- Vaishnava doctrine, contains a good many new ideas not found in the Sarhhitas. It is by Srinivasa of the first half of the seventeenth century. Rangaramanuja, who lived in the eighteenth century, wrote a series of Visishtadvaita com- mentaries on the Upanishads for the sect. The bulk of the Uttara Khanda of the Padma P. will probably be found to be a Sri- Vaishnava document belonging to the beginning of this period. § 384. The ritual in almost all Sri- Vaishnava temples is Pdnchardtra, each temple using one particular Samhita, but there are still a few which use Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas, e. g. Conjeeveram, Sriperumbudur, and Vehkatesvara on Tirupati hill. It seems clear that these Sarhhitas are Bhagavata in origin and have been used by Bhagavata ministrants for many centuries. 1 Ramanuja, in ■ his eagerness to extend Paikharatra influence, sought to oust them and to introduce 1 See § 211 and § 287. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 331 Pancharatra Samhitas and ritual instead ; but he did not succeed in all places. About a dozen Vaikhanasa Samhitas are known. 1 2,. Satanis. § 3^5- The Satanis are a group of people who are attached to the Sn-Vaishnava sect, and who, though they have only the status of Sudras, exercise certain priestly functions. The name is said to be a corruption of the word Satta- daval, ' non-wearers ' : they do not wear the tuft of hair on the crown of the head nor the sacred thread. The ex- planation of their position, seems to be this, that they came under the influence of Ramanuja, and that he allowed them to continue certain sacerdotal usages which they had practised from time immemorial. They are found in the Mysore and in certain Telugu districts as well as in the Tamil country. They act as priests in certain temples, usually those dedicated to Hanuman. These temples bear the Sn-Vaishnava sect- mark, and Sudras worship in them freely, while Brahmans also visit them, but merely to do darsana, i. e. to look at the images, not to make offerings. When about to begin the rites of worship, Satanis shout ' Ramanuja, Ramanuja'. They are also appointed to certain functions in the regular Sn-Vaishnava temples, the chief of which is to bear processional images ; and they are employed by Brahmans to brand Outcastes with the discus and conch of Vishnu. Some Satanis of earlier times receive honours in the temple of Srirangam at Trichinopoly. It is sometimes stated that they claim to be Brahmans and to know the Vedas. These claims they probably do make ; for they are priests, and know and use the hymns of the Nalayira Prabandkam, which is called the Tamil Veda. 1 Seshagiri Sastri, SSTM. 1893-4, p. 6. The Adyar Library possesses a few manuscripts. 332 MUSLIM INFLUENCE 3. The Manbhaus. § 386. The only feature of Manbhau historyduring this period which is clear is the enmity which separates the community from the more orthodox sects. The hatred which Maratha bhaktas have always had towards Manbhaus comes out very distinctly in the poems of Eknath, Giridhar, and- others, and is active to-day in the prohibition which keeps them away from. Pandharpur and the other shrines. A similar rule operates in Gujarat. Smarta Brahmans show as severe an attitude. In 1782 Madho Rao Peshwa promulgated a degree to the following effect : The Manbhaus are entirely to be condemned. They are to be entirely outcasted. They have no connexion with the four castes nor with the six Darsanas. No caste should listen to their teaching. If they do, then they are to be put out of caste. What the real cause of this hate may have been is not yet known. The orthodox have always charged the Manbhaus not only with heterodoxy but also with gross crimes, especially seduction. They are also often spoken of as if they were Outcastes. There are to-day persistent tales to the effect that they procure little girls to be brought up as Devadasls, but how much truth there is in them is not clear. The Manbhaus are found scattered about wherever Marathi is spoken, but they are not a numerous body. They wear dark grey robes, and beads and ear-rings of tulsl-wood. Their own Marathi literature is gradually being made known by Marathi scholars. Only when it has been carefully investi- gated, and when kindly intercourse with the comm'unity has enabled scholars to learn about their life, will it be possible to sketch their teaching and their history, and to settle the question of the charges so frequently brought against them. The chief mahant has his monastery at Ridhpur, Karanjhar, Berar, but they have a number of monasteries and shrines else- where. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 323 4. The Ramanandis. § 387. We now turn to a noteworthy development in North India, the rise of the Ramaite movement. Several Vishnuite bhaktas preceded Ramananda, the real leader of the move- ment, -notably Namdeva and Trilochan 1 from the Maratha country, and Sadana and Beni 2 who belonged to the north. Ramananda is one of the most important names in modern Hinduism, yet we know very little about him with certainty. Widely divergent dates have been suggested for his activity, but it now seems possible to fix his floruit within narrow limits. His royal disciple Plpa was born in A. D. 1425, 3 while another disciple, Kablr, seems to have lived from 1440 to 1518. 4 It is clear that he was not Ramananda's latest disciple. 5 Hence we shall not be far wrong if we suppose that Ramananda lived approximately from 1400 to 1470. 6 We may be ten years wrong either way, but scarcely more. He was an ascetic, and seems to have spent most of his life in Benares. All tradition agrees that he belonged to the sect of Ramanuja ; and, as his followers \to-day use a modification of the Sri- Vaishnava sect-mark, we may be certain that he had at least some connexion with it ; but no more definite statement seems possible. The Sn-Vaishnavas have from the earliest days acknowledged all the incarnations of Vishnu and their consorts; and although Krishna has always been most pro- minent,Ramahasbeencontinuouslyrevered and also Narasirhha. It is therefore very noteworthy that Ramananda worshipped Rama and Slta and their attendants alone : the common practice of his disciples makes it impossible to escape from this conclusion. To him and his followers is due the practice of using the name Ram for the Supreme which is 1 See § 357. 2 Macauliffe, VI. 84 ; 88. 3 lb. VI. III. " See §396. 5 See a hymn by Dhana in Macauliffe, VI. 109. 6 The above date places Ramananda 350 years after Ramanuja. The' guru-parampara in two forms given by Grierson {Ind. Ant. XXII. 266) would agree well with this interval. Y 3 334 MUSLIM INFLUENCE so common in the north. Further, the mantra is not the Sri-Vaishnava mantra * but Om Ramaya namah ; the tilak, as we have seen, is not the same ; there is a difficulty about the name of the Sampradaya 2 ; Ramananda was not a Tridandl 3 sannyasi, as he would have been, had he belonged to the Sri-Vaishnava sect ; and he was not nearly so strict in matters of food as the Sn-Vaishnavas are. How are we to account for the divergences ? 4 § 388. We have already seen that a sect which found release in Rama alone had been long in existence, and that the litera- ture tends to indicate the south rather than the north as its home. If now we suppose that this Ramaite community lived in the Tamil country among the Sn-Vaishnavas and that Ramananda belonged to it, the puzzle is completely solved. Ramananda would then come to the north with his doctrine of salvation in Rama alone, and with his Rama- mantra. 6 The very similar but not identical sect-mark is then comprehensible, and also the different attitude to certain caste-rules. Further, Ramananda would bring with him to the north the Adhyatma Ramayana and the Agastya- Sutikshna Samvada. Now, we cannot prove that he actually carried these books with him, but it is clear that the Adhyatma Ramayana was much used by his followers ; for it is one of the chief sources of Tulsi Das's great work, and all Ramanandls know it and use it to-day ; and the Agastya-Sutikshna Sam- vada is also used by Ramanandls to-day ; for it is published with Ramananda's biography included in it. 6 § 389. We therefore believe that Ramananda was an ascetic belonging to the Ramaite sect which produced the Adhyatma Ramayana, that he came to the north about 1430 and had so much success that he decided to stay, and took up his 1 See § 292. 2 See § 393. s See § 285. i Clearly, the story told in ERE. X. 569 does not explain the facts. 6 See § 297. 6 Bhandarkar, VS. 67, n. 2. I have not seen this edition of the work, but I have received a letter from Sir Ramakrishna, saying that it is the Agastya-Sutikshna Samvada. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 3-2,5 residence in Benares. It is probable that he was accustomed to use Ramanuja's Sri-bhashya ; for, though it is written from the SrI-Vaishnava standpoint, its clear and moderate doctrine of theism made it a most attractive work to all the theistic sects. This would explain its use by his followers to-day and also the fact that no Ramanandi bhashya has ever appeared. Its continued use would also help to blur the original distinction between the two groups, while during the early decades of the movement the newly fledged bhaktas of the north would be glad to link themselves with the illustrious scholar of the south. § 390. The greater freedom which Ramananda's movement enjoyed in certain caste matters requires closer definition. The master's complete neglect of all caste distinctions in the acceptance of disciples is scarcely a novelty ; for the theistic sects had already recognized that men of all classes could by means of bhakti press on to spiritual religion and Release ; but Ramananda seems to have gone a little farther. Among his personal disciples we find not only a Sudra, a Jat, and an Outcaste, but a Muhammadan and at least one woman. In this extended freedom we see evidence of Muslim influence. Certain Hindu and Musulman teachers in the fifteenth century were ready to receive both Hindus and Musulmans as disciples, and there was a tendency to recognize both religions as in some sense legitimate. But there is no evidence that he relaxed the rule that restricts priestly functions to the Brah- man ; and he made no attempt to overturn caste as a social institution : it was only certain of the religious restrictions of- caste that were relaxed. Those who follow Ramananda are still strictly orthodox in all caste matters. Not until Christian criticism was brought to bear at the beginning of the nineteenth century was there any definite attempt made to show that caste as a social system is cruel, inhuman, and immoral. Much confusion has been caused by careless state- ments to the effect that Ramananda gave up caste-distinctions altogether. Ramananda did, however, use greater freedom in matters of food than is the custom among SrI-Vaishnavas. 3*6 MUSLIM INFLUENCE In harmony with his great care for the common people stands the almost unhroken custom among Ramanandls and the related sects of using the vernaculars for their literature. It had long been customary in the chief sects to use the vernacular as' well as Sanskrit ; but the Maratha bhaktas and Ramananda practically gave up the use of Sanskrit altogether. Ramananda does not seem to have been a dis- tinguished writer : one single hymn of his survives, not among his own followers but in the Sikh Granth} §391. It has been frequently assumed that Ramananda taught the Visishtadvaita system of Ramanuja. This is one of the many points with regard to the leader on which no direct evidence is available ; but the indirect evidence which does exist scarcely points to that conclusion. One of the characteristics of the whole movement that springs from him is a constant use of advaita phrases, a clinging to advaita concepts while holding hard by the personality of Rama. The teaching is usually a sort of compromise be- tween theism and strict monism. 2 That certainly seems to be true of Kabir, Tulsi Das, Nanak, and others who owe their inspiration to Ramananda. Naturally, the suspicion arises that they may owe the common teaching to their common master; and we remember the advaita theology of the Adhyatma Ramayana? Yet it is quite likely that he used Ramanuja's Sri-bhashya : in these vernacular move- ments there is very little strictness about the philosophical standpoint of the sect. §393. Like the Maratha bhaktas, Ramananda may have criticized idols severely, but there is not the slightest sign that he or his immediate followers gave up Hindu worship. It was Kabir who initiated the practice of eschewing all idolatry as wrong. What is to be recognized in Ramananda and all his 1 But see Grierson, LH. 7. 2 In the few cases in which a clearly conceived theology actually appears, as in Kabir, the approach is to the Bhedabheda doctrine rather than to the Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja. 3 See § 297. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 327 followers is their vivid faith in the reality of the one personal God, spiritual and invisible, whom they called Ram. Yet, in spite of this vivid faith, no break was made with idolatry, the Brahman priest, the Hindu pantheon, or the old mythology. There is a compromise between a living theism and an idolatrous and mythological polytheism. Kabir was the first to preach a theism so real and consistent that it would tolerate neither gods, nor idols, nor myths. §393. About A.D. 1500, if we may hazard a conjecture, the theory of the four Sampradayas took shape in the north, as follows : 1 . Sri Sampradaya : the Ramanandis. %. Brahma Sampradaya : the Madhvas. 3. Rudra Sampradaya : the Vishnusvamis. 4. Sanakadi Sampradaya : the Nimbarkas. This theory must have had its origin in the north, where these four sects were dominant and the famous old Bhagavata Sampradaya, the Srl-Vaishnava Sampradaya, and the Datta- treya Sampradaya were little heard of, and be(ore the rise of the sects of Chaitanya and Vallabha. The names are taken to mean the ' tradition handed down from Sri ', i. e. Lakshml. It has been generally held that the Sri Sampradaya covers the Srl-Vaishnavas of the south, but their phrase is the Srl-Vaishnava Sampradaya, so that it cannot be accurately applied to them. Similarly, it has been said that the Rudra Sampradaya covers the Vallabhacharyas, but they altogether repudiate the title. Ramananda's influence has been so widespread that the student needs to be careful to recognize the whole. In the most direct line of descent stands the order of ascetics who bear his name, the Ramanandl Vairagls, i. e. those without passion, also called Avadhutas, i. e. liberated ones. They are sadhus, and live under a less rigid discipline than Sankara's sannyasls. They have many monasteries in Benares, Ayodhya, and elsewhere. They are very- numerous : at the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in 191 8 they alone could be compared in 328 MUSLIM INFLUENCE numbers with Sankara's Dasnamls. Ramananda's influence upon the Hindu laity of Hindustan has been very great, but it is diffused and irregular. The ordinary Hindu householder who worships Ram and Sita. belongs to no sect or sub-sect ; yet his thought and his practice are saturated with the ideas of Ramananda, borne down to him by the teaching of his disciples, and above all by a disciple who came several genera- tions later, Tulsl Das. Ramananda does not seem to have wished to found a sect ; and certainly no community named after him exists to-day, although two or three petty groups founded by his followers may still be traced. Of his im- mediate disciples who did not found sects but left at least a few hymns two deserve mention, Dhanna and Pipa. There seem to have been a number, of organized sects formed by the disciples of Ramananda, but most of them have passed away. These sects of direct Ramanandi origin (i. e. which acknow- ledge Sita as well as Ram and use images) seem to have suffered severely from that process of sectarian decay which we have already mentioned, probably because there is little reason for their existence : the ordinary householder who belongs to no sect feels Ramananda's influence quite as strongly as the sectarian. The following are the only clear cases : Name. Founder. Afiftrox. Date. Centre. 1. Rai DasTs 1 RaiDas 2 1470 2. Sena. Panthls Sena 1470 Rewa 3. Maluk Dasis Maluk Das 1630 Kara Manikpur Their literature will be found in the Bibliography. §394. But Tulsl Das (1533-1623) is the Ramanandi who above all others has influenced the beliefs and the feelings of the multitudes of the Hindu people. He was a Smarta Brahman, born in the Banda district to the south of the Jumna. He married, and a son was born to him but he died, and the mother thereafter left Tulsl Das and returned to her 1 The sect has still a large following in the Punjab. 2 Mira Bal was his disciple : see § 363. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 329 parents in order to devote herself altogether to the worship of Rama. Tulsl went to her and begged her to return but she refused, and in turn urged him to give himself to the religious life. Inspired by her words and her devotion, he decided to do as she suggested. He began the new life by becoming a Vairagi, his guru being Narahari, the sixth in preceptorial descent from Ramananda. From Ayodhya as head-quarters, he wandered far and wide, preaching the faith of Rama. But a command which, as he believed, he had received from Rama in a dream decided him to write a Ramayana in the language of the common people. He began the work at Ayodhya in 1574, writing in the Hindi dialect used in that district, which is called Eastern Hindi or Baiswari ; and since that time that dialect has been recognized as the Ramaite speech, just as Braj 1 is recognized as the Krish'naite vehicle. At a rather later date he left Ayodhya and settled at Asi Ghat, Benares, where his room and his idols may still be seen. The great poem, the title of which is the Rama-charit-manas, the Lake of Rama's deeds, was finished in Benares about 1584. He wrote a number of other works, but the first work is his masterpiece. Indeed it is one of the greatest books of modern Hinduism, and has probably influenced a far larger number of Hindus these last three centuries than any other work. The poem is based primarily on the old Ramayana, and, in imitation of it, is divided into seven books with the same titles. But the faith of Ramananda was in the main the outgrowth of the Vaishnava life and literature of the centuries immediately preceding his time. The mediaeval Ramayanas, above all the Adhyatma, but also the Yoga- Vasishtha, the Adbhuta, and the Bhusundi, and other works such as the Hanaman Nataka, were much read and studied by the bhaktas. Hence the main story of Tulsi Das's work is the same as Valmlki's, but the religion is that of the mediaeval poems, and many of the incidents reflect them also. Tulsi Das had been a Smarta Brahman who worshipped the five gods. At many points in 1 See § 376. 33° MUSLIM INFLUENCE his poem his great reverence for Siva is clearly expressed, indeed takes such shapes as are scarcely reconcilable with a true theism. Thus, in one place, Rama says ' Without prayer to Siva no one can attain to the faith that I require.' The teaching of the poem also contains many advaitic elements which strike one as very strange beside the personality of the god of love whom Tulsi adores. He accepts all the mytho- logy of Hinduism and also a great many grotesque modern stories. The Hindu system is carefully preserved, the duty of observing caste and upholding the old institutions being emphatically taught. Men are saved by dying in Ayodhya or Benares as truly as through faith in Rama. Yet, in spite of all this, Tulsi Das's faith in Rama uplifts him and enables him to present a very noble conception of God. His tender love for the humblest as well as the greatest of his devotees, his condescension in becoming incarnate for their sakes, his sympathy and endurance of suffering for those who are devoted to him, and his readiness to forgive are expressed with great dignity and power. Many of Tulsi' s ideas come very near Christian thought indeed ; and there is not an impure image or word in the book from beginning to end. The Tulsi Das Ramayana is thus the vernacular Gita: it is a noble poem, which teaches theism, divine incarnation and the love of God, although it is burdened with the whole vast weight of Hindu orthodoxy and mythology. Tulsi Das deserves the splendid renown which his great work has brought him. He lived for the people and loved them, and taught the very best he knew, in the language of the people, and in poetry which reaches the heart even in a translation. d. Reformed. i. Kablr and his Influence. §395. Sects of indirect Ramanandl origin show far more vitality than those which sprang from the master's direct influence. All these groups arose from the teaching of Rama- i I I I I I I I MUSLIM INFLUENCE 331 nanda's disciple Kablr, the earliest being the church of his own followers, the Kablrpanthls. All the others are clearly the outcome of his influence ; yet no single one of the founders was an immediate disciple. § 396- Ramananda's movement provided the Hindu influence which went to the making of Kablr (1440-15 1 8), but Islam also contributed largely. It is possible, but it is not certain, that he was brought up by Muhammadans. It is plain, however, that the mystic Islam of the Sufis laid hold of him, whether he ever lived the Muhammadan life or not. Sufi mysticism has its roots in Muhammad's experience and teaching, but the leading elements of the system came from two external sources. The first was Neoplatonism, which flowed into Islam through Greek philosophy, Gnosticism, Christian teaching, and Christian asceticism. The other source was Indian thought, but whether it reached the Sufis through Buddhism at a very early date, or through Vedantism later, is not yet clear. The Sufi conception of God tends to be im- manental rather than transcendental. He works everywhere but especially in the human heart. It is possible for the humble soul which turns away from the things of sense to find Him, and see Him, and know Him. Many* Sufis go so far as to identify self with God, like the thinkers of the Vedanta ; and the state of bliss into which they hope to enter after death, called fana, lies very near Hindu thought. It is not quite absorption in God, for it is accompanied by ever- lasting life in God ; yet individuality passes away. In order to reach illumination {gnosis) and union with God (called al-haqq, the Real, the True, sat), it is necessary to walk the path (tariqat), a way of life usually divided into stages. The spirit of this rule of life is to some extent ascetic, and many Sufis have been fakirs, but the great majority have been house- holders and have earned their bread by labour. The teacher, whether called Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid, has to be obeyed implicitly. The details of Sufi practice are not unlike the methods of Yoga, the purpose being to escape from one's own 33» MUSLIM INFLUENCE individuality and, through illumination, to realize that God is the only reality. This temper of thought goes so far in many . Sufis as to induce the idea that revelation and every organized religion belong to unreality. Hence all religions are of equal value, and a Sufi is no longer an orthodox Muslim. Kablr, then, came into close touch with this system, but it does not seem possible to tell who the teachers were whom he met or which books he read. When the story of Islam in India is written in detail, it may be possible to realize more clearly the influences that went to form him. It seems probable that he lived from A.D. 1440 to 1518. He was a weaver and lived in Benares, and was probably brought up as a Muham- madan. But he became a disciple of Ramananda, and Hindu ideas poured into his mind. There can be no doubt of his relationship to the great leader; for he says in one of his poems, ' Ramananda illumined me ', 1 He also mentions Rai Das, the Chamar, as a contemporary. He was brought before the Emperor Sikandar Lodi, who reigned from 1489 to 1517. The student can thus feel here that he is on the firm ground of history. The Emperor banished him from Benares, and he thereafter lived a wandering life, and died at Maghar near Gorakhpur. * § 397. In the life of Kablr the two religions mingled. The strongest elements of each laid hold of him and formed his. thought, the Sufi conviction that all ordinary religions are but forms dictating his general attitude to the two faiths. Hence he was persecuted from both sides, and the Emperor banished him from the centre of Hinduism in the interests of peace. The groundwork of his system of beliefs is Hindu ; for he accepts transmigration and karma, and thus stands within the circle of Indian rather than Islamic thought. A further catalogue of Hindu ideas might be compiled — Brahman, maya, lila, release, detachment, cessation from work, ' He is I ', the bhedabheda relation, &c. — but most of these coincide or almost coincide with Sufi conceptions ; so that a number of them may 1 Tagore, One Hundred Poems of Kabir, 36. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 333 be regarded as common ground. On the other hand, he denounces idolatry as foolish, false, and wrong, declares divine incarnation impossible and laughs at the forms of asceticism as silly practices: here Islam rules. Sir George Grierson believes that Christian influence also may be traced in his teaching. 1 He was a strict theist, calling God Ram, but recognizing no consort, incarnation, or other divine attendant. He sees God both in nature and in man, and realizes the close relationship between God and man, declaring that man is the same as God and yet distinct from him. His verses refer to God in many shining phrases which touch both the heart and the spirit. The love of God for man finds clear and strong expression in his lines, and he constantly speaks of the rest and peace there is for the man who realizes that love, and the detachment from the things of the world which it brings. 398. Kablr's poetry is in Hindi, 2 and is blunt, unpolished, sometimes even coarse. There is little attempt made to reach literary form. He does not care whether his words are Hindi, Persian, or barbarous, nor whether his sentences are grammatical or not, so long as they strike home. Tagore's beautiful renderings scarcely reflect the style of the original, though they are not unfaithful as translations. But he was a mystic of great penetration and a poet of considerable power. His best utterances are probably the loftiest work in the Hindi language ; and hundreds of his couplets have laid hold of the common heart of Hindustan. Large masses of poetry are ascribed to him, but until the whole has been examined critically, it is impossible to tell how much is genuine. About the year 1570 the Bljak, a collection of short poems and utterances, was compiled by one of his followers. Some thirty years later a large number of his hymns and sayings were included in the Sikh Granth. 1 JRAS. 1 91 8, 156. 2 The dialect is ' old Awadhi, the language spoken in West Mirzapur, Allahabad and Audh', Sir George Grierson, JRA S. 1918, 152. 334 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Besides these, innumerable couplets and witty sayings are currently ascribed to him, and the Kabirpanthls have a con- siderable literature, much of which they say came from the master, but which, in the main, is clearly of later date. § 399- The following is a list of the chief sects which have sprung from his teaching and influence : Name of Founder. Approx. Centre. Sect. Date. I. Kabirpanthls Kablr 1470 Benares 2. Sikhs Nanak 1500 Punjab 3- DadupanthTs Dadu 1 575 Rajputana A- Lai Dasis Lai Das 1600 Alwar 5- Satnamls 1600 Narnol, south of Delhi 6. Baba Lalls Baba Lai 1625 Dehanpur, nr. Sirhind 7- Sadhs Birbhan 1658 Near Delhi 8. Charan Dasis Charan Das 1730 Delhi 9- Siva Narayams Siva Narayana 1734 Chandra war, Ghazlpur 10. Garlb Dasis Garlb Das 174° Chudani, Rohtak ii. Ram Sanehis Ram Charan 1750 Shahapur, Rajputana A number of common features are traceable in all these groups at the time of their foundation, but the Hinduism which surrounds them presses heavily on them and finds entrance at many points, so that most of the distinctive features tend to become progressively weaker. Four charac- teristics seem to have been common to them all : 1. God alone is worshipped and idolatry is strictly pro- hibited ; so that Hindu worship is completely abandoned ; and men of any caste may exercise 'religious functions. a. The sect is open to all Hindus and to Muslims also. 3. Great stress is laid on the value of the guru. 4. The literature is in vernacular verse. There were many other ideas which were accepted by all or nearly all at first, but they were not so rigidly held, e.g. the value of the repetition of the name, Ram, the denial of the doctrine of divine incarnation, the rejection of asceticism and MUSLIM INFLUENCE 335 begging, and the prohibition of the use of flesh as food, of intoxicating drink and of tobacco. In a few cases infanticide and widow-burning were prohibited. ' The drift towards Hinduism, however, soon brings in the doctrine of divine incarnation, the worship of gurus, and the formation of an order of Sadhus, who become the divine gurus of the sect ; the rules against flesh, wine, and tobacco are gradually relaxed ; the sect tends to become restricted to the clean castes ; Hindu mythology, especially the story of Radha, creeps in; and finally idols reappear. . In one case obscene rites find an entrance at an early date. 2. The Kablrpanthis. §400. Kablr formed a community, which is known as the Kablrpanth (panth, representing the Sufi tariqat), but how much of its present character and organization comes from him it scarcely seems possible to say. Since he was altogether opposed to idolatry, he must have made fresh arrangements for the worship of God, but how far he went we do not know. We can hardly believe that he instituted an ascetic order. He would be certain to give the guru a prominent place in the sect, yet he would by no word or act lead men to believe that he or any other teacher was an incarnation of God. Since his day Hindu influence in various forms has found its way into the community. There is an order of monks and also a few nuns. The monks are the teachers and leaders of the community, and they are ruled by two chief mahants or abbots. The earliest centre seems to have been the Kabir-chaura monastery in Benares, with which is associated the monastery at Maghar where Kablr died. The rival mahant has his seat at Chattisgarh in the Central Provinces. There are many monasteries subordinate to each. The Benares mahants trace their descent from Surat Gopal, while the Chattisgarh mahants look back to Dharm Das. Each sub-sect has its own litera- ture. The worship, which consists of prayers, ritual, and exhortation, is conducted in the monasteries. The various 336 MUSLIM INFLUENCE acts of worship are described by the Bishop of Lucknow in his manual. 1 There is an initiation ceremony comparable with baptism, and a rite called Jot Prasad, which has analogies with the Lord's Supper. But a considerable place is taken by the worship of the mahant, and in the monastery in Benares a large picture of Kablr is used in such a way as to indicate a return to idolatry. Although Kablr denounced divine incarnation, the books teach that he is an incarnation of the Supreme. Indeed the practice of the sect as a whole is saturated in Hinduism. The sect-mark,, the rosary, the mantra, and many other details are conspicuous. 3. The Sikhs. § 401. Nanak (1469-1538), the founder of the religion of the Sikhs, i. e. the disciples, was a Punjabi, born in Talwandi in the Lahore district. His life is told in numerous Janamsakhls, i. e. Birth-witnesses, but there is not much that is yet known with certainty about him. He belonged to the movement which produced Kablr, and was unquestionably influenced by him, but there is no evidence that they ever met. Nanak associated with numerous teachers, both Hindu and Muslim. 2 Knowing both Persian and Hindi, besides Punjabi, he read Sufi writings as well as the hymns of the Hindi-speaking saints. He wandered all over North India, giving utterance to his teaching in hymns and brief sayings in a mixture of Punjabi and Hindi which would be understood far and wide. His disciple Mardana went with him and played the rebeck while Nanak sang. He gathered large numbers of followers, and arranged for them thejapjt, a collection of pieces of verse, most of them in praise of God, put together for daily prayer. As a poet he is not comparable with Kablr ; yet his verse is clear, simple, and pithy, an excellent vehicle for his teaching. Two Sanskrit works on philosophy are also ascribed to him, the Nirakara Mimamsa and the Adbhuta Gita? 1 Westcott, Kablr. 2 See for example Macauliffe, VI. 356-414. 8 Barnett, Hinduism, 39, n. 1. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 337 His religious convictions are in the main the same as Kablr's. God is one, eternal, spiritual, and he must be worshipped from the heart, and not with images. Hinduism and Islam are two paths, but there is but one God. Men of all castes and races can know and love God. The life of home is praised rather than asceticism, and the moral side of religion is strongly emphasized. In Nanak many fragments of the monistic Vedanta appear along with numerous phrases which imply the personality of God. Karma and transmigration are retained, the conception of maya as a delusive, deceptive force, and also the conviction of the importance .of the guru. Release brings union with God, or rather absorption, in which individuality is lost. Nanak was a humble man who confessed his own sinfulness freely, and did not dream of calling him- self an incarnation of God. Yet he stands nearer Hinduism than Kablr ; for the whole Hindu pantheon is retained in his poems. § 40a. Nanak was followed by nine other gurus. The first, Guru Angad, invented for Nanak's hymns a new alphabet, which is known as Gurumukhi, and is now used for the vernacular of the Punjab. He left a few utterances in verse. Gurus Amar Das and Ram Das each wrote a con- siderable number of hymns. Guru Arjan, with whom the succession became hereditary, was a notable figure, a poet, and a man of affairs. His leadership covered the last twenty-four years of the reign of Akbar, and he took full advantage of the opportunity which the Emperor's tolera- tion afforded him. He built the central Sikh shrine, known as the Golden Temple, at Amritsar. But his chief service to the community was the formation of its sacred book. It is possible that the collection of Kablr's poems in the Bijak, which took place about the time when Arjan became guru, suggested the idea to his mind. In any case he gathered together the hymns of Nanak and the other gurus, and" added to them his own hymns and a considerable body z 338 MUSLIM INFLUENCE of poetry by Kablr and other singers. 1 He placed the Japji first, then the So-Daru, which is used by the Sikhs for even- song, and then two other sets of verses, which are used as a prayer before retiring to rest. Thereafter the whole body of hymns is divided into groups according to the Rag, 2 i. e. the type of music, to which they are sung. 3 The Granth Sahib, or Noble Book, has proved of very large value to the Sikhs. It is their manual of instruction and theology as well as their hymnal and prayer-book. As is evident from Arjan's own compositions, Hindu ideas and practices were finding their way into Sikhism in his days. The guru was already worshipped as the Supreme Being. While Akbar honoured Arjan, his son Jahangir was sus- picious of the Granth, and subjected him to tortures to which he succumbed. His death did a great deal to rouse the martyr- spirit in the community. . His son Har Gobind, the next guru, formed a bodyguard for himself. The ninth guru, Teg Bahadur, who was an old man when he accepted the head- ship of the community, wrote a number of hymns and stanzas. The intolerant Emperor Aurunzebe imprisoned him and finally put him to death, but not before the guru, according to Sikh tradition, had prophesied that Europeans would come to India and destroy his empire. This prophecy has done a great deal to bind the Sikhs to British rule. A poetical work of some importance was produced by Bhai Gur Das, a con- temporary of the fourth, fifth, and sixth gurus. It is an out- line of the Sikh faith, and is partly translated by Macauliffe. 4 It is called Bhai Gur Das Ki War. §403. Gobind Singh, the son of Teg Bahadur, saw that the Sikhs must fight the Mogul empire. He therefore formed and trained an army which became a formidable force. In v These hymns by others than Sikhs were altered here and there by the editors. 2 For the Rags see Macauliffe, V. 333. For an exposition of the Indian Rag see Fox Strangways, Music of Hindustan. s For the prosody of the hymns see Trumpp, Adi Granth, cxxviii ff . 1 IV. 241. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 339 order to give his warriors the fullest support from religion, he summoned them to accept from his hands the Khanda-di- Pahul, or Baptism of the Sword, and to take a series of solemn vows. These vows bound them to wear five articles the names of which begin with the letter K, 1 to worship God regularly, to share a common meal, and to eschew idolatry, pilgrimage, sati, infanticide, tobacco, and intoxicants. Each man adopted the surname Singh, Lion. They thus became a new community within which Caste disappeared. It was called the Khalsa, a title derived from a word meaning pure. He refused to appoint another guru, declaring that the Granth, to which he added his father's hymns and a single couplet of his own, must henceforward be their guru ; and no other guru has been appointed. Doubtless he realized from what he saw in Sikhism and elsewhere the grave danger of guru-worship. With him Hindu influence came into the community still more freely than before. Before organizing the Khalsa, he seems to have worshipped the goddess Durga, 2 and he certainly had translations made by his court poets of the episode of Chandi in the Markandeya P. 3 These and other Hindu narratives were used to fire the valour of his men. He left also a number of other writings, mostly in Hindi, 4 but some in Persian. 5 After his death his works, along with certain translations and compositions by men employed by him, were gathered together in one volume by Bhai Mani Singh. Later it was called the Granth of the Tenth Guru, but it has never been received as authoritative. It is used by the followers of Gobind Singh for worldly ends, e. g. the promotion of valour, while the Adi or Original Granth is used for religious ends. Parts of it are translated by Macauliffe. 1 Kes, hair (never cut) ; Kach, drawers ; Kirpan, dagger ; Kartha, bangle (of iron) ; Kahga, comb. 2 According to one account he offered her human sacrifices : Trumpp, xi. But see Macauliffe, V, Chap. VIII. He may have been moved by Sivajl's example. 3 Macauliffe, V. 80. See above, § 168. 4 One of these is a set of prayers called the Jap Saheb. 5 Macauliffe, V. 1, 22, 67, 68, 83, 201, 260 ff. Z 2 34° MUSLIM INFLUENCE § 404. The transformation of the church into an army did not prove altogether healthy ; for preaching practically ceased among them, and Hinduism continued to press into the com- munity. The Granth, now recognized as the Guru, began to receive divine honours. Idols reappeared in Sikh houses and even in Sikh shrines. Many Sikhs drifted back to Hinduism. The formation of the Khalsa necessarily divided the Sikh community into two parts and within these certain sub- divisions have appeared. Yet all worship together. The following list shows the subdivisions : A . Sahijdharis. 1 Name. Approx. Date. Founder. I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. Sikhs, Nanakpanthls 2 Udasis 3 (ascetics) HandalTs * Minas 6 Ram Ranjas 6 Sewapanthls ' 1500 1538 1570 1581 1656 1700 B. SiNGHS. Sri Chand, Nanak's son Handal Prithi Chand, son of Guru Ram Das Ram Rai, son of Guru Har Rai Kanaiya, a water-carrier 1. 2. 3- The Khalsa Nirmalas 8 (ascetics) Akalls 9 (soldier ascetics) i69o 1690 1690 Guru Gobind Singh Blr Singh Man Singh § 405. Public worship is conducted in the gurudvaras of the sect. There are several of these that are buildings of some size, but the majority are unpretentious little houses, and a great many villages have none. The worship ought to con- sist merely of the recitation of the regular portions of the Granth appointed for the purpose and the singing of hymns ; 1 i.e. easy-goers. 2 Barnett, Hinduism, 38; ERE. II. 4gf. 3 Macauliffe, I. 79 f. ; Oman, Ascetics, I94ff. 4 Macauliffe t I. 80 f. These have a Granth and a Janamsakhi of their ovvn. 5 Macauliffe, I. 80. 6 Macauliffe, I. Hi. They have a temple at Dehra Dun. 7 Macauliffe, V. 174. 8 Oman, ib. 196 ff.; Macauliffe, I. Hi ; ERE. IX. 375. 9 Also called Nihahgs, Macauliffe, I. 52 ; Oman, ib. 198 f. ; ERE. I. 268. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 341 but the adoration of the sacred book itself is now a very prominent part of Sikh observance, as any one may see in the Golden Temple of Amritsar. In one place at least it is worshipped by fire-sacrifice. 1 JpHow great the fascination of Hindu worship is may be realized from the fact that Sikh ascetics frequently go on pilgrimage and visit Hindu temples to gaze on the idols. . The Prayer Book in common use is called the Panjgranthi. It contains (a) the Japji, (b) the Rahrasi (c) the Kirtan Sohila, (d) the Sukhamani, (e) the Asa-ki-war. The first three of the five have to be recited daily by Khalsa Sikhs. 4. The Dadupanthis. § 406. Dadu (1544-1603) was a Brahman who belonged to Ahmadabad, but he spent most of his life in Rajputana, and there the bulk of his followers are still found. He expressed his teaching in Bant, i.e. poetic utterances. His work con- tains 5,000 verses, arranged in 37 chapters, which deal with the leading religious questions. Hymns also are included. He had fifty-two disciples, each of which set up at least one Dadu-dvdra, or place of worship. Apart fr.om Dadu's Bam, the sect has a large literature in Hindi, produced by two of his sons and a number of his followers. Sundar Das the younger is a famous Hindi poet. Nischal Das was a Vedantist, and through his influence some members of the sect have accepted the advaita doctrine. Only twice-born Hindus are allowed to read the Bam, but Sudras may learn the 24 gurumantra and the 34 sabda. The sect has no dealings with Outcastes. 2 §407. The followers of Dadu are either householders or celibate ascetics. Householders are called Sevaks, i.e. ser- vitors, while the title Dadupanthl is reserved for ascetics. The latter are divided into five orders : a. Khalsas, the pure. Their head-quarters are in Naraina, ' ' In the Sikh monastery at Conjeeveram. 2 These and other particulars I learned from Dadupanthis at Allahabad at the Kumbh Mela in Feb. 1918. 34* MUSLIM INFLUENCE forty miles from Jaipur, where Dadu died. Learned Khalsas lead in worship, study, and teach. b. Nagas (a corruption of the Sanskrit Nagna, naked) are an order of celibate mercenaries founded by Sundar Das, the elder. In nine camps on the Jaipur border there are some 20,000 of them, paid by the Jaipur government for the defence of the state. c. Utrddls, an order founded in the Punjab by Banwari Das. Many of them are learned men and teach ascetics-. Others are doctors. Members of these three orders may take up any profession. d. . Viraktas, the passionless. These must not practise any profession" nor touch money. They live a wandering life, and devote themselves to study and literature. e. Khakis, 'ash-covered' ascetics, who lay stress on aus- terities. §408. The cult, which is carried on in the DadQ-dvaras, consists in the worship of a manuscript copy of Dadu's Banl with all the operations of Hindu idolatry, such as the offering of flowers, perfume, and food and the waving of lights. Banl are also recited and hymns are sung. The puja is conducted by an ascetic ; so that wherever there is an ascetic and a manuscript of the sacred book, there may be a Dadu-dvara. At Naraina Dadu's sandals and clothes are preserved and receive worship. 5. The Ldl Dasls. §409. Lai Das (died 1648), the chief saint of Alwar, came of the Meos, originally a predatory tribe. His teaching and hymns are gathered in a collection called Banl. The Lai Dasi teachers, like their master, are married men. The worship of the sect consists of the repetition of Ram's name and the singing of hymns to rude music. 6. The Salnamis. § 410. The origin of the SatnamI sect seems to be altogether lost ; so that the date suggested in the table (p. 334), A.D. 1600, MUSLIM INFLUENCE 343 is quite conjectural. The name of the sect, ' True-name ', means that they worship the one Reality (Sat, al Haqq) and. proves that they belong to the sphere of Kablr's influence. They appear in history for the first time in 167a, at Narnol, 75 miles south-west of Delhi, where a trivial quarrel led to a wild rising of Satnami ascetics against the government of Aurungzebe. It was finally crushed in a battle fought in March 1673, when thousands of Satnamis were killed. No book of their own belonging to this date is extant, but a contemporary Hindu historian, Iswar Das Nagar, tells us of their immorality and filthy habits. Clearly their original doctrine had been seriously tainted by some outside influence. The sect seems to have been reorganized, about A.D. 1750, by Jagjlvan Das, at Kotwa between Lucknow and Ayodhya. Throughout its history, since this time, the members of the sect have been mostly Outcastes. Jagjlvan was a poet and left his teaching in Hindi verse. One of his disciples Dulan Das, who spent his life near Rai Bareilly, was also a poet. The sect is said to be strictly vegetarian and to abstain from liquor. Bhattacharya avers that the sect practises the rite known as Gayatri Kriya, the drinking of a mixture of human excreta. A .further development occurred under GhazI Das, a Chamar belonging to Chattisgarh in the Central Provinces, between 1830 and 1830. He introduced it among the Chamars 1 of the district, mainly with a view to the social betterment of the race, and he did not acknowledge his indebtedness to Jagjlvan and his people. He taught his people to worship the one God, formless and eternal, who is the sole Reality. He forbade the use of flesh and also of certain vegetables which look like flesh or blood, and the worship of idols. These Chamar Satnamis used to compel young wives to undergo a rite of promiscuity, but it is gradually passing out of use. One group has reverted to idols. 1 Outcastes who work in leather. 344 MUSLIM INFLUENCE From the condition of the Satnamis to-day one would be inclined to infer that from the beginning their propaganda has -had its chief success among Outcastes, and that the unclean practices which have dogged their history are probably ancient customs long practised in Outcaste tribes, which it has not been possible to eradicate. 7. The Baba Lalis. §411. Baba Lai, the founder of the petty sect, the Baba Lalis, attracted the attention of Prince Dara Shikoh, the son of Shah Jahan, in 1649, and had seven interviews with him. The teaching he then gave was written in Persian by two Hindus belonging to the court under the title Nadiru'n-nikat} The sect still possesses a religious house at Lai Baba Ka Sarla near Baroda. 8. The Sad As. § 41 2. The Sadhs 2 are found chiefly between the two rivers from Delhi southwards. The sect was founded in 1658 by Birbhan. He expressed his teaching, like Kabir, in verses and couplets which are gathered in a volume called Adi Upadesa, the Original Teaching. One element in the book is a set of twelve commandments, which prove the sect to have been more distinctly Puritan than any of the others, and show Christian influence in one point at least, viz. in the strict injunction of monogamy. They hold a meeting at the full moon. 9. The Char an Dasis. § 413. The Charan Dasis are a sect founded at Delhi about 1730 by Charan Das. He left a considerable literature in Hindi verse, and two women who were his disciples have also left books. The basis of his system is the same as Kablr's, the name of the eternal God, the Word of God, the practice of bhakti, the need of the guru, and the avoidance of idolatry ; but the influx of Hinduism is plainly visible in the divine ' Wilson, Sects, 347 ; ERE. II. 308. 2 Wilson, Sects, 352. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 345 claims he makes for the guru and in his use of the Bhagu- vata P. Naturally the sect has gone farther. They have images in their temples, and recognize God in the form of Radha and Krishna. 1 10. The Siva Narayanls. § 414. The Siva Narayanl sect 2 was founded by a Rajput named Siva Narayana at Bhelsari near Ghazlpur in 17-34, and their four monasteries called Dhams are all in the Ghazlpur district. People of any religion or class are admitted. Most of the members to-day are people of the lower classes includ- ing Outcastes, but in earlier times Brahmans and Rajputs joined in appreciable numbers. Muhammad Shah, Emperor of Delhi, 1719-48, became a member of the sect and gave his royal seal to the founder. They believe in the formless Brahman, and venerate Siva Narayana as an incarnation. The founder left sixteen volumes of Hindi verse. ij-^-The Garib Ddsls. § 415. Garib Das (1717-82) 3 lived at Churani in the Rohtak district. His Guru Granth Sahib contains 24,000 lines. The sect still exists, but they have only one monastery, and have no lay followers. Only twice-born men are accepted as Sadhus. I met a few Garib Dasis at the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad, in February 1918. 12. The Ram Sanehls. §416. The Ram Sanehls, or Lovers of Ram, are a sect founded by Ram Charan about the middle of the eighteenth century. Ram Charan left a body of Bant, and of hymns. The third guru, Dulha Ram, left about xdfooo verses and 1 Griersoa, ERE. III. 365. I 2 Wilson, Sects, 358 ; Gait, Census Report, 1901,1. 115; Gx\&:son,JRAS. 1918, 114. 3 Prasad, SBS. I. 181 ; II. 195. 346 MUSLIM INFLUENCE 4,000 couplets. 1 Their prayer-houses are called Ramdvara, and are found mostly in Rajputana ; and the worship consists of singing and teaching. Their head-quarters are at Shahpur, but they are represented also at Jaipur, Udaipur, and else- where. They have no settled following among laymen, so that the sect has decayed, and is now merely an order of sadhus. § 41 7. Several other leaders founded schools and expressed their teaching in Hindi verse, from the end of the seventeenth to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Their names and literature will be found in Prasad's volumes. §418. The tragedy in the history of these sects which, under the influence of Islam, gave up Hindu worship, is that they have been unable to find a satisfactory substitute for it. The mere reading of pieces of vernacular poetry and the singing of hymns does not grip the common people. Those sects which restrict themselves to that tend to lose their hold on the laity, while the rest revert to Hindu guru-worship, as the Kablrpanthis have done, or fall to bibliolatry,* as is the case with the Sikhs and the Dadupanthls. F. Saiva Literature. a. General. §419. A good deal of unsectarian Saiva literature arose during the period, and some of it is well worthy of notice. The Saiva movement in Bengal produced a literature of its own in Bengali, which is described by Mr. Sen, the most prominent book being Ramakrishna's Sivayana, which dates from about 1750. In Gujarat, Sivanand^who lived towards the middle of the eighteenth century, produced lyrics which are much used. In the Telugu country we trace the activity of Saivas in the translation of three Saiva Puranas, the Skanda (fifteenth century), the Kurma (c. A.D. i5°°)> and the Matsya (c. A.D. 1550); and also in .the famous gnomic verses of Vemana, a prince belonging to the family of the 1 Bhattacharya, HCS. 447-8 ; Grierson, LH. 87. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 347 Vema Reddis, who ruled in the Kistna~ Guntur, and Nellore districts for a century. Vemana flourished early in the fifteenth century. In Travancore, in the seventeenth century, the Siva P. and the Brahmanda were done into Malayalim. So, in Tamil, in the fifteenth century Aruna-giri-nathar wrote the Tiru-puhal, a series of lyrics on the god Subrah- manya. The famous Lihgayat work in Kanarese, Prabhu- lihga-lila, was translated into Tamil verse by Siva Prakasa Svami in the seventeenth century, and is used by all Saivas. Two translations from the Sanskrit may be mentioned : the Lihga P. was done in Tamil verse by Varatunga Pandya, a fifteenth-century prince of the ancient house, and the Kurma P. by his brother, Ativirarama Pandya. Two col- lections of local religious legends, the Tiru-vilaiy-adat- puranam, composed by Paranjoti early in the seventeenth century, and the Kanchi-puranam, by KanchI Appar and his teacher, Siva-jiiana-yogl the Siddhantist, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the former dealing with Madura, the latter with Conjeeveram, are extremely popular. b. Pasupata Saivas. § 420. The ancient Pasupata sects have almost completely disappeared. A very few Aghorls may be met : they are the old Kapalikas ; and a few Aughars, who are Kapalikas reformed under the influence of Kabir, may also be seen.' 1. The Gorakhnathis. §421. But there are plenty of Gorakhnathis to be found. Their temples are Saiva temples, but Gorakhnath is wor- shipped in them as a form of Siva, and animals are sacrificed. In the temples of the sect in Nepal buffaloes as well as goats are sacrificed. In the monastery at Gorakhpur, where he is said to have died, there is a shrine to his memory in which puja is done three times a day. It contains his charana, i.e. his footprints in stone, but no image. Outside the shrine, to 348 MUSLIM INFLUENCE the right, is a fence of trisul of various sizes, and behind it the place where goats are sacrificed. 1 § 422. Kanphata Yogis have a great slit cut in the central hollow of each ear 2 so as to admit a big circular ear-ring of glass, wood, or horn. 3 They usually wear several necklaces, and from one of them there hangs a slender silver whistle called Sihginad, which they blow before worship and before meals. Amongst the necklaces will usually be seen one consisting of small whitish stone beads, which is worn as a badge indicating that the wearer has visited the famous Vamacharl Sakta temple of Hinglaj in Baluchistan ; for they are accustomed to visit Sakta as , well as Saiva temples. Their mantra is Siva Goraksha. They worship Gorakhnath and claim a high antiquity for him. He and the other Nathas are believed to live in the Himalayas. They do not do very much in the way of yoga-practice ; for modern ascetics tend to degenerate to a common rudimentary type. Yogis whom I met at the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad and at Benares gave, me a long list of books which they say Gorakhnathls use. § 423. On the Hatha-yoga and the Goraksha-Sataka, which are mentioned above as works attributed to Gorakhnath, three more modern works depend, the Hatha-yoga-pradipika by Svatmarama Yoglhdra, the disciple of Srinath, the Gheranda S., and the Siva S. The first is the earliest of the three. The Pradlpika and the Gheranda S. deal with the same subjects, but only part of the Siva S. is devoted to Hatha Yoga ; the rest of it is more like a treatise on Sakta Yoga. 1 I owe this information to Mr. D. W. P. Hill of Benares, who visited the monastery in December 1917. 2 At the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in February 1918 I saw a yogi who had just been initiated. He was wearing a pair of huge ear-rings, and his ears were very painful. 3 When asked what the meaning of the wearing of ear-rings is, they merely say that Gorakhnath ordered it. We may note that 3iva wears large circular ear-rings in many of his images, and Ramanuja tells us that the ear-ring was one of the mudras, seals, worn by Kapalikas : SHE. XLVIII. 521. MUSLIM INFLUENCE . 349 c. Agamic Saivas. 1. Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhanta. § 424. In the Tamil country 'there are no sectarian distinc- tions in the Saiva temples. They are sacred to Siva ; they are open to all caste Hindus, whether Smartas, ordinary Saivas, Siddhantists, or Lingayats, and the ministrants are all Brahmans, except in the case of a few of the smaller temples where Pandarams, i.e. non-Brahman Saivas, act as archakas. These Brahman ministrants form the chief constituency of the Sanskrit school of Saiva Siddhanta, but numerous Smartas who are not archakas doubtless belong to it also. The earliest surviving document representing the school is, as we have already seen, the essay in Madhava's Sarvadarsana- sahgraha called the Saiva Darsana. The literature of this school is all in Sanskrit; it recognizes the Agamas, and its philosophical standpoint is Vi&shtadvaita. It is thus very clearly marked off from the Tamil school ; for the literature of the latter is all in Tamil, its standpoint is advaita, and most of its people are non-Brahmans. The next noteworthy book belonging to the school is Srikantha Sivacharya's Saiva-bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras. The date of the work has never been settled. Tradition runs that he was a friend of Govinda, the guru of the great Sankara, that, after writing the bkashya, he had a philosophical dispu- tation with Sankara and defeated him ; but against this there stands the blank silence of several centuries in all schools, and also his manifest dependence on Ramanuja. The great success of the Srl-bhashya, which vindicates the Vedantic orthodoxy of the Vaishnava position, founded on the Naraya- niya section of the Epic and the Vaishnava Sarhhitas, seems to have roused Srikantha to do a similar service for his own Saiva school, which recognizes the Pasupata theology and the Saiva Agamas. His philosophic position is the same as Ramanuja's and he uses the same epithet for it, Visisht- 350 . MUSLIM INFLUENCE advaita 1 ; at many points his reasoning follows the Srl-bhdshya implicitly ; and I am told that sentences occur in the bhashya which are verbally the same as sentences in the Vedanta-sara attributed to Ramanuja. There need thus be no doubt that he is later than Ramanuja. But, if the bhashya had been in existence when Madhava wrote the Sarvadarianasahgraha, he would have almost certainly referred to it ; so that his silence would lead us to think of a later date. Now, the earliest known reference to the work is in the Sahkaravijaya attributed to Madhava, which is clearly pseudonymous, and therefore subsequent to Madhava. Thus, if we. suppose the bhashya was written about A. D. 1400, there would seem to be no evidence in existence which conflicts with that date. Yet it would be unwise to speak dogmatically until the work has been carefully examined and the quotations contained in it have been identified. The bhashya is used by all Agamic Saivas in South India. The earliest existing commentary on the bhashya is Appaya Dikshita's Sivarkamanidlpika, dating from about A.D. 1600. Sambhudeva's Saiva-siddhanta-dipika, which belongs to the sixteenth century, is the most noteworthy dogmatic work' after the bhashya; but Nilakantha's Kriyasara, which con- tains a synopsis of the bhashya, is also much used. There is an account of the school and its theology in the Vayaviya S. of the Siva P. 1. Tamil Saivas. § 425. There is, strictly speaking, no organized sect con- nected with the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. A sort of incomplete sectarian organization has grown up around the literature and the monasteries. These are schools of theology and literature in which monks are trained and priests learn a little. The Mahants keep touch also with their initiated disciples all over the country. A majority of the monasteries are under non- Brahmans, the remainder under Brahmans. Indeed com- 1 On II. i. 22. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 351 paratively few Brahman families are connected with the movement, the mass of Tamil Brahrnans being either Smartas or Vaishnavas. Siddhantists recognize the Vedas, but in practice they usually restrict themselves to the Upanishads and the Saiva portions of the Yajurveda, especially the eleven Rudra Hymns. 1 The Gita they do not use at all 2 : it is too distinctively Vaishnava. The books on which their religious life is really nourished are their own Tamil literature : the Agamas remain in the background, and even the Saiva Bhashya is read by only a few. No serious theological change is visible in the theology during this period, but a number of valuable pieces of literature appeared. Kannu- daiya Valjalar is the author of Olivil-Odukkam, a theological work in Tamil verse belonging to the fifteenth century, while Kumaragufuparasvami wrote many short religious poems in the seventeenth. The most noted scholar of the time, Siva- jnana-yogi, who died in A. D. 1785, wrote two famous Tamil commentaries, one lengthy, the Dravida Bhashya, the other short, the Laghu Tika, on the foundation scripture of the Siddhanta, Siva-jnana-bodha, and also produced the Kanchl- puranam in collaboration with his disciple, as has been already stated. 3 But unquestionably the greatest Saiva production of the period is Tayumanavar's volume of lyrics, which are equally famous for religious feeling, beauty of language, and sweetness of rhythm. He also belongs to the eighteenth century. The philosophic standpoint of the school is called Sivad- vaita, 4 and they are thus distinguished from the Sanskrit Siddhanta school ; but no attempt will be made here to describe the theology, for it differs in important details from the other schools, and thus requires to be expounded with fuller knowledge than the writer possesses. 1 Taittiriya Samhita, IV. v. 2 Pope's dictum, Tiruvasagam, xxxvi, is erroneous. 3 See § 419. 4 Others give Bhedabheda as the standpoint. 35a MUSLIM INFLUENCE , 3. Sit tars. § 436. There was a Saiva school in Tamil-land, which held a monotheistic and Puritan creed, and roundly condemned idolatry. They are usually called the Chittars, or Sittars, i.e. Siddhas, Sages, but their history is not known. They seem to have been most active in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Ahappey and Pambatti are believed to have been their chief singers. Many of the hymns of the Sittars are collected in the Siva-vakyam, Siva's utterance, but orthodox lyrics have also crept in beside the pure material. On the other hand, a number of beautiful lyrics which show the Sittar spirit are mistakenly attributed to Pattinattu Pillai, the tenth- century poet. 1 Tattuva Rayar, who wrote in the seventeenth century a work against idolatry, Adahgan-Murai, was probably another leader. This movement may be an out- come of Muslim influence, like similar anti-idol movements in the- north, or Muslim and Christian teaching may have both had something to do with it. 4. Kashmir Saivas. § 437. Kashmir Saivism still exists, but it shows very little vitality. Yet scholarly pandits are not- wanting: their work, clothed in English, may be seen in Chatterji's Kashmir Shaivism. Sir George Grierson refers to ' a wise old woman known as Lai Ded ' who lived in Kashmir in the fourteenth century, ' whose apophthegms in short verses are still freely quoted in the happy valley ', and he quotes and translates one of her stanzas. Mr. Chatterji names only a single writer belonging to this period, Sivopadhyaya of the eighteenth century, who wrote a commentary on the Vijnana Bhairava T antra. 1 See § 305. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 353 5. Vlra Saivas. §438. It is not yet possible to sketch Lingayat history during those centuries. All that can be done is to give a brief account of the literature produced by the sect in Kanarese. Puranas bulk most largely, the Basava, translated in 1369 from the Telugu by Bhlma Chandra Kavi, the Padmaraja, the story of Kereya Padmarasa, written about 1385 by Padmananka, the Mahabasava by Singi Raja of rather uncertain date, and the Channa Basava, which tells of Basava's nephew, written by Virupaksha Pandit in 1585. The Pra- bhulihgallla, which is not called a Purana, is at once a legendary history and a book of dogmatics. , It is founded on the life of Allama Prabhu, an associate of Basava. It was written by Chamarasa about 1460, and was translated into Tamil at the end of the seventeenth century. 1 About the middle of the seventeenth century lived Sivagunayogi, whose Viveka- chintdmani^ is a sort of cyclopaedia of Saiva lore in ckampii, i.e. in mingled prose and verse. The Kriyasara is a Saiva manual in Sanskrit by Nilakantha, 3 much used by Lingayats. Chapters I-IV are a synopsis in Karikas of the Saiva-bhashya. The Srikara Bhdshya on the Vedanta-sutras is attributed to Srlpati Panditaradhya 4 of the twelfth century ; but it seems to have been unknown until quite recently ; so that its date is very doubtful. Its standpoint is called Sakti-visishtadvaita. G. Sakta Literature. a. The Left-hand School. § 429. Our account of the large Sakta literature produced during this period must be very fragmentary, partly because our knowledge of the chronology is still slight, but even more because we know so little about the sub-sects. 1 See § 419. 2 Rice,'. ATZ. 68. 3 § 424- * § 3"- A a 354 MUSLIM INFLUENCE § 430. Bengal, including Assam, seems to have produced far more Sakta literature than any other part of India during these centuries. The most famous Sakta temple in Bengal is Kamakhya near Gauhati in the upper basin of the Brahma- putra in Assam. It is noticeable that the ancient name for Assam is Kamarupa. The temple of Kalighat close by Calcutta comes next in importance. Human sacrifices were offered in these shrines until British authority put them down. The Kalika Purana or Tantra, which has long been well known, is clearly a manual of the Saktism of Bengal, and probably comes from a date near the beginning of the period. The Blood Chapter gives directions for the offering of animal and human sacrifices to Chandika. The list of sacrificial animals is most formidable : birds, tortoises, alligators, fish, nine species of wild animals, buffaloes, bulls, he-goats, ichneu- mons, wild boars, rhinoceros, antelopes, iguanas, reindeer, lions, tigers. Human sacrifice is of more avail than anything else. Blood drawn from one's own body may also be offered. The Yoginl T. probably belongs to the sixteenth century; for it refers to Vishnusinha, a king who ruled in Kooch Behar shortly after A.D. 1500. It is in two parts, the first dgaling with all the chief Tantrik subjects, the second being really a Mahatmya of Kamakhya. It is one of the foulest Tantras. The Visvasara T. probably belongs to the same time ; for it has a reference to the Bengali Vaishnava leader, Chaitanya (1485-1533). In it is found the Durgasatanama Stotra. It contains a list of 64 Tantras, which appears also in the Agama Tattva-vilasa} A large number of the works mentioned are . clearly modern, and several were produced in Bengal, but their dates are not known. §431. There is another group of Tantras produced in Bengal the dates of which are known, but they are much later. The Mahanirvana, though a Left-hand Tantra, is a noble work, but a mystery hangs over its origin. It is not mentioned in early literature, and the earliest attempt at a commentary 1 Dutta, MT., p. v. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 355 that exists is the set of notes by Hariharananda Bharati, Ram Mohan Ray's pandit. Ram Mohan was born in 177a and died in 1833 5 so tna t the Bharati lived at the very earliest at the close of the eighteenth century. Some scholars believe that he was the author of the book, others doubt the conjecture. In any case the book is probably a product of the eighteenth century. It is in two parts but only the first has been published and translated. The translator writes : This Tantra is, further, one which is well known and esteemed, though perhaps more highly so amongst that portion of the Indian public which favours ' reformed ' Hinduism than amongst some Tan- trikas, to whom, as I have been told, certain of its provisions appear to display unnecessary timidity. The former admire it on account of its noble exposition of the worship of the Supreme Brahman, and in the belief that certain of its passages absolutely discountenance the orthodox ritual. Nothing can be more mistaken than such a belief This any one will discover who reads the text The section of Tantrikas to whom I have referred are, I believe, also in error. For the design of this Tantra appears to be, whilst conserving commonly-recognized Tantrik principles, to secure that, as has sometimes proved to be the case, they are not abused. Parvvati says (Chap. I, verse 67) : ' I fear, O Lord ! that even that which Thou hast ordained for the good of men will, through them, turn out for evil '.* The first and. second chapters are introductory; the third is a discourse on the worship of the Supreme Brahman. The remaining chapters form a very full manual not only of worship and its accompaniments but also of conduct, and of family and funeral rites ; and chakra-puja and the five Ms are not omitted. The Tantrasara is a compilation which dates from 1 81 2. There is very little of the Left-hand element about it, and it contains several fine hymns. A number of yantras, chakras, and mandalas are reproduced in its pages. It is much used in Bengal. It would be most interesting to discover what the influence was which led to the production in Bengal, where Tantrik literature had been so impure, of 1 Avalon.mt. XI ff. A a % 356 MUSLIM INFLUENCE two Left-hand works of such a character as the Mahanirvana T. and the Tantrasara are. The Pranatoshini was written by RamatoshinI Sarma in 1831 1 and the Mahasiddhasara seems to be still later. It contains a catalogue of 192 names, 2 distributed in three lists of 64 each, and labelled Vishnukranta, Rathakranta, and Asvakranta; but the list seems to be quite recent; for it contains the Mahanirvana T., and of all the 19a names only 10 correspond with names in the Vamakesvara list. A large number of odes to the goddess are scattered through this group of Tantras. §432. From the end of the fourteenth century, when the great poet Chandi Das wrote his hymns, a stream of Sakta poetry in Bengali flowed almost without a break. Numerous translations of the episode of Chandi in the Markandeya P- were made from the fifteenth century downward. An artistic Bengali epic on the same subject was written by Mukundarama in 1589. Manasa, one of the local forms of the goddess, was much worshipped, and many poems in her honour were produced. Finally, in the eighteenth century, two of the greatest of Bengali poets, Rama Prasad Sen and Bharata Chnndra Rai, exerted their powers to the utmost in praising the goddess in song. Sakta feeling also expressed itself in the vernacular in Gujarat, in translations of the Chandi episode by Bhalan, about A.D. 1500, and by Ranchhodji Diwan at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and in numberless popular songs called Garbas, which are sung by companies of men or of women. Vallabha Bhatt, who flourished about 1700, is the most notable of the writers of the Garbas. In the Maratha country the Gondhal is a dance performed in honour of Amba BhawanI, in connexion with which songs are sung in her honour. The worship of the goddess took a great hold of the country in the seventeenth century, when under Sivaji patriotic 1 Catalogus Catalogorum, s.v. Pranatoshini T. ? Avalon, TT. I. iiff. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 357 feeling stirred the people to the depths. The Markandeya P. was translated into Telugu in the sixteenth century ; and the Devi Mahatmya from the Markandeya exists in Malayalim, but its date is unknown. The Mantramahodadhi is a manual of ritual prepared by Mahldhara in 1589, and is much used by both Saktas and Saivas throughout Hindustan and the west. Sakta sannyasls may be met here and there. A small group with whom I talked one morning at Vindhyachal belonged to the Purl order of Sankara's Dasnamls. 1 So Tota Purl, the guru of Ramakrishna Paramaharhsa of Dakshines- vara, Ramakrishna himself, and also Vivekananda and the other, svamls of the mission, were Sakta sannyasls and belonged to the Purl order. 2 b. The Right-hand School. §433. In the ordinary Right-hand worship by Smartas in their houses the goddess is represented by a yantra or by a garlanded pot, and the ritual includes the throwing of Kunkuma powder on the yantra and the presentation of vegetarian offerings. But the most important part of the service is the liturgy, which consists in the recitation of the Chandl episode, preceded and followed by other sacred texts, the Kllaka, the Kavacha, the Argalastotra, &c, drawn from the Markandeya and Vardha Puranas. In other circles in South India, Lalita, a beautiful goddess of dazzling appear- ance, takes the place of Chandl. 3 The ritual is the same, but the texts recited are the Lalitopakhyana, in which the goddess kills Bhandasura and other demons, with the Lalitatrisati and the Lalitasahasranama, litanies of three hundred and a thou- sand names, all three drawn from the Brahmanda P. The temple-cult is practically the same as the domestic worship, t 1 See above, § 198. * P. 191 of my Modern Religious Movements in India requires to be corrected in this sense. 3 H. Krishna Sastri, SI/. 220. 358 MUSLIM INFLUENCE only the goddess may be represented by an image with a large metal yantra on the ground at the feet of the image. §434. The man who wishes to practice the famous Right- hand Srividya and through it to seek release, has to receive initiation (diksha) 1 from his guru, to take severe vows and live a life of strictest purity, both physical and mental, for a period of several days. Starting from the ordinary cult, which we have just described, he passes on to the meditations ' and practices prescribed in the Srividya. 2 §435. Appaya Dlkshita (1553-1634) belonged to a Smarta Saiva family of the Tanjore district. Three stages may be traced in his religious life: he cultivated first the Karma Mimamsa, then Sankara's Vedanta, and lastly the Srividya. When he was a Mimamsist, he did not merely study the system, but received initiation (whence his title Dlkshita) as a Vedic priest and performed many sacrifices. But he ended his life as a devotee of the goddess, and individual members of his family to this day follow his example.. They are then called Vlra Saivas, stalwart Saivas, who dare to undertake the very trying discipline of the Srividya. § 436. Three later scholars may be mentioned who belonged to the same part of India and are famous for their devotion to the goddess. They form a short guruparampara of three — Nrisirhhanandanatha, Bhaskaranandanatha, and Umananda- natha. These names proclaim them initiates of the school to which Lakshmldhara Vidyanatha belonged. The second, who is usually called Bhaskararaya, is the greatest of the three. He was court pandit at Tanjore in the early decades of the eighteenth century. He is the author of a learned exposition of the Sakta system in Arya metre, called Variva- syarahasya, and of an elaborate commentary on the same. He also wrote commentaries on the following Sakta works, the Vamakesvara T., the Tripurd, Kaula, and Bhavana Upani- shads, and the Lalitasahasranama, and on the Maha and Jabala Upanishads and the Isvara Gltd. His disciple, 1 Avalon, TGL. lxxiii. s See § 318. . MUSLIM INFLUENCE 359 Umanandanatha, wrote a practical commentary on the Parasurama-Bhargava-sutra. c. The Bhakti School. §437. We have seen in our previous chapter that the Agastya-sutra and the Devi Bhagavata sprang from a special school of Saktas who sought release by bhakti, deep devo- tional feeling, centred on the Devi. 1 Bhatta Nilakantha is the author of a well-known commentary, the Tilaka, on the Devi Bhagavata, in which he urges the claim, already referred to, that this is the real Pur ana, and that the Vaishnava Bhagavata is by Vopadeva. He calls himself a disciple of Srldhara, the author of the chief commentary on the Vaish- nava work. As Srldhara flourished about A.D. 1400, 2 Nilakantha may belong to the fifteenth or the sixteenth century. ii. Jainism. The spontaneous energy of the Jain community visibly declines during this period, if literature is a trustworthy index. A. Svetambara Literature. § 438. In the fifteenth century, at Ahmadabad, where Muhammadan influence was very powerful, a few Svetambaras became convinced of the folly of image-worship and noted that there is no mention of idols in the earliest Jain books. They therefore formed a new sect called the Lonka or Lumpaka, which gave up the temple-cult altogether. A stricter body called the Sthanakavasis arose in the seventeenth century and absorbed the Lorikas. 3 They are a fine people but have produced no noteworthy literature. §439. Svetambara literature is in the main commentaries, but a few dogmatic, works were written, and several authors produced charitas, prabandhas, and tales. The following are the most interesting men. 1 See § 319. 2 See § 356. 3 Mrs. Stevenson, HJ. 19; 88. 360 MUSLIM INFLUENCE Merutunga (b) who was born in 1347, wrote commentaries and abstracts of older works, but dared also to compose a kavya named Meghaduta, thus challenging comparison with the great K-alidasa. Jnanasagara (born 1349) and Soma- sundara (born 1384) were commentators, the former dealing with canonical works, the latter writing simple expositions of popular religious works for children. Gunaratna (c. 1400) wrote a useful comment on Haribhadra's Shaddarsanasamuch- chhaya. Jinamandana (c. 1436), Jinakirti (1437), Subhaslla (1464) produced tales and biographies, while Ratnasekhara (1401-61) wrote commentaries. Dharmasagara, of the middle of the sixteenth century, wrote an interesting polemic, the Kupakshakausikaditya, against ten Jain heretical sects. Samayasundara, one of whose books is dated A.D. 1630, published several anthologies of sacred verse, a catechism, and a commentary, called Kalpalata, on the Kalpa-Sutra. A popular literature in Gujarat! accompanied the learned literature in Sanskrit, but it has not been described in detail. The chief type is the Rasas, interesting tales told to enforce religion and morals. 1 B. Digambara Literature. § 440. The Digambara literature of this period consists in the main of commentaries, Puranas, tales, and biographies. The two most prominent authors are Sakalaklrti and Subha- chandra. Sakalakirti, whose floruit is A.D. 1464, wrote many books. His chief work, the Tattvarthasaradipika, which, despite its title, seems to be an independent work, deals with the seven categories of the Digambara system, but gives also the list of the books of the original Digambara canon. His other works are a catechism, a Purana, and biographies. Srutasagara wrote, at the end of the fifteenth century, a commentary on Kunda- kunda's Shatprabhrita, the Tattvarthadipika on the Digam- bara categories, and the Jinasamhitd on Digambara worship. 1 Jhaveri, MGL. 18, 139, 167. MUSLIM INFLUENCE 361 Nemidatta, who flourished about 1530, wrote biographies of Tlrthakaras and saints, a volume of tales, and a manual of rules for the conduct of the laity, the Sravakachara. Subha- chandra, who lived in the sixteenth century, was a voluminous writer. He has six works on worship, biographies of three of the Tlrthakaras, several volumes of tales, and a Purana, the Pandava P. Ratnachandra (c. 1626) wrote lives of two of . the Tlrthakaras, while BanarasI Dasa, who lived under Shah Jahan (1628-58) wrote in Hindi verse on dogmatic subjects. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. HISTORIES OF THE LITERATURES A. Sanskrit : Macdonell ; Winternitz ; Bloomfield, ERE. viii. 1 06 ff. Also Miiller, ASL.; Weber, HIL.; Schroeder, ILK. B. PALI : Winternitz, II. i; Macdonell, ERE. viii. 85 ff. C. Prakrit : No history has yet been written ; but see Pischel, GPS. 10 ; Konow and Lanman, Rajasekhara's Karpura-manjari, 191, Harvard, 1 90 1 ] Guerinot. D. Vernacular Literatures : See the Introductions in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, Calcutta, 1904, &c. ; also Art., Grierson, BSOSL. 1918, p. 47. E. Assamese : IA. xxv. 57. F. Bengali': Sen, HBLL. ; VSP. ; VLMB. ; CC. G. GujaratI : Jhaveri, MGL. Also, Tripathi, The Classical Poets of Gujarat, Bombay, 1894; Scott, Gujarati Poetry, Surat, 191 1; Da.hya.bhai P. Derasari, Shathina Sahityanuh Digdarsanam, Ahmadabad, 191 1. H. HINDI : Misra Bandhu Vinode ; Prasad, SBS. ; Grierson, LH. ; Lyall, EB. xiii. 483 ff. ; Tripathi, Kavita Kaumudi, Allahabad, 1918. I. Kanarese: Rice, KL. Earlier sketches : British' Museum Catalogue of Kannada Books, London, 19 10; Kittel, Nagavarma's Canarese Prosody, Mangalore, 1875 ; R. Narasimhachar, Karnataka Kavi Charite, vol. i, Mysore City, 1907. J. Malayalim : Sketch : Travancore State Manual, ii, Ch. x, Trivan- drum, 1906. K. Marathi : Brief sketch in Acworth, BM. L. OriYa: Brief sketch, Chatterjij/^i'^., vol. 66, i. 317; vol. 67, i. 332. Cf. IA. i. 79. Hunter, Orissa, ii. 199 ff., London, 1872. M. SlNGALESE : Z<4.xii.53. Geiger, Literatur und Sprache der Singha- lesen, Grundriss, 1900. N. Tamil : Brief sketches : BMCTB. ; Rost, in EB. xxvi. 390 ff. Also Aiyangar, TS. ; Purnalingam Pillai, A Primer of Tamil Literature, Madras, 1904 (uncritical). O. TELUGU : Viresalingam Pantulu, Andra Kavula Charitra, Raja- mundry; British Museum Cat. of Telugu Books, London, 1912. Early sketch : Brown, Madras fournal of Literature and Science, x. II. HINDU LITERATURE. i. The Vedas. A. The Rigveda : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, 40-1 70 ; Winternitz, i. 47-1 03 ; Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, London, 1912. Religion: Oldenberg, RV.; also in French, Henry, Paris, 1903; Bloomfield, RV.\ Kaegi, The BIBLIOGRAPHY 363 Rigveda, Boston, 1898. Mythology: Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Grundriss, 1897; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, Breslau, 1891-1902; Oldenberg, R V. 39-301 ; Keith, Indian Mythology, Boston, 1917. Philo- sophy : Deussen^G/". I. i. 72-158; Bloomfield, R V. Ritual: Oldenberg, RV. 302; Hillebrandt, RL. 1-17. Translations: ETr. Griffith, RV.; GTr. (verse) Grassmann, Leipzig, 1876-7; GTr. (prose) Ludwig, Prag, 1876-88. Partial translations: SBE. xxxii, xlvi ; GTr. hymns illusr trating the religion, Hillebrandt, GSttingen, 1913. Deussen, GTr. of philosophic hymns, AGP. I. i. 93-158 ; Ninth book: FTr. Regnaud, Paris, 1900. B. The Samaveda : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell; Winternitz; Oldenberg, ZDMG. xxxviii. 439, 469 ; Caland, Die Jaiminiya S.,mit einer Einleitung iiber die Samavedaliteratur, Breslau, 1907. Translations : Benfey, Text and GTr., Leipzig, 1848 ; Griffith, ETr., Benares, 1893. Ritual: Hille- brandt, RL. 99-105. C. The Yajurveda : Gen.Intro.: Macdonell; Winternitz; Keith.T^. Religion : Oldenberg, R V. ; Schroeder, ILK. vii-xii. Ritual : Hille- brandt, RL. 97-166. Translations : White Yajus : Griffith, Benares, 1899. Taittirlya S. : Keith, TS. D. The Atharvaveda : Gen. Intro. : Bloomfield, A V. ; Whitney and Lanman, A V. ; Macdonell ; Winternitz. Religion, Magic, and Ritual : Oldenberg, RV.; Hillebrandt, RL., 167-86. Philosophy: Deussen, A GP. I. i. 209-336. Translations : ETr. Whitney and Lanman, A V. ; ETr. Griffith, Benares, 1897. Partial Trs. : Eng. : Bloomfield, SBE. xlii. French : Henry, Paris, 1891-6; German: Weber, Indische Studien ; Grill, Stuttgart, 1888; Deussen, A GP. I. i. 210-83 (philosophic hymns). E. TheBrahmanas : Gen. Intro.: Miiller, .4.SZ.313-455 ; Macdonell, 202-18; Winternitz, i. 171-96. Culture and Philosophy: Deussen, AGP. I. i. 159-336. Analyses of Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Panchavimsa, Shadvimsa, Chhandogya, Taittirlya, Satapatha, Deussen, SUV. Trans- lations, &c: Aitareya: Text, Intro., ETr., Haug, Bombay, 1863. Aitareya and Kaushitaki : ETr. Keith, vol. xxv, HOS., in the press. Shadvimsa : Text and GTr. Klemm, Giitersloh, 1894. Adbhuta : Text and GTr. Weber, Zwei vedische Texte uber Omina und Portenta, Berlin, 1859. Talavakara : Text and ETr. Oertel, J A OS. xiv, xv, xvi, xviii. Arsheya, Devatadhyaya, Vamsa, Samhitopanishad, Brahmanas : Texts with Intro. Burnell, Manga- lore, 1873; 1876; 1877. Sdmavi'dhana: Intro., Text, Comm., Burnell, London, 1873; GTr. Konow, Halle, 1893. Satapatha: Intro, and ETr. Eggeling, SBE. xii, xxvi, xli, xliii, xliv. Gopatha : Intro, and Analysis, Bloomfield. A V. F. THE Aranyakas : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, 34 ; Winternitz, i. 199 ; 202, n. 1. Deussen, PU. 2 ff. ; SV. 8_; Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des Rigveda, Berlin, 1888, 291 ; Keith, AA. 15, 257. Translations, &c. : Aitareya : Text, Intro., ETr., Comm., Keith, A A. Sahkhayana ; ETr. Keith, London, 1908; see also JRAS. 1908, 363. Taittiriya, Analysis, Deussen, SUV. 213. Brihat = Satapatha Br. xiv. 1-3. ETr., Eggeling, SBE. xliv. 441-510. G. The Upanishads : Gen. Intro. : Deussen, PU. ; SUV. ; Olden- berg, LU. Brief Introductions : Macdonell, 218-43 ; Winternitz, i. 196- 364 BIBLIOGRAPHY 228; Barnett, Brahma-Knowledge, London, 191 1 ; Jacob, Concordance to the Principal Upanishads, Bombay, 1891. List of chief Upanishads : RlK : 1. Aitareya ; 2. Kaushitaki. Saman: 3. Chhandogya; 4. Kena. BLACK. ; Ya JUS : 5. Taittirtya; 6. Mahanarayana ; 7. Kathaka or Katha ; 8. Sveiahiqtara ; 9. Maitra- yana. Whi^e Yajus : 10. Brihad&ranyaka ; 11. Isa. Atharvan : 12. Mundaka; 13. Prasna; 14. Mandukya; 15. Garbha; 16. Prdndg- nihotra ] 17. Pinda ; 18. Atma ; 19. Sa'rva- Upanishat-sara; 20. Gdruda ; 21. Brahmavidy'a ; 22. Kshurika; 23. Chiilika; 24. Nddabindu; 25. Brahmabindu ; 26. Amritabindu ; 27. Dhyanabindu ; 28. Tejobindu ; 29. Yogasikha • 30. Yogatattva ; 31. Hamsa ; 32. Brahma ; 33. Sann- yasa; 34. Aruneya ; 35. ZOmtkasruti or Kathasruti; ZQ.Paramahamsa; 37. Jabala; 38. Asrama ■ 39. AtharvaHras A. ; 40. Atharvasikha; 41. Nilarudra,;_ 42. Kaldgnirudra ; 43. Kaivalya ; 44. Maha ; 45. Nara- yana- 46. Atmabodka ; 47. Nrisimhapurvatdpaniya; 48. Ntisimhottara- tapaniya; ^Q.Ramapurvatapaniya; 50. Rdmottaratapaniy a; 5\.Kaula; 52. Amritandda ; 53. Brihajjabala ; 54. Maitreya ; 55. Subala ; 56. yJ/a«- trikd; 57 '. Niralamba ; 58. Sukarahasya ; 59. VajrasucM ; 60. Narada- fiarivrajaka; 61. Trisikhibrahmana; 62. Sila ; 63. Yogachudamani ; 64. Nirvana ; 65. Mandalabrahmana ; 66. Dakshina?nurti ; 67. Sarabha ; 68. Skanda; 69. Tripadvibhiitimahanardyana; 70. Advayataraka \ 71. Ramarahasya ; 72. Vasudeva ; , 73. Mudgala ; 74. Sandilya ; 75. Paihgala ; 76. Bhikshuka ; 77. Sariraka ; 78. Turiyatitavadhiita ; 79. Paramahamsaparivrdjaka ■ 80. Akshamalika ; 81. Avyakta ; 82. Ekakshara ; 83. Annapurna; 84. Surya ; 85. Akshi ; 86. Adhyatma ; 87. Kundika; 88. Savitri; 89. Pasupatabrahma; 90. Parabrahma; 91. Avadhuta ; 92. Tripuratapaniya ; 93. Devi; 94. Tripura ; 95. Katharudra ; 96. Bhavana ; 97. Rudrahridaya ; 98. Yogakundali ; 99. Bhasmajabala; 100. Rudrakshajdbala ; 101. Ganapati ; 102. £>ar- ' sana ; 103. Tarasara ; 104. Mahavakya ; 105. Panchabrahma ; 106. Gopalatapaniya ; 107. Krishna ; 108. Yajnavalkya ; 109. Varaha ; 110. Satyayana ; 111. Hayagriva ; 112. Dattatreya ; 113. Kalisamtarana ; 114. Jdbali; 115. Saubhagyalakshmi; 116. Sarasvatirahasya ; Wl.Bah- vricha ; 118. Muktika ; 119. Gopichandana ; 120. Varadatapaniya ; 121. Varadottaratapaniya ; 122. Shatchakra ; 123. Atharvasiras B. Groups : Nos. 1-14 are the Classical Upanishads. Nos. 1-50 with the addition of nine pieces from Dara Shikoh's Persian collection and the PranavaU. (a portion of the Gopatha B.), form Deussen's sixty Upanishads (2nd ed.) : 5t/K For the lists of Narayana, Dara Shikoh, and Cole- brooke, see Deussen, SUV. 535-7. The 108 Upanishads given in the list in the Muktika U. correspond to the above list, with the omission of Nos. 6, 17, 25, 34, 35, 38, 41, 51, 119-23, the Chulika, No. 23 above, being the Mantrika, No. 32 in the Muktika. list, and the pairs of Upanishads, Nos. 1 47-8 and 49-50 above, being each taken as one, Nos. 27 and 55 in the Muktika list. Bare text of the Upanishads of this list : W. L. Sastri Pansikar, Bombay, 1917. Commentaries : 8th c. Gaudapada, Nos. 14, 47, 48. Early 9th. Sankara, Nos. I, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 39, 40, 47 : Deussen, .SK. 37. BIBLIOGRAPHY 565 13th c. Madhva, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. ETrs. of all, except No's. 1 and 5, SBH. i, iii, xiv. c. 1350. Sankarananda, Nos. 2, 4, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17-19, 21-34, 36, 37, 39-41, 43, 45, 49, 5°, i°6. Narayana, Nos. 4-8, 12-20, 23, 25, 27-32, 34, 36, 37,40-50, 72, 106, 107, 1 19-21, and others : Deussen, SUV. 538 ; Jacob, EA U., Preface. 16th c. Ramatirtha, No. 9., Rangaramanuja, a Sn-Vaishnava : Rajagopalacharya, VRI. 34. 18th c. Bhaskararaya, Nos. 4, 7, 12,37, 44,94, 96, 122. Translations and Introductions : ETrs. of 1-5 and 7-13, Max Miiller, SBE. I. xv ; ETrs. of 3, 4, 7, io, 11, 12, 13, 14, with Madhva's comms., S. C. Vasu, SBH. I.. HI. xiv ; ETrs. of the five Upanishads included in Atharvasiras B., No. 123, Kennedy, HM. 346, 442, 443; 491, 493 ; ETrs. of 72, 119, Jacob, I A., 1887, 84, 89. Introductions and GTrs. of 1-50, Deussen, SUV. ; ETrs. of selections, Barnett, Brahma- Knowledge, .London, 191 1. Introductions to 20, 38, 42, 44, 45, 46, 68, 72, 107, 119, 120, Jacob, EA U. ii. The Kalpa Sutras, &c. Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, 244-64 ; Winternitz, i. 232-40 : also Miiller, ASL. ch. i. A. c Srauta Sutras : Chief Texts : (Rik) 1. Sahkhayana ; 2. Asva- layana. (Saman) 3. Masaka; 4. Latyayan'aj 5. Drahyayana; 6. Jaimini. (W. Yajus) 7. Katyayana. (B. Yajus) 8. Afiastamba ; 9. Hiranyakesin ; 10. Baudhayana ; 11. Bharadvaja ; 12. Manava. (Atharvan) 13. Vai- tana. Ritual : Hillebrandt, RL. 18-36 ; 97-166. Translations : GTrs. Vaitana, Garbe, Strassburg, 1878; Caland, Amsterdam, 1910. B. Grihya Sutras : Chief Texts : (Rik) 1. Sahkhayana ; 2. Sam- bavya ; 3. Asvalayana. (Saman) 4. Gobhila ; 5. Khadira ; 6. Jaimini. (W. Yajus) 7. Paraskara. (B. Yajus) 8. Afiastamba ; 9. Hiranyakesin ; 10. Baudhayana ; 11. Bharadvaja ; 12. Manava ; 13. Vaikhanasa. (Atharvan) 14. Kausika. Eitual : Hillebrandt, RL. 18-36 ; 41-97. Translations: ETrs. of 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Oldenberg, SBE. xxix, xxx. GTrs. of 1 (Oldenberg, Indische Studien, xv), of 3 and 7 (Stenzler, Leipzig, 1864, 1876), of 6 (Caland, Amsterdam, 1906), of 4 (Knauer, Dorpat, 1886). On 13, see Bloch, Ueber das Grihya und Dharmasutra der Vaikhanasa, Leipzig, 1896. On 14, see Bloomfield,y.<40.S'. xiv. 1. C. Dharma Sutras : Intro.: Jolly, RS. 1-13 ; Biihler, intros. to SBE. ii and xiv. Vedie school manuals : - (B. Yajus) 1. Afiastamba ; 2. Hiranyakesin ; 3. Baudhayana. Manuals for all : 4. Gautama ; 5. Vasis'htha. Translations : -ETrs. of I, 3, 4, 5, Biihler, SBE. ii and xiv. For later Dharma-sutras, see Law Literature. D. SULVA Sutras: Intro.: Thibaut, JASB. xliv, Calcutta, 1875; 1. Baudhayana Sulva Sutra, Text and ETr. Thibaut, Pandit, ix ; 2. Afiastamba Sulva Sutra, Text and pTr., Biirk, ZDMG. lv and lvi. E. The VEDANGAS : Intro. : Miiller, ASL. 108 ff. ; Macdonell, 264-7S- 5 66 BIBLIOGRAPHY F. Texts on Magic: Gen. Intro.: Bloomfield, A V. 15-17, 57; Rose, ERE. viii. 292 ; Henry, La Magie dans I'lnde antique, Paris, 1909; Caland, Altindisches Zauberrilual, Amsterdam, 1900; Winternitz, i. 147, 239. 1. Rigvidhana: Macdonell, 251, 274. For the Sama- vidhana, Abdhuia, and Gopatha Brahmanas, see above, under the Brahmanas. iii. Law Literature. Gen. Intro. : Jolly, RS. A. Dharma-SOtras : see above, p. 365. B. Law in the Mahabharata: Jolly, RS. 29-31; Biihler, SBE. xxv, Intro. ; Hopkins, GE. 17-23 ; Winternitz, i. 364. C. Secondary Dharma-SOtras : Intro. : Jolly, RS. 7-13. Chief texts: 1. Vishnusmriti : Intro, and ETr. Jolly, SBE.v'n; 2. Vaikhanasa: Jolly, RS. 9-10; Bloch, Ueber das Grihya wid Dharmasutra der Vai- khanasa, Leipzig, 1896 ; 3. Harita, Jolly, RS. 8-9. D. THE Dharmasastras : Intro. : Jolly, 'RS. 13-29 ; Biihler, SBE. xxx, Intro. Chief texts : 1. Manava Dharmasastra, or lawbook of Manu : Intro. Jolly, RS. 13-19; Intro, and ETr. Biihler, SBE. xxv; 2. Yajha- valkya: Intro. Jolly, RS. 19-21; Max Miiller, ASL. 30m. Text and GTr. Stenzler, Berlin, 1849 ; 3. Narada : Intro. Jolly, RS. 21-3 ; Intro, and ETr. Jolly, SBE. xxxiii; 4. Brihaspati, Jolly, RS. 21 ; Intro, and ETr. Jolly, SBE. xxxiii. There is a large number of later Dharma- sastras : Intro. Jolly, RS. 23-9 ; text and ETrs. M. N. Dutt, Calcutta, 1908. iv. Trie Epics. A. Mahabharata: Gen. Intro.: Holtzmann, MBH.\ Hopkins, GE. ; ERE. viii. 325 ; Macdonell, 281 ; Winternitz, i. 259. Analysis : Monier Williams, Indian Epic Poetry, London, 1863 ; Jacobi, Das Mahabharat Bonn, 1903. Religion: Hopkins, RI. chs. xiv-xv. Philo- sophy: Hopkins, GE. ch. iii; Deussen, AGP. I. iii. 8; Die Samkhya Philosophie nach dem Mahabharata, Dahlmann, 1902. Vernac. versions : Kanarese (Jain), 10th c. ; Telugu, nth to 13th c; Tamil, 15th c. ; Kanarese, 16th c. ; Bengali, 17th c. (earlier versions from 14th c.) ; Malayalim, 17th c. ; Hindi, 19th c. Translations: ETrs. P. C. Roy, Calcutta, 1884-96; Dutt, Calcutta, 1895. Partial FTrs. Fauche, Paris, 1863-70; Foucaux, Paris, 1862. Partial ITr. Pavolini, 1902. GTr. of the four philosophical sections, Deussen und Strauss, Leipzig, 1906 ; ETr. of the Gita, the Sanatsujatiya, and the Anugita, Telang, SBE. viii. Bhagavadgita : Gen. Intro. : Barnett,* Bhagavadgita, London, 1905 ; Garbe, ERE. ii. 535 ; Winternitz, i. 365 ff. ; Farquhar, Gita and Gospel, Madras, 1906; Jacob, Concordance to the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavadgita, Bombay, 1891. Origin and date : Garbe, Die Bhaga- vadgita, Leipzig, 1905; Hopkins, JRAS., 1905, 384;' Keith, JRAS., 1915, 548. Translations : ETrs. Davies, London, 1894 ; Telang, SBE.' viii ; Barnett, London, 1905 ; Annie Besant, Madras ; GTrs. Garbe, Leipzig, 1905 ; Deussen, Der Gesang des Heiligen, Leipzig, 1911. BIBLIOGRAPHY 367 B. Ramayana.: Gen. Intro.: Macdonell, ERE. x. 574; Jacobi, R.\ Macdonell, 302; Winternitz, i. 423; Hopkins, GE. ch. ii. Analysis: Monier Williams, Indian Epic Poetry, London, 1863 ; Jacobi, R. 126. Vernac. versions : Kanarese (Jain), 10th c. ; Tamil, 1100; Telugu, 1300; Bengali, 14th a; Malayalim, 15th a; Hindi, 1584; Kanarese, 1590. Trs. : ETr. (prose), Dutt, Calcutta, 1892 ; ETr. (verse), Griffith, Benares, 1870-4 ; FTr. Fauche, Paris, 1858 ; ITr. Gorresio, Parigi, 1843-70. v. Philosophical Literature. Gen. Intro.: Deussen, AGP. Also Colebrooke, Essays; Hall; Muller, SS.\ Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India, Chicago, 1897. A. KARMA MlMAMSA. Intro. : Jha, PSPM. ; Garbe, ERE. viii. 648. Also Colebrooke, Essays, i. 295; Muller, 55. y; Madhava, SDS. xii : Cowell, 178. 4th or 5th.' Jaimini ; 1. Purva-mimdmsd-sutras : ETr. Jha., SBH. x. c. 500. Sahara Svamin ; 2. Bhashya, on No. 1. 7th c. Prabhakara; 3. Brihati, on No. 2 : full intro., Jha, PSPM. c. 700. Salikanatha, disciple of Prabhakara ; 4. Rijuvimala, oh I : Jha, PSPM. 1, 2, 18; Hall, 195; 5. Prakaranapanchikd, a sketch of Prabhakara's system: Jha, PSPM. I, 4, 18. Text, Benares, 1904. Early 8th. Kumarila ; 6. Mimamsa-sloka-varttika, on No. 2 : ETr. in BI. ; 7. Tantra-vdrttika, on No. 2 : ETr. in BI. ; 8. fwptlkd, on No. 2. e. 850. Mandanamisra ; 9. Vidhiviveka: Woods, Yoga, xxii, 357; Jha, PSPM. 8. " c. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 10. Nyayakanika, on 9 : Woods, Yoga, xx v; 357- Nos. 9 and 10 published together, Benares, 1907. c. 1300. Parthasarathimisra ; 11. Sastradipika, on I : Hall, 173; Colebrooke, ME. i. 299; 12. Tantra-ratna, on I ; 13. Nydya-ratndkara, on 6 : Jha, PSPM. 18 ; 14. Nyaya^ratna-mdla, on 7 : Hall, 172. c. 1350. Vedanta-desika ; 15. Sesvara-mimamsa, on 1 ; Rajagopala- chariar, VRI. 107. 0.1380. Madhava; 16. Jaiminiyanyayamalavistara, on I : Hall, 186; 17. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, ch. xii : Cowell, 178. c. 1400. Somesvara ; 18. Nydya-sudha, or Rdnaka, on 7 : Hall, 170 ; Jha, PSPM. 8. c. 1525. Vallabhacharya ; 19. Jaiminiya-sutra-bhdshya : Hall, 208. c. 1543. Ramakrishna; 20. Siddhdnta-chandrika, on 11 : Hall, 173. c. 1580. Narayana; 21. Sdstradipikd-vydkhya, on 11 : Hall, 178. c. 1600. Bhatta foinakara; 22. Bhdtta-dinakara, on 11 : Hall, 175. Early 17th. Appaya Dlkshita ; 23. Vidhi-rasayana : Hall, 194. Early 17th. Apadeva ; 24. Mimdmsd-nydya-firakdsa or Apadevi : Hall, 185. ETr., Jha,_ Benares. Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara; 25. A rthasahgraha: Macdonell, 451. Text, Intro., and ETr., Thibaut, Benares, 1882. d. 1665. Khandadeva; 26. Bhatta Dlpika, on 1 : Hall, 179. Mid 17th. Anantadeva ; 27. Smriti Kaustubha : Hall, 185. Sucharitamisra ; 28. ' Kasika, on 6: Jha, PSPM. 18. B. VEDANTA. Intro. : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 325 ; Muller, SS. ch. iv ; Deussen, 5 V. ; Thibaut, Intro. SBE. xxxiv. 368 BIBLIOGRAPHY 4th or 5th. Badarayana ; 1. Veddnta-sutras : Intro, and ETr. Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, xxxviii. Mid 8th. Gaudapada ; 2. Mandukya-Karika, on Mdndukya U. : Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 573. ETr. Dvivedl, Bombay, 1909; ETr. SBH. i. 788-c. 850. Sahkara ; 3. Vedanta-sutra-bhdshya, on No. 1 : Intro, and ETr. Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, xxxviii. GTr. Deussen, Leipzig, 1887. Life, works, and system, Deussen, SV. Sketch of system, Deussen, Outline of the Vedanta, London, 1907. c. 850. Mandanamisra, or Suresvaracharya ; 4. Naishkarmya-siddhi, a polemic against the Miitiarhsa.: Hall, 159. c. 850. Padmapada ; 5. Panchapddika, on No. 3 : Hall, 88. ETr. Venis, Benares. c. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 6. Bhamati, on No. 3 : Woods, Yoga, xxi- xxiii; Hall, 87. o. 900. Bhaskaracharya ; 7. Brahma-sutra-bhashya, on No. I : Cole- brooke, Essays, i. 334. c. 1050. Yadava Prakasa ; 8. Yadava-bhdshya, on No. I. c. 1250. Amalananda ; 9. Vedanta-kalpataru, on No. 6 : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 333; Hall, 87; Jacob,/A4S., 1916, 853. c. 1350. Bharatitlrtha and Madhava ; 10. Panchadasi: Winternitz and Keith, Bodleian Catal. ii. 190. ETr. Nanda Lai Dhole, Calcutta, 1899. 15th c. Advaitananda ; 11. Brahmavidyabharana, on No. 3 : Cole- brooke, Essays, i. 333 ; Hall, 89. End 15th. Sadananda ; 12. Veddnta-sara : Intro., ETr., and notes, Jacob, Manical of Hindu Pantheism, London, 1891 ; Intro, and GTr., Deussen, AGP. 1. iii. 615. See Keith, SS. 102. Bhavadevamisra ■ 13. Veddnta-sutra-vyakhya-chandrikd, on 1 : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 334. Before 1550. Madhusudana Sarasvati; 14. Vedanta-kalpalatika: Hall, 132; 15. Advaita-siddhi, a refutation of the Nyaya : ETr., Jha, Allahabad. Mid 16th. Vijfiana Bhikshu ; 16. Vijnanamrita, on I. End 16th. Ramananda Sarasvati ; 17. Brahmamrita-vdrshini, on No. 1 : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 334 ; Hall, 89, 93. c. 1600. Appaya Dikshita ; 18. Vedanta-kalfiataru-parimala, on No. 9 : Hall, 88 ; 19. Siddhanta-lesa : criticism of other forms of the Vedanta, &c. : Hall, 153 : ETr. Venis, Benares. Prakasananda ; 20. Vedanta-siddhdnta-muktdvali ; Macdonell, 451 :=Hall, 99. ETr. Venis, Benares, 1890. C. SANKHYA. Gen. Intro. : Keith, .S^. Earlier works, Colebrooke, Essays, i. 227 ; Miiller, SS. ch. vi; Garbe, Die Sahkhya Philosophie, Leipzig, 1894; Garbe, SY. ; Dahlmann, Die' Samkhya Philosophie nack dem Mahabha- rata, Berlin, 1902. 1st or 2nd. Varshaganya ; 1. Shashtitantra : Keith, SS. ch. v ; Schrader, ZDMG. 1914, 101 ; IP AS. no.' c. 300. Isvara Krishna ; 2. Sahkhya Karika : Keith, 55. ch. viii. ETr. Davies, London, 1881;' ETr. Colebrooke, London, 1837; ETr. Sihha, SBH. xi. BIBLIOGRAPHY ' 369 7th. e. Gaudapada ; 3. Bhashya, on 2 : Hall, 5. ETr. Wilson, Londoo, 1837- c. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 4. Sahkhya-tattva-katimudi, on 2 : Woods, Yoga, xxi ; Keith, SS. 70. ETr. Jha, Bombay, 1896. Early 14th. BharatI Yati; 5. Tattva-kaumudi-vyakhya, on 4. 0.1380. Madhava; 6. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, xiv: ETr. Cowell, 221 ; Keith, SS. 91. 7. Tattva-samasa : Keith, 55. 89-91. ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi. 8. Sahkhya-pravachana-sutra : Keith, 55. 91. ETr. Hall, BI., 1865 ; ETr. Ballantyne, London, 1885; ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi. c. 1500. Aniruddha ; 9. Sankhya-sutra-vritti or Aniruddha-vritti, on 8 : Keith, 55. 92. ETr. Garbe, BI. 1892 ; ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi'. ■ Mid 16th. Vijfiana Bhikshu ; 10. Sahkhya-pravachana-bhashya, on No. 8: GTr. Garbe, Leipzig, 1889: ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi; 11. Sahkhya- sara, Intro, and Text, Hall, BI. 1862. Late 16th. Bhava Ganesa Dlkshita ; 12. Sahkhya-sara, a summary of Sankhya doctrine ; 13. Tattva-yathdrtha-dipana, on 7 : Hall, 4. Late 17th. Mahadeva Vedantin ; 14. Sdhkhya-vritti-sdra, on 9 : ETr. in Garbe, Aniruddha's Commentary, Calcutta, 1892; ETr. Sinha, SBH. xi. Early 18th. Nagesa Bhatta; 15. Laghu-sahkhya-sutra-vritti, on 10. D. YOGA Gen. Intro. : Garbe, 5 Y. ; Muller, SS. ch. vii. Early 4th. Patanjali ; 1. Yoga-sutras : Intro, and ETr. Woods, Yoga. ETr., with No. 4, Mitra, BI. 1883 ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv. 7th or 8th. Veda-vyasa ; 2. Yoga-bhashya, on No. 1 : Intro, and ETr. Woods, Yoga ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv. c. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 3. Tattva-vaisaradi, on. No. 2 ; Intro, and ETr. Woods, Yoga ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv. Early 11th. Bhoja ; 4. Raja-martanda, on 1 : Hall, 10; Garbe, 5K. 41'j Woods, Ftfg-a, xiii ; ETr. Mitra, BI. 1883. c. 1380. Madhava; 5. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, xv : Cowell, 231. Mid 16th. Vijfiana Bhikshu ; 6_. Yoga-varttika, on No. 2 ; 7. Fi^a- sarasahgraha: Hall, 12; ETr., Jha, Bombay, 1894. End 16th. Ramananda SarasvatI 1 ; 8. Maniprabha, on No. 1 : Hall, 12. ETr. Woods, JAOS. 1914, I. E. VAISESHIKA Gen. Intro. : ERE. ii. 199 ff. ; Chatterji, The Hindu Realism, Allahabad, 191 2 ■ Colebrooke, Essays, i. 261 ; Muller, SS. ch. ix ; S\ia\\,Jntroduzione ; H.Ui', The Vaiseshika Philosophy ace. to the Dasapadarthasastra, London, 1917 • Faddegon, The Vaiseshika System, Amsterdam, 1918 ; Keith, Logic and Atomism; a Study of the Nyaya and Vaiseshika Systems of Indian Philosophy, in the Press, Oxford. 4th or 5th. Kanada Kasyapa; 1. Vaiseshika-sutra: ETr. Gough, Benares, 1 873 ; ETr. Sinha, SBH. vi ; GTr. Roer, ZDMG. xxi. 309-420 ; xxii. 383-422. 1 Disciple of Govindananda SarasvatI : Hall, 89. Another disciple, named Narayana Sarasvati, wrote a work in 1592. Woods, JAOS. 1914, p. 1. B b 37o ' BIBLIOGRAPHY • Late 6th. Prasastapada; 2. Padartka-d/iarma-sangraka, on I : Hall, 64. ETr., with No. 6, Jha, Benares. c. 600. Jfianachandra ; 3. Dakapadartha : CTr. by Hiouen Tsang, A. T>. 648 : Nanjio, 1295. ETr. of this Chinese version, H. Ui, op. cit. Fl. 984. Udayana.: Keith, JRAS. 1908, 524 ; 4. Kiranavali, on No. 2 : Hall, 65 ; Chatterji, HR.ix; 5. Lakshanavali, definitions of Vaiseshika terms : Chatterji, HR. ix. - Fl. 991. Srldhara : Chanda, IAR. 197 ; 6. Nyaya-Kandali on No. 2. Keith, JRAS. 1908, 523 ; Chatterji, HR. ix. ETr. : see No. 2, above. 11th c. Sivaditya ; 7. Saptapadarthi : Hall, 74. 12th c. Vallabha Nyayacharya ; 8. Nyaya-lilavati : Hall, 71. 12th c. Vardhamana Upa.dhya.ya 1 ; 9. Kiranavali-prakasa on 4 : Hall, 65. c. 1380. Madhava ; 10. Sarvadarsanasangraha, ch. x : ETr. Cowell, 145. - Late 15th. Sankara Misra ; 11. Vaikeshika-sutropaskara, on No. 1 : Chatterji, HR. x ; Hall, 68. ETr. Sinha, SBH. vi. End 16th. Annam Bhatta; 12. Tarka Sahgraha: Hall, 68. ETr. Ballantyne, Allahabad, 1852. Numerous comms. : see Hall, 69-71. Early 17th. Visvanatha Pafichanana; 13. Bhasha-parichchheda: elementary, in verse: Hall, 73. ETr. Roer, BI. 1850; 14. Siddhanta- muktavall: Coram, on No. 13. ETr. Roer, BI. 1850. Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara; \b.Tarka-kaumudl: Text, Intro., and notes, Dvivedi, Bombay, 1886. F. NYAYA. Gen. Intro. : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 261 ; Miiller, 55. viii ; Vidya- bhushana, MS1L. ; Jacobi, Gott. Nach. 1901,460; ERE. ii. 198 ; ix. 422 ; M. Chakravarti, JASB. 1915,260; Suali, Introduzione : Keith, JRAS. 1914, 1089 ; Keith, Logic and. Atomism, in the Press, Oxford. 4th or 5th. Akshapada Gotama ; 1. Nyaya-sutras, ETr. with Nos. 2 and 3, Jha, Allahabad, 191 5: see Keith, JRAS. 1916,613; ETr. Vidyabhu- shana, SBH. viii. u. 500. Vatsyayana; 2. Nyaya-bhashya, on No. 1 : JASB. 1910, 307. ETr., see No. 1. Fl. 630-50. Uddyotakara; 3. Nyaya-varttika, on No. 2: Vidya- bhushana, JRAS. 1914, 603; Keith, JRAS. 1914, 1091. ETr., see No. 1. A.D. 841. Vachaspatimisra ; 4. Nyaya-varttika-tdtparya-tika, on 3 ; 5. Nyaya-suchi-nibandha, appendix to 4 : date : Woods, Yoga, xxi. o. 900. Jayanta ; 6. Nyaya-manjari, an encyclopaedia of the system. c. 980. Udayana ; 7. Nyaya-varttika-tatparya-parisuddhi, on 4 ; 8. Kusumanjali: ETr. Cowell, BI. 1864. £rikantha; 9. Nyayalamkara : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii; 53. Bha-sarvajfia ; 10. Nyaya-sara, with 18 commentaries : Vidyabhu- shana, MSIL. 53; Madhava, SDS. : Cowell, 165 ; 170. Abhayatilaka ; 11. Nyaya-vritti : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii ; 53. Early 12th. Gangesa; 12. Tattva-chintamani: Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xviii ; Hall, 28. 12th c. Vardhamana 1 ; 13. Nyaya-nibandha-prakasa, on 7 : Hall, 21. 1 Son of Gangesa, author of the famous Nyaya work, Tattva-chintamani. BIBLIOGRAPHY 371 Early 13th. Jayadevamisra; 14. Tativa-alofia, on 12 : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xviii. 13th c. Kesava Misra : 15. Tarka-bhasha: Keith,/i?245. 1914, 1089 Hall, 22. ETr. Jha, Allahabad. c. 1380. Madhava; 16. Sarvadarsanasahgraha,-x\: ETr. Cowell, 161 c. 1475. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma ; 17. Tattva-chintdmani-vyakhya, on 12 : Hall, 30; 18. Sarvabhauma-nirukti, Sen, CC. 81. c. 1500. Raghunatha ^iromani ; 19. Tattva-didhiti, on 12 : Hall, 31 End 16th. Mathuranatha ; 20. Tattva-aloka-rahasya or Mathura ndthi, on 12 : Hall, 29. c. 1600, Jagadlsa Tarkalamkara ; 21. Tattva-dldhiti-tifi£ani, on 19: Hall, 35. Early 17th. Visvanatha Pafichanana ; 22. Nyaya-sUtra-vritti, on I. ETr. Ballantyne, Calcutta. Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara ; 23. Padartha-mala : Hall, 26. G. THE MATERIALISTIC SCHOOL. They are called Lokayatikas, Charvakas or Barhaspatyas. Gen. Intro. : Poussin, ERE. viii. 493 ; Garbe, ERE. viii. 138 ; Pizza- galli, Nastika, Charvaka e Lokdyatika, Pisa, 1907 ; Miiller, SS. 86 ; 94 ; Hopkins, GE. 86 ; Haribhadra, Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya : FTr. Suali, Le AfusSott, ix. 277 ; Madhava, SDS. ch. 1 : ETr. Cowell, 2. H. COMPARATIVE AND CRITICAL PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE. c. 600. Samantabhadra, a Dig. Jain; \. Afitamimamsa: Gue'rinot, 63; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 23 : contains a review of the various philosophic schools. c. 600. Bhavaviveka, a Madhyamaka Buddhist ; 2. Tarkajvala : criticism of the Mimamsa, Sankhya, Vaiseshika, and Vedanta. Walleser, DAV.7; AMG. ii. 367. • o. 800. Vidyananda, a Dig. Jain ; 3. Ashtasahasri. In this work he criticizes the six Hindu systems, except the Nyaya, and also Buddhism : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 26. Late 9th. Haribhadra, a Svet. Jain ; 4. Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya, a review of six schools. 1065. Krishnamisra, a Vedantist ; 5. Prabodhachandrodaya, a drama. 12th c. Sriharsha, a Vedantist : Macdonell, 330; 6. Khandanakhan- dakhadya, a criticism of the Nyaya and other schools. ETr. jha, Allaha- bad, 1913 : see Keith, JRAS. 1916, 377. H. P. Sastrl, I. xlvi. 1304. Merutunga, a Svet. Jain ; 7. Shaddarsanavichara : Guerinot, 393- 1380. Madhava, a Vedantist; 8. Sarvardarsanasahgraha,a.Ttv\e.w of sfxteen schools : Macdonell, 406. ETr. Cowell, London, 1908. vi. The Puranas. Gen. Intro. : Origin and date : Hopkins, GE. 47-54 : Pargiter, JRAS. 1912, 254; Fleet, JRAS; 1912, 1046; Keith, JRAS. 1914, 740; V. Smith, EHI. 21. The Dynastic Lists: Pargiter, PTDKA ; V. Smith, B b 2 $1% BIBLIOGRAPHY EH/. 22; Keith, JRAS. 1914, 1021. Analyses: Wilson, Works, iii. I_I 55> VP' !• i-cxvii ; Winternitz, i. 450. Contents: Pargiter, ERE. x. 447. Harivamsa : Intro, and analysis : Winternitz, i. 378. Date : Jackson, JRAS. 1907, 408, 681; 1908, 529; Keith, JRAS. 1908, 173; Hopkins, GE. 9. FTr. Langlois, Paris, 1834; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1897. 1. Brahma : Wilson, Works, iii. 8. 2. Padma: Wilson, Works, iii. 21. Telugu Tr., 1420. Analysis of the Kriyayogasdra (an Appendix), Fonseca, Jahrbericht, DMG. 1846, 153. 3. Vishnu: Intro, and analysis: Wilson, VP- I. cxii; Works, iii. 120; Winternitz, i. 455. Trs. : Kanarese, 12th and 17th cents. ; Telugu, 1450; ETr. Wilson, VP. ; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1894. 4. Vayu : Analysis: Wilson, VP. I. xxxv; Works, iii. 140. Date: Hopkins, GE. 68 ; Bana, Harshacharita, Cowell's ETr. 72 ; Winternitz, i. 4°3- 5. Bhagavata: Wilson, VP. I. xxxix. Trs.: Telugu, 1435 ; GujaratI, 1484; Kanarese, 1600; Malayalim, 17th c. ; GujaratI, 1725; Partial Trs.: Bengali, 1480; Braj, Sur Das, l6thc. ; Marathl, Eknath, 1580; Kanarese, 1600 j GujaratI, 1690. Intro, and FTr. Burnouf, Paris, 1840 ff. ; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta; ETr. (only 3 books) Krishnacharya, Madras, 1916. For the Bhagavata Mahaimya, see JRAS. 1911, 800 ; 1912, 481. 6. Narada : Wilson, VP. I. ii. 7. Markandeya : Intro, and ETr. Pargiter, Calcutta, 1904 ; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1897. ETr. of Chandlmahdtmya, Wortham, JRAS. xiii. 355. Telugu Tr., 13th c. 8. Agni: Wilson, VP. I. Iviii; Works, iii. 82. ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1903. 9. Bhavishya : Wilson, VP. I. lxii. 10. Brahmavaivarta: Wilson, Works, iii. 91. 11. Lihga: Wilson, VP. I. lxvij. Tamil Tr., 16th c. 12. Varaha : Wilson, VP. I. lxx. Telugu Tr., 1470. 13. Skanda: Wilson, VP. I. lxxii ; H. P. Sastrl, I. Iii. Partial Telugu Tr., 1450. 14. Vamana : Wilson, VP. I. lxxiv. 15. Kurma :_Wilson, VP. I. lxxiv. Trs.: Telugu, 1500, Tamil, 16th c. Contains the Isvara Gita: see Mitra, Notices, vi. 115, i. 257. ETr. Kennedy, HM. 444. 16. Matsya: Wilson, VP. I. lxxx. Telugu Tr., 1550; ETr. of chaps. I- 128, SBH. 1916. 17. Garuda : Wilson, VP. I. lxxxiii. ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1908. ETr. of Garuda P. Saroddhara, SBH. 1 91 1. 18. Brahmanda: Wilson, VP. I. lxxxiv. Malayalim Tr., 17th c. In- cludes the Adhydtma-Ramayana and the Lalitofiakhyana. Siva : Wilson, VP. I. lxxxviii. Trs. : Malayalim, 17th c. ; Partial ETr., Siddhanta-Dipika. Upapuranas : Madhusudana SarasvatI, Prasthana-bheda; Wilson, VP. I. lxxxvi. 1. Kalika : a Sakta work. 2. Narasimha : a Vaishnava work. 3. Samba : a Saura work. 4. Saura : Intro, and full analysis, Jahn, Das Saurapuranam. BIBLIOGRAPHY 373 5. Devi Bhagavata : a 3akt_a work. 6. Aditya: Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130; quotations in Madh^a, Bhashya on Vedanta-siltras. 7. Bhargava: Seshagiri Sastrl, STMSS. 1896-7, p. 151. vii. Smarta Literature. Note. The mass of books which are used by Smartas are Vedic litera- ture, and are dealt with elsewhere. Here only a few special works which spring from the Smarta position are mentioned. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. 1. Baudhayana Crihyasutra Parisishtas : Biihler, SBE. XIV. xxx ff. 2. The fivefold Atharvasiras U. : Weber, H1L. 170. ETr. Kennedy, HM. 346, 442, 443, 491, 493. 3. Garuda P. : see § 206. e. 1065. Krishnamisra : Smith, EHI. 392 ; 4. Prabodhachandrodaya : ETr. Taylor, Bombay, 1893; GTr. anon. (Th. Goldstiicker), Konigsberg, 1842; Hindi paraphrase, Kesava Dasa Misra, Vijnana Gita: Grierson, LH. 58 ; /PAS. 1908, 1 136. Frob. 13th c. ; 5. Yoga-Vasishtha-Ramayana: ETr. Vihari Lai Mitra, Calcutta, 1891. c. 1300. Hemadri; G.ChaturvargaChintamani: Bhandarkar,.Z?.ffZ>.88. Late 14th. Vfresvara ; 7. Viresvara Paddhati, a manual of conduct, Tirhut : Sen. HELL. 140. c. 1500. Raghunandana ; 8. Ashtavimsali Tattva, a manual of con- duct, Bengal: Sen. HBLL. 74; 421. Mukundaraj ; 9. Vivekasindhu (Marathi) : Acworth, BM. xxiii ; Mackichan, Indian Interpreter, Jan. 1913, 166 f. Before 1550. Madhusudana SarasvatI ; 10. Prasthana-bheda : GTr. Deussen, AGP. I. i. 44. e. 1600. Alavantar Madavappattar ; 11. Jnana-Vasishtham, a Tamil adaptation of No. 5. c. 1660. Ananta Deva l ; 12. Smriti Kaustubha, a manual of conduct, North India : Hall, 185. viii. Vaishnava Literature. A. General. 1. Purusha Sukta : Rigveda, x. 90. 2. Mahanarayana Upanishad, No. 6, p. 364, above* 3. Mahabharata, and vernacular versions. 4. Rdmayana, and vernacular versions. 5. Bhagavadgita. B. Bhagavata Literature. 1. THE BHAGAVATA SAMPRADAYA. Note. Bhagavatas are interested in all the books used by Smartas and in general Vaishnava literature as well. Here only works springing from the community are mentioned. All books in Sanskrit. 1 Son of Apadeva, author of the Apadevt, above, p. 367. 374 BIBLIOGRAPHY ; 4th or 5th. 1. Harivamsa, or at least the passages on Vishnu and Siva. See J 161. 2. Vaikhanasa Samhitas : Appaya Dikshita, quoted in Chanda, IAR. ioo; Schrader, IP AS. 55 ; Seshagiri Rao, STMSS. 1893-6, p. 6. 7th or 8th. 3. Agni P. : see § 206. 4. Skanda U., No. 68, p. 364, above; Jacob, EAU. 15. c. 900. 5. Bhagavata P. : see § 272. 6. Narada-bhakti-sutra: Text and ETr. Sihha, SBH.; ETr. Sturdy, London (Watkins), 1904. 7. Sandilya-bhakti-siltra : ETr. Cowell, Calcutta, 1878 ; Text and ETr. with Svaphesvara's comm., Paul, SBH. 191 1. Comms. also by Muralldasa, a Maratha. Vallabha, and Narayanatlrtha of the 17th c. ; Hall, 143. 8. Vasudeva, and 9. Gopichandana Upanishads, Nos. 72 and 1 19, p. 364, above : Jacob, EA U. 5-7 ; ETr. IA. 1887. e. 1300. Vopadeva ; 10. Muktaphala and 11. Harilila, both on the Bhagavata P. : Bhandarkar, EHD. 89 ; 10M. 3542 ; 3533. c. 1400. Srldhara ; 12. Bhagavata-bhavartha-dipika, comm. on 5. Sri-Sukacharya ; 13. Suka-bhashya on Vedanta-sutras ; text in Telugu characters, T. Venkatacharya, Bangalore, 1892. 2. LITERATURE OF MARATHA BHAKTAS. Gen. Intro. : Bhandarkar, VS. 87 ff. ; Acworth, BM. Intro. ; Macnicol, 'The Indian Poetry of Devotion,' Hibbert Journal, 1917; Macnicol, Psalms of Maratha Saints, an anthology in ETrs., Calcutta, 1919. All literature in Marathi. c. 1290. Jnanesvara; 1. Jnanesvart ; 2. Svatmanubhava; 3. Hart- path ; 4. Amritanubhava ; 5. Chahgdeva Pasashti (possibly spurious). ETrs. of a few hymns and a few 'selections from the Jnanesvart in Macnicol, PMS. o. 1300. Muktabai ; 6. Abhangs : ETrs. Macnicol, PMS. c. 1425. Namdev ; 7. Abhangs : ETrs. of Marathi Abhangs : Bhan- darkar, VS. 90 ff.; Macnicol, PMS.; Patwardhan,'/«*#a» Interpreter, April, 1913. Hindi hymns, MBV. i. 254: ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 40. e. 1425. Trilochan ; 8. Hindi hymns : ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 78. o. 1540. Bhanu Das ; 9. Abhangs. He was the grandfather of Eknath. d. 1608. Eknath ; 10. Eknatht Bhagwat : ETrs. of passages : Mac- nicol, Indian Theism, 270; PMS.; 11. Chatusloki Bhagwat; 12. Bha- vartha Ramayana ; 13. Haripath. 1608-49. Tukaram; 14. Abhangs: complete ETr., Fraser and Marathe, Madras, 1909, &c; select ETrs. Bhandarkar, VS. 94-9; Macnicol, PM S. ; Barnett, HI. 60; Rawlinson, Shivaji, Oxford, 1915, 114-16. 1608-81. Ram Das; 15. Dasabodha: Rawlinson, op. cit., 1 16-22, including a few translations. 1679-1728. Srldhara ; 16. Rama Vijaya, &c. ; ETrs. in Bell, Some Translations from the Marathi Poets, Bombay, 1913, pp. 3 - 25> 167-209. 18th c. Mahlpati ; 17. Santa Ltlamrita (1757); 18. Bhakta Vijaya (1762); 19. Katha Saramrita (1765); '20. Bhakta Ltlamrita (1774) 5 21. Santa Vijaya : ETr. Bell, op. cit., 27-42. BIBLIOGRAPHY 375 3. MADHVA LITERATURE. Gen. Intro.. : Padmanabhachar, Z7"AT; Krishnaswami Iyer, Sri Madh- vacharya, Madras ; Grierson, ERE. viii. 232; Bhandarkar, VS. 57; Ma- dhava, SDS. v : Cowell, 87. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. 1199-1278. Madhva : for his works, see Padmanabhachar, 196 ; Bhandarkar, R. 1882-3, 207; 1. Sutra-bhashya, on Vedanta-sutras : ETr. S. Subba Rau, Madras, 1904 ; I.Anuvyakhyana (verse), on Vedanta- sutras; 3. Gita-bhashya ; 4. Bhagavata-tatparya-nirnaya; 5. Maha- bharata-tatfiarya-nirnaya ; 6. Bhashyas on ten Upanishads : see above, P- 365 ; 7. Ten Prakaranas, or special treatises, including Tantra-sara on the ritual. Jjate 13th. Trivikrama; 8. Tattva-pradipika, on 1. Late 13th. Padmanabhatlrtha ; 9. Sanyaya-ratnavali, on 2. c. 1340. Jayatirtha ; 10. Tattva-prakasika, on 1 ; 11. Nydya-sudha, on 2. c. 1360. Narayana; 12. Manimanjari; and 13. Madhvavi] 'ay a, pole- mical works : summary, Krishnaswami Iyer, op. cit. ; Grierson, ERE. viii. 232. c. 1380. Madhava ; 14. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, ch. v : Cowell, 87. e. 1400. Vishnu Purl ; 15. Bhatiratnavati : Text and ETr., SBH. vii. 16. Adhyatma Ramayana, in Kan. : contains a Madhva interpola- tion: Padmanabhachar, LTM. 133. 16th o. Vyasa-raja-svami ; 17. Chandrika, on No. 10; 18. Nyayamrita, a criticism of Sankara's Vedanta ; 19. Tarka-tandava, a criticism of the Nyaya. 16th c. Puramdara Das, Kanaka Das, Vjtthala Das, Venkata Das, Vijaya Das, Krishna Das : writers of Kan. hymns : Rice, KL. 59. ETrs. Gover, ESS/. '17 ff. 18th e. Varaha Timmappa Das, Madhva Das: writers of Kan. hymns : Rice, KL. 59. ETrs. Cover, ESSE 20. Harikathamritasara : popular Kan. book on doctrine. 18th c. Chidananda' ; 21. Hari-bhakti-rasayana : Kan. work on devo- tion : Rice, KL. 60./ 4. EARLY RADHA LITERATURE. 1. Gopalatapanlya and Krishna Upanishads, above, p. 364, Nos. 1 06, 107. 2. Gopalasahasranama : the thousand names of Krishna. IOM. No. 2536. 3. Narada Pahcharatra : an old Vaishnava Samhita, seemingly used and interpolated by Vishnusvamls and Vallabhacharyas ; Schrader, IP AS. No. 71, p. 8; Bhandarkar, PS. .40, 86. 5. VISHNUSVAMI LITERATURE. 13th c. Vishnusvami ; 1. Gita-bhashya ; 2. Vedanta-sutra-bhashya ; 3. Bhagavata-bh'ashya ; 4. Vishnu-rahasya ; 5. Tattvatraya. o. 1300. Srlkantamisra ; 6. Sakara-siddhi: Madhava, SDS. : Cowell, 141 ; 142. o. 1400. Bilvamangala or Lflasuka ; 7. Krishnakarnamrita. Varadaraja; Q.Bhagavata-laghu-tika: MS. in Library of Sanskrit College, Benares. 376 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6. NIMBARKA LITERATURE. Gen. Intro. : Bhandarkar, VS. 62 ; Growse, Mathura, 147, 148, 189, 194, 200; Wilson, Sects, 150. All books in Sansk. unless otherwise described. 1. Gaulamiya S. : early work used by Nimbarkas for ritual : Schrader, IP AS. 7 ; IOM. iv. 865. 13th c. Nimbarka ; 2. Veddnta-parijata-saurabha, a vritti on the Vedanta-sutras ; 3. Dasaslokt, or Veddnta-ratna, or Siddhdnta-ratna : Hall, 114. ETr. Bhandarkar, VS. 63. 13th c. Srinivasa ; 4. Veddnta-Kaustubha, a bhashya on the Vedanta- sutras. Purushottama ; 5. Veddnta-ratna-manjushd, on 3 : Hall, 1 14. Devacharya ; 6. Siddhdnta-jdhnavi. Sundara Bhatta ; 7. Dvaitddvaita-siddhdnta-setuka, on 6. Early 16th. Kesava Kashmiri; 8. Veddnta-kaustubha-prabhd, on 4; 9. Gitd-tattva-prakdsikd: Hall, 118; 10. Kramadipikd, selections from No. 1. Early 16th. Harivyasa Deva ; 11. Dasaslokl-bhdshya, on 3 : Hall, 115. Early 16th. Harivyasa Deva and 6fi Bhatt; 12. Pada, Hindi hymns for sankirtan. 13. Krishna-janma-khanda of Brahma-vaivarta P. 7. CHAITANYA LITERATURE. Gen. Intro.: Wilson, Sects, 152; Sen, HBLL.; CC; VLMB.; Sarkar, CPT. ; Bhandarkar, VS. 82. For the temples in Brindaban, see Growse, M., and Sen, VLMB. 51. Estimates of the movement, Kennedy, Young Men of India, July, 1918; Underwood, Calcutta Review, 1919, p. 37. Lit. in Bengali, unless otherwise described. 1509-11. Govinda Das ; 1. Kadcha, i. e. note-book, of very dubious authenticity : Sen, CC. 232 ; Bhagavata Kumara G osv amI 3astn, art., ' Vaishnava Dharma o £n-Chaitanya Yuga,' in Sahitya Samhita, 1309 (i.e. Arf). 1903). 1514. Murari Gupta ; 2. Kadcha (Sansk.) : Sen, CC. 109. c. 1518. Sarvabhauma ; 3. Gaurahgashtaka (Sansk.) : Sen, CC. 88. Early 16th. Narahari Sarkar ; 4. Hymns : Sen, CC. 100. Early 16th. Vamsivadana ; 5. Hymns: Sen,. CC. 104. c. 1540. Vasudeva Ghosh ; 6. Hymns : Sen, CC. 107. d. 1591. Rupa (works in Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB. 26 ; 7. Vidagdha-ma- dhava; 8. Lalita-madhava; and 9. Danaketi-kaumudi, dramas; 10. Pad- mavall; and 11. Stavamala, hymns ; 12. Ganadvesadipiha: Chaitanya's companions are gopis incarnate ; 13. Bhaktiratnamritasindhu ; and 14. Ujjvalanllamani, on bhakti and love ; 15. Mathura-mahatmya of the Varaha P.: Growse, M. 78, 89, 142, 198; Sen, VLMB. 36. d. 1591. Sanatana (works in Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB. 36, 38 ; 16. Hari- bhaktivilasa, a ritual code ; 17. Vaishnavatoshini, comm. on Bhagavata P. d. 1572. Murari Gupta ; 18. Chaitanyacharita (Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB. 7o,73- d. 1572. Kavikarnapura; 19. Chaitanyachandrodaya (Sansk. drama) : Sen, VLMB. 71. BIBLIOGRAPHY 377 c. 1570. Vrindavana Das ; 20. Chaitanyabhdgavata, a.d. 1573, Sen, VLMB. 74 ; HELL. 464 ; 21. Nitydnanda-vamsa-vistara, Sen, VLMB. 164. o. 1575. Lochana Das ; 22. Chaitanyamahgal, Sen, VLMB. 80. c. 1575. Jayananda; 23. Chaitanyamahgal, Sen, VLMB. 80; HBLL. 471. 1581. Krishna Das Kaviraj ; 24. Chaitanyacharitdmrita, Sen, HBLL. 477 ; frXflftf. 58. ETr. of middle sectidn, Sarkar, CPT. PI. 1580-1610. JIva (works in Sansk.) ; 25. Satsandarbha, Theology ; 26. Krishnarchanadipika, Ritual ; 27. Kramasandarbha, comm. on Bhagavata P. ; 28. Comm. on Brahma S. • and many other works : Sen, VLMB. 40. PI. 1610-40. Govinda Das, Jnana Das, Balarama Das, and other hymn-writers : Sen, VLMB. 183 ; 197. e. 1625. Nityananda Das ; 29. Premavilasa, history of sect in verse : Sen, VLMB. 169. 1704. Visvanatha ChakravartI ; 30. Comm. on Bhagavata P. : Sen, VLMB. 177. Early 18th. Narahari ChakravartI; 31. Bhaktiratndkara, history of sect: Sen, VLMB. 177. Early 18th. Vaishnava Das ; 32. Padakatyataru, anthology of the hymns : Sen, HBLL. 563. Early 18th. Baladeva ; 33. Govinda-bhashya (Sansk.), on Vedanta- sutras : ETr. S. C. Vasu, SBH. v. 8. VALLABHACHARYA LITERATURE. Gen. Intro. : Wilson, Sects, 119; Bhandarkar, VS. 76; History of the Sect of Maharajas, or Vallabhachdryas, in Western India, London, 1865 ; Growse, M. 283 ; 295 ; Hall, 145-6. For Vallabha lit. in Braj, see Growse, M. 295 ; Grierson, LH., pp. 20 ff. Lit. in Sansk., unless other- wise described. 1479-1531. Vallabha ; 1. Brahma-sutra-anubhdshya, on the Veddnta- siitras ; 2. Tattva-difia-nibandha, a manual of his system ; 3. Prakdsa, comm. on 2, by Vallabha, with 4. Avarana-bhahgavydkhya, a super- comm. on 3, by Pltambara. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 together form the Vidyd- vaijayanti ; 5. Sri-subodhini, on the Bhagavata P. ; 6. Gdyatri-bhdshya ; 7. Jaiminiya-sutra-bhashya : Hall, 208 ; 8. Siddhanta Rahasya : Text and ETr. Growse, M. 285 ; 9. Krishna-prema-amrita, with gloss by Vitthalnath. 0. 1540. Vitthalnath ; 10. Ratna-vivarana : Growse, M. 295 ; Grier- son, LH. 20. c. 1550. Krishna Das; 11. Prem-ras-ras (Braj) : Grierson, LH. 21. 1551. Gokiilnath ; 12. Chaurasi Bdrtd (Braj) : Lyall, EB. xiii. 487 ; Wilson, Sects, 132; Growse, M. 296. Late 16th. Sur Das : Grierson, LH. 21 ; Prasad, SBS. ii. 55 ; MBV. i. 269. 13. Sur Sagar, Trs. in Braj from Bhagavata P. ; 14. Siirsara- vali, an anthology from the Sur Sagar. c. 1600. Giridharaji ; 15. Suddhddvaita-mdrtanda. Balakrishna Bhatta ; 16. Prameyaratndrnava. c. 1743. 'Braj BasI 'Das; 17. Braj Bilds, Braj poem on Radha : Grierson, LH. 97 ; Growse, M. 75 n. 378 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1767-1852. Dayaram'; 18. Many works in Braj, Gujarat!, &c. : Jhaveri, MGL. 216. 9. RADHA-VALLABHI LITERATURE. Gen. Intro.: Growse, M. 159; Grierson, LH. 28; ERE. x. 559. Lit. in Hindi, unless otherwise described. o. 1580. Hari Varhsa; 1. Radha-sudha-nidhi (Sansk.) : Text and ETr. of 26 stanzas, Growse, M. 204 ; 2. Chaurasi Pada : or Hit Chaurasi Dham: Text and ETr. of 12 stanzas, Growse, M. 208 ; 3. Sphut Pada, hymns. Early 17th. Dhruva Das ; 4. Jiv-dasa, and many other works: Growse, M. 216. Damodar Das ; 5. Sevak-bdni, and other works, Growse, M. 100, 216 ; Wilson, Sects, 177. 10. HARI DASI LITERATURE. Gen. Intro. : Growse, M. 217; Grierson, LH. 59. Lit. in Hindi. c. 1600. Hari Das. Life and Selections, Prasad, SBS. ii. 67; 1. Sadha- ran Siddhant : Text and ETr. Growse, M . 223 ff. ; 2. Ras kepada, hymns ; 3. Bharathari-vairagya. 0. 1650. Biharini Das ; 4. Pada, hymns ; one hymn in Text and ETr. Growse, M. 222. There were several other writers. 11. SVAMl NARAYANI LITERATURE. Gen. Intro : Monier Williams, BH. 148; Russell and Hira Lai, i. 326 ff. The Svdmi-Narayant Sect, Education Society's Press, Bombay, 1887. Early 19th. Svaml Narayana; 1. Siksha-patri : a Sanskrit code of 212 precepts, accompanied by a long commentary: Monier Williams, BH. 148. Much Gujarat! verse by Premanand, Brahmanand, Muktanand, Niskul- anand, and other ascetics : Jhaveri, MGL. 181 ; 199 ff. 12. RADHA-KRISHNA POETRY, LITERARY AND UNSECTARIAN. ' Late 12th. Jayadeva; 1. Gitagovinda (Sansk.) : Macdonell, 344. ETr. Arnold, London, 1881 ; GTr. Riickert, Leipzig; FTr. Gourtillier, Paris, 1904 ; 2. Radha-Krishna songs in Bengal! attributed to him : Sen, HBLL. e. 1400. Chandl' Da's; 3. Songs in Bengali : Sen, HBLL. 115. ETr. of two songs, Beames, 1A. 1873, 187. 15th o. Vidyapati; 4. Songs in Maithil! : Sen, HBLL. 135 ff. Text and ETr. Grierson, Introduction to the Maithili Language, Calcutta, 1882; LH. 9. ETr. of over 100 songs from the Bengali text, Coomara- swamy, Vidyapati, Bahgiya Padaball, London, 1915. 15th o. Umapati ; 5. Songs in Bengali and in Maithili : Sen, VLMB. 1-9, 1 where the text of three of the songs is given. Grierson, LH. II. 1 Mr. Sen identifies this Umapati with the Sanskrit poet Umapati Dhara referred to by Jayadeva at the beginning of the Gitagovinda, but the evidence tends to the conclusion that the author of the Bengali poems was a contemporary of Vidyapati. See Miira Band hit Vinode, i. 250. BIBLIOGRAPHY 379 Late 15th. Narsingh Mehta ; 6. Songs in Gujaratl and Hindi : Jhaveri, MGL. 35 ff. ; text of two Hindi songs in Prasad, SBS. ii. 78 (date erroneous). Late 15th. MlraBai; 7. Songs in Braj and Gujaratl : a few Braj songs in Prasad, SBS. ii. 68. One Braj song in ETr., Macauliffe, vi. 342. Gujaratl songs: see Jhaveri, MGL. 29. Date erroneous in all three works. See also MB V. i. 297. 16th and 17th. Numerous Maithili poets. Sen, VLMB. 7. 1650. Biharl Lai Chaube ; 8. Sat Sal : 700 couplets in Hindi in praise of Krishna : Grierson, LH. 75. 9. Malayalim songs : Gover, ESSI. 248 ; 255. C. Pancharatra Literature. 1. GENERAL. 1. Pancharatra sections in MBH. : see above, § 105. 2. Vishnu and other Puranas. 3. Mafia, Nardyana, Atmabodha, and Subala Upanishads, Nos. 44, 45, 46, and 55, p. 364, above. 4. The Sarhhitas : Schrader, IPAS ; Govindacharya, //SMi". 1911, 935; Iyengar, Outlines, 174. 2. SRl-VAISHNAVA LITERATURE. Lit. in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. 7th to 9th. The Alvars ; 1. Hymns in Tamil : Govindacharya, The Holy Lives of the Azhvars, Mysore (uncritical but useful) ; K. Aiyangar, AI. chs. vii, xv, xviii, xix ; S. Aiyangar, TS. chs. viii, xi ; Barnett, BMCTB. vi. Nammaivar's works are held to represent the Vedas (K. Aiyangar, AL. 398), thus : a. Tiruviruttam : Rik. ] b. Tirttvoymoli: SaVnan. -Dravida Veda'. c. Tiruvasinyam: Yajus- d. Periyatiruvandddi: Atharvan. o. 1000. Nathamuni : Govindacharya, R. ch. i ; Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 1-1 1 ; 26 ; 2. Nalayira Prabandham, the hymns of the Alvars (Tarn.) edited for study and singing; 3. Nyaya-tattva; 4. Yoga-rahasya-. Hall, 17. e. 1050. Yamuna, or Alavandar : Govindacharya, R. ch. iii ;_ Raja- gopalachariar, VRI. 26-49 ; 5 - Siddhi-traya ; Text, Benares ; 6. Agama- pramanya : Text, Benares ; 7. Gitartha-sahgraha ; 8. Alamandara stotra ; 9. Ratnastotra : a few verses in ETr. Barnett, HI. 42. e. 1080. Yadava Prakasa or Govinda-jlya (Ramanuja's former guru) ; 10. Yati-dharma-samuchchhaya, a work on Sn-Vaishnava sannyasls : see Govindacharya, R. 74. c.1050-1137. Ramanuja: Keith, ERE. v.. 572. Life : Tamil life by Pinbalagia-Perumal-Jiya : ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906; brief life, Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 50-77 ; a life' called Acharyafaricharya, Rama Misra ^astrl, Benares. System: Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv. Intro.; Sukhtankar, TVR.; Bhandarkar, VS. 5off.; 11. Veddrtha-sahgraha: Hall, 116; 12. Sri-bhashya, on the Vedanta-sutras : ETr. Thibaut, SBE. xlviii ; ETr. Rangacharya and Aiyangar, Madras, 1899J 13. Gita- bhashya: ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1898; 14. Vedanta-sdra: see 380 BIBLIOGRAPHY Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xvi. Two other works, Vedanta-dipa and Vedanta-tattva-sara, are attributed to him, but are of doubtful authen- ticity : Sukhtankar, op. cit., 3. 15. Bhagavad-vishayam, anonymous Tam.comm. on Nammalvar's Tiruvoymoli: Partial ETr., A. Govindacharya, Divine Wisdom of-Drdvida Saints, Madras, 1902. 13th c. Pinbalagra-Perumal-Jiya ; 16. Tamil life of Ramanuja : ETr. A. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906. End 13th. Pillai Lokacharya ; 17. Artha-paftchaka (Tarn.) : ETr. A. Govindacharya, JRAS. t 1910, 565; 18. Tattva-traya (Tam.) : ETr. Parthasarathi Yogi ; 19. Sri-vachana-bhushana (Tam.) : ETr. Parthasa- rathi Yogi. , c. 1350. Sudarsana Bhatta ; 20. Sukapakshiya, comm. on Bhagavata P., 'Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 99 f. c. 1380. Madhava ; 21. Sarvadarsanasahgraha, ch. iv. Cowell, 64. e. 1380. Vedanta Desika, or Venkata-natha : Rajagopalachariar, VRI. 91 ff. ; 'Ra.tga.ch.a.rljBrahmavddin, Oc't.-Nov. 1912, 597; Govindacharya, YMD. 171; 22. Satadiisha.ni: against ^ankara's Vedanta ; 23. Nyaya- siddhanjana : Visishtadvaita philosophy ; 24. Sesvara-mimamsa : on the Mimarhsa ; 25. Rahasya-traya-sara : a manual of the system in Tamil ; 26. Sahkalpa-siiryodaya, an allegorical drama :. Text and ETr. by K. Nara.yanacha.rya, Madras, 1917; 27. Pancharatraraksha, on the Vaishnava Samhitas : Schrader, IP AS. 4, 18. Early 15th. Ramya-jamatri-muni : Rajagopalachariar, VRI. \yzft.; GopalasvamI Iyengar, Brahmavadin, Oct.-Nov. 1912, 610; Govinda- charya, YMD. 171 ; 28. Tattva-niriipana; 29. Upadesaratnamala (Tam.). c. 1600. Appaya-dlkshita ; many comms. : Govindacharya, YMD., Preface. c. 1600. Chanda-maruta Mahacharya ; 30. Chanda-maruta, a comm. on No. 22 : Govindacharya, YMD. iv ; 172. c. 1650. ijrinivasa ; 31. Yatindra-mata-dlpika : Intro, and ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1912 ; Schrader, IPAS. 176. 3. MANBHAU LITERATURE. Gen. Intro.: Bombay Gazetteer, xviii. 181 ; xix. 120; Crooke, ERE. ii. 504; Monograph 131, Bombay Ethnographic Survey ; Chandorkar and Rajwade in Proceedings of Bharata Itihasika Samsodhaka Mandala, 191 5, 1916; Yadavagiri Mahatmya of the Narada Purana. 1. Dattatreya U. : No. 112, p. 364. 2. Dattatreya S. : Schrader, IPAS. 7. 3. Manbhau books in MarathI : Lila Samvdd, Lila Charit, Sutra- path, Darsan Prakas, Chakradhar Charit, Chdhgdev Charitra, Tirthdvali. 4. Kaivadya Dipika (Sansk.). 4. LITERATURE OF NARASIMHA SECT. Gen. Intro. : Deussen, SUV. 752 ; Krishna Sastri, SII. 24. 1. Nrisimha-piirva-tapaniya U. ; and 2. Nrisiihha-uttara-tapaniya U. Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 752. Cf. also Weber, HIL. 167; Schrader, IPAS. 143. 3. Nrisimha Upapurana : Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130. Tel. Tr., A. D. 1300. 4. Nrisimha Samhitd: Schrader, IPAS. 8, 18. BIBLIOGRAPHY 381 5. RAMAITE LITERATURE. A. Early Sanskrit Works. 1. Ramayana, vi. 119. 2. Samkshepa Ramayana : 100 slokas from the first book of the Rama- yana, for children. 3. Rama-purva-tapanlya U. ; and 4. Rama-uttara^tapaniya U. Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 802. Cf. also Weber, H1L. 168 ; Schrader, IP AS. 121. 5. Agastya-Sutikshna-samvada : Schrader, IP AS. 6 ; referred to in Adhyatma-Ramayana, III. ii. 26; IV. iv. 30-1 ; VI. v. 9. Uth. e. Damodaramisra ; 6. Hanuman Nataka, a drama, ETr. Wilson. TH. ii. 363. ' c. 1300. 7. Adhyatma Ramayana : ETr. Lala Baij Nath, SBH. 1913. 8. Adbhuta Ramayana : Text, Srivenkatesvara Press, Bombay. 9. Bhusundi Ramayana: Grierson, JRAS. 1912, 797. B. Early Hindi Hymns. Early 15th. Sadana ; 1. Hymns: Prasad, SBS. ii. 36. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 84. Early 15th. Beni ; 2. Hymns : ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 88. o. 1425. Namdeva : see above, under Maratha Bhaktas ; 3. Hymns : Prasad, SBS. ii; 28 ; ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 17 ; 40. o. 1425. Trilochana ; 4. Hymns : ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 76 ; 78. C. The RamAnandis. c. 1400-70. Ramananda: art. JRAS., Jan. 1920; 1. Hymns; Wilson, Sects, 46 ; Grierson, LH. 7 ; ERE. x. 569. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 105. Born 1425. Plpa ; 2. Hymns : Prasad, SBS. ii. 28. ETr. Macauliffe, VI. ill. Late 15th. Rai Das; 3. Hymns : Prasad, SBS. i. 35; ii. 32 ; Bhan-, darkar, VS. 74; Grierson, ERE. x. 560. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 316. Late 15th. Sena; 4. Hymns : Bhandarkar, VS. 74. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 120. ' 1532-1623. Tulsi Das : Grierson, LH. 42 ; JRAS. 1903,. 447 ff : Theology, Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, p. cxxvii ; Carpenter, Theology of Tulsi Das, Madras, 1918; 5. Rama-charit-manas : Grierson, JRAS. 1912, 794; 1913, 133; 1914, 416. ETr. Growse, Allahabad, 1897; 6. Gtta- ball: the story of Ram in songs: JRAS. 1903, 452; 7. Kabittabali : the story of Ram in songs: JRAS. 1903, 453; 8. Binay Pattrika: hymns to Ram : JRAS. 1903, 454. Other works : Grierson, LH. 45 f. Selections: Prasad, SBS. i. 71 ; 239; ii. 79. ETr. of extracts: Bhan- darkar, VS. 75 f. c. 1600. Nabhaji, 9. Bhakta-mala : Grierson, JRAS. 1909, 607 ; 1910, 87 ; 269. 1574-1682. 1 Mahlk Das ; 10. Poems : Growse, M. 230 ; Prasad, SBS. i. 99 ; ii. 102 ; Wilson, Sects, 100 ; Grierson, ERE. viii. 374. 1712. Priya Das. 11. Gloss on Bhakta Mala : Grierson, LH. 86 ; MBV. i. 390; ii. 607. 12. Agastya S., including Ramananda's life : text and Hindi Tr., Rama Narayana Das, 1904 : Bhandarkar, VS. 67 n. 2 : this is the Agastya- Sutikshna-samvada, No. 5, above. 1 These dates come from his living descendants : Prasad, SBS. i. 99. 382 BIBLIOGRAPHY D. Reformed Literature. A. KabIr and the KabIrpanth. 1440-1518. Kabir; 1. Poems: Westcott, Kabir: Burn, ERE. vii. 632 ; Shah, Bijak of Kabir, Hamirpur, U. P., 1917 ; Wilson, Sects, 68. His mysticism : Evelyn Underhill in Tagore, One Hundred Poems of Kabir, London, 1913. ETr. of Bijak, Shah, op. cit. ETrs. of selections ? Tagore, op. cit. • Wilson, op. cit. 79 ; Westcott, op. cit. ; Bhandarkar, VS. 70; Macauliffe, vi. 122. 2. Gutka, the Prayer Book of the KabIrpanth : Powlett, Ulwur, 60-9, including fragments in ETr. 3. Puno Granth, the Service Book of the KabIrpanth : Westcott, 128. Dhanl Dharm Das ; 4. Poems : Prasad, SBS. ii. 37 ; Shah, Bijak, 17 ; MBV. i. 256; 356. 1729. 5. Sukh Nidhanx analysis, Westcott, 141. 6. Amar Mill: analysis, Westcott, 148. B. The Sikhs. Gen. Intro. : Macauliffe ; Trumpp, Adi Granth, London, 1870 ; Dorothy Field, The Religion of the Sikhs, London, 1914. 1469-1538. Nanak; 1. Hymns ; 2. Nirakdra Mimamsd ; 3. Adbhuta Gita. d. 1574. Amar Das ; 4. Hymns. d. 1581. Ram Das ; 5. Hymns. d. 1606. Arjan ; 6. Hymns ; 7. Adi Granth : ETr. Macauliffe ; partial ETr. Trumpp ; a few pieces in ETr. Dorothy Field. Late 16th. Gur Das ; 8. Bhai Gur Das ki War : partial ETr. Macauliffe, IV. 241. d. 1708. Gobind Singh ; 9. Granth of the Tenth Guru ; 10. Panj- granthl, the Prayer Book. C. The DadOpanth. Gen. Intro. : Traill, ERE. iv. 385. 1544-1603. Dadu ; 1. Bani : Prasad, SBS. i. 235 ; ii. 90. ETr. of two chapters, SiAAons, JASB. vi. 484 ; reproduced, Wilson, Sects, 106. PI. 1600. Rajjab Das; 2. Bani. 1598-1689. Sundar Das ; 3. Bani ; 4. Gyan-Satmcdra ; 5. Sundar Vilas. Selections : Purohita Harinarayana, Sundarsar, Benares, 1918 ; Prasad, SBS. i. 106; ii. 107. Nischal Das ; 6. Vicharasagara : Text, Bombay, 1900 ; 7. Vritti Prabhakara. c. 1740. Giridhar Kabraya ; 8. Kundaliya. D. Lal DasIs. Gen. Intro. : Powlett, Ulwttr, 53, including a few pieces in ETr. E. SatnamIs. Gen. Intro. : Sarkar, Mod. Rev. 1916, 383'; Wilson, Sects, 356; Bhatt- acharya, HCS. 491 ; Russell and Hira Lal, 307. c. 1750. JagjivanDas; 1. Gydn Prakas ; 2. Mahapralay; 3.Pratham Granth: Prasad, SBS. i. 117; ii. 130; Grierson, LH.fy. c. 1770. DulanDas; 4. Poems: Prasad, SBS. i. 133; ii. 157. BIBLIOGRAPHY 383 F. Charan DasIs. Gen. Intro. : Grierson, ERE. iii. 365. 1703-82. Charan Das; 1. Works: Grierson, ERE. iii. 368; Prasad, SBS. i. 142, 247; ii. 179; Wilson, Sects, 178. o. 1750. Sahajo Bal; 2. Poems : Prasad, SBS. i. 154; ii. 191. c. 1750. Daya Bal; 3. Poems : Prasad, SBS. i. 167; ii. 194. ix. Saiva Literature. A. General Saiva Literature. I. Sanskrit: used everywhere. 1. Satarudriya, a hymn in the Black Yajurveda, Taittiriya S., IV. v ; Keith, TS. ii. 353 ; also White Yajus, xvi : Griffith, 140. Recited in Saiva temples every morning. 2. Svetasvatara U. : No. 8, p. 364, above. 3. Saiva sections in MHB., especially Sivasahasranama. See § 109. 4. Saiva Upanishads : see § 112. 5 £aiva Puranic documents : see §§ 159 ; 206 ; 226. 6. Mahimnastava: Text and ETr. Arthur Avalon, 'Calcutta, 1917. 7. Sivanandalahari, a. poem for children. II. Vernacular, and therefore Local, but not Sectarian. a. Tamil: 5th. or 6th. Nakklra Deva; 1. Tirumiiruhattuftfiadai: Barnett, BMCTB. iii ; Fraser, ERE. v. 23. 15th c. Aruna-giri ; 2. Tiru-fuhal. 16th c. Varatunga Pandya ; 3. Lihga Purdna. 16th c. Ativirarama Pandya ; 4. Kurma Purana. 17th c. Parafijoti; 5. Tiru- Vilaiy-adar-purdnam; Pope, TV., pp. xvii, xxxvii; BMCTB. vi. Mid 17th. Siva-guna-yogl ; 6. Viveka-chintamani, a Saiva cyclo- paedia. 17th e. Siva Prakasa SVamI ; 7. Tamil Tr. of Prabhu = lihga = llld ' (No. 16, p. 387, below) : Rice, KL. 49; 8. Tam. Tr. of Siddhanta = si- khamani, No. 6, p. 387, below. 17th e. Kumaraguruparasvami ; 9. Religious poems. 1785. Jsiva-jfiana-yogi ; 10. Kancki-fiurana. b. Telugu: c. 1400. Vemana : Life, Vemaria, Ramakrishna Rau, Madras. 1. Padyamulu, Verses : ETr. Brown, The Verses of Vemana, republished, Madras, 191 1 ; Partial ETr. Gover, ESS/. 269 ff. ETr. of a few verses, Barnett, HI. 109. c. 1420. 3rfnath and others : 2. portions of Skanda P. c. 1500. Rajalinga ; 3. Kurma P. o. 1550. Haribhadra; 4. Matsya P. c. Bengali: Not a large literature : Sen, HBLL. 235 ff. c. 1750. Ramesvara ; 1. Sivayana : Sen, HBLL. 249. 3*4 BIBLIOGRAPHY d. Gujaratl: Mid 18th. Sivanand; 1. Lyrics: Jhaveri, MGL. 161. e. Malayalim: 17th c. 1. Siva P. ; and 2. Brahmanda P. f. Marathl: 13th c. Jfianadeva ; 1. Amritanubhava. Mukundaraj ; 2. Mulas'thambha. g. Kanarese : 17th c. Sahajananda ; 1. Bhaktirasayana : Rice, KL. 6o n. I. B. Literature of Pasupata Saivas.' I. LAKULISA-PASUPATAS. Gen. Intro. : R. D. Bhandarkar, JBBRAS. 1908, 151 ; ARAB. 1906-7, 179; Bhandarkar, VS. n6ff. 1. Vayu P., chs. xi, xiv, xv, xxiii ; Lihga P., ch. vii ; Kurma P., pt. i, ch. liii ; Siva P., Vayavlya S., pt. ii, chs. ix-x. 2. Early philosophical texts, sutras, bhashyas, karikas, now lost : Madhava, SDS. vi : Cowell, 103; Bhandarkar, VS. 120-1. c. 1380. Madhava ; 3. Lakulisa-Pasufiata, SDS. vi : Cowell, 103. 2. KAPALIKAS. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 118, 127. 3. GORAKSHANATHlS. Gen. Intro.: Wilson, Sects, 213; Grierson, ERE. vi. 328; Garbe, Sy.42: Richard Schmidt, Fakire und Fakirtum, Berlin, 1908.- Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. c. 1200. Gorakshanatha ; 1. Hatha-yoga: Hall, 15; 2. Goraksha- sataka : Hall, 18 ; 3. Jndnamrita : Hall, 1 5 ; 4. Goraksha-kalpa : Wilson, Sects, 216; 5. Goraksha-sahasranama: Wilson, ib. ; 6. Hindi works in verse attributed to him: MBV. I. 241. Svatmarama ; 7. Hatha-yoga-pradipika, on 1 : Hall, 15. Text and ETr. mSBH. 8. Gheranda Samhita : Text and ETr. in SBH. GTr. in Richard Schmidt, op. cit. 9. Siva Samhita : Hall, 14 ; 17. Text and ETr., S. C. Vasu in SBH. 10. Hatha-sahketa-chandrika: Hall, 17. Madidhara ; 11. Goraksha-paddhati : a Hindi Tr. of No. 4, with a bhashya. The following works are used by Kanphata Yogis to-day, and some of them are attributed to Goraksha : Visvananda T. ; Siddha-siddhanta- paddhati (see Hall, 15); Niranjana P.; Yoga-manjari ; Goraksha- kaumudi ; Goraksha-gita ; Gordksha-panchaya. C. Literature of Agamic Saivas. 1. GENERAL. , The Saiva Agamas : See Ramana Sastri's ETr. of Appaya Dlkshita's Sivarkamanidlpika, No. 7, p. 385; Chatterji, KS.y\ Schomerus, SS. 7-23 (chronology erroneous). _ ETr. of parts of the Mrigendra A. (the first' section of the Kamika A.) in the Siddhanta Dipika, iv ff. BIBLIOGRAPHY 385 2. SANSKRIT SCHOOL OF SAIVA SIDDHANTA. All books in Sanskrit. 1. Early writers, otherwise unknown, mentioned by Madhava, SDS, vii. o. 1380. Madhava ; 2. Saiva Darsana, SDS. vii : ETr. Cowell, 1 12. o. 1400. Srlkantha Sivacharya ; 3. Saiva Bhashya on Vedanta-sutras : Partial ETr in the 'Siddhanta Dipika, i ff. 16th. c, Sambhudeva ; 4. ^aiva-siddhanta-dipika : Bhandarkar, VS. 126-7. Tamil Tr., No. 31, p.386, below. 5. Sambhu-paddhati : dogmatic and ritual., 6. Siva P., VayaviyaS. : Bhandarkar, VS. 127, 160. c. 1600. Appaya Dikshita ; 7. Sivarkamanidipika, a coram, on 3. Partial ETr. V. V. Ramana 3astrl, Madras. c. 1650. Nllakantha ; 8. Kriyasara, containing a synopsis of 3. 9. Soma-Sambhu-paddhati-vritti : comm. on No. 5. 3. TAMIL SCHOOL OF SAIVA SIDDHANTA. Intro. : No history exists ; but see, Frazer, ERE. v. 23 ff. ; Schomerus, ■S-fr. ; Nallasvaml Pillai, SSS. the file of the Siddhanta Dipika, where numerous Trs. from the Tamil may be read ; and Sundaram, Pillai, Some Mile-stones in Tamil Lit. The System : Hoisington's Tr. of Siva-prakasa, No. 18, below, is the best exposition in English ; the work of Schomerus in German is more recent. All books in Tamil. 7th c. Nana-sambandhar; 1. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips. 7th o. Appar : Nallasvaml Pillai, Saint Appar, Madras, 1910. 2. Hymns : ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips. 8th or 9th. Sundara-murti ; 3. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips. For the chronology of THE three, see BMCTB. v ; art., in Tamilian Antiquary, 1909 ; Frazer, ERE. v. 23. c. 800. Tirumular ; 4. Tirutnantram : ETrs. Siddhanta Dipika, i ff. e. 900. Manikka Vachaka. Date : BMCTB. v ; S. Aiyangar, TS. 401 ; Frazer, ERE. v. 23 ; 5. Tiru-vachakam : Text, Intro., ETr., and Comm., Pope, Tirtevasagam, Oxford, 1900; ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips; two ETrs. Arunachalam, STT. 7 ; ETr. of one hymn, Barnett, HI. 83 ; 6. Tirukkovaiyar. 10th c. Pattinattu Pillai ; 7. Hymns : Frazer, ERE. v. 23 ; BMCTB. vi. o. 1000. Nambiy-andar-nambi : S. Aiyangar, 715". 220 ; 8. Tondar- tiruvantadi and other poems. Early 12th. Sekkirar ; 9. Periya Puranam : Frazer, ERE. v. 23 ■ Pope, TV. xciv ; BMCTB. vi. 12th c. Kafichi Appar; 10. Kanda Puranam, Tr. of the Skanda Purana. 12th c. Uyyavandan ; 11. Tiruvuntiyar : 45 triplets. ETr. Siddhanta Dipika, xiv. 12th o. Uyyavandan ; 12. Tirukkalirruppadiyar : 100 quatrains. o. 1223. Meykanda; 13. Siva-jnana-bodha: 12 sutras: ETr. Barnett, HI. 77- ETr. Nallasvaml Pillai, SJB. c. 1250. Arulnandi Sivacharya ; 14. Siva-jnana-siddhi, on No. 13. ETr. Nallasvaml Pillai, Madras, 1913^ partial GTr. in Schomerus, SS.; 15. Irupavirupathu (mainly on Pasa) : 20 stanzas. ETr. Siddhanta Dipika, xiii. C C 386 BIBLIOGRAPHY c. 1250. Manavachakam Kadandan; 16. Unmai-vilakka, the Light of Reality : 54 quatrains : ETr. Nallasvami Pillai, 555. 5. o. 1280. Marai Jnana-sambandha ; 17. Saiva-samaya-neri. ETr. Siddhanta Dipika, vi. , c. 1313. Umapati ^ivacharya: Pope, TV. xciiij 18. Siva-prakasa: loo quatrains :' ETr. Hoisington, /A OS. 1854; 19. Tiru-arul-payan : 100 couplets on divine grace: ETr. Pope, TV. xxxixff. ; 20. Vina-venba: 13 quatrains ; ETr. Siddhanta Dipika, xiv. 21. Porripakrodai : 190 lines ; 22. Kodi-Kavi : 4 quatrains: ETr. Siddhanta Dipika, xiv. 23. Nenchu- vidu-tutu: 258 lines; 24. Unmai-neri-vilakka: 6 quatrains; 25. 5aw- kalpa-nirakarana : 20 stanzas ; 26. Koyil Puranam. 15th c. Kannudaiya Vallalar; 27. Olivil-odukkam : theological treatise in verse. Early 18th. Tayumanavar; 28. Hymns : a few ETrs. in Siddhanta Dipika, iff.; in Arunachalam, STT. 28 ; in Prabuddha Bharata during 1913; and one ETr. Barnett, HI. 85. Died 1785. £iva-jfiana-yogi : BMCTB. vi; 29.Dravida-maha-bhashya, on No. 13 : ETr. Nallasvami Pillai, SJB.; f 30. Laghu Tika on No. 13; 31. Siddhanta-dipam : Tamil Tr. of the Saiva-siddhanta-dipika, No. 4, p. 385; 32. Tattuva Pirakasa (\. e. Tattva-prakasa); 33. Tattuva Kattalei, a summary of No. 32 : ETr. by Hoisington, J A OS. 1854. 4. KASHMIR SAIVISM. Intro. : Chatterji, KS. Literature in Sanskrit. Early 9th. Vasugupta ; 1. Siva-sutras : KS. 8, 37. Late 9th. Kallata; 2. Spanda-karikas : KS. 15, 37. End 9th. Somananda ; 3. Siva-drishti : KS. 17, 37. Early 10th. Utpalacharya ; 4. Pratyabhijna-karikds, with a comm, : a summary of the teaching of 3 : A^5. 19, 38. Mid 10th. Ramakantha; 5. Spanda-vivriti, on 2 : AT5. 16, 28, 38. Late 10th. Utpala Vaishnava; 6. Spanda-pradipika, on 2 : AT5. 16, 38. c. 1000. Abhinava Gupta ; 7. Pratyabhijna-vimarsini, on 4 ; 8. /"ra- tyabhijna-vivriti-vimarsini, on 4 : ^5.20,38; 9. Tantraloka : deals with Saivism in all its aspects : KS. 21 ; 10. Paramarthasara : a sketch of Kashmir Saivism in 105 verses. Text and ETr. Barnett, /PAS. 1910, 7°7 ', !338. Based on the Adhara-karikas, about which there is a dis- pute : JRAS. 1912, 257, 474; Chatterji, KS. 11, n. 3. 11th o. Bhaskara ; 11. Siva-sutra-varttika, on 1 : KS. 9, 39. lithe. Kshemaraja; 12. Siva-sutra-vimarsirii, on 1 : KS. 9, 35, 39. ETr. P. T. Srlnivasa Iyengar, Allahabad, 1912 : see Barnett, JRAS. 1912, 1 107; 13. Spanda-sandoha : is on the first sutra of 2, but explains the teaching of the whole work : KS. 16. 11th c. Yogaraja ; 14. Comm. on 10. ETr. Barnett, JRAS. 1910, 718. Late 12th. Jayaratha ; 15. Comm. on 9 : KS. 39. 14th c. Lai Ded ; 16. Kashmiri verses : Grierson, JRAS. 1918, 157. 1380. Madhava ; 17. Essay in SDS. viii : Cowell, 128. 18th c. Sivopadhyaya ; 18. Comm. on Vijnana Bhairava Tantra : Chatterji, KS. 39. 5. VIRA SAIVISM. Gen. Intro. : Enthoven, ERE. vii. 71 ; Bhandarkar, VS. 131; Rice, KL. chs. iv and v. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. BIBLIOGRAPHY 387 1. Vira 3aiva documents in the Agamas. o. 1200. Somanatha of Palakiirki ; 2. Basava P., Tel. ; 3. Life of Pan- ditaradhya in mixed Sansk. and Tel. verse. 4. Vachanas, sermons in Kan. : Rice, KL. 38 ; 40. ETr. of those attributed to Basava in MS. by Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur. c. 1350. Raghavaiika ; 5. Siddharama P., Kan. : Rice, KL. 43. 14th e. Siva-yogi; 6. Siddhanta-sikhamani. Tam. Tr., no. 8, p. 383; above. 1369. Bhima Kavi ; 7. Basava P., Kan., based on No. 2 : Rice, KL. 44 : abridged ETr. ^Nvx'CaJBBRAS. 1865-6 ; ETr. of one piece, Rice, KL. 47. c. 1370. Mallanarya ; 8. Vlrasaivamrita., Kan. : Rice, KL. 49. o. 1385. Padmananka ; 9. Padmaraja P., Kan. : Rice, KL. 48. c. 1400. Singi-raja; 10. Maha Basava Charitra, Kan. : Rice, KL. 49. For Tel. Tr., see No. 17, below, and for Tam. Tr. see No. 24, below. c. 1400. Maritontadarya ; 11. Comm. on No. 6 ; 12. Kaivalya-sara. 15th o. Channa Vrishabhendra Svaml ; 13. Vira-Saiva-sarvotkarsha- firadipika. 15th. c. Gurudeva ; 14. Vira-Saiva-achara-pradipika. 15th c. Tontad Siddhesvara ; 15. Vira-Saiva-pradipika. o. 1460. Chamarasa ; 16. Prabhu-lihga-lila, Kan. : Rice, KL. 49 : Tam. Tr., no. 7, p.383, above. 17. Tel. Tr. of No. 10. c. 1585. Virupaksha ; 18. Channa Basava P., Kan.: Rice, KL. 49. Abridged ETr. Wunh,f£BRAS. 1805-6. 17th c. Channa Sadasiva Yoglsvara ; 19. Siva-yoga-pradipika. 17th c. Siva-guna-yogI, or Nija-guna-Siva-yogI ; 20. Viveka-chinta- maiti, 3aiva encyclopaedia ; 21. Kan. Tr. of No. 20 : Rice, KL. 68. 1657. Shadakshara Deva : Rice, KL. 62, 67 ; 22. Rajasekhara Vilasa, famous Kan. literary work; 23. Sabara-Sahkara-vilasa (Kan.) : Partial ETr. Barnett, BSOSL. 1918, p. 4. 17th c. 3iva Prakasa ; 24. Tamil Tr. of No. 10. 18th c. Monappa; 25. Vira-Saiva-achara-kaustiibha. The dates of the following works seem to be uncertain : ^ripati Panditaradhya ; 26. Srlkara Bhashya on Vedanta-sutras. First half published in Telugu character at Secunderabad, 1893. Svaprabhananda Sivacharya; 27. Sivadvaita-manjari: Siddhanta Dipikd, xi. 128. , Nafijanacharya • 28. Vedasara-Vlra-Saiva-Chintamani. Nandikesvara ; 29. Lihga-dharana-chandrika (Semi-Lingayat). Siddhavlrana ; 30. Anadi- Vira-Saiva-sara-sahgraha. Both authors arid dates of the following seem to be unknown. 31. Vira-Saiva-tnata-sahgraha; 32. Vlra-Saiva-chandrika; 33. Vira-Saiva-dharma-siromani ; 34. Vira-Saiva-mata-prakasika. 6. THE SITTARS. c. leth.' 5 Patirakiriyar ; 1. Hymns : ETr. Gover, FSS1. 1 58. Pattinattu Pillai (?) • 2. Hymns : ETrs. Gover, FSSI. 160. c. 17th. 3. Siva-vakyam : ETrs. Gover, FSSI. 170; Barnett, HI. 88. 17th o. Tattuva Rayarj 4. Adahgan-murai. C c a 388 BIBLIOGRAPHY x. Literature of the Sect of Brahma. Markandeya P. xlv. 27-35; xlvi. 14-21. ETr. Pargiter, MP. Padma P. i : see Wilson, Works, iii. 24. xi. Sakta Literature. Gen. Intro. : No historical intro. exists. The best intro. on the teaching and the cult is Avalon's Intro., TGL. See also his art. in Mod. Rev., Aug. and Sept., 1917. On the literature, see an anonymous article in SJM. iii. 1897. Early Documents : 3rd or 4th. 1. MBH. IV. vi: Mazumdar,/ff^5. 1906, 355; Jacobi, ERE. v. 117. ETr. Avalon, HG. 69; 2. MBH. VI. xxiii : ETrs. Avalon, HG. 115 ; Muir > OST. iv. 432. 4th. o. 3. Harivamsa, ch. lix : ETr. Avalon, HG. 82 ; 4. Harivamsa, ch. clxvi. 5th or 6th c. 5. Chandi-mdhatmya in Markandeya P. : Vernac. versions: Bengali, l6thc. ; Punjabi, 17th c. ; Malayalim, 17th c. ETr. Pargiter, MP.; Wortham, _//?_45. xiii. 355. Early 7th. Bana ; 6.~CAandtsalaka : Text, ETr., &c, Ouackenbos, SPM. Tantrik Works : Gen. Intro.j Lists of 64 Tantras in Vamakesvara T, Kulachilda- tnani T., and Agama-tattva-vilasa, with an extra list of 83 in the last- mentioned work ; and a list in three sections, each containing 64, in Mahasiddhasara T. : Avalon, TT. I. ii ; iv. 4 ; Dutt, MT. v. For early MSS., see H. P. Sastri, i and ii. For Sakta Yoga, see Avalon, The Serpent Power, London, 1919. 7th c. 7. Kubjikamata T. : H. P. Sastri, I. lxxxvii. 8. Paramesvaramata T. : H. P. Sastri, I. Hi, lxxvii ; II. xxi. Early 8th. Bhavabhuti; 9. Malatl-Madhava : Rapson, ERE. iv. 886 : ETr. Wilson, TH. II. i. 10. Nisvasatattva S. : H. P, Sastri, I. lxxvii. 11. Mahakaulajnana-vinirnaya : H. P. Sastri, II. xviii. 12. Rudra-yamala T. : H. P. Sastri, II. xxii ; Wilson, Sects, 258 n. 13. Vamakesvara T. : said to be a part of the Bhairava-yamala T. Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 87 ; Iyengar, Outlines, 142 ; H. P. Sastri, I. lxxiii ; II. xxiii; Avalon, TT. iv. 4. 14. Kulachiidamani T. : Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of two hymns, Avalon, TT. iv. 15. Kalajnana T. : Analysis : H. P. Sastri, II. xx. 16. Bhutaddmara T. : on magic : H. P. Sastri, II. xxvi. 17. Kularnava : Text and Intro., Avalon, TT. v. 18. Prapanchasara T. : Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of three hymns, Avalon, TT. iii. 19. Parasurama-Bhdrgava-sutras : a text-book of the Kaula Marga: SJM. iii, 1897. 20. r Stibhagodaya: ode in 52 stanzas attributed to Gaudapada: see R. A. Sastri, Anandalahari, 14; Iyengar, Outlines, 143, 173. 21. Saundaryalahari: Partial ETr. Avalon, Wave oj Bliss, Lon- don, 1917; Partial ETr. R. A. Sastri, Anandalahari. BIBLIOGRAPHY 389 11th e. Lakshmana Desika; 22. Sarada-tilaka T. : Intro, and analysis, JL-w'mg,JAOS. xxiii. 1. 65. Sakta Upanishads : 23. Tripuratapaniya ; 24. Devi ■ 25. Tripura ; 26. Bhdvana ; 27. Kaula ; 28. Shatchakra : see above, p. 364, Nos. 92, 93, 94> 96, 51, 122 ; and Saktaic Literature, SJM. iii, 1897. Later Tantras written in Bengal: 29. Kalika T. : ETr. of the Blood Chapter, by Blaquiere, AR. v. See ERE. ii. 134, 491. , 1499. Purnananda SvamI ; 30. Sritattvachintdmani : of this work part of Patala vi is called Shatchakra Nirupana : ETr., Intro, and comm., Avalon, The Serpent Power, London, 1919. • c. 16th. 31. Yogini T. : MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS. c. 16th. 32. Visvasara T. 33. Varahl T. 34. Kamadhenu T. : MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS. Late 18th. 35. Mahanirvana T. : ETr. of pt. i, Dutt, Calcutta, 1900 ; ETr. of pt. i, with valuable Intro, and Comm., Avalon, TGL. 36. Mahasiddhasara T. 37. Agama-tattva-vilasa: contains two lists of Tantras : Dutt, MT., p. v. 38. Mantrakosa : MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS. 1812. Krishnananda Vaglsa ; 39. Tantrasara : Partial ETr. Mac Culloch, in Macdonald MSS. 1821. 40. Pranatoshini T. , Brahmananda Giri ; 41. Saktananda-tarahgini : MS. analysis, Anderson, in Macdonald MSS. Right-hand Literature : 42. Devi Bhagavata Upapurana : SJM. iii, 1897. 43. Agastya-sutra : SJM. iii, 1897. 44. Lalitopakhyana in Brahmanda P. 45. Lalitatrisatl in Brahmanda P. 46. Lalitdsahasranama in Brahmanda P. : ETr. R. A. Sastrl, Lalita. 47. Suta S. in Skanda P. 48. Kavacha, 50 couplets; 49. Kilaka, 14 couplets; both from the Varaha P. , The five Sarhhitas ; 50. Vasishtha ; 51. Sanaka ; 52. Suka;, 53. Sanandana; 54. Sanatkumara: Iyengar, Outlines, 139; R. A. Sastrl, Anandalahari, 5, 61. c. 1300. Lakshmldhara 1 ; 55. Comm. on No. 21. 15th or 16th. Bhatta NUakantha ; 56. Tilaka, Comm. on No. 42. 1589. Mahldhara;'57. Maniramahodadhi: 10M. 885. e. 1600. Appaya Dlkshita ; 58. Comm. on No. 21. Early 18th. Bhaskararaya ; 59. Varivasya-rahasya : Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 88 ; 60. Bhasya on No. 46, written, A. D. 1729 : ETr. R. A. Sastrl, Lalita; 61. Setubandha, Comm. on No. 13, written, a.d. 1733; 62. Comms. on Upanishads : see p. 365. Mid 18th. Umanandanatha ; 63. Comm. on No. 19. 1 Vidyabhushana says he flourished under Prata arudra ot Orissa, 1504-32 : see art., Calcutta Review, July 1915. 39° BIBLIOGRAPHY Sakta Lit. in the Vernaculars: Bengali: Sen, HBLL. 119, 225, 252, 335, 342, 656, 662, 712, 1003. ETr. of a large part of Mukundarama's Chandi-mahgai, Ccme\\,JASB. Dec. 1902. Gujarati : Jhaveri, MGL. 46, 149, 192. Marathi : Acworth, BM. xxxiii. xii. Saura Literature. Gen. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 151 ; Chanda, IAR. 160, 223. 1. The Gayatrl: Rik. III. lxii. 10. 2. Many hymns to the Sun in the Vedas. 3rd or 4th. 3. MBH. III. iii. 15-79 ; VI. xi. 35-8; VII. Ixxxii. 14-16. 4. Ramayana, vi. 106 : called the Aditya-hridaya. A.D. 473-4. 5. Inscription at Mandasor : CII. iii. 80. 6. Markandeya P., chs. cii-cx. 7. Bhavis'hya P., Brahma Par.van, chs. 139-41 : Wilson, VP. v. 382 ; Bhandarkar, VS. 153. c. A.D. 550. Varaha Mihira; 8. Brihat S. lviii ; lx. 19. ETr. Kern, JRAS. 1870, 430. Early 7th. Mayura ; 9. Surya-sataka : Quackenbos, SPM. 10. Saura S. : H. P. Sastri, I. lxxvi. Cf. Schrader, IP AS. 11, No. 203. 11. Samba Upapurana: Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130; Bloch, ZDMG. lxiv. 733 ; Vasu, Mayfirabhanja, iii. 12. Surya U. :_ ETr. Kennedy, HM. 346. A.D. 1137. Gangadhara; 13. Inscription at Gaya, EI. ii. 338. 14. Brahma P. xxi-xxviii. 15. Song to the Sun in Bengali: Sen, VSP. i. 23-4; 164-71. xiii. Ganapatya Literature. Gen. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 147; Grierson, ERE. vi. 175. 1. Varadatapaniya U. : Jacob, EAU. 12 : see No. 120, p. 364, above. 2. Ganapati U.\ Weber, H1L. 170. ETr. Kennedy, HM. 493. See No. 1 01, p. 364, above. 3. Agni P., chs. lxxi, cccxiii. 4. Garuda P., ch. xxiv. 5. Ganesa Upapurana : Eggeling, 10M. 3349; Stevenson, JRAS. 1846,319; Grierson, ERE. vi. 176. 6. Mudgala Upaptirdna : Krishna Sastri, SII. 173; I0M., no. 3570 ff. III. BUDDHIST LITERATURE. i. Buddhism as a Whole. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion, London, 1910; Saunders, The Story of Buddhism, London, 1916 ; Macdonell, ERE. vii. 209 ; Madhava, SDS. ii: ETr. Cowell, 12. 1. Assam : Scott, ERE. iii. 37. 2. Burma : Scott, ERE. iii. 37 ; Bigandet, Life or Legend of Gaudama, London, 191 4. 3. Cambodia: Cabaton, ERE. iii. 156. BIBLIOGRAPHY 391* 4. Ceylon : Rhys Davids, ERE. iii. 331 ; Copplestone, Buddhism Primitive and Present, in Magadha and Ceylon, London, 1908. 5. China : de Groot, ERE. iii. 552. The Canon : Nanjio, Oxford, 1&83 ;JRAS. 1911,562. 6. Corea : Courant, ERE. vii. 757 ; Starr, Korean Buddhism, Boston, 1918. 7. Japan : Ashida, ERE. vii. 482 ; Griffis, The Religions of Japan, New York, 1904; Reischauer, Studies in Japanese Buddhism, New York, 1917. 8. Java : Kern, ERE. vii. 495. 9. Mongolia : Parker, ERE. viii. 807. The Canon : Waddell, ERE. vii. 786. 10. Orissa : Vasu, The Archaeological JSurvey of Mayurabhanj, i, Calcutta, 1 911; Vasu, The Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa, Calcutta, 1 911. 11. Sumatra : Kern, ERE. vii. 495. 12. Tibet : Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, London, 1895 ; ERE. vii. 784. Analysis of the Canon, Feer, Annates du Muse~e Guimet, ii. FTrs. from the Canon, Feer, Annates du Muse'e Guimet, v. ii. Early Buddhism and the Pali Canon. Gen. Intro. : Sketch of Early Buddhism : Kern, MIB. ; Rhys Davids, PUB. The Founder : Oldenberg, Buddha ; Saint-Hilaire, The Buddha and his Religion, London, 1914 ; Kern, MIB. ; Warren, BT. Geden, ERE. ii. 881. Connexions with Hinduism. : Oldenberg, L U. Poussin, Opinions, ch. v. System: Poussin ; WN.; Warren, BT. Seidenstiicker, PBU. ; Ascetic orders : Oldenberg, Buddha, 332 ; Kern, MIB. Councils : Poussin, ERE. iv. 179. Pali Canon :" History and Chronology: Winternitz, II. i; Mac- donell, ERE. viii. 85 ; Poussin, Opinions, ch. i ; Keith, JRAS. 1909, 577 ; WaddeM, JRAS. 1914, 661. Anthologies in ETr. Saunders, The Heart of Buddhism, London, 191 5; Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures, London, 1913; in GTr. Neumann, Buddhisiische Anthologie, Leiden, 1892. I. Vinaya P. : Winternitz, ii. 1-17. 1. Suttavibhahga ; 2. Mahavagga • 3. Chullavagga : Intro, and ETr. Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, SBE. xiii. xvii, xx. ETr. of sections, Warren, BT. 4. Parivdra : Winternitz, II. i. 26; SBE. xiii. xxiv. Kern, MIB. m. II. Sutta P. : Winternitz, II. i. 26; Rhys Davids, SBB. ii, Intro.; SBE. xi, Intro. The bulk in CTr. : Nanjio, cols. 127-80; afewsuttas in Tibetan, AMG. ii. 288. a. Dighanikaya : 34 long sermons : Nos. 1-23 in ETr. with intros., Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, SBB. ii, iii; Nos. 1-13 in GTr. Neumann, Miin- chen, 1907; Nos. 13, 16, 17 in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. No. 22 in ETr. Warren, BT. 353; fragments of other suttas, ib. b. Majjhimanikaya : 152 sermons and dialogues of medium length. Complete GTr. Neumann, 3 Bde., Leipzig, 1896-1902. Nos. 26, 63, 72 in ETr. Warren, BT. 331, 117, 123 ; also portions of 38, 44, pp. 183, 187, 303. Several suttas in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. Suttas 1-50 in ETr. by the Bhikku Silachara, London. » 392 BIBLIOGRAPHY c. Samyuttanikdya : 56 groups of discourses. Partial ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Oxford, 1917 ; Nos. iv and v in GTr. Windisch, Mara und Buddha'; No. v in ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB. i. 180-91 ; numerous portions in ETr. in Warren, BT. ; No. LVI. ii in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. 133 and in FTr. Feer, Journal Asiatique, 1870. d. Ahguttaranikaya : 2,008 discourses : in GTr. Bhikkhu Nanatiloka, Leipzig und Breslau, 1911. Three sections in ETr. Gooneratne, Galle, Ceylon, 1913. Many portions in ETr. Warren, BT. e. Khuddakanikaya : 1 5 miscellaneous works. 1. Khuddakapatha : 9 short texts for neophyte monks : Intro. : Winter- nitz, II. i. 61. Text and ETr. Childers, JRAS. 1870, 309. GTr. Seidenstiicker, Breslau, 1910. 2. Dhammapada: 423 stanzas on the ethical and religious life. Intro.: Winternitz, II.i.63; Miiller, SBE. x. ETr. Miiller, SBE. x; ETr. Wagi- swara and Saunders {The Buddha's Way of Virtue), London, 1912. GTr. Neumann (Der Wahrheitspfad), Leipzig, 1893 : GTr. Schultze, Leipzig, 1906 ; FTr. Fernando Hu, Paris, 1878 ; ITr. Pavolini, Milan, 1908. 3. Uddna, i. e. inspired utterances : 80 lofty verses, each preceded by a narrative as to how it came to be uttered. Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 66. ETr. Strong, London, 1902. No. iv. 4 in ETr. Warren, BT. 313. ETr. of Tibetan Uddnavarga, Rockhill, London, 1892. 4. Itivuttaka, i.e. utterances of the Buddha : Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 68 ; ETr. Moore, New York, 1908. 5. Suttanipdta : verse. Contains some remnants of primitive Buddhism, Fausboll. Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 71 ; Fausboll, SBE. x, pt. 2; Olden- berg, Aus dem Alten Indien, Berlin, 1910, 25; Keith, JRAS. 1910, 932; Hoernle, JRAS. 1917, 134. ETr. Fausboll, op. cit. ; GTr. Neumann, Leipzig, 191 1 : GTr. Pfungst, Strassburg, 1889. 6. Vimdnavatihu, i. e. stories of the palaces of the gods. 7. Petavatthu, i. e. ghost stories. These two are collections of late narratives, illustrating the working of karma. 8. Theragathd: Hymns of the Monks; and 9. Therigatha: Hymns of the Nuns: Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 79; Oldenberg, Literatur des Alten 'Indien, 100. Intro, and ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB. i and ii. 10. Jdtaka-i 547 previous lives of the Buddha. Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 89; Cowell, The Jataka, 6 vols., Cambridge, 1895-1907 ; Rhys Davids, BI. 189; Feer, Journal' Asiatique, 1875, 1895, 1897. ETr. Cowell, op. cit. ; ETrs. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, London, 1880 ; Select Jatakas in ETr. : Francis and Thomas, Jdtaka Tales, Cambridge, 1916. GTr. Dutoit, Leipzig. Nos. 68, 82, 189, 244, 316, in ETr. Warren, BT., pp. 267, 269, 262, 153, 274. 11. Niddesa : comm. to second part of No. 5. 12. Patisainbhiddmagga : of the same character as the Abhidhamma : see below. 13. Apaddna : 590 legends of Buddhist saints : Intro. : Rhys Davids, ERE. i. 603 ; Winternitz, II. i. 128. 14. Buddhavamsa: Legends of the 24 Buddhas : Winternitz, II. i. 129. 15. Chariyapitaka : 35 previous lives of the Buddha, meant to illustrate the virtues of the Buddhas. III. Abhidhamma P.: Character: Mrs. Rhys Davids, ERE. I 19 Winternitz, II. i. 134. Age and origin : Poussin, Opinions, 30-44; 166. BIBLIOGRAPHY 393 !• Dhamma-sahgani ': classifies ethical and psychological facts. ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, London. 2. Vibhanga: a continuation of No. 1. 3. Kathavatthu : a manual of controversy for Buddhist monks, attri- buted to Tissa Moggaliputta of the 3rd cent. b. C. : Oldenberg, ZDMG. In. 633 ; Poussin, ERE. iv. 184 ; JRAS. 1910, 413. Analysis, Rhys Davids, JRAS. 1892. ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids, Points of Controversy, London, 191 5. 4. Puggalapannatti: Winternitz, II. i. 135. GTr. Nyanatiloka, Breslau, 1910. * 5. Dhatu-katha : catechism of psychology. 6. Yamaka : book of double questions. 7. Patthdna. iii. Later Sthavira Literature in Pali. Gen. Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 146; Mabel Bode, The Pali Literature of Burma, London, 1909. 1. Milinda-panha : Intro. : Rhys Davids, SBE. xxxv ; ERE. viii. 631 ; Garbe, Beitrdge (Berlin, 1903), p. 95 ; Schrader, Die Fragen des K'dnigs Menandros, Berlin, 1905; Winternitz, II. i. 139. ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xxxv-vi ; Partial GTr. Schrader, op. cit. ; sections in ETr. Warren, BT. 2. Niddnakatha : first part of the comm. on the Jdtaka of the Canon. Intro. : Winternitz, ILi. 149. ETrs. Rhys Davids, BBS. 5 ; two out of three sections in ETr. in Warren, BT. 5. 1st c. A.D. 3. Netti: dogmatic: Winternitz, II. i. 163 ^ Poussin, Opinions, 178, n. 2. 4th c. 4. Dipavamsa. Intro. : Geiger, Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa, Leipzig, 1905 ; "Winternitz, II. i. 168. Intro, and ETr. Oldenberg, Dipa- vamsa, London, 1879. 5th c. Buddhaghosha : Winternitz, II. i. 152: 5. Visuddhimagga : Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 164. Full analysis, Warren, JPTS. 1891-3. Many passages in ETr. in Warren, BT. ; 6. Samantapdsddika : comm. on the Vinaya ; 7. Sumahgalavilasini : comm. on the Dighanikaya : Winter- nitz, II. i. 157; 8. Papanchasildanl : comm. on the Majjhimanikaya; 9. Sdratthapakdsinl : comm. on the Samyuttanikaya ; 10. Manoratha- purant: comm. on -the Ahguttaranikdya : Winternitz, ILi. 158. W.Jdtakatthavannand : comm. on thefdtaka-book, and 12. Comm. on the Dhammapada, both ascribed to Buddhaghosha : Winternitz, II. i. 154. Late 5th. Mahanama; 13. Mahavamsa : Intro. : Geiger, Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa, Leipzig, 1905 ; Winternitz, ILi. 170. ETr. Geiger and Mabel Bode, London, 1912. Late 10th. Upatissa ; 14. Bodhivamsa, history of the Bodhi tree ; Winternitz, II. i. 175. 12th c. Anuruddha, a Burmese monk ; 15. Abhidhammatthasamgaha : a most important work on Buddhist psychology and ethics. Winternitz, II. i. 177. ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids, London, 1910. 13th e. Dhammakitti ; 16. Dathavamsa, history of the Buddha's tooth. Winternitz, II. i. 175. 394 BIBLIOGRAPHY 13th c. Vachissara ; 17. Tkupavamsa, history of the Stupa. Winter- nitz, II. i. 176. 15th c. Sllavarhsa; 18. Buddhalamkara : founded on the story of Sumedha (Warren, BT. 5) in the Nidanakatha : Wihternitz, II. i. 181. 18th o. 19. Yogavachara : ETr. Woodward, London, 1916. 1770. 20. Mahalamkaravatthu, a biography of the Buddha. There is a Burmese Tr. of this work,o( which Bigandet's Life or Legendo/Gaudama, London, 1914, is an ETr. iv. Hinayana Literature in Sanskrit or Mixed Sanskrit. A. BUDDHIST SANSKRIT. Intro. : Franke, Pali tmd Sanskrit, Strassburg, 1902 : Review, Rhys Davids, JRAS. 1903, 398; Rapson, JRAS. 1904,435 ; discussion, JRAS. 1904,457. Senart, Intro, to Mahavctstu; Oldenberg, G'dtt. Nach., 1912, Heft 2; Levi, JA. 1912; Winternitz, II. i. 181. B. MAHASANGHIKAS. Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 187; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 836. a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, col. 386; Nos. 11 19, 11 50. b. Sutta P., Ekottaragaina : Nanjio, 543 ; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 836. C. MAHISASAKAS. a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1122. D. LOKOTTARAVADINS. Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 183, 187 ; Poussin, ERE. ii. 740. a. Vinaya P. 1st c. Mahavastu: Winternitz, II. i. 187; Poussin, ERE. viii. 328, 326 n. ; Opinions, 265, 308; Mitra, 115. E. SARVASTIVADINS. Intro. : Poussin, V. et Y. ; Opinions, 30, 166, 177 ; Winternitz, II. i. 186. a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1115, 1127, 1132, 1135,1136, 1160, 1161, 1162. Nanjio, 1160: Sansk. text: J A. 1913, ii. 465; Hoernle, MRBL. 357,358. Many Avadana works are dependent on this Vinaya: Winternitz, II. i. 217, 222. b. Sutta P. : Hoernle, MRBL. 166. c. Abhidharma P. : Takakusu, JPTS. 1905,67. KatyayanTputra; X.Jnanaprasthana-sastra: Nanjio, 1273; comms., Nanjio, 1263, 1264. Sariputra ; 2. Abhidharma-sahgitiparyayapada, Nanjio, 1276. Vasumitra; 3. Abhidharma-prakaranapada, Nanjio, 1277. Devasarman ; 4. Abhidharma-vijna.nakayapdda, Nanjio, 1281. Vasumitra; 5. Abhidharma-dhatukayapada, Nanjio, 1282. Mahamaudgalyayana ; 6. Abhidharma-skandhapada, Nanjio, 1296. Mahamaudgalyayana ; 7. Prajnaptipada-sastra, Nanjio, 1317. BIBLIOGRAPHY 395 On the first section of no. 7 are based three famous dependent works, namely : Early 4th. Vasubandhu ; 8. Abhidharma-kosa, a set of verses, Kari- kas, Nanjio, 1270, with a commentary, Nanjio, 1267, 1269. Poussin, V. et Y. ; ERE. iv. 131 ; Le"vi, ERE. i. 20 ; Winternitz, II. i. 257. 4th o. Sanghabhadra; 9. Nyayanusara-sastra, a criticism of 8 : Nanjio, 1265. Yasomitra; 10. Abidharma-kosa-vyakhya, a comm. on 8: Nanjio, 1267; Poussin, V.etY.; ERE. iv. 131 ; Mitra, 3 ; Levi, ERE. i. 20 ; Jacobi, ERE. ii. 201 ; Winternitz, II. i. 257. F. MOLASARVASTIVADINS. Vinaya P. : Nanjio, col. 441. Pratimoksha-sutra : ETr. from the Tibetan, Vidyabhushana, JASB. 1915. G. DHARMAGUPTAS. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1117, 1128; Hoernle, MRBL.4,9. Abhinishkra- mana-sutra : Nanjio, 680 ; Winternitz, II. i. 194. ETr. of the Chinese Text, Beal, The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, London, 1 87 5. H. SAMMITlYAS. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1139. v. Literary Works, partly Hinayana, partly Mahayana. c. 100. Matricheta : Thomas, ERE. viii. 495 ; Vidyabhushana, JASB. 1910, 425; Winternitz, II. i. 211 ; 1. Varnanarhavarnana, a hymn in 400 stanzas: Intro, and ETr. Thomas, IA. xxxiv. 145 ; 2. Satapancha- . sika-stotra, a hymn in 150 stanzas: Nanjio, 1456; Hoernle, MRBL. 58; 3. Maharajakanika-lekha, a letter to King Kanishka. Other works : see ERE. viii. 495. Early 2nd. Asvaghosha : Anesaki, ERE. ii. 159 ; JRAS. 1914, 747 ; Winternitz, II. i. 2oi ; Nanjio, col. 369; 4. Buddhacharita : Intro, and ETr. Cowell, SBE. xlix; Nanjio, 1 351 ; 5. Saundarananda-Kavya: H. P. 3astri, JASB. 1904, 47 ; Winternitz, II. i. 206; 6. Sutrdlamkara: FTr. Hiiber, Paris, 1908; Winternitz, II. i. 208; 7. Vajrasuchi and 8. Mahayanasraddhotpada: of doubtful authenticity, Winternitz, II. i. 209. 2nd c. Nandlsvara ; 9. Avadanasataka: Full summary, Mitra, 17: Winternitz, II. i. 216; Nanjio, 1324; JRAS. 1915, 505; AMG. ii. 284. FTr. AMG. xviii. 10. Karmasataka: Winternitz, II. i. 221 ; AMG. ii. 282. c. 200. 11. Asokavadana: Mitra, 6; Winternitz, II. i. 224; Nanjio, 1344- 3rd c. 12. Divyavadana : Winternitz, II. i. 221. 4th c. Arya-sura; 13. Jataka-mala : Winternitz, II. i. 212. ETr. Speyer, London, 1895- 11th. c Kshemendra- ; 14. Avadanakalpalata : Full summary, Mitra, 57 : Winternitz, II. i. 229. A number of the tales in l£.Tx.JBTS. i-v. 39^ BIBLIOGRAPHY vi. The Mahayana. Gen. Intro. : Poussin, ERE. viii. 330 ; Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, London, 1907 ; but see Poussin's Review, JRAS. 1908, 885. Avalokitesvara : Poussin, ERE. ii. 256. A. Mahayana-sCtras. • 1. Saddharma-pundarika : Poussin, ERE^vin. 145 ; Winternitz, II. i. 230. Intro, and ETr. Kern, SBE. xxi ; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 839 ; Nanjio, 134, 139; AMG. ii. 242. • 2. Lalitavistara: Winternitz, II. i. 194; partial ETr. Mitra, Calcutta, 1881; FTr. Foucaux, Paris, 1892; Nanjio, 159, 160; AMG. ii. 223. 3. Karandavyilha (prose) : Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; ii. 259 ; Winternitz, II. i. 238 ; Mitra, 101 ; Nanjio, 168, 782; AMG. ii. 246. > 4. Gandavyuha, or Buddhavatamsaka-sutra : Winternitz, II. i. 242 ; Mitra, 90; Nanjio, 87 ; AMGJu. 208; Griffis, 232, 242. 5. Karunapundarika: Mitra, 285 ; Nanjio, 142 ; AMG. ii. 242. Partial FTr. AMG. v. 78, 153. 6. Megha-sutra (a rain-charm with many dharanis) : Winternitz, II. i. 269; Benda.\l,JRAS. 1880, 386; Nanjio, 244; AMG. ii. 265. " 7. Lahkavatara-siltra: Analysis: Vidyabhushana, JASB. 1905, 159; Winternitz, II. i. 243 ; Poussin, Opinions, 392 ; Mitra, 113 ; Nanjio, 175 ; AMG. ii. 237. • 8. SamcLdhiraja: Winternitz, II. i. 244; full summary in Mitra, 207; AMG. ii. 249. •Q.' Suvarnaprabhas.a: Winternitz, II. i. 245; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 839, 840; Mitra/241 ; Nanjio, 126; AMG. ii. 315; Hoernle, MRBL. 108. 10. Rdshtrapalapariprichchha: Winternitz, II. i. 246 ; Nanjio, 23 (18) ; AMG. ii. 254. 11. Mahasannipata-sutra : Nanjio, 61 ; Hoernle, MRBL. 100. 12. Bhadracharya, propitious practice : Poussin, ERE. ii. 749 n. ; Nanjio, 1142; AMG. ii. 212. 13. Upali-pariprichchha-sutra : Vinaya of the Mahayana ; Poussin, Opinions, 334n. ; Nanjio, 1 109 ; AMG. ii. 197-8. Parts in FTr. AMG. v. 81. B. Books on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career. See Poussin, ERE. ii. 743. 1. Dasabhumaka : a chap, of the Mahavastu : Poussin, ERE. viii. 329 ; ii. 744. _ 2. Dasabhumaka-siltra (Madhyamaka) : Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n. ; Nanjio, no, 105, 87. •- 3. Dasabhumisvara : an enlarged edition of No. 2, found in Nepal, Mitra, 81 ; Winternitz, II. i. 244 ; Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n. 4. Bodhisattvabhumi (Yogachara) : Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n., 746, 747, 750 ; viii. 256. It is a portion of Asaiiga's Yogacharabhumi-sastra : Nanjio, 1170; Winternitz, II. i. 255. Summarized in English in Le Muston, N. S. vi. 38 ; vii. 213. C. The Paradise Mahayana 1. Sukhavafivyuha: Winternitz, II. i. 240; Poussin, Opinions, 266-73 ; Intro, and ETr. Miiller, SBE. xlix ; Nanjio, 23 (5) ; AMG. ii. 214. 2. Sukhavatlvyuha (the shorter text) : Intro, and ETr. Miiller, SBE. xlix; Nanjio, 200. 3. Amitaytirdhyana-sutra : Intro. Miiller, SBE. xlix ; ETr. from BIBLIOGRAPHY 397 Chinese, Takakusu, SBE. xlix. See also Poussin, ERE. ii. 257 n.; Nanjio, 198. 4. Vasubandhu, Aparamitayus-sutra-sastra : Nanjio, 1204. D. Madhyamaka Literature. Gen. Intro. : Poussin, ERE. viii. 235. For the Prajfia-paramita works, see Winternitz, II. i. 247, and for other works of the same class, see Nanjio, 1-22. 1. The five-hundred Prajnd-Pdramitd-sutra: Nanjio, 16. 2. The ten-thousand PP. : Nanjio, 5. 3. The twenty-five-thousand PP.: Nanjio, 4. 4. The Vajrachchhedikd PP. (diamond-cutter) : Naniio, 10. Intro, and ETr. Miiller, SBE. xlix; Hqernle, MRBL. 176, 178, "214. 5. The Shorter, and 6. The Longer PP. Hridaya: Nanjio, 19, 935. Intro, and ETrs. Miiller, SBE. XLIX ; Anecdota Oxon., i ; Winternitz, II. i. 272. Mid 2nd. Nagarjuna : Anesaki, ERE. iv. 838 ; Winternitz, II. i. 250 ; Poussin, ERE. viii. 336 ; 7. Mulamadhyamaka-kdrikd : Poussin, ERE. viii. 235 ; 8. Akutobhayd, a comm. on 7 by the author : Winternitz, II. i. 251. GTr. from the Tibetan, Walleser, Die mittlere Lehre des Nagarjuna, Heidelberg, 1911 ; 9. Yogavatdra: H. P. Sastri, II. xii. Other works: Nanjio,- col. 370 ; Winternitz, II. i. 252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 70. o. 300. Aryadeva: Winternitz, II. i. 254; Nanjio, col. 370 ; 10. Bo- dhisattvayogdchdra Chatuhsataka : H. P. Sastri, JASB. July, 191 1 ; text, edited by H. P. Sastri, Calcutta, 1914: see BSOSL. 1918 ; 11. Svadhi- shthdna-prabheda, H. P. Sastri, ii. xiii. c. 600. Bhavaviveka; 12. Prajnd-pradlpa, comm. on No. 7 : Nanjio, 1 185; Feer, Tandjour, Mdo. xviii. 44-299; Poussin, ERE. viii. 235; 13. Tarkajvdld, a criticism of the schools of philosophy : Walleser, DAV.y, AMG. ii. 367. Early 7th. Chandraklrti ; 14. Prasannapdda, comm. on No. 7 : Poussin, ERE. viii. 235 ; 15. Mddhyamakdvatdra (gen. work on the Mahayana system): Winternitz, II. i. 251 ; Mitra, 1; Poussin, Opinions, 134 ; ERE. ii. 745, 748 ; viii. 332. FTr. from the Tibetan, Poussin, Le Museon, viii ff. ; 16. Comm. on No. 10: text, H. P. Sastri, Calcutta, 19,14. , 7th c. Santideva ; 17. Sikshasamuchchhaya : Winternitz, II. i. 260 ; Poussin, Opinions, 321 ; ERE. viii. 405, n. 2; 18. Bodhicharyavatara : Intro, and ETr. Barnett, The Path of Light, London, 1909. FTr. Poussin, Paris, 1907. An old Bengali version : Ser\,HBLL.$. See also Tawney, JRAS. 1908, 583; Winternitz, II. i. 263; Poussin, ERE. i. 97; ii. 184, 749. 8th e. Jjantarakshita; 19. Madhyamakdlahkara: Walleser, DAV. 18. 20. Tattvasahgraha, Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 125. E. Vijnanavada Literature. Gen. Intro. : Poussin, Opinions, 186, 200 ; LeVi, Intro, to FTr. of Mahaydna-sutrdlamkara ; Winternitz, II. i. 255. c. 300. Asahga : Anesaki, ERE. ii. 62 ; Winternitz, II. i. 255 ; 1. Yoga- charabhumisdstra : Nanjio, 1170, 1085; AMG. ii. 257. For the section called Bodhisattvabhumi, see No. 4, p. 396 ; 2. Mahaydna-sutrdlamkara : Nanjio, 1 190. Intro, and FTr. LeVi, Paris, 1907, 191 1 ; 3. Uttaratanira: Nanjio, 1236 : see LeVi, op. cit. i. 398 BIBLIOGRAPHY Early 4th. Vasubandhu : Winternitz, II. i. 256. Life in Chinese by Paramartha, Nanjio, 1463: FTr. Takakusu in Toung Pao, v, 1904; 4. Vimsakarikaprakarana : 20 verses on the Vijnanavada : FTr. from the Tibetan, Poussin, Le Musdon, 1912, 53 ; 5. Abhidharma kosa : see No. 8, p. 39s, above ; Q.Paramarthasaptati, a polemic against the Saiikhya : Win- ternitz, II. i. 258; Takakusuj/ZM.S'. 1905, 16; Keith, SS. 87 ; 7. Gaihasah- graha: Winternitz, II. i. 257; ETr. Rockhill, Udanavarga (London, 1892), 213. Other works : Nanjio, cols. 371-2; Vidyabhushana, MS1L. 76. 8. Mahayana-sraddhotpada-sastra: Nanjio, 1 249; Winternitz, II. i. 210 ; ETr. Suzuki, Chicago, 1900-, Early 7th. Chandragomin ; 9. Sishyalekhadharma-kdvya : Winternitz, II. i. 259; 10. Nyayalokasiddhi: Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 123. Early 7th. Dharmakirti : Keith, JRAS. 1916, 380. vii. Sakta Buddhist Literature. Gen. Intro. : Poussin, Opinions,. 343, 378; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 840. Literature: Winternitz, II. i. 266; Mitra; H. P. Sastri, II. ii-xv ; Nanjio, cols. 443-55 ; AMG. ii. 291-349; Waddell, ERE. vii. 785. A. Tantras. - Early 7th. 1. Tathagata-guhyaka or Guhya-samaja : Winternitz, II. i. 274, 262 ; Mitra, 261 ; AMG. ii. 299. 7th c. 2. Suvarnaprabhasottamaraja : Catalogue of Hodgson MSS. ■ i. 8 ; iii. 10, 59; vi.8; vii. 73 ; Mitra, 241 ; Nanjio, 126; AMG. ii. 31$ ; Winternitz, II. i. 245 ; ERE. iv. 839. See no. 9, p. 396. 7th o. 3. Mahavairochanabhisambodhi : Anesaki, ERE. iv. 840 ; , Nanjio, 530; AMG. ii. 307. 7th c. 4. Susiddhikaramaha T. : Nanjio, 533; AMG. ii. 341. 7th and. 8th cc. 5. Tantras translatedlnto Chinese by Amoghavajra : Nanjio, col. 446, esp. Nos. 1020, 1023, 1044, 1054, 1064. Early 8th. 6. Vajra-mantra-dhirusanti-mara T. : AMG. ii. 348. 7. Guna-karandavyilha (verse) : Mitra, 95 ; Winternitz, II. i. 238; Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; ii. 259-60. See Karandavyuha, above, p. 396. 8. Mahakala T. : Winternitz, II. i." "274 ; Mitra, 172 ; AMG. ii. 298. Prob. 9th e. 9. Panchakrama : Winternitz, II. i. 275 ; Poussm, Etudes et Textes Tantriques. A.D. 965. 10. Srikalachakra T. : Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; Waddell, ERE. iv. 572; H.P. Sastri, II. ii ; Winternitz, II. i. 275 ; AMG. ii. 292. 10th c. 11. He-vajra T. : H. P. Sastri, II. xii; Nanjio, 1060; AMG. ii. 293 ; Getty, GNB. 125. , 12. Chandamaharoshana T. : H. P. Sastri, II. ix; AMG. ii. 298. 13. Heru'ka T. : H.P. Sastri, II. vii; AMG. ii. 347. 10th c. 14. Vajra-bhairava T.: Nanjio, 1062; Getty, GNB. 146. 15. Dakini-jala-sambara: H. P. Sastri, II. xiii; AMG. ii. 292. 10th c. 16. Manjusrimula T. : Winternitz, II. i. 275; Nanjio, 1056; AMG. ii. 313. 10th c. 17. Bhutadamara T. : Nanjio, 1031 ; AMG. ii. 334. B. Other Sakta Works. 10th c. Kanu Bhatta; 1. Charyacharya-vinischaya, Bengali love-songs : Sen, HBLL. 38. BIBLIOGRAPHY 399 10th or 11th. 2. Dakarnava, a Bengali aphoristic work : Sen, HBLL. 16. 3. Jhanadi-sddhana, a Sahajiya polemical work in Bengali : Sen. VSP. i. 3 6ff. ^ k > 12th or 13th. 4 Svayambhu P. : Winternitz II. i. 267; Mitra, 249; Poussin, ERE. i. 94. C. Dharanis. 1. The two Prajfia-paramita-hridaya sutras : above, Nos. 5 and 6, p. 397. 2. Ushmsha-vijayaDh.: Hoernle, JR AS. 1911,460; Mitra, 267; Nanjio, 348, 1467 ; AMG. ii. 306. 3. Aparajita-mahapratyahgira Dh.: Hoernle, JRAS. 191 1, 461; MRBL. 52; Mitra, 227; Nanjio, 1016. , 4. Aparimitayur Dh., for long life : Mitra, 41 : Hoernle, MRBL. 289 ; Getty, GNB. 9. 5. P anchor aksha: Mitra, 164; Winternitz, II. i. 271. 6. Durgati-parisodhana Dh. : Mitra, 84 ; AMG. ii. 306. 7. Ma-hamayiiri Dh. against snake-jpoison : Mitra, 173; Winternitz, II. i. 271 ; Nanjio, 306 ; AMG. ii. 316. 8. Parnasavarinama Dh. : Mitra, 176; Nanjio, 973. 9. Chundi-devi Dh. : Nanjio, 344, 345, 346. 10. Eleven Tibetan Dharanis : FTr. AMG. v. 421. D. Stotra. Odes. Intro. : Wilson, Works, II. ii ; Winternitz, II. i. 267; Vidyabhushana, Bauddhastotrasamgraha (BI. 1908), Intro. Early 6th. Chandragomin ; 1. Tarasadhanasataka: Winternitz, II. i. 269. Mid 8th. Sarvajnamitra ; 2. Aryatarasragdharastotra: Mitra, 228 ; Winternitz, II. i. 268. 3. Paramarthanama-sahgiti, or Manjusrlnama-sahgiti ; Mitra, 175; Nanjio, 1370; AMG. ii. 291; Poussin, Opinions, 399; ERE. viii. 405. 4. Suprabhata-stava, 49 odes : Mitra, 239. IV. JAIN LITERATURE. Gen. Intro. : Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, Oxford, 191 5; Jacobi, ERE. vii. 465. The system: Madhava, SDS. iii : Cowell, 36 ; Mrs. Stevenson, op. cit. ; Jacobi, Third Or. Cong. ii. 59 ; ERE, ii. 199; vii. 467. Cosmography: Jacobi, ERE. iv. 160. Biography: Tank, A Dictionary of Jaina Biography {A only), Arrah, 1917. Tech- nical terms : The Jaina Gem Dictionary, Jaini, Arrah, 1918. LITERATURE : No history exists, but Gudrinot's Essai de Bibliographie Jaina, Paris, 1906, contains full lists and indices of the books. i. Svetambara Literature. THE Canon: Weber, IA. xvii-xxi; Jacobi, SBE. XXII. xxxv-xlvii ; XLV. xl ; ERE. vii. 467. Names in list given in Sanskrit, Prakrit equivalents in brackets. The Canon is in Prakrit. Later literature in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described._ A. Eleven Anga : 1. Achara (Ayara) ; 2. Sutrakrita (Suyagada) ; 3. Sthana (Thana) ; 4. Samavaya ; 5. BhagavatI ; 6. Jfiatadharmakatha 400 BIBLIOGRAPHY (Nayadhammakaha) ; 7. Upasakadasa (Uvasagadasao) ; 8. Antakritadasa. (Antagadadasao) ; 9. Anuttaraupapatikadasa (Anuttarovavaiyadasao) ; 10. Prasnavyakarana (Pamhavagarana); 11. Vipaka (Vivaga);' [12. Drishtivada : lost]. B. Twelve Upanga : 12. Aupapatika (Ovaiya) ; 13. Rajaprasnlya (Rayapasenaiyya) ; 14. Jivabhigama ; 15. Prajnapana (Pannavana) ; 16. Jambudvipaprajnapti (Jambuddlvapannatti) ; 17. Chandraprajnapti (Chandapannatti) ; 18. Suryaprajnapti (Suriyapannatti) ; 19. Nirayavall (Nirayavaliyao) or Kalpika (Kappiyao) ; 20. Kalpavatarhsika (Kappava- dimsiao) ; 21. Pushpika (Pupphiyao) ; 22. Pushpachuda. (Pupphaculao) ; 23. Vrishnidasa (Vanhidasao). C. Ten Prakirna (Painna or Payanna) : 24. Chatuhsarana (Chausa- rana); 25. Saihstara (Santhara); 26. Aturapratyakhyana (Aurapachchak-^ hana) ; 27. Bhaktaparijfia ; 28. Tandulavaitalika (Tandulaveyaliya) ;* 29. Chandaviyyaya ; 30. Devendrastava (Devindatthaa) ; 3i. Ganitavidya (Ganiviyya) ; 32. Mahapratyakhyana ; 33. Vlrastava (Viratthaa). D'. Six ChhedasOtra or Chhedagrantha : 34. Nisltha ; 35. Maha- nisltha ; 36. Vyavahara ; 37. Dasasrutaskandha, including 37 a. Kalpa- sutra ; 38. Brihatkalpa ; 39. Paiichakalpa. E. Two sutras without a common name : 40. Nandl ; 41. Anuyor gadvara. F.Four MOlasutra or MOlagrantha : 42. Uttaradhyayana ; 43. Avasyaka ; 44. Dasavaikalika ; 45. Pindaniryukti. Note: For some variation in the canonical list, see Mrs. Stevenson, HJ. 13. Translations: ETrs. of Nos. 1, 3, 37 a, and 42, Jacobi, SBE. xxii and xlv ; of No. 7, Hoernle, Calcutta, 1888; of Nos. 8 and 9, Barnett, OTF. London, 1907. Writers : Prajnapana, 15, is attributed to Ajjasama (Weber, IA. xvii. 282) and also to Kalakacharya (Guerinot, 176). Chatuhsarana, 24, is attributed to Vlrabhadra. Vyavahara, 36, Dasasrutaskhandha, 37, including Kalpa-sutra, 37 a, and Brihatkalpa, 38, are attributed to Bhadrabahu, about 300 B.C. Nandi-siitra, 40, and part of the Kalfia-siltra, 37 a, may possibly be by Devarddhi, who arranged the Canon : Weber, I A. xxi. 212. Dasavaikalika, 44, is attributed to Sijjambhava. Extra-Canonical Literature. 300 B.C. Bhadrabahu; 46. Niryuktis, i.e. brief comms. in Prakrit verse, on Nos. 1, 2, 18, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44 ; 47. Upasargahara-stotra SPrak.), an ode to Parsvanatha: text and ETr. Jacobi, Kalpasutra Leipzig,_l879), p. I2n. Kalakacharya ; 48. An old Jain astronomy : Guerinot, 22. Some say there were five Kalakacharyas : Gu&inot, 176. 3rd or 4th. Vimala Suri ; 49. Paiimachariya (Prak.) : a Jain Rama- yana. Jacobi, Mod. Rev. 1914, 574; ERE. vii. 467. 4th or 5th. Umasvati ; 50. Tattvarthadhigama-sutra : analysis in English, Mitra, Notices, vii. 187 ; Text, GTr., and notes, Jacobi, ZDMG. lx. 287 and 512 ; Text, Intro. ETr. and Comm., J. L. Jaini, Arrah, 1919. 4th or 5th. Siddhasena Divakara ; 51. Kalyanamandira-stotra, ode to Parsvanatha : Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St. xiv. 375 ; 52. Nyayavatara (Logic): Text and ETr. Vidyabhushana, Arrah, 1915. BIBLIOGRAPHY 401 A.D. 514. The Canon. Devarddhi presided, possibly author of the Nandi-sutra, No. 40, and of part of the Kalpa-sutra, No. 37 a. Early 6th. Siddhasena Gani; 53. Tatlvdrtha-fika, a comm. on No. 50 54. A number of Prak. bhastryas, i. e. prose comms., on the canonica texts : see Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 581 ; Jacobi, ZDMG. lx. 289 : Vidya- bhushana, MSIL. 22; Gue'rinot, 156. Early 7th. Manatunga, Gue'rinot, 392 ; 55. Bhaktamara-stotra : Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St. xiv. 359 ; Gue"rinQt, 204 ; 56. Bhayahara- stotra : Guerinot, 74, 372 ; Peterson, i. 52. c. 800. Bappabhatti ; 57. Sarasvafi-stotra: Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 15 ; Duff, CI. 65. 8th or 9th. Jayavallabha ; 58. Vajjalagga (Prak.) : Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 16 ; Konow and Lanman's Karpura-manjarl (HOS.), 193 ; Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467 ; Mod. Rev. 1914, 573 ; Gue'rinot, 67, 80, 84. Early 8th. Mallavadin : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 34 ; Peterson, iv. 4. Late flth. Haribhadra: Life and date, Pu\16,.GSAI. i. 47 ; viii. 159; ix. 1 ; xii. 225 ; 59. Comms; on nos. 15, 16, 43, 44 : Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 58: ; Guerinot, 56, 69, 144, 369, 433 ; 60. Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya : Text and Intro. : Pulle", loc. cit. FTr. of last chapter, Suali, Le Museon, 1908, ix. 277; 61. Samaraichchhakaha: Prak. tales: Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467 ; Mod. Rev. 1914, 576 ; Guerinot, 67. Late 9th. Sllanka : Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 581; 62. Comm. on No. 1 : A.D. 863: Guerinot, 79, 132; Peterson, iii. 36; 63. Comm. on No. 2 : Guerinot, 65, 133 ; 64. Comm. on part of No. 43. A.D. 906. Siddharshi: Life and date : Guerinot, 417 ; 65. Upamiti- bhava-praftanckakatha : Prak. allegory : Intro, and partial ITr. Ballini, GSAI. xvii and xviii : Guerinot, 150; Jacobi, Mod. Rev. 1914, 576; ERE. vii. 467. 66. Kalakacharyakathanaka (Prak.) ; Jacobi, ZDMG. xxxiv. 247 ; Gue'rinot, 176, 467. Late 10th. Sobhana : Life, with text and GTr. of 67. Chaturvimsati- jinastuti : Jacobi, ZDMG. xxxii. 509. Late 10th. Dhanapala: Life, with text and GTr. of 68. Rishabha- panchasika : Klatt, ZDMG. xxxiii. 445 ; Guerinot, 56, 205 ; 69. Tilaka- manjari: Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467; 70. Paiyalachchht, A.D. 972, a Prak. vocabulary : Text, Biihler, Gottingen, 1879. 10th e. 71. Jivaka Chintamani, romantic poem in Tam. : BMCTB. iv. Died 1040. 3antisuri ; 72. Prak. comm. on No. 42 : Jacobi, AEM., Preface ; 73. Jivaviyara, Prak. dogmatic work : text and FTr. Guerinot, J A. 1902, 231 ; GueYinot, 158. El. 1069. Jinachandra (guru of Abhayadeva) ; 74. Samvegarahgasala, a work on worship in 18,000 couplets : Duff, CI. 128 ; Peterson, R. V. xx. Died. 1078. Abhayadeva: Peterson, R. IV. iv ; Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 582; 75. Comms. on Nos. 3-12: Gue'rinot, 55, 66, 68, 69, 133, 134, Ij5> x 38 ; 76. Jayatihuyanastotra : Peterson, ^?. iii. 25 ; Gue'rinot, 79. El. 1082. Gunachandra ; 77. Mahavlrachai-ita (Prak.) : Duff, CI. 132. 1086-1169. Devabhadra : Peterson, R. IV. liv ; Gue'rinot, 82 ; 78. Parsvanathacharilra, A.D. 11 12; 79. Viracharitra ; 80. Samve- garahgasala, on worship. 1089-1173. Hemachandra, Life : Biihler, Ueber das Leben des Jaina- Monches Hemachandra, Vienna, 1889; Jacobi, ERE. vi. 591; Guerinot, 410; 81. Comm. on No. 41; 82. Yogasastra, or Adhyatmopanishad : Dd 4oa BIBLIOGRAPHY Intro., Analysis, and GTr. Windisch, ZDMG. xxviii. 185, 628; cf. also Garbe, SY. 39-40; 83. Vitaragastuli : Gue'rinot, 157, 410; 84. Pra- manachintamani ; Jacobi, ERE. vi. 591; 85. Trishashtisalakapurusha- charita: Analysis, Mitra, Notices, viii. 122; 86. Parisishtaparvan (appendix to 85) : Intro., Text, and Analysis, Jacobi, Calcutta, 1891. GTr. of the fables in this work, Hertel, Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen aus Hemackandra's Parisishtaparvan ; 87. Mahaviracharita (last chapter of 85) : Gue'rinot, 49, 82 ; 88. Vasudeva-Hinda (Prak.), Jacobi, Mod. Rev. 1914, 576; Peterson, R. i. 58 ; Guerinot, 75." Fl. 1150. Malayagiri : Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 582 ; 89. Comms. on Nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 40: Guerinot, 69, 55, 65, 115, 69, 79. Late 12th. Chandrasuri : Peterson, R. IV. xxvii ; 80. Prak. comms. on Nos. 19, 43 1_: Guerinot, 69, 398. Fl. 1191. Asada; 91. Vivekamahjari : Duff, CI. 167; Peterson, R. IV. xii ; 92. Ufia'desakandali : Gue'rinot, 84. Fl. 1220. Jinadattasuri: Duff, CI. 179; 93. Vivekavildsa: Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 156; Guerinot, 393. Fl. 1230. Amarachandra : Duff, CI. 182 ; 94. Balabharata: Guerinot, 184 ; 95. Padmanabhakdvya : Gue'rinot, 75. Fl. 1239. Tilakacharya : Peterson, R. IV. xlviii ; 96. Coram, on No. 43. c.1250. Prabhachandra (B) ; 97. Prabhavakacharita : Duff, IC. 202 ; Guerinot, 410. Fl. 1271. Devendrasuri ; 98. Six Karmagranthas and comms. on the first five : Peterson, R. IV. lvii. Fl. 1304. Merutunga ; 99. Prabandhachintamani : Intro, and ETr. Tawney, Calcutta, 1901 ; Duff, C/.211 ; Guerinot, 77, 123, 391 ; \QO*Maha- purushacharitra,vr Upadesasata: Guerinot, 72, 85 ; 101. Shaddarsanavi- chara (a criticism of systems) : Max Muller, India, What f 362 ; Gudrinot, 393; 102. Muhjaprabandha (Prak.): Jhaveri, MGL. 19. Fl. 1349. Rajasekharasuri ; 103. Prabandhakosa : Guerinot, 109 ; 104. Antarakathasahgraha: Guerinot, 185. Late 14th. Jnanasagara; 105. Comms. on Nos. 43, 45, the latter in 1383: Peterson, R. IV. xlvi; Duff, CI. 223. o. 1372. Ratnasekhara (A) ; 106. Sripalacharitra : Peterson, R. IV. ciii ; 107. Laghukshetrasamasa (Mythical Geography) : Guerinot, 432. c. 1400. Gunaratna; 108. Shaddarsanasamuchchhayatika : comm. on No. 60: Guerinot, 68, 151. 109. Navatattva (date andauthor unknown) : a popular statement, in varying recensions, of the nine Svetambara categories : ETr. Stevenson, London, 1848. 1384-1443. Somasundara : Peterson, R. IV. cxxxvi ; 110. Comms. on Nos. 24, 43; 111. Comm. on No. 36; 112. on the Upadesamala; 113. on the Navatattva. 1380-1447. Munisundara ; 114. Upadesaratnakara ; 115. Mitracha- tushkakatha ; 116. Adhyatmakalpadruma ; 117. Sahasranamasmriti : Peterson, R. IV. xcvii ; Duff, CI. 230, 248. Fl. 1436. Jinamandana ; 118. Kumarapalaprabandha : Duff, CI. 253 ; Gue'rinot, 410, 423. Fl. 1438. Jinaklrti ; 119. Champakasreshthikathanaka (a.D. 1400): Text and GTr. Weber, Ueber das Champakasreshthikathanakajn,- Berlin, 1883; 120. Dhanyasalicharitra; 121. Danakalpadruma ; 122. Srlpala- gopalakathd: Peterson, R. IV. xxxiii; Duff, CI. 254; Gue'rinot, 177. BIBLIOGRAPHY 403 1401-ei. Ratnasekhara (B) ; 123. Comms. : Peterson, R. IV. cii ; Guennot, 45, 71, 85, 376, 432. Fl. 1464. Subhaslla ; 124. Panchasatiprabodhasambandha : Intro, and analysis in Italian, Ballini, IOC. xiii, Leyden, 1904 ; Gue'rinot, 183 ; 125. Bharatddikatha, or Kathakosa : Gue'rinot, 65, 188 ; 128. Comm. on No. 66 : Bhau Daji, JBBRAS. ix. 139 ; Guerinot, 407. Fl. 1526. Harishena ; 127. Jagatsundarlyogamdld : Peterson, R. i. 52, 91 ; Guennot, 74, 401 ; Duff, CI. 273. Fl. 1573. Dharmasagara ; 128. 'Kupakshakausikdditya, or Prava- chanapartkshd : Weber, SKPAW. 1887; Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 150; Guerinot, 89, 175, 368. Samayasundara : Peterson, iii. 3 ; 129. Kalpalatd, comm. on 37 a ; Guerinot, 65, 66 ; 130. Gathasahasrt : 1,000 verse quotations : Peterson, iii. 3 ; Guerinot, 78 ; 181. Visamvddasataka : Gue'rinot, 78 ; 132. Sama- chdrisataka : IA. xxxiii. 169 ; Guennot, 382, 83, 92. 1652. Vinayavijaya ; 133. Lokapiakasa : an encyclopaedia of Jainism: Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467. B. Digambara Literature. Lit. in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described. The Lost Canon: see Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, where an analysis of the account in Sakalakfrti's Tattvarthasarfidlpika, No. 204, below, is given ; also Jaini, Outlines of Jainism (Cambridge, 1916), p. 135, where a fuller description may be read. 134. Suryaprajiiapti, Gudrinot, 20, 139, 467 ; and 135. Chandra- prajnapti, Gue'rinot, 65, 69 ; both Prakrit. Vattakera ; 136. Milldchdra, Prak. : Peterson, ii. 74 ; Guerinot, 2 °> 77, 99 > 137. Trivarnachara, Prak. : Buhler, IA. vii. 28 ; Gudrinot, 20. Kundakunda : Pathak, I A. xiv. 14; GueYinot, 272. Cf. also Guerinot, 380. All works in Prak.; 138. Shatprabhrita : Peterson, ii.89; Guerinot, 77 ; 139. Ashtaprabhrita : Guerinot, 99 ; 140. Samayasara- prabhrita; Analysis : Mitra, Notices, VII. 183 ; Bhandarkar, R. 1882-3 ; 42; Gudrinot, 64, 86, 100, 140, 272; 141. - Prdbhritasara : Pathak, IA. xiv. 15; Guerinot, 272; 142. Pravachanasdra : full analysis, Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 91 ; Gue'rinot, 87 ; 143. Niyamasdra : brief analysis, Bhandarkar, loc. cit. 102 ; Guerinot, 87 ; 144. Panchdstikaya, or Panchatthiyasamgahasutta : Text, intro., and analysis in Italian : Pavo- lini, GSAI. xiv. 1 ; Guerinot, 157 ; 145. Rayanasdra; and 146. Dvdda- sanuprekshd, Gue'rinot, 272. c. 600. Samantabhadra : Pathak, JOCAs.. 186; JBBRAS. 1894, 218; Guerinot, 415, 416; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 22 ; 147. Gandhahastima- habhashya : comm. on No. 50 : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 22 ; 148. Apta- mimamsd or Devagamastotra: brief analysis, Vidyabhushana, 24; Sansk. analysis, Mitra, Notices, vi. 105 ; Gue'rinot, 63 ; its comms. : Pathak, loc. cit.; Gue'rinot, 415; 149. Ratnakarandasravakdchdra : text and ETr. C. R.Jain, The Householder's Dharma, Arrah, 1917; Gue'rinot, 85, 476; 150. Yuktyanusdsana : Gue'rinot 476 ; 151. Svayambhustotra ; and 152. Chaturvimsati-jina-stuti : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 23. Other works : K\cz,JRAS. 1883, 395 ; Gue'rinot, 403. Fl. 643. Raviklrti ; 153. Jinakathe (Kan.) : Guerinot, 96, 227, 483 ; Rice, JRAS. 1890, 245 : Guerinot, 40;. D d a 404 BIBLIOGRAPHY Fl. 660. Ravishena : Duff, CI. 55 ; 154. Padma Purana : Bhandarkar, IOC. vii. 30 ; Guerinot, 394. c. 700. POjyapada ; 155. Sarvarthasiddhi : comm. on No. 50 : Rice, JRAS. 1883, 397 ; Gue'rinot, 403. c. 700-70. Akalanka: Pathak, IOC. ix. I, 186; Gue'rinot, 270, 298, 415; 156. Akalahkastotra • Guerinot, 19; 157. A shtasafi : comm. on No. 148 : Pathak, loc. cit. ; Gue'rinot, 416 ; 158. Jainavarhasrama (on conduct) : Gue'rinot, 96 ; 159. Tattvdrthafikavyakhyalamkara : comm. on No. 50 : Peterson, ii. 78 ; Gue'rinot, Tj. For these and other works, see Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 25. 8th c. 160. Rajavarttika : comm. on No. 50 : Gue'rinot, 35. 8th o. 161. Naladiyar (Tamil verse) : Barnett, BMCTB. iv. Fl. 783. Jinasena ; 162. Harivamsapurdna : full analysis, Mitra, Notices, vi. 74; Gue'rinot, 63. - c. 800. Vidyananda; 163. Slokavdrtika or Jainaslokavartika, comm. on No. 50; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27 ; Guerinot, 416; 164. Ashtasahasri, or Aptamimamsdlahkara : a super-comm. on No. 148, following up No. 1 57 : ' Vidyabhusana, MSIL. 27; 165. Aptapariksha, Guerinot, 63, 415; 166. Pramanapariksha : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27. Srlvarddhadeva ; 167. Chudamani (Kan".) : Rice, KL. 24. c. 800. Manikyanandin ; 168. Parikshamukha : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 28. c. 825. Prabhachandra (A) ; 169. Prameyakainalamartanda on No. 168: Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 33. A. D. 837. 170. Jayadhavala: Bhandarkar, EHD. 68; Guerinot, 394 ; Pathak, JEBRA S. 1894, 226. 9th c. Jinasena ; 171. Adipurana or Trishashtilakshanamahapuratia : brief analysis, Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 118; Guerinot, 88; 172. Parshva- bhudaya: Pathak, JBBRA S. 1894, 224; Guerinot, 99. 9th o. Gunabhadra ; 173. completed Jinasena's Adipurana : Pathak, JBBRAS. 1894, 225 j 174. Utturapurana : Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 119; Gue'rinot, 88, 175. Atmanusasana : Guerinot, 476. 9th c. Amoghavarsha I ; XIQ.Prasnottarantala.: Bhandarkar, EHD. 68. Fl. 905. Amritachandra : Duff, CI. 83 ; 177. Comm. on No. 140 : Guerinot, 77 ; 178. Comm. on No. 142 : Peterson, IV. ix ; 179. Comm. on No. 144: Guerinot, 157; 180. Tattvarthasara: Guerinot, 476; 181. Purusharthasiddhyupaya : Bodleian Catal. ii. 226 ; Guerinot, 45, 476. Fl. 941. Pampa; 182. Adipurana, Kan.: Gue'rinot, 414; Rice KL. 27 ; 183. Pampa Bhar'ata or Vikramarjunaviyaja, Kan. : Rice, KL. 26. Fl. 950. Ponna ; 184. Santi Purana, Kan., on the 16th Tlrthakara : Rice, KL. 28 ; 185. Jinaksharamale, Kan., an acrostic in praise of the Tlrthakaras : Rice, KL. 28. Fl. 980. Somadeva; 186. Yasastilaka : full analysis, Peterson, ii. 33 ; Guerinot, 76 ; 187. Nitivakyamrita : Gue'rinot, 108. Fl. 980. Ranna ; 188. Ajita Purana, Kan., on the 2nd Tlrthakara : Rice, KL. 28 ; 189. Sahasa Bhima Vijaya, Kan., Rice, KL. 28. Prob. 10th c. 190. Jivaka-chintamani, a Tamil artistic romance: Frazer, ERE. viii. 91. c. 980. Chamundaraya (Kan. Chavundaraya) ; 191. Chavundaraya- purana, Kan. : Rice KL. 28 ; Ghoshal, Davva Samgaha (see next entry), Intro., xx. c. 980. Nemichandra ; 192. Dravya-samgraha (Prak.) : Text, Intro., ETr. and comm., Ghoshal, Davva Samgaha, Arrah, 1917; 193. BIBLIOGRAPHY 405 Trilokasara : Ghoshal, op. cit. xlii ; analysis, Mitra, Notices, vi. 97 ; Guerinot, 20 ; 194. Gommatasara (written for Chamundaraya) : Ghoshal, xl • 195. Labdhisara (on attainment) : Ghoshal, xii ; 196. Kshapanasara : Ghoshal, xlii. c. 1100. Abhinava Pampa; 197. Mallinathapurana, Kan. : Rice, xl. 30; 198. Pampa Ramayana, Kan., Rice, KL. 30. c. 1120. Balachandra (A); 199. Comm. on No. 141 : Guerinot, 272, 404 ; 200. Tativaratnadipika : GueVinot, 404. 1200-50. Asadhara; 201. Dharmamrita ; 202.Triskas/itismriti : and many other works. Life, analysis of the Dharmamrita and list of works : Bhandarkar, R. 1 883-4, 103. Sri Yogindra ; 203. Paramatmaprakasa : ETr. R. U. Jain, Arrah, 1915. PI. 1464. Sakalakirti ; 204. Tattvarthasaradtpika ; 205. Prasnot- taropasakachara : Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, u6 ; 206. Sdntinathacharita ; and 207. Parsvanathacharita : analysis, Bhandarkar, 106, 116, 122; 208. Vardhamanapurana : Guerinot, 100. End 15th. Srutasagara : Peterson, IV. cxxiii ; 209. Jinasamhita (on the building of temples, making images, and worship) : Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 117 ; 210. Comm. on No. 138; GueVinot, 77; 211. Tattvarthadl- pikd : Bhandarkar, 1 17. , PI. 1528. Nemidatta ; 212. Sripalacharitra ; 213. Nemijinafiuratia ; 214. Dhanyakumaracharitra ; 215. Aradhanakathakosa : Guerinot, 83, 83, 88 ; 216. Sravakachara : Peterson, V. xl. 16th c. 3ubhachandra ; 217. Pandava P., and many other works : Peterson, V. lxxiii. c. 1626. Ratnachandra ; 218. Subhaumacharitra : Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 124 ; 219. Pradyumnacharitra : Guennot, 73. 1630-50. BanaraslDas; works in Hindi verse ; 220. Sadhubandana ; 221. Mokshamargapaidi; 222. Samayasaranaftkd: Guerinot, 101, 148, 208. INDEX Abhang, Marathi word for hymn, 235, . 3°2, 374- ' Abhasa, t. t of Kashmir Saivism, 198. Abhayadeva, 278, 279, 401. Abhayatilaka, 370. Abhidhamma Pitaka, of Buddhist Canon, 67, 392 ; probably a late work, not belonging to original Canon, 68 ; only two schools pos- sessed an Abhidhamma P., 68, 106. Abhidhammatthasamgaha, 393. Abhidharma, Sanskrit for Abhidham- ma. See Abhidharma Pitaka. Abhidharma-dhdtukdyapdda, 394. Abhidharma-koSa of Vasubandhu, 161, 395- Abhidharma-kola-vyakhyd, 161, 394. Abhidharma Pitaka, of the Sarvastiva- dins, 107 ; comm. on it, 108. Abhidharma-prakaranapdda, .394. Abhidharma-sangitiparydyapdda, 394. Abhidharma-skandhapdda, 394. Abhidharma-vijndnakdyapdda, 394. Abhinava Gupta, 259, 265, 386. Abhinava Pampa, 283, 405. Abhinishkramana-sutra, 156, 207. Aborigines of India, 4 f., 16. Achdrdhga-sutra, 166, 215, 399. Achdryaparicharya, 379. Achintya-bhedabheda, 287, 311. Adahgan-Murai, 352, 387. Adbhuta Brdhmana, 42, 363, 366. Adbhuta Gitd, 336, 382. Adbhuta Rdmdyana, 250, 329, 381. Adhdra-kdrikds, 386. Adhvara, 6. Adhvaryu, 6, 7, 14, 1 7, 19, 20. Adhydtma-Kalpadruma, 402. Adhydtma Ndrdyana, 250. Adhydtma Rdmdyana, a mediaeval Ramaite epic, 190, 250, 329, 381 ; contains the Rdma-hridaya and the Rdma-gitd, 250 ; a Kanarese version, 375- r t Adhydtma u., 304. Adhydtmopanishad, 401. Adi-Buddha, 273, 274. Adi Granth, another name for the Granth of the Sikhs, 339. Adi P. (Jain), 217, 404. Adi P. (Jain, Kanarese), 283, 404. Aditi, 10. Aditya Upapurdna, 372. Adi UpadeSa, 344. Adoration Mantras, 202. Advaita, monism, a form of the Ve- danta, 128. Advaitacharya, 307. Advaitananda^ 25:, 286, 368. Advaita-siddhi, 368. Advayatdraka U. , 364. Afghanistan, 103. Agamapramdnya, 241. Agamas, £aiva manuals, 190, 193, 197, 384, 387 ; which sects used Agamas ? 190, 197, 198, 255, 257; date, 194; contents, 1 94 f. ; belong to various sects, 195 ; commentaries, 259 ; Lingayat Agamas, 264. Agama-tattva-vildsa, 354, 389. Agamic £aivas, i. e. £aivas who use the Agamas, 191, 193 ff., 255, 349, 384. Agastya, 9n. Agastya S. 183, 381 ; see Agastya- Sutikshna Samvdda. Agastya-Sutikshna Samvdda, 190, 381 ; a Ramaite work, 190; called Agastya S., 183; date, 190; re- ferred to in Adhydtma Rdmdyana, 250. Agastya-sutras, 269, 359, 389. Aghoraghanta,- a Kapalika ascetic, T92. A_ghoris, 347. Agneyaka A., 193. Agni, 10, 11, 15,49. Agnichayana, 22. Agni P., 139, 179, 372; probably a Bhagavata work, 179, 181, 206, 374; contains <*. passage on Surya, 206; a passage on Ganesa, 206, 390; recognizes the five gods, 179. Agra, 316. Agra Das, 317. 4o8 INDEX Ahamkara, t.t. of the Samkhya system, 98, 130. Ahappey, 352. Ahimsa, non-injury, 71 ; especially non- injury to animal life, 72. Ahmedabad, 318. Ahobila Monastery, 320. Aikya, 261. Aihg, 201. Aisvarika, theistic (from Isvara), 274. Aitareya Aranyaka, 30, 295, 363. Aitareya Brahmana, 27', 28, 363 ; com- mentary, 295. Aitareya U., 54, 55, 235, 364. Aitareyins, a school of the Rigveda, 27, 54- Ajita, name of an Agama, 193. AjTvikas, 77 n. 1 . Ajjasama, 120, 399. Ajna, name of one of the occult circles, ace. to Sakta Yoga, 269. Akalanka, 216, 219, 404. Akalahka-stotra, 216, 404. Akalis, 340. Akasa, ether ; 1. 1. of Vaiseshika system, 133- Akbar, 284, 291, 310, 337. Akshamalika U., 364. Akshapada Gautama, 370. Akshi U., 364. Akshobya, 273. Akutobkaya, 397. Alandi, 301. Alavantar Madavappattar, 296, 373. Alayavijfiana, 160, 273. Alberuni, 205, 223. Alexander the Great, 33, 36, 42, 46. Al Haqq, 331, 343. Allahabad, 174, 304, 327. Allama Prabhu, 353. Allegory, 28. Alvars, Vaishnava poet-musicians of the Tamil country, 182, 187, 232, 379 ; date, 188 ; they taught isudras and outcastes as well as Caste people, 244; they are leaders and teachers of the Sri- Vaishnava sect, 187; their images worshipped in the temples, 187; their names, 188; their influence, 220; their hymns collected and ar- ranged, 241 ; called Ndlayira Pra- bandham, 2*41 ; set to Dra vidian music, 241 ; introduced into the temples, 240, 241. Alwar, 334, 342. Ama, 214. Amalananda, 222, 368. Amarachandra, 280,402. Amar Das, 337, 382. Amar MM, 382. Amba. Bhawanl, 356. Amida, Japanese contraction of Ami- tabha, 275. Amitabha, 117, 273. Amitayur-dhyana-sutra, 158, 396. Amoghasiddha, 273. Amoghavajra, 210, 212, 398. Ambghavarsha I, 217, 404. Amritabindu U., 95, 364. Amritachandra, 281, 404. Amritanada U., 364. Aniritanubhava, 235, 253, 374, 384. Amrite'sa T., 265. Amritsar, 337, 341. Amsumdn, name of an Agama, 193. Anadi- Vira-Saiva-sdra-sahgraha, 387. Anandalahari, 266, 388. Ananta Deva, 285 n. 2, 295, 367, 373. Anas, 5. ■ Anatta, 64. Anava, one element in Pasa, 195. Ancestor-worship, 1, 16, 22. Andal. 188. Afiga, a limb, or section of the Jain Canon, 75, 120, 163; eleven Anga in the Svetambara Canon, 76; the critical problem they involve, 76, 120; the twelfth Anga, 163 ; comms. on the Anga, 279; list, 399. Angabahyas, 120. Angad, a Sikh guru, 337 ; invented the Gurumnkhi alphabet, 337. Afiga-mantras, mantras auxiliary to the royal mantra of Narasirhha. 189. Anguttaranikaya, fourth section of Sutta Pitaka, 109, 391, 392. Anhilvara-patan, 279, 280. Anichchha, '64. Animal-sacrifice, 3, 14, 41, 48, 268, 354- Animism, 1, 2. Aniruddha, a Vaishnava divinity, one of the vyuhas, 98, 1 84. Aniruddha, 369. Aniruddha-vritti, 369. Annam Bhatta, 289, 370. Annapurna U., 364. Anquetil Duperron, 287. An Shi-kao, 118. AntakritadaSd, one of the Jain Angas, 400. Antarakathasahgraha, 281, 402. Ami, t. t. of Kashmir Saivism, 198. Anubhashya, 287, 377. INDEX 40 Anugitd, 97, 98. Amigraha, the grace of Siva, in Agamic Saivism, 195. Anuruddha, 393. Anushtubh, a form of verse, 188. AnuttaraupapatikadaSa, 400. . Anuvydkhyana, 236, 375. Anuyogadvdra, 400. Apaddna, a work in the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 71, 108, 392. Apa Deva, 285, 367. ApadevT, 285, 296, 367. Aparajita - mahdpratyahgira dharani, 399- Aparamitayus-siitra-idstra, 158, 396. Aparimitdyur dharani, 399. Apastamba Dharma Sutra, 365. Apastamba Grihya Sutra, 365. Apastamba Sraula Sutra, 365. Apastamba Sulva Sutra, 365. Appar, 196, 384. Appaya Dikshita, 286, 295, 320, 380, 389 ; his works, 320, 367, 368, 380 ; on the Vaishnava Sarhhitas, 181 ; his title Dikshita, 358 ; his Sivarka- manidipikd, 350, 385 ; his religious _life,'358. Aptamimamsa, 216, 219, 371, 403. Aptaparikshd, 219, 404. Apurva, 125. Arddhanakathdkoia, 405. Aradhya Brahmans, 263. Aradhyas, 263 n. 1. Aranya, one of the ten orders of San- kara's sannyasis, 174. Aranyagana, 19, 30. Aranyakas, 23, 363 ; the name, 28 ; character and contents, 28, 41 ; pur- pose of, 29 f. ; religion, 30 ff. Archaka, a word used for temple- ministrant in S. India, 182, 349. Archika, 18. Ardha-Magadhl, a Jain literary dialect, 162. Argaldstotra, 357. Arhat, the early Buddhist ideal, 105, 113- Arikesari, 283. Arjan, a Sikh guru, 337, 382 ; built the golden temple at Amritsar, 337 ; compiled the Granth, 337 ; put to death by Jahangir, 33S. Armenian peoples, 1. Arsheya Brdhmana, 27, 363. Arta, 3. Artha-paiichaka, 246, 380. Arthasahgraha, 367. Arthaidstra, 43, 73, 96. Arthavada, 25. Amlnandi Deva, 257, 258, 385. Aruna-giri-Nathar, 347, 382. Aruneya U., 95, 364. Aryadeva, 159, 397. Aryaman, 1, 10. Aryans, 4 ff"., 10, 15. Aryasura, 156, 395. Aryatdrdiragdharastotra, 399. A'sada, 278, 280, 402. Asadhara, 282, 405. Asa-ki-wdr, 341. Asana, 253, 253 n. 2. Asanga, 123, 160; his works, 160 f., 397- Asceticism, 13, 22, 40, 47, 52 f., 57, 60. Ascetics, 22 ; used for sannyasis, 40. Asha, 3. Ashes, used by Pasupatas, 103, 196 ; used by all Saivas for the sect-mark, 196. Ashta Chhap, 316. Ashtddhydyi, 42. Ashtaprdbhrita, 403. Ashtasdhasri, 219, 371, 404. Ashtasdhasrikd Prajndpdramita, 273. AstitaSati, 216, 219, 404. AshtdvirhSati Tattva, 295, 373. Asmarathya, 128, 221. Asoka, emperor of India, 66 ; his con- version, 66 ; edicts, 44, 67,7 s ; propa- ganda, 67, 72; missionaries, 67, 72 ; favourite Buddhist texts, 72 ; build- ings, 67, 72 ; laws against slaughter of animals and animal sacrifice, 72 ; vegetarianism, 72 ; religious tours, 72. ASokdvaddna, 395. Asrama, one of the four forms of Hindu life, 29, 40; these later form a series, _8i. , Asrama, one of the ten orders of San- kara's sannyasis, 174. Alrama U-, 95, 364. Assam, 390. Astronomy, 42. Asvaghosha," a Brahman, who became a Sarvastivadin Buddhist, 95, 108, 115; then a Mahayanist, 115; genius and works, 115 f,, 395. Asvakranta, 356. Ahialdydna Grihya Sutra, 365. Afvaldyana Srauta Sutra, 365. Asvamedha, 22. Asvins, 1, 3 n. 1, 10. 4io INDEX Atharvan ■= Atharvaveda. AtharvaHkhd U., 103, 364. AtharvaHras U. (A), 103, 14611., 196, 364- AtharvaHras U. (B), 180, 206, 266, 364. 365. 373- Atharvaveda, 23 ff., 363; relation to Rik, 24 ; age of, 25 ; canonical posi- tion, 25; religion of, 30 ff., 363; philosophy in, 51, 363; many new Upanishads appended, 80; its man- tras, 201 ; magic and ritual, 363. Atheism, meaning of the term, 37 ; examples of, 44, 47, 49, 60, 61. Ativirarama Pandya, 347, 383. Atmabodha U., 188, 364, 379. Atman, the self, a name for the Abso- lute, 32; philosophy of, 27, 32, 41, 5 1 ; identification of a divine and human self, 52, 59; the Atman un- knowable, 56 ; a subject without an object, 56, 59 ; impersonal, 56 ; per- sonal, 56 ; the A. is bliss, 57 ; all else is sorrow, 57 ; 1. 1. in Vaiseshika system, 133 ; and in Nyaya system, 135; in both the conception of the atman is richer than elsewhere, 135. Atmanuidsana, 218. Attna U., 364. Atreya isakha of the Taittiriya school, 226. Atri, 8. Aturapratyakhyana, 400. Audulomi, 128. Aughars, 347. Aupapdtika, 399. Aurungzebe, 291, 343. Austerities, 16, 59; given up in early Buddhism, 63. Avadana, a form of Buddhist tale, in Pali Apadana, 108. Avadana-kalpalata, 395. Avaddna-sataka, 108, 395. Avadhfltas, 327. Avadhiita U., 364. Avalokitesvara, a Bodhisattva, 158 ; his mantra, 212; transformed into a goddess in China and Japan, 158; a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 273. Avarana-bhahgavydkhyd, 376. Avalyaka-sulra, 215, 399. Avatara, lit. descent, the Hindu word for a divine incarnation, 85 n. 1. Avesta, 2, 3. Avyakta [/., 364. Avyanga, the Zeroastrian girdle, 152, Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi, 333. Ayodhya, 327, 329, 330. Baba Lai, 334, 344. Baba Lalis, 334, 344. Badami, 216. Badarayana, author of Veddnta-sutras, 126, L28, 368. Bahurupa Tantras, 265. Bahvricha U., 364. Balabhdrata, 280, 402. Balachandra, 405. Balacharita, 144. Baladeva, 287, 311, 377. Balakrishna Bhatta, 316, 377. Balarama, or Samkarshana, a brother of Krishna, 98. Balarama Das, 311, 377. Balehalli, 260. Bana, 200, 205, 388. Banarasi Dasa, 361, 405. Bam of DadB, 341 ; read only by the twice-born, 341. Bant of Lai Das, 342. Bam of Ram Charan, 345. Ban-jatra, 310. Banwari Das, 342. Bappabhatti, 214, 401. Barhaspatyas, 371. Barhaspatya T., 268. Barsom, twigs used in Zoroastrian wor- ship, 152. Basava, a Lingayat leader, 260, 262, 386. Basava P., 264, 353, 387. Batidhdyana Dharma Sutra, 365. Baudhdyana Grihya-sUtra, 141, 365; the Parisishtas to it, 141, 373. Baudhdyana Srauta Sutra, 365. Baudhdyana Sulva Sutra, 365. Bauls, 312. Beef, eaten by all in Mahabhdrata, 49. Benares, 260, 327, 329, 330, 334. Benevolence, in Mahayana Buddhism, "3- Bengal, 274. Bengali literature, 271, 296, 297, 303, 306, 310, 356, 378, 382, 389. Bern, 323, 381. Bernier, 291. Bhadra A., 193. Bhadrabahu, a Jain leader, 75 ; author of canonical books and niryuktis, 76, 400. Bhadracharya, 396. Bhagavadgitd, the Lord's Song, a Vaish- nava episode in the Mahabhdrata, INDEX 411 86-92, 97, 366, 373 ; central signifi- cance, 86, 97 ; creates the first Hindu theism, 87 ; brings release within reach of all Vaishnavas, 97 ; i. e. to all men and women of the four castes, 87 ; three paths to release, 88; theology of the Gita, 89; its bhakti, 220, 243 ; secret of its power, 90 f.; upholds the dharma, 89; originally heterodox, 91 ; now ortho- dox, 128; theories of its origin, 50, 91, 366 ; date, 78, 86, 366. Is there Christian influence in it? 92; held to be revelation of second grade (smritf), 173 ; forms part of the Canon of the Vedanta, 173; influence of the Gita, 114, 128, 144, 145, 153; commentaries, 171, 24r, 242. Bhagavadvishayam, 380. Bhagavan, Blessed Lord, 87. Bhagavata (from Bhagavan), a devotee of the Lord. Used of £aivas, 82 n. 1 ; used of Vaishnavas generally, 142; used of a special group of Vaish- navas, see Bhagavatas ; used of a singer-preacher in South India, 302. Bhagavata-bhashya, by Vishnusvami, 238, 3°5» 375- Bhagavata-bhdvdrtha-dipikd, 297, 374. Bhdgavala-laghu-tikd, 375. Bhagavata Mahaimya, 232, 372. Bhagavata P., 139, 372 ; characteristics, 229 f. ; deals with Krishna's youth, 229; a late work, 178; erroneously attributed to Vopadeva, 231, 269, 359; the latest of the Pnranas, 231 ; date, 232; place of origin, 232; its ■bhakti, 220, 229, 242; its eroticism, 230; the love of the gopis a symbol of spiritual devotion, 230 ; sprang from the Bhagavata community, and is their chief scripture, 229, 233 ; its immense influence, 220, 235, 269, 301, 302, 308, 345 ; tends towards Ankara's advaita Vedanta, 231. Commentaries, 246, 304, 305, 316 ; Braj translations, 317 ; Kanarese translations, 303 ; Marathi transla- tions, 300 ; an anthology of its utter- ances on bhakti, 302. Bhagavatas, Smarta Vaishnavas, who hold the equality of Vishnu and Siva, 142, 175, i8r, 233, 298, 301; their unstable position between Smartas and sectarians, 298 ; their mantra, t 43j i 79> l8f >, 235, 298; their sect- mark, 298 ; Sampradaya, 327 ; their Upanishad, 143, 181 ; their literature, 142 f., 179, 181, 233, 297, 373; the Bhagavata P. their chief scripture, 2 33i 374 ! tne y are followers of Saiikara, 175, 181 ; they acknow- ledge the five gods, 181 ; many are temple-ministrants, 181, 233 ; hold the Samuchchhaya doctrine, 221 ; their temples, 298 ; their monasteries, 297 f. ; a bhashya on the Veddnta-siitras which claims to be a Bhagavata ,. work, 297 f. Bhagavata S., 181, 236 n. 1. Bhagavata Sampradaya, 327. Bhdgavala-tdtparya-nirnaya, 236, 375. Bhagavata temples,. 233. Bhagavati, one of the Jain Angas, 399. Bhagavat-sastra, 142. Bhai Gur Das, 338, 382. Bhai Gur Das Ki War, 338, 382. Bhai Mani Singh, 339. Bhairava Tantras, 265. Bhairava yamala T., 388. Bhaishajyaraja, 158. Bhakta Lilamrita, 374. Bhakta-mald, 234, 239, 299, 317. Bhaktamara-stotra, 205, 214, 401. Bhaktaparijna, 400. Bhakta Vijaya, 374. Bhakti, 220 ; in tfvetdsvatara U., 59 ; in the Gita, 88 ; in Bhagavata P., 229; in Rdmdnuja, 230; in Bhaga- vata Mahdtmya, 232 ; in the Vira Saiva system, 261 n.3, 264. Bhakti-marga, the way to release by devotion, 88. Bhaktirasdyana, 384. Bhaktiratndkara , 377. Bhaktiratnamritasindhu, 376. Bhaktiratndvali, 302, 375. Bhakti school of the Sakta sect, 269, 359- Bhalan, 356. Bhamatt, 176, 222, 368. Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., his theory of Vasudeva, 50. Bhanu Das, 374. Bharadvaja, 8. Bharadvaja, a title of Uddyotakara. Bharadvaja Grihya sutra, 365. Bharadvaja Srauta sutra, 365. Bharata Chandra Rai, 356. Bharathart-vairagya, 378. BharatI, one of the ten orders of 3ankara's sannyasis, 174, 304, 307. Bharatltlrtha, 286, 368. Bharati Yati, 369. 412 INDEX Bhargava Upapurdna, 372. Bhasa, 144. Bha-sarvajfia, 370. Bhdsha-parichchheda, 370. Bhaskara, said to have been Nimbarka's original name, 239 n. 6. Bhaskara, 386. Bhdskara-bhdshya, see Bhaskara- charya. ' Bhaskaracharya, anthor of a bheda- bheda bhashya on.the Veddnta-siitras, 221, 239 n. 6, 368; attacks Sankara and the Pancharatras, 2 20 f. Bhaskaranandariatha, initiate name of Bhaskararaya, 358. Bhaskararaya, a Right-hand Sakta scholar, 192, 358, 389 ; seemingly a Natha, 192 ; lived at Tanjore, 192. Bhasmajdbdla U., 364. Bhatta, i.e. Kumarila, 168. Bhatta Bhaskara Misra, 226. Bhatta Dinakara, 367. Bhatta Dinakara, 367. Bhatta Dipikd, 286, 367. Bhatta Nilakantha, 359, 389. Bhava, 149. Bhavadevamisra, 368. Bhava Ganesa Dikshita, 369. Bhdvana U., 266, 358, 364, 389. Bhavartha Rdmayana, 374. Bhavaviveka, 371, 397. -,__ Bhavishya P., 139, 372 ; referred to in Apastamba Dharmasutra, 1 36 ; its Brahma Parvan contains Saura material, 140, 152, 390. Bhayahara-stotra, 214, 400. Bhedabheda, dualistic monism, a form of the Vedanta, 128, 221, 233, 255, 287, 326 n. 2, 332, 351- n. 4. Bhelsari, 345. Bhikshu, 52. Bhikshuka U. , 364. Bhilmal, 280. Bhima Chandra Kavi, 353, 387. Bhoja, king of Dhara, 223, 279, 369. Bhojaka = Maga, q.v. Bhumi, t. t. in Mahayana Buddhism; there were 10 bhiimis, or stages in the Bodhisattva career, 113, 115, 160. Bhusundi Rdmayana, 250, 329, 381. Bhutaddmara T., 272, 388, 398. Bhutani, the elements of the visible world, 98. BlmtapurT Mdhatmya, 246. Bhutattu, 188. Bhutavalya, 121. Bhuti, one of the two aspects of the 6akti of Vishnu, 184, 185. Bhuvanesvari T., 268. Bibliolatry, 341, 342, 346. Bihari Lai Chaube, 379. BiharinI Das, 378., Bija, 201. Bijak, 333, 337. Bijjala, 260. Bilva, bael, 294. Bilvamangala, 304, 375. Binay Pattnkd, 381. Bindu, 201. Bindusara, a Maurya emperor, 75. Birbal, 296. Birbhan, 334 ; his Adi UpadeSa, 344 ; Christian influence recognizable, 344. Bird-worship, 43. BIr Singh, 340. Black Yajus, origin of the name, 26 ; Sarhhitas and Brahmanas of, 27; Aranyaka of, 30 ; Upanishads of, 54, 58, 79; Sutras of, 81, 141; the Saiarudriya, 383. Blood Chapter of Kalikd P., 354. Blood-sacrifice, 354. Bodhayana, author of a Visishtadvaita vritti on the Veddnta-siitras, 171, 242. Bodhi, the wisdom of the Buddhas, 160. Bodhicharydvatdra, 208, 397. Bodhisattva, one whose nature is wis- dom, destined to become a Buddha, 105, 112, 160, 208; advanced Bodhi- sattvas conceived like divinities, de- clining nirvana, 113; great Bodhi- sattvas, 158 ; married celestial Bodhi- sattvas, 210; the Bodhisattva life in the Mahayana, 113; advanced con- ceptions, 209 ; the ten bhumis, or stages, in the career, 113, 115, 160. Bodhisattvabhiimi, Vijnanavadin work on the bhumis, 160, 395, 396. Bodhisatlvayogdchara Chatuhldtaka, 396. Bodhivamsa, 392. Bodies of the Buddha, 159, 273. Boons, asked at the Vedic sacrifices, 15- _ Brahma, the Creator, 41, 49, 208; in second stage of the Epics, 83 ; in the third stage, 92, 98 ; in the doctrine of Vyuha, 98, 185 ; the Brahma sect and its literature, 148, 387 ; in the Trimurti, 148 f. ; his decline, 179. Brahmabindu U., 95, 364. INDEX 413 Brahmachari, the celibate student ; his place in the Asramas, 81. Brahmdmrita-varshim, 368. Brahman, (1) religious truth, 25; (2) name of the Absolute, 32, 51 ; the God of the Vedanta, 126; relation to the world, 56, 127; inactive, 127; identified with Vishnu, 86, 97. Brahmanand, 378. Brahmanas, the word, 25 ; rise of the Brahmanas, 25 ff. ; list, 27, 28; their character, 27; their religion, 30 ff.; philosophy in, 32, 51, 363. Brahman- Atman, 5 1 ; philosophy of, 5 2 ; spread slowly at first, 60. Brahmdnda P., 139, 372, 389; its royal genealogies of historical value, 137; Malayalim Tr., 347, 384; con- tains Sakta material, 357. Brahma P., 139, 371 ; contains a. Saura section, 226, 270, 389. Brahmans, 20, 21, 36; education of, 31 ; in transmigration, 34 ; duties, 40 ; in Epic become warriors, 49 ; their share in creating the Upanishad philosophy, 53. Brahma S., 308, 376. Brahma Sampradaya, 327. Brahma-sutra-anubhashya ofVallabha, 377- Brahma-sutra-bhdshya, 222, 287, 368. ' Brahma-sutras, the fundamental docu- ment of the Vedanta, 126; written by Badarayana, 126; a forerunner of this work, 179. *Brahma U., 95, 364. Brahmavaivarla P., 139, 179, 37 2 ; the Krishna section is probably a Nimbarkite interpolation, 240, 271, 376. * Brahmamdyabharana, 251, 286, 368. Brahmavidya U., 95, 364. Brahma-ytivtala T., 265. Braj, the district of Mathura and Biindaban, 316; the dialect of the district, 316. Braj Basi Das, 317, 377. Braj-bhakti-vilasa, 310. Braj literature, 297, 377, 379. Braj vildsa, 317, 377. Branding, i.e. of the symbols of Vishnu on the body, 186, 246, 321. Brihaddranyaka, 30, 363. Brihadaranyaka U., 54, 55, 364. Brihad Brahma S., 1S3, 246. Brihajjdbdla U., 364. Brihasfati Smriti, 180, 366. Brihati of Prabhakaraj 168, 367. Brihatkalfa, 400. Brihat S., 236 n. 1, 390. Brindaban, 305, 308, 309, 310. Buddha, the, 55 ; life, 62 ; teaching, 63 ff. ; his doctrine of the soul, of transmigration and of release, 65 ; avoidance of metaphysical questions, 65 ; biographical material, 70 ; his supposed previous births, 70; rever- ence for the Buddha, 71 ; he becomes a semi-divine being, 78, 155; almost becomes an eternal god, 78, 114; Buddha-images, no, in. Buddhacharita, 115, 394. Buddhaghosha, 154, 393. Buddhalamkara, 394. Buddhas, many, no; become almost like gods, 112 ; their omniscience and perfections, 113; the previous, 70, no. Buddhavamsa, 70 n., 391. Buddhavatamsaka-sutra, 158, 160. Buddh-Gaya, 62. Buddhi, t. t. of Sankhya system, 130. Buddhism, rise of, 62 ; earliest teaching, 63 ff. ; spreads to Persia, Turkestan and China, 79, 103 ; Hlnayana and Mahayana, no, 112, 206; the Tri- ratna, 271; killed by Islam, 271; literature, 272, 390. Buddhist art, no, m, Buddhist bhakti, iio-m, 112. Buddhist Canon, 64, 65-6; the Canon as found in Ceylon, 68 ; in Pali, 68 ; reduced to writing in first cent. B. c, 68 ; the Sanskrit canons,- 106, 107, 109. Buddhist Councils, 65, 66, 67, 72, 108. Buddhist devotion, see Buddhist bhakti. Buddhist laity, 71. Buddhist logic, 178, 225. Buddhist monks, 67, 69, 71, 113; in Mahayana, become priests, 113. Buddhist nuns, 67, 69, '71. Buddhist pantheism, 274, 279. Buddhist Patriarch, moves to China, 162. Buddhist Sakta system, origin, 209 f. ; exposition, 210; cult, 210; literature, 211 ff., 272, 397; aim of the system, an; its theistic or pantheistic theo- logy, 273; its doctrine that every Buddha and every Bodhisattva has a wife, 274; many Sakta monks and nuns absorbed by the Chaitanya sect, 3«- 414 INDEX Buddhist Sanskrit, 105, 107, no, 394. Buddhist stiipas, no. Buddhist symbols, 72, no. Buddhist tantras, 210, 266, 272. Buddhist theism, 273 f., 279. Buddhist worship, 71, no; in Maha- yana, 113. Burial, 263. Burma, 103, 275, 390. Cambodia, 168, 207, 390. Caste, 5, 17, 31 ; the four chief castes, 2 1 ; sub-castes and mixed castes, 3 1 ; education of three highest castes, 31 ; influence of in law and life, 40 ; in the Epics, 49. Celtic people, 1. Central Asia, 103. Ceylon, 153; extra-canonical Buddhist lit., written in Ceylon, I54f., 275. Ceylonese Canon, see Buddhist Canon. Chaitanya, founder of the Chaitanya sect, 307 ff. ; won by a Madhva sannyasi, 303, 307 ; accepts Radha, 307 ; his preaching and singing, 307 ; his converts, 307, 308 ; his journeys, 307 ; his death, 308 ; his influence, 303, 304, 305 ; his powers and per- sonality, 308 ; his reading, 308 ; in- fluence of his death in Bengal, 309 ; mentioned in Viivasara T., 354. Chaitanya Bhdgavata, 310, 377. Chaitanyachandrodaya, 310, 377. Chaitanyacharita, 376. Chaitanya-charitamrita, 310, 37 T- Chaitanyainahgal, 377. Chaitanya sect, accepts Radha, 307 ; its philosophic position Bhedabheda, 308 ; hymns and Gaur Chandrika, 308 ; the six Gosvamls at Brindaban, 309 f.; literature, 309 ff., 375; the temples at Brindaban, 310 ; modifica- tions of caste, 31 1 ; Gosvamls, 31 1 ; the Vairagis and Vairaginis, 31 1; many Buddhist monks and nuns absorbed, 309, 311; their impurity, 311 ; temples and images, 312 ; Chai- tanya, Advaita, and Nityananda wor- shipped, 312; sahklrtan and nagar- klrtan, 307 ; sankirtan in the temples, 312 ; in houses, 312 ; influence of the sect, 318. Chaitya, a Buddhist hall, 71, 72 ; becomes a temple, 113. Chakra, circle, (1) a Sakta circle for worship, 203, 355 ; (2) a supposed centre of occult force in the body, 1 86, 195, 201, 2-10, 213, 269. Chakradhar, 248. Chakradhar Charit, 380. Chakra-puja, circle-worship, of the Saktas, 203, 204, 210, 315, 355. Chalukyas, 215. Chamarasa, 353, 387. Chamars, Outcaste workers in leather, 343- Champakasreshthikathdnaka, 401 . Champa, 353. Chamunda, one of the names of the goddess, 203. Chamundaraya, 282, 404. Chdmunifardya P., 282, 404. Chanakya, 43. Chandamaharoshana T., 272, 272 11.3, 398- Chanda-mdruta, 379. Chand'a-marnta Mahacbarya, 380. Chandaviyyaya, 400. Chandi, a name of the goddess, 150; used also as = Chandi-mahdtmya, 356. Chandi, a Bengali, epic, 257, 356. Chandi Das, 273, 305, 307, 308, 356, 378- Chandika, 354. Chandi-mdhdtmya, a section of the Mdrkandeya P. ; basis of Sakta sect, 150 f., 388; Gobind Singh had it translated, 339 ; other Trs., 356, 357 ; use of the passage as a liturgy, 357. Chandi-mahgal, 390. Chandi-iataka, 150, 200, 388. Chandragomin, 209, 398, 399. Chandragupta, 43, 49, 66 ; said to have been a Jain, 75. Chandrahdsa A., 193. Chandrajnana A-, 193. Chandrakald T., 268. Chandraklrti, 208, 209, 397. Chandraprajnapti, 166, 219, 400, 403. Chandrasuri, 402. Chandrika, 375. Chdhgdeva Charitra, 380. Chdngdeva Pdsashti, 374. Channa Basava P., 353, 387. Channa Sadasiva Yogisvara, 387. Channa Vrishabhendra Svami, 387. Charaka, 95. Charana, a Vedic school, 294. Charananuyoga, fourth section of Di- gambara Secondary Canon, 219. Charan Das, 334, 344, 383. INDEX 415 Charan Dasis, 334, 344, 382 ; Hindu influence in the sect, 345. Chdrdyaniya- Kdthaka Dharma- sutra, 141. Charitas, 278. Chariydpitaka, a book of previous lines of the Buddha, 70, 392. Charvakas, 371. Charydcharya-vinikhaya, 398. Charya-pada, one division of the con- tents of the Sarhhitas, Agamas, Tan- tras, 184. Chatterji, J. C, 291 ; his Kashmir Shaivism, 302. Chattisgarh, 343. Chatuhiarana, 400. Ckaturvargachintdmani, 226, 373. Chalurvithlatijinastuti, 400, 402. Chatuiloki Bhdgwat, 374. Chaurasi Bdrtd, 317, 377. Chaurdsi Pada, 318, 377. Chdvundardya P., 404. Chhandas, 42. Chhandogya Brdhmana, 27, 28, 363. Chhandogya U., 54, 55, 364. Chhedasutras of Jain Canon, 400. Chidambaram, 257. Chidananda, 303, 375. Child-marriage, 263. China, 103, 118, 153 f., 207, 275, 391. Chinese Buddhist Canon, 162 ^ 275. Chintya, name of an Agama, 193. Chitrasikhandin rishis, 98. Chittars = Sittars. Chittore, 306. Chokamela, a Mahar, a. Marathi poet, 302. Christianity, in the Gild, 92 ; in the didactic Epic, 99. Chronicles of Ceylon, found in Dipa- vamsa and Mahavamsa, 72. Chuddmani, 217, 219, 404. Chiilikd U., 93 ff., 364. Chnllavagga, a section of the Buddhist Vinaya, 69, 391. Chundi-devi-dhdram, 399. Churani, 345. Ch'Yao, 118. Civil law, 40. Colebrooke, 364. Conjeeveram, 181, 268, 320, 347. Contests of wit, held at close of sacri- fices, 22. Corea, 390. Councils, Buddhist, see Buddhist Coun- cils ; Jain, see Jain Councils. Cow-pens, holy, 41. Cow-worship, 43. Creation in the Paficharatra Sarhhitas, i84f. Criminal law, 40. Dadu, 334, 341, 382; his Bani, 341, 382; his disciples, 341, 382. Dadu-dvara, 341. Dadupanth, 334, 341, 381; literature, 341 ; rejects Outcastes, 341 ; ascetics called Dddupanthis, laymen Sevaks, 341 ; five orders of ascetics, 341 f. ; restrictions on reading the Bdni, 341 ; the gurumantra and the sabda, 341 ; the cult, 342. Dadupanthls, the ascetics of the Dadu- panth are so called, 341. Ddkdrnava, 399. Ddkini-jdla-sambara T., 272, 398. Dakshinachari, the right-hand section of the Sakta sect, 268. Dakshindmurti U., 364. Damodar Das, 378. Damodaramisra, 381. Ddnakalpadruma, 402. Ddnakeli-kaumudi, 376 Dancing in worship, 312. Dandl, a Brahman sannyasi who carries a danddj a bamboo rod of a sym- bolical and ceremonial character, 174 n. 1. Dara Shikoh, 285, 287, 344, 364. Darbesh, 312. Darsana, 124. Darlana U„ 364. DarSan Prakdl, 380. Dasa, slave, 5. Dasabhumaka, a chap, in the Mahd- vastu, no, 115, 396. Dalabhiimaka-sutra, 160, 161, 275, 396. Dasabhumisvara, 275, 396. Dalabodha, 301, 374. Daiapaddrtha, 177. Dasas, 4, 5. Dasasdhasrika Prajndpdramitd siitra, 11?. Daiailoki, 240, 376. Dasailoki-bhdshya, 376. DaidSrutaskandha, 400. DaSavaikalika-siUra, 215, 399. Dasnamls, sannyasis of ten orders, 174. Dasyus, 4. Ddthdvamsa, 393. Dattatreya, 183, 190, 247; usually represented as a sannyasi with three heads, 248 ; the Manbhaus do not recognize this figure, but call Datta- 4i6 INDEX treya an incarnation of Krishna, 248. Dattdtreya $., 183, 249, 380. Dattatreya Sampradaya, 248, 327. Dattatreya sect, 190; literature, 190. Dattatreya U., 249, 364, 380. Davva Samgaha, 404. Daya Bai, 383. Dayaram, 317, 378. Death, repeated death in the other world, 32, 35, 52. Dehu, 301. Devabhadra, 278, 279, 401. Devacharya, 375. Devadasis, women of bad repute who sing and dance in the temple-cult, 322. Devagamastotra, 216, 403. Devakl, mother of Krishna, 100. Devdrdm, Canon of the hymns of the Tamil Saiva poets called The Three, 256 ; set to Dravidian music, 256 ; sung in the temples, 256. Devarddhi, 163; works, 164, 401. Devasarman, 394. Devasuri, 225. Devatadhyaya Brahmana, 363. Devendragani, 278. Devendrastava, 400. Devendrasuri, 281, 402. Devi, goddess ; the goddess of the aakta sect, 150; symbols used in her wor- ship, 293 n. 2 ; sometimes represented by a snake coiled round the linga, 294 n. 1. Devi Bhagwvata Upapurdna, a. Sakta work, 226, 269, 359, 373, 389; date, 269. Devi-mahdtmya, an episode in Markan- deya P., 150 : see Chandi-Mahat- mya. Devi U., 267, 364. Devi-yamala T., 265. Dhamma, Pali for dharma, 40. DkammacKakkappavattana Sutta, 70 n. Dhammakitti, 393. Dhammapada, a book of Buddhist verse, 71, 392 ; comm, ascribed to Buddhaghosha, 393. Dhammapala, 155. Dhamma-sahgani, 393. Dhanapala, 278, 279, 401. Dhani Dharm Das, 382. Dhanna, 328. Dhanyakumdracharitra, 405. DhanyaSdlicharitra, 402. Dhara, 283. DharanI, a Buddhist word for spell, equivalent to the Hindu mantra, 158, 160, 212 ; how to use a dharanl, 212. Dharma, definition of, 38, 39 f. ; begin- nings of, 27; expounded in Karma Mimamsa, 125; name of a god, 41, 49, 100 n.6. Dharma, worshipped in Bengal, 271 ; literature of the cult, 271. Dharma Das, 335. Dharmagupta school of Hinayana Buddhism, 156, 395 ; their Abhinish- kramana-siltra, 156, 395; translated into Chinese and Tibetan, 207 ; their Vinaya in Sanskrit, 156 ; in Chinese, 156. Dharmakaya, one of the bodies of a Buddha, 159. Dharmaklrti, 398. Dharma-mangal poems, 271 f. Dharmdmrita, 283, 405. Dharmapada, Sansk. for Dhammapada ; in Chinese, 155. Dharmas, the Nine, of Nepal, 275. Dharmasagara, 360, 403. Dharma-sastras, 40. Dbarma-sutras, 38 ff., 365 ; date, 38 ; contents, 39 f. ; modification of, 80. Dhdtu-kathd, 393. Dhruva Das, 378. Dhyana, meditation ; contemplative ' power, 274. Dhydnabindu U., 95, 364. Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 273, 274. Dhyani-Buddha, 273, 274. Diagrams, representing divinities, 293. ^ Dialogues, 22. Didactic Epic, 85 ff., 92 ; arose in N.E. India, 85 ; compass, 85 ; contents, 86 ff., 9S . Digambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162, 259 ; Digambaras and the original Canon, 76, 120, 121, 218, 360; Digambara Secondary Canon, 218, 282 ; Digambara literature, 120, 165 f., 215, 281, 360; the Digambara categories, 360. DIgha Nikaya, first division of the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 70, 71, 39c, 393- Dignaga, a Buddhist logician, 135. Dik, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133. Diksha, initiation, 167, 204; among Vlra Saivas, 282; among Saktas, 358- Din Ilahi, 291. Dioskouroi, 2. INDEX 4i7 Dipankara, 273. Dipavamsa, 155, 393. Dlpta A., 193. DIrghagama, Sansk. for Dighanikaya, 109; in Chinese, 155. DTrgbatamas, 9. Divine incarnation, first among Vaish- navas, 84 f. ; later among Saivas, 147. Divyavadana, 108, 395. Dnyandev, 234; vernacular for Jnana- deva, q. v. Dnyanoba, 234, 302 ; vernacular for Jnanesvara, q. v. Domestic ceremonies, 23. Drdhyayana Srauta Sutra, 365. Dramida, author of a Visishtadvaita Bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras, 171. Dranpadi, 49, 100 n. 6. Dravida Bhashya, 351, 386. Dravida land, i. e. the Tamil country, 232, 246. Dravida Veda, 379. Dravidian music, 241. Dravya, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133. Dravyanuyoga, third section of Digam- bara Secondary Canon, 219. Dravyasamgraha, 282, 404. Drishtivdda, a lost Jain book, 400. Duhla Ram, 345. Dukha, 64. Dukhanta, t. t. of Pasupata system, 251. Dulan Das, 343, 382. Durga, a goddess, celebrated in the Epic, 149 : called the sister of Krishna, 149; called Uma, the wife of Siva, 1 50 : see Uma ; also called Chandl, 1 50 : see Sakta sect ; one of the five gods, 179. Durgdiatandma Stotra, 354. Durgati-paHSodhana-dhdranl, 399. Durvdsasa T„ 268. Dvddaidnuprekshd, 403. Dvaita, dualism, a form of the Vedanta, 128, 287. Dvaitddvaita-siddhdnta-setuka ,376. Dvarika, Dwarka, in Kathiawar, 100, 302. Dwarf, Vamana, 84 n. 2 ; one of Vishnu's incarnations, 85 n. 1. Dyanuka, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133- Earthenware pots, representing divini- ties, 293. Education, the beginnings were priestly, 8, 18, 27; at first oral, 8, 18, 25; then literary, 19; education of the three castes, 31. Ego : Buddhism teaches that all things are lacking in an ego, 64. Ekadandls, fsankara's Dandis (174 n. 1) are so called in contrast with Sri- Vaishnava Sannyasis, who carry a triple rod, 243 n. 1. Ekakshara U., 364. Ekangas, Sri-Vaishnava ascetics who are not Brahmans. Ekantada Ramayya, 260. Eklingji, 146. Eknath, a Marathi poet, 250, 300, 302, 322, 374- EknalhT Bhagwat, },1i,. Ekorama, one of the five original Linggyat ascetics, 260. Ekottaragama, Sansk. for Anguttarani- kaya, 109 ; in Chinese, 155. Elephanta, 149 n. 8. Epics, 44 ff. ; 83 ff. Eroticism, 203, 204, 210. Eschatology, 15, 23, 33 ff., 41, 44, 48. Eternity of sound, 290 n. 2. Etherealized body, a result of austerities, 59- Etymology, 42. Excommunication, 40. Fa Hien, 154. Family, patriarchal, 1. Fana, 331. Fathers = Ancestors, 23. Fire-cult, 41, 43. Fish, one of Vishnu's incarnations, 85 n. 1. Five Buddhas, 273. Five gods, worshipped by Smartas, 179, 293; rise of the custom, 179 f. ; time, 206; significance, 180; author, 176, 179; worship of, 178, 179. Five MS., i.e. viadya (wine), mamsa (meat), matsya (fish), mudra (parched grain), maithuna (coition), 210, 355. Former Buddhas, see Previous Buddhas. Four Noble Truths, the, of Buddhism, 63. Four Sampradayas, 327. Fourteen Siddhanta Sastras, 258. Full Lingayats, 262. Full Moon sacrifice, 22. Funeral ceremonies, 16, 39, 40. GanadveSadtpikd, 376. Ganapati = Ganesa Ganapati-tdpariiya U., 189, 206. E e 4i8 INDEX Ganapati U. t 206, 364, 390. Ganapatya, the sect which worships Ganapati or Ganesa, 206 ; the sub- sects, 270 ; their Trimurti, 149 ; their literature, 206, 270, 390 ; their theology, 206 ; their sect-mark, 2 70 ; their mantra, 270 ; their worship, 270. Ganas, 19. Gandavyuha, 158, 275, 396. Gandhahastimahdbhdshya, 216, 219, 4°3- Gandharan art, m. Ganesa, the centre of the Ganapatya sect, 149, 206 ; one of the five gods, 179, 206, 301 ; symbols used in his worship, 293 n. 2. Ganesa-Khanda of Brahmavaivarta P., 271. Ganesa S., 183, 206. Ganeia Upapurdna, 226, 270, 390. Gamsa-yamala T., 265. Ganga, 47. Gangadhara, 270, 390. Ganges, 16, 47 ; Ganges water used in worship, 294. Gangesa, 224, 370, 370 n. 1. Gauinath, 235. Ganitavidya, 400. Garbas, songs in praise of the Devi, 35 6 - Garbha U., 364. Gargya, 146. Garib Das, 334, 345 ; his Guru Granth Sahib, 345. Garib Dasls, 334, 345 ; only the twice- born received as ascetics, 345. Garnda, 48. Garuda P., 139, 178, 372; a Smarta manual, 178 f., 206, 372; contains a passage on Surya, 206 ; a passage on Ganesa, 206, 390. Garuda 17., 364. Gdthdsahasri, 403. Gdthasahgraha, 398. Gaudapada, author of Sdhkhya-kdrikd- bhdshya, 176, 369. Gaudapada, the advaita Vedantist, i7of., 364. Gaudi, 205. Gaurdhgdshtaka, 376. Gaur Chandra, 308. Gaur Chandrika, 308, 312. Gautama Dharma-siitra, 80, 365. Gautama, the Buddha, 55, 62, 273, 274; see the Buddha. Gautamiya S., 240, 305, 376. Gayalri, 151, 390. Gayatri-bhashya, 378. Ghata, pot, used in Sakta worship, 202. GhazI Das, 343. Gheranda S., 348, 384. Ghuman, 299. Giri, name of one of the ten orders of Sankara's sannyasis, 174. 1 Giridhar, 322. GiridharajT, 316, 317, 377. Giridhar Kabraya, 382. Gitd, i.e. Bhagavadgita, q.v. Gitdbalt, 381. Gitd-bhashya of Madhva, 242, 375 ; of Ramanuja, 379 ; of VishnusvamI, 375- GTtd Govinda, 238, 378. Gitdrtha-sahgraha, ■241. Gobhila Grihya Sutra, 365. Gobind Singh, the last Sikh guru, 338, 382; creates the Khalsa, 339, 340; his Granth, 339 ; his Jap Saheb, 339 n. 4. God, in early Upanishads, 55 f. ; in verse Upanishads, 58. Gods, of Rik, 10 ff. ; position of Vedic gods weakening, 21, 32. Gokul, 100. Gokulnath, 317, 377. Golden Temple at Amritsar, the central Sikh shrine, 337 ; the worship, 340 f. Goloka, cow-place ; the highest heaven, the heaven of Krishna, ace. to Nira- barka, 240. Gommatasara, 282, 405. Gommatesvara, 282. Gondhal, a dance in honour of the god- dess, 356. Gopala, an epithet of Krishna, 50. Gopala Bhatta, 309. Gopdla-sahasrandma, 239, 375. Gopdla-tdpaniya I/., 189, 237, 239, 364, 375- Gopatha Brdhmana, 42, 363, 364, 365. Gopichandana, a white clay used for making the sect-mark of the Bhaga- vatas, 234, 298. Gopichandana U., 234, 364, 373. Gopis, milkmaids, of Brindaban, com- panions of Krishna in dance, song, and sport, 229, 230, 314. Gorakhnath (Gorakshanatha), 223, 235, 384 ; a Yogi, founder of the Kanphata Yogis, 253; date, 254; believed still to live in the Himalayas, 348 ; wor- shipped in many temples in N. India, 253 ; his Sanskrit works, 254 ; his INDEX 419 Yoga, 223, 253 f. ; worshipped in Gorakhnath! temples, 347 ; in the temple of Gorakhpur a shrine to his memory, 347. Gorakhnathls (Gorakshanathis), a sect of Pasupata &aivas, 190, 384; pro- bably derived from the Nathas, 192; closely allied to the Kapalikas, 253 ; date of foundation, 253; their temples, 347 1 Gorakhnath worshipped and animals sacrificed, 347 ; Kanphata Yogis, 348 ; their mantra, 348 ; their literature, 254, 348 ; their lack of interest in yoga, 348. Goraksha, a name of Siva, 253; also Sanskrit name of Gorakhnath, 254. Goraksha-gitd, 384. Goraksha-kalpa, 384. Goraksha-kaumudi, 384. Goraksha-paddhati, 384. Goraksha-panchaya, 384. Goraksha-sahasranama, 384. Goraksha-lataka, 254, 348, 384. Gosvaml, 309, 311. Gosvami Sri PurnshottamajT, 316. Gotama, 911. Govardhana, name of a hill in Braj; name of a matha, monastery, in Purl, founded by Sankara, 174, 297. Govinda-bhdshya, 287, 311, 377. Govinda Das, 311, 376. Govindananda SarasvatI, 369 n. 1. Graha-yamala T., 265. Gramageyagana, 19. Grammar, 42 ; schools of, 80. Granth or Grant h Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs, 299, 300, 338 ; called also the Adi Granth, 339, 382 ; contents, 338 ; compiled y Guru Arjan, 337 ; uses, 338. Gobind Singh bids the Sikhs take the Granth for their guru, 339 ; the worship of the Granth is part of the Sikh cult, 34°, 341- Granth of the Tenth Guru, 339, 382; used for worldly ends, 339. Greeks, 78. Gjihastha, householder, q.v. Grihya-sutras, 38 f., 365; date, 38; contents, 39, 140. Gritsamada, 8. Gujarat! literature, 297, 306, 317, 319, 35 6 > 36o» 378, 39°- . Guna, (1) t. t. of Sankhya system, 185 ; (2) of Vaiseshika, 134; (3) of the theology of the Sakti of Vishnu, 184. E Gunabhadra, 217, 404. Guna-body, 185. Gunachandra, 278, 401. Gunakdratidavyuha, 274, 275, 397. Gunaratna, 360, 401. Gupta empire, 122, 123, 136. Gur Das, 382. Guru, i.e. Prabhakara, 168. Guru, religious teacher; held to be God, first among ascetics, then among laymen, 167, 186; among Buddhists, 210; held to be the Buddha, 210; among Vira Saivas, 261. Gurudeva, 387. Gurudvaras, 340. Guru Granth Sahib, 345. Gurumukhi, , an alphabet invented for Nanak's hymns, 337. Guruparampara, succession of gurus, 298. Gurusthala Jangamas, 262. Guru-worship, 262, 336, 338, 346. Gutkd, 382. Gydn Prakds, 382. Gydn Samudra, 382. Hala, 165, 215. Hallisa, 144. Hamsa U., 95, 364. Handal, 340. Handalis, 340. Hanuman, 48; temples of Hanuman, 321. Hanuman Ndtaka, 329, 381. Haoma, 3. Har Gobind, a Sikh guru, 338. Haribhadra, 214, 278, 280, 360, 371, 383,401- Haribhakti-rasdyand, a Madhva work on devotion, 303, 375. Haribhakti-vildsa, 309, 376. Hari Das, 378. Haridasis, 302, 318; HaridasT litera- ture, 378. Haridra Ganapati, 270. Harihara, 143, 264. Hariharananda Bharati, 355. Hariharananda Svami, 289. Harikatha, 302. Harikathdmritasdra,OTHarikathasdra, 3°3. 375- Hdrilila, an abstract of the Bhdgavata P., 234. 374- Haripdth, Jnanesvara's, 235, 374; Eknath's, 300, 374. e 3 420 INDEX Harishena, 403. Harlta S., 246. Harivamia, a Purana, 139, 371, 372 ; recognized as last section of the MBH., 100; date, 140, 143; life of Krishna appended to royal genealo- gies, 138 ; gives much space to Krishna legend, 143 ; contains hymns to Durga, 140, 387 ; teaches the equality of Vishnu and Siva, 142,181; possibly a Bhagavata P., 143 ; con- tents, 143 f. ; became attached to the Mahdbharata, 144 ; contains Sakta material, 150. Harivamia P. (Jain), 217, 217 n. 2 ; 218, 219, 404. Hari Varhsa, 318, 378. Harivyasa Muni, 305, 376. Har Rai, 340. Harsha, 205. Hatha-sahketa-chandrika, 384. Hatha-yoga, the name of a new Yoga, taught by Gorakhnath, 253, 348. Hatha-yoga, 254, 348, 384. Hatha-yoga-pradipika, 348, 384. Hayagrwa U., 364. Heavenly gods, I, 2. Hellenic peoples, 1. Hemachandra, 277, 278, 279^,401. Hemadri, 226, 373. Henotheism, 15. Heramba, a name of Ganesa, used by Buddhists as well as Hindus, 270. Heramba-Ganapati, 270. Hermits, 29, 31; see Vanaprastha, Vaikhanasa. Heruka, 272. Heruka T., 272, 398. He-vajra T., 272, 398. Himalayas, 103. Hinayana Buddhism, 103, no, in, 118. Hinayana literature, 64, 67-72, 104- 10, 118, I54ff., 161, 207, 393. Hindi literature, 296, 297, 299, 305, 316. 3i7» 333. 336, 339> 34i. 343 ff-. 361, 381, 382. Hindu nuns, 129. Hindu people to-day, 292. Hindu philosophies, 1 22 ff. ; the founda- tion texts, 123; date, 123. Hindu sects, 122. Hinglaj, 348. Hiouen Tsahg, 177, 207, 208; just escaped being sacrificed to Durga, 203. HiranyakesI Dharma Sutra, 365. HiranyakeH Gfihya Sutra, 365. HiranyakesI Srauta Sutra, 365. Hit-chaurasi-dham, 378. Hit-ji, 318. Horse-sacrifice, 14, 22. Hotri, 6, 7, 14, 17, 19, 20. Householder, one of the four asramas, 29, 40, 81. Hring, 201. Hum, 201. Human sacrifice, 203, 354. Hung, 201. Huvishka, a Kushan king, 103. Hymns, of Rigveda, see Rigveda. Hypnotic trances, in Buddhism, 64, 211. Hypnotism, 61. Idolatry renounced, 326, 359. Images, first mention of, 41 ; later, common, 48 ; images of divinities in sexual union, 265 ; images in Smarta worship, 293. Image-worship, 50, 51 n. ; unorthodox, 5°- Immortality, 1, 15. Incantations, 16, 43. Incarnation, divine, 41, 47; incarna- tions of Vishnu, 84, 85, 87, 99, 100. India, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 15, 47, 49. Indo-European, race, 1 ; language, 1, 6 ; religion, 1 ; culture, 1 ; literature, 6. Indo-Iranian people, 2; religion, 2, 3. Inheritance, 40. Initiation, 31. Irupavirupathu, 258, 385. Isa, Lord, 58. Ija U., 55, 58, 364. Isvara, Lord, God, 58 ; t. t. of the Yoga system, 132; t. t. of Nyaya _ system, 1 34. //vara Gita, 358. Isvara Krishna, also called Vindhya- vasin, author of the Sahkhya-karika, 129, 368 ; his date, 129. livara-pratyabhijna-kdrikas, 259. Isvara Purl, 303, 307. Isvara S., 183, 246. Isvar Das Nagar, 343. Italic peoples, 1. Itivuttaka, 393. I Tsing, 207, 208, 212. Jabala U., 95, 358, 364. Jabali U., 364. Jadunandana Das, 311. INDEX 431 Jagadlsa, 289, 371. Jagannath, 307. Jagatsundariyogamdld, 403. Jagjivan Das, 343, 382. Jagmohana, 312. Jahangir, 338. Jaimini, 367. Jaimini Bharata, 304. Jaimini Grihya Siitra, 365. Jaimini Srauta Siitra, 365. Jaiminiya Brdhmana, 27, 28. Jaiminiya-nydya-mdld-vistara, 285, 367- Jaimimya-sutra-bhdshya, 367, 377. Jaiminiya Upanishad Brdhmana, 27, 55- Jain art, 1 19. Jain asceticism, 74. Jaina, the word, 74. JainaHokavartika, 404. Jainavarndfoama, 404. Jain bhakti, 1 20. Jain canon, see Svetambara Jain Canon. Jain councils, 75. Jainism, 73 ff. ; older than Buddhism, 73 ; the early system, 74 ; atheism, 74; asceticism, 74; souls in elements, 74 ; ahimsa, 74 ; the two communi- ties, 75, 119; expansion in north and south, 119; little influenced by Saktism, 213; Sakta yoga present but not prominent, 213 ; decline, 359. Jain laity, 74. Jain literary dialects, 162. Jain literature, 75 ff., 119, 120 f., 162, 2I 3j. 277, 398; popular literature in Prakrit, 165; in vernaculars, 228. Jain logic, 178, 213, 225. Jain Maharashtri, 162. Jain monks, 74, 75, 119. Jain nuns, 74, 119. Jain suicide, 74. Jain theism, 278 ; a work written against it, 282. Jain Tirthakaras, 71, 120 11. 1, 216. Jain worship, 75, 120. Jain Yoga, 213. Jains, in an Asokan edict, 77. Jambavan, 48. Jambudvipaprajfiapti, 215, 400. Janamsakhls, 336. Jangama, 260, 261, 262, 263; two classes of Jangama, 262. Japan, Buddhism carried to Japan, 168, 207, 391. Japji, 33 6 - 338, 34 '• Jap Saheb, 339 n. 4. Jdtaka, a book of previous lines of the .. Buddha, 70, 71, 392, 393; their influence, 108, no, 113. —Jdtakamdld, of Aryasura, 156, 395. Jdtakatthavannand, 393. Jatayus, 48. Java, 168, 391. Jayadeva, 238, 305, 307, 308, 378 ; his date, 238. Jayadevamisra, 371. Jayadhavala, 217, 219, 404; its tjkd, 217 n. 2. Jayananda, 377. Jayanta, 370. Jayaratha, 386. Jayasimha, 279. Jayatihnyanastotra, 279, 401, Jayatirtha, 237, 375. Jayavallabha, 215, 401. Jejakabhukti, 226. Jenghiz Khan, 277. Jetalpur, 318. Jina, 74. Jinachandra, 401. Jinadatta, 280, 402. Jinakathe, 217, 403. Jinakirti, 360, 402. Jinahharamdle, 404. Jinamandana, 360, 402. Jinasamhita, 360, 405. Jinasena (a), author of Harivamsa P., 217, 404. Jinasena (b), pupil of VIrasena, author of part of Adi P. (Jain), 217, 404. Jiva, 309, 377. Jivabhigama, 400. Jivaka-Chintdmani, 280, 401, 404. Jivaviydra, 401. Jiv_ Dasa, 378. Jfianachandra, 177, 370. Jnana Das, 311, 377. Jnanadeva = JBanesvara. Jndnddi-sadhana, 399. Jndndmrila, 384. Jnana-pada, one of the four divisions of the contents of Agamas, Samhitas, and Tantras, 184. JndnaprasthdnaSastra, 107, 108, 394. Jfianasagara, 360, 402. Jndna-Vasishtham, 296, 373. JBanesvara, 234, 239, 248, 253, 298, 2 99> 374. 3 8 4; a tru e Bhagavata, 235; amonist, 234, 300. Jiidnesvart, a. MarathI commentary on the Gitd, 234, 248, 296, 374; teaches the advaita system and yoga, 234. 423 INDEX Jndtadharmakatha, one of the Jain Aiigas, 399. Jot Prasad, 336. Junagadh, 306. Jyotisvati T., 268. Kablr, 284, 291, 323, 326, 327, 330, 347, 381; Islam and Hinduism both contributed to Kabir, 331 ; influence of Sufiism, 331 ; Ramananda his teacher, 332 ; banished from Benares, 332 ; relation of Hindu and Muham- madan elements in his mind, 332; denounces idolatry, 333; condemns divine incarnation - and asceticism, 333. Is there Christian influence in his poems ? 333 ; a strict theist, 333; conception of God, 333 ; character of his poetry, 333 ; critical research needed to distinguish his genuine poems from later work, 333 ; the Bijak, 333 ; poems in the Granth, 333, 338; sects which arose from his influence, 334, 347 ; common features of these sects, 334. Kabirpanth, 334, 335, 381 ; monks and nuns, 335 ; two sub-sects, each under a Mahant, at Benares and at Chattis- garh, 335 ; many monasteries, 335 ; cult, 335 ; special ceremonies, 336 ; worship of the Mahant, 336 ; Kabir called an incarnation of the Supreme, 336 ; sect-mark, mantra, rosary, 336. Kabittaball, 381. Kach, 339 n. 1. Kadcha, note-book, of Govinda Das, 376; of Murari Gupta, 376. Ka-gyur, the first section of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, also called Kanjur, 267. Kaivadya Dipika, 380. Kaivalya, t. t. of Sankhya system, 131, 132- Kaivalya-sara, 387. Kaivalya [/., 103, 364. Kakshivan, 9 m Kala, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 133; 1. 1. of Pancharatra system, 185. Kalagnirudra U., 196, 364. Kalajnana T., 388. Kalakacharya, 120, 400. Kd/akdcharyakathanaka, 401. Kalakshepam, 302. Kalanidhi T., 268. Kalidasa, 217. Kalighat, 203 n. 1, 354. KMika P. or T., 354, 372, 389. Katisamtarana U., 364. Kallata, 386.' Kaloitara T., 265. Kalpalata, 360, 403. Kalpas, 146. . Kalpasutra (of the Jains), 163, 360, 400. Kalpa-sutras, 38, 50, 365. Kalpavatamsika, 400. Kalpika, 400. Kalyanamandira-stotra, 165, 400. Kama, the god of love, 41, 47, 49. Kamachiamma, 268. Kamadhenu T., 389. Kamakhya, a famous Sakta temple in Assam, 354. Kamarupa, 354. Kamika, name of an Agama, 193, 194, 264. Karhsa, 100, 100 n. 4. Kanada Kasyapa, 369. Kanaiya, 340. Kanaka Das, 375. Kanakamuni, one of the previous Buddhas, 72, 273. Kanarak, 269 n. 5, 270. Kanarese Literature, 216, 228, 260, 264, 281, 282, 283, 296, 303, 347, 353. 385- Kaflchi-Appar Xxii cent.), 256 ; (xviii cent.), 347. 385. Kanchi-puranam, 347, 351, 383. Kanda Puranam, 256, 385. Kanga, 339 n. I. Kanishka, a Kushan king, 95, 108, no, in. Kanjur, see Ka-gyur. Kannudaiya Vallalar, 351, 386. Kanphata Yogis, followers of Gora- khnath, 347 ; their mantra, 348 ; their ornaments, 348 ; their worship of Gorakhnath, 348 ; their yoga, 348. KanthaSruti U., 95, 364. Kanva, 8, 10. Kapala-Kundala, a Kapalika nun, 192. Kapalesvara, skull-god, an epithet of Siva, used in Kapalika sect, 192. Kapalikas, skull-men, a group or sect of Pasupata Saivas, 190, 192, 384; date, 192 ; probably merely an order of ascetics, 192 ; their mudras, 348 n. 3 ; there were nuns as well as monks, 192, 252 ; closely allied to left-hand SSktaS, 19a, 252 ; practise Sakta worship, 252 ; have foul rites of^their own, 211, 252; practise Sakta yoga, 192, 252; show eroticism INDEX 423 also, 252; the modem Aghqris are the old Kapalikas, 347. Kapilavastu, birthplace of the Buddha, 6z. Kapishthala-Kathas, a school of the Black Yajus, 27. Kapishthala- Katha Samkita, 27,-28. Karana, name of an Agama, 193. Karananuyoga, second section of Di- gambara Secondary Canon, 219. Karandavyuha, 158, 274, 396. Karikas, 116, 124. Karma, def., 34 : see Transmigration and Karma ; t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 134; 1. 1. of Agamic &aivism, one element in Pasa, 195. Karmagranthas, 281, 402. Karma-marga, the way to release by works, 88. Karma Mlmamsa, exegesis of the sacri- ficial Veda, 37, 125, 220, 367; atheistic, 37, 60, 61, 125; earliest form of, 37 ; early use, 39, 79 ; classic form in Jaimini's Sutras, 125 ff. ; an earlier document, now lost, probably served as model for earliest Brahma-sutra, 79 > * s tne special system of the orthodox twice- bom, 37, 126; its teaching, 44, 125 ff. ; does not teach a philosophy, 125 ; yet metaphysical ideas implied, 125 f. ; no doctrine of release in the Sutras, 126; but it appears in Pra- bhakara and Kumarila, 1 69 ; has no order of ascetics, 1 26 ; literature, 125, 135, 1681"., 220, 285; sacrifice decays but the Mlmamsa survives, 170; the Samuchchhaya doctrine, 221 ; prakarana-granthas an off- shoot from the Mlmamsa, 295. Karma-lataka, 108, 395. Karma-yoga, restraint of works, 88. Karnataka, the country where Kanarese is spoken, 259. Karohana, 146. Kartabhajas, 312. Kartha, 339 n. r. Karttikeya, 47. Karundpundarlka, 395. Karwar, 146. Kasakritsna, 128. Kashmir, 103, 108, 193. Kashmir Saivas,_ 191, 193, 19 8 ! 2 5 8 > 352> 385 ; .Agamic £aivas, 198; followers of Safikara, 175; the school has declined, 352. Kah'id, 367. Kasyapa, 273. Kasyapa Matanga, 118. Katha, 282. Kathaka Brahmana, 27, 28. Kathakas, a school of the Black Yajus, 27, 58- Kathaka Samkita, 27, 28. Kathaka Upanishad, 58, 60, 364. KatkakoSa, 403. Katharudra U-, 364. Kathasdramrita, 374. KatJialruti U., 364. Katha Upanishad = Kathaka Upani- shad. Kath&vatthu, 393. Kathiawar, 162. Katyayana Srauta Sutra, 365. Katyayanlputra, author of the Sarvasti- vadin philosophy, 107. Kaula-marga, the system of the Kaulas, 266. Kaulas, a sect of Saktas, 266. Kaula U., 266, 358, 364, 389. Kaurashya, one of the earliest Lakulisa ascetics, 146. Kaushitaki Aranyaka, 30. Kaushllaki Brahmana, 27, 28, 363. Kaushitaki U., 54. Kaushitakins, a school of the Rigveda, 27. Rauhka-siltra, 38, 41, 365. Kauthuma school of the Samaveda, 18. Kautilya, 43. Kavacha, 357, 389. Kavikamapura, 310, 376. Kayarohana, 146. Kedarnath, 260. Kena U., 54, 364. Kereya Padmarasa, 353. Kes, 339 n. 1. Kesava, 224. Kesava Dasa Misra, 373. Kesava Kashmiri, 305, 376. Kesava Misra, 37 1 . Khadira Grihya Sutra, 365. Khajuraho, 227. Khakis, an order of Dadupanthi ascetics, 34 3 L Khalsa, the warrior-community of the Sikhs, 339, 340.. Khalsas, an order of Dadupanthi ascetics, 341. Khandadeva, 285, 367. Khanda-di-Pahnl, the Sikh baptismal service, 339. 424 INDEX Khandakds, second part of the Buddhist Vinaya, 69. Khandanakhandakhddya, 223, 225, 371- Khotan, 104, 153. Khuddakanikaya, fifth section of Sutta Pitaka, 109, 392. Khuddakapdtha, book of the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 71, 392. Kllaka, 357, 389. King, the, in law, 40. Kirana A., 193, 194, 195 n. 1. Kiranavalt, 223, 370. Kirandvall-prakas'a, 370. Kirpan, 339 n. ji . Kirtan Sohila, 341. Kirtaniya, 312. KIrtivarman, 226. Kishoribhajas, 312. Knowledge in the Upanishads, 55. Kodi-kavi, 258, 386. Korea, 154. Kotwa,. 343. Koyil P., 386. Kramadipika, 305, 376. Kramasandarbha, 377. Krim, 212. Krishna, in Mahabharata, 49 ; a man, 49; or a vegetation spirit, 49; or a sun-god, 49 ; his character, 89 ; in Megasthenes, 49; at Mathura, 50; in second stage of Epic a partial incarnation of Vishnu, 78, 83 ; in early inscriptions, 84 n. 3 ; in third stage of Epic, a full incarnation, 87, 100 ; the cult of Krishna in the Gita, 88 f. ; the god transformed in the GUd, 89 ; in didactic Epic, 97 ; in the doctrine of Vyuha, 99 ; the Krishna-legend, 100 ; the child- Krishna, 100 ; K. and the cowherds, 100; ace. to Nimbarka Krishna is the eternal God, 240. Krishna III, a RashtrakCta king, 282. Krishna Chaitanya, 307. Krishna Das, a Madhva, 375. Krishna Das, a Vallabha, 377. Krishnadasa Kaviraj, 310, 377. Krishnadeva, 312. Krishna-janma-Khmida, 376. Krishnakarndmrita, 304, 308, 375. Krishna Lildbhyudaya, 303. Krishnamisra, 227, 371, 373. Krishnananda Vagisa, 389. Krishnapremamrita, 377- Krishnapur, 49. Krishndrchanadipikd, 377. Krishna U., 364. Kriya, one of the two aspects of the Sakti of Vishnu, 184. Kriya-pada, one_division of the contents of Samhitas, Agamas, Tantras, 184. Kriydsdra, 350, 353, 385. Krui», -212. Kshana, * member of the Sautrantika series, sdmtdna, 106. Kshapanasara, 282, 405. Kshatriyas, 21, 36; education of, 31; in transmigration, 34 ; duties, 40 ; relation to philosophy of the Upani- shads, 53. Kshemaraja, 194, 259, 265, 386. Kshemendra, 395. Kshudrakagama, Sansk. for Khudda- kanikaya, 109. Kshurikd U., 95, 364. Kubera, the god of wealth, 4r, 47. Kubjikd T., 205 n. 3. Kubjikdmata T., 199, 211, 388. Kublai Khan, 277. Kuchar, 104, 153. Kulachuddmani T., 265, 387, 38S. Kularnwva T., 268, 388. Kulasdra T., 265. Kulasekhar, 188. KitUsvan T., 268. Kulljama Saheb, 292. Kulottunga, a Chola king, 245. Kumaraguruparasvami, 351, 383. Kumaralabdha, a Sautrantika scholar, 107. Knmarapala, 280. Kumdrapdlaprabandha, 402. Kumara Valmiki, 303. Kumarila, of the Karma Mimamsa, 168 f., 216, 221, 286, 367; called Bhatta, 168 ; system, 168 ff. Kumbha Rana, 306. Kumbh Mela, a gathering of ascetics held once in twelve years at the confluence of the Jumna and the Ganges, 174, 304, 327. Kumudachandra, 279. Kundaliya, 382. Kundakundacharya, 166, 219, 281, 360, 4°3- Rundalinl, the coiled one, name of the goddess coiled up in Muladhara, 202, 294 n. 1. Kundikd U., 364. Kunkuma, 357. KupakshakaiiHkaditya, 360, 403. Kural, 121. Kfmna P., 139, 372, 383, 384; Saiva, INDEX 4^5 1 79 ; contains Lakulisa material, 179; contains Sakta material, 195, 196; Tel.Tr., 346 ; Tam. Tr., 347. Kurukshetra, 9. Kurus, 9. Kushans, 78 ; the Kushan empire, 78. Kusika, 146. Kusumdnjali, 221, 222, 224, 370. Kutastha Purusha, 185. Kutsa, 911. Labdhisdra, 282, 405. Laghukshetrasamdsa, 402. Laghu-sdhkhya-sutra-vritti, 369. Laghu Tikd, 351, 386. ' Lake-worship, 48. Lakshanwoall, 224, 370. Lakshmana Desika, 267, 389. Lakshmana Sena, 238 n. Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, 47, 301 ; also the Sakti of Vasudeva, the first vyuha, 184. Lakshmldhara, 265, 266, 268, 358, 389. Lakshml S., 183 n. 1. Lakshmisa Devapura, 304. Lakshmi-yamala T., 265. Lakula, the rod, or club, carried by Lakuli, 146. Lakuli, the club-bearer, probably the name of an ascetic, 146^ Lakulisa, i. e. the club-bearing god, a. name of Siva, 103, 146 ; images of Lakulisa, 146, 192. Lakulisa-Pasupatas, a sub-section of the Pasupata 6aivas, also called Lakulisas, q.v. Lakulisas, a Pasupata Saiva sect, also called Lakulisa-Pasupatas, 103, 146, 190, 191, 251, 383; name does not occur in. Epic, 103 ; but in Vtiyu P., 146; for the name, see Lakulisa; arose in Gujarat, 191; produced a theology at an early date, 191 ; did not accept the Agamas, 191 ; spread to Rajputana, and south to the Mysore, 192 ; literature, 146, 192, 2 5 2 > 383; Lakulisa images, 146, 192. Lai Das, 334, 342 ; his BdnT, 342. Lai Dasis, 334, 342, 382 ; the cult, 342. L51 Ded, 352, 386. Lalita, 357. Lalita A., 193. Lalitamddhava, 376. Lalitdsahasrandma, in Brahmanda P., 357.358,389- LalitdtriSati, in Brahmanda P., 357, 389- Lalita Vistara, a life of the Buddha, originally Sarvastivadin, 107, 156, 1 S1, 275. 39 6 i teaching, 157. Lalitopakhyana, in Brahmanda P., 357, 3»9- Lahkavatdra-sutra, a Vijfianavadin text, 161, 275, 396. Lata country, 146. Ldtydyana Srauta Sutra, 365. Laugakshi Bhaskara, 289, 367, 370, 371- Lauriya Krishna Das, 303. Lau Sen, 271. Law, schools of, 80 ; method of schools, 80 ; law in the didactic Epic, 95 f. Laymen, rise of cultured, 79. Lila, sport, 115, 332. Lild Charit, 249, 380. Litd Samvdd, 249, 380. Lilasuka, 375. Llldvati, 282. Lihga, the phallus of Siva, 102 ; among Vira Saivas, 261. Lihga-dhdraitd-chandrikd, 387. Lihga P., 139, 371, 383, 384; a Saiva work, 179; contains Lakulisa mate- rial, 179; contains Sakta material, 1 95 ; contains a passage on Om, 1 96 ; Tam. Tr., 347. Lingayats, 191, 259, 353; meaning of the term, 261 : see Vira Saivas. Lochana Das, 377. Logic, 135, 177: see Nyaya; Buddhist logic, 178, 225 ; Jain logic, 178, 213, 225. Lokaprakas'a, 403. Lokaraksha, 118. Lokayata philosophy, 44, 61 ; also called Charvaka, 290 ; an early manual now lost, 80. Lokayatikas, 371. Lokottara, transcendental, 109. Lokottaravadins, branch of the Maha- sanghika Buddhist school, 109, 394; system, 109 ; Vinaya, 109, 394 ; Mahdvastu, a Buddha - biography, 109 ; person of the Bnddha, 109. Lonkas, 359. Lord of Vraja, epithet of Krishna, 100. Lotus, the, i.e. the Saddharma Punda- rika, q.v. Lumpakas, 359. Madhava, 221 n. 1, 225, 228, 251, 254, 255, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 294, 319 u. 1, 349, 350, 367,^368, 369, 37°, 37i. 375. 38o, 384, 385, 386. 436 INDEX Madho Rao Peshwa, 322. Madhurakavi, 188. Madhusudana Sarasvati, 286, 290, 295, 368, 373- Madhva, founder of the Madhva sect, 235; a Tirfha sannyasl, 304 ; believed himself to be an incarnation of Vayu, 237; a dualist, 236; author of the Siitra-bhdshya, 222, 250, 287, 374; author of dvaita commentaries on ten Upanishads, 223, 364, 365, 374. Madhva Das, 303. Madhva sect, 183, 235, 298, 302 ; teach- ing reflected in the Samhitas, 183; does not recognize Radha, 236 ; litera- ture, 175 n.4, 236, 237 n. 1, 374, 251 n. 1, 302 ; holds the Samuch- chhaya doctrine, 221 ; sannyasis, 304; Sampradaya, 327; their influence. 3o7. 3i8. Madhva-vijaya, 237 n. t, 374. Madhyamagama, Sansk. for Majjhima- nikaya, 109; in Chinese, 155. Madhyamaka, name of the philosophy of vacuity of Nagarjuna, 116 f., 136 ; influence, 158; literature of the school, 208, 396. Madhyamakdlamkdra , 397. Madhyamaka-karikds, 116. Mddhyamakdvatdra, 20S, 397. Madura, 347. Maga, i. e. Magus, Magian, a Persian priest, 152, 153; priests of the Saura sect, 205 ; recognized as Brahmans in India, 152, 205. Magadhaj early religion and ethics of, 43 ; the kingdom, 66. MagadhI, the vernacular of Magadha, 68, 76 ; MagadhI Canon, the original Buddhist Canon, now lost, 68. Maghar, 332. Magian, see Maga. Magic, 1, 16, 21, 22, 23, 32,41 ; Hindu books on, 38, 41, 365; magic rites, 41,43; Buddhist magic books, 71; in Saktism, 204. Mahabaswva P., 353, 386. Mahabharata, 44, 366, 373, 382 ; date, 45, 46 ; first stage of, 45, 46 ; its re- ligion, 48 f., 366; second stage, 78, 83 ; religion of second stage, 83 ; a polemic against Buddhism, 84 ; third stage, 85 ; isakta material, 387 ; Saura material, 152, 389 ; law in the Epic, 366 ; philosophy, 366 ; vernacular versions, 228, 296, 301, 303, 366. Mahdbharata-tdtparya-nirtinya, by Madhva, 236, 374 ; mentions San- kara's demon origin, 287 n. 1. Mahabhashya, 49. Mahadeva Vedantin, 369. Maha-Ganapati, 270. Mahdkdla T., 397. Mahdkalajndna-vinirnaya, 199, 387. Mahdkarundpundarlka, 207. Mahdlamkdravatthu, 394. Mahamaudgalyayana, 394. Mahamayuri Dharanf, 213, 399. Mahdmegha-siitra, 212. Mahanama, 392. Mahanardyana U., 49, 58, 364, 373. Mahanirvdna T., 199 n. 1, 354, 356. Mahdntfltha, 400. Mahanubhavas, 247 ; see Manbhaus. Mahdpaddna Sutta, 70 n. Mahdparinibbdna Sutta, 70 n. Mahdpralay, 382. ' Mahdpratydkhydna, 400. Mahdpuruskacharitra, 402. Mahar, name of a large Outcaste race found in the Maratha country, 302 n. 1. * Mahdrdjakanika-lekha, 395. Maharashtri, 162. Mahd S., 236 n.. i. Mahasanghikas, a Hinayana Buddhist school, 109, 393 ; system, 109 ; Canon, 109 ; Ekottaragama, 109, 393; in Chinese, 156; the Vinaya also in Chinese, 156, 393. Mahasannipdta-sutra, 159, 396. Mahasepho nagno, 103. Mahdsiddhasdra T., 356, 387, 389. Mahat, t. t. of Sankhya system, 130. Mahd U., 145, 358, 364, 379. Mahdvagga, a section of the Buddhist Vinaya, 69, 70 n., 71. Mahdvairochandbhisambodhi, 211, 398. Mahdvdkya V., 364. Mahdvamsa, 155, 393. Mahdvastu, 109, 115, 394. Mahavihara of Anuradhapura, Ceylon, 154. 155- Mahavlra, founder of Jainism, 73 ; date, 73, 163 ; his system, 74 ; his date, 73 ; his utterances expressed in the twelfth Anga, 75 ; in the Svetam- bara Canon, 74, 76. Maliaviracharita, 278, 280, 401, 402. Mahayana, a form of Buddhism, 78, no, in; its essential character, in ; date, in ; the eating of flesh forbidden, 113; its theory of the three bodies of the Buddhas, 273. INDEX 427 Mahay ana literature, 112, 114, 116, "7) "8> 157 ff > 2o7ff.,_3 9 6; Maha- yana worship, 113 ; Mahayana philo- sophy, 1 14 ; two forms of the Maha-' yana, 1 1 2 ff. ; Mahayana texts in Sanskrit, 275. MahdydnairaddhotpddaSdstra, 116, 161 , 395. 398. Mahdydna-sutrdlamkara, i6r, 397. Mahesa, 261 n. 3. Mahesvara, a title of &iva, 145. Mahesvaras, a title used by certain groups of Saivas, 191. Mahidhara, 357, 384, 389. Mahimnastava, 383. Mahlpati, 296, 301, 374. Mahisasaka school of Hinayana Budd- hism, 156, 394; Vinaya in Chinese, I5 6 - 394- Mahisha, a demon-buffalo, 149. Maina, a kingdom in Bengal, 271. Maithili literature, 306, 378. Mailrdyana U., 79, 364; date, 92, 94, 95 ; reflected in didactic Epic, 92 ; significance of the U., 1, 93 ; contains the earliest mention of the Trimurti, I48._ Maitrdyani Samhita, 27, 28. Maitrayaniyas, a school of the Black Yajus, 27. Maitreya, a disciple of Lakuli , 1 46 ; a Manushi-Buddha, 273. Maitreya U., 364. Majjhima Nikaya, second division of the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 70, 71, 391, 393- . Makuta A., 193. Mdlati-Mddhava, name of an eighth- century drama, 192, 200, 202, 203, 388. Malayagiri, 278, 402. Malayalim literature, 251, 296, 297, 357, 379, 384- Mdlint-vi/aya T., 205. Mallanarya, 386. Mallavadin, 214, 401. Mallindtha P., 405. Maluk Das, 328, 381. Maluk Dasis, 328. Manas, t. t. of Sankhya system, 98, 130 ; also in Vai^eshika, 133 ; also in Nyaya, 135. Manasa, 356. Manatunga, 205, 214, 401. Manavachakam Kadandan, 257, 258, 386. Mdnava DharmaSastra, 81, 366. Mdnava Grihya Sutra, 365. Mdnava Crania Sutra, 365. Manavala-mahamuni, 319. Manavans, a sutra-school of the Black Yajus, 81. Manbhau Panth, 248. Manbhaus, i.e. Mahanubhavas, a Vai- shnava sect, 190, 247, 322 ; points in common with Vira Saivas, 247 ; social organization, 247, 263; or- ganized in the thirteenth century, 247 ; very heterodox, 247 ; hated, con- demned and persecuted by Maratha bhaktas and by Smartas, 322; charged with gross crimes, 322 ; re- cognize Krishna alone, 247 ; use a symbol, not an image, 247 ; vege- tarians, 247 ; their dress and orna- ments, 322; they have five founders or propagators, 2495 their five mantras, 249 ; Sampradaya, 248, 327 ; their chief scripture is the Bhagavad- gltd, 249; their own literature, 249, 322, 380 ; their secret alphabet, 249 ; their monks and nuns, 249; their chief monastery, 322. Mandala, a circle ; used of a diagram held to possess occult power, 202, 355- Mandalabrahmana U., 364. Mandanamisra, 169, 367. Mandukya Kdrikd, 170, 368 ; the earliest surviving exposition of the advaita Vedanta, 171. Mandukya [/., 79, 170, 364, 368 ; date, 92. Manichaeism, 153. Manikka Vachakar, 193, 197, 220, 385 ; date, 197 ; poems, 197, 256, 385. Manikyanandin, 217, 219, 404. Manimanjari, a Madhva work, 175 n. 4, 237 n. 1, 375. Manimat, 237. Manimekhalai, 121. Maniprabhd, 289, 369. Manjusri, 158, 272. Manjutri-mitla T., 272, 398. Manjuht-nama-sahglti, 272, 399. Manorathapurani, 393. Man Singh, 340. Mantra, religious thought or prayer, 25 ; supernatural text, 25; adoration mantra, a phrase expressing adoration to the god of the sect, 167, 186; doctrine of mantras in Agamas, 195 ; in Tantras, 201, 202 ; the whole body of Sakta mantras identical with the 428 INDEX among Vira oaivas, Saiv , Sakti, 201 261. MantrakoSa, 388. Mantramahodadhi, 357, 389. Mantraraja of Narasirhha, 188, 189. Mantrikd U., 364. Manu, code of, 81 ; see Manava Mar- maSdstra. Manushi- Buddha, 273, 274; each has a world, 274. Manyakheta, 2:16. Marai-jnana-sambandha, 257, 386. Marasimha II, 282, Maratha bhaktas, 234, 298, 374; lise of the movement, 234 ; they use the vernacular, 234 ; their mantra, 235 ; their hatred of the Manbhaus, 322. Marathi, 162 ; Marathi literature, 234, 296, 297, 298 ff., 374, 381, 384, 390. Mardana, 336; Maritontadarya, 387. Mdrkatideya P., 139, 371, 387; con- tains the Chandi-mdhdtmya, 140, 150, 356 ; contains other Sakta docu- ments, 357 ; contains Brahma ma- terial, 140, 148, 388 ; contains Saura material, 140, 152, 390; Tel. Trs., 267, 357 ; Beng. Trs., 356. Marriage, 2, 40; age of marriage of girls, 40. Marriage ceremonies, 16. Marula, one of the five original Linga- yat ascetics, 260. Maruts, 10. Maiaka Srauta Sutra, 365. Matahga Vpdgama, 194. Materialism, 44, 60. Matha, the Hindu word for a monastery, 298. _ Mathura, 49, 50, 100, 100 n. 6, 310. Mathura-mahatinya, 310, 376. Mathuranatha, 371. Mathuranathi, 371. Matricheta, a Buddhist writer, no, 395. Matsya P., 139, 37 2 ; Tel. Tr., 346, 383. Maurya empire, 36, 78, 83, 84. Maya, (1) magic power, 115; (2) illu- sion, ,59, 172, 282 ; (3) t. t. in Aga- mic Saivism, an element of Pasa, I95-, Maya Sakti, 1 85. Mayavadin, holding the doctrine of Maya, illusion, 274, 293. Mdydvaibhava S., 263 n. 1. Mayura, 205, 390. Mayura Bhatta, 272. Meditation, 28. Megasthenes, 49. - Meghaduta, 217, 360. MeghasMra, 396. Melkote, i. e. Yadavagiri in the Mysore, 182, 245, 246, 248. Menander = Milinda, 105. Mercury system, 254. Merutunga (A), 281. Merutunga (B), 360, 371, 402. Meykanda Deva, 257, 258, 385. Middle path, in Buddhism, 63. Mihira, Sansk. form of Persian Mithra, 152. Milinda = Menander, 104. Milinda-panha, 104, 393. Mimarhsa, i.e. exegesis, 124; used specially of the Karma Mimarhsa, I2 S . Mimamsaka, one learned in the Karma Mimamsa, 39. Mtmdmsd-nydya-praidsa,28^, 367. Mimdmsa-floka-vdrttika, 367. Mlmdmsd-siitra-bhdshya, 135. Minas, a sect of Sikhs, 340 ; they have a. Granth and a Janamsdkki of their own, 340 n. 4. Mira Bai, 306, 379. Misery, in Buddhism, 63. Misra, i.e. mixed, Tantras, 268. Mithra, Avestan form of Mitra, the Persian sun-god, 152. Mitra, 2, 3 n., 10 ; a disciple of Lakuli, 146; a Calcutta scholar, 275. Mitrachatushkakathd, 402. Mokshadharma, a section of the didactic Epic, filled with Vaishnavism, 96, 97, Mokshamdrgapaidi, 405. Monappa, 387. Mongolia, 277 ; Mongolian Buddhist Canon, 277, 391. Monism, in Upanishads, 56 ; in Gitd, 90 ; in didactic Epic, 97 ; in Sanatsu- jdtiya, 97. Monk = sannyasT, 29, 129; see also Buddhist Monks, Jain Monks. Mountain worship, 41, 43. Mrigendra A., 94, 384. Mudgala P., 270, 271, 364, 390. Mudra, a seal, a symbol, 348 n. 3 ; ritual gesture made with the fingers, 202 ; 1. 1. of Gorakhnathi yoga, 254. Muhammad Shah, 345. Muhammadan conquest of North India, 220, 277; Muhammadan influence, 284, 299. INDEX 439 Mukhabimba A., 193. Mukhayugbimba A. , 1 93. Muktabai, 374. Muktanand, 378. Muktdphala, 234, 374. Muktikd U., 287, 364. Mukundaraj, 296, 300, 373, 384. Mukundarama, 356, 390. Muldchara, 166, 219, 403. Muladhara, one of the occult circles in the body, ace. to Sakta yoga, 201, 268. Mulagranthas of Jain Canon, 400. Mulamadhyamaka-kdrikd, 397. Mulaprakriti, 185, 201. Mulasarvastivadin sect of HInayana Buddhism, 207 ; its Vinaya, 207, 395- Mulasthamba, 384. MulasEtras of Jain Canon, 400. Multan, i.e. Mulasthana, root-station, of Saura worship, 152. Mulubazil, 298. Mundaka U., 58, 364. Muni Marg, 248. Munisundara, 402. Munja, 279. Munjaprabandha, 281, 402. Muralldasa, 374. Murari Gupta, 376. Muruha, 148. Music, 18 ; magic power of the tunes of the Sdmaveda, 21. Muslim, see Muhammadan. Nabhaji, 317. Nada, 201. Nddabindu U., 95, 364. Nadl, 201, 213 ; cf. 186, 195, 210. Nadiru'n-nikat, 344. Naga, a naked sannyasl, 174. Nagadeva Bhatta, 248. Nagarjuna, 95, 116, 397 ; chief authority of the Mahayana, 116, 117, 275; "his karika, 116, 208, 397. Nagarkirtana, 307. Nagas, a military order of DadupanthI ascetics, 342. Nagasena, 105. Nagesa Bhatta, 369. Naishkarmya-siddhi, 367. Nakkira Deva, 147, 383. Nala, 48. Ndlatfiyar, 218, 404. Nalanda, a Bhuddhist University, 206, 208. Naldyira Prabandham, hymns of the Alvars edited as the isn-Vaishnava hymn-book, 241, 246, 379 ; the hymns used in the temples and studied in the schools, 241, 320, 321. Nama, 186. Nambi-.and5r-nambi, 241 u. 2, 256, 385- Nambutiri Brahmans, 268. Namdeva, ,298 f . ; date, 299, 301, 323, 374._38i. Nammalvar, 188, 241, 246, 379. Nanak, 334, 336, 382; lives, 336; hymns and other poems, 336 ; the Japfl, 336 ; theology, 337 ; Hinduism and Islam both acknowledged, 337 ; ad#aita influence, 337 ; the whole Hindu pantheon retained, 337. Nanakpanthis, 340. Nanasambandhar, 196, 385. Nandapandita, 142. Nandl, 48. Nand.ikesvara 1 387. JVandisutra, 163, 400. Nandisvara, 395. Nafijanacharya, 387. Narada, a Vaishnava rishi, 99, 152. Ndrada, or Ndradiya P., 139, 179, 190, 371. 3»°- Ndrada-bhakti-sutra, 233, 269, 374. Ndrada Panchardtra, 289 n. 2, 316, 375- Ndradaparwrdjaka U., 304. ■ Naradasmriti, 180, 366. Narahari, 329. Narahari Sarkar, 308, 376. Naraina, 34 1. Narasimha A., 193. Narasimha .?., 249, 380. Narasimha sect, 249, 380. Narasimha Upapttrdna, see Nrisimha Upapurdna, 372, 380. Narayana, a divine name, 50 ; used of Vishnu, 99, 1 45 ; the Narayana mantra, 186, 188. Narayana, a Madhva pandit, 237 n. 1, Narayana, a Maratha bhakta, 300. Narayana, a Mimamsist, 367. Narayana, an Upanishad commentator, 234. 287, 364, 365. Narayana S., 236 n. 1. Narayana Sarasvati, 369 n. I. Narayanatirtha, 373. Narayana U., 188, 364, 379. Narayana-Vishnu, the God of the Sri- Vaishnava sect, 248. 43° INDEX Ndrdyaniya, a Vaishnava section of the didactic Epic, 97, 98, 99, 184. Narnol, 343. Narsihgh Mehta, 306, 379. Nasik, 216. Nathamuni, 241, 256, 379. Nathas, a group or sect of Pasupata £aivas, 190, 192, 348. Navamta-Ganapati, 270. Navatattva, 402, Nayanar, religious leader, 196. Nemichandra Siddhanta- chakravarti, 281, 282, 404. Nemidatta, 361,405. Nemijina P., 405. Neiichu vidu-tutu, by Umapati Siva- charya, 258, 386. « Nepalese Buddhism, 103, 274, 275 ; its nine Buddhist books, 275. Nepalese Buddhist Literature, 275. Netli, 393. New Moon sacrifice, 22. Niddnakathd, 70 n., 154, 392, 393. Niddesa, 392. Nihangs,34pn. 9. Nija-guna-Siva-yogl, 387. Nilakantha = Srikantha. Nilakantha, author of the Kriydsdra, 35o, 353, 385- Nilarudra [/., 103, 364. Nimbarka, 238, 239; his original name said to have been Bhaskara, 239 n. 6 ; his philosophy bhedabheda, 239 ; his theology, 240; his literature, 376. Nimbarkas, a Vaishnava sect, founded by Nimbarka, 237, 239, 305; Sam- pradaya, 327 ; literature, 240, 270, 3°5, 376 ; their Trimurti, 149 ; their influence, 307, 308, 318; the sect weakened by Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya competition, 304, 305 ; their two pontiffs, 305 ; their sanklr- tan, 305. ' Nine Dharmas, The, of Nepal, 275. Nirakara Mtmdmsa, 336, 382. Niralamba U., 364*. Niranjana P., 384. Niraydvali, 400. Nirmalas, 340. Nirmanakaya, one of the bodies of a Buddha, 159. Nirukta, 42. Nirvana, original meaning of word, 63, 113; final nirvana, 63, 65, 274; altered meaning, 112. Nitvana U., 364. Niryuktis, 76, 400. Nischal Das, a DadQpanthT and ad- vaitin, 341, 382. Nishkalankavatara, 292. NiHtha, 400. Nihdsa A., 193. Nilvasatattva S., 200, 388. Nitivakydmrita, 404. Nityahnikatilaka T., 265. Nityananda, 307, 308, 309, 311. Nityananda Das, 377. Niyamasdra, 219, 403. Niyata, 185. ,Noble Path, the, in Buddhism, 63. Nodhas, 9 n. Nriga, 176. Nrisimhanandanatha, 358. Nrisimhapurvatdpaniya U., 188, 189, 206, 266, 364, 380. Nrisimha S. or Narasimha S. , 380. Nrisimha Upapurana, 189, 226, 249, '380. 'Nrisimhottaratdpaniya U., 189, 266, '364, 380. Nuddea, 289, 306. Nuns, see Buddhist Nuns, Hindu Nuns, Jain Nuns. Nyasa, ritual movements made with the hands, 202. Nydya-bMshya, 370. Nydya-chintdmani, 224, 370 n. 2. Nydya-kandali, 224, 370. Nydyakanikd ol Vachaspatimisra, 169, 367- -' Nydya-kusumdnjali, 224. Nydydlamkdra, 370. Nydya-lildvati, 370. Nydydlokasiddhi, 398. Nydyamdldvistara, 221 n. j, 294. Nydya-manjari, 370. Nydydmrita, 375. Nydya-nibandha-prakdia, 370. Nydydnusara-Sdstra, 156, 395. Nydyaratndkara, 367. Nydyaratnamdld, 367. Nydya-sdra, 370. Nyayasiddhanjana, 380. Nydyasuchmilatidha, 176, 370. Nyaya-sudhd, of Somesvara, 367. Nvdya-sudhd of Jayatirtha, 375. Nydya-sutra, 370. Nydya sulra-bhdshya, I23n. 2, 135, 37o. Nydya-sutra-vritli, 371. Nyaya system, 95, 134; an early manual now lost, 80 ; chief document the Nydya-sutra, 134; relation to INDEX 43 7 Vaiseshika, 134; system, 134; theis- tic, 134 ; meant for householders, 135; connected, from about 600 A. D., with the Pasupata sect, 178; other manuals, 1 78, 224; does it owe vydpti to Greece?, 178; the Nyaya com- bined with the Vaiseshika, 224, 289; influence of its theism, 273. Nyaya-tattva, 379. Nyaya-vdrtika, 178, 370. Nyaya - vartika - tdtparya - parisuddhi, 224, 370. Nyaya-vartika-talparya-tikd, 178, 370. JVydydvatdra, 165, 400. Nyayavritti, 370. Oblations, 3, 14. Old Western Hindi, 317. Olivil Oduhkam, 351, 386. Om, 93, 103, 132, 201. Orissa, 205, 274, 391. Oriya literature, 296. Orthodox Twice-born, 36, 292 ; see Smartas; their literature, 36 ff., 79 ff., i4off., 179,226, 293. Outcaste Lingayats, 263. Outcastes, 16, 34, 40; permitted to become Yogis, 61 ; Outcaste names, among the Sri-Vaishnava saints, 247. Padakalpataru, 377. Padartha, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 134- Paddrtha-mald, 371. Padmadhatu, 159. Padmanabha, 281. Padmanabhakavya, 402. Padmanabhatirtha, 375. Padmananka, 353, 387. Padma P., 139, 37', 388; a Brahma Purana, 140, 148, 388 ; the Pushkara Mahdtmya in first Khanda, 148; passage copied in Mahabharata, 1 36 ; contains Vaishnava sections, 226; the Uttara Khanda probably a isrl- Vaishnava document, 320. Padma P. (Jain), 217, 219, 404. Padmapada, 368. Padmaraja P., 353, 387. Padma S., 183 n. 1, 184. Padmasambhava, 213. Padmawli, il6. Padmottara, 158. Padodaka, 261. Padyamulu, 382. Pahlavas, Parthians, 83. Paihgala U., 364. Paippaldda, 24. Pdiyalachchhl, 401. Palakurki, 264. Pali, the literary language of Ceylonese Buddhism, 68 ; Pali Canon, the Cey- lonese Buddhist Canon, 68, 391 ; re- duced to writing, 104; relation of Pali Canon to earlier texts, 68 ; extra-canonical texts in Pali, 154. Pali literature, 275. Pambatti, 352. Pampa, 282, 283, 404. Pampa-Bharata, 282, 283, 404. Pampa-Ramdyana, a Jain work in Kanarese, 250, 283, 405. Panchabrahma U., 364. PanchadaH, 286, 290 n. 3, 295, 296, 308. Panchakalpa, 400. Panchakrama, 212, 398. Pafichakrishna, the_five founders of the Manbhaus, 249. Panchaladeva, 282. Panchapddikd, 368. Pancharakshd, 399. PaHcharatra, name of a Vaishnava theo- logical system, 98 ; Panchasikha said to be its author, 94, 99 ; meaning of word uncertain, 98 ; a PaHcharatra scripture, 98 ; Pancharatra Vaish- navas, 142; Pancharatra literature, 182, 240, 319, 379. Panchardtrarakshd, 380. Pancharatra Samhitas, Vaishnava manu- als of belief and practice, .98, 142, 179, 182 ff., 379; date, 182; were probably late in penetrating the South, 183, 187; _ parallel to the Tantras and the Agamas, 182 ff. ; contain a Sakta element, 183; num- ber, 182 ; lists, 182 f. ; history, 183 ; sectarian character, 183 ; contents fall into four categories, 184; have suffered from interpolation, 183; were long kept secret, 1 84 ; system, 184 ff. 1 : relation of the soul to God, 185 ; Sakta Yoga, 186 ; doctrines of Mantra and Yantra, 186 ; worship and sacrifice, 186; unorthodox, 186; open to the four castes, 186; Ra- manuja sought to substitute Pan- charatra for Vaikhanasa Samhitas in the temples, 182, 244, 320 ; used to- day in most Vaishnava temples in the South, 181, 320; some are of Madhva origin, 183. Panchaiatiprabodhasambandha, 403. 43 2 INDEX Panchasikha, a teacher of theistic Yoga, 94, 99 ; probably author of a manual in sutras, 94; said to be the author of the Pancharatra system, 94, 99. Panchastikdya, 403. Panchatthiyasamgahasutta, 219, 281, 4°3- . Panchavimsa Brahmana, 27, 28, 363. Panchayatana puja, five-shrines worship of the Smartas, 179, 206, 293. Pandarams, 349. Pdndava P., 361, 405. Pandharpur, a town in the Maratha country, 301, 302 ; Manbhaus for- bidden to enter it, 322. Panditaradhya, 260, 387 ; see Sripati Panditaradhya. Pandus, 83. Panini, 42, 290 n. 2. PanjgrantM, 341, 382. Panna, 292. Panth, path, sect, 335. Pantheism, in Upanishads, 56 ; in Veddnta-sutras, 127, 128; in Gauda- pada, 170; in Sankara, 172; in Buddhism, 273, 274. Papanchasiidant, 393. Para A., 193. Parabrahma U., 364. Paradise Mahayana, 117, 158; litera- ture, 117, 158. Parama S., 236 n. 1. Paramahamsa U., 95, 364. Paramahamsaparivrdjaka U., 364. Paramanu, t, t. of Vaiseshika system, 133- ' Paramdrthandma-sahgili, 272, 399. Paramarthasaptati of Vasubandhu, 161, 398- Paramarthasdra, 259, 386. Paramarthasatya, ' real truth ' in the Madhyamaka system, 116. Paramdtmaprakdfa, 282, 405. ParameSvara A., 193, 194 n. 1, 264. ParameSvara T., 199, 388. ParaBjoti, 347, 383. Parasara, 9n. Pdraskara Grihya Sutra, 365. Parahirama-Bhargava-sutra, 266, 359, 388- Paribhashas, 39. ParTkshamukha, 219, 404. Pariiishtaparvan, 280, 402. Parivdra, last section of Buddhist Vinaya, 69, 391. Parivrajaka, 52. Parjanya, 10, 21. ParnaSavarlnama-dhdratn, 399. Parsees, 168. Parsva, or Parsvanatha, q.v. Pdrsvabhyudaya, 217, 404. Parsvanatha, a Jain leader before Maha- vira, 73, 279. PdrSvandthacharipra, 400, 405. Parthasarathimisra, 220, 367. Parthians, 78. Paruchchhepa, 9n. Parvata, name of one of the ten orders of Sankara's sannyasls, 1 74. Pasa, fetter, a term in the Pasupata and Agamic theology, 102, 103, 195, 198. Pasu, used of man in the Pasupata and Agamic theology, 102, 103, 195, 198, 25'- , . . Pasupata, a new Saiva theology, found in the didactic Epic, 101, 145, 251, 349 ; in Vdyu P., 145 ; numbers, 3 1 ; principle, 102; heterodox, 102; the Pasupata ordinance is the use of ashes, 103; Pasupata Yoga, 145, 146, 251 ; Pasupata literature, 251, 384. Pdsupatabrahma U., 364. Pasupata Saivas, those who follow the f Pasupata theology ; name applied to various Saiva sects, 190, 191, 251, 347- , PdSupata-sdstra, 251. Pasupati, lord of flocks, an epithet of &va, 102, 195. Paiupati-sutra, 251. PataBjali, u. grammarian, 49. Patanjali, author of Yoga-sutra, 132, 369- , Pati, lord, a. title of Siva, 102, 103, 198, 251. Pdtimokkha, a confession, part of the Buddhist Vinaya, 69. Patirakiriyar, 387. Patisambhiddmagga, 392. Patthana, 393. Pattinattu Pillai, 255, 385, 387; Sittar lyrics mistakenly attributed to him, 35 2 . 385. 387. Paumachariya, 165, 400. Paushkata S., 183 n. 1. Pavitra, a low-caste sacred thread, 245. Penance, 40. Periya Purdnam, 256, 385. Periyar, 188. Periyatiruvandddi, 379. Persia, 1 04. Persian literature, 297, 339, 344. Persians, 1. INDEX 433 Pessimism, in Upanishads, 57. Petavaithu, 392. Peyar, 188. Phallic worship, 5, 48. Phallus of Srira, praised in Epic, 102. Phat, 201, 212. Philosophical schools, 60. Philosophical systems, harmony of, 287, 289. Philosophic hymns in Vedas, 16, 22, 32, 57- Philosophy, 367 ; beginnings in India, 16 ; philosophic hymns, 22, 32 ; philosophic ideas in Brahmanas, 32, 35, 49; earliest system, 37; of the early Upanishads, 54 ff.; many schools irr-6th cent., 60 ; some atheistic, 60 ; others materialistic, 60. Phonetics, 42. Pijlai Lokacharya, 246, 380. Pinbalagla-Perumal-Jlya, 246, 380. Pin4a U-, 364. Pindaniryukti, 400. Pjpa, 323, 328, 38*- Pitaka, basket ; name for a division of the Buddhist Canon, 67. Politics, 43 ; schools of, 80 ; politics in didactic Epic, 95. Polyandry, 49. Polytheism of Rigveda, 12. Ponna, 283, 404. Pool- worship, 41. Porripakrodaijpefi , 386. Poygaiar, 188. Prabandhachintamani, 281, 402. Prabandhakofa, 281, 402. Prabandhas, 278. Prabhachandra, 217, 219, 281, 402, 404. Prabhakara, of the Karma Mimaihsa, 168, 367 ; called Guru, 168 ; system, 168 ff. Prabhasa-mahatmya of the Skanda P., 271. Prabhavakacharita, 281, 402. Prabhritasara, 403. Prabhu-Uhga-lild, 347, 353, 382, 387. Prabodhachandrodaya, 221, 222, 227, 272, 290, 310, 371, 373. Pradyumna, a Vaishnava divinity, one of the vyiihas, 98, 185. Pradyumnacharitra, 405. Prajapati, 32. Prajnapana-sutra, 215, 400. Prajfia-paramita, wisdom-perfection, i.e. of the Buddhas ; expressed in sutras, 115, 397- F Prajnaparamita - hridaya-sutra, 159, 397. 399- Prajna-pradipa, 397. Prajnaptipada-iastra, 394. Prakarana-granthas, 295. Prakaranapanchika, 367. PrakaSa, 316, 376. Prakasananda, 368. Prakimas of Jain Canon, 400. Prakrit literature, 75, 120, 162, 163 ff., 213, 214, 215, 275, 277, 280, 281. Prakriti, t. t. of the Sankhya system, 98, 130, 148. Pramanachihtamani, 402. Pramanapariksha, 404. Prameya-kamala-mdrtan4a, 219, 404. Pratneyarainarnava, 316, 377. Prandgnihotra U., 364. Pranalinga, 261. Pranatoshini T., 356, 389. Pranava U., 364. Pranayama, breath-restraint, 254. Prannalh, 291. Prapanchasara T., 266, 388. Prasad, grace ; grace-gift ; among VIra Saivas, 261, 261 n. 3. Prasannapddd, 208, 397. Prasastapada, author of Vaiseshika- sittra-bhdshya, 177, 370; was a Pasupata saiva, 191. PraSna U., 79 ; date, 92. Pralnatvyakarana, 400. Prasnottaramald, 217, 404. Prainottaropdsakdchara, 405. Prasthdnabheda, 290 n. 6, 295, 373. Prasthanatraya, the triple canon of the Vedanta, 128, 173. Prataparudra, of Warangal, 264; of Orissa, 307. Prathamanuyoga, first section of Di- gambara Secondary Canon, 219. Pratham Granth, 382. Prdtimoksha-siitra of Mulasarvastiva- dins, 395._ Pratyabhijfia, 198. Pratyabhijnd-kdrikds, 386. Pratyabhijnd-vimarHrii, 386. Pratydbhijnd-mvriti-'vimarHtti, 386. PratyaHgird Dhdrani, 212. Pravachanapartkskd, 403. Pravachanasdra, 219, 281, 403. Pravartaka, a propagator, 249. Predestination in Paficharatra system, 185. . Premanand, 378. Premavildsa, 377. Pretn-ras-ras, 377. 434 INDEX Previous Buddhas, mythical Buddhas before Gautama, 70, no, 273. Priests, Vedic, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17 ff. ; three orders of, 20 ; called Brahmans, 20; their supernatural power, 21 ; many practise magic rites, 21 ; supremacy of priests, in the Brah- mana period, 31 ; called gods on earth, 32. Primal Sages, 1. 1. of Yoga system, 132. Prithl Chand, 340. Priya Das,_3i7. Prodgitd A., 193. Prosody, 42. Pseudo-epic, 85 n. 4. Puggalapanfiatti, 393. Pujari, a temple-ministrant, '292, 294 ; in the main a northern word. See Archalca. Pujyapada, 216, 219, 404. Pulikesin II, 217. Pundarikaksha, 241. Pundra, painting of the sect-mark, 186. Punjabi literature, 336. Puno Granth, 382. Puramdar Das, 303, 375. Puranas, 136 ff., 371 ; early references, 136; original character, 137; marks, 137 ; a Purana was a book of origins, 137; captured by the sects, 137 ff.; age of existing Puranas, 136, 137, 138 ; earliest from Gupta period, 138; importance, 136; the eighteen, 138 f., 178; the lists, 139, 178; probable list of ninth century, 225 ; twenty Puranas are recognized, 139; cause of the confusion in the lists, 225; contents, 139; inspiration of the Puranas, 173; sectarian docu- ments, 140, 179, 226; vernacular versions, 296, 297. Purl, name of a famous town in Orissa, 307. Purl, name of one of the ten orders of Sankara's sannyasis, 174, 304, 357. Purusha, t. t. of Sankhya system, spirit, 130. Purushdrthasiddhyupaya, 281, 404. Purusha Sukta, 373. Purusha visesha, 1. 1. of Yoga system, 132. Purushottama, 376.. Purushottama S., 236 n. I, Purva Mimamsa = Karma Mimamsa, I24f., 125. Purva-mimdmsa- Sutras, 125, 367. Purvas, a lost section of the Jain canon, 120, 163. Pushpackiuld, 400. Pushpadanta, 121. Pushpikd, 400. Putana, 100 n. 6. Putra-varga monasteries, 262 n. 1. Questions of King Milinda, 104 ; in Chinese, 155, 393. Radha, favourite of Krishna, in latest cycle of Krishna-myth, 100 ; does not appear in Bhdgavata P., nor in Ndrada-bhakti-siitra, nor in Sandilya- bhakti-sutra, 233; not recognized by Bhagavatas, Madhvas, or Maratha bhaktas, 229, 235, 236; but see 301 ; her origin, 237; date of her worship, 238 ; accepted by Vishnusvamis, Nimbarkas, Chaitanyas, Vallabhas, and later sects, 237, 307; regarded as Krishna's eternal consort in Nim- barkite and other sects, 240 ; in Nepalese Buddhism, 275 n. 2 ; else- where, 335, 345. Radha-Krishna literary poetry, 305 f., 378- Rddha-sudha-nidhi, 318, 378. Radha- Vallabhls, 318; their theology, 318 ; their literature, 378. Rag, t. t. of Indian music, 338. Raghavanka, 264, 387. Raghunandana Bhattacharya, 295, 373. Raghnnatha Bhatta, 309. Raghunatha Das, 309. Raghunatha Siromani, 280, 371. Rahasya-traya-sdra, 380. Rahras, 341. Rai Das, 306, 328, 332, 381 ; a Chamar, 332- Rai Dasis, 328. Rajagriha, story of Buddhist Council held there, 65. Rajalinga, 383. Rdjamartanda, 223, 369. Rajaprainiya, 400. Rajaraja, 241 n. 2, 256. Rajas, t. t. of Sankhya system, 130, 148. Rajasekhara, 281, 402. Rdjalekhara-vildsa, 386. Rdjavdrttika, 216, 219, 404. Raja Vira Hamvlra, 311. Raja-yoga, 254. Rajjab Das, 382. Rakmabal, 301. Ral-pa-Chan, 213. Ram, vernacular pronunciation of Rama. INDEX 435 Rama, 47 ; a man, 47 ; a partial in- carnation of Vishnu, 78, 83, 98 ; a full incarnation of Vishnu; the eternal Brahman, 99, 100; in the Adhydtma Ramdyana and other literature, 190, 250; among Rama- nandis, 323, 328. Rama-bhaktas, devotees of Rama, 251. Ramachandra, 248. Rama Charan, 334, 345. Rdmacharita, 280. Rdma-charit-mdnas , 329, 381 ; relation to Valmlki's Ramdyana, the Adhydt- ma and other Ramayanas, 329. Ramai Pandita, 271. Ramakantha, 385. Ramakrishna, a Mimamsist, 367. Ramakrishna, a Saiva, 346. Ramakrishna ffari, mantra of Maratha bhaktas, 235 ; also of the Vishnu- svami sect, 235. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, 3^7. Ramamisra, 241. Ramananda, 299, 311, 323ff., 380; date, 323; his dependence on a Ramaite sect of the South, 324 ; not a member of the Sri-Vaishnava sect, 323 f. ; regarded Rama as the Supreme, 323; his influence, 327, 328; prob- ably did not found a sect, 328. Ramananda Rai, 308. Ramananda SarasvatJ, 289, 368, 369. Ramanandis, 300, 327 ff. ; ascetics, 327 ; their large numbers, 327 ; laity, 328 ; mantra, 324; sect-mark, 323; sam- pradaya, 327 ; use the Adhydtma Ramdyana, 334 ; and the Agastya- Suttkshna Samvdda, 324; occasional use of the Sn-bhdshya, 325 ; caste relations, 325 ; use of the vernacular, 326 ; Hindu worship retained, 326 ; sects of direct Ramanandl origin, 328. , Ramanuja, author of the Sri-bhdshya, 127, 242, 244, 287, 379; other books, 379; his system Visishtadvaita, 170, 342 ; his teaching in relation to the sutras, 128; his influence, 220; won Yadava Prakasa to Vaishnavism, 222 ; succeeded Yamuna at Srirangam, 242; his position, 242, 379; attacks Sankara and Bhaskaracharya in his £rl-bhdshya, 242; his bhakti, 220, 243; holds the Samuchchhaya doc- trine, 243 ; his punctilious observance of caste-rules, 244; taught Sudras and Outcastes, 244 ; his influence on F Satanis, 321; yet never broke caste- rules, 244; used the pavitra, 244; his controversial journeys, 245 ; he sought to substitute Pancharatra, for Vaikhanasa Samhitas; wherever he went, 182, 244; his flight from Sri- rangam, 245 ; his stay at Melkote in Mysore, 183, 245; his return to Sri-rangam, 245 ; is worshipped as an incarnation, 245 ; biographical material, 246, 380; influence, 264, 349- Rdma-purva-tdpanlya U., 189, 189 f., 364, 3 81 - Rdmarahasya U., 364. Rama sect in South India, 189 f., 249; followed Sankara, 175 ; opposed to Samuchchhaya doctrine, 250; their mantra, 190, 250; a yantra, 190; a secret alphabet, 190; literature, 189 f., 250, 380; the Adhydtma Ramdyana, 250. Rdmatirtha 17., 364. Ramatoshin! Sarma, 356. Rdma-uttara-tdpanlya U., 189, 190, 364. 381. Rdma-vijaya, 374. Ramdyana, 44, 366, 373, 381 ; date, 45 ; first stage of, 46 ; religion of first stage, 47; second stage of, 78, 83 ; religion of .second stage, 83 f. ; third stage of, 85 ; interpolations from didactic Epic, 99 ; Saura ma- terial, 152, 390; a passage in which Rama is called the Supreme, 1 89 ; vernacular versions, 228, 296, 301, _3°3. §67. Ram Das, a Sikh guru, 337, 340. Ram Das, a. Maratha bhakta, who in- fluenced Sivajl, 300, 374. Ram-dasTs, Ram Das's sect, found to-day in the Maratha country, 301 ; have their own mantra and sect-mark, 301 ; a Ram-dasi monastery, 301. Ram-dvara, a Ram Sanehl prayer-house, 34°"; Ramesvara, 383. , Ram Mohan Ray, 355. Ram Rai, 340. Ram Rafijas, 340. Ram Sanehis, 334, 345 ; their prayer- houses called Ram-dvaras, 346 ; no following of laymen, 346. Ramya-jamatri-muni, 319, 380. Ranachor Rai, a title of Krishna, 302. Rdnaka, 367. RanchodjI Diwan, 356. fa ' 436 INDEX Rangaramanuja, 320, 365. Ranna, 283, 403. Rasas, 360. Rasesvaras, a sect of Pasupata Saivas, 190, 254. Rashtrakutas, 216. Rdshtrapdla-pariprichchhd, 207, 396. Raske Pada, 318, 378. Ras-lIla,_3io, 315. Rathakranta, 356. Ratnachandra, 361, 405. Ratnakazanda-Srdvakdchara, 216, 219, 4°3- _ Ratnapani, 273.. Ratnasambhava, 273. Ratnasekhara, 360, 402. Ratna-vivarana, yjf. Raurava A., 193, 257. Kavana,»i6 1 . Raviklrti, 217, 403. Ravishena, 217, 403. Rayanasdra, 403. Reconciliation of philosophies and re- ligions, 287, 289, 290 ff. Reformed Literature, 382. Release, from repeated death in other world, 35 ;. release from transmigra- tion, 36, 37 ; rise of philosophy of, 52; in Veddnta-sutras,\21; release in Buddhism, annihilation ace. to some texts, 64; not annihilation, ace. to most, 64. Revana, one of the five original Linga- yat ascetics, 260. Ribhus, 10. Rich,richas, hymn, hymns,of praise, 6, 1 o. Riddles, 22. Ridhpur, 322. Right-hand Sakta movement, 267, 357 ; possibly the outcome of a Mediaeval reformation,' 268 ; possibly created by Sankara, 175; a Smarta movement, 2^8, 357 ; Srivridya, 269, 358 ; the bhakli school, 269, 359. Rigveda, Chap. I. esp. 4, 6ff., 1 5 fF., 362 ; The name, 10 ; composition of hymns, 7 ; teaching of hymns, 8 ; literary dialect of, 7 ; family groups of hymns, 8 ; collection of groups, 8, 9, 10, 16; arrangement of the hymns, 9 ; magical effects of recitation of, 42 ; religion, 362 ; religion of books i-ix, 10 ff.; gods, 12, 15; myth- ology, 363 ; worship, 1 3 ; philosophy, 363; date, 17; interpretation, 17; religion of book x, 20, 21 ; relation to Saman, 18; to Yajus, 20; to Atharvan, 24; Brahmanas of, 25 ff. ; commentary, 295. Rigvidhdna, 42, 366. Rijuvimald, 367. Rik = Rigveda. Rishabha, one of the Jain Tirthakaras, ' 279. Rishabhapanchdsika, 279, 401. RisHi, 8. Rita, 3, 12. River-worship, 41, 43, 48. Rohini, mother of Balarama, 98 n. 11. Rudra, 10, 21, 22 ; called Siva, 32, q.v. ; in verse TJpanishads, 59. Rudrahridaya U., 364. Rudraksha, 261. Rudrdkshajdbala U., 364. Rudra-Pasupati, i. e. &va, 103. Rudra-sampradaya, 315, 327. Rudra-ydmala T., 265, 388. Rukmini, 301. Riipa, 308, 309, 376. Sabara-Sahkara-vildsa, 387. ^abara-svamin, 123 n. 2 ; 135, 136, 168, . 3 2 37 I connected with the Sakta system in mediaeval tradition, 266 ; a remarkable image of S\, 268. Sankara Misra, 224, 370. Sahkarananda, the Buddhist, 225. Sankarananda, the Vedantist, 223, 287, , 365. Sankara vijaya : two documents on Sankara's controversial triumphs, one ascribed to Anandagiri, the other to Madhava, 175 n. 4, 237 n. 1, 252, , 35°. Sahkhayana Aranyaka, 363. Sahkhayana Brahmana, 27. Sankhayana Grihya Sutra, 365. Sahkhayana Srauta Sutra, 365. Sdnkhya-karika, 93, 123, 368; funda- mental text of Sankhya system, 129 ; source of the Kdrika, 129; author, 129; date, 129; analysis, 130 f. ; criticized by Vasubandhu, 161. Sdhkhya-kdrika-bhdshya, 176, 369. Sdhkhya-pravachana-bhdshya, 289, 369. Sdhkhya-pravachana-satra, see Sdhkh- ya-su/ras. ' ' Sdhkhya-sdra, 369. Sdhkhya-sutras, 288, 369. Sankhya-s&travritii, 369. Sankhya system, 368 ; germ of, 60, 131, rise of, 61 ; an early document, now lost, 44, 80 ; in Glta, 90 ; in Maitra- yana U., 93 ; in Chulika U., 93 ; in didactic Epic, 93, 97 ; in doctrine of Vyuha, 98 ; fundamental authority is Sdnkhya-karika, q. v. ; atheistic, 1 30 ; dualistic, 130; rationalistic, 129'; sys- tem, 130 ft. ; attacked in Lahkavatd- ra-sulra, 161 ; by Vasubandhu, 176; 398 ; an order of Sankhya sannyasis, 131, 289 ; open to all four castes, 131 ; literature, 129, 176, 223, 288; de- scribed by Alberuni, 223; influenced by the Vedantic conception of God, 288. Sdhkhya-tattva-kaumudi, 177, 288,368. Sdhkhya-vritti-sdra, 369. Sankhya-yoga, an early theistic form of the Sankhya philosophy, expressed in the Shashtilantrd, 289. SankJrtana, 300, 301, 302, 303. Sannydsa U., 95, 364. Sannyasa Upanishads, 80, 94 f. Sannyasinis, 174. Sannyasis, monks, of various systems, 29, 40, 41, 47, 52, 60 ; of the Vedan- * a > 5 a ; gave up the old worship, 53 ; place in the .ftiramas, 81 ; re-organ- ized by Sankara in ten orders, 174; nuns also, 174; see Nuns ; see also Dandls and Nagas ; these orders exist to-day,' 129, 1 74 ; the strictness of their discipline, 327 ; their large num- bers, 327. Sanskrit, 6, 42 ; Paninean Sanskrit, 42, 105; mixed Sanskrit, 105 ; Buddhist Sanskrit, 105. Sanskrit Saiva Siddhanta,_255, 258, 349, 385 ; recognizes the Agamas, 349 ; mainly a school of Brahmans, 255, 349; its philosophy Visishtadvaita, 255, 349 ; literature in Sanskrit, 255, 349> 385. Santa Lilamrita, 374. Santdna A., 193. Santana Acharyas, of Tamil Saiva Sid- dhanta, 258. Santana-Ganapati, 270. Santarakshita, 397. Santa Vijaya, 374. Santideva, 208, 210, 397. Sdntinathacharita, 405. Santi P., 404. &antisuri, 278. INDEX 439 Sanyaya-ratnavall, 375. Sapta-paddrtha-tiirupana, or Saptapa- darthx. 224, 369. Saptapaddrtki, 369. Saptafati = Chandi-Mdkdtmya, 151. Sarabha U. t 364. Sarada, a name of Sarasvati, as goddess of speech and letters, 174, n. 2.'; name of a matha, monastery, in Dwarka, , founded by Sankara, 1 74. Saradatilaka T., 267, 27m. 2, 389. Sarana, 261. Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, goddess of speech and letters, 267, 214, 227; name of one of the ten orders of Sankara's sannyasis, : 174, 286. Sarasvatlrahasya U., 364. Sarasvatistolra, 401. Sdratthapakdsini,^^. Sariputra, 394. Sariraka, the embodied one, Brahman, , 126. Sdrira&a-sutras , 1 26. Sariraka U., 364. Sarvabhauma, 289 n. 2, 308, 371, 376. Sarvabhauma-nirukti, 371. Sarvadarlanasahgraha, 225, 239, 255, 288, 289, 290, 29J, 349, 350, 367, 369. 37°. 37 1 * 375, 3 8 °i 3 8 5. 386, 39°- Sarvajna-mitra, 212, 398. Sarvdrthasiddhi, 216, 219, 403. Sarvastivadin Council, 108. Sarvastivadin school, a Buddhist school found in Kashmir, 68, 393 ; used Sanskrit, 68 ; possessed an Abhid- harma Pitaka, 68, 107, 207, 394; Vinaya Pitaka, 108, 393 ; Sutra Pita- ka, 108, 394; commentaries, 108; literature, 107, 156, 207, 394; Chinese Trs., 156, 207; Tibetan Trs. 207; philosophy called Vaibhashika, 107, 108, 156; combated in Hindu philo- sophies, 136 ; converts, 160. Sarva- Upanishat-sara, 364. Sarvokta A. ,_I93. Sarvottara A., 193. iastra-dipikd, 221, 367. Sastra-dipika-vydkhya, 367. Sastras, 81. Sat, i.e. the Real, 331, 343- Satadushanl, 319, 380. Satanis, a group of Sudras taught by Ramamrja, 245, 321 ; they exercise priestly functions in certain temples, , 32i- Satapanchdsika-stotra, 395. Satapatha Brdhmana, the Brahmana of the Vajasaneyins of the White Yajus, , 27. 28, 363- , Satarudrlya, a hymn in honour of Siva, , 22, 383. Sathakopa, 246. / Satnarms, 334, 342 ff. 382 ; probably organized among Outcastes, 344 ; a rising and a battle, 343 ; reorganized by Jagjlvan Das, 343 ; vegetarian ab- stainers, 343 ; filthy practices, 343 ; advance by Ghazi Das, 343. Sat Sai, 379. Satsandarbha, 309, 377. Sattadaval, 321. Sattasai, 165, 215. Sattvata, or Satvata, an ancient tribe, 5°, 98. Satyabhama, 301. Satyabheda, dualism, a form of the # Vedanta, 128, Sdtydyana U., 364. Saubhdgyalakshml U., 364. Saunaklya, 24. Saundardnanda-Kavya, 116, 395. Saundaryalaharl, 265 n. 5, 266, 268, 388. Saura P., contains a polemic against Madhvism, 237 n. 1, 372." Saura S., 183, 205. Sauras, the sect of Sun-worshippers, 151 ff.; 205, 269, 294; their form of the Trimurti, 149, 152; their litera- ture, 151 ff., 205, 270, 390 ; their theology 205; Saura worship, 152; Saura images and temples, 152 f., 269 ; their priests were Magians, 205. Sautrantikas, a Buddhist school, 106 ; their philosophy, 106, 114, 136. Savitri, 10. Savitri, 48. Sdziitti U., 364. Savya, 9n. Sayana/29, 285, 294, 295. Scepticism, 21. Schools, of the Rigveda, 8, 9, 10, 19; of the Sdmaveda, 1 8 f. ; of the Ya- jurveda, 1 9 f . ; of the Atharvaveda, 23 f. ; branching of the schools, 31 ; progress of the schools, 25, 31 ; used for the education of the three castes, 31 ; women and Sudras excluded, 31 ; Brahmans alone allowed to teach, 31 ; literature of the schools, 37 ; the Upanishads in the schools, 55. Scythians, 78. Sea of Milk, 99. 44o INDEX Sectarians, 82; 292. Sectarian bhashyas on the Vedanta- sutras, 222, 287. Sect-mark, Tilaka, 168, 202 ; all have a phallic significance, 202. Sect of the Maharajahs, 315. Sects, rise of, 82 ; characteristics of, 122, 167, 220, 292; decay of, 292. Sekkirar, 256, 385. Self-sacrifice, 209. ■Semi-Lingayats, 263. Sena, 328, 381. Sena Panthis, 328. Sesha, 48, 98. Sesvara Mimamsa, 286, 367, 380. Setubandha, 389. Sevak-bant, 378. Sewapanthis, 340. Shadakshara Deva, 387. Shaddarlanasamuchchhaya, 214, 360, 371.401- ShaddarSanasamuchckhayattkd, 402. ShaddarSanavichara, 371, 402. Shadvimia Brahmana, 27, 28, 363. Shains, 312. Shashtitantra, a manual of theistic Yoga by Varshaganya, now lost, 94, 368 ; relation to Sdnkhya-kankd, 129; contents sketched in Ahirbu- dhnya Samhita, 1 29. Shatchakra U., 266, 364, 389. Shatprdbhrita, 360, 403. Shatsthala, the six sthalas or stages of spiritual progress among the Vira Saivas, 261, 262. S/ioda£a upachdra, the ' sixteen opera- tions ' of image-worship, 51 n. 1, 294. Siddha A., 193. Siddhdnta-chandrikd, 367. Siddhdnta-dipam, 385. Siddhanta-jahnavi, 376. Siddhdnta-lefa, 368. Siddhdnta-muktdvali, 370.' Siddhanta-rahasya, 316, 377. Siddhdnta-ratna, 376. Siddhanta Sastrns, 258. Siddhanta-Hkhdmani, 382, 387. Siddhardma P., 264, 387. Siddharshi, 215, 401. Siddhasena Divakara, 164, 400. , Siddhasena Gani, 164, 401; date, 165; his bhashyas, 165. Siddha*siddhdnta-paddhati, 384. Siddhavlrana, 387. Siddhitraya, 241, 379. Sijjambhava, 400. Sikandar Lodi, 332. Sikhs, 334, 336 ff. , 382; the literature, 382 ; Hinduism finds access to the community, 338, 339, 340, 341 ; the guru worshipped as God, 338 ; rise of the martyr-spirit, 338; the cult, 340 f. ; the Sikhs divided into two communities, 340 ; sub-divisions, 340- - Siksha, 42. S'ikshd-pdtri, 378. Sikshasamuchchhaya, 208, 397. Silahka, 214, 278, 279, 401. Silappadhikdram, 121. Silavamsa, 394. Simhalese, 154. Singh, 339. ^ Singhs, 340. Singinad, a whistle, 348. Singi Raja, 353, 387. Sishyalekhudharma-kdvya, 209, 398. Sishya-varga monasteries, 262 n. 1. Sisna-devah, phallus-worshippers, 5, 102. Sitd C/., 364. Sittars, a sect of non-idolatrous Puri- tans, 352, 387 ; their hymns in the S"iva-vdkyam, 352, 387. Siva, a new name for Rudra, 32 , 47, 48 ; Siva in Upanishads, 58, 59 ; in second stage of Epics, 83; in Trimurti, 148 f. ; rise of sect of Siva, 82; in third stage of Epics, 92 ; identified with Brahman, 101 ; his theophanies, 101 ; has eight forms, 102 ; Lakulisas teach that he becomes incarnate, 146 ; adored by Bhagavatas as equal with Vishnu, 142, 175, 181, 182 j one of the Five Gods, 179; Siva in the Agamas, 194 f. ; symbols used in his worship in the house, 293 n, 2 ; wor- ship in his temples, 294. Sivabhagavatas, devotees of Siva, early sectarians, 82 n. Sivaditya, 224, 370. Siva-drishti, 198, 259, 386. Sivadvaita, 255 m 3, 351. Sivadvaita-manjari, 387. jWgunayogi, 353, 383, 387. Sivajl, 300, 301, 339 n. 4, 356. Siva-jndna-bodha, 257, 258, 351, 385. s"iva-jndna-siddhi, 257, 258, 385. Siva-jnana-yogl, 347, 351, 386. Sivanand, 346, 384. Sivdnandalahafi, 383. Siva Narayana, 334, 345. Siva Narayanis, 334, 345 ; mostly low- class people, 345 ; monasteries called INDEX 441 Dhams, 345 ; hold Siva Narayana an incarnation, 345. Siva P., i 39j 372j 3 8 3j 384 . originally a baiva work, 179; contains Lakulisa material, 179; Malayalim Tr., 3 47, 384; the Vayaviya S. contains an account of the Sanskrit School. of Saiva Siddhanta, 226, 350, 3 8s. Sma-prakaia, 258, 384, 386. Siva Prakasa Svami, 347, 3 8 3 , 387. Sivarkamanidlpika, a comm. on the .Saiva Bhdshya, 295, 350, 385. Siva S., 348, 3 8 4 . Svvasahasranama, 383. Sjva Sakti, 194. Siva-siitras, 193, 198, 386. Siva-sutra-varttika, 386. Siva-sutra-vimarkni, 259, 386. Sivayana, 346, 383. Siva-yoga-pradtpika, 387. Siva-yogi, 387. Sivopadhyaya, 3 S2, 386. Six systems of Hindu philosophy, 124; theory of their harmony, 228. Sixteen operations of Hindu worship, 51 n. 1, 261, 294. Sixty-three Saiva saints, 256. Skanda P., 139, 179, 271, 372, 385, 389 ; Tamil Tr., 256 ; Tel. Tr., 346, 3?3. Skanda U., 14:5, 181, 364, 374. Skanda-yamala T., 265. Slavonic people, 1. Slokavartika, ofKumarila, 168, 367; of Vidyananda, 216, 219, 404. w Smarta Brahman,' his worship, 293, 294. Smartas, from Smriti, 141 ; used of orthodox men who do not keep up the Srauta sacrifices, 141; most are followers of. Sankara, 175, 180; and worship the five gods, 179, 206, 293. Who initiated the custom? 179; time of its origin, 179 f. ; literature, 141, 178, 179, 180, 226, 293, 373; their interest in the Right-hand Sakta movement, 228, 268 ; the domestic criapel of a Smarta, 293 n. 3. Smarta temples, 293. Smarta-sutra, 141. Smriti, lit. remembrance; t. t. for re- velation of the second grade, 43, 141. Smriti Kaustubha, 285 n. 2, 295, 367, 373- Snake-worship, 41, 43,. 48. Sobhana, 278, 279, 401. So-Daru, 338. Sodhana, purification, 253. Soma, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 14, 15; Soma hymns, 10, 14, 18 ; Soma-sacrifice, 3, 14, 18, 22, 41. Somadeva, 279, 282, 404. Somananda, 194, 198, 259, 3S6. Somanatha,of Palakurki, 264, 387. Soma Pavamana, 10. Soma-Sambhu-paddhati-vritti, 385. Somasundara, 360, 402. Somesvara, 367. Sorcery, taught in Saktism, 203. Soul, in Hinduism, eternal, 35 ; in early Buddhism, declared non-exis- tent, 64 ; in Vedanta, identical with Brahman, 127; in the Pancharatra system, 185. Sound, eternity, 125. South India, Hinduized, 3 6. Spanda-karikas , 198, 3 86. Spanda-pradtpikd, 3 86. Spanda-sandoka, 3 86. Spanda-vivriti, 386. Sphatika, 293 n. 2. Sphut-pada, 318, 378. Sraddha, 39. Sragdharii metre, 205. Sragdhara-stotra, 212. Srauta, 38 ; used of a man who keeps up the Srauta sacrifices, 141, 293. Srauta-sutras, 38 f., 365; date, 38; contents, 39, 140. Srdvakachara, 361, 405. Sravana Belgola, 75, 282. Sri ■= Lakshmi, 246. Sribhashya, Ramanuja's commentary on the Vedanta sutras, 220, 242, 244, 287, 379 ; its powerful influence, 220, 222, 325, 349,"350. Sri Bhatt, 305, 376. Srl-chakra, one of the six chakras, or centres of occult influence in the body, as taught in Sakta Yoga, 267. Sri Chand, 340. Srichandrasuri, 278. Sri-Datta sampradaya, 248. Sridhara, the Vaiseshika writer, 224, A 37 ° - Srldhara, the Marathi poet, 301, 374. Sridhara Dasa, 238 n. Sridhara Svami, 231, 239, 269, 297, , 301, 308, 359, 373. Sri-harsha, 223, 225, 371. Srikalachakra T., 272, 274, 398. Srikanta Misra, 239, 375. Srikantha, 370. 44a INDEX brikantha Siyacharya, 287, 295, 349, 385 ; his Saiva Bhashya, 349, 385 ; , his date, 349. Srtkara-bhdshya, 264, 287, 387. Srmath, 383. Sringeri, name of a matha, monastery, in the Mysore, founded by Sankara, a X 74 L 285. Srinivasa, a follower of Ramannja> 320, 380. Srinivasa, a follower of Nimbarka, 222, 240, 287, 376. Sripdlacharitra^ 401, 405. Sripdlagopdlakatha, 402. (Srlpati, 287. See Srlpati Pandita- radhya. Srlpati Panditaradhya, one of the five original Lingayat ascetics, 260, 264, a 387 * Sri-perumbudur, Ramanuja's birth- place, 181, 246, 320. Srirangam, the metropolitan Sri-Vaish- nava shrine at Trichinopoly, 241, 245, 246, 321 ; a theological school there also, 241, 242, 319. Sri-saila, 260. Sri Sampradaya, 327. Sn-subodhini, 377. Sri-Sukacharya, 374. Sn-vachana-bhushana, 380. Srl-Vaishnava Sampradaya, 246. Sri-Vaishnava sect, 188, 240, 319; only Vishnu, his consorts and incar- nations recognized, 247 ; Radha not recognized, 247 ; the Alvars regarded as leaders and teachers, 187, 241 ; the Acharyas, 241 ; system, 242 f. ; mantra, 186, 188, 246; the dvaya mantra, 24611.; sect-mark, 1 86, 246; Sampradaya, 246 ; temple-ritual, 320; tapa, i.e. branding, 186, 246; guru, 186; initiation, diksha, 186; holds the Samuchchhaya doctrine, 239, 243 ; Srl-Vaishnava literature, 187, 240, 379 ; Srl-Vaishnava sannyasis, 243 ; non-Brahman Srl-Vaishnava ascetics, 243 n. ; Sri-Vaishnavas are very strict in caste matters, 247 ; the two sub- sects, 319, 320; two forms of the sect-mark, 320 ; seats of the pontiffs, 320. . Srivarddhadeva, 217, 219, 404. Srividya, the right-hand worship of the Devi with a view to release, 269, 358. Sri Vyasa Raja, 303. Sri-Yogindra Acharya, 282, 405. Srutasagara, 360, 405. Sruti, revealed scripture, 38, 43, 60 ; comes from Brahman, 127 ; is eternal, 127. Stavamdla, 376. Sthalas, stages of spiritual progress, of which six ■ are distinguished in the Vira Saiva system, 261. SthanakavasTs, 359. Sthaviras, a Buddhist school, 104,' the Sthavira Canon of Ceylon, 104. Sthira-linga, 103. Sthulabhadra, a Jain leader, 75. Stobhas, 19. Stotra, a sacred ode in praise of a divinity, 214. Student, one of the four asrama's, 29, 40. Stupa, a burial mound, Buddhist, 71, 72, no. Suali, 224. Subdla U., 364, 379. Subha Tantras, 268. Subhachandra, 360, 361, 405. Sitbhagodaya, 388. Subhakrishna, 210. Subhaslla, 360, 403. Subhaumacharitra, 405. SubodhinX, 316, 377. Subrahmanya, 148, 347. Sub-vyuhas, 185. Sucharitamisra, 367. Sudarsana Bhatta, 246, 380. ^uddhadvaita, 287. Suddhadvaitamartanda, 316, 377. Sudra, >6, 21, 36; duties, 401 ; Sudras admitted to Sankhya and Yoga as- cetic orders, 61 ; Sudra worship, 36 ; Sudras usually not sectarians, 82. Sufiism, influence in India, .284, 331 ; powers, 331 ; the Sufi conception of God, 331 ; God the real, 331; the path, 331 ; the teacher, 331 ; Sufi prac- tice like Yoga, 331 f. ; tends to reduce all religions to equality, 332 ; a Sufi scarcely a Muslim, 332. Suka, 287, 373. Suka S., 388. Suka T., 208. iuka-bhdshya, 287, 297, 373. Sukacharya, 297, 374. Sukapakshlya, 380. Stikarahasya [/., 364. Sukhamani, 341. SukhavatXvyuha, the longer text, 117, "8, 396. Sukhavativyuha, the shorter, 117, 118, I 58, 396; Japanese translations, 275. INDEX 443 Sukh Nidhan, 381. Sukra, 47. Sukshma A., 193, 264. Sulva-sutras, 42, 365. Sumahgalavildsint, 393. Sumatra, 168, 391. Sundar Das, 342. Sundar Das, the younger, a Dadupanthi poet, 341, 382. Sundar Vilas, 382. Sundara Bhatta, 376. Sundara Deva, 383. Sundara-murti, or Sundarar, 193, 196,, 197. 256. 385. Sundarar, see Sundara-murti. Sunga dynasty, 78, 83. Siinya P., 271. Sunyata, the Mahayana philosophy of vacuity, 114. Sunyavada, the Vacuity system of Nagar- £ juna, called also Madhyamaka, 116, 136, 27I._ Suprabha A., 153. — «>» Suprabhdta-stava, 399. Stiprabheda A., 193, 260 n. 2, 264. Sur Das, 316, 377. Surat Gopal_, 335. Suresvaracharya, or Mandanamisra, 169, 367- SurSagar, 377. Siirsdrdvalt, ■yi'j. Surya, 10; in third stage of Epic, 92 ; adored by Saura sect, q.v. 205 ; one of the five gods, 179, 301 ; believed to cure leprosy, 153; symbols used in his worship, 293 n. 2 ; sometimes not represented by an image, because he is visible in the sky, 294 n. 1. Surya U., 364, 390. Suryakanta, 293 n. 2. Suryaprajnapti, 166, 219, 399, 403. Sierya-s'ataka, 205, 390. Sushumnd, .201. Susiddhikdramahd T., 398, Suta S., 389. Sutra of Forty-two sections, 1 18. Sutra Pitaka, Sansk. for Sutta Pitaka ; translated into Chinese, 155. Sutra-bhashya, of Madhva, 222, 236, 287, 375- Sutrakritdhga-sutra, 216, 399. Sutralamkara, 116, 157, 395. Sulrapdth, 249, 380. Sutras,^sutra-method of teaching, 38, 116, 124; religion in sutras, 41 ; legal sutras, 39, 81. Siitrasamuchchhaya, 208. Sutta Nipata, a book of the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 71, 392. Sutta Pitaka, second part of the Buddhist Canon, 64, 390 ; character and con- tents, 69 ; date, 64, 66, 67 ; relation of Pali Sutta Pitaka to earliest texts, 68. Sutta Vibhahga, the first book of the Buddhist Vinaya, 391. Suvarnaprabhdsa, 159, 275, 396. Swvarnaptabhdsottamaraja, 212; a. Vijiianavadin work with many Tan- trik features, 212, 398. Svadhishthdnaprabheda, 159; 397. SvamI Hari Das, 318, 378. Svami-Narayana, 318 ; his Siksha-pdlrl , 3JS. Svaml-Narayanis, 318 ; their literature, Svaprabhananda Sivacharya, 387. Svarnabhadra, 293 n. 2. Svarna-Ganapati, 270. Svarnarekhd, 293^ 2. Svdtmdnubhava, 374. Svatmarama Yoglndra, 348, 384. Svayambhu, 273. Svayambhii P., 275, 399. Svayantbhiistotra, 403. Svdyambhuva A., 193, 194, 264. SVetambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162. Svetambara Jain Canon, 76, 120, 121, 162, 163 ff., 399; date of publication, 163 ; the Anga, 163, 399 ; the other works, 163 f. Svetambara literature, 76, 120, 163, , 213. 277; 359. 399- Svetdivatara 17., 58, 59, 60, 173, 243, 3>t!_383- Syadvada, the Jain system of dialectic, 21C. Symbols of divinities, 293. Syrian Christian Church, 122. Taittirtya Aranyaka, 27, 30, 226, 295, 363- Taittirtya Brdkmana, 27, 28, 295. Taittirtya Samhitd, 27, 28, 226, 295. Taittiriyas, a school of the Black Yajus, 26, 27, 54. Taittirtya U., 54, 226, 364. Talavakdra Brdkmana, 27, 28. Talavakaras, a school of the Samaveda, 27, 54- Talkad, 297. Tamas, t. t. of Sankhya system, 130. 148. Tamil Literature, 147, 187, 196ft., 218, 444 INDEX 220, 228, 296, 347, 351, 378, 379, 383 ff-, . Tamil Saiva poet-singers, 187, 196; their influence, 220. Tamil Saivas, 147, 196, 255, 350 ; they are scarcely an organized sect, 350 ; rise Agamas, 191 ; their system the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 255 ; call themselves Mahesvaras, igr ; do not accept doctrine of incarnations of Siva, 191 ; literature in Tamil, 196, 255; monasteries, 350; the majority of the monasteries under non-Brah- mans, 350. Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 220, 255, 385 ; mostly a school of non-Brahmans, 255 ; their use of the Vedas, 351 ; their own literature in Tamil, 255, 350 ; philosophic standpoint Bheda- bheda, or Advaita (S^vadvaita), 255, 255 n. 3 ; see Tamil Saivas. Tamil Vaishnavas, 187. Tandins, a school of the Sdmaveda, 27, 54- Tandulavaitalika, 400. Tan-gyur, the second half of the Ti- betan Buddhist Canon, also called Tanjur, 277. Tanjore, 256. ~ Tanjur, see Tan-gyur. Tanka, author of a Visishtadvaita vakya on the Vedanta-sutras, 171. Tanmatras, t. t. of Sankhya system, 131- Tantraloka, 386. Tantraratna, 367. Tantras, I99ff., 388; lists, 199, 268; dates, 199; contents, 200; Buddhist Tantras, 210; Misra Tantras, 268; Samaya or Subha Tantras, 268. Tantrasara, 355. Tanlrasdra of Madhva, 375. Tanlra-vartika, of Kumarila, a work on the Mimamsa., 169, 367. Tantrism = the Sakta movement ; see Buddhist Sakta system, and Sakta sect. Tapa, branding, i. c. branding the symbols of Vishnu on the body, 186. Tapas, '22, 29, 158, Taia, 212. Taranatha, 210. TdrdsddhanaSataka, 399. Tdrasdra U., 364. Tariqat, 331. Tarka-bhashd, 224, 371. Tarka-jvdla, 371, 397. Tarka-kaumudi, 370. . Tarka Sahgraha, 370. Tarka-laslra of Vasubandhu, 161. Tarka-tandava, 375. Tathagata Guhyaka, 210, 211, 275,398; contents, 211. Tattuva- Kattalei, 386. Tattuva-Pirakas'a, 386. Tattuva Rayar, 352, 387. Tattva-aloka, 371. Tativa-aloka-rahasya, 371. Tattva-chintamani, 370, 3700. I. TattTja-chinlamanl-vyakhya, 371. Tattva-didhiti, 371. Tattva-dtdhiti-tippani, 371. Tattva-dipa-nibandha, 316, 377. Tattva-kaumudi-vyakhya, 369. Tattva-niriipana, 380. Tattva-pradlpika of Trivikrama, 375. Tattva-prakaia, 386. Tattva-prakaHka, 375. Tattvardtnadfpika, 405. Tattvarthadhigama-sutra, by Umasvati, the fountain-head of Jain philosophy, 136, 219, 400 ; Svetambara commen-- taries, 165 ; Digambara commen- taries, 216, 219. Tattvarthadipika, 360, 405. Tativdrthasara, 281, 404. Tattvdrthasdradipikd, 120, 360, 403, 4°S- Tattvdrthatlkd, 164, 401. Tattvdrthatikavydkhydlamkdra, 216, 219,404.' Tattva-samdsa, 288, 369. Tattva-sahgraha, 397. Tattvatraya, 305, 375, 380. Tattva-vaiiaradi ', 177, 369. Taxila, 42. Tayumanavar, 351, 386. Teg Bahadur, a Sikh guru, put to death by Aurungzebe, 338. Tejobindtl U., 95, 364. Telugu literature, 228, 260, 264, 296, 2 97.347,382. Temple-priests, must be Brahmans, 50 ; less regarded than other Brahmans, Sin- Temples, Buddhist and Jain, 113, 120. Temples, Hindu, first mention of, 41 ; later common, 48 ; priests must be Brahmans, 50, 51 n. 1 ; open only to the four castes, 50; origin of the worship, 50 ; classes of temples, 293 ; the liturgy, 293 ; temples in which the five gods are worshipped, 294 INDEX 445 Temple-worship, 50, sin.; originally unorthodox, 50; its growth, 51, 170. Tengalais, 319, 320. Teutonic people, 1. Tevaram, 256. Theism, 41, 47, 58 ; movement to- wards, in Hinduism and in Buddh- ism, 78, 82, 83; in Sakta Buddh- ism, 273, 274 ; in Jainism, 278 f. Thera Gatha, a book of verses by Buddhist monks, 71, 392. Thert Gatha, a book of verses by Buddhist nnns, 71, 392. Thicpavamsa, 394. Tibet, Buddhism in, 168, 207, 391 ; Tibetan Buddhist Canon, 275, 391. Tilaka, sect-mark, 168. Tilaka, 359, 389. Tilakacharya, 278, 402. Tilakamanjari, 279, 401. Timmappa Das, 303. Tipitaka, Pali for Tripitaka, q. v. Tirhut, 176, 306. Tirtha, one of the ten orders of !§an- kara's sannyasis, 174, 304; a Vira Saiva t. t., 261. Tlrthakaras, see Jain Tlrthakaras. Tlrthdvall, 383. Tiru-arul-piyan, 255 n. 4, 258, 386. Tint Isaipa, 256. Tirukkalirruppadiyar, 258, 385. Tirukkmiaiyar, 385. Tirumalisai, 188. Tirumantram, 197, 256, 385. Tirumahgai, one of the AJvars, 188. Tirumular, 193, 197, 256, 385. Tiru-murai, the poetic Canon of the Tamil ^aiva Siddhanta school, 255 n - 5> 256 ; formed by Nambi-andar- nambi, 256. Tirumitruhattuppadai, 148, 383. Tirnppanar, 188. Tiru-puhal, 347, 383. Tiruvdchakam, 197, 256, 385. TiruvaHriyam, 379. Tiru-vilaiy-adar-puranam, 347, 383. Tiruviruttam, 379. Tiruvoymoli, 379, 380. Tirwvuntiyar, 258, 385. Tondarippodi, 188. Tondar-tiruv-antadi, 256, 385. Toiitad Siddhesvara, 387. Tota Pun, 357. Trances, in Buddhism, 64. Transmigration and Karma, absence of the doctrine in the early Vedic litera- ture, 23, 30, 33; appears first in the Upanishads, 33 ; arose still earlier, 33 ; date unknown, 33 ; sources of the ideas, 34 ; the doctrine, 34 f. ; is a doctrine of moral requital, 34 ; the work of the Aryan mind, 34 ; created by polytheists, 35 ; great influence of, 33 f. ; value of, 35 ; its automatic character, 61 ; in Ramayana, 48 ; leads to desire for release, 52 ; re- lease from, 52. Trayividya, triple knowledge, i.e. the three Vedas, 25. Tree-worship, 43, 48. Tridandis, Sri-Vaishnava Sannyasis, 243 n. ' Trika, t. t. of Kashmir Saivism, 198. Trilochana, 299 f., 323, 374, 381. Trilokasara, 282, 405. Trimurti, 148 f. Tripddvibhutimahanardyana U., 364. Tripitaka (Sansk. for Pali Tipitaka), the Buddhist Canon in three sec- tions, 67. Tripundra, name of the Saiva sect- mark, 196; used by Saktas also, 202. Tripura, one of the names of the Devi. Tripura-tapaniya U., 189, 266, 364, 389- Tripura U., 266, 267, 358, 364, 389. Trishashtilakshanamahapurdnasahgra- ha, 217, 219, 404. Trishashti-Salaka-purushacharita, 280, 402. Trishashtismriti, 283, 405. TriHkhibrahmana U., 364. Trivallur, 320. Trivarnachara, 166, 219, 403. Trivikrama, 375. Tryannka, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, !33- Tsong-Kha-pa, 277. Tukaram, 296, 300, 302, 374. Tulsl Das, 317, 328, 381; a Smarta Brahman, 328 ; became aRamanandi vairagi, 329 ; his Rama-charit-manas, 329, 381; basis of the work, 329; the religion is that of the Mediaeval poems, 329 ; often expresses great reverence for Siva, 330 ; contains many advaita phrases, 330 ; noble conceptions in the poem, 330 ; quite orthodox, 330; the vernacular Gita, 330 ; other works, 329, 381. Tuptikd, of Kumarila, 169, 367. TuriyatUavadhuta U., 364. Turkestan, 104. Twice-born castes, 31 ; education of, 31 ; 446 INDEX flesh-eating by, 81 ; literature of, 36 ff., 79 ff. ; characteristic of in early times, 37 ; the twice-bom fall into two groups, 81. Uchchhishta-Ganapatyas, 270. Udaipur, 306 n. 2. Uddna, a book of Buddhist verse, 71, 39 2 - Uddnavarga, 398. Udasis, 340. Udayaua, author of the KusumwtLjati, 221, 222,' 369, 370 ; assails Bhaskara, 221 ; other works, 223, 224, 370. Uddyotakara, 178, 370 ; was a Pasupata teacher, 191. Udgatri, 6, 7, 14, 17, 18, 21 ; education of, i8_f. Udgitd A., 193. Ujjini, 260. Ujjvalanilamqni, 376. Uma, wife of Siva, 47, 150, 197. Umanandanatha, 358, 359, 389. Umapati, title of i§iva, used for Uma- pati Sivacharya, q.v. Umapati Dhara, 306, 378. Umapati Sivacharya, one of the Achar- yas of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 255 "• 4. 2 57> 2 58» 386. Umasvati, a Jain thinker, 136, 164, 219, 400; his date, 164; his sutra, 136, 164; 165. Umd-ydmala T., 265. Unknowabhj^the, i.e. the Atman in the Upanishads, 56, 59; to be appre- hended by yoga, 59. Unmai-neri-vilakka, 258, 386. Vnmai Vilakka, 257, 258, 386. Upadesa, comm. on Sarvastivadin Sutra Pitaka, 108. Upadeia-kandatl, 280, 402. UpadeSaratnamdld, 380. Uiadeiamatndkara, 402. Upadela-sahasri, 171. Upadelasata, 402. Upagamas, 193. x Updll-pariprichchhd-sulra, 395. Upamitibhavaprapanchakatha, 215, 401. Upangas of Jain Canon, 399. Upanishad Brahmana, 27. Upanishads, 364 ; the name, 54 ; rise of the philosophy, 52 ; formed in free discussions, 53; taken into Vedic schools, 53 ; therefore taught by Brahmans only, and open to twice- born only, 54, 87, 244; the early prose Upanishads, 54 ; date of, 55 ; teaching of, 55 ff. ; pessimism in, 57 ; quality of, 57 ; verse Upanishads, 5? ; date of, 58 ; teaching of, 58 ; philo- sophy of, 59 ; yoga practices in, 59 ; the Upanishads appended to the Brahmanas as Sruti, 60, 1 26 ; their teaching not systematic, 126; later Upanishads, 79 ; an early work which summed up Up. teaching, 79 ; three divergent groups of Upanishads, 80 ; the philosophy called the Vedanta, 126; summed up in the Vedanta- sutras, 1 26 ; the Upanishads, along with the Gtta and the Veddnta-sutras forms the Canon of the Vedanta, 173 ; commentaries, 121, 171, 223, 236. Upapuranas, 139. Upasakadasd, one of the Jain Angas, 400. Upasana, meditation ; meditative wor- ship, 253 n. 2. Upasargahara-stotra, 400. Upatissa, 393. Upendra S., 183. Urddhva-linga, 103. Urddhva-pundra, the Bhagavata sect- _ mark, 234. Urddhva retas, 103, 145^4, 147 n. 1. Ushas, 10, 21. Ushnisha-vijaya-dhdrant, 399. Utpalacharya, 259, 386. Utpala Vaishnava, 386. Utradis, an order of DadOpanthi as- cetics, 342. Uttaradhyayana, 400. Uttara Mimarhsa, 124, 126. Uttara P. (Jain), 217 n. 2, 218, 219, 404. UttararcKika, 18. Uttara Tantra, 397. Uyyavandan (A.), 258, 385. Uyyavandan (B.), 258, 385. Vachana, Lingayat sermons in Kanar- ese, 264, 387. Vachaspatimisra, commentator, date, 176, 367, 368; works, 176, 177, 178, 2 88, 367, 368, 369, 370; position, 176. Vachissara, 394. Vacuity, the Mahayana philosophy, 114, 209 ; expressed in PrajHaparamita sutras, 115, 116. Vadagalais, 319, 320. Vaibhashika, the name of the philo- sophy of the Sarvastivadins, 108. INDEX 447 Vaikhanasa, hermit, 29. See Vana- prastha. Vaikhanasa Dharma-sutras , 141, 365, 366. Vaikhanasa Grihya-siltras, 141, 365. Vaikhanasa Samhitas, 142, 187 ; in accordance with Vedic usage, 181 ; used in some S. Indian temples, 181 ; are probably Bhagavata manuals, I ^ I > 374; ousted from many temples by Ramanuja, 182, 244 ; still used in some temples, 320 ; about a dozen Samhitas-survive, 321. Vaikuntha, 185. Vairaginis, 311. Vairagls, 311, 327. Vairochana, 273. Vaisali, Buddhist Council at, 66. Vaiseshika system, rise, 95, 369 ; meant for householders, 135 ; early manual, now lost, 80 ; in didactic Epic, 96 ; fundamental document, the VaiSeski- ka-sutra, 133; system, 1 3 3 f . ; origin- ally atheistic, 134 ; becomes theistic with Prasastapada, 177, 178;. other manuals, 177, 223, 289; the Vaise- shika combined with the Nyaya, 224, 289 ; literature, 369 f. Vaihshika-siitra, fundamental docu- ment of system, 133, 370. Vaiieshika-sutra-bhdshya, or Paddrtha- dharma-sangraha, 177, 369. Vaihshika-sutropaskdra, 224, 370. Vaishnava, adjective from Vishnu. Vaishnava Das, 377. Vaishnava incarnations, a series, 84, '45- Vaishnava literature, 143, 181, 228, 296, 373- Vaishnava Samhitas, see PaBcharatra Samhitas. Vaishnava sect, 86 ; heterodox, 82, 91, 98; emergence of Sakta ideas, 183. Vaishnava worship, 48 ; in the Glta, 88 f.' Vaishnavatoshini, 376. Vaishriavism, formed in Glta, 86 ; and in didactic Epic, 97 ; no articulated Vaishnava theology in Grid, 97. Vaisyas,' 21, 36; education of, 31 ;,, duties of, 40. Vaitdna-sutra, 42, 365. Vajasaneyins, the school of the White Yajus, 27, 54, 58. Vajjdlagga, 215, 401. Vajra, 211 ; its three senses, 211. Vajrabhairava T., 398. Vajrabodhi, 210, 212. Vajrachchhedikd-prajndparamitd-sutra, 159. 3_97- Vajradhatvisvari, 272 n. 3. Vajra-mantra-dhirusanti-mara T., 398. Vajrapani, 273. Vajrasattva, 272 n. 3. Vajrasekhara, 212. Vajrasiichl, 116, 395. Vajrasuchi U., 364. VajrayoginI, 272. Valabhi, here the Jain Canon was written and published, 162, 213. Vallabha, 287, 31 2 ; his account of him- self, 313 ; his four disciples, 316 ; his books, 377. Vallabhacharya, sect, 312 ff. ; stand- point called Suddhadvaita, 313 ; doc- trine of bkakti, 313 ; of grace, pushti, 313; theology, 313 f. ; the Vallabha heaven, 314; the cult, 314; mantra, 314; organization of the sect, 314; the gurus, 314; called Maharajas, 314 ; worship of the Maharajas, 314 ; immorality, 315, 318 ; the Rds-man- dali, 315; absorption of the Vish- nusvamis, 315; literature, 316, 317, 376 ; Vallabha aspiration, 314. Valmiki, 47. Vamachari, left-hand ; epithet of the original S5kta,sect and its cult, 203, 268. Vamadeva, 8. Vdmakesvara T., 265, 356, 358, 388. Vamana, the dwarf, S4n. 2. Vamana P., 139, 179, 372. Vamla Brdhmana, 363. Vamsivadana, 308, 376. Vana, name of one of the ten orders of Sankara's sannyasis, 1 74. Vanaprastha, the word, 29 ; = hermit, 29, 47 ; the rule, 29 ; magic in the practice, 32 ; continued to worship, 2 9>53; austerities of, 59, 74; ahirhsa, 76 ; place in Asramas, 81. Varadaraja, 304, 375. Varadatapaniya U., 206, 364, 390. Varadottaratapaniya U., 364, 390. Varaha Mihira, 153, 390. Vardha P., 139, 179, 310, 372; con- tains Sakta material, 357, 389 ; con- tains Mathurd-mdhdtmya, tf6. Vardha S., 183 n. 1, 236 n. 1. Varaha Timmappa Das, 375. Vardha [/., 364. Vdraht T., 389. Varatunga Pandya, 347, 383. 448 INDEX Vardhamana, 370. Vardhamana P., 405. Varivasya-rahasya, 358, 389. Varna, 5. Varnandrhavarnana, 395. Varshaganya, a teacher of theistic Yoga, seemingly author of the. Shashtitantra, 94, 368. Vaiuna, 2, '3, 10, n, 21. Vasishtha, 8. Vasishtha Dharma-suira, 80, 365. Vasishtha S., 388. Vasubandhn, a Buddhist leader, 129; .first a Sarvastivadin, then a Vijfiana- vadin, 161; date, 129; criticized Vaibhashika philosophy, 156 ; his works, 158, 160, 161, 176, 394, 398. Vasudeva, the father of Krishna, 100. Vasudeva, epithet of Krishna, 49 ; in Panini, 49 ; in inscriptions, 84 n. 3 ; an epithet of Vishnu, 49 ; origin of the epithet, 50 ; in the doctrine of Vyuha, 98, 184. Vasudeva Ghosh, 308, 376. Vasudeva Hin4a, 278, 280, 402. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma, 289, 371 ; see Sarvabhauma. Vasudeva U., 234, 364, 374. Vasugupta, 193, 386. Vasumitra, 394. Vatapi, 216. Vatsyayana, 123 n. 2; 135, 370. Vattakera, 166, 219, 403. VatulaA., 193, ,264. Vayu,- 10. Vayu P., 139, 145, 372, 384 ; referred to in Mahdbhdrata, 156; its royal genealogies of historical value, 137 ; contains 3aiva material, 140, 145, 146, 147, 196. Vedangas, 365. Vedanta, name of the philosophy of the Upanishads, 60, 150 ; its influence, 114; literature, 126, 170, 221, 286, 367 ; the Canon, called Prasthana- traya, 128; varieties of the philo- sophy, 127, 128, 170 f. ; influence, 158, 161, 273, 278, 282 ; in the Glta, 90; admixture of Sankhya ideas, 228, 286, 287 ; the Vedanta'in Europe, 288. Vedanta-desika, a teacher of the Sri- Vaishnava sect, 189, 286, 319, 367, 380. Veddnta-dlpa, 379. Veddnta-kalpalatikd, 286, 368. Veddnta-kalpataru, 222, 368. Veddnta-kalpataru-parimald, 368. Veddnta-kaustubha, 222, 240, 287, 376. Vedanta-kaustubha-prabhd, 376. Vedanta-parijata-saurabha, 240, 376. Vedanta-ratna, 376. Veddnta-sdra, 286, 368, 379. Veddnta-siddhdnta-muktavali, 368. Vedanta-sutra-anubhashya, 316, 377. Veddnta-siitra-bhdshya, 368. Veddnta-sutra-bhdshya of VishnusvamI, 375- Vedanta-sutras, 126, 368; teaching, 127 ; influenced by Glta, 128; date, 94, 123 ; held to be inspired, 127 ; no doctrine of Maya in sutras, 173 ; along with the Upanishads and the Gitd, forms the Canon of the Vedan- ta, 173; is smriti, not Iruti, 173. Veddnta-tattva-sdra, 380. V eddrtha-sahgraka, 242, 379. Vedas, eternity of, 125. Vedasdra- V ira-Saiva- Chintdmani,? > %l. Veda-vyasa, 369. Vedi, 14. Vedic Schools, see Schools. Vegetarianism, 263. Vema Reddis, 347. Vemana, 346, 383. Venkata Das, 375. Venkata-natha, 380. Venkatesvara, a temple in Tirupati, 181; Vishnu and Siva were wor- shipped^ it as equals, 181, 320. Venkaya Arya, 304. Vernaculars,- 284. Vibhajjavadin school, a Buddhist school in Ceylon, 68. Vibhahga, 393. Vibhasha : comm. on Sarvastivadin Vin- a.ya and Abhidharma, 108. Vibhdshd-sdstra, 107, 108. Vibhuti, 261. Vichdrasagara, 382. Vidagdha-mddhava, 376. Vidhi, 25, 251. Vidhi-rasdyana, 286, 367. Vidhiviveka of Mandanamisra, 169, 367. Vidyananda, 217, 219, 371, 404. Vidyanatha, 268, 358. Vidyapati, 306, 307, 308, 378. Vidydvaijayanti, 377. Vidyesvaras, 185. Vijaya A., 193. Vijaya Das, 375. Vijayanagara, 285, 312. Vijndna Bhairava Tantra, 352, 386. Vijnana Bhikshu, 228, 287, 289, 290, 368, 369. INDEX 449 Vijnana-gita, 373. Vijnanatnrita, 287, 368. -, Vijnanavada Buddhism, 273, 274 ; liter- ature, 397. Vikhanas, 29. Vikramarjuna Vijaya, 282, 404. Vikramaslla, a Tantrik Buddhist Univ- ersity, 225, 272. Vimala A., 193. Vimala Suri, 165, 400. Vimanavatthu, 392. Vimsakdrikaprakarana, 398. Vina-venba, 258, 386. Vinaya Pitaka, the Discipline basket of the Buddhist canon, 66, 67, 68, 391; source of, 69; Buddhaghosha's comm. in Chinese, 155, 392 ; Vinaya of many schools, 207. Vinayavijaya, 403. Vindhya mountains, 149. Vindhyachal, 283 n. I. T&paka, one of the Jain Angas, 400. Virabhadra, 120, 400. VIrachandra, 309, 311. Viracharita, 401. Virakta Jangamas, 262. Viraktas, an order of Dadupanthi asce- ■ tics, 342. Vira-Saiva-achara-kaustubha, 387. Vira-Saiva-achara-pradipikd, 387. Vlra-Saiva-chandrikd, 387. Vira-Saiva-dharma-Hromani, 387. Vlra-Saiva-mata-prakdiika, 387. Vlra-SavucL-mata-sahgraha, 387. Vtrasaivamrita, 387. Vtra-Saiva-pradtpikd, 387. Vira 3aivas (A), 191, 259, 386; mean- ing of the name, 261 ; called also Lingayats, 191, 259 ; call themselves Mahesvaras, not Pasupatas, 191; use Agamas, 191 ; do not accept doctrine of incarnations of Siva, 191 ; rise of the sect, 259 ; their monasteries, 259, 260 f . ; gurus, 261, '262; theology, 261, 264; temples, 262; the six sthalas or stages, 261, 264 ; worship, 261 ; liiiga, 261 ; reliquary, 261 ; ashtavarna, 261 ; meditation, 261 ; padodaka, 261 ; social organization 262 f., 264; marriage, 263; dining, 263 ; burial, 263 ; vegetarians, 263 ; abstainers, 263 ; child-marriage, 263 ; widow-remarriage, 263 ; release, 263 ; literature, 264, 353, 386 ; Vachanas, 264; Puranas, 264. Vira gaivas (B), of the Right-hand Sakta / movement, 358. Vira - Saiva - sarvotkarsha -pradipika, 387. Virasena, 217. Virastava, 400. Viresvara, 373. Viresvara Paddhati, 373. Virupaksha Pandit, 353, 387. Visariwadafataka, 403. Visesha, t. t. of Vaiseshika system, 134. Vishnu, a Vedic god, 10, 21, 22, 32, 47, 48, 58, 97 ; in second stage of Epic, 83 ; in Rdmayana, book I, 84 ; in the Trimurti, 148 f. ; centre of the first real sect, 81, 84; identified with Brahman and with Krishna in the Gita, 86, 97 ; his thousand names, 97 ; a panegyric, 97 ; a hymn of praise, 97 ; conjoined with £esha and Brahma in didactic Epic, 98 ; his incarnations, 84, 85, 86, 98, 145 ; has four forms, 102 ; adored by Bhagava- tas as equal with &va, 142 {., 175, 181,182; one of the Five Gods, 179; often represented in worship by the Salagrama, 293 n. 2 ; sometimes by a tortoise, 294 n. 1. Vishnu-bhakti, taught by all the bhakti sects to Sudras and PaHchamas, 244, Vishnu-Brahman, 149. Vishnukranta, 356. Vishnu P., 139, 372; date, 140, 143; is a Pancharatra Vaishnava work, 140, 143, 144 ; contains much ' cos- mic' material, 137; best represents the old Puranas, 144 ; life of Krishna appended to royal genealogies, 138 ; gives much space to Krishna-legend, 143 {., 151; theology, 144; relation to Gttd, 144 f." Vishnu Purl, 229n. 1, 302, 375. Vishnurakashya, 305, 375. Vishnnsinha, 354. Vishnusmriti, 141 f., 366. Vishnusvami, founder of Vishnusvaml sect, 222, 234, 235, 238, 287; a dualist, 236; his works, 238, 287, 375. Vishnusvami sect, 235 ; recognize Rad- ha, 237 ; their mantras, 235, 239 ; their literature, 238, 304, 375; Sam- pradaya, 327; their sect-mark, 304; their monasteries, 304 ; influence, 307, .312; hold the samuchchhaya doctrine, 221 ; decline of the sect, 304 ; a few ascetics left, 304. Vishnutattva S., 184. 45° INDEX Vishnuvardhana, 245. Visishtadvaita form of the Vedanta philosophy, 241, 287, 297, 319, 326, 349- Visuddhimagga, 154, 393. Visvambhara Misra, 307. Visvamitra, 8. VUvananda T., 384. Visvanatha Panchanana, 289, 370, 371. Visvapani, 273. Visvaradhya, one of the five original Lingayat ascetics, 260. Viivasara 7\, 354, 389. Vitardgastuti, Jito, 402. Vithoba, the Vishnu of Pandharpur, 300. Vitthal, 301. Vitthal Das, 375. Vitthalnatha, 314, 316, 377; his four disciples, 316. Vivasvant, 2. Vivekachintamani, 383, 387. Vivekatnafijari, 280, 402. Vivekananda, 357. Vivekasindhu, 296, 373, Vivekavilasa, 280, 402. Vopadeva, 231, 234, 269, 297, 359, 374- Vrindavana Dasa, 310, 377. Vrishnidasa, 400. Vritti Prabhakara, 382. Vyakarana, 42. Vyapi-Vaikuntha, the Vallabha heaven, 3*4- Vyasa-raja-svami, 375. Vyavahdra, 400. Vyoma S., 236 n. 1. Vyuha, lit. 'expansion', a Vaishnava doctrine, 98, 99, 184. Warangal, 265. Warkaris, 302. ' Western Paradise, 1 1 7. White Island,, 99. White Yajus, 20, 26. Widows, remarriage of, prohibited, 41, 81 ; ascetic life of, 81 ; remarriage permitted, 263. Women, had no part in the ancient Hindu education, 31 ; some shared in philosophic discussions, 53. Yab-yum, 265. Yddava-bkashya, 222, 368. Yadava-giri, in Mysore, 248. Yadava-giri Mahatmya found in the Narada and the Matsya Puranas, 190. Yadava Prakasa, 222, 242, 243 n., 368, _3?9- Yaga, worship, 186. YajHavalkya DharmaSastra, 141, 206, 366. YajHavalkya U., 364. Yajurveda, 15, 20, 363 ; age of its for- mulae, 21; their magic power, 19, 21 ; relation to Rik, 20 ; formation of, 20, 2$; Sarhhiias and Brahmanas of the Yajurveda, 25, 26; religion, 20 ff., 30 ff., 363; ritual, 363. Yajus = Yajurveda. Yama, 2, 23. Yamaka, 393. Yamala, 265. Yamala Tantras, 265. Yamunacharya, 241, 242 ; his works, Hh 379- Yantra, a diagram possessing occult significance and power, used in sects under Sakta influence, 186, 189, 202, 2°3, 355. 357. 358- YaJastilaka, 279, 282, 404. Yasomitra, 161, 394. Yati-dharma-samuchckhaya, 2 43 n . , 3 79 . Yatvndramatadlpika, 320, 380. Yavanas, i.e. Ionians, Greeks, 83. Yoga, the word, 59 ; Yoga practices, 59, 6_o, 132 ; purpose of these practices, 132 ; Yoga meditation on Om, 103. Yoga philosophy, 44 ; rise of , 6 r ; in Arthaiastra, 93 ; an early manual, now lost, 80 ; in the Gila, 90 ; in Maitrayana U., 93 ; in didactic Epic, 93> 97 > probably atheistic origin- ally, 93 ; theistic in didactic Epic, 93 ; in Chulika U., 93 ; in Yoga Upanishads, 94 ; the chief document is the Yoga-sUtras, 131 ; the system of the sutras, 132 f. ; relation to San- khya, 132 ; open to all Hindus and Outcastes, 133 ; Yoga ascetics called Yogis, 133, 289 ; other manuals, 177, 223, 289, 369; described by Alberuni, 223. • Yoga Upanishads, 80, 94 f., 201. Yoga-bhdshya, see Yoga-sutra-bhashya. Yogachara, a name for the Vijflanavada, 132, 160. Yogachara-bhiimi-Sastra of Asanga, 160, 397. Yogacku4amani U., 364. Yogaja, name of an Agama, 193. Yogaktindati U., 364. INDEX 45 1 Yoga-manjarl, 384. Yoganidra, sister of Krishna, 14911. 10. Yoga-pada, one _division" of the contents of Sarhhitas, Agamas, Tantras, 1 84. Yogarahashya, 379. Yogaraja, 386. Yogasarasahgraha, 289, 369. Yoga-Sastra, 280, 401. YogaHkha U., 95, 364. Yoga-sutra, 123, 131, 164, 369;- date, 94, 123. i3!f- Yoga-sutra-bhashya, 94, 177, 369. Yogatattva U., 95, 364. Yogavachara, 394. Yoga-varttika, 369. Yoga-Vasishtha-Ramayana, 222, 228, 250. 296, 373- Yogavatara, 397. Yogi, an ascetic of the Yoga school, 133, 289. Yoginl T., 354, 389. Yudhishthira, 151. Yugas, 146 Yuktyanuiasana, 403. Zoroaster, 3, 12, 152. Zoroastrianism, 2, 12, 287; in India, 168. PRINTED IN ENGLAND BY FREDERICK HALL AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS