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Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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 http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924024496246 
 
PA 3893.E6 1879 
 
 The fifth book of the Nicomachean ethics 
 
 3 1924 024 496 246 
 
THE FIFTH BOOK 
 
 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
HEPI AIKAI02TNH2. 
 
 THE FIFTH BOOK 
 
 or THE 
 
 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS 
 
 OF 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 EDITED FOR THE SYNDICS OP THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY JACKSON, M.A. 
 
 FELLOW OF TRInTtY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 (JTambntige: 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 LONDON : CAMBRIDGE WAREHOUSE, i;, Paternoster Row 
 CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO. 
 
 1879 
 
 \AU Rights resenied.\ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The text of this edition of what, in deference to 
 tradition, I have called on the title-page the Fifth 
 Book of the Nicomachean Ethics, is founded upon 
 a new collation of eight MSS. I cannot pretend 
 that my researches in this direction have yielded 
 much that is important. They have indeed enabled 
 me to correct a few oversights in Bekker's text and 
 critical notes, but they have thrown little light, if 
 any, upon the difficulties of the treatise, and have 
 convinced me that Bekker lost little by confining his 
 attention to the four MSS. K''L'■M''0^ I have how- 
 ever printed the results of my collation, in the hope 
 that others may thereby be spared the repetition of an 
 ungrateful labour. 
 
 Thinking, as many others have done, that the 
 several parts of the Fifth Book do not stand in their 
 proper order, I have with some hesitation adopted 
 what seems to me a more intelligible arrangement 
 than that of the received text. The chapter "On 
 Dislocations in the Text", which forms a part of the 
 Introduction, is based upon an article which I con- 
 tributed to the Journal of Philology in 1875. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 In the translation or paraphrase which stands op- 
 posite the text, my chief aim has been to show how 
 I understand the drift and the several arguments of 
 the original. Hence, wherever a Greek phrase seemed 
 to be clearer than an English equivalent would have 
 been, I have not scrupled to retain it in my version : 
 and in general I have sacrificed neatness of expression 
 to precision and perspicuity. 
 
 The necessity of justifying my interpretations has 
 caused my notes to become in some parts, and espe- 
 cially in chapters 5, 8, and g, disproportionately long. 
 The substance of the commentary on chapter 5 ap- 
 peared in 1872 in the yournal of Philology. 
 
 I believe that I have in all cases acknowledged 
 my debts to previous commentators. But I should 
 be ungrateful indeed if I did not make particular 
 mention of my obligations to Sir Alexander Grant. 
 It was in the pages of his edition that \ first became 
 acquainted with the Ethics, and however much I may 
 differ from him in detail, I can never forget the help 
 which, both as learner and as teacher, I have derived 
 from his fresh and instructive work. 
 
 Professor Ramsauer's new edition did not reach 
 me until my commentary was already in the press. 
 As it was then too late to make use of his researches, 
 I deferred the perusal of his work until my own little 
 book should be out of my hands. 
 
 Finally it is my pleasant duty to offer my thanks 
 to the Syndics of the University Press for their libe- 
 rality in undertaking the publication of this book ; 
 to the authorities of the Bibliotheque Nationale at 
 Paris, the Library of the Vatican, the Library of 
 
PREFACE. VU 
 
 St Mark at Venice, the Laurentian and Riccardian 
 Libraries at Florence, the British Museum, and New- 
 College, Oxford, for their courtesy in allowing me 
 to consult MSS. in their collections ; and to my 
 friends the Rev. W. M. Gunson, Fellow of Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, Mr S. H. Butcher, Fellow of 
 University College, Oxford, and Mr G. G. Greenwood 
 of this College, with whom I have discussed many of 
 the difficulties which beset this part of the Ethics. 
 
 H. J. 
 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 November 9, 1878. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I. On tJte Manuscripts. 
 
 In the critical notes to this edition I have recorded the 
 readings of eight of the nine MSS. of the Ethics to which 
 Bekker has assigned distinguishing letters. They are the 
 following : 
 
 Q. Marcianus CC : "in folio membranaceus, foliorum 594, 
 saeculi XV." Zanetti. Cf Susemihl, Politics p. xxiv. This 
 MS. (written by Joannes Rhosus in 1457) i^ general agrees 
 exactly with M*". There are however occasional differences, 
 sometimes one and sometimes the other exhibiting the con- 
 ventional reading. I attach no value to Q, and in my general 
 remarks on the MSS. have left it wholly out of account. 
 
 H^ Marcianus CCXIV : "in folio minori membranaceus, 
 foliorum 240, saeculi circiter XI." Zanetti. 
 
 Bonitz made a collation of the whole of the Nic. Eth. in 
 this MS.: "Kritische Ausbeute hat diese Collation so gut wie 
 gar nicht ergeben, sondern nur bestatigt, was sich im Voraus 
 vermuthen Hess, dass Bekker Grund liatte, von der Collation 
 der ganzen Handschrift abzusehen ; sie ist an Fallen der Un- 
 genauigkeit und an Auslassungen so reich, dass sie fiir Textes- 
 recension der Nikomachischen Ethik sehr geringen Werth 
 hat." Aristot. Stud. II. 8. I have nothing to say against this 
 decided condemnation. 
 
 K". Laurentianus LXXXI. 11 : "codex membranaceus MS.- 
 in fol. minori seculi X nitidissimus et optimae notae, cum 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 titulis singulorum librorum charactere vere quadrato et aureo 
 exaratis. Constat foliis scriptis i8i." Bandini. 
 
 I might have saved myself the trouble of collating this 
 MS., as Bekker's collation has been most carefully revised by 
 Scholl, whose corrections and additions are printed in Ras- 
 sow's Forschungen p. lo sqq. Numerous as are the readings 
 which this MS. alone preserves, it is very incorrect, in the 
 fifth book more so than several MSS. of less importance. 
 
 L^ Parisiensis 1854: "cod. membr. Nic. Eth. cum scholiis 
 varia manu eaque recentiori scriptis. Mich. Pselli esse veri- 
 simile est. Sec. Xli." Catalogue. This MS. appears to me to 
 be on the whole the most trustworthy authority for the text 
 of the fifth book ("im funften und zehnten Buche vielleicht 
 als die zuverlassigste Quelle zu betrachten," says Rassow), 
 though there are not very many instances in which it is 
 alone in. preserving a good reading. 
 
 M"- Marcianus CCXiil : " in 4° membranaceus, fol. 276, 
 saec. circ. XV," Zanetti. Though very incorrect this MS. 
 occasionally preserves an important reading which would 
 otherwise be lost. In the judgment of Bonitz (Aristot. Stud. 
 II. 9) and Susemihl {Politics p. xxvi) it ranks for the Ethics 
 only second in importance to K**. So far as Bk. V is concern- 
 ed, I think L" more trustworthy than either. 
 
 N^ Marcianus. Append. IV. 53: " bomb. fol. saec. Xll." 
 Waitz, Organon p. 3. I suspect that this was the MS. which 
 was used by Aldus in printing the Nic. Eth. for his editio 
 princeps. Lines have been drawn in the MS. to guide the 
 copyist or printer in punctuation, and errors have been care- 
 fully corrected in the margin by the aid of some other MS. 
 or MSS. In general the Aldine text exactly reproduces N** 
 together with the punctuation and emendations indicated by 
 the corrector. I have admitted some three readings into my 
 text on the sole authority of N". It is now well known that 
 Bekker's collation of this MS. (as of H*) is an incomplete one, 
 and that it is the neglect of this fact which has led some 
 scholars strangely to overrate its importance. 
 
THE MANUSCRIPTS. xi 
 
 0^ Riccardianus 46. More correct than M^ O*- contributes 
 fewer peculiar readings to the text than that MS. In this 
 book however it does not seem to be as decidedly inferior 
 to M" as (according to the best authorities) it is elsewhere. 
 
 P". Vaticanus 1342. "Membr., kl. 4to oder 8vo, 133 BL, 
 Griechisch und Romisch paginirt. Kleine Schrift, viele Abkur- 
 zungen." Brandis. 
 
 In the Journal of Philology, 1876, VI. 208, I have endea- 
 voured to show that the Cambridge MS. ('Eliensis') was 
 copied from P'', which must therefore have been written before 
 1279. Although apparently more closely connected with K"" 
 than any other MS. and not so ancient, P*" is nevertheless less 
 incorrect. I do not however find that it preserves any good 
 readings which are not to be found in either K''L''M''N'' or O''. 
 
 My own conclusions (as shown in the text which I have 
 adopted) are, so far as Bk. V is concerned, briefly as follows : 
 
 1. That the MSS. collated (exclusive of Q which agrees 
 too closely with M'' to be worth considering) stand in respect 
 of correctness in the following order L''P''0''N''K''H''M*', L*" 
 being decidedly the most correct, and M*" decidedly the most 
 incorrect ; 
 
 2. That H* and P*" contribute to the text nothing which 
 is not to be found in one or other of the remaining five 
 codices; 
 
 3. That when H*" and P'' are neglected there are about 
 43 places in which my reading depends upon one only of the 
 remaining five MSS., the contributions of each being as 
 follows: K" 23, L* 9, M" 5, O" and N'' 3 each; 
 
 4. That I am unable to distinguish families. 
 
 It will be remarked that these conclusions agree substan- 
 tially with those of Rassow {Forschungen p. 8), and do not 
 encourage the hope that in other parts of the Ethics an ex- 
 amination of the MSS. neglected by Bekker would yield 
 considerable improvements upon his text. 
 
 Besides the MSS. above mentioned, I have also collated 
 Bk. V. in two MSS. which are important only on the ground that 
 
xn INTRODUCTION. 
 
 they have been occasionally quoted by editors. One of them, 
 now in the Library of the University of Cambridge, quoted by 
 Zell as 'EL' i.e. 'Eliensis/ is, if I am not mistaken, a transcript 
 from P" (vide supra). It is dated 1279. See Journal of 
 Philology, 1876, VI. 208 sqq., where I have given an account 
 of it. The other, which is in the Library of New College, 
 Oxford, quoted by Zell as C. N., seems to me to be a copy of 
 Parisiensis 1853. Both codices have a lacuna extending 
 from VIII. II § 7 to IX. 12 § I, and if I may judge from the 
 comparison of a few pages of the Parisian MS. with my colla- 
 tion of the Oxford one, they have the same readings, except 
 where the Oxford MS. introduces a new blunder. I have also 
 collated a few pages in Marcianus CCXli ("in 8° chartaceus, 
 fol. 499, saeculi circiter XV" Zanetti), which appears to be a 
 transcript from Q. 
 
 It will be understood that I have not in general recorded 
 the corrections of later hands, that I have noted false accents 
 and breathings only where they might seem to have some 
 slight significance, and that I have neglected altogether the 
 variations of the MSS. in respect of ovdek, ovSek, Sec, of 
 elisions, and of the v i^eX/cva-TiKov. I have not in general 
 thought it necessary to call attention to discrepancies between 
 Bekker's collation and my own. Finally, I have noted in the 
 critical commentary all cases in which my text differs from 
 that of Bekker. 
 
 II. On Dislocations in the Text. 
 
 Conceiving as others have done that the difificulty and the 
 obscurity of this book are in a large measure due to dislo- 
 cations in the text, I have with some hesitation decided 
 to print the several parts of the treatise in what I suppose 
 to be the true order. In this way I shall at any rate give 
 the reader an opportunity of testing my rearrangement. 
 
DISLOCATIONS IN THE TEXT. xiii 
 
 whilst whatever may be thought of my attempt, I cannot 
 well create a greater confusion than that which is to be 
 found in the received text. 
 
 My main objections to the vulgate are two : (i) that 
 the discussion of the airopia Trepl tow avTov ovtov ahiKeiv is 
 broken in two places by the intrusion of {a) g § 14 — 10 § 8, 
 and (d) 11 §§ 7, 8, and (2) that 6 §§ i— 3 are wholly out 
 of place in their present position between S § 19 and 
 6 §4. 
 
 I proceed to examine these portions of the book with 
 the double purpose of justifying the above statements, and 
 of discovering how to dispose of the intrusive passages. 
 
 The opening words of ch. 9 — diropriaeie S' av rt?, el 
 iKavta<i ot(opi(TTai irepl tow dBiKelcrdai koli dBiKeiv — appear 
 to announce the beginning of a new division of the book, 
 devoted to the consideration of diropiai with respect to 
 dBiKeiv and dhiKeladai. The first diropia, discussed somewhat 
 confusedly in §§ i — 7, is (a) 'can a man eKuv dBiKelaOaiV 
 The question having been answered in the negative, we are 
 told in § 8 that two other diropiai, remain to be investigated, 
 [b) 'is it the distributor or the receiver who dSixei }' and (c) 'can 
 a man dStKetv avrov .'' The second of the two latter diropiai 
 (which has been already referred to incidentally in § 4) 
 having been separated from the first, in which at first sight 
 it might seem to be involved, in § 9, the first is discussed and 
 decided in §§ 10 — 13. Then follow three §§ (14 — 16), which 
 have nothing to do with the diropiai announced for dis- 
 cussion, and which would appear to belong to a preliminary 
 review of evBo^a about universal Bixaiov and aSi.Kov, such 
 as that with which the book opens — else why the references, 
 not merely to particular justice and injustice, but also to 
 other virtues and vices.' Next, § 17 limits the sphere of 
 ^ Kara fiipoi SiKMoavvr), and consequently has nothing to 
 do either with §§ 14 — 16, or with §§ 8 — 13. Ch. 10 which 
 follows investigates iirieiKeia and its relation to SiKaioavvrj, 
 thus raising an entirely new matter. And now in ch. 11 §§ 
 
XIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I — 6, the third diropla (which, I repeat, has been in 9 § 4 
 and § 9 referred to, but never considered) is formally dis- 
 cussed. Then, in 11 §§ 7, 8 it is debated whether dBiKeiv 
 or dSiKelaOai, is the worse. Next, § 9 recurs to the diropia 
 ' can a man dBiKeiv avrov ? ' Finally § 10 concludes the book. 
 Thus the matters discussed in ch. 9 — ii may be tabulated 
 as follows : 
 
 (i) 9 §§ 1—7- The d-iropla 
 
 (a) Can a man eKcov dSiKei- 
 adai } discussed and decided. 
 
 (2) §§ 8, 9. The diropiat 
 {b) Is it the distributor or 
 the receiver who dhiKel ? and 
 (c) Can a man dSoxelv avTov ? 
 announced and distinguished. 
 
 (3) §§10—13- The d'jTopia 
 
 [b) Is it the distributor or 
 the receiver who dhiKet ? de- 
 cided. 
 
 (4) 9 §§ 14 — 16. Certain 
 evBo^a about universal justice 
 enumerated and considered. 
 
 vS) 9 § I7' The sphere of 
 particular justice determined. 
 (6) ID. Equity. 
 (7) II §§ I— 6. Thea-n-o- 
 pia (c) Can a man dBiteelv 
 avTov } discussed and decided. 
 
 (8) 1 1 §§ 7. 8. Is dBiKetv 
 or dBiKeiadai, the worse ? 
 
 (9) § 9- The diTopla (c) 
 Can a man dBiKelv avTov ? 
 finally dismissed. 
 
 (to) §10. 
 the book. 
 
 Conclusion of 
 
DISLOCATIONS IN THE TEXT. XV 
 
 However we may hereafter dispose of the passages which 
 
 I have enumerated on the right side of the page, there can 
 be no doubt that those which I have placed on the left 
 side gain in perspicuity if they are read in connection with 
 one another. Even if I could offer no suggestion for the 
 disposal of the two interpolations, i.e. 9 § 14 — 10 § 8 and 
 
 II §§ 7, 8, I should still recommend this course. But I think 
 that I can find places for the fragments which I have set 
 aside. In the first place, it seems natural that the discussion 
 of evieUeia, as a supplement to the investigation of SiKaioavvr], 
 should stand at the end of the book. I therefore propose 
 to place it after 11 § 9, prefixing to it another fragment 
 (6 § 3) of which I shall have something to say hereafter, 
 and affixing 11 § 10 with which the book obviously concludes. 
 Thus according to the numeration of the above tabular 
 statement, (i), (2), (3), (7), (9), (6), (10) will stand in the 
 order indicated. 
 
 It remains to determine the position of 9 §§ 14 — 16,9 § 17, 
 
 and II §§7,8- 
 
 The first of these fragments, being an enumeration and 
 examination of evSo^d about justice and injustice in the 
 large senses of those words, would seem to belong to the 
 early part of the book. Now in i § 3 the author states and 
 accepts provisionally the popular notion of justice and 
 injustice : he then proceeds in § 4, ovSe yap tov avrov exet 
 rpoirov inrl re rwv iiricrTrj/KSv Koi Swdfieccv Kal eTrl t&v e^ecov. 
 Does this sentence naturally succeed § 3 ? For my part, 
 I think not. To say nothing of the harshness of the 
 ellipse which Grant assumes, — "(and I have specified them 
 thus) for it is not the same," &c. — the introduction of a 
 doctrine of the schools in § 4, for no better purpose than 
 to justify the form in which the popular notion of § 3 has 
 been expressed, is surely very strange. Here then, after 
 the words vtroKeiaOu) ravra, I propose to insert 9 §§ 14 — 16. 
 (See paraphrase, p. 3.) It will be remarked (i) that a some- 
 what lengthy enumeration of popular views with accompany- 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. . 
 
 ing criticisms is precisely what the author's declaration in § 2, 
 that he will proceed Kara Trjv avTrjv jaWo^ov rot? irpoeiprffiivoii;, 
 has led us to expect at the outset of the enquiry, whereas the 
 addition of such an enumeration after the author's own view 
 has been stated is not only useless, but also contrary to his 
 ordinary practice ; and (2) that the doctrine of I § 4 is 
 necessary to complete the argument of 9 § 16, as was seen by 
 Michael Ephesius, who, though he does not suspect any 
 displacement, is nevertheless careful in commenting on the 
 latter passage to quote the former. 
 
 Again 9 § 17, which determines the kind of society in 
 which rj Kara /j-epo'i SiKaiocrvvr) can subsist, is obviously 
 connected in thought with i § 9. Accordingly I propose 
 to insert it after the words to. avrol^ dyaOa, though I cannot 
 allege any better reason than a general sense of superior 
 fitness for placing it here, after the parenthetical remarks 
 about prayer, rather than after tivI o ovk del. (See para- 
 phrase, p. 7.) 
 
 It remains to find a place for il §§7) 8. In these §§,- 
 which have obviously nothing to do with the diropLat 
 raised in ch. 9, dhiKeiv and dBi/ceia-Oao being regarded as 
 deviations from to fieaov, it is asked which of the two is the 
 worse ? Now 5 §§ 17, 18 is the one place in which to Kara 
 fiepo<s hUaiov (taken as a whole) is regarded as a /Mecrop. I 
 therefore insert this fragment at the end of 5 § 1 8, after the 
 words Tov Be dSoK^fiaTOt to //.ei/ eXaTTov to dBi/celcrOai iaTi, to 
 Be fiel^ov TO dBiKelv. 
 
 Further, two minor changes appear to me to be necessary. 
 Firstly, I cannot construe the clause kuI mairep vyieivbv fiev 
 iv larpLKy eveKTiKOv Be iv yVfivaa-riKfj (11 § 7) in connection 
 with its present surroundings. The best place which I can 
 find for it is in 5 § 17 after the words dXX' oti fiea-ov icrrlv, 
 and accordingly I have printed it there in my tejct, though 
 not without hesitation. 
 
 Secondly, I have introduced in 1 1 § 7, after ov yap airav 
 TO eKovcnov p,eTa dBiKW, the words iv ot? B' [qu.ydp^ dBiKia, 
 
DISLOCATIONS IN THE TEXT. xvii 
 
 KaX TO aSiKeiv ev rovro(,<;, iv oZs Se to dhiKelv, ov Traatv dZiKia, 
 which, as Munscher has pointed out, Quaest. Crit. p. 84, are 
 wholly irrelevant to 6 § 4 '. Here again, though I am sure 
 that the sentence is out of place where it stands, I cannot be 
 sure that I have discovered the right position for it. 
 
 I turn now to 6 §§ i — 3. These sections, as is acknow- 
 ledged by nearly all the scholars who have attempted to 
 unravel the perplexities of this book, seriously interrupt the 
 argument. As the text stands, 5 § 19 declares that the 
 investigation of BiKaioa-vvr/, dStKta, Bikulov and uSikov regarded 
 KaOoXov is now complete; while 6 § 4 begins an investigation 
 of the kinds of ZUaiov called respectively ttoXitikov, heairo- 
 riKov, irarpiKov, oIkovo/mkop ; and the introductory sentence — 
 Set Se firj TuzvOdveiv on to ^TjTov/ievov iari koi to aTrXtS? hUaiov 
 Koi TO TToXtTiKov SUmov — carcfully marks the connection of this 
 inquiry with the inquiry concluded in ch. 5. Any intervening 
 sentences must be either explanatory of the previous discussion, 
 or explanatory by anticipation of 6 § 4 sqq., or, if purely paren- 
 thetical, complete in themselves. Now it is impossible to 
 connect §§ i — 3 either with 5 § 19 or with 6 §4: and when 
 we consider them by themselves, apart from the context, 
 we find that the author (i) in 6 §§ i, 2, starting from the 
 new assumption that o aSt/etSf is not necessarily aSiKo<;, 
 asks a question, demurs to the form of it, and alleges 
 examples in justification of his objection, but does not restate 
 the question or proceed to enunciate his doctrine, although 
 in the words dW' ov 8i,a irpoaipeae'tx; dpx'^v he has implicitly 
 established a basis for it ; and (2) in 6 § 3 introduces a 
 reference to a former discussion, which reference is irrelevant 
 not only to 6 §§ i, 2, but also to 5 § 19 and 6 § 4"^. I conceive 
 then that the passage does not occupy its proper position, 
 and that it consists of two distinct fragments, one of which, 
 
 ' In the Journal of Philology, 1876, vi. p. 108, I placed these words in 6 § i 
 after Siotirei. 
 
 ' In the Latin version of Averroes' commentary no notice is taken of §§ i — 3, 
 as is expressly noted in, the margin of the Venetian edition of 1550. Michael 
 Ephesius paraphrases §§ i, 3, but not§ 3. 
 
XVUl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 §§ I, 2, belongs in thought, as Trendelenburg {Historische 
 Beitrdge zur Philosophie III. 421) has pointed out, to ch. 8, 
 whilst the other, § 3, contains at first sight no hint of its 
 origin. I proceed to deal with these fragments separately 
 and in detail ; and first with §§1,2. 
 
 I have already said that the. distinction between o oZikSiv 
 and 6 aSiKoi, which is introduced as though it were familiar to 
 the reader, is here imported into the discussion for the first 
 time. I may now add that, whereas the words ov ^la Trpoaipk- 
 o-eto? f^PXV^ dWa Sid 7rddo<i read as though the distinction 
 between to, en ■n-poMpeareco'; and ra hid irddo'i had been already 
 enforced, that distinction has not been brought before us in 
 connection with the present subject. It has also been stated 
 that the author after asking the question 6 vrota dhiKruMwra 
 dhiK&v rjBr) aSt/co? ecrriv eKda-Trjv dhiKiav ; objects to the form 
 of the question, prepares to answer it in its spirit if not in its 
 letter, but strangely stops short and drops the matter. Now 
 in ch. 8 we find (i) that trpoaipeTa. and uTrpoaipera (in which 
 oaa Bid Ovfiw Kal aXXa TrdOrj oaa dvayKaia fj (pvaiKa (rvfi^aivei 
 T019 dvOpd)iroi<; are included) are carefully distinguished in 8 
 § S ; (2) that the distinction between 6 dBiKwv and 6 aS(«09 is 
 introduced, apparently as a novelty, in 8 § 8 ; and (3) that 
 the very question asked in 6 § i, not having been restated 
 in the interval, is declared answered in 8 § 11, upon the 
 principle hinted at but not distinctly enunciated in the former 
 passage. Hence I infer that the fragment 6 §§ i, 2 is to 
 be inserted in ch. 8 somewhere between ov fjuevjoi ttco dhiKoi 
 Bid ravra ovBe nrovrjpo'i (§ 8) and av S' eit 7rpoaipia-ea><; ^Xdi^rj, 
 dBiKei, K.T.X. (§ 11): and on examination of the region thus 
 defined I decide to place it in § 8 after /3Xa/3i;. (See para- 
 phrase, p. 47.) The train of thought of 8 §§ 6—1 1 is then as 
 follows : — ' The ^Xd^ai which may occur in the several koi- 
 vcoviai of society are three — dTV')(r)fia (Zrav 7rapa\6j(o<s r] 
 ^Xd^T] yevr)Tai), dfidpTTjfia (orav firj ■rrapaXoyco'i apev Be Kadat;), 
 dBiK7)fjLa (prav elBm<; jxev firj -Trpo^ovXeuixai Be). He who iacts 
 knowingly, but not of deliberate purpose, dBiKei but is not 
 
DISLOCATIONS IN THE TEXT. xix 
 
 necessarily aSt«o?. IV/zat are the acts then the commission of 
 which makes the agent dScKo<i as well as dSiKoxvi Not 
 certain specified acts, but acts done e'/e irpoaipeffeax; (whence 
 ra etc Ov/xov are rightly accounted dBiieij/xata which "do not 
 imply dSiKta in the agent, for o opyiaBek is etSai? but not 
 •n-'pQeX6fj,evo<!).' Thus in this chapter dSiKov, dhUrjfia, and 
 dSi/cqfia implying dBiKia, are successively considered aind 
 defined. When the agent is not eKcov, he dBLita irpdrrei. 
 When the agent is excov but not •7rpoe\6iJ.evo<;, he dBiKei and 
 the act is an dBiKrjfia. When the agent is 7rpoi7U)fj,evo<!, he 
 dSiKei Kal dBcKo:; iariv. It will be observed, (i) that the frag- 
 ment inserted accounts for the transition from the plurals 
 oBiKoi, irovifpoi in 8 § 8 to the singulars dBiKof, fj.oxOvP^'! •" 
 8 § 9 ; and (2) that the phrase Bid irpoaipecrea)^ ^PXH^ in 6 § I 
 leads up to the emphatic dp'^ei, in the last sentence of the 
 second of these sections. These coincidences may seem irt 
 some measure to confirm my conjecture. 
 
 So much for the first of the two fragments of which 
 I suppose 6 §§ I — 3 to consist. It is more difficult to dis- 
 pose of the second. We may however assume from the form 
 of it — TTcSs fiev ovv 'e')(et, rb dvrnreirovdb'i irpo's rh Bixaiov eipijrai 
 irporepov — that it is the beginning of a distinct paragraph, 
 whilst it is evident that this allusion to the investigation 
 of TO dvTnreiTov06<! would be specially appropriate at the 
 beginning of a subsequent chapter upon an offshoot of 
 justice. Indeed it is difficult to imagine any other circum- 
 stances under which the reminder would be required. I 
 propose therefore to insert the fragment at the beginning 
 of the chapter upon equity *. No inconsistency or awkward- 
 ness is created by the transfer. The opening sentence of 
 ch. 10 will now run thus: 
 
 7r(39 fiev oZv e^ei to dvTnrenrovBo': irpov Th BIkucov 
 e'lprfTat TrpoTepov' TrepX Be iTrieiKeiw; Kal tpO itneiKovk, '7rm<i 
 ' According to Grant, Spengel so far anticipates me as to place ch. 10 
 after 6 § 3. In his Aristotelische Studien however Spengel adopts Hildenbrand's 
 proposal to place 6 § 3—7 § 7 (with the omission of the word irpoTepov) between 
 5 §16 and 5 §17. 
 
 l>2 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 e^et j; /iev iirieiKeia tt/jo? SiKaioavvrjv rb S" iirieiKe's "rrpo^ to 
 SIkmov, ij(pfj,ev6v iariv ehrelv' oilre yap w? tovtov aTrXw? 
 ovff <BS erepov rm yevei (fyaiverai aKoirovfievoi'i, k.t.X. 
 
 I think that when these changes have been effected the 
 several matters discussed in the book follow one another 
 in a natural and orderly sequence. In ch. I, (i) certain 
 popular notions about Justice and injustice are stated, 
 criticized, and accepted, modified, or rejected: (2) the rela- 
 tions of the just and the unjust, the just and justice are 
 considered : (3) the just is shown to include the lawful and 
 the equal : (4) the just in the sense of the lawful is sub- 
 divided into TO Kara. Trjv oXrjv apeTrjv and to TroirjTiKov 
 Kol (f)v\aKTCKov evSai/wvia^ ry troKtriKf} Kotvcovia. In ch. 2, 
 (i) our attention is directed to 77 iv /lepei SiKaioavvrj, the 
 discussion of which is necessary to the completeness of our 
 theory of the virtues : (2) ■»; KUTa /j,ipo<; SiKatoa-vvr} is sub- 
 divided into TO Siavefir)TtK6v and to SiopOcoriKov. In ch. 3, 
 distributive justice is shown to consist in that kind of equality 
 which is attained by geometrical proportion. In ch. 4, cor- 
 rective justice is shown to consist in that kind of equality 
 which is attained by arithmetical proportion. In ch. 5, (i) 
 commercial justice is shown to consist in that kind of 
 equality which is attained by reciprocal proportion : (2) 
 Sijcaioervpr] is declared to be in some sense a mean, dSiKciv 
 and dBiKeiaOai being extremes of which dBiKeiv is the worse : 
 (3) the general investigation of hiKaioavvrj, oSikm, Si/caiov, 
 and dBiKov is declared complete. In ch. 6, we leave to dirXwi 
 SIkuiov and proceed to consider to ttoXitikov Bikuiov together 
 with TO. Kad' SfioioTTjTa Bixaia, viz. BeairoTiKov, iraTpiKov, oIko- 
 vofitKov. In ch. 7, two elements of to iroXiTmhv BUaiov, viz. 
 rb <f)V(TiK6v and to vo/iik6v, are distinguished. In ch. 8, we 
 pass on to the investigation of justice and injustice in the 
 individual, who (i) ovk dBiKel unless he is eKoop, (2) ov Blo. 
 ravra dBiK6<i iariv unless he acts e« irpoaipea-eioi;. In ch. 9 
 §§ I — 13 and ch. Ii §§ i — 6 and §9, supplementary diropiai, 
 in regard to dBi/eeip and dBiKeierdai are discussed, In ch. 10, 
 
DISLOCATIONS IN THE TEXT. XXl 
 
 iirieiKeia and its relations to justice are considered. Finally, 
 in II § 10, the investigation of SiKaioavvT] and the other 
 rjdiKal dperai is declared to be complete. 
 
 It now only remains for me to tabulate my arrangement 
 of the book as follows : 
 
 I §§ I — 3. irepl Se — ravra. 
 
 9 §§ 14 — 16. ol 8' — (oBL 
 
 1 §§ 4 — 9. ovBe yap — dyadd. 
 
 9 § 17. ea-Ti Se — iariv. 
 
 I § 10 — 5 § 1 8- o ^' — dhiKeiv. 
 
 I I §§ 7, 8. (jtavepop — dirodavelv. 
 
 5 § 19. Trepl — KadoKov. 
 
 6 § 4—8 § 8. Sei Se— j8\a/3»7. 
 6 §§ I, 2. 67r6t — aSXav. 
 
 8 § 9 — 9 § 13. orav S" — eXa^ev. 
 II §§ I — 6. TTorepov — dSiKeiffOat. 
 1 1 § 9. Kara fiera^opdv — tovtok;. 
 6 § 3. TTffls lih> — irporepop. 
 
 10 §§ I — 8. irepl Be — e^t?. 
 
 11 § 10. irepl fiev — tovtov. 
 
 In the above statement I have not taken account of the 
 two sentences ev oh B' dSiKia, Kal to dSiKeiv ev tovtoi'}, ev ot? 
 Be TO dBiKelv, oi irdaiv dBiKla, and Koi Strirep vyieivov fiev ev 
 laTpiKy eveicTiKov Be ev yvfivaa-TiKjj, because, though I am 
 convinced that they ought not to stand in their present 
 position (6 § 4 and 1 1 § 7), I do not feel much confidence 
 in my attempt to find a place for them. On the same prin- 
 ciple I have allowed them to stand in the text in their tra- 
 ditional positions, as well as in the places which I hesitatingly 
 assign to them. 
 
xxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 III. On the relations of Book V. to the two Bthical treatises. 
 
 Book V. being one of the three books which are common 
 to the Nicomachean and the Eudemian Ethics, it is necessary 
 that I should say something about its relation to the two 
 treatises. 
 
 The principal' theories which have been entertained in 
 regard to N. E. V. VI. VII. = E. E. IV. V. VI. are the following: 
 
 1. That these books, with the exception of the super- 
 fluous theory of pleasure at the end of VII., belong to the 
 Nicomachean treatise : L. Spengel, AbJiandl. der k. bayer. 
 Akad. 1841 : 
 
 2. That V. I — 10 belong to the Nicomachean treatise, 
 
 V. II. VI. VII. to the Eudemian: A. M. Fischer, de Ethicis 
 Nicomacheis et Eudemiis, Bonn, 1847: 
 
 3. That all three books belong to the Eudemian treatise: 
 H. A. J. Munro, Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology, 
 185 s, II. 66 — 81. 
 
 For my own part, I give an unhesitating assent to the 
 last of these three theories. I do not however propose on 
 this occasion to investigate the whole question, but only 
 so much of it as specially affects the fifth book, a limita- 
 tion of the inquiry which would hardly be possible, had 
 not Fischer taken up an intermediate position between the 
 extreme theories of Spengel and Munro, holding that, while 
 
 VI. and Vil. belong to the E. E., v. with the exception of the 
 last chapter (ch. 11) belongs to the N. E. Assuming then 
 that the detailed arguments which Fischer brings forward to 
 prove the Eudemian origin of VI. and Vli. are, as I think 
 
 ' I imagine that Schleiermacher's paradoxical theory, that the Eudemian 
 treatise, to which these books belong, is of superior authority to the Nicomachean 
 and the Magna Moralia of superior authority to both {Philosophische Schriften III. 
 306 sqq. ) has not found many supporters. 
 
RELATIONS OF BK. V, TO THE N. E. AND THE E. E. xxiii 
 
 them, absolutely conclusive, I proceed to consider his reasons 
 for assigning v. i — lo to the other treatise. 
 
 The following is, I think, a fair summary of his main 
 argument : 
 
 "The discussion of the airopia — iroTepov ivSixerai eavrbv 
 aBiK€iv in ch. II is not only an 'ineptissima repetitio,' the 
 question having been already settled in precisely the same 
 way in 9 §§ i — 13, but also out of place, as it is impossible to 
 justify the interposition of 9 §§ 14 — 17 and of ch. 10 {irepl 
 iinei/celasi). Both discussions cannot possibly be parts of the 
 same work. Hence we are justified in assigning v. VI. Vll. 
 partly to one, partly to the other treatise; whereas had there 
 been no such disturbance in the argument, we could hardly 
 have refused to assign the whole to the £. E., to which the 
 superfluous theory of pleasure plainly belongs. That it is the 
 second of the two discussions Trepl tov uvtov dBiKeiv, and not 
 the first, which belongs to the E. E., there can be no doubt ; 
 for, while the whole of the investigation of justice contained 
 in cc. I — 9 is 'Aristotele dignissima,' and the last fragment of 
 ch. 9 (§§ 14 — 17) 'pulcrae disquisitioni pulcerrimum finem im- 
 ponit,' the superfluous ch. 1 1 exhibits ' anxiam illam argumen- 
 tandi rationem qua baud raro in Eudemiis defatigamur,' 
 and betrays the 'animum pusillum Eudemi, qui saepissime ad 
 explicandas Nicomacheorum quaestiones non solum Aris- 
 toteleis argumentis utitur, sed de suo insuper hoc illudve 
 adiicit, quo magis res conficiatur.' Thus ch. 11, together 
 with VI. and VII., belongs to the Eudemian treatise, 'tota 
 autem disquisitio de iustitia, omnibus suis partibus Integra 
 cum insequenti capite de aequitate locum suum in Nico- 
 macheis obtinet.'" 
 
 It will be perceived that the whole of this argument rests 
 upon the assumption that 11 §§ i — 6 are no more than a 
 repetition of a previous discussion. Where then is this pre- 
 vious discussion to be found.' According to Fischer in 
 9 §§ I — 7' "argumentatio capitis 15 [i.e. ch. 11] nil plane 
 differt ab ilia quae est in capite u [i.e. 9 §§ i — 7]; utroque 
 
xxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 loco notione spontanei adhibita demonstratur, iniuriam in se 
 ipsum illatam esse nullam." I cannot however allow that 
 this is a correct account of the substance of 9 §§ i — 7- I" 
 9 § 4 indeed the question Trorepov ivBix^erac avTov avTov dStKeiv 
 is mentioned, but the nmention is an incidental one in connec- 
 tion with another d-rropia, as the words eVrt Se Kal tovto ev twv 
 d'rropov/j,evwv, el ivSe^erai avrov avTov dhiKslv plainly show. 
 Indeed Fischer himself, when he is speaking more precisely, 
 seems to argue, not that the diropla is here discussed, but 
 rather that the resolution of it follows so directly from the 
 Biopiafioi 6 irepl rov eKovaia}<; dhuceiaOcu that any discussion or 
 even mention of it becomes unnecessary: "non dedita quidem 
 opera hoc loco de quaestione avTov dBiKelv disputatur, sed et 
 hanc verbis eius postremis solvi nemo non videt; quodsi enim 
 eKovra dhiKeladai absurdum est, iam per se liquet, avrhv dSiKeiv 
 non minus esse ineptum, quum illud dSixeiv non possit nisi 
 eicovatov esse, id quod iamdudum demonstratum est. Itaque 
 quaestio ilia per se iam ideo evanescit, quod fieri non potest 
 ut, quam quis iniuriam sibi ipse sua sponte inferat, eandem 
 invitus a se patiatur. Pluribus verbis ad id demonstrandum 
 non opus fuisse, satis liquet." But even if further discussion 
 is unnecessary, it does not follow that we can dispense with 
 all mention of the diropla. The author ought at least to point 
 out that further discussion is superfluous. He ought, in fact, 
 to make the very remark which Fischer makes: and accord- 
 ingly that remark occupies a prominent position in ri §§ i — 6. 
 At any rate the author himself does not think that the question 
 has been "prorsus absoluta" in 9 §§ i — 7; for in § 8 we read — 
 eVt S' oov irpoeiXofjieQa hvo ecmv elireiv, iroTepov ttot dSiKei 6 
 veifia<; irapd ttjv d^iav to irXetov rj 6 eytov, Kal el eaTlv avTov 
 avTov dSiKeiv. That the diropla has not been discussed hither- 
 to, and will be discussed hereafter, could not well be stated 
 more explicitly. Fischer indeed thinks "id tantum hoc loco 
 agi, ut ex occasione quaestionis : iroTepov ttot dSixei 6 vel/j,a<;, 
 «.T.\. exemplum quoddam iniuriae in se ipsum illatae (dico 
 exemplum : el' Tt? TrXeoi; erepm rj eavr^ pe/iei elBws Koi kjcwv) 
 
RELATIONS OF BK. V. TO THE N. E. AND THE E. E. xxv 
 
 quod solum iam superesse videri poterat, una cum hac quaes- 
 tione absolvatur:" but for my own part I cannot allow that, 
 when the author says 'two matters included in our programme 
 have still to be spoken of,' he means 'it remains to consider 
 in connection with another diropia a case upon which we have 
 already pronounced judgment.' 
 
 In brief, as I read the passage, 9 § 8 promises an answer 
 to two questions, the second of which has been mentioned 
 incidentally in § 4 : § 9 shows that the two questions must 
 be kept separate: §§ 10 — 13 discuss the former of them. 
 Thus, that the argument may be complete, it is necessary that 
 9§ 13 should be immediately followed either by 11 §§ i — 6 
 or by a paragraph to the same effect; and as there are other 
 grounds for supposing that the concluding pages of the book 
 have been disarranged (to say nothing of other disturbances, 
 the last paragraph of ch. 9 being, not an "epilogus qui totam 
 disquisitionem de iustitia proprie sic dicta concludit," but 
 rather a fragment or fragments of a preliminary investigation 
 of justice in general), I unhesitatingly accept the former of 
 these alternatives. 
 
 One other point in Fischer's argument summarized above 
 remains to be noticed. He thinks that, whereas the conclud- 
 ing chapter exhibits the prolixity and the weakness which 
 are characteristic of Eudemus, cc. i — 10 are worthy of Aris- 
 totle. It is always difficult to decide whether a given work is 
 worthy of its reputed author, and especially in such a case as 
 this, where the other claimant confessedly borrows both his 
 style and his matter. I propose therefore to modify the ques- 
 tion which Fischer here raises, and to inquire, not whether the 
 fifth book (exclusive of ch. 11) is worthy of Aristotle, but 
 whether it is consistent with the Nicomachean treatise. Now 
 as to the style my own opinion is in complete accord with that 
 of Munro, who holds that "the style of this book, last chapter 
 and all, is precisely the same as that of the other two, and of 
 the undisputed parts of the Eudemian Ethics." In regard to 
 the substance of the Jjppk, I am not of course bound to show 
 
xxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that it is wholly unaristotelian (as I may fairly assume that 
 the Eudemian and Nicomachean accounts of justice were 
 related to one another in precisely the same way as the Eude- 
 mian and Nicomachean accounts of the other virtues, i.e. that 
 in general they agreed), but only that if any matter about 
 which the two treatises are at variance is raised in this book, 
 its doctrine is that of the E. E. If no such matter is raised 
 here, Munro's theory does not necessarily fall to the ground : 
 on the other hand, if it can be shown that, in dealing with any 
 question, V. agrees with the E. E. in differing from the N. E., 
 this will be a strong reason for believing that V. does not 
 belong to the latter. Now N. E. III. and E. E. II. differ, not 
 inconsiderably, in the detail of the theory of the eKova-iov and 
 the cuioiffiov, and it will be found on examination that V. 8 
 agrees, in the minutest particulars, with the Eudemian state- 
 ment: thus (i) the distinction made in N. E. III. i § 13 
 between ovx eKovaia and aKovaia is ignored in E. E. II. and in 
 N. E.v.S; (2) the view taken in iV. ^. v. 8 § 3 of ■jroXKa twv 
 (f)i/ffei inrap'X^ovTcov, olov to yripav ^ dirodvTJaKeiv, that they are 
 ov6^ eKovcria ovt aKovaia, is in exact accord with the state- 
 ment made in E. E. il. 8 § 4, about the upward motion of the 
 flame and the downward motion of the stone, 2ti ov ^ia, ov 
 firjv ovB' eKovcria XiysTai, aXk' dvoovvfioii rj dvTideai<;, whilst 
 N. E. III. 5 § 7 seems to indicate that the author of the N. E. 
 had no such distinction in his mind ; (3) in N. E. v. 8 and in 
 .£". .£■. II. 10 § 19 prominence is given to the legal classification 
 of iraO'qiJMra as aKovaui, eKovaria and ck Trpovola^, which does 
 not appear in the N. E.; (4) in v. 8 § 8 ra Bia 6vfj,6v are 
 included amongst oaa et'Scos fJ-ev fj-rj Trpo^ovKevaa'i Be, a classifi- 
 cation which is at any rate not inconsistent with the doctrine 
 of the E. E. (cf E. E. ll. 9 § 3), whilst in N. E. in. i § 14 it is 
 expressly stated that 6 6pyi,^6fievo<! is ovk etSm? dw' djvowv. 
 I select these trifling instances of agreement and difference 
 merely because they are capable of precise formulation ; but I 
 think that any one who takes the trouble to compare JV. E, 
 v. 8 as a whole with the last chapters of E, E. II. and the first 
 
RELATIONS OF BK. V. TO THE N. E., AND THE E. E. xxvii 
 
 chapters of N. E. III., will find the impression grow upon him 
 that N. E. V. and E. E. II. are, and that N. E. V. and N. E. III. 
 are not, the work of the same author. 
 
 For my own part, in proportion as I have become more 
 familiar with N. E. V.=E. E, iv., the more certain I have become 
 that, whereas its agreements with the rest of the N. E. are 
 precisely what are to be expected from the general resem- 
 blance of the two treatises, its agreements with the rest of the 
 E. E., both in thought and in expression, indicate a more 
 intimate connection. 
 
 One other argument is put forward, though cautiously, 
 by Fischer : " in E. E. VII. 1 5 § l we read Kara /j,epo<; fj,ev 
 ovv irepl kKa(TTrj<; dperrji eiprjjab irpoTepov' iirel Be ;\;i»/)i? BieiXo- 
 fiev rrjv BvvafLiv avTwv, Koi irepl t^? OjOer^? SiapdpeoTeov tjjs e'/c 
 TovTcav, fjv EKoXovfiev rjBr] KoXoKayadiav. The concluding 
 sentence of this extract tells us that the word KaXoKayadia 
 has been used in some previous part of the E. E., wher-^as it 
 is nowhere to be found in the extant treatise. The most 
 likely place for its occurrence would be the book about justice. 
 Hence the surviving discussion of justice, in which it does not 
 appear, must belong not to the Eudemian, but to the Nicoma- 
 chean work." To this argument Munro replies: — "But surely 
 the word was more likely to have been mentioned in some one 
 of the lost portions of this last book in which he treats of this 
 virtue and its end and aim the right worship and contempla- 
 tion of God." I think however that exception may be taken 
 on other grounds. Apparently Fischer assumes that ^'St; in 
 the phrase fjv iKaXov/iev rjBr) KaXoKoyaOiav is equivalent to 
 irporepov. Is this possible.? I should have thought that the 
 phrase must mean, not 'which in a previous passage we called 
 KoKoKayaOia,' but either 'which down to a time otherwise 
 determined,' or 'which from a time otherwise determined, we 
 called KaXoKwyaOla.' I suspect therefore that in place of 
 e/caXov/iev we should read KoKovfiev, and translate — 'whereas 
 we then distinguished the functions of the several virtues, we 
 must now proceed to investigate the virtue which arises from 
 
XXVlll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 their conjunction, which virtue we now [i.e. in this form] call 
 KoXoKoyaO La.' If so, the argument falls to the ground. 
 
 At this point it will be convenient to say something about 
 a recent development of the theory of the Eudemian author- 
 ship of the three books. Grant, in his first edition of the 
 Ethics, published in 1857, has accepted and justified Munro's 
 theory, and in his second and third editions, published in 1866 
 and 1874 respectively, has made considerable additions to his 
 chapter on the subject. In the second edition he hints a 
 doubt whether the corresponding portion of the Nicomachean 
 work was ever written, and in his third edition he seems 
 decidedly to incline to the view that the Nicomachean work 
 was left incomplete, and that the compiler of V. VI. Vll., "not 
 having before him any written exposition of this part of Aris- 
 totle's ethical system," "borrowed directly from other works of 
 Aristotle's, such as the Politics and the Organon." At any 
 rate, he thinks, "at the time when Aristotle wrote what were 
 to be the concluding paragraphs of his treatise, he had not 
 written the middle portion of the Nicomachean Ethics," and 
 he "does not hesitate to pronounce a belief that the words "as 
 has before been said in the Ethics' in Politics II. ii. 4 and III. 
 ix. 3 " [which might seem to show that Aristotle had himself 
 "by his own writing filled up the lacuna"] "are, in each case, 
 the interpolated addition of either an editor or a copyist." 
 
 It will be convenient to examine first the evidence which 
 Grant brings forward to prove that "Aristotle had not written 
 the middle portion of the Nic. Eth., at the time when he 
 wrote what were to be the concluding paragraphs of his trea- 
 tise." His argument is as follows : — 
 
 "That Aristotle, in summing up what he thought might be 
 considered a complete ethical system, should have specified 
 the leading topics of Books I. — IV. and VIII. — X. of his trea- 
 tise, and should have omitted any mention of the subjects 
 dealt with in Books V. — VII., seems a strong argument to 
 prove that, at all events when he was writing Book x., he had 
 not written the disputed middle books. Another argument 
 
RELATIONS OF BK. V. TO THE N. ET AND THE E. E. xxix 
 
 in the same direction is, that while the three concluding books 
 of the Ethics refer abundantly to Books I. — IV., they never 
 make a single reference to Books V. — Vll., though there was 
 much opportunity for their doing so. For instance it seems 
 peculiar that in all which is said about justice in Book Vlll., 
 there should be no allusion to the discussions of Book v., and 
 that contemplation {Oecopio) should be treated of in Book X., 
 without any recapitulation of what was said of the nature of 
 Philosophic Wisdom {ao^ia) in Book VI. That the treatise on 
 Pleasure could have been written as it stands at the beginning 
 of Book X., if Aristotle had previously written that other 
 treatise on the same subject for what was to form Book Vll. 
 of the same work, is utterly impossible." 
 
 I proceed to consider these three arguments in their order. 
 
 Firstly, is it true that Aristotle "in summing up what he 
 thought might be considered a complete ethical system omits 
 any mention of the subjects dealt with in Books V. — Vll."? 
 The summary in question is to be found in X. 9 § i: ap 
 ovv el irepl tovtcov [sc. evBai/jLovia<;} Kal twv dperav, en Se Kal 
 ^i\('a? Kal ^Soi/^9 iKavw'i eiprjrai rots tvitok;, k.t.\. Cf also 
 X. 6 § I. Grant assumes that the phrase irepl twv apermv 
 represents the subject-matter of II. — IV. to the exclusion of 
 that of V. VI. ; whereas it is obvious that the phrase includes 
 the subject-matter of V. {irepl SiKaioa-vvt}';) and VI. (irepl rmv 
 SiavorjTiKwv dperSv) as well as that of II. — IV. (vepl twv 
 aXKwv dperwv). Thus Aristotle has not "omitted any men- 
 tion of the subjects dealt with" in V. VI. In fact, if the 
 Nicomachean equivalent of V. VI. had not been written, surely 
 Aristotle would have avoided, instinctively or deliberately, the 
 assertion that the virtues had been adequately treated. It is 
 true that there is no mention of the subject of vil.: but the 
 omission is not one which need surprise us. These summa- 
 ries enumerate, not all the matters discussed in the treatise 
 (else why is to exovcnov omitted.'), but only so many of them 
 as bear directly upon the subject of cc. 6—8, in which the 
 dvdpwTrivov drfodov is determined more precisely than was 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 possible at the outset of the treatise. Now it is obvious that 
 the theory of iyKpareia and a/cpaa-ia, and that oi rjpmiKr) dperr) 
 and OrjpioTTj'i, are not directly connected with the subject of 
 these chapters. Hence the silence of the two summaries is 
 no proof that Aristotle had not written the equivalent of VII. 
 I do indeed suspect, for reasons which I need not mention 
 here, that Eudemus in the extant VII. treats this part of his 
 subject at greater length than Aristotle had done, but this is a 
 very different thing from saying that the corresponding Nico- 
 machean book was never written. On the whole then the 
 unqualified statement that 'the dpeTul have been adequately 
 discussed ' seems to me to indicate that Aristotle had already 
 formulated his views about justice and the intellectual virtues: 
 certainly it does not prove that he had not done so. 
 
 I pass on to speak of Grant's second argument. "The 
 concluding books," he says, "never make a single reference to 
 Books V. — :Vli." In particular he desiderates in Vlil. some 
 allusion to the theory of SiKMoavvrj, and in X. a recapitulation 
 of what had been said about a-o(J3ta. But is he right in assum- 
 ing that there are in Vlll. IX. no allusions to the theory of 
 justice? To say nothing of other passages in vili. IX. which 
 seem to show that Aristotle had made up his own mind about 
 questions dealt with in v., such passages as N. E. vlll. 7 § 3 
 {pv"^ ofLoiax; Se to Xcrov ev re toi<; BiKUioi^ koI iv tj] ^iXla 
 i^aiverai e'^eiv eari yap iv fxev rots BiKaloii Xaov 7rpuiTa)<i to tear' 
 d^iav, rb Be Kaja iroaov BevTepa><;, k.t.X.) and IX. I § I (ev tto- 
 o-flt? Be Tats dvofJbovoeiBecn ij)i,\iai<; to dvdXoyov lad^ei Kal aco^ei 
 TrJD <pi\iav, KaOdirep eiprjTai [sc. VIII. 13 § l], otov Kal ev ry 
 TToXiTiKf) Tw {TKVTOTOfia) dpTi Twv {nroBrjfj,dTa>v dfioi^rj r^iveTat 
 KaT d^iav, Kal rw v^avTrj Kal toZ'; XofjroZsi) seem to show, not 
 only that he had elaborated the theory of commercial justice, 
 but also that it was already familiar to the reader. Again in 
 X. 7 § I we read — rj roirov [sc. toO dpicnov, etVe vow tovto etre 
 dWo Ti b Brj Kara <f>va-iv BoKel ap'^eiv, «.r.\.] evipyeia KarcL rrjv 
 oiKelav dpeTrjv eHr) dv rj TeXeia eiiBaip-ovia, on S' earl 6ea)p7)riKr), 
 e'ipTfrai. Nowhere in the acknowledged Nicomachean books 
 
RELATIONS OF BK. V. TO THE N. E. AND THE E. E. xxxi 
 
 has it been said that the ivifyyeia of our noblest and best part 
 is 6£a)pr]TiKij. Certainly not in i. 13 § 20 or i. 5 § 7, the 
 passages quoted hesitatingly by Grant in his commentary, 
 since I. 1 3 § 20 is a statement that some dperai are SiavoTjTiKal, 
 others rjOiKui, whilst I. 5 § 7 is a purely anticipatory declara- 
 tion, and anticipates, not the statement on rj rov dpia-rov 
 evipyeia Kara Trjv oineiav dpervv 6ea>pr]TiKij i<mv, but the con- 
 clusion to which it leads us, that r} reXeia evSaifwvia is to be 
 found in the OecoptjTiKoi; ^lo<s. The reference then is to the 
 missing books, and it is obvious that the remark in question 
 would naturally occur in the investigation of the SiavoTjnKai 
 dperai. If it is asked how it is that we find no such remark 
 in the extant VI., the reason is not far to seek. With Eude- 
 mus it is not Oewpla, but KoXoKayaOia which is the centre of 
 the system : hence in the investigation of the intellectual vir- 
 tues he has no occasion to say that jJ tov dplarov ivipyeia 
 Kara, rfjv olxeiav dperrjv BempryrtKri ia-riv, whilst it would be 
 strange indeed if the author of the JV. E. had neglected the 
 opportunity of making a remark which has so important a 
 bearing upon his main argument. In fact x. 7 § i seems to 
 me to prove that Aristotle had already written the middle 
 books of the Nicomachean treatise, and at the same time to 
 indicate that N. E. VI. = E. E. V. is not one of them. 
 
 Thirdly, Grant remarks that "the treatise on Pleasure 
 could not have been written as it stands at the beginning of 
 X., if Aristotle had previously written that other treatise on 
 the same subject for what was to form Book vii. of the same 
 work." This is of course perfectly true; it does not however 
 prove that Aristotle had not written the middle portion of the 
 N. E., but only that N. E. \U. = E. E. Vl. differs in some 
 respects from the corresponding (lost) Nicomachean book'. 
 
 If then Grant fails to prove that, when Aristotle wrote the 
 concluding books, he had not written the middle portion of the 
 
 1 In fact here, as in some other places, Grant seems to confound the two dis- 
 tinct questions, 'Had Aristotle, when he wrote N. E. x., already written the 
 middle portion of the treatise?' and 'Had Aristotle, when he wrote N. B. x., al- 
 ready written N. E. v. vi. vii. =E. E. iv. v. vi. I' 
 
xxxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 treatise, the presumption is, in the absence of evidence to the 
 contrary, that Aristotle completed his account of the moral 
 virtues, and discussed the intellectual virtues, before he pro- 
 ceeded to treat of friendship in Vlll. ix., and to sum up the 
 results of the whole treatise in X. If the theory of the intel- 
 lectual virtues had been unimportant, we might have imagined 
 Aristotle deferring it to a more convenient moment: but as it 
 is, it is the very keystone of the system. It is noticeable that 
 Grant, who endeavours to explain how Aristotle came to 
 defer the consideration of justice, does not attempt to show 
 why he set aside the consideration of the intellectual virtues, 
 a far more important matter. 
 
 Finally, Grant asks "Did Aristotle himself ever fill up by 
 his own writing the lacuna which he had left in his Ethics.'"' 
 and he would answer this question in the negative, on the 
 grounds that "the remarks on Retaliation in the Ethics [v. 
 v. 6] have all the appearance of being a development and 
 improvement of those in the Politics" [li. ii. 4], and that Nic. 
 Eth. V. iii. 4 " discusses the Law of Distribution in States 
 (though a purely political question) with additional refine- 
 ments beyond what we find in the Politics" I am not pre- 
 pared to allow that the doctrine of the passages cited from 
 the Ethics is an advance upon that of the passages cited from 
 the Politics: but even if it were so, Grant's point would not 
 be proved; for, if, as he and I agree in supposing, V. VI. and 
 VII. belong to the E. E., the appearance in these books of 
 refinements upon the doctrines of the Politics does not prove 
 t"hat their Nicomachean equivalents were never written, but 
 only that the Eudemian treatise was written at a later date. 
 Finally, it must not be forgotten that Grant by his own con- 
 fession is obliged to suppose that at least two references to 
 the Ethics have been interpolated in the Politics. 
 
 In brief, I hold with Munro that V. vi. and Vll. were 
 written by Eudemus, and are related to a lost portion of the 
 Nicomachean treatise in precisely the same way in which the 
 rest of the E. E. is related to the rest of the N. E. 
 
HGIKON NIKOMAXEION E. 
 
HBIKilN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 I Tlepl Se SLKaLocrvprj<; Koi dStKias crKenTeov, vepl iroia? 
 
 re Tvyvdvovcriv ovcraL irpd^as, koX voia fiecroTrj'i ecrrtv 
 
 § 2 ^ ZiKaioavvrj, koX to hiKaiov tlvcdv fiecrov ' tJ Se o-/cei/(is 
 
 T^fuv ecTTft) Kara ttjv avTrjv fxidohov Tols irpoeipyjixevoL'S. 
 § 3 opcofiev Si) TToivTa's ttjv ToiavTrjv e^iv fiov\ofjievov<; s 
 XeyeiV hiKaiocrvviqv, d<j)' '^s TvpaKTiKoX tcov StKaCov clal 
 Koi d(j)' 175 hiKOLLOTrpayovcri koX /SovXovTai, rd Strata * 
 Tov avTov Se Tpoirov kol vepl dStKtas, d(^' 1)5 aSiKoucri 
 Kol fioxikovTai Tot dSt/ftti Sto /cat ij^iitv Trpcorov ws ev 
 
 9 § 14 TUTTw vTTOKeicrOoi) ravra. < ot S' av9poiTroi i(ji eaiirots 10 
 otovrai eti'ttt ro dSi/ceii', Sto /cat to St/catov eo'at paSiov. 
 TO S' ou/c ea-TLV crvyya'iaOai fiev ydp rfj tov yeiTovo<; 
 Koi nardiaL tov Trkyjcriov Koi Sovvai Trj X'^'-P'' '''^ dpyvpiov 
 paZiov KoX ctt' auTots, dXXa to cuSt e^ovTas TavTa TTOuelv 
 
 9 § IS ovT€ paSiou ovT hr aurot?. op.oCco's Se /cat to yvavai 15 
 Ta St/cata Kat to. aStKa ovoev olovTat cro(f)6v elvai, OTt 
 Trepi eov ol vo/AOt Xeyouo'ti' ov xaXeirou crvvikvai. dXX' ov 
 TavT ccttI to. St/cata dW 17 /caTa aupL^e^iqKOs, d}0^d ttws 
 TrpaTTop-eva koX ttws vep.6yLe.va St/cata" toCto Se wXeov 
 epyov rj to, vytetm etSei'at, eTret KdKei jneXt /cat ott'ov ^o 
 
 2 re] om. K"". iroi'a] iroio H". 4 faral iffrlv M''Q. 6 a0' ^s irpaxTiKol 
 — aSiKifos] om. Q. 8 rbv — oSi/co] om. K*". 10 ol d' — lidl.] 9 §§ 14 — 16 traieci. 
 ai'ffpuTroi] wSpuTTi M*". &v0puToi di H». 11 t6 S//caioj'] om. M'Q. 12 t4] 
 
 TOUTO C". 13 irardlai] ireird^ai Q. 14 ^^iSioi'] paoc C. ^{i5fws Q. uSi] 
 
 (J! 5ei pr. 0''P^ raCra] raM IC. 19 re/i6/j,€iia] yevo/ieva H''K"'M''Q. Sio- 
 veixojuva O"". 6(/coia] om. M'Q. v\iov\ irXeiov O"". 20 ixi\i\ fnh K^ 
 
 olj/oi'] oTvos Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V. 
 
 In regard to SiKaioa-vvr) and dBixia we have to inquire 
 (i) what sort of actions they are concerned with, (2) in what 
 sense SiKaiocrvvr) is a fj.e<r6rrj<;, and (3) what the extremes are 
 between' which to SUaiov lies: and our inquiry shall be 
 conducted in the same way as our previous investigations. 
 
 Now [firstly] we see that all men understand by BiKaioavvrj 
 the e^js which makes men irpaKTiKol twv StKaiav, — that is to 
 say which makes them StKUCOTrpayetv koX ^ovXeadat ra hUaia ; 
 and in the same way by dSiKia, the e^i? which makes men 
 aBiKeiv KOI ^ovkecrdat, ra clBtKa. Wherefore we may ourselves 
 begin by assuming this to be roughly true. [Secondly] men 
 conceive that to dSiKelp rests with themselves, and therefore 
 that to be SUaio'i is easy : but this is not the case ; for though 
 it is easy and rests with ourselves to lie with another's wife, 
 to strike our neighbour, and to give away our money, it is 
 not easy nor does it rest with ourselves to do these things in 
 a given e^m. [Thirdly] men assume in like manner that it 
 requires no special wisdom to discriminate things BUaia and 
 things dSiKu, because it is not difficult to apprehend such 
 matters as are provided for by tlje laws : but it is only kuto, 
 o-ufM^e^riKoi that actions prescribed by law are identical with 
 to, StKuia ; to be BUaia, actions must be done and distributions 
 must be made in a particular manner, and the knowledge 
 required thereto is more difficult of attainment than the know- 
 ledge of what is salutary ; whilst even in matters of health, 
 though it is easy to know what honey, wine, hellebore, the 
 
 I — 2 
 
4 HeiKflN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 /cat iWefiopov Koi Kavcnv Kal TOfi'^v elSivat paZiov, oXka, 
 TTws Set I'etjLtat irpos vyUiav koX tlvi koX vore, toctovtov 
 9 § i6 ipyov ocrov iuTpov etvat. St' avro Se tovto /cat tov 
 St/catov otovrai ehai ovdev ^ttov to dStKetv, ort ou^ei/ 
 "^TTOV 6 StKatos aXXct /cat [xaXkov SvvabT av eKaarov 5 
 irpa^ai tovtcov, kol yap crvyyevicrdaL ywaiKi /cat TraTagat, 
 Kat d dvSpelo's Trjv acrtriha a^etvat Kat crrpa^ets e<^ 
 oTTOTepaovv Tpi^eiv. dWa to SetX.atveti' /cat to dSt/ceti' 
 ov TO TauTa TTOieiv ecTTi, irX'^v Kara, crvp,/3e/37]K6?, dWd 
 to C(5St €)^ovTa ravTa troi^v, (licnrep /cat to laTpeveuv /cat 'o 
 TO Oytd^eti' ou to TefxveLV r\ p-rj Tep-veuu 17 (fiapfiaKeveLV ■^ 
 I § 4 /Ai) ^app^aKeveLV icrCv, dXkd to coSt. > ouSe ydp toi' auToy 
 e)^et rpoTTOP ivL re rdv iwLO-T'rjpwv /cat Svvdp.eci)v /cat eVt 
 Twv i^emv' Swajitts /^e// ydp /cat itncTTripiq So/cei Ttui' ei'aj/- 
 Ttft)v 77 auTiJ etj/at, efts S' 1) ivavria tcov ivavrioiv ov' otov 15 
 a Trj'S Oyteias ow irpaTTerai to. ivavria, dXkd to, uyteti'd 
 p.6vov Xdyofjuev yap uytet^ws fiahit,eiv, OTav /3aSLt,rj ojs di" d 
 § s vyiaivoiv. 7ro\\d/cts jmcv owi' yvapilfiTai rj ivavTua efts dird 
 T-^s evavTia^, TTokXaKi^ Se at egets dTrd tcSz' vTroKeip,€vcov' 
 idv T€ ydp tJ euefta 7y ^avepd, /cat tJ /ca^efta (f>avepd jo 
 ylverai, koX e/c twv cvcktikcov rj euefta /cat e/c TauTijs Ta 
 eue/CTt/cd" et ydp ecrTti' 77 euefta irvKVOTrji; crapKos, dvayKt] 
 /cat T171' Ka^e^lav elvai, p,av6rr]Ta <TapKO<i Kal to eveKTiKov 
 
 § 6 TO TTOLTjTLKOV TTVKVOTrjTO'S iv CrapKC. dKo\ov0€L S' SiS cVt 
 
 TO TToXu, e'dv OaTepa TrXeova^cis Xeyrjrai,, /cat ddrepa irXeo- ^5 
 
 I IWi^opop'] iXi^opov H''K>>L''M''QO''. 3 vff^ai] rfrat K". ivfeioi-] ^TefoK 
 
 H». TToVe] irorepov H". 3 laTpbv] larpoS K*". Si' a^To] Sii toi5t6 K*". 
 
 4 oVi oidhl Sti oix 'KPV^. 8 t4 post xai] om. K'^LT''. 10 uSi] (5Se 
 
 K*'?''. TToiei;'] om. MbQ. 11 v p.ii T^piueiv] om. N^. ^ p,ii (pap/M- 
 
 Keiciv] om. O*. 12 0*5^] othe KP. oi Ml>Q. 15 ivavHa] airi) H^ 
 
 oil] S off Pl>. 16 dwh — irpaTTeraii ^ oir-); etyai M^Q. dTrA] iirA ?>>. 
 
 17 iyiewfis] t6 iyiavas M^Q. 6] om. M^Q. 20 ei5efJa] eiila 0\ eido^la 
 
 Q. 21 eie^ia] ei^la OK Kol—eieKTiKd] om. M''Q. eiieKTi/cffli/] 
 
 eileKTiKwc eieKTucux LI". 23 eli-ai jxavliTTtTa aapKis] fiavdrriTa aapxhs elmi M^ 
 
 24 t6 ante TroHji-i/ciy] om. H^'M^'Q. 25 earepa] Barepov H>. ffarepo] 
 
 Bdrepov H'. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V9 §§ 15, i6: I §§4—6. 5 
 
 cautery, and the use of the knife are, to know how, for. 
 whom, and when, we should apply them with a view to 
 health is no less an undertaking than it is to be a physician. 
 [Fourthly] on the principle stated above, men assume that 
 the BUaia can dBiKelv as easily as BiKaioirpajelv, because he 
 can do any particular dSiKov as easily as any particular 
 BiKaiov, if not more easily, — for example, lie with a woman, or 
 strike a blow, — and the brave man can let go his shield and 
 take to flight in this direction or in that : but SeiXaiveiv and 
 dSiKeiv consist, not in doing these things (except kuto. a-vfi^e- 
 /St/ko?), but in doing these things in a particular eft?, Just 
 as the practice of medicine or healing consists, not in 
 using or not using the knife, in exhibiting or not exhibiting 
 medicines, but in adopting either course on particular 
 [i.e. scientific] grounds. The fact is that sciences and facul- 
 ties differ from efet?: for a faculty or a science is admitted 
 to be the same for contraries, but one of two contrary e^et? 
 does not deal with the matter of the other : for example, 
 unhealthy things cannot be done with a healthy e|t?, but 
 only healthy things, for we say a man walks healthily, when 
 he walks as a healthy man would. 
 
 Hence [as a faculty or a science is the same for contraries, 
 though a eft? is not,] sometirnes one of two contrary efet? 
 is known from the other, and sometimes the efew are known 
 from things which are appropriate to them : for example, 
 if we know what good condition of body is, we hence know 
 also what bad condition of body is, and from things ap- 
 propriate to good condition we know what good condition 
 is, and from good condition, what are things appropriate to 
 it ; thus if good condition is firmness of flesh, bad condition 
 must be flabbiness of flesh, and that which is appropriate 
 to good condition that which produces firmness in flesh. 
 And it follows in general that if one of the correlatives is 
 used in several senses, the other is used in several senses 
 
6 HeiKflN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 va^ws \iyecrdai, oXov ei to SiKatov, /cat to oZi^kov Kai 17 
 § 7 aSt/cia. lotKe Se Trkeova^a'i Xdyea-dai t) Si/caiocrui'iy /cai 7) 
 aStKta, aX.Xa Sta to avveyyvs elvab Trjv djLiww/Atav avTwv 
 XavOdvei koI ovx atcnrep iirl tSv voppo) StjXr] jxakXov' 
 7) yap Siacjiopa ttoXXt) 17 Kara ttjv Ihiav, otov on /caXeiTat 5 
 /cXeis 6ficovvfJi6t)s 17 Te vtto tov av^^eVa twj' ^cocoj' Kai y Tas 
 § 8 dvpas KkeCovcnv. eikrj^Ooi 81) d a8tK09 Tro(ra)(co? Xeyerav. 
 SoKel Se o Te TrapdvofJiO'; aStKOS eXvai /cai d TrXeoveKTfj's 
 [_Kal 6 avLcro's]. Sxtt^ SijXov on kol 6 8t*caios ecrTai o Te 
 vd/Aijuos fat d to^os. to p,ev SCKauov dpa to vop-ifjiov /cat to 10 
 icroi', TO 8' dStKov TO Trapdvop^ov koX to avicrov. 
 § 9 ETret Se Kai TrXeoveKTfjs o aStKos, Trepi TayaOa ecrTai, ov 
 TrdvTa, dXkd Trepl Sera evTv^Ca Kai aTu^^ta, a eo-Ti peu 
 aTTAws aet ayaoa, tlvl o ovk aei (01 o avapoiiroi TavTa 
 ev-^ovTai Kai SiciKovcnv' Sei 8' ov, dXX' ev-^eaOai pkv rd is 
 dvXoi's dyadd koI auTots dyaOd elvaL, alpelcrOai Se Ta 
 9§i7ai5T0ts dyadd') <.e(TTL Se Ta St/cata ev tovtois oTs p,eT€a-Tt 
 Twv aTrXws dyadcHv, €)(ovcn 8' vvep^oXrjv Kai eA.Xett/'ti'" 
 Tots ju.ej' ya/3 ou/c ecTTtv vnepfioXrj avrSv, olov icrws Tois 
 deoL's, Tots S' ovOeu popiov a^iXipov, Tots avtaTws /ca/cot?, 20 
 aXX,a rrdvTa fiXdiTTCi, tois Se fiei^i tou" Sta tout' dvdpco- 
 1 § 10 T7Lv6v icTTLv. > d 8' ttSiKOs ou/c aet TO TrXeov alpelTai, 
 dXXa Kol TO eXaTTov im tc3v aTrXws KaKcoV dXX' otl SokcI 
 
 I ei] e/ /cai H'. S/raiox Ka! t6 (SSiKoy Ka! ^ idixla] tf>. &S1.K0V Kai ^ iSiKia 
 
 £•>?>=. 5//i:aio«/ Kai t4 &Sikov H='M''QN1'0'' Beiier. 2 SiKMoaipti koX ij idida] 
 
 SLKcuo<r6vr) Kai dSifcia ?•>. dbula Kai r] SiKaiodiv-q ]VI''Q. 3 aiveyyvi] aiiv- 
 
 €yKvs NK 4 \av9dvei,] \av6dvew IW^Q. 5 rj ante /card] om. L''. 
 
 6 /cXeis] K\e?s K'^L''. o/iwi/ii/tus] 6/it6i'i;/iOs !<.••. 8 5^] re O''. 
 
 9 6 dnns] adiKos K.K 10 6 ante iaos] om. K^. ju^i,] om. TJ'. 
 
 II 5'] om. K.K 12 S^] 7ip H^Ni^. /cai] om. K'>M''QOi'P''. vrepi] 
 
 /coi Trepl FK Tdvaffa] rd7a«a Si K\ (arai, oi v&vTa] oi irdpra 
 
 lirrai P\ ov irdvra (omisso ivrai.) 'KP. 13 eirvxia Kai irvxt-a] eirvxlai. Kai 
 
 drvxlai "LK 17 i<TTi.—iaTLv'\ 9 § 17 traieci. 18 djrXfis] aw\Civ il\ 
 
 S" post Ix"""''] 5i /cai H''M>'QNi=P''. /cai aXen^ii-] ^j/ roiirocs /coi fK\u\l/Lv 
 
 H»M''QN''P'' Bekker. /col IWet^j/iv ii> toijtois O^. 19 oiJ/c] om. K"*. tois 
 
 ante fleois] om, H^'M^'Q. 20 u0Ai|ao(/] uxpiXi/iov olov H^Mi^Q. ividras] 
 
 Kb. dwdrois H^ dcidrois /col Li'MbQNbQi'Pi'. 21 Trd^ra |3Xdjrrei] /3Xci7rTei 
 
 ird^TO C". 23 dXXd] ora. Ml^Q. dirXus] dn-Xffl;' H". 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V I §§ 6—9 : 9 § 17 : i § 10. 7 
 
 also : for example, if to Bikmov, then also ro dSiKov and ij 
 dSiKla. Now it appears that the terms BiKaioavvr] and dBiKia 
 are used in several senses, but their equivocation escapes 
 detection in consequence of the close connection of their 
 equivocal uses, whereas in the case of things widely different 
 equivocation is comparatively obvious : thus the difference 
 is considerable if it is one of shape ; for example, the equi- 
 vocal use of the word wXet's for the bone beneath the neck 
 in animals and for the instrument with which we lock our 
 doors. We have then to ascertain in how many senses we 
 speak of o dSt/co<;. Now it is generally assumed that the 
 term dBitco^ is applicable both to the violator of law (irapd- 
 voiJLo<;) and to the grasping man {■jr\eoveKTrj<i). Hence it is 
 plain that the term BiKuto's will apply both to the law-fearing 
 man {v6fiL/Mo<;) and to the equal man (t'o-o?). To Bmmov then 
 includes to v6/j,tfj,ov and to taov, and to aBiKov, to irapa- 
 vojjLov and to dvitrov. 
 
 And since the dBcKo<; may be TrXeoveKTr]^, he will be so 
 in respect of goods ; not all goods, but those on which good 
 fortune and bad fortune depend, which goods, though always 
 good aTrXft)?, are not always so tivl; — ([not seeing this] 
 men pray for these goods and seek them ; whereas they 
 should rather pray that to. dir\oo<s dfyadd may be good for them, 
 and choose those things which are good for them :) — and 
 BUaia of this sort subsist among those who participate 
 in TO, d'n\(o<i dyaQd and can have too much or too little 
 of them : for there are those who cannot have too much of 
 them, (I mean of course the gods,) and those, (that is 
 to say the incurably bad,) who cannot derive benefit from 
 any share [however small], all goods being harmful to them, 
 and again those to whom such goods are beneficial within 
 limits : wherefore the sphere of to BUmov is human society. 
 But the aSiKo^ does not always choose the larger share ; in 
 the case of to, oTrXcS? kuku he chooses the less: nevertheless 
 
8 H@IKON NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 Koi TO [leiov KaKov dyaOov Ira's ^voll, tov o ayaoov ecTTLv 
 
 § I1 17 trKeove^ia, Std tovto hoKei TrXeoveKTTjs etvai. eaTL o 
 a.vLcro<s' TOVTO yap Trepiep^ei /cai kolvov. Kai napavofjio^' 
 TOVTO yap [tJ irapavofiia tjtov t] avicroTT^sJ irepie^et vacrav 
 dSiKiav Kal KOLVOV ecrri Trdcrr)'; aoi/cia?. 5 
 
 § 12 iirel S' d irapdvop^o's a8iK05 rjv 6 Se vdjatjLi09 St/caios, 
 S17X01' OTi irdvTa to. voft-ifid icrTL 776)9 BiKaia' ra Te 
 yap (opLcrfJieva virb Trj'S vopLodeTiK^s vop-ifjid icxTi, koI 
 
 § 13 £Kaa-Tov TOVTCov BiKaiov elvai (jia/jiev. ol Se vop^oi dyo- 
 pevovcTi irepX dirdvTcov, aT0)(al,6fi€V0L rj tov Kouvfj crvp.- 'o 
 <f)epovTo^ TToicnv, [^ rots a/Dtcrrois] 17 Tots KvpiOLS 17 /car' 
 dperfjv yj /car' aWoi' rii'a Tponov toiovtov. wcrre iva 
 jxev TpoTTOv SiKaia Xeyofiev to. ttoit^ti/co, Kcti <f)vXaK- 
 TLKo, evBaip.ovia<s koX twv jxopiwv aur^s Trj voXiTLKy 
 
 § 14 KOLvcovCa' TTpocTTdTTeL S' o vofios Kal TO. tov dvSp€LOV '5 
 eyoya voLeiv, otov fiT] XeCireiv ttjv Td^iv p/qhe <j>eCyeiv- 
 jj/rjBk piTTTeiv Ta onXa, koI ra tov crci<f>povo<s, otov p/fj 
 pot,)(evei,v pyjS" vjSpC^euv, Kal to. tov irpdov, otov prj tvttt€i.v 
 py]Se KaKTjyopeiv, 6poio)<; Se Kal to, KaTO, rocs aXXas dpeTo.? 
 Kal po^6r)pia<s, to. p,kv KeXevcjv to. S' dirayopevcDv, opdco? ^° 
 
 § 15 p.€v 6 Keip^evo^ opOas, ')(€ipov 8' 6 aTrecr^eStacr/ie/os. avTrj 
 p,ev ovv iQ SiKratocrwiy dpeTrj piv ecrri reXeia, aXX' ov^ 
 aTrX&Js aXXd irpo's cTcpov. Kal Bud tovto ttoXXcikis KpaTia-Tr] 
 Tav dpeT(ov elvai BoKel yj SiKaLoo'vinj, Kal ovff eicrircpos 
 ovd" ewos ovTO) davpacTTO?' Kal irapoipialppevoi (jtapev 25 
 
 I /xelov] HTj K'^Pt'L'". ToO — eXvai] om. L''. ii!Tlv\ om. O''. 2 ttXco- 
 
 vejia] irKeov^la O*". 3 KoX vapdvo/ios — iSidail om. K'' Bekker. Tapd- 
 
 mp-os] ircLpdvopov H^. 4 i) post ^roi] om. M^'QO''. 7 xdrra ri i'6/tijua] 
 
 ret vbpApa wavra H*. Triii^a ydfiipu (omisso tol) N''. ^trW] ^(7Tat M^Q. 
 
 Ta re] raSra M''Q. 11 ^ ante kot' d/)eT7j»] om. K''Li> Bekker. kot 
 
 dperV] om. K''. 13 Si'/cam] SiKaia /i^x Q. I4 ciiSai/Joi'/as] t^s siSaip.ovlas 
 
 C" Bekker. 16 XeiTreii/] Xiirtiv K'>L''M*'QP''. 17 t4 toO ird^poros] a toO <ri6- 
 i^poi-os H*. 19 KaK-nyopeiv] KaTiryopiiv M'>QO''. /cai rd /cord] Ll". to! 
 
 ra N''. Kal Kurd H'^K''M'>QOi'Pi' Bekker. dXXas] om. P^ 20 ipffffis 
 
 ante p.y\ opdii Mi'Q. 21 X^pH Xe'/""" L^'M^'Q. ciVij] raiViji 'K>'P^. 
 
 23 dXXa post d7rX&] suprascr. L^ 25 ii^os\ im N''. olirta eavp.a<rT6s] ovre 
 
 davpaarbi/ N*". Kai] Stb aaX L''M''Q. Trapox.p.ia^op.fvm'l '"Oipdiiiua^biidioi Nl". 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V I §§ lo — 15. 9 
 
 because the lesser evil is admitted to be in a manner a 
 good, and irXeove^ia is concerned with what is good, the 
 ahiKo<s who so acts is therefore thought to be irXeoveKTrjv. 
 And he is dviao'; ; for this is a comprehensive term which 
 includes ifXeove^ia. Further he is Trapdvo/j.o'; ; for this is a 
 term which includes all dBixia and applies to it without 
 exception. 
 
 And since the ■n-apdvofio^ is, as we have said, «S(a;o?, 
 and the v6fj,ifji,ov, SUaiot, it is plain that all vofiifia are in a 
 sense Sixaia; for v6fii/ji,a are the determinations of vofioffe- 
 TiK'q, and we acknowledge that each of the determinations 
 of vofjboOeTiKri is hUaiov. Now the laws pronounce upon 
 all subjects, endeavouring to hit either that which is for 
 the common interest of all, or that which is for the interest 
 of the governing class whether its position is determined 
 by merit or in some other similar way. Hence in one 
 sense we call things BUata which produce and secure hap- 
 piness or the parts of happiness for the political community. 
 But the law also enjoins conduct characteristic of the brave 
 man, — for example, not to desert one's post, not to run 
 away, not to throw away one's arms, — conduct characteristic 
 of the temperate man, — for example, not to commit adultery, 
 not to assault with violence, — conduct characteristic of the 
 gentle man, — for example, not to strike, not to speak evil, — 
 and similarly with the other virtues and vices, enjoining some 
 things and forbidding others, the rightly established law 
 doing this rightly, and the extemporized law with less 
 propriety. 
 
 Hence this sort of BiKaioa-ivr] is perfect virtue, yet perfect 
 virtue not dirXwi but in relation to one's neighbour. And 
 for this reason Bikmoctvvt) is often thought to be the best 
 of the virtues; neither the evening nor the morning star, 
 it is thought, is so wonderful : indeed we use the proverb. 
 
10 HeiKflN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 iv Se ZiKaioavvTj crvWijfiSrjv iraa-' ape.Tr] evi. 
 KTekeia 8' icrTlv> dpeTrj on ttjs reXeias dpcTrjs XPW^"^ 
 icTTL, < Koi Teketa /iaXto-ra > on d Ixcuz^ aurijv Koi tt/qos 
 CTepov SvvaraL rfj apery •^(pyjcrdai, aXX' oi5 p^ovov Kaff 
 avTov' TToXkol yap iv pev rots ot/ceiois t^ ^P^tTj hvvavTai s 
 
 § 1 6 -^rja-Oai, iv Se rots ttjOo? erepov dSwarovaLU. Kal Std 
 TouTo eu SoKel e-^eiv rb rov BiavTO?, otl dp)(^ dvSpa Setfef 
 
 § 17 77-p6s erepov yap Kal iv KOLVOvCa yjSr] 6 ap)((ov. Sid Be to 
 avTo TovTO Kal dhXorpiov dyadov SoKei elvat rj BiKaiocr'vvr] 
 povT) TcHv dpercov, on tt^oos erepov ecrnv' aWco yap rd 10 
 
 § 18 <rvp(j)epovTa irpdrrei, rj dp^ovrt rj kolvcovS. KaKicrro's p,ev 
 ovv o Kai rrpo^ avrov Kal Trpos rovs ^tXous '^(poipevo^ rfj 
 po-)(drjpia, apucTTOs S' ou;y ° 'npb<; avrov rrj dperfj dXX' 6 
 
 § 19 Trpos erepov' rovro yap epyov 'yakeTrov. avrrj pev ovv ■») 
 SiKaLOcrvvr] ov p.epos dperrj<i dXk' oXrj dperij ecrnv, ouS' t) 15 
 
 § 20 ivavrCa doLKua p,epo<; Ka/cias dXX' oKr) KaKia. n Se Sia- 
 (j)epei tJ dperrj koi rj SiKaiocrvvr) avrrj, BrjXov e/c TCiIi' elprj- 
 p.evci)v' ean pev yap -q avrrj, to S' elvai ov to avTO, dXX' 
 ^ pev Trpos erepov, Bu<aLocrvvr), y Be roudBe efts awXai's, 
 dperrj. 20 
 
 2 ^rjTovpev Be ye rrjv iv pepet, dper'^g BiKaiocrvvrjv' ecrn 
 yap Tts, OS (f>apev. 6poL0)<; Be Kal rrepl dBt,KLa<; rrj<s Kara 
 § 2 pepos. airjpeiov B on eanV Kara p.ev yap rd's dWas 
 po)(9rjpCas o ivepycHv dBiKei pev, vXeoveKrel B' ovBev, olov 
 
 I 5^] om. Ml>Q. a-vW'qpSrjv] irvX'/iPSrii' 'NK li/i] iim MPQ. 2, i TeKela 
 5' iaTlv et koX reXela fiaXiffraJ e coni. transposui. Tc\ela 5' iaTh] TeXrio 
 
 S' iper-f; i<mv H». 6.piTTi Sk reXela iirrlv Mt'Q. 3 Kal reXek] koX t^Xos H*. 
 
 6V1 ante 6] ora. K''. Trpbn] irph W'. 5 tJ a/)67-J 5uvavTaC\ SivaPTM ry 
 
 apery O"". 6 xprjiTeaC\ xPV''Sai. dXX oi5 fibrnv xaB' aMv M^. 7 apx>i\ 
 
 dpxd U>MPqNbO^. ti„Spa] rbv avdpa N^O^P^. 8 vpis] Trpos 
 
 irpbs TJ'. di& Si rb airbj Sia rb airo Si MPQ. it wpbs ante toi>s] 
 
 om. M^'Q. 13 airbn] airrbv fjivov H". dXX' 0] dXXi ICL'^M'^QP'' 
 
 Bekker. 15 dXX'] dXX4 koL Wq_. 16 dSi/cta] Kada K^. Ka/ck] 
 
 d3i/££a Kb. tI 5i'\ n N^. 17 avrr,] air^ K^. om. Qb. ' 19 ^ ^^y] 
 
 Q. ii ijiv ceteri, SiKaio(ri);»7;] ^ SiKatocrdi'ri Hi'K''L''N''P''. ■g si] ii Si 
 
 HaKi'LbObpb. ,1 ^e] om. M^Q. 2. «q om. Lb. dgidas] rij, 
 
 dSiKias Qb. T^j] cm. MbQ. 24 6 ante ivepyuv] cm. Kb. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics V I § I 5 — 2 § 2. II 
 
 'and in SiKaioarvurj all virtue is contained comprehensively.' 
 And it is perfect virtue because it is the practice of perfect 
 virtue — and perfect in a special sense because he who pos- 
 sesses it can practise his virtue towards another and not 
 merely in himself : for there are many who can practise their 
 virtue in their personal affairs, but are unable to do so in 
 their relations to another. And for this reason the saying of 
 Bias is generally approved, that ' office will show a man,' 
 because the officer is ex hypothesi in relation to others and 
 a member of a community. And it is for this same reason 
 too, viz. because it implies relations with another, that Sikulo- 
 avvT) alone of the virtues is thought to be the good of others, 
 as it does what is to the advantage of another, that other 
 being either a ruler or an associate. Hence the worst man 
 is one who practises his vice in relation to himself and in 
 relation to his friends and not merely in relation to his 
 neighbour, and the best is not one who practises his virtue in 
 relation to himself but one who practises it in relation to 
 another : for this is a work of difficulty. This sort of Sikmo- 
 (Tvvq then is not a part of virtue but universal virtue, and 
 the contrary aZiKia is not a part of vice but universal vice. 
 How virtue and this sort of Si/caioamT] differ, is plain from 
 what has been said : for though they are the same, their ehai 
 is not the same, the e^t? viewed in relation to another being 
 Biicaioa-vvrj, but viewed airXm as a certain e^ts, virtue. 
 
 What we have to investigate is the SiKaioa-iv?] which is 
 a part of virtue; — that there is such a SiKaioavvr}, we as- 
 sume ; — and in like manner particular aBiicia. Of the ex- 
 istence of particular dSiKia, we have the following evidence : 
 one who exhibits the other vices in action dSiKet lih irXeov- 
 eicrel S' ovSev ; for example, one who throws away his shield 
 
12 HOIKflN NIKOMAXEIfiN E. 
 
 d pC^as TTjv dariruBa Sta SetXiav ■^ /ca/cws eiTTCJV ota ^aXeTTo- 
 TTyra '^ ou j3orjOT](ra<s ^ijfiaa-i, Si' dveXevdepCaV orav Be 
 TrXeoveKTrj, TroXXct/cts /car' ovBefJuCav Tcav tolovtcov, aXXa /atji' 
 ouSe Kara irdcra'i, Kara irovrjpiav Se ye Tim {^iyoiiev ydp) 
 
 i 3 /cai KaT aSiKiav. ecrriv apa ye aXX?; tis dSiKta ws fiepoi 5 
 Tijs oXijs, Kai aSiKw Ti eV p,epeL tov oXov aoi/cou tou Trapa 
 
 i 4 TOV vojjiov. €TL £1 o ju.ci' Tou KepBaivew eveKa fjLou^evei Kat 
 TrpoaX.afJi^dvmv, 6 8e irpocrTidei'i koX ^ij/iioujutevos Si' c'tti- 
 dviLiav, ouTos ju.ei' a/cdXacrTos Sd^eiei/ ai' eivai p^aWov 7) 
 TrXeove/cTiys, e/ceti'09 S' aSi/cos, aKoXacTTOs S' ou* BrjXov apa lo 
 
 i 5 OTi Std TO KepSaCveiv. eri nepl [lev ToTXXa irdvTa dSi/cij- 
 fxaTa yiverai •>) hrava^opa, iirC riva p^o'^Oiqpiav aei, oioj' ei 
 e/Aoi^euo'ei', eV dKoXacriav, ei ey/caTe'Xiire toi' TTapaaTdrrjv, 
 eiri oeiKiav, ei eTraragev, ctt opyrjv ei 6 eKepoaveu, etr 
 
 i 6 ovBefiCav fio^drjpiav dXX' 17 c'tt' dZiKiav. c3crTe (ftavepov is 
 oTi ecTTi T19 dSiKia Trapd ti}i' oXiyj^ dXXrj ei' /Aepet, crvvco- 
 vvfJiO'S, OTL o opL<TfJiO? iv Tw avTw yivcL, afj,(f>ci) yap iv t(o 
 TTjoos erepov i)(ovcri, ttjv hvvap.LV, dXX' ij )u,ev Trepi Tip/qv tj 
 XpyjP'OiTa Tj (TOJTTQpCav rj ei TW'i ej^oi/iev ei'i ovojxari, Trepika- 
 ^elv TavTa irdvTa, koX Si' ijSonJj' tijv diro ToC KepSous, >? 20 
 Se 7re/3i diravTa irepl otra d airouSaios. 
 
 i 7 OTI ju.ei' oui/ etori Sijcaiocrwai TrXeious, Kai oTi ecTTi tis 
 /cai irepa Trapd ttjv dXiji' dpertqv, S^Xoi'' tis Se Kai TTOia tis, 
 
 i 8 XrjTTTiov. hidpicTTai Sij to dSiKov to Te irapdvop.ov koX to 
 
 1 6 ante pf^os] om. M^JQ. ^ Kaicffls] ^ 6 /caicws H^N^pb. 3 aWh, iit]v 
 
 01)5^] o'XXd /iiji' a\X' oMJ M''Q. 4 ^4yoiJi,a> ydp] om. H^ ^eyonhriv M^^Q. 
 
 5 ciSon'ac] dSiKlav ^eyb/ievoi H». a/ja 7e] apa ye P''. (J/)(£ ye N^". ipa (omisso 
 7e) O". 7dp K*'. aUi) tis] tis aXXi; Mi'QO''. iUpoi\ f^pos n Li=M''QN''0''Pl'. 
 7 In] in Ki>. ^Ti U O^. fiotx^ieL] /loix^ioi N^. 8 irpoa-Xafjifidvav] K}>. 
 
 rpoffXafi^dyei H>L''M1>Q. ■rparXafj.pdvot N'=0''P''. 9 Bifeiei/ ax eTKoi /taXXoi'] 
 
 B6^eicv av iiSXKov elvai C". /toXXoc Sifeiei' eTi/ai P^". yaaXXoc 56{ei eirai K''. 
 
 13 ^yKOTAiTre] iyKariXefn-e M^. iyKariXotve Pb. 14 ^ir<iTo|ej'] S' iirdra^en 
 H^KbLbjSfbobQ. 17 4] om. M^Q. 18 9 X/oi^MaTa] ^ /cai xp-n/^ara 
 L^MbQ. Kol xpiJitoTo Qb. 19 9 (raTriplav] /cai curriplav MbQ. 20 toO] 
 om. Qb. 2 1 Trepi aTroi-To] Trepl Trdrro Kbpb. om. MbQ. 22 5i/caio<riJi'ai] oZ 
 SiKatoffivai Kbpb. ^^„ om. O^ 23 /cai ante ^t^/jo] om. Qb. rlil om. 
 H». TTofa] TToia Q. oTroia H». OTTOwi N*. iitola Bekker. 24 5j;] 5^ 
 H'KbMbQ. Tc] om. MbQ. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 2 §§ 2—8. 13 
 
 through cowardice, or speaks evil through illnature, or re- 
 fuses pecuniary aid through illiberality ; but when a man 
 TrXeoveicTy, it often happens that he exhibits none of these, 
 certainly not all, but yet a sort of vice, (for we censure 
 him,) which vice is called dBt/cia. Hence there is besides uni- 
 versal dBiKia another sort of dBiKia which is a part of 
 universal dSiKia, and an dSiKov which is a part of the uni- 
 versal dBiKov which consists in the violation of law. Further 
 if one man commits -adultery with a view to gain and earns 
 money by it, and another from desire at his own cost and 
 to his own loss, the latter would appear to be intemperate 
 rather than ifkeoviKTr)';, the former dhiKO'i but not intempe- 
 rate: thus it is plain that gain is the motive of particular 
 dBiKia. Again in the case of all other dSi/c^fiara there is 
 always the further reference to some particular depravity ; 
 for example, if a man commits adultery, to intemperance, if 
 he abandons his comrade, to cowardice, if he strikes another, 
 to anger, but if a man derives gain unjustly, to no particular 
 depravity besides dSiKia. Hence it is plain that besides 
 universal dSiieia there is another sort of dBiKia which is 
 particular, a-vvwvv/io<; with the former because the defini- 
 tion has the same genus, both being occupied with a 
 man's relations to his neighbour, but whereas the one is 
 concerned with honour or property or safety or that, by 
 whatever name we may call it, which comprehends all these, 
 and is actuated by the pleasure derived from gain, the other 
 is concerned with everything with which the virtuous man 
 is concerned. 
 
 Thus it is plain that there are more kinds of BtKaioa-vvr} 
 than one, and that there is another kind of BiKuiocrwrj besides 
 the universal virtue so called : we must now ascertain the 
 genus and the differentia of particular BiKaioawrj. 
 
 Now two kinds of dBiKov have been distinguished, viz. to 
 ■rrapdvofiov and rb dviaov, and two kinds of BUaiov, viz. ro 
 
14 HOIKflN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 avLcrov, to Se hiKaiov to te v6[n,fiou (cai to lctov. Kara 
 {xev ovv TO vapdvofjiov >) nporepov elpyjfJLemf) aoiKta €crTi,v' 
 § 9 en-ei 8e to avurov kolL to irapdvofjuov ov ravrov a\\ erepov 
 65s p-epo? Koi okov (to p,kv yap dvicrov airav TTapavojxov, to 
 Se TTapdvopiOv oi^ dirav dvicrov), Kot to aoLKOV kol tJ 5 
 aStKta ov TavTo. dX)C erepa eKeivav, to. p-kv cos pdpr) to. 8' 
 &!s oXa, (pepo's ydp avrrj t) aSifcia t'^s oXi^s aSi/ctas, 
 opoLcog 8e /cai 17 SiKaLocrvvr] tiJs St(catocrut''>7S,) — cScTTe 
 Trepi TTjs ei' /(iepet SiKatocrvi^r^s Koi irepl ttjs ev ju.€jpei aSiKtas 
 
 § 10 XeKTeov, Kal tov SiKauov koI tov dBiKov axrwuTOis- 17 pev 'o 
 ow Kara, ttjv oXtjv dperrjv rerayp^evr] Si.Kaiocr'uvr) kol 
 dSiKua, Tj p.ev tijs oXijs dpeTrjs ovcra •^rjo'i's irpos aXkov, rj 
 8e T)js Ka/cias, dipeCcrOci). koX to SCkulov 8e Acai to dBuKov 
 TO KttTa TaxJTas <j}avep6v ojs oiopicrTcov' cr)(eB6v ydp rd 
 TToXXa Twv vopipayv to, aTTO tt^s 0X175 aperyj<; irpaTTopevd 15 
 icTTiV Kaff eKda-Trjv yap dpertju TrpoardTTU t^rjv /cat Ka^' 
 
 § II eKdiTTrjv po-^drfpiav Kcokvec 6 vopos' rd Se Troir/TLKd tijs 
 0X175 a/aeTTjs cotti twi' vopip<av Sera vevopodeTiqTai irepl 
 iraiBeiav ttjv tt/dos to kolvov. vepl Se tijs Ka^' CKaa-Tov 
 TraiSeias, /ca^' 17V ctTrXcSs az^i^/O dyado? iaTL, iroTepov tijs^o 
 TToXtTtKT^S icrrlv 17 eTepas, vcrrepov BcopicrTeov ov ydp taws 
 TavTW dvSpC T dyaQ& etvai /cat ttoXitij iravTi. 
 
 § 12 Tijs 8e /caTct p-epo^ SuKaLoavvrj? Kal tov KaT avTrjv 8t- 
 Kaiov iv p.€v icTTiv eTSos to ez' tcws Stai'OjLtats Tt/A-^s 17 
 
 I tJ S^-— ri fcro!'] om. M^Q. 2 /i^i" oux] om. liP. Tpdrepov] Trporipa, H^. 
 3 Th ante ^i^iffop] tw N^. 3 iTapdvop,ov\ Tapdvofiov irXiov K^P^. om. H**. irX^ov 
 LbjjbQjjb Bekker. irXtiv {irapdi'op.ov corr.) O''. 4 Kal] Kal vphs K''. 7r/)6s 
 
 jjaLbNi=0'=Pl' Bekker. irphs rb W'Cl. rb phi ydp dvurov avav irapdvop.ov, 
 
 rb d^ irapdvop-ov oix d-jrav dvLirov] rb p.kp ydp dviuov dirav Trapdvofiov^ rb 5k Trapd- 
 vofwv oix dirav dvuroV rb p.lv ydp {Kal rb p^p yi^Q) ir\4ov dirav aviaov, rb S' dvurov 
 oi irdv (oix «Ta»' M^Q) ir\iov M'>QO''P''. rb p.iv ydp irKiov dirav dvurov, rb S' 
 dvtffov oi irdv ir\iov H°K'>L''N'' Bekker. 6 P-ip^i] p.ifoi H". 7 ydp\ S M''Q. 
 
 8 (iVre] (is K*". ii's N''. (Sore Kal M''Q Bekker^ 9 irtpl post koX] om. C". 
 
 10 TOV ante ctSiKou] om. lOP''. 13 5i] om. Mi^Q. 14 raiiraj] airdi L''. 
 
 Trdi/T-as M". 7a> rd] yti> « M^. 7a/) toi Q. 15 t^ ante ctTrA] om. 
 
 M^Q. irparibpeva] wpraTrdpeva margo O''. irpo(rTaTT6/ieva pi^ et corr. K''. 
 
 16 TpoffTaTTCt] irpoffrdTTeiv Q. 20 ir6Ty)0v] irdrepa Q. 22 iroXirj;] iroXi/Ti; Nl>. 
 23 TOV Kar avTijv diKatov] tov Kara Ta&njv Bmalov K>. SiKalov tov Kar avTijv U". 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics V2 §§ 8— 12. IS 
 
 vofiifiov and to ta-ov. Hence, whereas the dSiKia spoken of 
 above is coextensive with ro irapdvofiov, since to aviaov and 
 TO nrapavofiov are not identical but different, being related 
 as part and whole, — (for to aviaov is always Trapdvo/iov, but 
 TO irapdvoiiov is not always uvlctov,) — and consequently the 
 aSiKa and dBtKiat belonging to them are in like manner not 
 identical but different, the dhiKov and the dSiKi'a belonging 
 to the one being parts, and the dBiKov and the dBiKia be- 
 longing to the other being wholes, — that is to say, the 
 dStKia of which we are speaking being a part of universal 
 dSiKia, and in like manner the SiKaioa-vvrj of which we 
 are speaking, a part of universal Si/caioa-vvrj, — we must now 
 investigate particular SixatoavvT} and particular dBiKia, and 
 the particular BIkmov and the particular aSmov in like 
 manner. At this point then we may dismiss the SiKaLoavvr}, 
 coextensive with universal virtue, which is the practice of 
 universal virtue towards another, and the correlative dScKia 
 which is the similar practice of universal vice. And it is 
 obvious how the ZUaiov and aStKov which correspond to 
 universal Sixaiocrvvrj and dBiKia are to be determined : the 
 great majority of the acts directed by law are the acts 
 which spring from universal virtue, the law commanding us 
 to live in the practice of each particular virtue and forbid- 
 ding us to live in the practice of each particular vice, while 
 those provisions which have been made by the legislature 
 with regard to the education which fits a man for social life 
 are means to the production of universal virtue. As to that 
 particular education which produces simply a good man, we 
 must hereafter determine whether it falls within the scope of 
 political science or of some other : for it would seem that 
 it is not in every case the same thing to be a good man 
 and to be a good citizen. 
 
 But of particular Sikmoo-i/vt) and the SUaiov connected 
 with it there are two sorts: one which is exhibited in dis- 
 
i6 HQIKflN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 XprjiJi-OLTcov ■^ Tcjv akXojv oaa fiepLcrToL Tois kolucovovctl rij? 
 TToXireias {ii> toutois yap ecrrt kol avca-ov ^X^''^ '*"''' ''^'^^ 
 erepov eripov), ev Se to iv Tot's crvvaWdyfiaa-i hiopOoiTiKov. 
 
 ■3 TovTov Se ju.e/Di7 Suo* twv yap a-vvaXkayp.a.Tav to. p,kv Ikov- 
 crtd icTTi TO. B' dKoxKTia' eKovcTM p-kv to. ToidSe oTov irpS.a-t's 5 
 avrj Saveicrpo? iyyvrj xp'^aLs irapaKaTadyjicrj picrdcoa-L'S, 
 eKovcna Se Xeyerat, ort 17 dpx^ tcov o-vvaWaypaTcov 
 TOVT(ov CKOucrtos' TCJV S' aKovcTLCDv TO, p€v Xadpoia, oiov 
 kXottt] poix^ia. ^app^aKeCa vpoayciiyeCa SovXaTraTLa SoXo- 
 <f)0VLa xpevBopapTvpCa, to. Se /Siaia, otoj' ai/cta Secrp6<s 10 
 
 3 OdvaTO? dpTTayrj ttij/dwo'is KaKqyopla TrpoTnjXaKLo-po'S. ivel 
 
 T aoiKos avKTOs Ktti TO aoiKov avicrov, orjKov ort Kai 
 § 2 pecrov Ti ecTTL tov dvCcrov, tovto S' ecrrt to icrov' iv oiroCa 
 
 yap irpd^et eitrTt to irXiov koI to eXaTTOv, ecrTt jcai to 
 § 3 icrov. et ovv to dScKov dvicrov, to St/catot' lo-oi"* oVep Kai 15 
 
 dvev Xayov BoKel irda-iv. iirei Se to i<tov picrov, to BiKaiov 
 § 4 p€(Tov Tt az' etTj. eo-Tt Se to icrov iv eXa^icTois Bvcrtv. 
 
 avdyKT) Toivvv to Si/catoi' pecrov tc Kal ro-oi/ eivat Acal 
 
 TT/aos Tt, /cat ^ /iej/ pecrov, to/cHv {javra. S' eo-Tt irXeioi' 
 
 Kai eXaTTOv^, 1) o tcroj' ecrrt, ouoti', rj be oiKaiov, tlctlv, ■20 
 § 5 dvdyKiq dpa to StKatoi/ iv eXa^tcrrots etvat TeTTapcrvV ots 
 
 re yap ZiKaiov Tvyxdvei ov, Suo ecrrt, /cat iv ots, [ret 
 § 6 Trpcty/Aara,] Swo. /cat t) avri) ecrrat icr()Tij9, ots /cat ei' " 
 
 ots' ws yap e/ceti'a e)(et, ourcu /ca/ceti/a e)(et* et yap nt^ 
 
 1 Kowavovffi] Kou/ovai N''. 4 /i^pi; Si)o] jci^/itj clal Sio h\ Sio iiiprj M^. 
 (rvvaWayixaToip] diiKijuaTm/ K''L''M''QP''. 5 ii,kv ra] ij,h yap rd L''. 8 
 To&riav] om. M''Q. 9 wpoayayda] vpoayuyla L''N''QP''. vpoaayayla K*" et 
 ((T eraso) H'. Soi/Xairoria] SoXoTrarfa K*. BouXaTrarij H^ 11 Kom^Yopfo] 
 Kar-riyopia N''0''. 13 OTolg,] oirota H^ 14 irp&^a effn] earl irpd^ei P*". 
 ?irTi t6 ttX^o;-] om. (hiatu relicto) H^. 15 rb dSiKov] om. (hiatu relicto) H'. 
 Sirep — ■nS.aai] om. M''Q. 16 SoKei Traaiii] SoKovaiv H". /i^ffoK t6] jdaov 
 Kol Tb Hi'M'^Q. 17 n dv] av n K'-Oi'P^ 18 Kal vpbs n] V. Kal nffl 
 Kal irpbs n H''N''0''P''. Kal Turlv &. Koi vpis n Kal tlsIv W>Q. [koI Trpbs n] 
 Kal Turiv Bekker. 19 raCra] to, V^. irXeioc] vKiov L''. 20 ^ffri] 
 om. K'". 23 iarai, iffiTijs] Mrris larai V^. la&nis (omisso ?(rroi) K''0''. 
 24 ?x"] ^o' Q- ^X^') oiiTw] K''. ?x« '■^ iv orsj oi'Vw ceteri et Bekker. ii.t] 
 fffoi] aviaoi O*". 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 2 § 12—3 §6. 17 
 
 tributions of preferment, property, or anything else which is 
 divided amongst the members of the community, (for in 
 such matters shares may be either unequal or equal,) — and 
 another sort which rectifies wrong in the case of private 
 transactions. This last sort has two subdivisions: for some 
 transactions are voluntary, others involuntary; such transac- 
 tions as selling, buying, lending at interest, pledging, lending 
 without interest, depositing, letting for hire are voluntary, 
 being called so because they are voluntarily entered into, 
 whilst of involuntary transactions some are furtive, such as 
 theft, adultery, poisoning, procuring, enticement of slaves, 
 assassination, false witness, others violent, such as assault, 
 imprisonment, murder, rape, maiming, slander, contumelious 
 treatment. 
 
 Now since the dBi/co^ is aviao<;, and to oZlkov, dviaov, it 
 is plain that there is a mean belonging to to avia-ov. This 
 mean is to i<rov; for in any action which admits of to irXiov 
 and TO eXoTTOv, there is also to 'iaov. Hence (i) if to dSiKov is 
 dviaov, TO BUatov is t'croj/; a view which commends itself to 
 all apart from argument. And (3) since to laov is a jMeaov, to 
 SUaiov will be a /leaov. Again (2) to la-ov subsists between 
 two terms at the least. Hence to hUaiov must be a fiiaov, an 
 'i(rov, and Trpos ri (relative): and inasmuch as it is a fiiaov, it is 
 between certain extremes, which are irXeov and eXaTTov re- 
 spectively; inasmuch as it is an laov, it concerns two things; 
 inasmuch as it is SUaiov, it is relative to certain persons. 
 It follows from this that to Bl/caiov implies four terms at 
 the least; for the persons, for whom a distribution is SiKaiov, 
 are two, and the things, of which distribution is made, are two : 
 and if the persons are ia-oi, the things will be laa; since as the 
 one person is to the other person, so is the one thing to the 
 other thing, for if the persons are not ^doi they will not have 
 
 J. 2 
 
i8 H@IKON NIKOMAXEIXIN E. 
 
 tcroi, ovK icra e^ovcriv, dW ivTevOev al jiia^at /cat ra 
 eyKkriiiaTa, orav rj icrot ju.^ icra y] [irj lctol icra c)((i}cri, Kai 
 
 § 7 vefioiVTat. CTL e/c tov /car' afiav touto S17X01'* to yap 
 SiKaiov iv rais Siavofxais ofioXoyovcTL Travres Kar aqiav 
 Tiva heZv ■ elvai, rrjv fievTOL d^iav ov TrjV avTrjV \iyov(ri 5 
 TTdvT€<s vwdp^eLV, aXX.' ol fikp SrjfioKpaTiKOi iXevOepiav, ot 
 S* oXtyap^LKol vXovTov ol S' evyeveiav, 01 8' dpuxTOKpa- 
 
 § 8 TiKoi dperiqv. icmv dpa to hiKaiov dvakoyov Ti. to yap 
 dvdXoyov ov fiovov eo"Tt fiovaSiKov dpidfiov ISiov, aXX' 
 oXws dpudfiov' tJ yd/3 ai^aXoyia ictotijs eo-Tt Xoycov, Kat iv 10 
 
 § 9 TeTTapcTLV eXa^icTTOis. '»7 /u.ei' out' Zvrjpr^iLivrj otl iv rir- 
 Tapcri, BrjXov. dXXd koL tJ avve^'i' tw ydp hA, ws Suo^i 
 ^prJTai KoX Sis Xiyei, oXov ws 17 tou irpcoTov TTpos Trjv tow 
 SevTepov ovTco's 17 toC Sevrepov Trpos tijv tou TpiroV ots 
 ow tJ tou Sevripov etpyjTaL' wctt' edv tJ tou oevrepov redfj 15 
 
 10 Sis, TeTTapa earai toL dmXoya. ecrTt 8e fcai to SiKaLov iv 
 TeTTapcnv eXa^io-TOis, Kai o Xoyos o auTOS' BuypyjVTai yap 
 
 11 ojxoCcoi;, ots Te /cal a. eo-Tat apa w? d npcuTo? opos ttjoos 
 Toi' SevTepov outws d Tpiro<i irpo's tw rirapTov, koX evaXXd^ 
 
 I al] i N''. 2 ■? ante ?(roi] om. L^M'^QP''. Kroi /i^j fira] /ir; fo-o fffoi K^. 
 
 om. ?•>. ij] 7) (ol suprascripto) ?•>. ■ifj fiii tcroi iaa] om. L''M''Q. 3 viy-wi- 
 
 Tai] viiiavTM KoX 0! (Ht; ?cro( fffa L*". ?rt] ^ri Kai H^ iari. S' M''Q. toOto — 
 
 Kar d^lap] om. N''. 4 SiaronaTs] vo/j.ats K^'L^'P'' et (suprascripto Sia) O^. 
 
 5 duf elvai] etvai Secv M'^Q. 6 iitrapxeiv] om. O^P^. kclt d^iav riva Setv eTptu 
 &. fih Sri/ioKpariKol] S-qnoKpaTiKol niv H'N''. i\eu8eplav] om. (hiatu re- ^ 
 
 licto) H*. 7 6\tyapxi-Kol ttXovtov] okiyapxiKol dperiiv. '^ffTiv dpa rb dUaiov 
 
 dvaXoyoy ttKovtov N^. ttXovtov — dptffTOKpaTiKol] om. P^, ol 5' dptaro] om. 
 
 (hiatu relicto) H^ 10 i) yap] ij re yap M^'QO''. Iffrl] ns karlv N*". 
 
 \byav] \6yov K'^N^'P''. 11 din] om. PP. 13 XP^™'] X/'iJO'f™' H«'Li'M''QNi'. 
 
 <!)j post ofoi'] om. MPQ. irpdrrov] a L^'M'^QO'". u. Bekker. 14 6cut^|0oii] 
 
 ^ L''M''QOi>. /3 Bekker. jsiruii] om. Mi'Q. ical L''. ouVws Kai H^ Bekker. 
 ovTia Kal PK Sevripov] /3 Li'M'iQO''. ^ ^sMsr. rpfrou] 7 Lt'Ml'QO'=P''. 
 
 y Bekker. i g SeuWpoi^] ,8 LtMi^QOb. ^Bekker. iav] hvYiJ^WO^. ij roO 
 SevHpov Te6-g dls] -q toO j3 xefl?; Sis L''M''Q. -^ toO /3 reSg Ui Bekker. ij toO |8 51s 
 Tidri O^. Th Seiripov Sis refl^ Kl". t6 ^ 61s Tcfl^ Pl>. 16 rirrapa larai] 
 
 Tiaaapa ?<m M''. Tirrapd, i<TTi Q. rirrapa (omisso fcTTai) N''. to] artt N''. 
 
 17 Si^piji/Tot] Siijipijrai KiJQ. Si^pj;roi H^M^'O''. 18 ?<rTai] om. K''. TrpS- 
 
 Tos] d L^Mi'QN''. a Bekker. 19 SeiiTcpoi'] JS L''M'=QN1'0''. /3 .Bi',4&;-. ou- 
 
 Tws] oir'ru Koi Pb. rpfros] y L''M'>QN1'0''. y Bekker. T^rapTov] $ 
 
 L''M'>QN''Ob. S Bekker. koX ivaWa^i—rhajnov] om. Ml'Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics V3 §§6 — II. 19 
 
 t<Ta ; indeed all battles and complaints arise in consequence of 
 
 iaoi having and possessing things which are not laa, or per- 
 sons who are not tVot, things which are ca-a. Again this is 
 plain in the case of to kut d^idv (proportion); for all admit 
 that in distributions to SUaiov should be determined kut 
 d^iav, though all do not acknowledge the same d^la, demo- 
 crats taking as their d^la freedom, oligarchs wealth and 
 sometimes birth, aristocrats excellence. 
 
 Hence to SiKaiov is dpdXoyov ti. For to dvdXojov is not 
 peculiar to numerical quantity, but belongs to quantity gener- 
 ally, dvakoyla being equality of ratios and having four terms at 
 the least. That discrete dvaXoyia has four terms is plain : and 
 so has continuous dvaXoyia; for it treats one term as two and 
 repeats it ; for example, with three lines, as the first term is to 
 the second, so is the second to the third; thus the second 
 term is repeated, and if the second term is so repeated, the 
 dpdXoya will be four in number. And to Bikmov too has four 
 terms at the least, and the ratio of the first to the second is 
 the same as the ratio of the third to the fourth, for the persons 
 and the things are similarly divided. Thus as the first term 
 
 is to the second, so will the third be to the fourth; hence per- 
 
 2 — 2 
 
20 H©IKnN NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 apa, ws o TrpaTO<s vpo's tov Tpirov 6 Sevrepoi; 7rpo<; tov 
 
 rirapTov' acrre Koi to oXov tt^os to o\ov' oirep r] vofirj 
 
 § 12 crvuSvd^eL' koLv ovtcos crvvTeOyj, StKaiws crvvoua^ei. 7] apa 
 
 TOV VpCtiTOV opOV TOJ TpiTCp Kol lj TOV SeVT€pOV TW T^TapTOi 
 
 (Tv^ev^LS TO iv hiavofifi SuKaiov icTTi' koX p^icrov to SiKaiov 5 
 TovT ecTTt TOV TTapo, TO avokoyov, TO yap ava\oyov p^ecrov, 
 
 § 13 TO Se SiKaiov dvdXoyov. Ka\ovcn Se t-^v ToiavTrjv dvoKa- 
 yiav yeayfjLerpLKrjv oi p,a6rjp,aTiKoL ' iv yap ttj yecop^erpiKy 
 (Tvp,/3aivei, Kal to g\ov irpo? to oXov oirep eKdTepov tt/dos 
 
 § 14 EKdTepov. ecTTt 8' ov crvve)(^<; avrr] 17 dvaXoyua' ov yap 10 
 yCveTai ets dpidp.co Spa's, w kol o. to peu ovv SiKatov 
 TovTo TO dudXoyov, to S' dSiKov to Trapd to dvdXoyov. 
 ybVETai dpa to jxev irXiov to Se eXaTTOv. oirep Kal iirl tcHv 
 epyoiv (THju-ySaivei' d p,ev yap dSiKcov irXeov e)(ei, 6 S' 
 
 § '5 dSoKovp.ei'o? eXaTTov tov dyadov. iirl 8e tov KaKov dvd- 15 
 TToXiv' iv dyaOov yap Xoyca yiverai to eXaTTOv KaKou Trp6<s 
 
 % 16 TO ju.ei^oj' KaKOV earTt yap to eXaTTOv KaKov p,dXXov 
 alperov tov p,ei^ovo<s, to S' alpeTov dyadov, Kal to pdXXov 
 [leu^ov. 
 4 TO pev ovv ev elSos tov SuKaCov tovt icTTiv, to Se 20 
 XoLTTOv ev TO BiopOcjTLKOv, o yCvcTat, iv Tots (TvvaXXdyp,aaL 
 Kal Tots eKova-LOL? Kal to2<; dKovcriois. tovto Se to SuKaLOv 
 § 2 aXXo etSos e^et tou irpoTepov. to pev yap Siavep.rjTLKOv 
 
 I TptSros] a L'^Nb. a Bekker. TfiWov\ y L^'N^OT''. 7 Bekker. ante 
 h^vTepot\ Kal 6 N^. Sevrepos} ^ LW'O''. /3 Bekker. 1 riTaprov] S L^N'=0''P''. 
 S Bekker. 3 kcJi/— truj/5ua'fei] om. H^'M'^Q. 4 irpirov] a L''M'=QN''P1'. a 
 
 Bekker. Tplrtp] 7 I^MbQNi'O'^P''. 7 Bekker. Seur^pou] § Li'M''QO'=P'>. 
 
 /3 Bekker. TerdpTcp] 8 V^M^QN^O^V^. d Bekker. 6 tout'— to Si Skaioi-] 
 
 om. M^Q. ToS] Trf H^K'^Li'Pb. xapi] Kard H=. 7&p] fih ylip C. 
 
 8 iia.erifj.a.TiKoX\ ^aflT/TiKoi L^. g to post Trpos] om. Mb. ixarepov post 
 
 oVe/)] SKdrepos H». 10 a!'aXo7fe] d>'aXo7os H^ 11 Spos] opos 0'=. 12 touto] 
 Kal TOUTO Nb. TOUTW KK TO post toOto] om. L^Nb. 13 t^ /ilc t\4ov to] tiS 
 /i^i- ttX^ov TW HaMi'QN^ ttX^oc] TrXeioj- H^Ni'Oi'. i^ tX^op] Tr\e?ovlI^]<lbOb. 
 15 araVaXw] TO duiTToXw O". 16 Xo7i^] X670S H^ to iKarrov] Kal to" 
 
 IXoTTOc H'»M''QNi=. 21 Tois o-i;>'aXXa7/iairi] tou ffwaWdy/iaros H". 22 jcaj 
 
 Tots ^Kouo-Iois Kai TOIS iXKOuo-iois] Kai ToU aKOVtylois Kal T0(s iKovcrlois V. rati e/tou- 
 (r(ois Te Kal aKoviriois Ml^Q. 23 riSos ?x"] ^X« eWos M''. eZSos ^ctI N\ iarl 
 tISoj H^ wpoTipav] irpir^pov Ki>. 74^] om. M^. Scwc/tijTwo)/] Sioi'0M';nKa» N^. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V 3 § 1 1— 4 § 2. 21 
 
 mutando, as the first is to the third, so is the second to the 
 fourth; and therefore also [componendo] the whole to the 
 whole. Now this is the combination which the distribution 
 effects, and the combination is effected SiKaiw; if the di^aXoja 
 are so compounded. Hence the conjunction of the first term 
 with the third, and that of the second term with the fourth 
 is TO SUaiov in distribution : and this SUaiov is a mean be- 
 tween violations of to dvoKoyov, since to dvaXoyov is a mean, 
 and Tu ScKuiov is dvaXoyov. This sort of dvaXojla is called 
 by mathematicians geometrical, for it is in geometrical dva- 
 Xoryia that the whole is to the whole as each to each. This 
 duaXoyla is not continuous, for person and thing do not 
 constitute a single term. 
 
 Thus this sort of hUaiov is to dvdXoyov, and the corre- 
 sponding dSiKov that which violates to dvaXoyov. Further to 
 dhiKov violates to dvdXoyov either by excess or by defect ; 
 and this we find in fact, for 6 dSiKwii has too much, o dSiKov- 
 /j-evoi too little of the good in question. In the case of evil 
 the contrary holds : for the lesser evil in comparison with the 
 greater evil is reckoned a good ; since the lesser evil is more 
 desirable than the greater evil, and that which is desirable is 
 a good, and that which is more desirable, a greater good. 
 
 This then is one sort of SIkmov. The other is the correc- 
 tive sort, which appears in private transactions both voluntary 
 and involuntary. This sort of BUacov is of a different charac- 
 ter from the former one. For, on the one hand the ZUaiov 
 
22 HOIKflN NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 SuKaLov Tav kolvcov del Kara t'^v dvaXoyCav i<TTL TTyi/ eipr]- 
 fi4v7]v' Koi ydp diro ^ijjU.aTwi' kolvcov idv yiyvy\ra,i rj 
 Biavofiy], ecrrai Kara tov Xoyov tov ovtov ovvep e)(ovaL 
 Trpos dXkrjXa to. eia-evexOeura' koL to dSiKOV to avTiKei- 
 
 5 3 fxevov Tw Si/caift) tovtco Trapd to dvdXoyov icrTuv. to o ev s 
 Tots crwaXXay/iacri SuKacov ecTTi fiev tcrov Ti, Kot to aotKOi' 
 dvLcrov, dXX' ov Kara T-qv dvaXoyCav iKeivrjv aXXa icaTa 
 Trjv dpudiMyjTLKijv. ovdev ydp Sia^epet, ei eVtet/cT^s (fyavXov 
 dtTecTTipy^a-ev yj ^avXos eiriet/c^, ouS' et ifxou)(ev(Te.v eiri£tK7/9 
 ■i^ (f)avXo<;' dXXd tt/dos tou ^Xdfiovs tyjv 8ia(l>opdv fjiovov lo 
 pXiirei 6 vojjiois, (fcat -)(prjTai, a5s lo^ots,) et o /Acs' aoiKet 6 o 
 
 ! 4 aS^cetTai, fcai el 6 fiev e^Xai^iev 6 he jSe^XaTTTaL. cocrTe to 
 dhiKov TovTO dvLcrov ov IcrdCeLV Treiparat d SiKaanj'S' Kat 
 ydp OTCLV 6 [lev irXrjyfj 6 Se iraTd^rj, rj koL KTeCvy 6 o 
 dTToddvrj, SiT^prjTai to Trado<; Koi ij Trpd^LS eis avKTO,' aXXa 15 
 
 i 5 TTCipaTaL TTj t,riix,la Icrd^ew, d(f)ai,pcov tov KepSous. Xeyerai 
 yap ojs ciTrXals elireiv eVt tois toioutois, Kav ei p-Xj Ticriv 
 OLKetov ovopa eurj, to /cepSos, olov tw iraTafavTi, kol rj 
 
 i 6 ^17/Aia Tw TraOovTL' aXX' oTav ye fJieTpr^Orj t6 irddo'S, KoXeLTai 
 TO pev ^Tj/Ata TO Se /cepSos. wcrTe rou jnev ttXeioi'os koX 20 
 iXdrTovos to laov peaov, to 8e KepSo<s kol iJ ^rjpia to /Aei/ 
 TrXeov TO 8' eXaTTOv evavTioi^, to pev tov dyaOov irXeov tov 
 KaKov 8' eXaTTOv Kephos, to S' iuavTuov i,rjpCa' Sv 17 v pecrov 
 TO icrov, o Xiyopev eXvai BCKauoV wcttc to iiravopdcoTLKOv 
 
 I SlKawv] om. KTl". tV elpriii.hy]v'\ rwv dpni/ihdiv H^. 2 7£7J'i)Tot] 
 
 ytvrp-cu O^. yivryrai U'. 3 tok ante Xoyoc] om. M^^Q. 4 tt/jos d'XXijXa ret 
 
 elcrefexO^vra] els dWTJXa rd irpoavexd^vTa P^. els dXKrjka irpoirevexO^vTa KP. 5 
 
 irapli.] TO wapd, K''0''. 7 iKelvriv] f^ef IkcIv^ ?■>. 8 ^)ria/cj)s] 6 iinaKTis MPQ. 
 
 ^av\ov\ 0aOXa H^ 9 i.ireiTTip-qae/'] iiroarepijaei C. 0aCXos] d 0aCXo: 
 
 MiJQ. ei] om. N''. 10 irph<\ vpi, KPNK Si.atf>opav'\ i.va<t>opkv M'JQ. 
 
 ixovov p\4Tei\ jSX^Tret /i6i'oi' K.i'Pi'. t2 Kai] om. M^^Q. 6 pih ante 
 
 ^/SXa^ev] om. &•> Bekker. /S^^XoTrrai] ^XdirTeTat M''QOt'. 14 mi ante 
 
 KTe/1/5] om. M^QO". 18 efi)] ^ KTb. Sokt) O*. ti?] t6 N^ vard^afTi] 
 iraTa^ovTi H^. 19 oVoy] ore H". 21 Aottoj'os] toD iXdrrovos O^. di 
 
 K^pSos] K^pSos Sk Lfi. 22 jrX^oi'] TrXeroK ?•>. IXarrov ivavHas] IXarrov Kal 
 
 i} l;^pla ri piiv irXiov ri S' fXaTTox ivavrius 0\ 23 ^k] ^ Q. 24 X^o/xey] 
 X^7eTot t6 jaii< H^ 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 4 §§ 2—6. 23 
 
 which distributes public possessions is always governed by the 
 above-named dvaXoyia, — since, if the distribution is made 
 from public funds, it will be in accordance with the ratio sub- 
 sisting between the contributions, — and the dBiKov opposed to 
 this SiKMov violates to dvdXoyov; and on the other hand the 
 BiKaiov of private transactions, though it is ierov to and the cor- 
 responding dBiKov, dvia-ov, is regulated not by geometrical, but 
 by arithmetical, dvaXoyia. For it makes no difference whether 
 a good man defrauds a bad man or a bad one a good one, nor, 
 whether it is a good man or a bad one who commits adultery, 
 so that the law looks only to the degree of harm done, and, 
 treating them as laor, considers whether the one dSiaei and the 
 other dSiKelrai, whether the one harmed, and the other has 
 been harmed. And consequently, this dSiKov being dvicrov, 
 the juror endeavours to equalize it: i.e. when one man 
 strikes and the other is struck, when one man kills and the 
 other is killed, the action and the suffering have been divided 
 into unequal portions, and the juror endeavours to equalize 
 the profit and the loss by a deduction from the former. For, 
 generally speaking, these terms are applied to all such cases, 
 altliough in some they may not be strictly appropriate 
 names, ' profit ' to the striker for example, and ' loss ' to the 
 sufferer: but it is when the suffering comes to be estimated 
 that the act of the one is called ' profit ' and the suffering of 
 the other ' loss '. Thus to laov is a mean between too much 
 and too little, and profit and loss are, contrariwise, too much 
 and too little, or too little and too much, too much good and 
 too little evil being profit, too little good and too much evil 
 being loss ; and as to taov, which is conceived to be hUaiov, is, 
 as we said, a mean between them, to BUaiov in correction will 
 
24 HeiKfiN NIKOMAXEION E. 
 
 § 7 BtKaLOv av eiTj to /J-icrov t,7]fjiLa<s koX KcpSovs. Sto koL orav 
 dfi(j)i,(rl3r)T(>)(TLV, iiTL tov hiKaa-rrjv KaTa(f)evyovcriv' to o 
 cTTt TOV SiKacTTrjv UvaL livai iarlv inl to SiKauov o yap 
 SiKaa-Trj? /SovXeraL etvai, olov hiKat,ov ep^^^v^ov' kolL t^qrovai 
 hiKaa-Trjv jJLecrov, kol Kokovatv evLoi /xeo-tStous, <us la-v tov s 
 § 8 fiea-QV TvxoiCTL TOV SiKaCov TSV^OjxevoL. fJiea-QV apa tl to 
 SiKaiov, elirep Koi 6 SiKacrTTjs. o Se Si/cacrTiJs iiTavta-ol, 
 /cat atcnrep ypap.p/rj's els avicra TeTiJi7]iJ,cv7]<;, <5 to jJLeL^ov 
 TfJiTJiJia TTJ? i^/Aicreias viTepe)(eL, tovt ac^etXe Koi tw ikaTTOvi 
 Tp-yjiJiaTL TTpocredrjKev, oTav Se St^a Siatpedy to oXo^", io 
 § 9 TOTe (fiaalv e)(eLV to, avTav, OTav Xd/SaxTL to tcrov. < ota 
 TOUTO Kai 6vop,dt,eraL ZiKaiov, OTt St)(a icrTiv, coairep av 
 ei Tis etiroi St;)(a(,ov, Kal d StKao-TiJs St^'''''"'''?^' ^ < to S' 
 icroi' fiecrov kcrTL tijs ix,utflvo<; Kai eXaTTOvos KaTa ttjv api- 
 
 § IO 6 firjTLKrjv dj/aXoyiav. > eTTctv yap 8uo icrwi' d(f)ai,pedfj drro is 
 OaTepov Trp6<s ddTcpov Se irpocrTedy, Bvcrl tovtois virepe^eL 
 OaTEpov' el ydp dcfyrjpeOrj jjuev, puTj irpocreTeOiq 8e, evl dv 
 l^ovov vTTepel)(ev' tov p^eaov dpa evl, koX to p-icrov < tov > 
 
 % !i a(j) ov a(f)r]pedrj ivL tovtco apa yv(t)pLovp,ev tl tc dcfieXelv 
 oev diro tov ttXcov €)(ovtos, koI tl TrpocrOeivaL tw eXaTTOv 20 
 eXOVTL- (p p,ev yap to fxecrov VTrepe)(eL, tovto TrpocrdeLvav 
 Set TW eXaTTOv e^ovTL, <w S' vnepe^eTaL, dcfteXelv dvo tov 
 
 % 12 fieyLCTTOv. LcraL at e^' (Sv AA BB TV aXXy^Xats" aTTo T17S 
 AA d<j)r)py]cr6o) to AE, kol TTpoa-KeiaOcii tjj TV to icj) cS 
 
 3 Umi livai'] Uvm 'K>U'M>qN^. iarh—^odXeTai elpai] om. 1<P. 6— 
 
 l/iil/vxof] om. WQ. 5 /ieo-iSwus] /lea-iSUovs (k correcto) JJ'. ixeaiSUriv H:". 
 
 IxeaoSU-qv Mi^Q. 6 Tl] om. M^'Q. g itai] om. K''. AoVroi'i] iXaTTwvi 
 
 Nb. IO -n-podiOriKev] om. Kt>. oVav] ore H». Sioipefl^] ii.Si.aipeB9j Q. 
 
 1 1 Tct oiTTwc] tA aiiroO C. rh airoO LPP^. t6 airoO H^'K^'N''. t6 airb Mt'Q. 
 &o TOiho — Si^"""''^' et t6 5' i<rov — ivaXoylav] e coni. Rassow transposui. 12 a;'] 
 yhp &v y>. om. Mi'Q. 13 cq om. Ri^. £^01] eifTri; H^ to S' 
 
 fo-op] om. N*. 14 ^ueifocos /cal ftoTTOTOs] iXarrovos Kai /iel^ovos M^. 16 toi;- 
 
 Tois] TOiouTOiJ O''. 17 edrepovj KP. ri irepov ceteri. AcpxipiS-ri] atpaLpie-ri 
 
 H». i.<pai.peerj MPQ,. irpoaeTidri] TpodTeBij U^Q. i^i (£,] ^^f ^> j, 
 
 MbQ. 18 fiimv] pJivif Lb. toO] e coni. Zell inserui. 19 Te] om. K^ 
 
 20 ttX^o;-] irXaov M'JQ. irpoa-Beti/ai] vpoaTeBrtvu H'-'V'My'Q^. 21 ^ ^voi/rO 
 
 om. tMIbQ. 23 al i<f,' H if iSv al WQ. 24 i^rip^aea] d0ai/)7i(rfl(o (?) 
 
 M^-. dip'ripelaea Q. d^aipafffiu Hs'LbO''. a4>i^ipr]Tai K»>. wpocrKeljeu] wpbv- 
 KUTai K*". {)] C. w;/ ceteri et Bekker. 
 
[niccimachean] ethics V4 §§6 — 12. 25 
 
 be the mean between loss and profit. And this is the reason 
 why when men dispute they have recourse to the juror: to go 
 to the Juror is to go to rb hUaiov; for the juror is supposed to 
 be a personification of to BIkulov, and men resort to a juror 
 as to a mean, (some indeed calling jurors fiealBcot,) on the as- 
 sumption that if they hit the mean they will obtain to hUaiov : 
 TO BLkmov is therefore a mean, seeing that the juror is one. 
 Now the juror restores equality, and, to illustrate the matter 
 by a line divided into two unequal parts, takes away that by 
 which the greater segment exceeds the half of the whole line 
 and adds it to the lesser segment. When the whole has been 
 divided into two equal parts, men say they 'have their own', 
 both having now got to "kjov. And this is the reason why 
 BUaiov is so called, because it is 8i;^a (equally divided), just 
 as though one should call it hi'^atov, and [similarly] the 8t- 
 Koari]^ is a Bi'x,aa-T'^<;. Here to laov is an arithmetical mean 
 between the greater and the lesser lines. For when of two 
 equals a part is taken from the one and added to the other, 
 the second is in excess by twice the amount of the addition, 
 since, if the part had been taken from the one but not added 
 to the other, the second would have exceeded the first only 
 by once the part taken away; so that the greater line exceeds 
 the mean by once the part taken away, and the mean exceeds 
 the segment from which a part was taken by once that part. 
 By this process then we sha.ll ascertain what we ought to take 
 away from that which has too much, and what we ought to 
 add to that which has too little: we must add to that which 
 has too little that by which the mean exceeds it, and take from 
 the greatest that by which the mean is exceeded. Let the lines 
 AA', BB, CC be equal to one another: let the segment AE 
 
26 HQIKXiN NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 TA, (uo-re oXt? tJ AFP t^s EA virepexei tw TA Kat Tw TZ" 
 T^s a/3a BB ra TA. [lo-rt Se /cai eVl tc3v aWwv rex^'wi' 
 to€to" avrjpovvTo yap av, ex p-rj iiroCeL to ttolovv, /cai oaov 
 Kal olov Koi TO TTaa-xpv, evacrx'^ tovto kol ToaovTov Kai 
 \iiToiovTov.^ IkrjkvOe. Se rd 6v6p,aTa TavTa, 17 re ^rj/Ata s 
 Koi TO Kephoi, CK T^s eKovcj-iov aXXay^s" ro /x.ej' yap irXeov 
 ex^tv ■^ ra eaurou KepBaCveLV Xeyerai, to S' eXaTTOv tcov 
 ef apx'?' ^^jiAiouCT^at, orov eV t&J mvelcrOaL Kat iroiKeiv Kai 
 \ 14 eV ocrois aXXois aSeiav eScoKev 6 v6po<s' orau Se /A77Te irkiov 
 pr]T ekaTTOv ak}C avToL St' aurwi' yivqTai, to, aiJrwi' (ftaaiv 10 
 eveiv Kal oure ^-qpLovcrdaL ovtc KepSaLveuu. 
 
 wcTTe KepSov? rifos /cat t,rjiiLa<i peaov to Si/caiov ecrrt 
 rajs' TTapd to kKoicnov, ro to-ov ej^eii' Kal irpoTepov Kat 
 vcrrepoi'. 
 5 SoKCi Se Ttcrt Kal ro avTnreTT0v66<i etvat ctirXws BtKauov, 15 
 
 cScrrrep ot Ilu^ayopetot e^acrai'" oipitflvro yap airXco's to 
 
 § 2 hiKaiov TO avTiirenovOo^. to S' avTiTrenovOos ovk €<^ap- 
 
 jU/orret our' cttI to SiavepyjTi^KOv SuKaiov ovt im ro oiopOoi- 
 
 § 3 TiKov' (KatTot ^ovXovTai ye rouro Xiyeuv Kal ro 'PaSa- 
 
 pdv0vo<s StKatov 20 
 
 et Ke TrdOoi to. t epe^e, Sikt^ k' t^eta yeVotro') 
 
 I oX») ■%] 4 o'Xi) C. oXiji' Kb. EA] de P". ry ante TZ] om. Lti. 3 
 tovto] post ^(TTi 8^ supra K^'O^'P''. 7^/3] yn^K 7ip L^*. ■ttoioO;'] ttoio Q. 
 
 offoc] TriffOK K''P*. 4 Koi post oTov] om. M''. toCto] om. 'MPQ. TO<ro5- 
 Tov Kal TOLovTov] Too'ovTo Kol ToiovTo L^. 5 5^] ^^ ^^^^ -H^. TttOra] om, M'^Q. 
 7 ^ouToi?] auTOu O'^P''. ouVoff H^K''. 8 liyeiaBai Kal vaXeiv] Civuadai, koX tiS 
 ■KiaXSv P^ TruXeiv Kal (ivu<rdai H='L''Mi'QN'>. 9 offois] tois liP. ISuksv] 
 SBoiKev K^'O^'P''. 10 airii, Si'] avra St' C. ri Mi>Q. avT(Sv] avTiSv Ni'Pi'Q 
 Bekker. yhryrai.] yivrirt W'. avTUv] airCv HHj^^iyN^V^. (paalv] 
 
 <j>ri<rb> H=. 13 Tuv] tmi K^". tQ H^Nb. tA Mi^Q. irapa] irepl M^iQ. ri 
 ante l<rov] tiS P''. Kal ante Tr/jirepoi'] om. K^'C. 15 dvai, dTrXus] dTrXus 
 
 er^w O''. 16 MffTrep] (is P''. HvSayopeioi.] XlvBa.yopi.oi, lO'. 17 t6 oyTt- 
 
 ireirovdbs — di-Kaiov] om. N^. avTnreirovObs, Tb 5' aPTtTreiroi'^os] avTiiretrovdh^ dKWwt. 
 TO 5' ai^iTreTTOv^os K^. Bekker. dvriTeirovdds aWw, to 5' dvTnreirovdos ovk ^<j>ap- 
 
 flOTTEL ovt' iirl TO VOfUfiOV o{It' ^TTt TO TToXtTtKOy, ToXtTLKOV 5^ X^7W t6 KOiVti)VlKOV. TO 
 
 S dvTiireiropSos P^. 1 8 SiavefiTiTiKov] ve/iijTiKw K^'L^'O^'P''. 19 jSoiiXoi/TOi] 
 
 ^oiXovTO Q. 7e] om. H^L^'N''. 21 e? Ke] el xal KK t'] e coni. scripsi. 
 
 k' codd. et Bekker. Ipe^e] Ippe^e LfiO\ ipii^a N\ SIkv k'] SUij 6' 
 
A' B' C 
 
 A B 
 
 [NICOMACHEAN] ethics V 4 § 12— s § 3. 27 
 
 be taken away from the line AA' and the segment 
 CD [equal to AJS] be added to CC ; then the 
 whole line DCC exceeds EA' by CD and CZ, 
 and therefore BB' by CB. These names 'loss' and 
 ■profit' have come from voluntary exchange: for 
 to have more than one's own is called 'to profit' ^ 
 and to have less than one had originally is called 
 'to lose/ for instance, in buying and selling, and 
 in all other transactions which the law allows: 
 but when men get just what they had at the 
 outset, not more nor less, they say they 'have 
 their own' and neither lose nor profit. 
 
 Thus TO [SiopOeoTiKov] SIkmou is a mean between a sort 
 of profit and a sort of loss in matters which are not volun- 
 tary — the possession of exactly as much after the transaction 
 as before it. 
 
 Some think with the Pythagoreans that to dvTiir6Trovd6<; 
 (retaliation) is without further qualification SiKaiov: for the 
 Pythagoreans defined to Sikuiov without qualification as to 
 avTiireirovdo^. But to avrLire-irovdo's does not accord either with 
 SUaiov in distribution or with hUaiov in correction : — and yet 
 they would have the SIkmov of Rhadamanthus mean this; 'if 
 a man suffers that which he did, right justice will be done:' — 
 
28 H@IKflN NIKOMAXEIflN E, 
 
 § 4 TToXXa^oC yap htajxavel' oTov el dpxvv €)(0)u eirdragev, 
 ov Sei aLVTnr\r)yrjvaL, kol el dp^ovTa evaTa^eu, ov irkrjyyjvaL 
 
 § 5 fJLouov Sel dWd Koi KoX.acrd'^vaL. ert to e.KO'ucrLov /cat to 
 
 % 6 aKovaiov Sta^epei voXv. dX\' ev p,ev rais KOLVoviai'S Tais 
 dWaKTiKaLS (Tvve^et to tolovtov Stycatov, to dvTLTreTTOVuoSt 5 
 KaT dvakoyiav koI pr) kwt icroTTjTa. tw avTiTtoieiV yap 
 dvdkoyov <Tvppeuei rj ttoXis" ij yap to KaKws ^^Toucrtv 
 et Se ju,7j, SovXeia So/cet eTvat, el pr) dvTLTroLTjcrei,' tj to ew' 
 €6 Se pTj, peTdSocn<; ov yLveraL, Trj peraSoaeu Se avppe- 
 
 § 7 vovcriv. Sto Kai ^apuroiu lepov ipiroSwv iroiovvTai, iv lo 
 ai'TaT7oSocrt5 ^" touto yap iStoi' xdpLTO'S' dvOvinqpeT^crai 
 re yap Set tw ■^(apicrapevo), koX naXuv avTov ap^au -^apitp- 
 
 § 8 jjievov, TTOtet Se Tiyv avTiSocTLv ttjv Kar dvaXoyCav tj /caTa 
 Sidperpov cru^evfts. otov otKoSo/xos e^' w A, crKVTOTopo^ 
 iif)' (p B, oiKta icf)' w T, vnoSrjpa i<f>' w A. Set ovv '5 
 Xap/Sdveiv top olKoSopov irapd tov cTKVTOTopov tov eKeCvov 
 epyov, Koi avTOv eKeivta ^neTaStSovat toC avTOu. idv ovv 
 irpaTOv '^ TO KaTa ttjv avaXoyiav icrov, eha to avTurre- 
 TTOvdo? yivTjTaL, ecTTat to Xeyopevov. el Se prj, ovk icrov, 
 ouSe (TvppeveC ovOev yap KwXveL KpeiTTov etvat to darepov 2° 
 
 § 9 epyov '^ TO OaTepov Set ovv TavTa laacrOrjvat. ecrTi Se 
 toCto Kat CTTt Tav aXXav Te)(y(av' avypovvTo yap <av>, et 
 /xi} iiToCeL TO TTOiovv, /cat oa-ov /cat otov /cat to Trda^ov, 
 
 2 oi Su — iiraTa^ey] om. ?•*. Set — oi] om. N**. dpxovTa] &pxh^ ^ovTa 
 
 O^. 3 Kal ante KoKaadr/vaCl om. K*". hoiffiov xal to dKOiJ<Ti,ov] aKoiaiov Kal 
 
 TO iKoiaiov H^'L^'N''. iKoi<7tov (omissis kdX to aKoiaiov) V^. 5 aWannKtus] 
 
 awoXkaKTMoXs M''Q. 6 dva\oyla.v] avakoylav exov M^iQ. 7 (rvfi/ihei] Ifi,- 
 
 fiivei W'Q. 10 XapiTMc] xapiros P''. kpdi>] lepav N^. frfjOOK P'' et (?) pr. 
 
 K^. ip.TToSiiv'] ixTToduv yV'Q. 11 dyffvirijperTJcral re] dvOvwTipeTijaaL H='K'' 
 
 MbQNbpb, ij ^(,(e; g^] om. Mi^Q. tV kut' di/aXoylav'] Tiji KaT' dvaXoylav 
 
 C. /car' ivaXoyiav (omisso tV) MPQ. ttjs dvoKoylas N''. ■^j fj M^iQ. 
 
 14 Si.dp.eTpov o-iifeufis] TO ^^T|Ooc (Tufeiijeis Mi'Q. o?oy] om. K^. 15 ivbSTiim\ 
 {nroii)iia.Ta O^, 1 6 row iKelvov ipyov] to iKdpov ipyov H='M''QP''. 17 toC 
 
 atiroD] K^'O''. Tou afoou Hi'Li'Mi=QN''Pt'. to ai^ToO Bekker. 18 tV] om. 
 
 Mi'Q. 19 yhriTai] yeviaeTai 0\ i<TTtxC\ iri H^". 20 avp-pAveCl avp,- 
 
 juem O*. avuiialva W". (rvp,ct>ipu W'. BaT^pov ante e/)7o>'] Barepov H». 
 
 21 oJi'] ow 5j) H^N^pb. 22 dV] addit Bekker. om. codd. omnes. 23 ^iroJet] 
 
 efiroi Q. Kcd oirov koX otov] toioutoc koX toco'tov M''Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V 5 §§ 4 — 9. 29 
 
 for in many cases the law of retaliation and the law of correc- 
 tive justice do not agree ; for example, if a man strikes being 
 a magistrate, he ought not to be struck back, whilst if a man 
 strikes a magistrate, he ought not only to be struck, but also to 
 be chastised : furthermore there is a great difference between 
 what is voluntary and what is involuntary. Nevertheless in 
 commercial Koivioviai the bond of union is this sort of SUaiov, 
 viz. TO dvTLireiTovdo'i, Kar ovaXoyiav (in the sense of reciprocal 
 proportion), not war' IcrorrfTa (in the sense of retaliation). In 
 fact it is by propoi'tionate requital that the city holds to- 
 gether: for men seek either to requite ill, — else, if they are 
 not to requite it, they think themselves slaves, or to requite 
 good, — else, there is no interchange, and it is by interchange 
 that men hold together. And this is the reason why men set 
 a shrine of the Graces in a prominent position, in order that 
 there may be mutual requital : for this is a characteristic of 
 grace, since it is right to make return to one who has shown 
 grace, and then that he should begin again to show it. 
 
 Now proportionate return is secured by cross-conjunction. 
 For example, let ^ be a builder, B a shoemaker, C a house, 
 and D a shoe. Here the builder must receive from the shoe- 
 maker a portion of his work; and must give him a portion of 
 his own. If then first there is proportionate equality of 
 wares, and then to avTnre'Kov66<i is effected, the result of 
 which we speak will be attained. Otherwise the bargain is 
 not Xaov and does not hold: for there is nothing to prevent 
 the work of the one from being superior to the work of the 
 other : they must therefore be equalized. And this holds 
 of the arts generally; for they would fall into disuse, if, 
 besides acting, the agent did not receive an equivalent both 
 
30 HeiKON NIKOMAXEION E. 
 
 eirao^e tovto kol toctovtov kol tolovtov' ov yap €K ovo 
 iarpcov yiverai KOLvavCa, aXk' ef laTpov kol yecopyov, Kai 
 oXws erepoiv koX ovk icrav' aX\a tovtovs Sei IcracrOrjvai,. 
 § 'o Sio iravTa ctu/a/SXt^to, Sei tt&js elvai, d)v icmv aWayrj. 
 i(j) o TO voyiia-iL iXijXvde, kol yLveraC irws p^ecrov' iravra 5 
 yap perpei, aa-Te Kal Trjv virepoxW '^"•' '^V^ ekXeufjuv, iroaa 
 OLTTa S-Q vTTO^rjpaT icrov oIkio. 17 Tpo<j)rj. Sei Toivvv oirep 
 
 OtKoSOjUOS TT/SOS (TKVTOTOpOV, TOCraSl VTToSiqpaTa 77/305 OiKLaV 
 
 rj Tpo(j)7]v' (ei yap prj tovto, ovk ecrrat dXkayrj ovoe kol- 
 § II vciivCa') TOVTO 8', el prj Icra eh] ttws, ovk ecrjai' Set apa 10 
 evi TLvi TrdvTa perpelcrffaL, axnrep eXe)(d7] npoTepov' tovto 
 8' ecrri Trj pev dkyjdeCa 17 xpeia, rj travTa (Tvve)(ei' {el yap 
 py)dev 8eoi,VTO 17 /xi} ojlioiws, 17 ovk ecTTai aWayrj rj ov^ 
 17 avTT^') oTov 8' vnaXkaypa t^s ;)(petas to vopicrpa yeyove 
 Kara (rvvOrjKTqV /cal Stct tovto Tovvopa €)(ei vopicrpa, on 15 
 ov (ftvcrei dWd vopco ecrrt, Kal i(j) rjpiv peTa^aXelv Kai 
 % i-i TTOLTja-ai d)(pr)crTov. ecTTai 817 dvTLTreTTOvdo?, oTav IcracrOfi, 
 axTTe onep yecopyo? irpos (TKVTOTopov, to epyov to tov 
 (TKVTOTopov Trpos TO TOV yeoipyov. eis cr)(T]pa 8' dva- 
 Xoyias ov 8ei dyeuu oTav dWd^cjVTai (el 8e pn], dp<f)OT€pa<; 20 
 efei Tas VTrepo)(a<; to eTepov aKpov), dXX.' OTav e^^cocri to. 
 avTOiV ovTO)? t(roi kol KOivavoi, OTi avT-q r\ lcr6T7)<; SvvaTai 
 iir avTcov yiveadai' (yeapyo'i A, Tpo<f)rj T, (rKVTOT6po<s B, 
 TO epyov avTOv to Icracrpevov A") el 8' ovto) pyj rjv dvTi- 
 § 13 TreTTOvdevai, ovk av rjv KOLvcovta. otl 8' 77 XP^^'^ crvve)(eL 25 
 (Ixnrep ev tl ov, SrjXoi OTt orav prj iv XPeia wcrtv dWijXcav, 
 
 I Kal tolovtov'] ora. K*". 3 Kal ante oSk] om. M^'Q. 4 Traira] tout-o IC". 
 (ri)/t;8X7;Td] ^u/i^Xi/rd M^'Q. ttws] ttws H^N''. 5 0] K*. ceteri ij. 6 /ie- 
 
 rpci, li'iTTe KalJ fierpluxTTe Kal K*". ^XXei^i!'] IWeixpiv, fjierpei SiijkovbTi to vouutiw. 
 
 Pl=. 7 aTTa] om. K^i. 5r)] Se? N^". firoi'— UTroSii/tciTa] om. Ml=Q. 
 
 oVep] oVep o L^'N'^O^'P''. 8 rocraSi] TOffaSe K''. Toaa S^ 1^. 1 1 Tr/oo're/joi'] 
 
 KoX irpoTepov O*". 12 ^ffxi] on KP. ■^ ante TroKra] om. K''. 13 ^ 
 
 post o/iolus] om. H^M^'Q. 16 oii] o^x^ L*". /tcra/SaXerv] /leTa^dWeiv 
 
 HaKi'Mi'QNi'Oi'. 18 6Ve/)] 87rep Sr; 6 ?•>. to post ep7oi'] om. H='LbM''QN''. 
 19 d;'a\o7iaj ofi Bel Syeiv] ov Set ayuv dvaXoytas P''. oi SidyeiV dvaXoylas KP. 
 21 virepoxds] inrep^oXas 10>. rd] to KPP^. 22 airCiv] air&v H^K^'L'' 
 
 Nl'O''. 23 airSiv] adrQ H^ A] t6 a K^V>. 26 Stoi/] oTriToi' O''. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics vs. §§9 — 13. 31 
 
 in quantity and quality for what the recipient receives: for 
 it is not two physicians between whom koivwvm finds place, 
 but a physician and a husbandman, and generally those 
 who are not ifo-oi, but different: these have to be equalized. 
 Hence all things which are exchanged must be somehow 
 commensurable : and that they may be so, men have intro- 
 duced TO voiiLo-fia, which serves as a sort of medium; for it 
 measures all things, and therefore the excess and the defect, 
 — that is to say, determines how many shoes are equi- 
 valent to a given house or a given quantity of food. Hence, 
 as a builder to a shoemaker, so must so many shoes be to 
 a house or a given quantity of food (otherwise there will 
 be no exchange, and no Koivtovia), and this proportion 
 will not be secured unless the articles are somehow equal. 
 Hence, as was said above, all things must be measured by 
 a single standard. This standard is in reality demand, which 
 holds all things together; (for if the builder and the shoemaker 
 do not require anything, or do not require correspondingly, 
 there will be either no exchange, or an exchange of a different 
 sort) : but demand is conventionally represented by vofMa/ia, 
 which is therefore so called, because it is not <f)vaet but vo/io), 
 so that it is in our power to change it and to make it useless. 
 'AvrLTreTTovOo'i then will take place when an equality is esta- 
 blished so that as husbandman is to shoemaker, so is the 
 shoemaker's ware to the husbandman's. The reference to 
 the proportional formula must be made, not after the ex- 
 change (otherwise there will be two extremes, one of which 
 possesses both the excesses [of 4 § 10]), but when they still 
 retain their own wares: in this way they are caoi and kolvwvoI, 
 because it is possible in their case to establish the proper 
 equality: (husbandman A, food C, shoemaker B, his ware 
 equated to the food D :) while if avTiireirovdo'; could not be 
 established in this way, there would be no Koivavla. That 
 demand holds things together as a single standard, is indicated 
 
32 H0IKnN NIKOMAXEIXIN E. 
 
 y) a[JL<j)6TepoL 17 arepos, ovk dWaTTovTai, (ocnrep orav ov 
 €)(ei avTos SeyjTaC Tis, olov- otvov SiSdi'res ctCtov i^ayojyijv. 
 
 § 14 Set apa tovto la-ao-drjvat. vvep Se rrj? fjieXXovcrr)<; dWa- 
 yTjs, et vvv jLiijSei' Seirai, on ecrrai edi' 8er)6y, to vofjiicrfjia 
 olov iyyvrjTiQi; iaO' iQfJuv' Set yap tovto cj)epovTi, elvai 5 
 Xaj3eLV. irdcr^ei, p,ku ovv Koi tovto to avTO' ov yap aet 
 to-oi' Sui'aTat" ojLiftJS Se jBovKerai jxeveLv [idXXov. Sto Set 
 irdvTa TeTLjjirjcrOai' ovtco yap del ecTTaL dXkayij, ei Se 
 TOVTO, KOiucovCa. TO St) v6fJiLcrp,a cocnrep peTpov crvppeTpa 
 TTOiTjcrai' tcra^et' ovTe yap av jU.17 ovcrrjs aXXay^? KOLVcovLa 10 
 i^v, ovT dXXay-q IcyoTTjTO? prj ovcrr)'s, ovt icroTrjs prq ovcrrj<; 
 
 § 15 crvppeTpCa?. Ty ph> ovv dXyjOeia dhvvaTov Ta toctovtov 
 SLa<f)epovTa avpfJieTpa yevecrdat, Trpos Se t'qv -)(peiav ivSe- 
 ^CTat Ikovojs. ev S"*? Tt Set etj'at, tovto S' ef VTrodecreox;' 
 Sio vopiarpa KoXajaC tovto yap TrdvTa Trotet crvp^p^erpa' 15 
 perpeLTai yap irdvTa vop^icrpaTi. oiKia A, pvat ScKa B, 
 kXCvy) r. TO St) a tou B tj^lctv, et ireWe pvotv d^ca 17 
 oiKia, 17 tcroi/' Ty Se kXCvt] BeKaTOv pipo<; to V tov B' 
 
 § 16 SijXov Toivvv iTocraL KXlvai tcrov oIkCci, otl irevTe. oTt 
 S' ovT(o<; tJ aXX.ayi} ■^v Trptv to vopLcrpa etvat, S'^Xov' 20 
 SLa<f)epei ydp ovhkv rj KXlvai nevTe dvTL ot/ctas, 17 oo"ou 
 at TTevTe KXlvau. 
 
 § 17 Tt pev ovv TO d^LKOv Kal tC to StKatov icTTiv, eiprjTai. 
 
 I artposl 8d,Tepoi\ C. off ^x" airos] off ^xt n^Tis O*". ov-xl mris IC^". 
 
 ou ai/Tos ^x" P^- ■^ ■'■'s] om. K*. ofrou] o&oj» M'JQ. Si56ct£s] Sicres 
 
 K''P''. ^fa7W7i)v] i^ayuyrjs K'' Bekker. 3 fi/)a toCto] roCro fipa O''. ^pa 
 
 toOto — ii.tXkav-'] om. N''. 4 ib.v\ av Y^V". 5 fo9'] iariv O*'. V'"] 
 
 ■^/iuj' Mi^Q. <pifiovTC\ (pavepov ri KP. 6 7raffx«] irapdcxoi MPQ. 8 tcti- 
 
 p.^ffdai] TerprisBai L''. del ^ffrai] effrai dci H''M''QNt'0''. ^o-rai (omisso dci) 
 
 Pb. 9 5i)] SJ N''. irep — ofi- (in oliari!:) om. Q. p-irpov] pirpa 1^. 
 
 piaov H^'Mi'N'^. 10 ai/] om. H^M''. 11 J,v'\ e'iri C. hSr-ns] 1(t6ti]tos 
 
 MbQ. 14 Srj Ti del] S4 n Sei V\ 5i SeX n H»M'=Q. del Si; Ti N^'O''. 16 
 
 A] #' ^s d 01-. 17 «{;] Sf H^MbQ. om. KPOK p.fSiv] pjvw NK 18 
 
 ftroi'] Ti ilcroi' H^M^Q. K^;^'J;] kUvt) ij LPV^. B- S^Xov] ^. okla i<p' 
 
 ^s d. /t^wp e. /cXici) ^^' ^ ^. pvds i^la. i) dk Kkh-q ttIp-tttov pipos ttjs oklas 
 av etr). SriKov ?•=. 19 oWp] oldai V°. on Trivre] om. K''. 20 8'] 5?; TH^. 
 
 etvaC] M>'Q. tjv H". ^ K'^NbCP''. om. L*. 23 ^o-ti..] om. I>. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V s §§ 13—17. 33 
 
 by the fact that, when there is no demand on the part of both 
 for mutual assistance, or at least on the part of one, they do 
 not exchange: whereas, when B wants what A has, they ex- 
 change, giving, for example, the privilege of exporting corn 
 in return for wine; this bargain then has to be equalized. 
 But if we do not require a thing now, ro vofji-iaixa is to us a 
 sort of guarantee of future exchange, a pledge that it sha]l 
 take place if at another time we require the thing : for it must 
 be possible for the trader on producing the voytita/ia to obtain 
 the ware. Of course to vofiKrixa is subject to the same laws 
 as the wares themselves, — it is not always of the same value: 
 nevertheless it tends to be more constant in value than they. 
 All things therefore ought to have a value assigned to 
 them : for so there will always be exchange, and if so, a 
 KOivmvia. Thus to vofjuiafia is a sort of measure which makes 
 things commensurable and reduces them to equality: for 
 there would be no Koivavla if there were no exchange, and no 
 exchange if there were no equality, and no equality if there 
 were no commensurability. Thus though it is in reality im- 
 possible for things so widely different to become commensur- 
 able, it is possible in an adequate degree by reference to 
 demand. Hence there must be a single standard, and this 
 determined by agreement, whence it is called vofua-fia. This 
 vofua/ia makes all things commensurable, all things being 
 measured by it. Let A he a. house, B ten minas, C a bed. 
 Now A is half B, if the house is worth or equivalent to five 
 nkinas, and the bed C is the tenth part of ^: it is plain then 
 how many beds are equivalent to a house, viz. five. That this 
 was the way in which exchange was effected before currency 
 existed, is clear; for it makes no difference whether five beds 
 are given for a house, or the price of the five beds. 
 
 We have now defined dStKov, and BUawv, and from our 
 J- 3 
 
34 HQTKflN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 SLOipLa-fj-evcov 8e tovtwv BrjXov ort 17 ZiKaioirpayia [lecrov 
 ecTTt Tov aSiK€iv Kal ahiKiia-dai' to /xev yap irkiov e^eiv to o 
 eXaTTov icTTLV. 77 8e Si/caiocruwy /ACcroTT^s Tts ia-Tcv, ov tov 
 auToi/ Se TpoTTOv rats aXXais dperats, aXX' on fieaov icrTLV, 
 < /cat bXTvep vyi€iv6v fjikv ev laTptKy eveKTUKOv Be iv yvjji- S 
 vacrTLKT]' > tJ 8' aSiKia tojv aKpojv. Kal 17 /acv hiKaiocrvvq 
 e(rri Ka^' 17*' o 8iKaios Xeyerai vpaKTLKO's KaTo, vpoaipecriv 
 TOV ZiKaiov, Koi Stave/xTjrtKos fat aOr&J irpos aXXoz/ /cai 
 erkp<a 77/305 ertpov, ov-^ ovrws wcrre rou ju.ei' atperov irkiov 
 avTW eXaTTov 8e tw ttXtjctlov tov /SXa^epov 8' oj/ciTraXw', 'o 
 § 18 dXXa TOV tcrov tov Kar dvaXoyCav, ofJioCcos 8e Kal aXXa> 
 Trpos aXXov. tJ 8* d8tKta TovvavTiov tov oZLkov' tovto 
 8' ecTTii' virep/SoX-^ Kal eXXen/(is tov oi^eXip^ov rj jSXafiepov 
 vapa to dvoiXoyov. Sto VTrepj3oXrj Kal iXXeu^K; 17 dBiKia, 
 OTt viTep^oXrj(; Kal iXXeirpeds icTTiv, i<f) avTov p-kv vrrep- '5 
 fioXrj'i p.€v TOV ciTrXftls <i:,^eXlfiov, eXXeit/zews 8e tou /SXa/Se- 
 /jou' cTTi Se Twi' aXXoiv to ju.ei' oXov OjU,ota)§, to 8e napd 
 to dvdXoyov, ovoTepco^ erv^ev. tov 8e dSiKTjfjbaTO? to 
 pLev eXaTTOv to dSiKcia-OaC ecrTt, to 8e peltpv to dSi/ceii/. 
 ' > § 7 < (f>av€p6v 8e icai OTt dp^bi pev <f)avXa, Kal to dSt/ceicr^ai 20 
 /cai TO dSiKeiv to ju.ei' yd/3 eXaTTOv to 8e wXeov e)(eiv IcttI 
 TOV piaoV [/cat mcnrep vyLCLvov pev iv iaTpLKrj eveKTiKov 
 Se iv yvpvaa-TLKy'2 dXX' opo)<s ^elpov to dhiKelv' to p^ev 
 
 I ■^l Kai 1; H^M'^QN''. 2 Sx""] ?X" MbQ. 3 /ieffiri)! tIs ^o-rti-] yncrT(STi)s 
 
 Eff-rti' H^M^QN^Oi^ £eUer. 4 Se post auVJ;/] om. H»M>'QNi= Bekhr. 
 
 Tols SXKais A/jETOis] rois Tpdrepov d/jerois H*M''Q Bekker. rais Tporipan dperaU 
 N''. TOis AperaU rais irpdrepov C. ^^ffou] toC ?irou /i^o-ou H^M^'Q. 5 Kai 
 
 uamp—yvp.mffTi.K^'] ex 11 § 7 traieci. 8 «iKa(ou, Koi] SiKalov, Kal Sinve- 
 
 tofriKhs Karck wpoalpeatv toO Stfcafou Kai N*". airifi] airm KP. avTW N''. o 
 
 ouVws] ouTws Ni'. 10 airifi] mrm lO; ouVw H^N''. rip] t6 Q. /3\a- 
 
 ^cpoC] Tou /SXo^epou O''. 14 SiA] S16 Koi H^'Mi'Q. 8iJ i)7r£/)|8oXf,— jra/xi ri 
 
 <ii/(£\070»] om. N^ ^ 15 airroO] iauroO H^L^pb. iavroh M^Q. iTepPoXijs] 
 
 ix€p§o\i, H^ 16 liiv-] om. H^Ll'MbQObpi'. toO ante dirXus] t^s H". 
 
 TOU ante /SXo^epoC] om. H^MfQ. 17 ,ra/)A] Trpds H^'MfQ. 18 oTroT^pus] 
 
 oviyrepov H^M^Q. Se] om. NK 19 to ante dSiKeiirffoi] toC M^Q. cm. K^. 
 
 Tb ante djuccii'] tou M^Q. 20 ^avepoV— diroSaceri/] 11 §§ 7, 8 traieci. S^ 
 
 Kol «tO 3' Sn /tai H^LbM^QOb. 2r /iji-] etvai O^. tX^oi/] TrXeroi- ICOT". 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V s §§ 17, i8: II §7. 35 
 definitions of them it is plain that Siicaioirpajia is a fiicrov 
 between dBiKetv and dBiaeia-dai, the former consisting in 
 having too much, the latter in having too little. ^iKaioa-wrj is 
 a fiea-oTT}'!, not in the same way as the other virtues, but in the 
 sense of having a fA,e<rov for its result, in fact like vyieivov in 
 medicine and eveKTiKov in gymnastic, the extremes being simi- 
 larly the results of dBiKia. Furthermore SiKaioavvi] is a e^i,s 
 in virtue of which the Si'/cato? is said to be •KpaicriK.cx; Kara 
 •Trpoaipecrtv rov SiKaiov, Kal BiavefirjTiKois whether between him- 
 self and another, or between two others, not in such a way 
 that he shall have more and his neighbour less of what is 
 desirable, and contrariwise of what is harmful, but so that 
 he and his neighbour shall have to la-ov to icar dvaXoyiav, and 
 in like manner when the distribution is between two others. 
 ^ASiKia on the other hand is similarly related to to dSiKov, rh 
 dBiKov being excess and defect of what is beneficial or harmful, 
 in violation of to dvaXoyov, Wherefore dBcKia is excess and 
 defect in the sense that its results are excess and defect, that 
 is to say, in the case of the offender, excess of what is gener- 
 ally speaking beneficial and defect of what is harmful, and in 
 the case of others, in general as in the former case, though the 
 deviation from to dvakoyov may be either on the side of excess 
 or on that of defect. In the dBUrjixa defect constitutes dBiKela- 
 6ai, excess dBixelv. Plainly both are bad, both to dBiKeia-Bat 
 and TO dBiKeiV, for to dBiKeia-dai is to have less, and to dBiKeiu 
 to have more, than the mean : nevertheless t^ dBiKeiv is the 
 
 worse of the two ; for to dBtKei<T0ai does not imply KUKia and 
 
 3—2 
 
36 HQIKilN NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 yap dSiKetv fiera KaKias koI <jjeKfov, Kai Ka/cta? tj Trj<s 
 TeXeias koX dwkas '^ iyyv?, (ou ydp dircw to eKovcriov 
 /Ltera dSi/fias, < iv ois S' dhiKia, koX to dStKeti' eV toutois, 
 ei' ots Se TO dZiK€LV, ov wdcrLV dSiKia, >) to S' dovKeiaOaL 
 
 1 1 § 8 dvev Ka/cias fat dSi/cias. Ka^' auTO jikv ovv to dSiKeto-^at S 
 ^^TTOf (f>av\op, Kara crvfi^e/3y]K6<s 8' ovOh^ /ctuXuet fJLeit,ov 
 elvai KaKov. dXX' ouSei' /xeXei T17 Te)(vr), dWd TrkevpiTiv 
 Xeyet fieC^o) vocrov TrpocriTTatcr/iaTO?' /catToi yevoiT av 
 TTore ddrepov Kara crvfi^efirjKO?, el TrpocriTTaLcravTa oict 
 TO irecreiv o-uju.y8aiij utto t&Iv iroXeixtcov Xy](f>6rjvai. koI dno- '° 
 Oaveiv. > 
 
 5 § '9 ire/31 ju.ej' ow Si/catocrui'ijs Kal dSiKias, ti5 eKwripw; 
 i<TTlv >J ^ucris, elprjaOui tovtov tov rpcirov, o/aoiws Se Kai 
 ^ § 4 ireyol Si/caiou /cat dSi/cou Ka^oXou. Sei Se /ai) \av6dveiv 
 OTL TO t,7]TOviJiei>6v ecTTt /cai TO ctTrXaJS BiKaiov /cat :s 
 TO TToXtTtKov 8t/catov. TOUTo 8' eo^Tt Kowovav ^Cov 
 wpos TO cwat avrdpKeiav, iXev0epa)v /cat tcrcoi^ ■i^ /car' 
 dvaXoytav 17 KaT dpiOfJioV cucrTe ocrots ju.i} ecrTt touto, 
 on/c ecTTt TowTOts npos aXXr^Xous to TroXtTt/cov St/catoi', 
 aXXd Tt Si/catov /cat /ca^' OjxoLOTrjTa. ecrTt, ydp SCKaiov 20 
 ots /cat vojuos TTyoos auTous* Wjitos 8', eV ots dStKta* 77 
 ■ya/3 8t/o^ /cptcrts tou 8t/catov Kat tou dSiKov' [iv ots 8' 
 dSt/cta, /cat to d8t/cetj' ej' TOVTOts, ei' ots 8e to dStKeti', oi3 
 TrdcTiv aSt/cta'J touto 8' ecrTt to ttXcov avVoJ vep.eiv Toiv 
 § S ctTrXtus dyadciv, eXaTTOv Be twv ct7rXc3s KaKcov. 8to ouk 25 
 ew/Ltev ap^eiv av6p(OT70v, dXXd tov Xoyov, OTt eauTw tovto 
 
 I yj/SKToP, Kal KOfcfas] ^fKTii/ iji- Ka! Karias N^". t/zeKTiv ijv Kal t^s KOfcfas H='M''Q. 
 T^s post 17] om. L''. 2 Kal post reXeias] om. K*". iyyvs] aiveyyvs O^. 
 
 airav] Tav K^pb. y ^hai} om. H^Ki'LbNi'O'^Pb. ^A«] ^AXei H''. 9 
 
 irpoffwraltraiira] TrpocnrTala-avTos MPQ. 10 Kai] ^ K'^O''. 14 Sifcofoi;] toO 
 
 ei/cafou .ff^,5/5«-. 6 §§ I, 2] vide infra, post 8 § 8. 6 § 3] vide infra, 10 § i. 
 15 Kai rd d)r\(Ss— ^o-Tii/] om. Mi'Q. Kal post aiKotoi/] om. K^Li^Nii. 16 
 
 iml] HI K*. ianv iwl O^ Bekker. koipuvuv] Kowwviiv H'M''Q. Kotva V^. 
 
 20 dXXd Tt SlKai.<iv\ dXXd Tt Blxaiov oXXi Ti SUaiop H^. Kai ante Ka9'] om. H^ 
 
 21 oU] ip ofs C. airoii] W>. airois ceteri €!.' Bekker. 12 K(t)i(r(s] Kpiiris 
 (fffrt Ll'Ol'. 24 awTv] oirdi K"". a^TcS H^N". 26 Ti>/ X6701'] tS*/ XiyMi/ N". 
 rbx i>6/tov M''Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V 1 1 §§ ;, 8 : 5 § 19 : 6 §§ 4, 5. 37 
 dSiKla in the sufferer, whereas rd .oBiKeiv is blameworthy and ' 
 implies KUKia, which kukU is either reXeta Kot aTrXw? or almost 
 so. ([The qualification is required] because an ahUrjfia volun- 
 tarily committed does not necessarily imply dSiKia; where 
 there is dSmla, there is dStKeiv, but where there is dSiKeiv, there 
 is not always dStKia.) Thus in itself t^ dBtKe2cr0ai is the lesser 
 evil; still it may be Kara avfi^e0riK6<; the greater. With this 
 however theory is not concerned: theory reckons pleurisy 
 a more serious infirmity than a sprain ; but a sprain may be 
 Kara a-v/i^e^rjK6<i worse than a pleurisy, should it chance that 
 a man in consequence of a sprain falls, and in consequence of 
 the fall is taken by the enemy and put to death. 
 
 So much may be said in explanation of the nature of 
 SiKaioa^vT) and dBixia, and in like manner of hiKaiov and aSiKov 
 regarded xadoXov. But it must not be forgotten that what we 
 seek is not merely to aTrXtos BUaiov, but also to "TroXtTiKov 
 SIkmov, i.e. the Sikmov of free and (proportionately or actually) 
 equal citizens living together with a view to the satisfaction 
 of wants. Where this is not the case, iroKiTiKbv Bi/caiov does 
 not exist, but only a sort of Blkuiov, so called /cafl' ofioiortjTa, 
 For BUaiov subsists among those who have law to govern their 
 mutual dealings ; and law, where there is dSiKta, BiKn being the 
 determination oiBlicaiov and dSiKov, and aBiKov consisting in 
 the appropriation of too large a share of what is generally 
 speaking good or too small a share of what is generally 
 speaking bad. Hence we do not allow a particular man to 
 rule, preferring the formula of law, because a particular man 
 
38 HQIKIIN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 TTOiet Koi yCverat rvpavvo^. ecrTt, S' o dp^cov <f>vXa^ rov 
 
 § 6 OLKULov, ei Se tou Si/caiou, /cat rou icrou' eirei o ovuev 
 
 a.vT<o irkiov etvaL SoKec, elirep St/catos, (ou ya^ vefjiet irXeou 
 
 Tov ctTrXcS? aryadov aur&I, el jof^ tt/oos auToi' dvakoybv 
 
 icTTtV Sto eTepat Trovei, koX hid tovto dWorpiov elvai s 
 
 (f>acri-v dyadov tyjv hiKaiocrvvrfv, Kaddvep iXe^Orj koI vpo- 
 
 § 7 Tepov,) — jUicr^os a/aa tis Soreos. tovto Se rt/Ai) Kai yepas' 
 
 § 8 oTft) Se /A'^ t/cai'a to. Toiaura, ovtol ylvovTO-L Tvpavvoi. to 
 
 Se BecrvoTLKov ScKaiov kol to TraTpiKov bv TavTov tovtol<; 
 
 dX\' ofjLQiov' ov yap icrTLV aSi/cta vpos to, avTov ctTrXaJs, lo 
 
 TO Se KTrjjjia Koi to tckvov, cws dv rj ttyjXCkov /cat -^apLo-Orj, 
 
 § 9 (acnrep jjiepos avTov. avTov S' ousels irpoaipuTai /3Xd- 
 
 TTTCLV, Sio ou/c icTTLV dSi/cia TTyDos aiJroj', ovS' djoa dSuKov 
 
 bvSk SbKauov TO ttoXltlkov' /card v6p,ov yap ■^v, /cat iu 
 
 ol<s iTre(j>vKeL etvat vofjio^' ovtol S' '^crav ots virdp^ei is 
 
 tcroTiys Tou dp)(ei,v /cat dp^^aOai. Sto p.dXXov npos yv- 
 
 va^Ka icTTL St/catoi' ly 77/305 re'/cva /cat /cTif/Aara" touto ydyo 
 
 eo"Tt TO oIkovo[jllk6v hiKaiov' erepov Se /cat touto tou 
 
 7 TToXtTt/coi). Toi; Se 7ro\tTt/coiJ St/catov to /Aet" ^vctlkov icm, 
 
 TO Se VOpjLKOV, (ftVCTLKOV fLev TO WaVTa^OV TTJV aVT-qV €)(OV 20 
 
 hvvap,t,v, Kal ov tw So/ceii' ■i^ jLtif, vo/jllkov Se o e^ dp^^rj^ 
 fikv ovOkv Sta^epet ovtos 17 dXXtus, OTav Se ^cSi-Tat, Sta- 
 <^e/3et, otov TO /Ai/ds XvTpovaOai, rj to atya ^uetv dXXd ju,-^ 
 Suo irpo/SaTa, ctl ocra eirt tcuv Ka^' e/cacrTa vojiodeTova-iv, 
 
 2 d Si TOV SiKalov] om. M''Q. 3 irX^ox post v4fi,ei] om. pi". 4 tov aTrXuj 
 dyaSov airrif] airii tov i,ir\ws dyaSov JJ>. aiV^i] airiS LPN^Q. avrbv] 4aUTii> 
 Q. 5 Tovet] TTOiu Bekker. eXvai ipairiv dyaSbv] ayadiv dvai <t>a.ai.v H^M^Q. 
 
 6. Koi] om. H^ 7 dpa tis] t(s a/)a H''M''QOi'. 8 tfry] Saois O''. tcI 
 
 ToiauTo] TaOra H''M1'QN'=0''. g Taiirdc] ravrb 0\ roi^rois] toiVuk H*. 
 
 10 aliToO'] aiTov H'-L'^Nb. u t6 ante TiKvovJ om. K^'L". xwp"'^^] i"i) 
 
 XiopiaBy H=L''M'=Q Bekker. 12 oirii'] aiVii' H='N»'. 13 airThv\ ainhv 
 
 H^K^'Mi'Q. oStKoi'] a'Si/cfa ov K^ 16 7ui'arKa] tV yvvaiKa, M^Q. 17 
 
 /CTij/tara] cr^/ia L^. 18 olKovoiaKhv\ olKovofUKhv koX W. W\ U kuTi. W'Y^. 
 
 KoL ante toOto] om. H=M>=Q. 19 toO S* TroXm/cou] om. K''. ^v'\ /ih 
 
 yap K)'. 20 mfUK6v]^ vd/u/iov K^'Pi'. yo/WKij/, xal V. . . 21 oi Tip] outu 
 
 K^MbQ. vofiiKiv] vbiJ.i.iJ.ov -KP. 5] om. M^Q. 22 Jfroi- 5^ Oamai, Sm- 
 
 ^^pet] om. Pb. 2^ olov] ovTas ^ oWoit oTov KK 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V 6 § 5—7 § I. 39 
 
 rules in his own interest and becomes a tyrant. The magis- 
 trate is the guardian of to BUatov, and therefore of to 'iaop : 
 and since it is assumed that if he is SUaio^, he has no more 
 than his share, — for he does not apportion to himself more of 
 what is generally speaking good unless such a share is propor- 
 tionate to his claims, so that it is in the interest of another 
 that he is at the pains of the distribution, (which is the reason 
 why SiKaioavvr/ is said to be the good of others, as was re- 
 marked before,) — a reward must be given to the magistrate in 
 the shape of honour and privilege; and when magistrates do 
 not receive a sufficiency of such things, they become tyrants. 
 
 The hUaLov of master and slave (BecnroTiKov) and that of 
 father and son {-rrarpiKov) resemble, but are not identical with, 
 that of the free and equal: for there is no aBiKia in the strict 
 sense of the word towards what is one's own ; and the slave, 
 and the child until he reaches a certain age and becomes 
 independent, are as it were parts of oneself. Again no one 
 deliberately chooses to harm himself, and therefore a man 
 cannot show dSiKia towards himself; it follows that he cannot 
 exhibit towards himself ttoKitukov dSiKov or Sixaiov, since, as 
 we said before, these depend upon law, and subsist only 
 among those with whom law is a natural institution, that is 
 to say, as v/e explained, those who have equality in ruling 
 and being ruled. Hence Bikuiov subsists rather between man 
 and wife than between father and children or master and 
 slave : this, [the Bucaiop of man and wife,] is the BUaiov of the 
 household, and even this is different from the Bikuiov of the 
 polity. 
 
 Of the iroXiTiKhv BIkmov there are two kind?, the one 
 natural, the other conventional ; that being natural which 
 everywhere has the same import and does not depend upon 
 enactment, and that conventional which in the first instance 
 is decided indifferently one way or another, but when once 
 decided is not a matter of indifference : for example, that a 
 mina shall be the prisoner's ransom, that a sacrifice shall con- 
 sist of a goat and not of two sheep, and all prescriptions for 
 
40 HBIKHN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 § 2 oXov TO dveiv BpacrtSa, /cat to, xjrr]^La-iJi,aTwSrj. BoKei o 
 ivLOLS etvai, vdvTa rotaura, on to fiev (ftvcrei, dKivrjTOV Kai 
 TTOura^ov rrjv avTrjv e;^ei Svvafiiv, oxTirep to trvp Kai 
 ivddSe Koi iu Ile/Dcrat? KaCei, rd Se St/caia Kivovfieva 
 
 § 3 opaanv. {tovto S' ovk ecTTLv ovtcos ^ov, aXX ecTTiv cos. s 
 KaiTOi vapd ye Toi? ^eots icrws ovSa/AcSs" Trap t^jiaii' 
 S' lo^Tt ju.ei' Tt fcai (^ucrei, Kunqrov [levroL vdv.) aXX' o/iaws 
 
 § * ecTTi TO fiev (jtijcrei to S' ou (ftvcrei,' ttoIov oe (jtvcrei T<av 
 ii'Se)(oiJLevQ)v Kai aXXws ex.'^LV, kul ttouov ov aXXa vofiLKov 
 Koi (TVvO'qKrj, eCirep aja^w KivqTd djUOitus, 817X0^. icai ctti 10 
 Twv dWav 6 auToj dpfiocru mo pier lie's' <f)vcr€i yap rj 
 Sefta KpeiTTcov, KaiToi ivhi^erai irdvTas djji(f)ioegiov? ye- 
 
 § 5 vicrdai. rd Se Kard a-vvdiJKrjv koi to aviL^ipov twv 
 BiKaiojv 6p,oid ecTTt TOts /xerpois. ov ydp TTavTa)(ov icra 
 TO. oivrjpa koi crirqpa nirpa, aXX ov p,ev covovvTai, jnei^cu, 15 
 ov Se TToikovo'iv, iXdrTOi' ojmoiws Se /cat to. /at) ^ucrt/ca 
 ciXX' dvdpatTTiva St/cata ou TauTot navTa^ov, CTret ouS' at 
 TToXtTetat, dXXct jiita p.6vov navra^ov Kard (f)vcriv "q dpicrTT]. 
 
 % 6 Tav Se BiKaicov Kai vop-iiioiv eKaaTov <us to. KaOokov irpoq 
 td Ka& e/cao-Ttt l^et* to, pkv ydp irparToiieva noXKd, 20 
 
 § 7 €Keiv(iiv S' eKacrrov ev KaOoXov ydp. Sia<j)epei Se to 
 dSiKTjfJLa Kai TO dSiKov, /cat to St/caio/jua /cat to SiKaiov. 
 aSiKov fxev ydp e'cTTt Trj (ftvcrei rj Ta^ei' avTo Se tovto, 
 OTav 7rpa)(0y, dBiKrjfid ecTTt, Trplv Se TTpa')(6rjyai, ovira, 
 
 I ^rj^urfMTdSrj] ^ijipla jiara rdSe M^, 2 elvai Trdvra] irivTa eXvai 
 
 jjaM^QN''. Sti] SUiTi O^. 3 TTiv aiTTifV ?xe'] ?X" tV aiJTrjv C. ri 
 
 jri?/) Koi] Kol t4 ffu/) M''Q. 5 ix"", nW IffTin ws] om. M''Q. 6 7e to(S 
 
 Beoii taois\ toIs ?o-ois M*". tois Seois (in ras.) firws Q. oi5Sa/«us] K''. oidanQs 
 
 exoo H''M''QN''0''P''. oiSa/xSs ex"" ^"f" L''. 7 ^iirct, Ki.vqTiv lUvroil 4>v<ri.Kbv 
 
 Kivifrbv oi liiinoi H^M^'Q. 11 AXui'] aWayv koX K''. Siopuriibi] diopur/iims 
 
 IJ'. 12 Triirras] nvas Bekker. 13 (ri/yn^^poc] avii^ipiav N*". ij o5] w 
 
 Mi'Q. 16 ou] 5 M^Q. (uy om. H-'M''. 17 o«] a* N''. o!] om. 
 
 KbL^Ntpb. 18 7roXiT«ai] JroXiTEiaNb. /t6ro>'] /ti;' H^MbQ. Kari] 
 
 /cari tV H=M*'Q. 19 t4 ante /coWXou] t6 H^ it/jAs] ttou H^ 21 5^ 
 
 t6] 5i Koi ri O*". 22 Koi to SiKalufM Kai to JiKaiof] om, K''. 23 tJ] t^ H^. 
 ■n Tdfci] ^ T^ Tdfei L*'. o^To] TO aW H^M^'QN'' Bekker. 24 ^o-Ti] om. 
 
 KbLTb. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 7 §§ 1—7. 41 
 
 individual cases, e. g. the sacrifice in honour of Brasidas, and 
 the provisions of a psephism. Some maintain that all hiKaia 
 are of this conventional sort, because what is by nature is 
 invariable and has the same effect everywhere, as for ex- 
 ample fire burns both here and in Persia ; whereas they see 
 that hUaba vary. (That iiKaia vary, though not true with- 
 out limitation, is true in a manner. With the gods indeed, 
 it is perhaps not true at all ; but with men, though there is 
 a hUaiov which is by nature, all Sl/caia are variable.) Never- 
 theless there is a Sikuiov which is natural, as well as a BiKaiov 
 which is non-natural : and it is easy to see what regulations 
 which might have been otherwise are natural, and what regu- 
 lations are not natural but legal and conventional, the two 
 sorts being all the time equally variable. And in all other 
 matters the same distinction will hold : for by nature the right 
 hand is the stronger; still all may become ambidextrous. 
 In fact BiKuia which are determined by convention and con- 
 venience resemble standard measures: for the measures of 
 wine and corn are not equal in all places, being larger in 
 wholesale, and smaller in retail, markets ; and in like manner 
 SiKaia which are not natural but of human appointment are 
 not the same in all places, inasmuch as constitutions are 
 not the same, though in all places there is one only which is 
 natural, i. e. the perfect constitution. 
 
 Each Sixaiov or vofii/j-ov stands to individual acts in the 
 relation of universal to particulars : for the things done are 
 many, and each BIkmov or vofLifwv is one, because universal. 
 
 There is a difference between the aiUrma and the SZikov, 
 the BiKaioDfia and the Bixaiov : for whereas a thing is dSiKov by 
 nature or by appointment, the thing in question when it is 
 done is an dSiKrifia; before it is done it is not an dSlieijfia but 
 
42 HBIKflN NIKOMAXEI.QN E. 
 
 aA.X' o-Slkov. 6[JiOLCj<; Se koX SiKatw/xa. (KaXetrat oe 
 fjLo.kXov St/caiOTT/aayj^/Aa to /coit'oi', 8(.Kat&)^a oe to ^CTra- 
 v6p6o)fia Tov aStKT^/Aaros.) Ka^' eKacTTOv Se avTO)v, voia 
 re eiSiy /cai 7roo-a Kai Trept Trora ruyx"'^^'' o^'^'^j la-repov 
 iina-KeTTTeoi'. ^ 
 
 8 6vT0)v Se rwv Si/caiwv Kai oLSCkov twv eiptjit^evoiv, 
 aSiKCt jLtev Kai St/caioirpayer, orav e/cwv rts awTa irparrrj' 
 oTav S' aKOiv, ovr aSiKet oure SiKatoTT/aayer aXX 77 
 /card cru/A/SeySij/cos" ots ydp crvfifiefiyjKe SiKftiots etvat 17 
 
 § 2 aStKots, TTpaTTOvcTLV. (aSiKi7/Aa 8e Kai SitKaioTrpdyyjfia 10 
 (Zpia-TaL Tw eKovcriO) koX oLKovaCcp' orav yap eKOVcruov 
 rj, ijjeyeTaL, apuo. 8e Kol ahiKiqpia tot icTTiv' oicrT eo-rat 
 TL aZiKov pev dSCKTjpa 8' ovtto), idv ju.17 to CKOVcnov 
 
 § 3 TTpocrrj. Xeyoi 8' eKovanov piv, axnrep Kat TrpoTcpov 
 eipTjTai, o av ns t&jv e^' aurw ovtcjv eiSws /cat /atj ay- 15 
 voojv irpaTTrj p'^TC ov py]T€ w prjTe ov < iveKa >, olov TLva 
 
 TVTTTeL Kol TLVL KOL TtZ^OS ivCKa, KaKeCvCtiV €Ka<TTOV p^T] /CttTtt 
 
 crvp/Be^TjKO's prjSe fiua, aairep ei tis \a/3(iv rrjv X"/°<* 
 avTov TviTTOL CTEpov, ovx CKwv, OV ydp i-TT auTw. ei'Se- 
 ■veTai, 8e toz' TVVTopevov TraTepa uvai, toj' 8' on /u.ev 20 
 dv9po)Tro^ ■^ Twv irapovTOiv tis ytvdcrKeLV, otl Be iraTrjp 
 dyvoeiv. opoCcas Se to TotouTov hiOipiixOcii koX eirX tov ov 
 eveKa, koX nepl Trjv Trpd^Lv 0X17^. to St] dyvoovpevov, rj 
 pri dyvoovpevov pev prj ev' avT^ 8' ov, 17 /Bia, dKovcnov.) 
 
 I dSiKov] (JSiKov 6n {n KP) Srav irpaxSv aSU-qim icriv K^^L'^N^^O^'P''. 2 
 
 nSXkov diKai,oirp(ijTiiJ.a to /cou-ic] to Koivbv jiaXKov 5i.Ka,L0Trpd-y)ifta H^M'^QN''. 5^] 
 om. H^. 3 TTOttt] TTola N^. 4 tu7x*^''^0 Ti;'y;^(£poi P^. 6 tcSi' ante 
 
 5iKa((i)c] om. Mt'Q. elpfiii,ivuv\ irpoeipijliii'uv O^. 7 otoj' — dXV 17] i"'' dWi, 
 
 M'^Q. 9 cTj/at ^ dSlKOLs] ^ ddlKOis etvai O^. 12 ?(rTat rt dtffi/cov] aSi/cov rt 
 
 ?o-Tai H''M''QNi'. 13 S' otfjru, ^i;'] oSttm ^(ttIk ^dy M^^Q. Hlv] av H''K''Lbpb. 
 14 ji,bi\ om. M''Q. 15 ai77-iji] kamia H^M'^QO''. 16 ffpATTj] irpdrroi 
 
 M^. rpdrrri — oToy] om. N*". oy] K^'P''. $] lis corr. K''. ov] ov corr. 
 K_bpb_ iviKa\ addit Bekker. om. codd. omnes. 17 Tvirrei.] ruVreip K.''. /cai riw] 
 om. K*". iKaa-TOv} iKdrepov K''. iKdreov Pl>. 19 tuVtm] Tvirrei H=L''M''QO'', 
 inibv'] ixiiv Si H''M'=QNl'Obpi'. {t' airipi ii>' iavrSi 0"=. 21 di irariip] 
 
 S' 6 irar^p O^, 22 t(J ante toiovtov] om. Q. tov\ KP. tQv ceteri. 
 
 24 ^7r' avTif] itp' avTiS 'D'V^. i(p' airia N^. i<p' iavTiS O^. dKoi(nov] Ikov- 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 7 § 7—8 § 3. 43 
 
 only aSiKov. So too with a SiKaiii)fj,a. (More correctly the 
 general term is SiicatoTrpdjrjfia, SiKaiufJia being the correction 
 of the dBiKTjfia.) 
 
 We must enumerate hereafter the several kinds of ZiKaia 
 and v6fii/j,a, and describe them and the things with which 
 they are concerned. 
 
 And whereas SUaia and aSiKu are what has been said, a 
 man dSiKei or Si/catoTrpayel when he voluntarily does aSiKa or 
 SUaia: but when he does those acts involuntarily, he neither 
 dSiKel nor BiKaiotrpa'yei except Kara crvfjL^€^rjK6<;, for such an 
 one does acts which are Kara a-v/u,^e^rjK6^ BUaia or aSixa, 
 (That an act is or is not an dBiKrj/Ma or BiKacoTrpdyrjfjLa is deter- 
 mined by its voluntariness or involuntariness : for when an 
 act is voluntary it is blamed, and is at the same time an 
 dSUrjfia: so that there will be an act which is uBikov, but not 
 yet an dSUrjfia, if voluntariness is lacking. Here by a volun- 
 tary act I mean, as has been said above, anything which being 
 within his power a man does knowingly and not in ignorance 
 of the person, the instrument, or the result, — for example 
 whom he strikes, what he strikes with, and with what result, — 
 doing any such act neither Kara a-vfi^e/B'rjKoi nor under com- 
 pulsion; whereas if B were to take A's hand and strike C, 
 A would not strike voluntarily, the act not being in his own 
 power. But it is possible that the person struck should be 
 the father of the striker, and that the striker should know that 
 the other was a human being or even one of the bystanders, 
 and yet be ignorant that it was his father. The same sort of 
 distinction may be made in like manner in regard to the result, 
 and with reference to the act generally. Now an act done 
 in ignorance, or an act which, though not done in ignorance, 
 is not under the agent's control, or is done under compulsion, 
 
44 H(H)IKnN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 TToWa yap koX tcov <f)V(reL vvap^ovTtav eiSore? kol trpdr- 
 
 TO}X€V KOL Trdcr)(Op,€V, (bv OvOeV Ov9 £KOV<TLOV OVT aKOV- 
 
 § 4 (TLov icTTLv, otov TO yrjpav rj d/nodvrjcrKeiv' ecrrt S' d/Aoiws 
 ejTi Tciv aZiKOiV koI tcjv BuKaCcav Koi to Kara crvixfiefirjKOS' 
 Kol ydp av ttjv TrapaKaTaOyjKTjv diro^oiq tis aKcav koX s 
 8td (fiofiov, ov ovre StKata irpaTTeiv ovre SiKatoirpayeiv 
 <f>aTeov dXk' 17 Kara o'vp.^e^'qKOi' ojjloCq)^ Se Kol toi' 
 avayKat,6p,euov /cat aKovra ry]v TrapaKaTad-^Ki^v firj airo- 
 SiSoKTa /card crvii^efir]K6<s (f>aT€ov dSiKelu Koi rd dStKa. 
 
 § 5 TrpoLTTetv. TO)v 8e eKOvcrCcov rd fxev TrpoeXofievoi, irpdr- 10 
 Top.ev rd S' ou TrpoeXofievoL, TrpoeXo/Aefoi ju,e!/ ocra Trpo/Sov- 
 
 § 6 X.eucrd/Aevot, dirpoaCpeTa Se ocra dirpofiovXevTa. TpiSv Se 
 oucr&Ji' jSXaficov tcHv ev rats Koivwvtats, rd jaei/ jner' dyi'oias 
 aiiaprrjjjLaTd iaTiv, orai/ jitTjre oi' jUT^re o /ij^re w jUTyre ow 
 eve/ca vireXafie irpd^' rj ydp ov ^aXeuv 17 ou toutw 17 oiJ 15 
 TovTov 17 ou TovTOV evcKa amjOf], dXXa crvvi^rj ov)(^ ov 
 iv€Ka (py]9r), otov ov^ Iva. Tpaxrrj dXiC Iva Kevrrjcry, ■^ ov^ 
 
 § 7 ov, Tj ov^ &' OTav fjikv ovv irapaXoyws 17 /3Xd/3r} yivrjTai,, 
 dTV)(7]iJLa, OTav Se ju,i} TrapaXoyas, dvev Se /caKias, dp-dp- 
 TTfjpa' dpapTavei, pkv ydp oTav 7) dpi^i) ei" aurw ^ tijs dy- 20 
 
 § 8 votas, dTV)(ei S' orai' e^adev. otov Se etScos ftei' jiat) tt/oo- 
 fiovXev(ra<s Se, dSCK7]p,a, otov ocra re Sid 6vp,6v Kal dXXa 
 vddr] ocra dvayKola rj (jtvcTLKd crvp-^alvei rots dvdpamoi<;' 
 TavTa yap ^XdirrovTes koI dp.apTdvovTe'; dSi,Kovcri p.ev, 
 
 I yip ral Twx 0u'irei] 71J1/) twv kotA ^uo-ik H''M''Q. 3 vi^pa;/] iyytipav 
 
 H^MbQNbQ". ^] Kai Mb. mi to L*. ^oti d'] ianv Nb. a/to^ws] o/io/us 
 Kal Pb. 4 aSiKWK Koi Tu>v SiKo/uc] Stxaliov Kal tiSv aSixuv Q. ytai ante 
 
 to] om. H^M^Q. 5 xal ante Sii] ^ M". 6 o»] K". om. ceteri. SUaia] 
 
 om. pr. Nb. 1 1 01! jrpoeXo'/iej>ot] ov Tpoaipov/ievoi. M^Q. 12 dirpo^ovXevTa] 
 
 Trpo/SovXeuTd K". di] Sri KhN^Qb ^^/S/J^r. ofi- Mi>Q. 15 TrpdJ^] K""- touto 
 irpdiri K^LPT^I^O^F^. raSra irptt^oi M^Q. /SaXeTi-] ^(iXXeu- K^. /SoXcf Mi>Q. 
 
 16 dXX4 — ijJiJS)/] om. Pb. 18 <?] Kb. us ceteri et Bekker. orav] ore M^Q. 
 
 ovv] om. Nb. 1!/] om. Lb. ij Q. yA-ijtoi] -yfrjjTai Mb. 19 Si post 
 
 aceu] om. MbQ. 20 ^ o'px^) ^•' avr^ ^ apxi) ^k outi? Pb, ^;/ outu 17 dpxh 
 
 H^MbQ. ^» ^auTw ^ dpxh NbQb. ^] ^ Qb. oVo'as] e coni. scripsi. 
 
 a^Tios KbLbNbQbpb Beiier. xaWas H^MbQ. 21 xal ante (JXXa] 17 MbQ. 
 
 24 toDto] Sick TodTa O*. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 8 §§ 3—8. 45 
 
 is involuntary.) For there are many natural processes which 
 we perform and experience with full knowledge, but which do 
 not fall either under the head of voluntary or under that of 
 involuntary, for example growing old, or dying: and in 
 like manner there is a Kara (TVjx^e^riKO'i in the case of things 
 ahiKa and SiKuia : thus a man may restore the deposit un- 
 willingly and under the influence of fear, and such a one 
 should not be said BlKaia trpaTreiv or SiKaioirpayelv except 
 Kara av/i^6^riK6<; : and in like manner one who under compul- 
 sion and unwillingly retains the deposit should be said Kara 
 avfi^e^riKb<! dSiiceiv and ra aSiKa irpdrTeiv. Of voluntary 
 acts we do some of deliberate purpose, others without deli- 
 berate purpose, of deliberate purpose when we have previously 
 debated what we shall do, without deliberate purpose when 
 we have not so debated. And whereas there are three sorts 
 of harm which may be done in Koivwviai, things done 
 ignorantly are dfiapTrifiara when the object, the act, the instru- 
 ment, or the result is other than the agent supposed: for 
 instance, he had thought that he would not strike, or that he 
 would not strike with this weapon, or that he would not 
 strike this person, or that the blow would not have this effect, 
 and the result was other than he had expected (thus he did 
 not strike with intent to cut, but with intent to prick), or the 
 person or the weapon was different. Now when the harm is 
 done contrary to expectation, it is an drv^v/Ma; but when, 
 though it is not contrary to expectation, there is no malice, it 
 is a dfidpTrj/m; that is to say, when the origin of the ignorance 
 is in the agent, he dfiapTavei, but when it is external to him, 
 he aTy;^et. When however a man harms another knowingly 
 but without previous deliberation, it is an dSiKr/iMa; for in- 
 stance, harms done under the influence of anger or any other 
 unavoidable or natural passion to which men are liable : when 
 men do harm {^XdtrrovTe';) or misconduct themselves {d/iaprd- 
 
46 HBIKflN NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 Kot dBiKijixaToi icTTLv, ov yuivToi vco aSuKou 8id ravra ovoe 
 
 6 § I TTovTjpoL' ov yap Sta jxo^drjpLav iq fiXd(3y]' < eirei o ecmv 
 
 dSiKovvra fjujiro) aSt/cov etvai, o ttoul aStycT^^ara aoLKCov 
 
 •qSr] aStKos icrTLV e/cacmji' dSiKiav, olov KkeTrT7}<s t} /aoi;[(OS 
 
 ri Xrja-n^?; rj ovtco fiev ovSev Stoicrei, {kol yap av avy- S 
 
 yivoiTo ywaiKi eiSws to y, dXX' ov Sid Trpoaipicr^ox; ap^v 
 
 6 § 2 dXX.d Sid ird9o?- dSiKCi )u.ev ovi', dSiKOS S' ovk ecrriv, oiov 
 
 ou KXeTTTrjs, e/cXei|;e Se, ovSe jiioi^os, ip-oi^eva-e Be- 6poLO)<s 
 
 9% 9 Be KOi eTTi TcSv dX.Xwi',) > orav S' ex vpoaipiaeoi?, aSi/cos 
 
 Ktti p,o-^9rjp6<; ', Bio /caXws rd ck dvpov ovk ix Trpovoia<; lo 
 
 KpiveTai' ov yap dp)(ei, 6 6vpS iroiav, dXX o opytcras. 
 
 § 10 eri Se oi5Se irepX tov yevicrOai rj p,rj dfx,^L(T^rjTeZTai, aXXa 
 
 TrepX TOV SiKaCov eTrl <f>ai,voiJLevr) yap dSi/cia 17 opytj ecrriv 
 
 ov yap tScnrep ev toTs crvvaWdypacn irepi tov yevecrdai 
 
 dix(f>icrfir)Tov(TLi', (ov dvdyKrj toi' erepov eivai pjO^^Oyjpov, 15 
 
 dv p.rj Sid Xyjdrjv avTo BpcUcnv' dXX' ojnoXoyoCvres Treyai 
 
 Tou Tfpdyp.aTO';, vepl tov TroTepax; BiKauov dp,<l)ia/37]Tovcn,v. 
 
 6 B' iTTifiovXevcras ovk dyvoeZ tucrre d p.ev oierai dSi- 
 
 § II Kelcrdav, 6 S' ov. du S' e/c TTpoaipecreco'; /3Xd'<prj, dSiKiei 
 
 /cai fcard raOr' rjBy] rd dBiKiqixaTa 6 dBiKcav dBiKOS, oTav 10 
 
 irapa to avdXoyov y rj irapa to laov. djiAoiws Se Kai 
 
 § 12 SiKttio?, OTav TrpoeXop-euo^ BiKavonpayfj, BiKaioirpayel Be, 
 
 dv jxovov CKWV TTpaTTTj. Tcov B' aKovcTLOiv Ta pev icTTi 
 
 crvyyvctijjLovtKa Ta B' ov (Tvyyvcop-oviKa- ocra pev yap prj 
 
 ju.di'oi' dyroouvTes dXXd /cai .81' dyvotav dpapTavovcri, crvy- 25 
 
 2 oi ■yhp] oiSi II'M'^QN''. lirel—aWav] 6 §§ i, 2 traieci. 3 Troia] 
 
 TToia S' P*". 6 Sii ante Trpoaip^o-eus] om. Kl". 7 Sm ante iraflos] om. M''Q. 
 
 irdBos] TdBrj H». 8 01) ante kX^tttijs] oi'S^ H=L''M'=QN''0'= Bekker. 9 6^ 
 
 post d/ioius] om. Pl". 10 /iopt^i/pos] Tovripos M''Q. Sid] Sid Kcii L'=. irpc- 
 
 colos] Tpoaipiffcus M^'Q. 11 St/^(p iroiui'] Bv/j-oiroiSiv liP. 12 oiJSi] oi M'^Q. 
 irepi] 7ra/)a H". 13 ■n-epl] irapd H^. tjxuvoiiivrj] tpepoixivr] P\ ^] om. 
 
 M'>. 14 &] om. K''. Trepl] TO/ia H". yeviaSai] ylveadai M''. 15 
 
 dpi<j>i<r^Tp-ov<nv] diKpta^TyreiTai. M^iQ. 16 ai'] il O^. aiird] aiiTUK H^'M'' 
 
 17 Tou TTOT^pws] Se Tou TToripios pr. K'', 19 iSj'] ici,v K^'L^'P''. 20 dSi/cos] 
 
 d dSiKos P*". 21 TTO/joi] irepl L*". i;] om. Ml^Q. 22 Skotos] d SiKaios 
 
 L''. Si)cai07r/)a7ei] SiKaiOTpayij MP. 23 /ndi'o;'] om. Q. /ifi'] /ir; 
 
 M''Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics V 8 § 8 : 6 §§ I, 2 : 8 §§ 9—12. 47 
 
 vovre<;) in this manner, they dStKovaiv and the acts are dSwr]- 
 fiara, but the perpetrators are not necessarily uSikol or -ttovt]- 
 poC, the harmful act not being the result of fioxOvpla- But 
 seeing that a man may be dSiKeav and yet not necessarily 
 aSt/eo?, what are the dhiKruiara the commission of which makes 
 a man necessarily dhKo<: of any particular dhtda — for ex- 
 ample, a thief, an adulterer, or a brigand ? Shall we not rather 
 say that the distinction is not of this sort [i.e. does not lie in 
 the acts], — (for a man may have intercourse with a woman 
 knowing who she is, yet not' of deliberate purpose, but under 
 the influence of passion: such an one d^iKel without being 
 dBiKo<;, thieving, for example, yet not being a thief, com- 
 mitting adultery, yet not being an adulterer, and so forth), — 
 [but lies in the person], and that it is when a man dBiKy of 
 deliberate purpose that he is dSiKO's and /loxOrjpo^ } 
 
 Hence actions prompted by anger are rightly held not 
 to have been done ex ■n-povoia<;. For it is not o 6v[im iroimv 
 who begins the quarrel, but 6 opyia-a?. Moreover the issue 
 is one not of fact but of hUaiov, anger arising at apparent 
 dSiKla: i.e. the parties do not dispute the fact, as they do 
 in awoKkdr/iuna, where one or other must be p,(y)(0r)p6<s, — 
 unless they do it through forgetfulness ; but, agreeing about 
 the fact, they disagree as to the side on which right lies 
 (TTOTepw? BIkmov). On the other hand 6 i-7ri^ovkevaa<i (the 
 vengeful man) is obviously not ignorant of the fact. Thus 
 whereas 6 Ovfim iroimv may plead his belief that he has 
 been wronged, 6 €7ri^ovKeva-a<; cannot do so. 
 
 But if a man harms another of deliberate purpose, he 
 dBiKei and is moreover dSiKoi, provided that the act violates 
 proportion or equality. In like manner a man is BiKaio<; 
 when he SiKaioirpaj^ of deliberate purpose, whilst he Sixaio- 
 irpayel if he acts voluntarily though not, perhaps, deliberately. 
 
 Of involuntary harmful acts some are excusable, others 
 are not. Those dfjLaprijfMaTa which men do not only in 
 ignorance, but owing to ignorance, are excusable, but those 
 
48 H@IKflN NIKOMAXEinN E. 
 
 yva/jLovLKoi, ocra 8e firj SC ayvoiav, dW dyvoovvTe<; fiev 
 Sta vcido's Se /iTjTe (jivaiKov /xtJt dvOponnKov, ov avyyvoi- 
 fjiovLKa. 
 9 diropTjcrue S' cti' Tts et i/cai'aJs SicJ/JicTTat Trepi tou 
 aStKEicr^ai Kai aSi/ceo', npcoTOv fikv el ecmv Qjcnrep Evpt- s 
 TTiSijs etprjKe, Xeycov aTonas 
 
 fitjTepa KareKTou rrfv ifin]v, /3pa)(ps Xoyo?. 
 
 e/fcoi' e/coOcrai', "^ ov)(^ eKovaav ov)( ckuiv ; 
 TTOTepov yap as akrjOSis ccttlv CKOvTa aSi/cetcr^at, rj ov 
 ctW aKOVcTLOv a/rrav, axnrep koX to dhiKeiv trdv €ko'V(tlov ', 'o 
 Kai apa vdv outws 17 iKeCvca?, mcrvep Koi to dBiKeiv Trav 
 
 § 2 eKOVCTLOV, 17 TO /ACJ/ kKOVCTiOV TO S' dK0V(TlOV ', djU.OlCDS Se 
 
 /cal CTTi Tov Si/catoutr^at" to yap hiKaioirpayeiv TToiv eKOv- 
 aiov. (liCTT evXoyov avTiKeicOat, Ojlioiws Kad eKaTepov to 
 T aSt/ceio'^ai /cal to St/caioucr^at — ■^ kKoiaiov rj aKovcriov 15 
 e«/ai. droTTov 8' ai/ So^^ete /cat eirt tou SifcaioCcr^ai, el 
 § 3 TToiv eKovcriov evLOL yap SoKaLovvTai, ov^^ eKovres. inel 
 Kol Tooe oiaTToprjcreLev dv tis, TTorepov 6 to dSiKov ire- 
 TrovOdii aot/ceiTai 7ras 17 Mcnrep /cai ctti tou irpdrTeiv, koX 
 em TOV Trd(T)(eiv ecrTiv] KaTa (ru)a/3eySi7K0? ydp evSej^cTat 20 
 ei7 ajx^oTepoiv iJLeTaKap,^dveiv tcov 8i,Kaia)v, o/aoicos Se 
 o:^\oj' oTi KOL iirl tcHv dhiKOiV ov yap. TavTov to TaSi/ca 
 TTpaTTeiv Tw aSiKeii' ouSe to aSi/ca irdcr^eiv tS dSbKelcrdai, 
 d/xoi<us oe Kal IttI tou ZiKaiotrpay^v koX hiKaiovarOaf 
 
 2 5e] om. K*". &vdpairiK6v\ dpBpiiwimv H''K''Q Bekker. 4 kaj-ws] 
 
 ravw! pr. N^i. 5 dSiKco'] tou aSiKcrK H!'Mi=QN''Ol'Pi'. ei] om. H". 
 
 6 droTTWi] t4 irw! K^". dTOTrws. iruis L''. ototto?! tA ttiSs N''0''. 7 kot^ktoj'] 
 KUTCKva N''. KariKTa ceteri et Bekker. 8 ofi^ ^Kouo-ap] codd. et Bekker SiXov- 
 <rav. 9 dXijflus] dXriSis M^Q. 10 aVw] irai/ C. 11 7r& ante oiiVws] 
 
 dVai' Hi»L''M''QN''Pl'. Kcd] om. M^Q. Trax ante inoinov] ^ ttSji K^^NTb. 
 
 Trac rjv M''Q. 12 ^ ri — aVoiiirioj'] om. K''. to 5' axoiinov (omissis 77 tA ;t^i/ 
 
 iKovaiov) N"". 13 SiKiiiouo-ffai] dioOjdai pr. N*". 14 koS'] Se kuB' H^. 5)j 
 
 KaS' M''Q. IS t6 ante 5ucoiouo-9ai] om. IC'P''. 57 ^/cowVtoj'] 17 dVai' 
 
 exoiJo-ioi' M''. el airav eKoinov Q. 17 Trd;/] dVaj/ H''M'=QN''0''. ?«ot] Imt 
 
 pr. Nl". 18 To5e] TO je N''0''. 21 ^ir' d/i^oT^pav /xeTaXafi.^di'eivi /*«''«- 
 
 Xa/i^dveiv ctt' dfi-ipoTipuv W'Q^. 23 TT/jdrTfii'] om. ?•> (add. marg. Troictv.). 
 
 t6] tSj Nb. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 8 § 12—9 § 3- 49 
 
 which they do, not owing to ignorance, but in ignorance, 
 owing to passion which is neither natural nor such as 
 human beings are h'able to, are not excusable. 
 
 It may perhaps be doubted whether we have been suf- 
 ficiently explicit about dBiKsiadai and dSiKelv: in the first 
 place whether the matter is as Euripides has put it in his 
 strange lines — 
 
 A/. I killed my mother, that's the tale in brief. 
 PA. Were you both willing, or unwilling both? 
 
 In other words, is it really possible for a man etcovra aBi,Kel- 
 aOai, or on the contrary is dSiKeiadai always aKovcrtop as 
 oSiKeiv is always eKovaiov ? Is dSiKetadai always aKovaiov 
 or always eKova-iov, as dSticeu/ is always movaiov ; or is it 
 sometimes eaovaiop, sometimes uKovcriov } And so likewise 
 in the case of BiKaiovadat ; 8iKaioTrpar/e2v being always exov- 
 aiov. Thus we might fairly suppose that dBiKeiaOai and 
 StKaiouadai were similarly opposed to dBixelv and Staaio- 
 TTpayeiv respectively, and so were either sKova-iop or dKova-iov. 
 But again in the case of StKaiovadai, it Would seem strange 
 that it should always be kicov<nov ; for some SiKaiovvrai ov^ 
 eKovre^. Indeed a further doubt may be raised whether in 
 every case 6 to dBixov ireirovdai'i dSiKelrai, or, on the contrary, 
 it is with irda-'^eiu as with irpaTTeiv. In fact passively as 
 well as actively actions may Kara <TV(jL^6^rjK6<} partake of 
 Ta BiKaia, and plainly this also holds of rd dBiKa : that 
 is to say, rdSiKa irpaTTeiv is not identical with dSiKelv, nor 
 dBiKa Trdaxeiv with dBiKeicrdai, and similarly this is true of 
 StKaioTrpayeiv and BiKaiovaOai ; for a man cannot dBiKela-Qai 
 J- 4 
 
50 HQIKXIN NIKOMAXEIXIN E. 
 
 aovvoTov yap dBiKelcrdai firj aSt/covvros fj OLKaiovcruai 
 
 %'i fiTj hiKaiOTTpcLyovvTo<i. el S' iaTiv dvXas to aSt/fcti/ to 
 fiXdiTTeiv cKovra Tivd, to S' eKOvra elSora /cai ov Kai w 
 KOL cos, 6 S' aKparrj^ e/cwf fikaTrrev auTOS avTOt", e/ccui' t 
 av dSiKoiTO Ktti o'Se^otTO avTOv avTOV doiKetv. (ecrTt s 
 8e Kai TOUTO «/ Twv d-TTopoviiivoiv, ei ivSe)(€TaL avrov 
 
 § 5 avTov dSiKeiv.) ert eKwv dv Tts St' aKpacriav vtt oKKov 
 ^KdiTTOiTO CKOVTO';, (^(TT etij av eKOVT dSiKelcrdaL. rj ovk 
 6p66s 6 8to/Dia-ju,os, dWd irpocrOeTeov tw /SKdwreLV eiSoTa 
 
 § 6 Kal ot' Kai w koI cSs to irapd rrjv eKeivov ySovXT/crtv; ySXct- lo 
 TTTeraL fiev ovv Tis e/ccii' /cai TctSi/ca irdcr^e.i, dSi/ceircii 8' 
 ousels CKav ov^ets yd/a fiovXerau, ovS' o dKpartjs, dWd 
 irapd Trfv /3ovXr)crLv TrpdrreL- ovtc yap fiovXeTac ov0el<s o 
 firj oteTtti eli'ai o-7rou8atoj', o tc dKpaTrj<i 6 ovk otcTai Seti' 
 
 § 7 TTpdrreLv irpdrrei. 6 Se Td avTou 8180U9, axnrep "O/ATjpos 15 
 i^yjari hovvai rov VXavKov T(a ALOfiijSeL 
 
 Xpvcrea ^(aXKeCcav, eKaTOfi^oL evveajSoLov, 
 OVK aoiKetTat," ctt avTCo yap ecTTL to oiooj'ai, to o aot- 
 KelcrdaL ovk eV avrw, dXXd tov dBuKovvra Sel vwdp^etv. 
 
 § 8 776/31 /Aev ovv TOV dBtKeicrdaL, OTt, ou^ eKOVCTiov, SyjXov. 20 
 It6 8' Sv Trpoe.iX6p.ed a hv ecmv elire^v, voTepov ttot 
 dSiKei d ve'ijxas Ttapd Trjv d^iav to ttXcioi' 1^ d e^oiv, koX 
 
 § 9 et ecTTiv avTov avTov dhiKelv el yap evher^eTai to irpoTepov 
 Xe)(6ev Kal 6 ScavefjiMv d8t/cet d\X' ov)(^ 6 e^cav to TrXeov, 
 
 I dSiKOWTos] aSwtoCirAs Ticos H^M''QO''. SiKaiovuBai.'] SiKaioScBai. dSivarov 
 
 Pb. 3 t6] tw Mi>Q. elSoT-a] eiSej H». ij] o H^KbMi'QNi'O''. 4 
 
 auToc] avT-Ai' Ni". t'] om. M''Q. 5 av\ av H>. Kal] kvlv K^. mrdv] 
 
 avTos K''L''Q. av outoj/ O''. outok] airov N^. Itrri — dSiKelv] om. M*", 
 
 6 fv] om. L^". li> n H'N''0^ Bekker. auVw] auVos L''. 7 o6toV afft- 
 
 iceu'] auVoV dSiKeiv N*". dimSv airav O''. 9 dpSds] dpSiDs lO. riji] rj 
 
 KbObpb 10 KoX ov] om. K^'Li'. ij] H»Mi=Q et corr. Li=. to] Li". 
 
 om. ceteri, 11 ovv] ou K''. S' ou'^Eis] 6' ovSc eU K''P''. 12 dtcpariis] 
 
 OKpoarrjS KP. 13 7^/5] om. M''Q. 14 ehai ffwovSaiov] (nrovSa''ov eXvai. O^, re] 
 K*". Se' ceteri. oi)/c] ovx & K*" Bekker. 15 aiiroC] aiSroi; H''N''. 16 
 
 ^jjffi] <t>val Q. 17 ^KOTo/i/Sm'] ixaTOfipld H''. 18 ^tt' 0^713 ^0' ouru C. 
 
 21 ir/JoeiXoVeSo] 7r/)o«Xoyueffo K*". ttote^oi' ttote] TroTepdi' re N"". 27 to TXetov] 
 vXiov K*". TO ttX^ok P''. ^ d] om. K''. 23 adroV] auToi/ N*". Trpdre/JOK] 
 TOTepov P^. 24 o5«ei] dSiKeiv Q. ^X""] ^'"^'' K**. ffX^oc] irXeiov tfi. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 9 §§ 3—9. SI 
 
 if there is not some one who dBixei, nor SiKatovaffai if there 
 is not some one who BiKaioirpayei. Now if to dSiiceiv is 
 simply TO /SXaTTTetv kicovTa Tivd, where by eKcvra is meant 
 elBoTu KoX ov Kol w Koi wi, and the incontinent man skoiv 
 ^Xtnnei ainov, a man may eKwv dhuKelaOai, and may dSiKelu 
 avTov. (Whether a man can dSoKelv avrov, is another of the 
 questions which we have to consider.) Again in consequence 
 of dxpaula a man may bkwv be harmed by another who is 
 exwv, whence it will follow that a man may eKcvv dBiKeiadai,, 
 But is not this definition incorrect ? and should we not add 
 to the words ^Xdirreiv elBora koI ov koI a koI aS? the words 
 irapa Trjv eKeivov fiovXrjaiv ? Thus a man may eKwv ^Xdw- 
 reaOai and TaBiKU Trda-^eiv, but no one can skcov aBiicetadai : 
 for no one ^oiXeTui ^XdirreaOat, not even the incontinent 
 man, so that the incontinent man's actions are contrary to his 
 /SoiiXTjcrt?, (for no one ^ovXeTai what he does not think to be 
 good, and the incontinent man does things which he does 
 not think it right to do,) [and therefore, when the incontinent 
 man under the influence of e-TnOvfiia does what he thinks 
 wrong, the resistance of his ^ovXrjaLi; has ceased, and con- 
 sequently he cannot be said dBiKelaOai.] Again one who 
 gives, what is his own, as Homer says Glaucus gave to 
 Diomed ' gold for bronze, a hundred beeves' worth for the 
 worth of nine ', ovk dBiKeiTai : for to give is in his power, 
 but dBiKeiaOat is not, as [in order that he may dBvKeiadai] 
 there must be an dBiK(Zv. Thus it is clear that dBiKelaOai is 
 not voluntary. 
 
 Furthermore of the questions which ' we undertook to 
 answer two remain to be discussed : (i) is it one who dis- 
 tributes (or one who receives) more than the just proportion, 
 who dBiKei ? and (2) can a man dBi,Kelv avTov ? [These 
 questions appear to be connected :] for if the former of them 
 is affirmed, — if it is the distributor, and not the recipient, of 
 
 4—2 
 
52 HeiKON NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 ei ns irkiov eripca rj avTw reju-ei cJSws koX eKOJV, outos 
 auros avTov aStKei* oirep SoKovcnv ol /AeVpiot iroieiv o 
 yap eTTiei/ojs eX-aTTwri/cos icmv. ij ouSe touto aTrXovfJ 
 erepov yap dyadov, el ervx^v, ivXeoveKTeL, olov 80^175 r} 
 Tov ctTrXcUs KaXou. en XveraL Kara tov OiOpicrp.ov tov s 
 dSt/ceiv ovOkv yap irapa ttjv avTOv Trda^ei fiov\y)crLV, cocrre 
 ovK dSiKetrai 8id ye touto, dXX' et/rrep, pkaTTTerai [xovov. 
 
 % 10 (j>avep6v 8e on Kai o Scavefjuov dSiKei, aXX.' ov;y o '''o 
 irkiov e^cov del' ov yap w to d8tKov VTTdp)(ei dSt/cet, aXX 
 w TO eKovra tovto iroLetv tovto 8' odev rj dp^rj t^s irpa- 10 
 ^eojs, 17 icTTLV iv tw hiavifJiovTL dXX' ot5k ei* tw Xafx^avovTi' 
 
 § ti []eTi] cTrel TroXXa^i^tus to Troieiv XeyeraL, Kal ecmv ws Ta 
 di/ff^a KTeCvei Kal ■>) X^V '*-'^^ '^ olKery]? iirtTa^avTO'S ovk 
 
 § 12 dSiKel iiev, TTOiet 8e to, dStKa. en ei /xei' dyi'owi' eKpuvev, 
 OVK dSiKei Kara to voilikov SiKaLOV ovB' ctSiKOS 17 Kpicri'S 15 
 icrrCv, icm. S" tus dS^KOs" erepov yap to vo/jukov SuKaiou 
 Kal TO TrpcoTov el Se ywcicrKOJv eKpivev dSiKO)?, irXeoveKTel 
 
 § 13 Kat avTos ■>? 'xdpiTO'i 7] TifKopCas. oi<nrep ovv Kav a ns 
 p^epia-aiTO tov dSt/CTj/AaTOs, fat o 8td TauTa KpLvas d8i/cct)s 
 irXiov ej^ef /cal yd/D ctt' iKeivwv 6 tov dypbv KpCvas ovk lo 
 dypbu dXX' dpyvpuov eXa/3ev. 
 1 1 < TTOTepov 8' ivB€)(eTat iavTov dBuKelv 17 ou, ^avepbv Ik 
 T(tiv eLpr)p.ev(ov. 
 
 I Tis] T(s 8e L''Mt'Q. ns to C". irX^oi'] irXeioi' O''. ttX^ok 5e (sed Sf 
 
 postea erasum est) P''. Mpif ij avTip] auroS Mp(j> &. outos] om. K^'O''. 
 
 2 avTos] om. N'\ outw] auroV N''. 3 ^] ^ N''. 4 ^TrXeoc^Krei] TrXeoyeKrel 
 
 K''L*'. 5 tov] to Q. XiieTai] Xiierai Kal O* (?) Beklier. 6 auToO] auToi; 
 
 KbLbCPi'. mirriv H^ 7 SicJ] S^ H^ 8 «e oVt Kai] Sim Kai K^. g^ ^^l 
 
 oTt H^'Mi'QNi'Oi' Bekker. 9 I'xw] om. H=. dei] aSiKct K'>. uirdpx"] 
 
 ex<D vwapxei K^. 11 t^j ante Xa/n^dj'oi'TO om. H'. li ^Trel] eZ L'^N^'P''. 
 
 1 3 KTelvei] KTeCvq H^ KT'qvi) pb. ktcIvci. Sk L''. 6] om. C. oi)k dSiKei 
 
 ^ev] /nei" OUK iiiKei K''N''P''. 15 oiJk dSiKe! harci, t.o vo/ukov dtKaiov] Kara, to 
 
 m/uKov SiKaioK oiK dSiKEi Mi'Q. co/«k6c] v6ij.i.iiov H^M''0''. vo/uk6v Kal T^K 
 
 16 ^o-t/c] om. O*". vofUKiv] i'6)j,iiMiv MPQ. 18 Kai'] Kai K*". 20 iKelvuv 
 
 6] iKclvai K^. iKeiva P^. 9 §§ 14 — 16] vide supra, post i § 3. 9 § 17] 
 
 vide supra, post i § 9. cap. 10] vide infra, post 11 § 9. 12 iavriv dSiKcTv] 
 
 iSiKcTv iavrbv M''Q. iavrbv aSimtv ^ ov, <f>avep6v in tZv etprniiiiuv] ipavepiv ix 
 Tu'v elpTjfjiivwv dSiKetv eavrbf rj ov. H''. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 9 §§ 9—13: II § I. 53 
 
 TO TrXeov, who dSiKet, — when a man knowingly and voluntarily 
 distributes more to another than to himself, he dSiKel avrov. 
 (Modest men are thought to do this ; thus the eViet^r;? is one 
 who does not insist upon his right.) But does not this state- 
 ment require qualification? For (i) it may be that [by 
 assigning more to another than to himself] the distributor 
 obtained a larger share of some other good, such as re- 
 putation or TO aTrXtu? kuXov ; [in which case he ovk oSt«et 
 avTov] : (2) the inference may be met by an appeal to the 
 definition of aStKeiu ; for the distributor suffers nothing con- 
 trary to his own ^ovXTjcrti, and therefore ovk dBiKeirai in 
 consequence, but at most ^XavTeTai. [Hence if it is decided 
 that o v€ifjLa<! irapa Trjv d^iav to TrXetov, and not 6 e^wv, dBiKei, 
 it does not necessarily follow that a man can dBixelv avrov.] 
 
 That the distributor aSt/cet, and that the recipient of to 
 ■tfXeov does not do so in all cases, is clear : for it is not he 
 who aBiKov iroiei, but he who eKwv iroiel to dSiKov, who dSiKel ; 
 that is to say, the one with whom the action originates, 
 and the action originates not in the recipient but in the 
 distributor : (for the word ttoisIv is used in various senses, 
 and there is a sense in which inanimate things are said to 
 kill, and in which the hand or a slave acting under orders is 
 said, not indeed dBixeiv, but Troieiv rd dSiKU.) 
 
 Again, though if the distributor gave his judgment d- 
 yvoav, he ouk aSt/tet kutu to vofiiKov Bixaiov, and his judg- 
 ment is not dSiKo<;, (except in a special sense, to vofiiKou 
 BiKaiov and to irpwrov Sixaiov being different things,) if he 
 yii/ooa-KUJv expCvev aStKa)?, he TrXeoveKTel himself either in grati- 
 tude or in revenge ; and one who for the sake of gratitude 
 or revenge aS/xo)? xplvei, is just as much a TrXeove/cTij? as if he 
 were to share the dSiKTjfm with the recipient, in which last 
 case indeed the distributor who wrongfully assigns a piece 
 of land receives not land but money. 
 
 Whether it is possible for a man dSiKeiv iavrov or not, is 
 clear from what has been said. For — Firstly, one class of 
 
54 H@IKflN NIKOMAXElflN E. 
 
 TO, fih^ yap ioTL tcov hiKaCcov to. Kara -rraa-OLV aperrjv 
 VTTO Tov vop-ov TeTayixeva, oiov ov /ceXevei diroKTLVvvvai 
 
 ■> eavTOV 6 v6fJi.o<;, a Se /at) /ceXeuet, dnayopeveL- en orav 
 vapd TOV vofiov ^XdnTrj [fjurj avTifiXaTTTOiv) eKciv, dSifcet, 
 e/cwv Se o ctSws kol ov kol w- d 8e St' dpyijv eavrov S 
 crSaTTOiv eKOJv tovto Spa Trapd tov opdov Xoyov, o ovk 
 
 i 3 ea d v6fJL0<;' aSiKiet dpa. aXXa Tuva ; rj ttjv ttoKiv, avTOv 
 8' ov\ eKcov yap irdcrxa, aSiKeiTat 8' ov^ets eKwi'. 8id 
 KoX rj TTcXts CvP'Lol, Kai tis driju-ia vpoaea-TL t&5 eaurov 
 hia^deipavTi w; TT^f ttoXu/ dStKoui'Ti. '° 
 
 5 4 eri Ka^' d dSi/cos d p-ovov dSiKcov /cat /at) dXws (f)av\os, 
 OVK ecTTiv dStKT^crat eavTOV. {tovto yap dWo eKeivov 
 ccTTi ydp TTcos 6 dSt/cos ovTO) TTOVTJpos axTTTf.p 6 8etXds, 
 ov-^ ws oXtji' e)((x}v TTjv TTOvrjpuav, wctt ov8e Kara, TavTTjv 
 dSt/cet.) d/x.a ydp to avTO dv etr) d(f)rjp'rj(T6ai Kat irpoa- 15 
 Keiadai rol avrw, tovto Se dSui^arov dXX' det ev TrXeiocrtv 
 
 § 5 dvdyKT) elvaL to SiKaiov kol to dSiKov. en Se €kov<ti6v 
 re Kol Ik vpoavpecreo}?, /cat irpOTepov (d ydp Stdrt €rra9e 
 KOL TO aVTO dvTLTTOLav OV SoKEt dStKeo"') auTos 8' kaVTOV, 
 rd avTa dp.a Kal rrda-^ei koX Trotet. Irt eiij av eKOVTa 20 
 
 § 6 dStfcetcr^at. irpos Se rowrots dvev tcov Kara jae'pos dSt- 
 K-qp-aTOiV ov^ets dStKei, poL)(€vei, 8' ouSeis tt)^' eaiiTou ouSe 
 TOi\(apv)(€i TOV eavTOv toZ)(ov ouSe KkiirTu Ta iaiirov. 
 
 I Ta ante /cari] om. O^. 2 &TOKTivvOvai ^auriz/] ^aurbv airdKrivvOvai L'^O'^. 
 
 iavrbv airoKTevEiv H^M^. eavTov aTOKrheiv Q, airoKTGveiv kavTov N^, 3 <^] o 
 
 pi". KeXeiici] Ke\eiri N''. 4 Trapa] ire/ii O''. y.^ avTi^iirTav] om. ?>>. 
 
 5 f\ ills H^M''N''P'' et corr. !<.''. ipyv"! °pyv P''- eavTbv'\ abrov M''. 6 
 
 ip96v] airbv KP. Myoy] v6nov H='Mt'QN'=Ol'. 7 a{iTov\ airov M^'N''. 
 
 10 aSiKovvTC] dSiKovPTi Tj aiiTov Ml^Q. II Ka9' 0] KaB' o\ov H*. jiiipoi'] om. 
 
 H^. oXws] airXus KTb. o\ois H". 12 Iittld dSiKTJcrai] dSiK-rjcrei M''Q. 
 
 tafrop] avTov H'^N''. 13 ttws] ttos pr. N*^. oifrw] oCrws P^. 14 radr-nv] 
 
 T^v avT^y pr. N^. 15 aSi/cei] d5«e? iJj' K''. to" aiVo ai' c?i;] L*". TtJ) aufij) 
 
 ay ef?) H''M''QN'=0''. an rif avT($ eirj K''P'' Bekker. 16 ti? auTip] to outo 
 
 K.bNt'Ot'P'' Bekker. 18 6] koJ Mt'Q. 19 aSi/ceii'— e/cdcTo] om. N^. S' 
 
 eauTw] 5' auVoK K'^P''. 5e au'rw L''. 20 t& outA] TouTi pi". toOto IC. 
 
 Kai post d'yua] om. L^'O^'P''. 21 KaTa] ivd W'<^. 22 '5'] yap M^iQ. ttiv 
 
 eaUTOu] TTJV eaurou yvvaiKa P*". 23 Toix^puxe'] TUXW/JUX" N''. TOixoc] oIkov 
 M*". ^auTou] auTou K''P''. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V II §§ 1—6. 55 
 
 BUaia includes those acts in accordance with any virtue which 
 are prescribed by law : for example, the law does not allow 
 a man to commit suicide, and what the law does not allow, it 
 forbids; and when a man /SXairTj; in contravention of the law 
 (except in retaliation) voluntarily, he dBiKu, and one who 
 knows the person and the instrument acts voluntarily ; but he 
 who stabs himself in a passion does it voluntarily in despite 
 of right rule, and this the law does not permit: hence he dSticel. 
 But who is it whom he dBiKei? is it not the state rather 
 than himself ? for he suffers voluntarily, and no one dSiKelrai 
 voluntarily. Hence it is the state which exacts the penalty, 
 and hence a certain loss of civil rights attaches to one who 
 commits suicide, because it is the state which he dSixei. 
 
 Secondly, in the sense in which a man is aSt^o? who only 
 dSiKcl and is not universally bad, it is impossible for a man 
 dSiKrjaat himself (This case is distinct from the former ; for 
 the d8i.Koii is vicious in the same sort of way as the coward, 
 not as exhibiting vice in general : so that [I must further 
 show that] a man ovk dBiKei avrov in this sense.) For (i) 
 if he could, the same thing might have been subtracted 
 from and added to the same thing simultaneously, which 
 is impossible ; in fact to BiKaiov and to dhiKov always of 
 necessity imply more than one person. Again (2) to 
 dSiKelv is voluntary or deliberate, and aggressive, — one who, 
 having suffered, retaliates on the same scale on which he 
 has suffered not being considered dSiKeiv, — whilst if a man 
 harms himself, he suffers and does the same things at the 
 same time. Again (3) if a man could dBiKelv eavrov, it 
 would be possible for him aBiKeia6a(, voluntarily. Further- 
 more (4) no one dSiKci without committing particular dBiKJj- 
 fiara, and no one can commit adultery with his own 
 wife, or burglary upon his own premises, or theft upon his 
 own property. 
 
56 HeiKON NIKOMAXEIflN E. 
 
 o\ft)s Se Xuerai to eavrov aSiKeiv Kara top Siopta/ioi' 
 Tov vepl Tou e/couo"ia)9 dSi/ceicr^at. 
 § 9 Kara fjueTo^opav Se /cat ojxoLOTifjTa ecrnp ovk avTw tt/dos 
 auToi' Si/catov dXXa twv avroC ricriv, ov ttolv Se SiKaiof dWa 
 TO SecTTTOTi/coi' Tj TO oLKovofJLLKov iv TovTOL<i yap Tots Xoyois S 
 Siea-TTjKe to Xoyoi' ^ov fiepo? tijs ^v)(r]? irpos to akoyov. 
 CIS d 8ij ySXeTTOUcrt /cat So/cei eii'at dSiKia 7r/9os avTov, ot6 
 [o'] TovTOts ecTTt irdaxeLv tl irapa Tas eauTwi' 6pi^€is' 
 uxnrep ovv ap^ovTi koX d/a^o/iO'ii) et^ai tt/oos aXXT^Xa 
 
 SiKatOV TL Kol TOUTOIS. > 10 
 
 6 § 3 < TTws /^ei' ow e^et to avTnreiTovdo<; vpos to StKaioi', 
 10 et/aijTai irporepov > ire/al Se eTTtei/cetas /cai tou eTriet/covs, 
 770)5 e^ei t) /Aej' eirteiKcta irpos SiKaiocrvvyjv to S' ctti- 
 ei/ces TTjOos to Si/cawi', €)(6pie.v6v ia-Tuv eiireiV outc ydp 
 cJs TauTOJ' ttTrXtus ou^' a59 irepov tw yei'et (ftaCveraL 15 
 cr/coiroujutei'ois, Kai otc yu,ej/ to iineLKk? iTraivovfiev koL 
 avhpa TOV ToiovTov, aicrTe Kal ivl to. aXKa erraivovvTe<i 
 p,eTa(f>€poiJL€V avTL TOV dyadov, to ivLeiKecrTepov otl ^iknov 
 hrjkovvTe.<i' otc Se tw Xcyo) aKoXovOovcn, ^aiverai, aToirov 
 el TO iine.iKk<i irapa to BcKaiop tl ov eiraLverov Icttlv' rj 10 
 § 2 ydp TO Si/caioi' ou o'lrouSaioi' 1^ to iirL€LKe<;, [ov SiKaiov,]] 
 et dXXo' ';^ et dp-^a cnrovhala,, tovtov icrTLV. 17 ju,ei' oui' 
 dtropta (r)(eS6v crvp/BaiveL Sid TavTa vepl to CTrietKes, ej^ei 
 S' difavTa TpoTTov tlvol 6p9cjs Kal ovdev vTrevavTLov eauTois* 
 TO Tc yd/D eVtet/ces St/caiou tivos ov fiekTLOv iaTL Si/caiov, 25 
 Kai ov;( ft>s aXKo tl yevo<s ov ^ekTLOv ecrTL tov SiKatov. 
 
 I cauToe] ouViiK lOpb. /caret] ko! Kard K''. 1 1 §§ 7, 8] vide supra, post 5 
 § 18. 3 ovK airifil ovx avrm K''M''QO''. ovK auTou L^". oix airos H^ 
 
 4 ouVoi'] airov H^K^N''. rav outoD] tov eavrov Q. 5^] om. H*. 6 /i,^pos 
 TV'S ^"X^'] ^^' ^"X^J' M^/"" L^". TTJs i/vxrjs (omisso fi^pos) li}'. 7 Kal] om. 
 L^'O'". avTov] avTov K''M''N''. 8 irapa] jrepl Ifi. 1 1 ttws nh ovv — jrpd- 
 
 repov] 6 § 3 traieci. oSk] suprascr. M''. om. Q. 12 irepl Si — l^is] cap. 10 
 
 traieci. iwieiKelas] iwuiKelas TposSmaioaivriv K}'. 16 dr^] otSre K?', 20 
 ^(j-TiC ij ydp'\ iuTL yap K''. 2 1 iwieiKes ov] ivrieiKos H". ov SUawv e[] bm. 
 
 N''. -22 eJ o\Xo] etcai d'XXo K^, jj ijfxXo pb. ^^ ^nte a/jiipw] om. H". rau- 
 Tw] om. K''. 23 Ix^i] ?xo' Q- 24 Tpowov nvd] rim Tp6wov Pb. 25 oi/] 
 
 om. Nb. 26 01'] om. K''. iari.] om. O''. toC] om. Q. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V 1 1 §§ 6, 9 : 6 § 3 : 10 §§ I, 2. 57 
 
 And in general, the question 'Can a man dSiiceiv kamtvV 
 is resolved by our determination in regard to the question 
 ' Can a man eKovaiai'; aBiKeicrOai ? ' 
 
 Nevertheless Kara fieratftopdv koL ofwiorrfTa there is a 
 SiKaiov not between a man and himself, but between certain 
 parts of him ; yet not every SUaiov, but only to ZeatroTiKov 
 or TO oiKovofUKov BiKULov i for in these discussions the rational 
 and irrational parts of the ylrvx>i are distinguished. This 
 distinction leads men to suppose that there is an dSiKia 
 towards oneself, because these parts may suffer something 
 contrary to their respective inclinations, so that they may 
 have a sort of BUaiov with one another like that between 
 ruler and subject. 
 
 How dvriire'irovdo'i is related to ro BiKatov has been stated 
 before : I have next to speak of iineiKeia and to iirieiKe';, 
 and to show how einelKeia is related to SiKaioavvri and 
 TO eTTtet/ce? to to BIkuiov : for on examination it appears 
 that they are neither absolutely identical nor generically 
 different ; and though sometimes we praise to eTrieueiv and 
 the etneiKri<s, (so that we even apply the word eulogisti- 
 cally to other things in place of the word dfaOov, meaning 
 by eirieiKeffTepov simply ^eXnov,) sometimes if we think about 
 it, it seems strange that to eVtet/ees, being something other 
 than TO SiKatov, should be praised ; for (i) if Sixaiov and 
 eVtetKfi? are different, either BUatov or cTrtet/ees is not good, 
 or (2) if both are good, they are identical. 
 
 These then are I think the considerations from which 
 the difficulty in regard to to eVtet/eev arises : nevertheless all 
 of them are in a manner right and not inconsistent: for to 
 iirteiKei is better than one sort of BUaiov, being a Sikuiov 
 itself; it is not as a different kind of thing that it is 
 
58 H0IKflN NIKOMAXEmN E. 
 
 TavTov apa St/catov kol eTTieifces, Kal an,<^oiv cnrovoaioLV 
 
 ) 3 ovToiv KpeLTTov TO eTTteiKe?. TTOtet 8e Trjv anoptav ort to 
 eTTtCLKes hiKaiov fiiv ia-Tiv, ov to kuto. vop^ov Be, aXX' 
 
 5 4 iiravopOcofjia voixCfiov BiKaCov. aLTLOv S' ort d fieu v6p.o<s 
 KadoXov Tras, Trepl ivioiv 8' ov;^ otov re opdw's elTreiv 5 
 Ka06\ov. iv ols ovv avayKTj fiev ehreiv Kadokov, fjuy) 
 oTov Te Se opOcj's, to ws ctti to irkiov XafJi/Bdvei 6 vo/aos, 
 ovK dyi'Dwi' TO dfiapTavofJievov. kol icTTW ouSev tjttov 
 6p0o)?' TO ydp dfJidpTrjfia ovk iv tw vofio) ovS' iv t&I 
 vop^oOirrj aXX e?' Ti^ ^ucrei tou Trpdy/juaTo? icTTiv evOvq lo 
 
 ! 5 yayD TOiavTrj i) Tav TTpaKTcov vXr) iaTiv. OTav ovv Xiyrj 
 [xev 6 vofioq KaOoXov, a-vfjifirj 8' iirl tovtov vapa to 
 KaOoXov, t6t€ 6p6w? ey^'' V TrayDaXeiirei d vopjoOiTrj'i koX 
 rjinapTev airXws elTTwv, iiravopOovv to iXXei^Oiv, o kolv 
 6 vop.o6iTy]<i auTos dv elnev iKel irapdv, koI ei ^8ei, 15 
 
 1 6 ivop,o6€Tr](Tev dv. 8to BiKaiov p,iv i(TTL, Kol ^iXTiov Ttvos 
 BiKaCov, ov Tou aTrXws Se dXXd tov Sio. to aTrX&Js dp-ap- 
 TTJpaTOS. Kal ecTTiv avTT] ij ^vctl^ 17 tov eVtei/covs, 
 iiravopOoipa vopov rj iXXeCnei 8td to KaOoXov. tovto 
 ydp auTiov kol tov prj rrdvTa KaTa vop^ov eivai, otl 20 
 Trepl iviatv dBvvaTov decrdai vop^ov, uxTTe yprjcjiCa-paTos Bel. 
 
 i 7 TOV yap dopicTTOv aopnTTOS Kat o Kavcjv icTTiv, (ocnrep 
 KcCi Trj<; AecryStas otKoSojtt'^s d ju.oXiySSti'os Kavwv irpos ydp 
 
 I ravrbv] rb avrb N^O"^. a/i0oii/] yap diit^oiv H'^M^Q. ff7rou5afoti/ ovTotv] 
 (TTovSaluv ovTuv K*". 3 TO ante Kara] om. H^IW'QO''. 4 voidixov ScKaloxi\ 
 
 BiKoiov vonlixov IC'L^'N^'. 5 3' post ivluv] om. N^". (ipSffis eiireic] ciTre?;/ (i/)9(3s 
 L*". 6 ^i* ols ouc ivdyKTi fnhj avdyKi) liiv otv (omissis h ols) Mi^Q. 7 to post 
 ^ri] om. L''. irKiovl irXeioy Ki'0''P''. 9 opefls] opBov H^ a/)96s Mt'Q. 
 
 aiidpT7]fui\ a/idpT7)/w, fiiu H". T(j) j/o/iijj] tols co/iois H". 10 ^orii' post 
 
 •jrpdyfiaTos] om. O^. 11 rocaijTTj t} tuv irpaKTWv ii'X?;] ij twc irpaKTuy vXtj tol~ 
 
 avTTi H^M^'QN''. irpaKT-uj'] -rrpaKTiuv 'KP. irpayfidrap MPQPK X^7i;] X^7oi 
 Q. 12 TouTou] TouTO) L'^M^'Q. TouTois NbQi'P''. irapd] om. M^JQ. 14 
 
 Kaj/] Kal M^Q. 15 auros] ovrtas N^P^. auris ovtus L^O^ Bekker. af] om, 
 Ki". elTTf)'] Ki=. eifTToi ceteri et Bekker. ^/cei] om. KiJ. ^jSei] ij'Sij H^K^'O''. 
 16 o;<post kvoji.oehti(!ai'\ om. Hi'K''M''QOi'. UKa\.ov\ koX Hkmov O''. 17 to] 
 Ta H^. Toi? M''Q. 19 I'A/iou] TOU ixi/ioi; N''. 20 e&ai] om. N*". 21 ivlijiv\ 
 TLviiiv Kti. Mu;' TU/u;/ P''. ^>;0i(r/ioro!] \j/Tii<plaiJ,a,Ta N*". 23 Aetr/Sins] 
 
 Aeir^f/aj H^ oUoSo/n^s] oUoSoplas K^pb. lioXL^dtms] noXifiSivos L''N''P'>. 
 
[nicomachean] ethics V lo §§ 2—7. 59 
 
 better than to SIkmov. Hence BUaiov and eVtetve? are 
 identical, and whereas both are good, to eTruench is the better. 
 The reason of the diropia is that though to e'jnei,Ke<i is BUaiov, 
 it is not legal hUaiov, but a rectification of it: and this 
 distinction is due to the fact that law is always a general 
 statement, whilst there are some cases for which it is not 
 possible to provide in a statement which is general. Hence 
 where it is necessary to speak in general terms; but impossible 
 to do so correctly, the law considers the majority of cases, 
 though it is not ignorant of the element of error. And it 
 is not wrong in so doing : for the error is not in the law 
 nor in the lawgiver but in the nature of the case, the 
 matter of action being necessarily of this incalculable kind. 
 Hence when the law speaks in general terms, and a case 
 arises upon it which is not included in the general rule, it 
 is right in such a case, where the lawgiver's provision is 
 defective or erroneous in consequence of its generality, to 
 . rectify the defect by deciding as the lawgiver himself would 
 do if he were with us, and as he would have done in legis- 
 lating had he known the circumstances. Wherefore to eirieiice'; 
 is BiKMov, and better than one sort of BUaLov, that is, not 
 better than the general statement of BUaiov but better than 
 the erroneous decision to which its generality leads. Thus 
 TO eVtet/ce? is a correction of law where it fails by reason of 
 its generality. Indeed this is the reason why all things are 
 not determined by law, viz. that there are some cases for 
 which it is impossible to lay down laws, so that special or- 
 dinances become necessary : for where the thing to be 
 measured is indefinite the rule is indefinite also, as for ex- 
 ample the leaden rule which is used in Lesbian architecture : 
 
6o HQIKHN NIKOMAXEION E. 
 
 TO <r)(yjfJLCiL Tov \Wov iieraKiveiTai koX ov iiivei o kovuv, 
 § 8 Kai TO \pij(j)icrfji,a vpos toL tt pay fx,aTa. tl jxev ovv ecrrt to 
 eTTieiKes, /cai on hiKaiov, koX tlvo<s jSeXriov Si/caiov, orjXov. 
 (f>avep6v 8' CK TOVTOV /cat d eirieiKiJs Tis ia-Tiv' o yap tcjv 
 TOiovTOJv irpoaipeTiKos koX TrpaKTLKo?, /cai o p/rj aKpipo- 
 Si/caio? e77t TO )(elpop dW eXaTTWTi/fds, Kaitrep e^oiv toi' 
 vopov fiorjOov, eTne.LKri<i icrTi, kol tJ efi5 auTiy CTTiei/ceia, 
 SLKaiocrvvT] tis o5o-a /cat ou^ kripa Tts el'ts. 
 II §10 TTCjot ju.ei' ow 8i/<:atO(ruvijs /cat tcSv aXXojv tjOlkcjv 
 dpeTav SLwpicrdco toj/ Tpoirov tovtov. 
 
 3 oTi] ri TO H»M:''QN''P''. 4 d ante ^dp] os K^. tuc] om. N*". 5 d M')] 
 |ti; d H^ /tij (omisso d) MI^Q. 6 Kalirep ^uv\ xal irepiix'^v M''. rdi'] 
 
 Koi TOK H". 1 1 §§ I — 6, 9] vide supra, post 9 § 1 3. 1 1 §§ 7. 8] vide supra, 
 
 post 5 § 18. 9 T<Sy SX\uv\ tCiv dWuv tuii H=K''N''0''P'' Bekker. i\Si.KCiv\ 
 
 om. H^Mi^Q. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics V 10 §§ 7, 8: II § IO. 6 1 
 
 as the leaden rule is not rigid but adapts itself to the 
 form of the stone, even so the special ordinance adapts itself 
 to the circumstances of the case. 
 
 Thus we see what to e7rtet«e? is, as well as that it is 
 Blkmov, and what sort of BUaiov it is to which it is superior. 
 And from this it is plain also what the eTrtet/tj;'? is : one who 
 deliberately chooses and does what is eViet«6<r, one who does 
 not stand upon his rights wrongfully but puts up with a 
 smaller share though the law is on his side, is eVtetKJj'?, 
 and the e^t? thus indicated is e-TneUeia, which is a sort of 
 SiKaiocrvvr], not a different e^iv. 
 
 So much may be said by way of description of Bikuio- 
 a-wT) and the rest of the moral virtues. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 [In quoting the N. E., the E. E., and the M. M. \ have given the chapters 
 and sections of Bekker's Oxford Edition (1837) : in quoting the Politics and the 
 Khetork 1 have given the chapter, the page, and the line of Beldter's small Berlin 
 Editions (1855 and 1843 respectively) : Yiiih these exceptions all references are to 
 the large Berlin Edition.] 
 
 I § I. TTcpt 8e StKatotrwTjs, k.t.X.] In this sentence the questions 
 to be considered in the first half of the book are concisely stated. 
 Cf. S §§ 17-^19; where the author recapitulates the results thus far 
 attained, and declares that the questions proposed at the outset have 
 been adequately answered. 
 
 § 2. //.e'^oSov] The 'method' comprises the enumeration of the 
 views entertained by the vulgar and by individuals in regard to the 
 subject discussed, the criticism of those views, and the development 
 of an original theory based upon the preliminary investigation. This 
 process, "which, when performed between two disputants, Aristotle 
 calls dialectic debate,^' is opposed to the strictly "didactic and de- 
 monstrative procedure : wherein the teacher lays down principles 
 which he requires the learner to admit, and then deduces from them, 
 by syllogisms constructed in regular form, consequences indisputably 
 binding on all who have admitted the principles." Grote's Aristotle 
 I. 67, 68 : see also i. 300 sqq., 378 sqq. The method above de- 
 scribed, for which we are prepared in TV. i?. i. 4 § 4, 8 § 6, pervades 
 both the Nicomachean and the Eudemian treatise, though it may be 
 thought perhaps that its steps are more precisely discriminated in the 
 latter. Cf. N. E. vii. = E. E. vi. 1 § 5 Set 8', SxjiTip im tw aWav, 
 ri6ivTa<s ra <f)aivofi,eva Kai irpuTOV StasropT^o-ai/Tas ovto) SeiKvvvai fiAXicrra 
 fiey TTOVTa ra. evSo^a Trepl raJra rci 7rd.6r], el 8e fxij, to. irXeiaTa koI kvoud- 
 Tara' eai' yap Xvrjrai re Tci Bv<TX^P'^ "at KaTaXetTriyrai ra evSo^a, BiSeiy- 
 ju.£vov av tvq iKavcus. 
 
[NICOMACHEAN] ethics v. I §§ 1 — 3: 9 §§ 14, 15. NOTES. 63 
 
 § 3. TrpaKTiKOi] "Muretus vertit propensi ad agendum, cum 
 reliqui vertant apti vel idonei." Zell. From a comparison of E. E. 
 II. I § 23 and II. S § I it would appear that these two possible mean- 
 ings are here to be combined. Cf. Rhet. i. 9. p. 30. 4. Hence the 
 words Kai a<^' ^s SiKaioTrpayovio-t Kat jSou'Xovrat ra SiKaia are to be re- 
 garded as an explanation of d<j>' rjs TrpaKriKol t<Sv SiKaiiov elcrC. The 
 definition of which these words form a part is only a rough, popular 
 definition temporarily and provisionally accepted (Sto koL ijfjuv TrpuiTov 
 (US iv TVTTo) viroK€i<T6u> TavTo). Cf. 5 § 17, where in recapitulating his 
 results the author is careful to introduce the phrase Kara irpoatpeo-ti/, 
 by which his own definition is distinguished from the popular one 
 of the present passage. Thus the use here of the word /SoiiXovrai. 
 ("cf. Plat. Gorg. 460 B,c," Fritzsche) instead of the Aristotelian 
 irpoaipovvrai is quite appropriate, not, as has been suggested, an 
 Eudemian inaccuracy. 
 
 9 §§ 14 — 16.] On the position of these sections (and of 9 § 17 
 which I have introduced after § 9 of the present chapter) see Intro- 
 duction, On dislocations in the text. 
 
 Sovvai rg x^'P' '^° "pyvp'o"] The remark in which these words 
 occur applies to virtuous actions as well as to vicious ones. A vir- 
 tuous action does not necessarily imply a virtuous l^is, any more 
 than a vicious action a vicious eii<;. The example alleged is a liberal 
 action which does not necessarily proceed from iXevOepia. Williams 
 translates "to actually deliver a bribe," supposing that vicious actions 
 only are exemplified. 
 
 wSl cxovTtts] Cf. JV. E. II. 3 § 3. ' It is not easy, nor does it 
 rest with ourselves at a given time to do a particular act in a given 
 ?^ts, because time and practice are necessary to the attainment of the 
 l^ts in question, whether virtuous or vicious.' So Mich. Ephes. 
 Xpoi'ou yap XP'"* ''"' cDvacrKjjo-eus Kat ju,a^jfor£(i)S wpos Trfv tQiv Ifcuv. 
 
 9 § 15. ouSei/ oiovTai o-o^ov eivat] For the phraseology cf. Met. 
 I. 2. p. 982. a. 10, a place which also resembles the present passage 
 in being part of a collection of i3iroA.i;i/fets or popular notions. 
 
 aAAa TTcos irpaTTo/xeva Koi ttcus ve/id/teva] On the accentuation of 
 the indefinite irus when it is used emphatically see Schwegler on 
 Met. III. 4 § 42. 
 
 TOVTO Sk irXiov Ipyov rj to. vyuiva ttSeVai] I. e. the knowledge of 
 StKata is more difficult of attainment than that of vo/j-ina, just as the 
 knowledge of ra lOTpiKa' is more difficult of attainment than that of 
 
64 [nicomXchean] ethics v. 9 §§ is, i6: I §§ 4, s. 
 
 (what Plato calls) to vp6 larpiKrj's. This is somewhat curtly ex- 
 pressed in the statement that 'to know SiKata is more difficult than 
 to know Ttt vyieivd.' In other words, he who depends upon law for 
 his conception of what is just, no more knows what is just than the 
 apprentice knows surgery, if he understands the application of reme- 
 dies, but does not know when they are to be applied. Zell appo- 
 sitely cites M. Af. II. 3 § 5 sqq., q.v. See also JV. £. x. 9 § 21 and 
 Plat. Phaedr. 268 B, c. 269 a. 
 
 TTcus Set i/ci/iai] Dependent upon ciSeVai repeated from the pre- 
 ceding clause. 
 
 9 § 16. St avTQ Sc to5to] Sc. oTt £^ lavTots otovTai eii/ai to 
 aSiKctv, the fundamental error which lies at the root of all the miscon- 
 ceptions discussed in 9 §§ 14 — 16. 
 
 rov StKatov] The StVatos here spoken of is the man of universal 
 justice: hence the notion, that toC StKatov i<jT\v ov&iv ■^ttov to aStKciv, 
 is tested in the case of o tJvSpetos as well as in that of o' StKotos, the 
 man of particular justice. 
 
 ovQev yjTTOv to aStKCti/] Sc. ^ to ■S^Kat07rpay«t^■. Mich. Ephes. and 
 the Paraphrast however supply tov dBiKov. 
 
 dWd TO 8ei\aivuv, k.t.X.] For the form of the sentence cf. 
 
 9 § 15 supra, aW ov ravr eo'Tt, K.T.k. 
 
 d\kd TO wSC] (uSt = tarptKuIs, or as the Paraphrast puts it, eftv 
 lOTpiKT/i/ i^oVTa: cf. JV. .£. II. 4 §§ I, 2 diropifo'Hc 8' av Ti<s, ircus XeyofjLev 
 OTt Set Ta jxiv Sixaia TrpdrTovTa^ StKatous yivtcrOai, rd S« <r<o^pova <r<i)- 
 ijipova^' el ydp TrpaTTOvcrt, Ta SiKata Kat Ta <T<a<j>pova, ijSij eio"t oiKatot Kai 
 <r<i<j>pavei, uuTinp £t Ta ypa.p,p,aTUid Kat ra' fiovcriKa, ■ypa/Ajw.aTt/cot xat 
 /jLovcLKoi. r/ ovS eirt tcuv tex^wv outws 'X*'j ivSe)(€TaL yap ypafip,aTi,Kov 
 Ti irot^o'at Kat airo tvxO^ Kat aWov virodeixivov. totc ovv eorai ypo-fi- 
 /ittTiKos, idv Kat •ypa/i/MiTtKov Tt ttoujotj Kat -ypa/x/AaTtKus' toSto 8' ecTTi 
 TO KaTa T7JV ev avrS ypap-fiwriK^v. 
 
 I § 4. oiSc yap tov airov, k.t.X.] A reference to this doctrine 
 seems appropriate, if not necessary, after the last of the sections 
 which I have interpolated from ch. 9. This was felt by Mich. Ephes., 
 who says in his comment upon 9 § 16 ct 8c to drro cfeoos aStKov Ta 
 dSiKa TToteti' TO dStKetv ccttiv, oi3 /iovov ov paStov t5 StKatco aStKerv 
 dXXci Kat dSwaTov. us ydp etirev dp^o/icvos tov |8t;8Xtov, at [lev im- 
 o-T^/iat T<3v ivavTiiov ftcriv ouKcrt Se Kat at e^ets. The passage before US 
 may be paraphrased as follows : ' the Stxatos cannot dStKeti', because he 
 has not got the appropriate e^ts : for although an cTrto-TiJ/aij or a 
 Stuvap-K (i. e. the Swa/iis p-crd Xoyou of Met IX. 2. p. 1 046. d. 2) in- 
 cludes TO tvamo (and therefore, as we shall see, cvavTiat l^«s), a 
 
NOTES. 65 
 
 given Ifis does not enable its possessor to conform to the contrary 
 efis; for example, the healthy man cannot do what is characteristic 
 of ill-health (aTro t^s i5yi£tas ov irpaTTerat ra ivavtia, dWd rd vyiuva 
 fiovov).' That the knowledge of a thing includes the knowledge of 
 its contrary is a Platonic maxim : cf. Plat. Phaed. 97 d Ik 8e 8?/ 
 Tou Xoyou ravTov ovh\v aWo o-kotteiv irpocrqKeiv avOpuiiria koX irepi 
 avTov Kai irepl Tuiv aXXuiv, aXX iy to apiarov koI to jSeA.Tto'Tov. avay- 
 Katov Se eti/ai tov outov tovtov koi to xeipoi' eiSei/at ' t^v auriji' yap 
 iifdi eirton^'jiiiji/ irtpi aijToji', and Charm. 166 E. The doctrine is re- 
 ferred to by Aristotle, Anal. Pr. i. p. 48. b. 4. i. p. 50. a. 19. 11. p. 
 69. b. 9. "The opinion that justice implies its contrary, as if it were 
 an art," says Grant, "would be a consequence of the Socratic 
 doctrine that justice is knowledge. Plato saw what this doctrine led 
 to and drew out the paradoxical conclusion, Repub. p. 334 A. Hipp. 
 Min. pp. 375, 6. The Aristotelian theory that justice is a moral 
 state (l^is) sets the difficulty at rest." 
 
 Suyajaeo)!/] With the Aristotelian use of this word cf. Plato's trans- 
 itional employment of it in Polit 304 d sqq. 
 
 I^ts 8' ij IvfoiTva. T(ov hia-vrmv ov] .Rassow (Forschungen p. 95.) after 
 Muretus reads l^isS' ij avrtj ; Spengel (on Rhet. 11. 19) e^ts 8' ^ evama. 
 I cannot see that any alteration is necessary. See Translation. 
 
 § 5. TToAAaKts /uei/ ovv, k.t.X.] ' It follows from what has been 
 said that, though one of two contrary e^ets does not give the power 
 of doing acts characteristic of the other, the knowledge of one Ifis 
 includes the knowledge of the other. Furthermore, l^ets may be 
 known from their viroKei/xcva.' These statements are introduced as 
 corollaries of the doctrine of § 4, whilst they materially promote the 
 argument by justifying the joint and simultaneous consideration of 
 SiKaiooTjvr], dSiKia, SiKaiov, aSiKov. 
 
 ttTTo T(Sv i;iroK£(/;ie;'(i)i'] "As we might say 'from its facts,' the 
 woKctjucva being the singular instances in which a general notion is 
 manifested. The meaning is, that to SUaia are to SiKaiofrvvr] as 
 good symptoms are to good health." Grant. It would appear how- 
 ever from the statement subsequently made — that 'to eueKTocdv is to 
 iroiijTLKov TTVKvoTTjTOi iv (TapKi,' — that Toi v3roK€ip.Eva include not 
 merely manifestations and symptoms of the l|ts in question, but also 
 its causes and conditions. In fact the woxei/ieva of -iyUia. (to take a 
 particular example) are to vyuwd in the various kindred senses of 
 tjivkaKTiKa, TToifiTiKa, (TTjfmvTiKd, and 8eKTtKo Tijs iJyiEias. For these 
 senses of vyietvd cf. Mei. iii. 2. p. 1003. a. 34. x. 3. p. 1061. a. 5. 
 
 J- 5 
 
66 [NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V. I §§ 5—9. 
 
 Top. 1. 15. p. 106. l>. 35. The word viroKeifieva is similarly used to 
 mean "res singulas notioni subjectas" (Bonitz) in Mei. i. 2. p. 982. 
 a. 23. In order to avoid including ' things which prodiue good con- 
 dition' amongst the viroKdft.aia of eve^la, Zell, after Muretus, takes 
 cvenTLKo. to mean "corpora ipsa bene habita." See however the 
 passage which Zell himself quotes for another purpose from Top. v^ 
 7. p. 137. (t. 3 olov iirel d/ioitos e^ei larpos t£ Trpo? to ttohjtikos 
 vyiEias etvai koX ■yuju.vao-njs (not the athlete, but the trainer) wpos to 
 TToiiyriKos eue^tas, k.t.X., whence it would appear that to Troi-qriKov 
 TrvKvoTtjTo? ev a-apKL (and therefore to evcktikoV) is that which pro- 
 duces eveiia, not that which exhibits it. 
 
 idv T« yap j; eve^ia, k.t.X.] Cf. /'i?AV. VIII. (v.) 8. p. 210. 3 eiTrep 
 ei^o/x.ei' 81' (ov <}>6cipovTai al TroXiTeiat, e^o/xev Kol 81' loi' o-oJ^ovTai ' 
 Twi' ydp ivavTiw/ rdvavTia TroDjTixa, ff>6opa Be crosTrjpia ivavTwv. See 
 also Pi?///. VIII. (v.) II. p. 223. 17. Here as in other places te ydp 
 means no more than ydp or koI ydp : see Shilleto on Demosth. J^. L. 
 391 (critical note), and Berlin Index s. v. re. (Cf. x. 7 § 2, where the 
 editors, not understanding this use of rk ydp, have placed a comma, 
 instead of a full stop, after otiovv to the destruction of the argument. 
 Rassow's Forschungen p. 134.) Of course cvefta. must not be con- 
 founded with ijytei'a : eue^t'a is " bona corporis habitudo," not " bona 
 constitutio " : see Zell. 
 
 § 6. (Js Itn. TO iroXv] This qualifying phrase is introduced to meet 
 such cases as that of ^\\€.v, which in the sense of Tots x«'Xeo'"' ao-ira- 
 tivjQai has no correlative: cf. Top. i. 15. p. 106. b. 2, quoted by 
 Mich. Ephes. on iroXXaKt? above. 
 
 £1 TO StKatoi/, Kttt TO aStKov /cai 9; aStKi'a] So L'' : K'' P"^ read £t 
 
 TO aSiKov (cot -q dSiKia : H^ M^ N^i O'' d to BiKaiov kol to uSikov. 
 
 This last reading is adopted by Bekker. But in § 5 it has been 
 stated (i) that if we know one of two cmvTtat e^eis we can infer the 
 other, and (2) that if we know Ta -moKuiLiva we can infer the cor- 
 responding efts, and the example derived from yu/xvao-TiKi; (cf. 
 II § 7) is framed accordingly. It would seem then that the 
 statement of § 6 has reference to both pairs of correlatives, and 
 therefore that we should prefer the reading of L'', which unites 
 that of K'' P'' on the one hand and that of the remaining MSS. on 
 the other. For an application of the principle here laid down cf. 
 Folit. VIII. (v.) 9. p. 214. 4 A ydp /Hi) TavTov to SiKaiov KaTa irdcras 
 Tds 7roXiT6tas, avdyKYj ical Trjg SiKawa-uvrj^ cTvai Sia^opas. 
 
 § 7. XavOdvei] The Subject to XavOdvei is 57 oVww/^iia (' the equi- 
 
NOTES. 67 
 
 vocation ') supplied from r^v 6fi.(ovvfiiav (' the equivocal uses ') : cf. 
 the words immediately following — Kai ov^ uia-n-ep Itti rav troppai 877X17 
 /xSXXov [sc. eoTiv Tj d/xojvu/xia]. See also Top. VI. p. 139. i. 28 
 Xav6av6v(nrji 7175 o/iovu/itas. Anal. Post. II. p. 97. b. 30 ai op,<i>vv[t.ia.i 
 Xav6a.vova-i fioiWov. For Slot TO truceyyus eivai t^v o/j-uivv/xiav cf 
 Phys, VII. 4. p. 249. ff. 23 eio"i re t<uv o/X(oi'v/am3i/ at /a£v ttoXv awe- 
 j(oi;(rai, at Se t)(ov(TaC riva ojJioiorrjTa, at 8' iyyvi ■^ yivu ■^ avaXoyioi, 
 oto ov SoKovaiv 6iJ.a>wp,Cai civat oStrat. For the words Kat ov)( acrirep, 
 K.T.X., constructed independently of the preceding clause with a 
 finite verb of their own, viz. eort understood, cf Plat. £pisf. vii. 
 
 333A ETOtjUOV yap eivat rovrav ytvo/jievuyv iroXv fidWov SouXwtracrSai Kap- 
 XTjSoviov? r^s eirt reXiovos aijTots yevojuci/ijs SovXctas, aXX' oij;^ wdTrep vvv 
 TovvavTiov 6 iraTrjp avrov tjiopov cra^aro ifiipeLV rots ;8ap/3apot?, and 
 
 other places quoted by Heindorf on Gorg. 522 a, and in the Index 
 of the Berlin Aristotle. The words S17X17 /^aXXov, which Spengel 
 would transpose, seem to me to be rightly rendered by Grant " com- 
 paratively plain." 
 
 kXeis] Cf. i/if Spirtfu p. 484. ^.21 en Se irapa ravr eirl awa(j>^'s koI 
 OTjyKXetVeMS X^P'") °''°^ V i^^^s ' odcv tortos /cat rovvopLa. 
 
 § 8. Kat d avtcros] These words, which after Trendelenburg I 
 have bracketed, but which Bekker retains, cannot be said to destroy 
 the sense, as they might be taken as an explanation of 6 rrXeovcKnjs. 
 But they are certainly awkward, especially as the same idea is intro- 
 duced with a justificatory explanation in § 11. See Trendelenburg's 
 Historische Beitrage zur Philosophie 11. 354. I conceive that the 
 scribe, not seeing that the word irXeoveKnys suggested lo-os as its 
 correlative, bridged the apparent gap by anticipating § 11. 
 
 § 9. Trept ofTO. euTVX^a kol aT^X'"] I- £• Ta ektos dyaOd : cf Polit. 
 IV. (vil.) I. p. 95. 16 cirel Kat Trpi ivrayLav T^i eiSat/iovtas Sta ravT 
 dvayKaliov eripav eivat* reov ft,h> yap ektos dyaOmv rrj^ i/rux7S atrtov rau- 
 T6[J,aTov Koi ij rux^?) StKatos 8' ouSels ouSe Krti^ptav dird tvxiJS oiSe Sta tqv 
 
 TV)^ COTtV. 
 
 a lirri /J-h/ ajrXcos del dyaOd, rivi 8' ovk aet} JV. ^. I. 3 § 3 Toiavrrjv Se 
 Tti/a TrXdi'ljv ^et Kat rdyaOa Sta to iroXXois or/AjSaiveiy j8Xa;8as ott aijTwi/" 
 ^Sj; yop Ttves ajrwXovTO Sta ttXoBtov, Itepot 8e 8t' avSpetav. Cf Plat. J/«w. 
 88 A sqq. The ottXcos aya^o are ayafia to the o-TTOuSatos, iVI £. III. 4 § 4 
 et Se Si} Tavra /iij dpio'Kei, Spa (fyariov ctirXtos /tev Kat Krar aXij^ciai' 
 ^ovXrjTov eii/at TayaSdv exao'Ta) Se to cl>ai.v6fi,evov; rm ftei; ou;' airovSaito 
 TO Kar dX'^Oeiav eii/at tm Se ijjavXio to tv)(01', lomrcp Kat eirt rtoi' 0"u>p.aT(i)i' 
 Tots /Aev ev StaKEtp,evots vyiuvd eori to kut* aXi^^etav TOtaura ovto, tois 
 
 5—2 
 
68 [NICOMACHEAN] ethics v. I § 9 : 9 § 17 : I §§ lO— 15. 
 
 8' eVivo'o-ots hipa. Polit. IV. (vil.) 13. p. n?- 12 "<»' W ™^'^<' 
 SuapuTTai Kara tovs iJ^tKotJS Xoyous, on toioStos ccttcv o o-jroDoatos, w oia 
 ■rijv dperqv dyaOd eoTi rd ajrXcog aya^o. J/i J^ II. 3 §§ 7> ^ ms 8' 
 auTws o aSiKos oTt /xcv ow airXcSs Koi 17 rupams aya^ov Kai r) apyr) kcu t) 
 i^ovcria, oiSev aXX' €i aijTM dyaOov rj [iij, rj irore, y ttws SiaKei^evo), ovKert 
 oiSev. rovTO 8' ecrri fjidkuTTa t^s (^poviycrews, wore tu aStKu ou iropaKo- 
 Xoij^ct 1; <pp6vT](TL^. alpeiTai yap rdyadd, v-irlp wv aSiKcT, ra airXois ayapa, 
 oi TO avTu dyaOd. o yap ttXovtos kui iJ apx^ aTrXus /lev aya^oi', avrS 
 p-ivTOi i(T(i)S OVK dya66v evTropij(ra's yap Koi ap^as TroXXa KaKa avros iavTta 
 trovqara kcu tois <^tXots' ov yap hwriaerai dp)(rj 6p6w )(pr)(Tacr6ai. See 
 also £. E. III. I § 7. Polit. iv. (vii.) i. p. 94. 29. 
 
 9 § 17. eo-Ti 8£ TO SiKata, K.TXi\ See Introduction, On dislocations 
 in the text. ' Particular justice subsists among those who are liable, 
 but not certain, to misuse the goods of fortune'; i.e. among ordinary 
 mortals, not on the one hand amongst the gods, nor on the other 
 hand amongst the OrjpiwScLi of N. E. vii. 5. So Polit. i. 2. p. 3. 16 
 
 KOI d d;roXis 8ia <^ucrtv Kai mi 8ia fi-jiVjv rjroi ^aCXos ottiv 17 KpeiTTtov 
 ■^ dvOpuyrroi. p. 4. 8 d 8e p.-^ Swdpevoi KOivtoveiv, ^ pujOlv Sed/ievos 81 
 avrap/cetov, ou^ev /iepos irdXecus, iuot€ 17 Brjpiov i] Scos. 
 
 virepfiokrjv KoX cXXeH/^ii/] If the words £1' ToijTots omitted by K'' L^ 
 are retained, either the clause must be construed as though it were 
 
 iv oTs 8' €)(OV(Ti (sc. TCI aTrXojs dyaOd) wfp/SoXjjV Kal fX\iUJ/iv, or iv 
 
 TovTOLs must be taken here and in the preceding clause in different 
 senses. For the subaudition of the relative 01 from the preceding oh 
 see Madvig's Greek Syntax § 104. For the sentiment cf. Polit. iv. 
 
 (vil.) I. p. 94. 29 Ta /jlIv yap cktos e;^£t Trtpa? wawip opyavov Tf wdv 
 (irepas Bemays) 8e to )(pij<np6v ianV (uv (ujcttc Bemays) rrjv VTrep^oX-qv 
 7/ )8XairTeiv avayKolov rj prj6iv o<f>eX.O's civai avTiav Tots t)(ov(riv. 
 
 Bid TovT dvOpmrtvov ia-TLv] At present eo-rtV has no evident sub- 
 ject. Should we read 8id instead of 8ia? Susemihl (Bursian's" 
 JaJiresbericht 1876, p. 278) points out that this alteration was sug- 
 gested by Zwinger. 
 
 I § 10. d 8' a8iKos ovK del, k.t.X.] Cf. 3 §§ 15, 16. Polit. VIII. 
 (v.) 2. p. 196. 19. 
 
 § II. Kal 7rapdvopo% — aSucias] Bekker rejects this sentence. I 
 have contented myself with bracketing the words 1? ■n-apavop.ia rJTot 
 )J dvio-oTTjs, which are obviously interpolated. So Fritzsche. Bekker 
 is mistaken in saying that after koivov H^ and N'*' give to yap dvurov 
 €\ei TO TrXeoi/ Kal to cXaTTOV. 
 
 § 1 2. ^v] The reference is to § 8. 
 
NOTES. 69 
 
 iroira Ta vd/xi/xa eOTt irws Sixaia] Even 01 kotci tcis TrapCK/JeySijKuias 
 TToXiTeias vofioi, which are dn-XoUs oi SiKaioi (Polit. in. 1 1. p. 78. 7), are 
 TTus Sucatoi. 
 
 § 13. :7 ToB Koivij cru/ic^epovTos, k.t.X.] Spengel proposes to omit 
 either ^ tois apio-rois or Kar dperrjv rj. Rassow is certainly right in 
 preferring to omit -rj tois dpiorow, and probably right in reading -ij Kar' 
 dpen^v; vide Crit. comment. The laws which aim at tov Kotvg o-ii/A<^e- 
 povTos Trao-tv are those of the 6p6al iroXtTeiai, in which the government 
 is administered by the one, the few, or the many, with a view to the 
 common good: the laws which aim at tov tois xvptots o-up.ij!)£povTos 
 are those of the iropeie^ao-fts, in which the governing class regards 
 only its own interest. Poh'f. in. 7. p. 69. 22 eirei 8e ttoXitewi fiiv 
 Kai iroXiTEV/xa cnj/juiivii, TaiT^i', iroXireuyiia 8' eori to Kvpiov T<uv iroXewv, 
 dvayicrj S cii/at Kvpiov i] tva rj dXtyovs ^ toiis ttoXXo-us, oTav p.ei' o cts t? 01 
 oXiyoi ij ol n'oXXol Trpos to KotroV crv[JL(j)ipov dp^axn, Tavra'S p.£v oppas 
 ai'ayKaiov eivai tois iroXiTEtos, tos Se Trpos to iSiov ^ tov Ivos i; t<3i' 
 oXtyojv i; ToC irXijSous ■n-apeic^ao'ets. The words ^ kot' dpiTijv y Kar 
 oXKov TLvd rpoTTov toiovtov indicate the different principles which in 
 different states determine the possession of political power. jPolit 
 VI. (iv.) 8. p. 159. 15 SoKci Se apujTOKparia /xlv etvai juaXtora to Tas 
 Ti/ias V£V£/t^o"5ai KttT apenjv' aptoroKpanas [t.€V yap opos dpemj, dXiyap- 
 Xi'as ScitXoStos, Si/fiov 8' iXevOepCa. For the general sentiment cf. § 17 
 and VIII. 9 § 4. 10 § 2. See Rassow's Forschungen pp. 76, 77, whence 
 this note is in the main derived. 
 
 «ooTe lea phi rpoirov BUaia, k.t.X.J 'So that in One sense we call 
 that just which produces and preserves happiness and its parts. But 
 the law also prescribes tlie doing of acts characteristic of the several 
 virtues': cf. 2 §§ 10, 11 where vo'/xt/xa which promote virtue through 
 education are distinguished from vd/At/aa which enforce the different 
 virtues. 
 
 § 14. TcJ KOTtt tos aXXas operas] The article, which Rassow 
 (Forschungen p. 60) restores on the authority of L*", though perhaps 
 not indispensable, is certainly an improvement. 
 
 §15. ev Se SiKoioo-uvjj, K.T.X. ] Theogn. 147. Fritzsche quotes /fe///. 
 III. 13. p. 80. 13 KotvtoviKiji/ yap opcTijv cifai (fta/iev T/jv SiKauxrvvriv, y 
 Wo-as avoyxotov cucoXou^eiv Tas aXXas. 
 
 teXeux 8' EOTtV, K.T.X.] Bekkct after the MSS. reads koI teXeui 
 jtiaXiara apifrj, oti t^s TcXeias dpcT^s j(p^o"is Eo-Ttv. tcXeio 8 iarCv, oti 
 6 £x*»'j K.T.X. But from the opening words of this §, as well as from 
 the argument generally, it is clear that the phrase Trpds ETEpov does 
 
^o [nicomachean] ethics v. I § 15 — 2 § I. 
 
 not explain reXeia, but differentiates SiKatotruri; from TtXeta aperr] 
 a7rX(os. This being so, it follows that the words on Tri% reXetas dperrj's 
 XP^o"ts ea-TLv do not justify the statement koI reXeia //.dkioTa dpe-n], and 
 that the words on d €x<av avri^v, k.t.X. do not justify the statement reXeca 
 8' iariv. Trendelenburg (Beitrdge 11. 356) substitutes oti. reXcta t^s 
 apeT^i )^pTj<Tis icmv for on t'^s TeXccas dpertj'S xp^cis ifTrlv, whilst Ueber- 
 weg {Grundriss I. 189) inserts reXeto after XPW^^ ^o"""') supposing the 
 word to have been dropped in consequence of its occurrence at the 
 beginning of the next sentence. I presume that they agree in under- 
 standing 7? XPV"''-^ with reXeia S' ia-rtv, otherwise they have not met 
 the difficulty raised at the outset of this note. Now this subaudition 
 appears to me excessively awkward, especially as avrijv seems to 
 indicate that 17 SiKaioa-vvrj is the subject of reXcta 8' eo-rtV. I con- 
 jecture therefore that either TeXeta in TeXeta 8' ia-rtv, on, k.t.X. has 
 taken the place of KpaTiaT-rj, or that /cat TeXeta /*aXio-Ta and reXem 8' 
 ia-Tiv have been transposed. In either case the sentences succeeding 
 the proverbial hexameter amplify and explain the statements already 
 made, that justice is dpeTr) reXeia, and that it is KpaTUXTYj Ttuv dperwv. 
 
 On the whole I am in favour of the second of the above alternatives, 
 and have altered the text accordingly. The sentence reXeta 8" eortv 
 aperr) otl t^s TeXeias dpeTrj^ XP'Jo'ts icrnv is thus a justification of the 
 statement that avTri ij SiKaioavvrj dperrj ecrrt reXeta, whilst the sen- 
 tence Kai TeXeta p,aXL<jTa otl 6 e^uv avnjr, k.t.X. repeats in a more 
 definite form the substance of the sentence koL Sta toi^to iroXXaKts, 
 K.T.X. In other words, this sort of justice is (i) t^s reXetas apei^s 
 XP^o-ts, (2) wpos hepov, and therefore not only (i) TcXeta, but also 
 (2) reXeta fiaXuTTu. The Statement in 2 § 10, that ij Kara t)Ji/ oXijv 
 
 dpe.Trjv TtTayiiivrj StKaioarvvr] is Trji oXtjs apeT^s XP^o"'* ^pos aXXov, shows 
 clearly what is meant by reXeta dperij. Cf. J?/iei. 1. g. p. 29. 30 
 avdyKTf] 8e /ieyto-ras eivat ctperds rag TOis aXXots xpria-LfiuyrdTa^, etVep 
 ia-Tiv 7] dpenj 8uvap,ts ivepycnKrj. 8ia tovto tous Sixat'ovs Kat ai/8petovs 
 fiaXiara Tt/icuo-tf" 17 /Aev yap ev TroXip.ta -q Se /cat iv eip-^vy yjyrjaip.o^ 
 aXXots. The phrase on t^s reXetas operas XPW^^ «<^'"»' [sc ij 8t/caio- 
 (Tvvr]] is Strange, since xp^o-ts is almost equivalent to eVepyeta (Berlin 
 Index, s. v.), and a e^ts can hardly be identified with an ivipyua; 
 but cf. 2 § 10, quoted above. Apparently in this place St/catoo-ui/ij is 
 the practice of the virtue, not the virtue itself Aristotle would hardly 
 have expressed himself so loosely. For the sentiment cf. Po/ii. iv. 
 
 (vil.) 2. p. 97. 9 e^' iKaa-Trji yap dpcT^i ovk etvat Trpafets p.aXXov 
 Tois tSiujTats V ■'■"'■s TO Koivd Trpdrrovcn Koi iroXtreuo/iei/ots. 
 
 § 16. a'pxv ai/8pa 8et^et] The editors quote Soph. Antig. 175. 
 
NOTES. 71 
 
 § 17. aWoTptov aya^oV] Plat. Rep. 343 C. 
 
 Tf Koii/oovu] Bekker is mistaken in saying that H'' N*" read koivm. 
 On the strength of Bekker's statement Michelet admits this reading 
 into his text, commenting thus : "^5 o-pxovri ^ koiv& referendum est ad 
 duplex civitatum genus, quod Aristoteles /l?///. iii. 7 exponit...Koii'(ov<3 
 non esset diversum ab apxovn, cum ii, penes quos summa imperii 
 est, participes sint civitatis {KoiMiavova-i. riji irdXeus). A nobis stat 
 Michael Ephesius." The alteration is unnecessary. The words ^ 
 apxovTi. TJ KOLviovm may be paraphrased : ' either that of the governing 
 class in the case of a TrapeK^e^ijKvia ttoXitcio, or that of his fellow- 
 citizens in the case of a iroXtTeia opOr].' See note on § 13. Michelet's 
 reference to the Latin translation of Mich. Ephes. (" si populus ad- 
 ministret, reipublicae ") is not justified by the Greek original of the 
 commentary. 
 
 § 18. o Ktti npos oLVTOv KoX iTpos Tovs <^t\ovs] The first Koi means 
 'even'i. e. 'not merely towards his neighbour but'; not 'both,' because 
 friends are looked upon as part of the man himself (wpos Se t6v <^tXoi/ 
 exeiv mcnrtp irpos Ioutoi', Icrri yap o <^Cko<s aWos auTos IX. 4 § 5), and 
 therefore cannot be identified with the erfpos. See Rassow's For- 
 schungen p. 61. Notel {Quaest. Aristot. Spec. p. 10) would omit 
 the first /cat and the second irpos. 
 
 aXV d wpds tTe.pov\ So Rassow 1. c. with the countenance of 
 jja N'' O*". Bekker with the remaining MSS. omits the article. 
 
 § 19. oXij apeTTj] This seems to be an Eudemian phrase: cf. 
 E. E.Vi. \ \ l^-q TOUTcni open) ovk etrri iMpiov ttjs oArys dperqi. 
 
 § 20. loTi p,ev yap, k.t.X.] Cf de anima 11. 12. p. 424. a. 25. in. 
 2. p. 425. h. 25. p. 427. a. 7. de somniis i. p. 459. a. 15. E. N. vi. 8 
 § I (all quoted by Trendelenburg, Beitrage 11. 356), as well as the 
 references in the Berlin Index, s. v. eTmi p. 221. a. 50. Trendelen- 
 burg is most certainly right in taking aTrXeSs, not (as Bekker takes it) 
 with apen/, but with TowtSe clis : " Inwiefern sich jene Gesinnung und 
 Fertigkeit (efts), welche dem Gesetz iiberhaupt angemessen ist, auf 
 einen Andem bezieht, ist sie Gerechtigkeit; inwiefern sie eine solche 
 G«sinnung und Fertigkeit schlechthin ist, Tugend. Das airXws steht 
 dem Trpds erepov entgegen, wie p. II29. 3. 26 avrq fiev ovv 5j StKoto- 
 (Tuvri dperi] jxiv cctti TcXeia, aXX' ovx aTrXcos oXXa Trpds erepov. Stande 
 ottXws nicht dabei, so lage in rotaSe l|is moglicher Weise Trpds erepov 
 mit." 
 
 2 § I. Tijv ev p,epti dpirfji SiKaioavvr)v — a'SiKias rijs Kari /aepos] For 
 
J 2 [nicomachean] ethics v. 2 §§ I — 9. 
 
 the equivalence of iv fiipei and Kara /icpo; see Waitz Organ, i. 375, 
 and Eucken uber den Sprachgebrmich des A. 11. p. 24 sq. 
 
 §§ 2 — 5. Notel, supposing these §§ to contain three distinct argu- 
 ments, — the second (§ 4) and the third (§ 5) being introduced by the 
 word Iti, — remarks that the third argument (§ 5) is identical with the 
 first (§§ 2, 3): "Si quid uideo aliud nihil his uerbis (ert ircpi /ncv roWa, 
 K.T.A,.) efficitur, nisi lucri cupiditatis non proprium esse nomen, sed 
 idem, quod ipsius est improbitatis universae. Quid uero? Nonne 
 id iam prima argumentatione satis atque abunde dictum est ? Aliam 
 uero sententiam ex istis uerbis equidem elicere non possum. Atque 
 si ipsa uocabula diligentius inspicimus, uidemus exempla, quae hoc 
 loco usurpantur, iam omnia in eis, quae praecedunt, exstare." Quaest. 
 Aristot. Spec. p. 11. He proposes to meet the difficulty by excising 
 the third argument (§ 5). I think that this measure is unnecessary. 
 The author wishes to establish two propositions : (i) that there is 
 such a thing as partial or particular injustice, (2) that its motive is 
 gain. The first of these propositions is proved in § 2, and affirmed 
 in § 3. The m at the beginning of § 4 introduces the second of the 
 two propositions, which is proved in § 4, and affirmed in the words 
 S^Xov apa. on Std rd KtpSatveti'. Finally the argument of § 2 is restated 
 in § 5, with the substitution of the emphatic words ei 8' exepSavev for 
 oTov Se Tt\wve.KT%, so as to mark both points simultaneously. If this 
 interpretation is the true one, it is clearly unnecessary to read with 
 Spengel {Aristot. Stud. i. 40) 8^\ov yap ort in place of S^Xov apa mi. 
 
 § 6. triivdji/u/xos] Both 57 o\ij aStKta and ri kv juepet dSiKia are 
 
 irovr]pia wpds erepov J hence the word aStxta is used, in reference to the 
 cfeis in question, oTJi/unJ/ums, not ajjuavvfitas. See Trendelenburg's Ekm. 
 Log. Aristot. p. 116. 
 
 § 7. jrapa rrpi ohfjv dp€TT^v] So the MSS. : but cf. § 6 wa-re <l>avepov 
 on CCTTi Tis dSiKia irapa T);v o\rjv aWrj iv juepet, and § lo ij /xiv ovv /card 
 ryv o\r]v dperrjv Terayp-evrj ScKaiotrvvrj /cat dSiKi'a ; whence it would 
 appear that the phrases admissible are (i) irapd nljv oX»jv SiKawcnvrjv, 
 and (2) ■jrapd TTjv Kara i-qv 0A.17V dperrjv TeTayfjiivrjv. Hence I should 
 
 like with Spengel (who also suspects dperij^ in 2 § i) to expunge 
 
 dpCTtJV. 
 
 § 9. iirel 8e to avicrov Kal ro irXiov ov TaiTdv dW trepov oSs 
 /xipoi Trpds o\ov (to /Jiiv yap TrXiov dirav aviaov, to 8' dvio-ov ou 
 irav irXiov), kol to aStKov Kol 17 dSiKta ov TavToi dW Ircpa €Kuvmv, to, 
 fjilv (US pipT] rd 8' (OS oXa- /Atpos yap avrrj ij dSi/cta Trjs oXijs d8tKtas, opLoiaii 
 Be Koi -q SLKaioa-vvT) T^s SiKaioavvr]i. (oVte Kal wepl njs iv p-ipu Sixaio- 
 
NOTES. 73 
 
 <7vv7]'s Kcu TTcpl Trjs iv /xepEi aSiKias Xe/cTeov, k.t.X., So reads Bekker. 
 In a paper in the Journal of Philology 1872, iv. 318, I proposed 
 with Spengel to omit the parenthetical sentence to juev yap ifKiov 
 airai/ ayixrov, to 8' avicrov oi ttSv TrXeov, understanding after TttuTov, T(3 
 ■TTapavo/j-tf, and after erepov, toC TrapavofjLov. This mode of treating 
 the passage seemed at least better than that adopted by Mich. Ephes., 
 whose note runs thus : ii avaXoyou tivo? SeiVwo-t rqv Sia^opdv T^s TE 
 jueptif^s a8iK6as Kal t^s oXijs dSiKtas xai t^s p.ipiKrj'i StKatoo-wijs Kai t^s 
 0X1JS, Swa/iei Xeycav, <os to ttXcov irpos to avurov owcos 1; jueptKi; SiKato- 
 o-ui/r; wpos ti)v oXtjv 8tKatooT;Kijv. On further consideration however I 
 have come to the conclusion that Trendelenburg is certainly right in 
 accepting the correction of Muretus — cTrel 8c to avurov Kal to irapd- 
 vofLov ov ravrov ciXX' erepov <os p-^pos irpos oXoV to ft,ev yap avLcrov 
 
 V I NOV ' a«f *.v\YC\ 
 
 aTrav iropavo/zov, to oe irapavop.ov ov)( airav avuTov Kai to aoiKov, 
 K.T.X.. Indeed it would seem that this reading, which gives a perfect 
 sense, has just as much support in the MSS. as the nonsense which 
 has been preferred to it. If I am not mistaken ¥^ has retained 
 intact or almost intact a double reading from which the other MSS. 
 have variously diverged. The text in this MS. is as follows ettcI 8e 
 TO avLcrov Kal to -irapdvofnov [ttXeov] ov ravTov aXX erepov (os /icpos irpos 
 oXoV TO /J-iv yap avurov dirav ■n-apavop.ov to 8« Trapavo/toi/ ov^ airav 
 avurov Wo ficv yap irXeov airav avurov to 8' avurov ov irav irXeov] koX to 
 ahiKov, K.T.\. The words which I have enclosed in brackets are 
 clearly second readings. Now K'' retains both readings in the first 
 clause, but in the parenthetical sentence which follows exhibits only 
 the second of the two readings. On the other hand M^ giving 
 only the second reading, and O* hesitating between the first and 
 second readings in the first clause, agree in retaining the double 
 reading in the second clause, but differ in the words by which the 
 two readings are connected. L'' and N*" however consistently 
 prefer the second reading in both clauses, and this consistency has 
 secured to their text a preference to which it was not entitled by its 
 merits. The inferior MSS. which I have had an opportunity of 
 consulting exhibit similar varieties of text. Thus Par. 1853, 2023, 
 Ambros. H. 113, and the New College MS., have the first reading 
 in the first clause, the double reading in the second: Par. 1856, 
 2024, have the first reading in the first clause, the second in the 
 second J the translatio vetus has with unimportant deviations the 
 second reading in the first clause, both readings in the second: Par. 
 1417, 185s, Ambros. B. 95, G. 86, have the second reading in both 
 clauses: finally whereas Par. 1852 has the first reading in the first 
 
74 [NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V. 2 §§ 9— 12. 
 
 clause, and the second in the second, and Ambros. A 62 has the 
 second reading in both clauses, these two MSS, agree in the absurd 
 confusion to /xev yap avia-ov a-mav avurov. I conceive then that all 
 our MSS. are based upon a MS. which had the double reading, and 
 I have no hesitation in preferring in both clauses the first reading 
 to the second, since (i) the distinction between the two kinds of 
 justice depends, not upon the distinction between avicrov and TrXeoi/, 
 but upon that between irapavofiov and avia-ov in which irkiov is 
 included, and (2) Bekker's reading is after all inconsistent with itself, 
 as TO avurov and to irXiov are related to one another, not cJs jt*epos 
 Trpos oXov, but tiSs 0A.0V irpos /atpos. In the foregoing statement of 
 the readings it has not been mentioned that, instead of ws /*epos irpds 
 oXav, K'' gives (09 /*£pos KoX Trpos oXov. As Kcl is manifestly super- 
 fluous, it would seem that here again we have a double reading. If 
 so, all the extant MSS. are derived from one in which the text ran 
 thus : eirei Se to avurov Koi to irapdvo/ji.ov [ttXcov] ov Tavrov aXX erepov 
 <os /icpos Kal [Trpos] oXov' to fikv yap avurov airav Trapdvojj.ov to he 
 Trap6.vop.ov ovk aTrav avurov [to p.ev yap TrXeov airav avurov to 8' 
 avurov ov iroiv ttXcov'] Ktti to aSiKov, k.t.X. 
 
 maTc] I have removed the full stop which Bekker places after 
 SiKoiooTJVJ/s, as <3o-T« clearly introduces the apodosis of the sentences 
 which precede. 
 
 § 10. Stopto-Teov] Rassow {Forschungen, p. 93) conjectures a^opi- 
 
 <7T£0V. 
 
 o-X«8ov yap, K.T.X.] Universal lUaia and aSiKo, being respec- 
 tively Ta v6p,ip,a and to, Trapdvop,a, may be ascertained by a reference 
 to the particular virtues and vices: for, as we have seen in i §§ 13, 
 14, law is concerned (i) with the direct encouragement of the 
 particular virtues which together make up universal virtue, and the 
 direct discouragement of the particular vices which together make up 
 universal vice, and (2) with the indirect encouragement of the par- 
 ticular virtues, and the indirect discouragement of the particular 
 vices, by means of educational enactments. 
 
 § II. Trepl jraiSciav rijv irpos to koivov] The education which fits a 
 man to perform his duties as citizen of a particular state. 
 
 Trepl 8e t'^s KaO' cKaa-Tov, K.T.k.] 'Whether it is the business of 
 TToXitiKy or of some other science to provide that education which 
 makes the individual a good man, must be determined hereafter.' 
 That there is a difference between the education which produces a 
 good citizen, and that which produces a good man, follows from the 
 
NOTES. 75 
 
 doctrine, enunciated here in anticipation oi PoUt. in. 4. p. 63. 5 sqq., 
 that the virtue of the good man and 'the virtue of the perfect citizen 
 are not in every case (xravTi) identical. In Polit. in. 6. p. 67. 21 
 Aristotle says more precisely that in some states the two sorts of 
 virtue are distinct, i. e. the virtue of the perfect citizen is not coinci- 
 dent with that of the good man, but that in others the virtue of the 
 good man is identical with that of a citizen who engages in politics, 
 and takes part or may take part alone or in conjunction with others 
 in the administration of public affairs: cf. Polit. iv. (vii.) 14. p. 119. 
 22. From Polit. vi. (iv.) 7. p. 157. 32 we learn further that it is 
 only in the apiKnoKparta (here expressly identified with Aristotle's 
 perfect polity) that this identity is possible; ev iLovy yap dirXms 6 
 avTOi avr/p kol jroXtTjjs aya^ds coriv' ot S' ei' rais aWats dyaOol Trpos t^v 
 TToXiTEtW £10-1 Tijv avTMv: cf. in. 18. p. 93. n. The preliminary 
 question — irorepov irepav ^ itjV avTiijv dpiTiijv Oereov Ka6' ^V dv^p dyaBos 
 i(TTi Koi TToXmjs o-TTouSatosj — having been answered in this sense, it 
 follows that in general TraiSeia should be Trpos tiJv TroXireiav 'adapted 
 to the particular constitution' {Polit. i. 13. p. 22. 17. v. (viii.) i. 
 p. 130. 2 sqq. VIII. (v.) 9. p. 215. 29), but that in the apio-ri? ttoKk, 
 where the virtue of the perfect citizen is identical with that of the 
 good man, the legislator will endeavour to make his fellow citizens 
 good men (Polit. iv. (vii.) 14. p. 119. 22. cf. in. 18. p. 93. 11). In 
 any case the state should superintend education, instead of leaving 
 it to the discretion of parents (Polit. v. (vni.) i. p. 130. 10. JV. E. 
 X- 9 §§ 13, i4). I cannot think that Grant's note upon the 
 present passage accurately represents Aristotle's views. For the 
 phrase dvhpX dyaGia eivat see Trendelenburg on de Anim. in. 4. p. 29. 
 b. 10. With the emphatic TravTi 'in all cases' compare two's 'in some 
 cases ' in Polit. in. 4. p. 64. 1 1 aX\' opa tcrTai tivos ij avnj dperrj 
 irokiTOV T£ OTTOuSatou Kal dvSpos o-irovSatouJ 
 
 § 12. riji 8k Kara /uepos StKaiooTJvr/s, k.t.X.] This classification 
 may be represented thus 
 
 t6 Kara /iipos Slxawv 
 
 rb iv reus Siavopuus t6 iv rots ffwaWdyfian SiopBuriKbv 
 
 I ' r 
 
 tJ iv Tois iKovfflois rb iv toTs ixovirtois 
 
 avvaKKiyp.am Siop6iiiTiK&v avvoKKdyiiaai 6iop0ojTiK6v 
 
 ' ; 1 „ ■ 
 
 t6 5. ri iv rois aKovcrloK rd S. t6 ^i* tois axovatois 
 a. S<ra \a9pa!& ianv a. ficro jSfaicC iarai 
 
 Here to £v TaTs hMvop.ats or to Siave/tijTtKov BUaiov (4 § 2) is that 
 SiKaiov which is exhibited in the distribution of public position. 
 
y6 [nicomachean] ethics v. 2 § 12 — 3 § 4- 
 
 property, and advantages. In general the author assumes the 
 xpij/xara distributed, as well as the Tt/nat, to belong to the state 
 (§12 and 4 § 2), but it is obvious that his remarks apply also to 
 smaller Koivioviai such as companies of merchants or manufacturers. 
 For the political application of the conception of to Siave/irp-iKov 8C- 
 Kaiov see especially Folif. in. 9 and vm. (v.) i, where to oXiyapxiKov 
 StKatov and TO SrnjLOKpanKov SiKaiov are investigated. In these pas- 
 sages we are told that to SUaiov is to kot dva\oyCav ttrov (p. 193. 30) 
 and again that to aTrXus Stxaiov is to Kar d^lav (p. 195. 15)' ^^t ^sX 
 oligarchs and democrats differ in their interpretation of the funda- 
 mental formula, the former laying claim to an universal superiority 
 in virtue of their superior wealth, and the latter asserting universal 
 equality in virtue of equality of birth : cf infra 3 § 7, which agrees 
 exactly with the above-mentioned passages. This is not incon- 
 sistent with Polii. VII. (vi.) 2. p. 179. 11 koX ydp to Sucatov ro 817/i.o- 
 TtKov TO t(TOV ex^"' *""'''' '''■""' d.pi6)X,ov oKXd p.rj kot a^iav, since the 
 democratic interpretation converts to Kar d^iav ta-ov (proportionate 
 equality) into to Kar dpiOixov (numerical equality). With to Itrov to 
 avTtTreirov^os, which, we are told in Folit. 11. 2. p. 24. 11, o-wfei Tas 
 TToXets, we are not yet concerned. 
 
 TO iv Tols <rmaXKdyix.axn 8.] I. e. the justice which rectifies unjust 
 divisions both voluntary and involuntary. Thus voluntary trans- 
 actions do not "come under the head of corrective justice" (Grant 
 Edit.- 2); it is the rectification of wrong arising out of such trans- 
 actions with which this sort of justice is concerned, cf. journal of 
 Philology 1872, IV. 311. In his edition of 1874 Grant accepts this 
 interpretation. 
 
 § 13. \a6paia — jSt'ata] Cf. Plat. Laws IX. 864 c. 
 
 SovXairaTia So\o<j>ovia\ Mich. Ephes. appears to have read 8ou- 
 XaTraTia SovXo^ovta, as he remarks — o/ioCioi koI 6 SoOAoi' dirari^<Tas Kol 
 i^oj'eiJO'as avTak\ayp.a SiSoKTlv. 
 
 ^laia] Of course aiKia, k.t.X. are called /Siaia from the point of 
 view of the sufferer, not in the sense in which the word is used in 
 M. E. III. I. 
 
 mfpcoais] Cf. Plat. Laws 874 E. 
 
 3 § 2. TO irkkov Ktti TO IXaTTov] 'Excess' and 'defect' the two 
 elements of which to avicrov consists. 
 
 § 3. TO SiKaiov hrov] Polit. III. 12. p. 78. 16 Sokei 8« Trao-iv icrov ri 
 TO SiKaiop v.va.1, Kai ^e^pi yk Tivos o'/itoXoyowi tois KaTa <})i\o&oif>iav 
 Xoyois ev ols 8t(opio-Tat irepl raiv ■^diKmV tI ydp koX tutI to Stxatov, koI 
 
NOTES. "JJ 
 
 ouv Tots "(rots t(7ov Eifai tjiaaiv. irotW 8' icroTijs ecTTi Kat iroiW ai/icroTi;?, 
 Set 111] XavOdveiv: cf. also Fo/zi. III. g. p. 71. 25, quoted by Grant 
 as "a passage from which it is not improbable that the present 
 chapter may be partly taken, though an interpolated reference 
 {Kadairep dpryrai irporepov iv tow ijStKoTs) gives the passage in the 
 Politics a fallacious appearance of having been written later, and of 
 having accepted conclusions from the present book. Far rather it is 
 likely that the conception of 'distributive justice' having been re- 
 ceived as a conception from Plato, and farther worked out by 
 Aristotle in his Politics, only became stereotyped into a phrase in the 
 after-growth of his system, at the end of his own life, or in the expo- 
 sition of his views made by Eudemus." I cannot assent to this 
 theory. Books viii. and ix. afford evidence that the investigation of 
 justice contained in the original fifth book resembled that contained 
 in the extant Eudemian paraphrase. Why then may we not suppose 
 that the passage in the Politics quotes, not indeed from the Eude- 
 mian book, but from a Nicomachean equivalent, and that in the 
 passage before us Eudemus draws upon his ordinary sources of 
 information? Grant also condemns the words Sia-mp iv tois iJ^ikoIs 
 cipijTai TrpoVepov in JPoiit. II. 2. p. 24. 12, and tries to explain away iv 
 oTs Suopurrai irepl t<Sv i^diKav in Folif. III. 12. p. 78. 17 (quoted above). 
 § 4. dvayKf] TOLwv, k.t.X.] 'The just, as has been shewn, is (i) 
 fie'o-ov, (2) to-ovj it is also (3) ■;rpos n 'relative.' Inasmuch as it is 
 lx£(Tov, it implies certain extremes between which it lies; inasmuch as 
 it is lo-ov, it implies, as has been said, two things; inasmuch as it is 
 SiKaLoif, it implies certain persons. Hence the just implies at least 
 four terms, two persons and two things.' "A confusion is made" 
 says Grant with reason, "by the introduction of the idea of /itcrov 
 with regard to justice, which at the present part of the argument was 
 not required." Though irrelevant, the reference to to /xco-ov is not, I 
 think, an interpolation; cf. M. M. 1. $4 % 1 to hi ye 'a-ov iv iXaxii- 
 TOis &vaw iyyCverai' to apa irpds erepov Itrov tlyai BUaiov £<7Tt, Kai 
 SiKato; o TOiovTOS av eh], iirel ovv ■q SiKaioavvT) iv BiKaiia koX iv ur<o koX iv 
 aeaoTTjTi, to p-ev BUaiov ev run XeyeTOi Sixatov, to 8 lo'oi' tictii/ lo^of, 
 TO 8e fxea-ov Tial pea-ov, wrrff ij SucatooT^nj icai to Mkciiov eorai Kai 
 xpos riva^ Koi ev Ti<riv. This passage seems to me to prove 
 the substantial integrity of §§ 3, 4. In both places (i) to 
 to-ov is said to imply two terms, (2) the irrelevant reference to 
 to pea-ov is introduced, and (3) the four terms of the ovaXoyia 
 are obtained by the consideration of SUaiov, firstly as laov, and 
 secondly as 8i/caiov. But whereas in v. 3 § 4 as read by Bekker, 
 
78 [NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V. 3 §§ 4—7. 
 
 [icai irpo's Ti] Koi Turiv, we have an abrupt and premature antici- 
 pation of the after statement g 8e hiKaiov, tictLv, in the correspond- 
 ing sentence of i/i J/", i. 34 § 7 we have the prehminary pro- 
 position TO apa irpos erepov l<tov ctvai SiKaiov Icrri, Hence with L I 
 retain koX irpo's rt as the equivalent of irpo's Irepov in the M. M., and 
 omit Koi TLo-tv as a gloss anticipatory of ^ Se SiVatov, Tto-tv. (Cf. Plat. 
 Phileb. 5 1 c and d, where tt/do's ti and Trpos Ircpov are used indiffer- 
 ently: TttBra yap ovK fxvai irpos Ti KaXd Xiyta, Ka6o.Trcp aX.Xa, aX\ act 
 
 KaXci Ka6' avToi iretjiVKeyai Xiyta S?J [tixs] t<3i' ^Ooyywv ras Xetas koi 
 
 Xajj.irpo.';, Tas ev Ti KaOapov leicras jiieXos, oi Trpos erepov xaXas aW avras 
 
 Ka6' avTas clmi.) This course is countenanced by the V. A., which, 
 at the end of § 4, where we read § Se StKaiov, tutLv, has ' secundum 
 autem quod iustum aliquibus et ad aliquos : ad alios enim est,' i. e. jj 
 8c SiKaioi/, T«7t Kai Trpos Tivas' Trpos eripovis yap Icttlv; and perhaps by 
 Mich. Ephes., who writes y Bk BiKaiov tuA koL Trpos Tivas. to 8e Turl 
 Koi Trpos Ttvas Ik TrapaXXi^Xov Kflrai rairov (rrj/JLatvov' Trpos aXXoDS yap 
 TO SUaiov Kal 1; SiKatoo-wr;, (os itprjTaL, Sui/arat. Whether the WOrds 
 
 added by the V. A. belong to the text or not, I am sure that they 
 represent the argument. Recent editors have attempted in spite of 
 iJf. J^ I. 34 § 7 to connect y pev picrov, TLvwv with the main argument, 
 and with a view to this have allowed themselves considerable licence 
 of conjectural emendation. Thus Spengel {Aristofelische Studien i. 
 42) reads oi/ay/cjj toivw to BiKaiov picrov te koi, l(tov (ov) eivai 
 (tlvSv) Kat Tio'LV, Ka\ y piv pe(Tov, Tiv(uv, y 8 io'oi', tlctiv. avayKrj apa to 
 SiKaiov iv iXa^icTTOK tivai TirTapcriv ots Te yap BiKaiov Tvy)(a,veL ov, ovo 
 eoTt, Kai iv oTs: and Miinscher avdyK-q tolwv to SiKaiov picTov t£ koi 
 luov ov €Lvat Kal iv Tiai, kol TitriV avdyKrj dpa to BiKaiov iv eXa^torots 
 itvai TCTTapcrtv" ots re yap BiKaiov Tvy\dvei ov, Bvo i<rTi, koI iv oTs Ta 
 irpaypara Bvo. Kal avTy arrat y icrorijs, ois Kat iv ots. 
 
 § 5. ots Kat iv ots] I conceive that throughout the passage ots means 
 the persons, iv ots the things concerned. Cf. Polit. iii. 9. p. 71. 25 
 otoi' 8oK£t to'ov TO BiKaiov etvai, Kat ecrTiv, aXX' ov irauiv aXXa rots 
 to-ots. Kat TO avLO'ov SoKet SiKatov ttvat ' Kat yap ecrrii', aXX ov 
 Trao-iv aXXa Tot's avtVois. ot 8€ tovt at^atpoCcrt, to ots, Kat KpLvov(Ti 
 KaKws. . . . <io-T €TrEi TO SiKaiov TUTLV, Kal BiypyTai tov avrov TpoTrov cTrt 
 T£ tSv Trpaypariiiv Kal ots, KaOaTrep itpyrai irporepov iv Tots yOiKols, Trjv 
 p.tv Tov Trpayparo'S UroTyTa op.oXoyovcrt, rijv 8c oTs dp^ur^yTOvtn. (Grant 
 assumes that the writer of this book borrows from the Politics. See 
 note on 3 § 3.) Hence in Kat iv ots to Trpdypara Bvo, I have 
 bracketed to TrpdypaTo. That iv ots tci irpdypaTa does not stand for 
 iv ots Tct irpdypaTd eo-Tt, " two _shares at least into which the matter 
 
NOTES. 'jg 
 
 of the action will be divided " (Williams), was understood by Mich. 
 Ephes., who comments thus: rr\v h\ Xe^iv tiJv Kal kv oTs ra Trpay- 
 ixara, Bvo VTrepPwrwi dvayvoiareov, Kal rd Trpa.yjj.aTa iv ots, Svo. 
 In § 6 I omit the words to iv ois which appear in all the MSS. 
 except K'', and in Bekker's text, in order that here, as in the sentences 
 before and after, the persons may take precedence of the things dis- 
 tributed. The MS. followed by the V. A. added to ots after outw 
 Ka.K€Lva in place of £x«i. (In M. M. i. 34 ^ 'j ev tuti and tlo-lv appear 
 to have been transposed. Read to fjikv StKaiov rto-i Xeyerai BUaiov, 
 
 TO O UTOV €V TKrW UTOV.) 
 
 § 6. KoX -q avTtj co-Tai lo-dnjs, ots Kal Iv oTs] I. e. where the persons 
 are equal, the things are equal. The author takes first the case which 
 
 A C 
 
 is represented by the formula -= = ^ = i, because he has not yet 
 
 explained that tt /xjJ utoi, ovk ta-a t^ova-ar. 
 
 el yap //.rj 'crot, k.t.K] Cf. Plat. Zaws 757, together with Isocrat. 
 Areop. § 21. Plutarch Symp. viii. p. 729 b, c. Xen. Cyrop. 11. 2. 17. 
 (quoted by Stallbaum in his commentaiy) : also Gorg. 508 a. In 
 the face of the quotations from Plato it is unnecessary to suppose 
 with Grant that this " is taken from the saying in Aristotle's PoUt. 
 III. ix. 4. Cf. lb. III. ix. 15 " : though, as might have been ex- 
 pected, the sentiment recurs again and again in that treatise; cf. 11. 
 5. p. 28. 25. II. 7. p. 38. 15. p. 39. 25. III. 9. p. 71. 25. III. 12. p. 78. 
 
 18. III. 16. p. 89. 28. IV. (VII.) 3. p. 100. 7. VIII. (v.) 2. p. 196. 12. VIII. 
 
 (v.) 3. p. 199. 14. See also Bacon's Advancement of Learning II. 
 (ill. 348, Spedding's edition) "Is not the rule, '■Si inaqualibus 
 aqualia addas, omnia erunt inaqualia, an axiom as well of justice as 
 of the mathematics ? " 
 
 § 7. £Ti « ToU KaT a^i'av] The Statement made in the last § is 
 
 A C 
 
 now extended to the more general case represented by-^=-^, 
 
 when A is not necessarily equal to B, rovro being equivalent to -oti 
 (OS EKeiva ?;)(«, ovto) KaKuva i^i. Here to KaT d^iav includes to KaT 
 dpi.6fi.6v, as in Folii. VIII. (v.) I. p. 195. 14 o/ioXoyoviTes 8e to an-XoIs 
 civat StKaiov to kot' a^t'av, SiacjyepovTai, KaOd'irep eXe^^j/ irponpov, o"t 
 fjiev on, rav Kard ti lo-ot wtriv, oXcos lo-oi vop.lt,ovtnv tivai, ot 8 on, idv 
 KaTa Tt dvuroi, irdvTmv dviatov d^LceicTiv eavTous. But in general the 
 phrase KaT d^iav is used in a narrower sense, so as to exclude the 
 case in which the persons are assumed to be equal, this case being 
 said to be determined KaT dpSpov: cf. Folit. vii. (vi.) 2. p. 179. 
 
So [NICOMACHEAN] ethics v. 3 §§ 7 — II. 
 
 1 1 Ktti yap TO StKOiov to SrjfioTiKov to l(Tov ex^'" ^"^^^ '"^''' "^P'^/^"" 
 aXXa /iiy /car d^iav. VII. (vi). 6. p. 1 88. 3 Tag /iev ovv SrjixoKpaTia^ 
 oXbis 1? TToXvavOptaiTLa, (Tto^ec tovto yap avTiKfirai irpos to SiKaiov to xaTa 
 Tj}v diiav. VIII. (v.) 10. p. 217. 24 KaT a^tW yap ia-Tiv, -q Kar iSiav 
 dpenjv yj Kard yevovi, rj ko.t' eiepytcrias, ^ KaTa TavTa t£ Koi Srvva/xiv. 
 
 Trjv fiivTOi d^iav, k.t.\I\ Cf. Folii. III. 9. p. 72. 4. VIII. (v.) I. p. 
 
 193. 31. VIII. (v.) I. p. 195. 14 (see preceding note). In democracy 
 freedom is the o'^ta, and as freedom does not admit of degrees, all 
 men are equal and to KaT diiav laov is resolved into to iuxt dpiO/iov 
 la-ov : in oligarchy either wealth or birth, and in aristocracy excel- 
 lence, is the a^ta, and as men possess these qualifications in different 
 degrees, to KaT dilav laov, in the narrower sense in which it excludes 
 to KaT dpiOp-ov (or TO KaTa TTOtrov N. E. VIII. 7 § 3) icroi/, constitutes 
 SUaiov in these polities. 
 
 01 S' evyeveLav] Polit. VI. (iV.) 8. p. 1 5 9. 25 eTTcl Sc Tpta eo-Tt Ta 
 dp.^i(y^r\TovvTa t^s ictotijtos t^s TToXiTeias, iKevOepCa itXoCtos dpenq (to 
 yap TetapTov, 6 KaXoCo'iv cvyevciai/, aKoXovdii Tois Svo'ti'" 7/ yap evycreia 
 eo'Tiv ap^aios irXovros Kai cipeTif), (fiavtpov, k.t.X.. VIII. (v.) I. p. 194. 14 
 eiycvcTs yap eivat Sokovctlv oTs vTrdp^ti Trpoyovuiv dper-ij koX ■nXovros. 
 
 Thus the euyei/ijs is one whose ancestors have been distinguished 
 either by merit or by wealth (which implies merit of some sort in its 
 possessor) ; but as Aristotle had not much faith in the yewaioT-qs 
 of €ijy€i/eis {Rhet. II. 15), i.e. in their preserving the virtues of their 
 ancestors, we may infer that he had no particular respect for oli- 
 garchy founded on birth. 
 
 § 8. Euclid. Elem. v. Def 3 Xo'yos eo-Ti Svo /^cyc^uv op.oye.vtav rj 
 Kara vrjXiKorrp-a wpos dWriXa woid (T\i<n's. Def 6 Ta Se tov auTov 
 CXOI'TO Aoyov piyWrj, dvdXoyov KaXe'urdu). Def 8 avaXoyta 8e k<jTLV ij 
 Tuji/ Xoyajf TatiTOTTjs. Def 9 dvaXoyia Se ev Tpicriv opois eXaxwrTOis 
 
 e'oTtV. It will be observed (i) that the author's definition of avaXoyia 
 is equivalent to Euclid's def 8, which, with def 6, modern mathe- 
 maticians agree in condemning : (2) that the definition is here regard- 
 ed as an arithmetical, not as a geometrical, definition of proportion: 
 (3) that in this definition he anticipates Barrow's remark that lo-o'Tijg 
 would be an improvement upon d/^otoVijs or TavTOTijs: (4) that he 
 differs from Euclid in accounting a continued proportion a propor- 
 tion of four terms at least: and (5) that the phraseology of this § and 
 § 4 confirms the text of Euclid v. def 9, in which Peyrard and Camerer 
 would substitute IXaxiaTij for iXaxio-roi^ ; cf. also Nicom. Gerasen. 11. 
 21 §3- 
 
NOTES. 8 1 
 
 fiovaSiKov dpLdfiov] " Eiusmodi numeris (sc. Pythagoreorum) Aris- 
 toteles opponit tous fiovaSiKov^ apt0/xoi;s, i. e. eos numeros, quibus noii 
 certae quaedam res (cf. M 5. 1092. 6. 19), sed ipsae unitates, abstrac- 
 tae ab omni rerum qualitate et varietate, individuae (cf. 8. 1083. d. 17) 
 neque inter se distinctae (cf. 7. 1082. t. 16) numerentur. Ac talem 
 quidem numerum quum investiget scientia arithmetica, eundem 
 numerum a.pi6fi.riTiK.6v et jaovaStKov appellat." Bonitz on Met. xii. 6. 
 1080. ^.19; cf. Plat. Phileb. 560, where arithmeticians who deal with 
 /xovaSas an'o-ous Such as two armies, two oxen, &c., are distinguished 
 from arithmeticians who deal with juovaScs which are all alike. 
 
 § 9. Sirjprj[jL€V7] — (ruv€xiys] These two kinds of proportion are 
 called by Nicom. Gerasenus n. 21 §§ 5, 6 (ruvyiix.fx.iVT] and Sie^evyfiivq 
 respectively. Throughout §§ 9, 11, 12, where I have given ordinal 
 numbers, most of the editors write cardinals (a, /8, y, 8). In order to 
 avoid the arithmetical absurdity (1:2 = 3:4) thus produced, I pro- 
 posed in the y ournal of Philology 1872, iv. 310 to write (with Fritzsche) 
 A, B, r, A : but on further consideration I am convinced that irpdrov, 
 SevTepov, K.T.k. should be substituted. The otherwise strange phrases 
 o a opos, Tov u. opov in §§ II, 12 suggest this alteration, and it is 
 confirmed by several MSS., H^ and K'' throughout §§9, 11, 12, and 
 P*" and N'= in §§9, 12, writing ordinals in full, whilst P'' pr. man. 
 gives sometimes ordinals in full, sometimes a ,5 -y S with superposed 
 marks which may perhaps represent the terminations of ordinals, cf. 
 Bast Cotnmenl. Palaeogr. p. 850. Michael Ephesius and Averroes 
 seem to have had ordinals. But in § 9 there is a further diffi- 
 culty. What is the meaning of the phrases -q toC irpaJrou, -rqv tov 
 Bevrepov, k.t.X.? Can they mean 'the line which we take for our 
 first term,' 'the line which we take for our second term'? Mich. 
 Ephes. comments as follows — to 8e t^s Xe^eus t-^s otov us ij tov 
 
 TrpiaTOV irpos tt^v tov StUTtpov TOiovTOV itrTiv, <us rj toB irpuiTov opov 
 a-)(i(7K TOV oKTia irpos tov BivTepov tov 8 (qu. njv toC Sevripov rov 8), 
 ouTois 1; TOV Sevripov toB 8 wpos ttjv tou Tpirov tov /S. But is not this 
 a misuse of the word (rx«'cris? Cf. Eucl. El v. def 3, quoted above. 
 At any rate we may safely reject the alternative suggestion of Grant 
 that oTty/iif is to be supplied, as well as his theory that the propor- 
 tionals are algebraical quantities. 
 
 § 10. hi-Qp-qvTai yap o/ioCia^, ots T€ kol a] Polit. III. 9. p. 71. 31 
 Stgpijrat tov avrov Tpoirov eiri Te tcov Ttpa.y\x.a.T<iiV Kai ois. 
 
 § II. £vaAAd|] Euclid £lem. v. def. 13 ivaXka^ \6yos iarl X^^ts 
 
 J. 6 
 
82 [nicomachean] ethics v. 3 § ii — 4 § S- 
 
 ToO riyovjiivov rrpoi to •qyctifXivov, koX tov eirofiivov irpos to elro/j-evov. 
 Cf. Y. prop. 16. 
 
 § 12. ■q apa rov -rrpdrov opov, k.tX] I.e. (to take a simple case) 
 let A and £ be the wealth of two citizens in a plutocracy, and 
 let C and D be the shares which are justly -assigned to them in 
 a distribution of property won in war. Thus A : B represents 
 their relation before the distribution, A+ C : £ + D their relation 
 after it. The distribution being ex hypothesi a just one and their 
 position relatively to one another consequently remaining unaltered, 
 
 A + C ^A 
 B+D" B' 
 
 Hence as here A, B, C, D, are said to be in geometrical aVaXoyta, 
 i.e. proportion, geometrical avaXoy/a is the rule of distributive 
 justice. 
 
 o-u^ev^is] = Euclid's <jvv6f.<Ti% : crw^eo-is Xoyov etrTi krjipi,^ rov i;you- 
 fiivov fJiera. rov ktvop.ivov (os tros Tr/aos avTO to lir6p.ivov. V. def 15. Cf. V. 
 prop. 17, 18. 
 
 § 14. o' jixv yap aStKwv irXlov €)(ci, k.t.X.] In this case, as will be 
 seen hereafter, corrective justice steps in to restore the balance. 
 
 § 15. Iv aya^oC yap Xoyo), k.t.X.] Cf. I § 10. 
 
 4 § I. TO Sc Xoiirov tv TO Sio/D^wTtKov] Vidc supra 2 §§ 12, 13. 
 Corrective justice is the justice which rectifies wrong arising out of a 
 crwaXXay/ia, whether the person wronged was or was not in the first 
 instance a voluntary agent. Thus to take an example of a 'volun- 
 tary' transaction : A borrows money from B (who is here IkojV) and 
 does not fulfil his engagement to repay the loan at a certain time; 
 corrective justice takes from A the proper amount and restores it to 
 B. Again in an 'involuntary' transaction, e.g. when A slanders B 
 (who is here axcov), corrective justice secures to the injured person 
 compensation for the loss which he has sustained. Although in his 
 note upon 2 §§ 12, 13 Grant appears to accept this interpretation, 
 his note upon the present passage stands as it did in his second 
 edition. "The term 'corrective justice' is itself an unfortunate name, 
 because it appears only to lay down principles for restitution, and 
 therefore implies wrong. Thus it has a tendency to confine the 
 view to 'involuntary transactions,' instead of stating what must be 
 the principle of the just in all the deaHngs between man and man." 
 Apparently Grant forgets that it is the original transaction which 
 
NOTES. 83 
 
 is said to be either voluntary or involuntary, and that it is the 
 rectification of*wrong arising out of the original transaction with 
 which corrective justice is concerned. Again in his next note 
 Grant remarks that "to SiopOuiriKov Skawv implies not merely 
 'regulative,' but strictly 'remedial justice.'" I do not think that it 
 means regulative justice at all. Mich. Ephes. appears to have read 
 To Se koLTTov eiSos in place of to Se Xohtov ev. 
 
 § 2. TO //.kv yap Siave/irp-iKov, k.t.X.] Grant supposes this remark 
 to be founded upon Fo/it iii. 9. p. 74. 3. 
 
 § 3. 'A and £ being equal in the eye of the law, SiopOwriKou 
 StKatoi/ is the arithmetical mean between ^'s position unjustly aug- 
 mented and ^'s position unjustly impaired.' 
 
 Kol -xp-rJTai (US lo-ois] These words (if they are not interpolated) 
 are parenthetical, et d plkv aStKei, k.t.X. being necessarily connected 
 with irpos ToC ^XafSovi T-ijv Bia<f>opa.v jitdvov /SAeTrei. 
 
 aSiKci — dSiKciTot — i^\a\j/ev — ^^€|3XairTai] The tenses are thoroughly 
 appropriate. When A has done a wrong to £, A is said dSucttv and 
 £ is said dSiKiitrOai until compensation is made. Thus dSiKetv ex- 
 presses the resultant state rather than the commission of wrong. 
 The aorist tfiXatj/e is appropriate to the doer of harm, because the 
 question asked in his case is 'eiid he injltct harm? and the perfect 
 ^efiXwirTai to the sufferer of harm because the question in his case is 
 'Aas he sustained harm?' 
 
 § 4. Kox yap orav, k.t.X.] "Die Ausdehnung des Ausgleichs von 
 dem engern Kreise des Verkehrs auf den Umfang der correctiven 
 Gerechtigkeit iiberhaupt, ist in dem /cat ydp angedeutet ; denn dieses 
 steht auch sonst fiir koI ydp KaC." Trendelenburg Beitrdge iii. 426. 
 See my note on § 5. 
 
 dXXd TTCipctTai T^ i,y\p,La., k.t.}J\ I.e. irtipaTai T'g ^rj/Jiia io-d^€tv to KepSos 
 
 d^ipwv a-uToC. ' He endeavours to equalize the unjustly augmented 
 advantages of the one {to KepSos) and the unjustly impaired advant- 
 ages of the other (tiJv t,rjft,Lav) by taking from the former and giving 
 to the latter.' [So Miinscher Qtiaest. Crit. p. 70.] Mich. Ephes. 
 wrongly takes i,r\p,ia to mean the penalty by the imposition of which 
 the Si/cao-Tifs restores equaUty. 
 
 § 5. XeytTai ydp, k.t.X.] 'Strictly Speaking these words Kipho% 
 and fij/zia apply only to cases in which the one seeks the restitution 
 of property wrongfully appropriated by the other : but they may be 
 used in an extended sense; for example, the satisfaction which A 
 
 6—2 
 
84 [nicomachean] ethics v. 4 §§ s — 13. 
 
 derives from striking B may be regarded as a KipSo?, and the injury 
 which £ suffers may be regarded as a ^ij/nta. Originally however, as 
 we are told in § 13, these words applied to neither of these cases, but 
 only to the profit and loss of commerce and of other transactions not 
 interfered with by law.' Thus § 13 is not (as is commonly supposed) 
 a repetition of § 5 : vide infra. 
 
 § 6. dXX OTav y€ /xeTpriBrj, k.t.X.] 'But the WOrds tprj/jiia and 
 kepSos are not applicable until the wrong done and suffered comes 
 to be estimated by the StKacmfs;' So I understand these words, 
 not at all agreeing with Trendelenburg, Beitrdge iii. 426, 427 
 "Wenn nun das Leiden abgeschatzt worden, dann wirddas /cepSosdes 
 Schlagenden zur ^i;/x.ta und der Nachtheil des Geschlagenen zu einem 
 KepSos, wodurch die Gleichheit hergestellt wird"; and not altogether 
 agreeing with Rassow, Forschungen p. 122 "Nach meiner Ansicht ist 
 zu iibersetzen : aber erst dann nennt man das eine ^r]fji.M, das andere 
 KepSos, wenn das Erlittene gemessen ist. Es macht z. B. einen 
 Unterschied, ob eine Misshandlung durch Beleidigung provocirt 
 worden ist oder nicht, oder, um ein von Aristoteles unten (5 § 4) 
 gebrauchtes Beispiel zu benutzen, es kann darauf Riicksicht zu 
 nehmen sein, dass der Gemisshandelte eine obrigkeitliche Person ist." 
 
 § 7. Kol t,r]Tova-i, K.T.X.] Po/if. III. 16, p. 90. 28 (uare SrjXov ori 
 TO StKaiov ^T/jTOvvTes TO fiiaov t,rjTovcnv • d yap vd/x,os to /julcrov. Fritzsche 
 compares Bolit vi. (iv.) 12. p. 167. 3 SiaiTrp-ij^ 8' d p,€cros, and Thuc. 
 IV. 83 eroT/xos <av Bpao-tSa /xiata SiKacrry eTiTpeirav. 
 
 /u.eo-i8iows] The phrase ap-^ovTi [/.eacSiio is to be found in Polit. 
 VIII. (v.) 6. p. 206. 13, but the commentators know of no instance in 
 which the word is equivalent to StKoo-Tifs. " Camerarius commone- 
 facit nos verbi jnco-tStw^^vat." Zell. 
 
 § 8. Si^a Siaipc^fi] 8txa Siaipctv is ' to divide into two equal parts,' 
 "cf. Eucl. Elem. i. 10. i. 9. iii. 30." Trendelenburg Beitrdge iii. 
 428. 
 
 § 9. The restoration of the true sequence of thought in this § is 
 due to Rassow, Forschungen p. 30. 
 
 oTi St'^a £o-TtV] Theolog. Arith. p. 12 (Ast's edition) aizo 8e t^s 
 CIS 81JO TOp.rj's [sc. KaXiirai i^ Suds] Aiktj re, olovel Sl^ti, Kal "Icrts, k. t. X. 
 
 rijs fiu^ovo's Koi eXaTTOvos] Sc. ypa/XjU^s. Cf. t^s ijp.io'cias, § 8. 
 
 § lo. <Toi;> diji ov] Bekker, who reads a<^' ov with the MSS., is 
 mistaken in saying that O'' has rd d<^' ov. " Articulus (to') est procul 
 
NOTES. 85 
 
 dubio omittendus aut refingendus in tov " (Zell). It is clearly neces- 
 sary to insert tov. 
 
 § 12. at e<^' av AA BB rr, k.tX] I.e. the lines designated AA, 
 BB, rr. " Statt einfach den Buchstaben hinzuzufiigen eo-Tu A, wird 
 sehr oft gesagt eo-ro) to e<^' ov (S) A ' das, woran A,' wobei der Artikel 
 TO auch sehr oft fehlt." Eucken u6er den Sprachgebrauch des A. ii. 
 53. Cf. Waitz Organ, i. 398. But what are we to say to to i^ S>v 
 TA, which is found in all the MSS. except OS and retained by all 
 the editors ? Plainly we require either to 6<^' ov TA, or to i<^ & TA, 
 or simply to PA. I prefer ro i<f> <S TA as nearest to to i<j> <Lv PA, 
 and I am confirmed in my choice by finding that O'' has this reading. 
 The genitive and the dative appear to be used indifferently in such 
 phrases. It will be observed that the whole lines are described as 
 ■^ AA, K.T.X., and the segments of them as t6 AE, k.t.X. Thus 1; 
 AA is what Euclid would call ij AA ypa/i/iT;, to AE what he would 
 call TO AE T/u,%a. In the following figure rA = rZ = AE. It is 
 strange that this is not expressly stated in the text. 
 
 A 5 ^' 
 
 B B' 
 
 A r = 1" 
 
 ia-Ti 8e (cat iirl tcov oA.\(dv, k.t.X. — roioCrov] This sentence appears 
 again in the next chapter § 9. In the passage before us it has no 
 meaning whatever, so far as I can see. Mich. Ephes. (if the Aldine 
 text and the Parisian version are to be trusted) placed it here ; but 
 his explanation is derived from ch. 5. 
 
 § 13. eXTjkvOe Se, k.t.X.] I have already pointed out that this § is 
 not a mere repetition of § 5. The author now remarks that the 
 terms profit and loss do not originally belong to corrective justice, or 
 to any form of it, but to commerce. That this is his meaning is clear 
 from the words iv oo-ois aXXoi's aSaav iSoiKcv 6 vo/xos. Similarly § 14 
 is a justification of the use of the phrase ex^tv Ta avraiv in the con- 
 cluding sentence of § 8. Properly speaking, this phrase is used of 
 one who has neither increased nor diminished his means : but (like 
 ^rj/jLLa and (cepSos) it is sometimes used in matters of corrective justice, 
 oTav Xa/3(i)crt ro torov, i.e. when property wrongfully appropriated by 
 another has been restored, or when satisfaction has been made for 
 injury to person or to honour. Thus §§ 13, 14 contain purely philo- 
 logical remarks upon the phraseology of the subject, conveniently 
 
86 [nicomachean] ethics v. 4 § 13— 5 § i. 
 
 introduced at the end of this chapter before another matter is opened. 
 Cf. the remark about the word StKai'mjua at the end of ch. 7. 
 
 § 14. avTci Si avTwv yEVijTai] The editors all read Si' avrwu, and 
 most take these words in connection with avrd. "Nemo interpretum 
 haec verba intellexit," says Michelet. " Felicianus vertit : seti sua 
 cuique per se ipsa evaserint ; Argyropylus : sed sua per se ipsa sunt 
 facta; Lambinus : sed paria paribus respondent. Cum § 13 dixisset, 
 nomina KepSos et tw'-'^ o'^'^- ^^se ex contractibus voluntariis, iam 
 § 14 proponit, ea nomina translata esse ad obligationes ex delicto, 
 ita ut in iis solis usurpentur. Verte : uM vera neque plus neque 
 minus habent, praeterquam quae per se ipsos facta sint, etc." Rassow 
 {Forschimgen p. 94) proposes to insert ra before St' avrmv, and to 
 translate " das, was man durch seine eigene Arbeit besass." Grant 
 would construe " ' but result in being themselves l^y means of reci- 
 procity,' i. e. by mutual giving and taking, kavrwv being equivalent 
 to dXkqXwv." Finally, as I learn from a note to Williams' trans- 
 lation, Professor Chandler reads St' ovtwv, and translates " But when, 
 by buying and selling (St' avroiv), men have got neither more nor 
 less than they had at first, but exactly the same." Agreeing with 
 Professor Chandler in h'ls rendering of TrXiov, iKarTov, and aum (sc. ra 
 tf ap-)(fi<:), I take St' avTiav yei/TjTat to mean ' comes into their pos- 
 session.' If we can say St' avrwi/ €ti/at ' to be in their possession ' 
 {Polit. VII. (vi.) 4. p. 182. 28. VIII. (v.) I. p. 194. 23. 6. p. 206. 2, (see 
 Eucken uber den Sprachgebrauch des A. 11. 38,) surely St' oxtSsv yi- 
 yvecrOat must also be admissible. The sentence thus means, as it 
 ought to do, 'But when people get what is their own, they are said to 
 Aave what is their own.' Cf. I'o/it. viii. (v.) 7. p. 208. 26 /aoVov yap 
 fiovift-ov TO /cot' a^iav t<rov koL to exetv Ta aiTuii'. Otherwise I had 
 thought of OTav Sc /iijTE ■TrXiov IJ.TJT iXaTTOv dW avra a Set avruiv 
 yevrjrai, comparing for the supposed corruption 5 § 12, where K'' has 
 
 ov Stayetv for oil Set ayeiv, and for the genitive with -ytyi/ecr^at Lys. 
 16, 34 iyivero 6 Ev/x.ap?j9 outos NiKOK\eovs (Kiihner's Gr. Gr. II. 
 316) and Plat. Phileb. 27 c. With Rassow I have placed a colon 
 instead of a full stop after vo/aos, and instead of a colon, a full stop 
 after KepSatVetr. 
 
 tZv Trapa to Ikowiov] This is not inconsistent with 2 § 13 and 
 4 § I, because, whether the original transaction was oKoijo-tov or Ikou- 
 o-tov, the result must have been Trapa to kKoiviov in regard to the 
 person injured, else there would be nothing to rectify. 
 
 5. 'The Pythagoreans resolved justice into to a'vTiTrewov^o's (re- 
 
NOTES. 87 
 
 taliation). This definition does not adequately represent either dis- 
 tributive or corrective justice ; but the just in commerce may be 
 defined as to dvTareTrov66<s, if by to- avrLTreirovOSs is understood, not 
 avTiir€7rov6os nar ItroTrjra (retaliation), but avrnmrovOoi kot avaXoytav 
 (reciprocal proportion), the formula being A : B w D : C, which pro- 
 portion is attained by cross-conjunction (17 Kara. Sia/tcTpov a-it.evii's).' 
 
 The following extract from Grant's commentary will serve to recal 
 the usual interpretation of this chapter: 
 
 '"Now the joining of the diagonal of a square gives us propor- 
 tionate return.' The joining of the diagonal gives each producer 
 some of the other's work, and thus an exchange is made, but the 
 respective value of the commodities must be first adjusted, else there 
 can be no fair exchange. What, then, is the law of value? It is 
 enunciated a little later (§ 10). Sei Toiwv — Tpo^rjv. 'As an architect 
 (or a farmer it may be) is to a shoemaker, so many shoes must there 
 be to a house or to corn.' That is, the value of the product is deter- 
 mined by the quality of the labour spent upon it. The sort of com- 
 parison here made between the quality of farmer and shoemaker 
 seems connected with a Greek notion of personal dignity and a dis- 
 like of ^avava-M." 
 
 In my opinion ch. 5 should be read in close connection with 
 ch. 2 — 4, the passage as a whole being an attempt at once to connect 
 and to distinguish three kinds of particular justice. In order to 
 connect these three kinds of particular justice, the author regards 
 them each as a.vd\oy6v n : in order to distinguish them, he represents 
 each by a special and appropriate kind of dvaXoyla, the word dvaXo- 
 yla being employed in the larger of the two senses recognized by the 
 Greek mathematicians, and therefore including arithmetical propor- 
 tion which is, strictly speaking, a jneoro'rjjs. Cf. Nesselmann die 
 Algebra der Griecfien pp. 210 — 212, where it is shown from Nicoma- 
 chus Gerasenus and lamblichus, that, though properly avaXoyia 
 meant geometrical proportion (all other proportions being ;tie(70T??Tes), 
 aVaXoyia and /u-ccroTiys are frequently used synonymously for any kind 
 of proportion. I shall henceforth use the word proportion as an 
 equivalent for avaXoyra in its extended meaning. 
 
 Premising that in the earlier part of ch. 3 particular justice has 
 been made to consist in to lo-or, and that it has been afterwards 
 explained that the \aorr\<i spoken of is to-oViys Xo'ywv, or dvaXoyla, § 8, 
 'between the persons and the things, according to some standard' 
 (jrpo's Ti), §§ 5, 6, I proceed to state as briefly as possible the sub- 
 stance of the investigation of distributive, corrective, and commercial 
 
88 [nicomachean] ethics v. 5 § I. 
 
 justice. In the course of my summary, it will, I hope, appear, that 
 the purpose of the author is merely to translate into the language of 
 proportion the following proposition: 'Particular justice is attained 
 in distribution, correction, and barter, when the parties are, after the 
 transaction, in the same position relatively to one another, as they 
 were before it.' What constitutes identity of relative positions, the 
 author does not ask. The investigation is in fact introduced in order 
 to justify the statement made in 3 § 8, ecrnv apa to SUaiov di dXoyov n, 
 just as the list of virtues is introduced in 11. 7 to justify the definition 
 of virtue. But though the author's principal aim is to show that the 
 just in distribution, in correction, and in commerce is dvdXoyov re, he 
 thinks it worth while to enter into detail and to distinguish them, 
 because Plato had taken one kind of proportion, 17 lo-orrjs rj -yeu/te- 
 TpiKT], as the rule of justice {Gorg. 508 a, Laws 757 a, b: cf Plutarch 
 Symp. vni. 2 § 2), whilst the Pythagoreans had endeavoured to reduce 
 all justice to retaliation, to dvTCTreTrovdo's, a phrase which may be inter- 
 preted by reference to proportion. 
 
 I. The first of the three kinds of particular justice, distributive 
 justice, in the distribution of property or honour secures to the indi- 
 vidual a share proportioned to his desert. Desert is differently esti- 
 mated in different cases : for example, in a democracy freedom con- 
 stitutes desert, in an oligarchy wealth or birth, in an aristocracy dpertj. 
 
 Thus distributive justice assigns to the persons concerned shares 
 such that the position of the persons relatively to one another is not 
 altered by the distribution, but it does not determine what consti- 
 tutes alteration of relative position. 
 
 Let y4, B, C, D be proportionals, so that A : B :: C : D. Hence 
 alternando A : C .: B : D, and componendo^ taken together with 
 C : B taken together with D :: A : B^ which last proportion exactly 
 represents distributive justice as above described. Or, as the author 
 expresses it, distributive justice consists in the conjunction or compo- 
 sition of A and C, B and D, A, B, C, D being proportionals (7; 
 u-pa. Tou irpuiTov opov t<3 t/oito) koI t] tov SiVTcpov Tw rerdpTO) (Tufeufis to 
 
 iv SLavoixfj SiKaiov ecm 3 § 12), since by such conjunction the position 
 of the two parties, relatively to one another, is not altered, whether, 
 as in democracy, A and B are equal, and therefore C and Z>, or, 
 as in oligarchy and aristocracy, a difference is assumed between the 
 persons, which therefore necessitates a difference in the shares 
 assigned to them. Distributive justice then may be represented by 
 the formula 
 
 A + C : B + £> :: A : B. 
 
NOTES. 89 
 
 But mathematically when A taken together with C is to -5 taken 
 together with D as A is to B, A, B, C, JD are said to be in geome- 
 trical proportion. Hence distributive justice is a geometrical pro- 
 portion. " 
 
 At this point I would call attention to 3 §§ 11, 12: <3crTe koX to 
 
 0A.OV irpos TO o\oV oiref) -q vo^iy (ruvSvu^ei" Kav ourtos crvvTe6rj, Stxaicos 
 (rvvSva^ei. -q apa tov TptaTOV opov T<5 rpiTUi koI ■q to5 SeuTcpou tiu 
 TcrapTOD <rv^ev^is to iv Siavo/Jirj BiKaiov Icttl' kol fiiaov to SiKaiov tovt 
 ia-rl TOV Trapd to dvaXoyov. Here av^eu^K seems to mean what in the 
 language of proportion is called a-vvdeais (cf. Eucl. v. Def. 15), our 
 'componendo;' the more familiar word being employed in prefer- 
 ence to the technical one, because, according to strict usage, irvv- 
 6ea-K can hardly be applied to the union of persons and things. 
 
 2. Corrective justice, the function of which is to remove ine- 
 quality after it has arisen, deprives the gainer of his unjust gain, and 
 restores to the loser his unjust loss, the words 'gain' and 'loss' being 
 used in an extended sense. The author does not limit this kind of 
 justice to the correction of aKova-La o-ui/aXXay/Aara, but says expressly, 
 2 §§ 12, 13, 4 § I, that it is also concerned with eKouVta crwaXXdy- 
 fjiara (irpacris, wvq, k.t.K.), i.e. with the correction of voluntary transac- 
 tions in which the balance has been disturbed. Cases of such dis- 
 turbance will hereafter present themselves. 
 
 Now when one man has appropriated what belongs to another, 
 the latter has as much less, as the former has more, than his just 
 right. Hence the former is in excess of the latter by twice the 
 amount by which the former is in excess, or the latter in defect, of 
 his just right. Manifestly justice is attained when the unjust gain of 
 the one is taken from him and restored to the other. 
 
 But what we have called the just right of both is an arithmetical 
 mean between the excessive position of the one and the defective 
 position of the other. Corrective justice is therefore represented by 
 an arithmetical proportion in which the positions of the two parties, 
 after the virong and before the correction of it, are the extremes. Of 
 course, as the author points out in 5 § 4, it may be necessary, in 
 estimating the loss of the injured person, to take into account his 
 superior position. It is not necessary to take into account the wrong 
 done to the state, because we are now considering injustice of the 
 particular kind, which consists in unfairness, — not universal injustice, 
 which consists in the violation of law. 
 
 3. At the beginning of ch. 5 the author criticizes the Pythago- 
 rean theory that justice consists in to avTiTreirovBo^, i.e. to avTitrtTrovOoi 
 
90 [NICOMACHEAN] ETHICS V. 5 § I. 
 
 TO /car' lo-oTTjra, or retaliation, and objects that it does not apply 
 either to distributive, or to corrective, justice. In commercial trans- 
 actions however to di/TLireTrovdo^ is the bond of society : but the avrt- 
 imrovdoi which regulates commercial transactions is, not to avTiTv^trov- 
 60% TO Kar icroTTiTa (retaliation), but to dvmreirovBd^ to Kar dvaXoylav 
 (reciprocal proportion). Now 17 KaT dvaXoylav ai/TiSoo-is is secured by 
 tJ KttTa Sid/jieTpov crv^ev^t?, i.e. the conjunction of A and D, B and C. 
 For example, let A he a, builder, £ a shoemaker, C a house, and 
 D a shoe. If A and B agree that a house and a shoe are of equal 
 value, barter may take place without altering the position of A and B 
 relatively to one another : or in the symbolism of ch. 3, 
 
 A + D : B + C :: A : B, 
 
 whence A : B ■.:£)■. C. 
 
 But as barter does not take place between persons of the same 
 trade, the transaction will be in general more complicated, C and D 
 not being of equal value. In general then B will give io A x shoes 
 in return for his house. Hence commercial justice is represented in 
 general by the proportion 
 
 A + xD : B + C :: A : B, 
 
 whence as before 
 
 A : B :: xJD : C. 
 
 Now when A : B :: xD : C, A and C, B and xD, are said to be 
 reciprocally proportional {dLVTiTmrovOivai). Hence commercial jus- 
 tice is represented by reciprocal proportion, to dvTiTr^irovBo's to kot 
 
 dvakoyiav. 
 
 It will be observed (i) that in this explanation of ch. 5 I have 
 followed exactly the method of interpretation adopted in ch. 3; (2) 
 that according to my view the author not only limits the application 
 of TO dvTnreirovOo? to commercial transactions, but also gives a new 
 meaning to the phrase by the addition of the words to Kar' dvaXoylav ; 
 (3) that I conceive the author to say no more than that 'A and B 
 exchange on equal terms if xD is equivalent to C, x having been 
 determined by the higgling of the market.' 
 
 Thus, as I understand the author, he justifies in ch. 3 — 5 the 
 assertion made in 3 § 8, that to SUaiov to iv /xtpet is dvdXoyov Tt, and 
 assigns kinds of proportion to the several kinds of particular justice. 
 In so doing he shows controversially (i) that the ycu/iCTpiKi; io-ottjs of 
 Plato does not include all the varieties of particular justice, and (2) 
 that the Pythagorean theoiy of to avTiireirovOo's (retaliation) is appli- 
 
NOTES. 91 
 
 cable only to commercial transactions, and to them only if by to 
 
 avTLireirov66% is meant TO avTiTTETrov^os to Kar dvaXoytav (reciprocal 
 
 proportion). On the other hand he has not attempted any investi- 
 gation of the laws of yalue, and is wholly innocent of the theory 
 "that the value of the product is determined by the quality of the 
 labour spent upon it." Economically, he contents himself with the 
 statements that barter presumes mutual demand, and that the terms 
 of the barter must be settled before, not after, the needs of the two 
 parties are satisfied. 
 
 Before proceeding to comment upon the chapter in detail, it will 
 be convenient to notice some other passages in which to avTiwe- 
 TTovOoi plays a part. 
 
 (i) While in barter A and -5 exchange on equal terms wares, 
 C and xD, which are equal in value, when proportion is used to 
 express the claims of the superior and the inferior in friendship, A 
 and £, and therefore C and Z>, would seem to be unequal; but friend- 
 ship is reduced to a simple case of barter on equal terms, if we 
 assume that the inferior is entitled to the greater amount of assis- 
 tance, the superior to the greater amount of respect. Thus unequal 
 friends barter assistance and respect, precisely as the shoemaker and 
 the weaver barter wares. JV. E. ix. i § i. viii. 7 § 2. 8 § i. 11 
 §§ 1 sqq. 14 § 2. Cf. Plat. Euthyphr. 15 A. 
 
 (2) It follows that a good man will not be on terms of friendship 
 with a superior, unless the superior in rank is also superior in merit, 
 because otherwise the inferior will not feel for the superior that love 
 and regard by which alone he can requite superior services. N. E. 
 VIII. 6 § 6. 
 
 (3) As however friendship in general assumes equality of persons, 
 quantitative equality (to koxo. ttoktov) is the primary rule of friendly 
 intercourse, i. e. the same service which A at one time renders to B, 
 B at another time renders to A, proportionate equality (to Ka.T d^iav, 
 cf Bo/if. V. I. p. 195. 8) being of secondary importance. Injustice, 
 on the contrary, proportionate equality ranks first, quantitative equality 
 second. JV. E. viii. 7 § 3. (Geometrical proportion is said to be 
 KaTo TTOLOTrjTa, arithmetical proportion Kara. Troa-oTrjTa, cf Nicomach. 
 Gerasen. 11. 21 § 5. Bo/U. vm. (v.) 3. p. ig8. 3.) Thus arithmetical 
 proportion takes precedence of reciprocal proportion as the rule of 
 friendship, because friends are in general equals and exchange 
 actually equal services : if however the friends are unequal, the rule 
 of friendship is proportionate, qualitative, equality, i. e. that kind of 
 geometrical proportion which is called reciprocal. 
 
92 [nicomachean] ethics v. s §§ I — 6. 
 
 A xD 
 
 (4) Manifestly in barter -^ = -prr = ij 
 
 the formula A : B :: xD : C being preferred to A : £ :: C : xD only 
 because the former proportion represents the relations of A and B 
 after the exchange, the latter their relations before it. Now from 
 these two "proportions which represent the relations of A and B 
 before and after the exchange, we obtain the proportion 
 
 A : B :: B : A. 
 
 Accordingly the author of the Magna Moralia, I. 34 § i r, substitutes for 
 the Eudemian theory the simple statement that just exchange takes 
 place 'when the farmer is to the builder, as the builder is to the 
 farmer', i.e. when the offers of the two have been equated by the 
 ordinary process of higgling. 
 
 (5) Finally in Polit. 11. 2. p. 24. 10 we are told that the members of 
 the social union are diverse, Stdirep to itrov to avTiTreiroi/^os o-oj^ei ras 
 ■n-oXcts, uiinrep iv Tois ij^iKois etprp'ai, irpoTepov: i.e. the citizen, as we 
 shall see in 6 § 7, renders Tip-rj koI yepas to the magistrate in return 
 for his services. 
 
 § I. SoKei Se Ticrt, k.t.X.] For the Pythagorean doctrine see M. M. 
 I. 34 §§ 13 — 15, and Alexand. on Meiaph. i. 5. p. 985. b. 26 (quoted by 
 
 Zeller, I. 360) r^s /nli' ydp SiKcuocrvvrjs tSiov {i7roXay«./3ai'ovT£s eivai to 
 avTi-mirovOos T£ Kal taov, iv tois api,dfi.oi% ToCro evpto-KOVTES ov, Sia toCto 
 
 Kttt tov lO'iiKis icrov apiBp-ov Ttpmrov ekeyov eTvai BiKaLOiTvvrjv' tovtov 8e 
 
 ol p.€v Tov ricraapa eXeyov, . . . 01 8e tov ivvia. See also Theolog. Arith. 
 p. 28 (Ast), where the Pythagorean definition of justice is said to be 
 Siji'ttjuis aTToSoo-eus tov ttrov Kat toS TrpoanjKOVTO';, lp,Tripie.)(pp,lvrj apiOpiOv 
 TcTpaywvov ■KtpuT<TOV jMecroTrjTi. In spite of Alexander 1. C. the avrnn- 
 ■Kovdoi of the Pythagoreans seems to have been, not reciprocal pro- 
 portion, but, as our author expressly states, simple retaliation. 
 
 The wording of this opening sentence is rather strange, (opLt,ovTo 
 yap ciTrXoSs, k.t.X. being wholly superfluous. Is it possible that the 
 words Koi TO dvTLTreTTovdoi etvai airXdlg St/caiov are interpolated, and 
 that the text should stand thus — Soxet 8e TL<nv uo-irep ol Ilvdayopuoi. 
 ifl>aa-av ' (opitovTo yap ci7rX(3s, k.t.X. ? I omit aXXco, (which Bekker 
 inserts at the end of the sentence on the authority of K'' P*" only,) 
 because it is grammatically impossible to combine it with avrnreTrov- 
 66s- Grant, who translates "retaliation on one's neighbour," seems 
 to forget that avTiTreirovOos expresses the notion of retaliation, not 
 actively, but passively. I suspect that aXXw is a corruption of aXXcos 
 prefixed to one of the double readings which in the following sentence 
 
NOTES. 93 
 
 are preserved by ?•>, and therefore may have occurred in the common 
 progenitor of P'' and K''. 
 
 § 3. KaiToi — ycVoiTo] "Zwingerus hunc § transposuit post vocabula 
 dvTtTreirovSos aXXm methodo, ut dicit, iubente, etsi contra omnium 
 codicum auctoritatem." (Zell.) This change seems to me wholly 
 unnecessary. 
 
 TO, T Ipefe] TO. K epefe, the reading of the MSS., can hardly be 
 right. The line is quoted also by Seneca, de morte Claud. 14. 
 
 § 4. 7roXA.a;^oS yap 8ia(^(Di/ei] The inapplicability of this theory 
 to cases of distributive justice is assumed as obvious. There is more 
 to be said for its applicability to corrective justice, and therefore the 
 author is careful to show that even ^here the Pythagorean principle is 
 inadequate. 
 
 § 5. eri TO EKovo-tov, k.t.X.] I.e. the principle of retaliation ignores 
 the important distinction between wrongs done voluntarily and wrongs 
 done involuntarily, of which more hereafter. 
 
 § 6. Iv [lev Tttis '/con/tovtais, k.t.X.] "Interdum oppositio per part. 
 /liv indicata et inchoata non accurate continuatur, cuius usus ex- 
 empla attulit Waitz ad Anal. Prior. 11. 61. a. 19." Berli?i Index, s. v. 
 l^iv. 
 
 Kwr avoKoyiav koI fir] Kar icronjra] I. e. the avmreirovOoi which 
 regulates commercial transactions is not, as the Pythagoreans think, to 
 dvTLire-irovOos to KaT ta-OTtjra, ' retaliation,' but to dvTtTreTroi/^os to Kar' 
 dvaXoyiav, 'reciprocal proportion.' For, as will appear presently, 
 commercial justice is represented by the formula^ : B :■. D : C; 
 and when A : B :: D : C, A and C, B and D, are said by the 
 Greek geometricians avTi-KeivovQivai. ' to be reciprocally proportional.' 
 Vide Euclid VI. 15 tana lira Tpiymva Ta ABF, AAE, /iCav [iia, ta-njv 
 l^ovTa ycovtav tiJv vwo BAP Tjj inro AAE- Xe'yo) ort tuv ABP, AAE Tpt- 
 y<ov<i)V avTiiretrovdacnv at irXeupai at Trept Tas icras yuvias, tovtottiv 
 OTt eoTtv (09 7/ PA Trpos Tfjv AA ovTms 17 EA Trpos rrjv KB. See also 
 Simson's Def. 2 of Bk. vi. " Two magnitudes axe said to be recipro- 
 cally proportional to two others, when one of the first is to one of 
 the other magnitudes as the remaining one of the last two is to the 
 remaining one of the first." Cf. Aristot. Mech. 3. p. 850. a. 39. o ovv 
 TO KLVovfievov pdpoi Trpos to kivow, to iirJKo<s wpos to /aiJkos ovti- 
 iriirovdev. 
 
 Grant objects that this passage is inconsistent with Bolt/. 11. 
 2. p. 24. II. "For while Bo/. 11. ii. 4 says that 'equal retaliation pre- 
 
94 [nicomachean] ethics v. 5 §§ 6 — 8. 
 
 serves the State,' Eth. Nic. v. v. 6. says that ' Retaliation is a bond 
 of union provided that it be on principles not of equality, but of 
 proportion.' In fact the remarks on Retaliation in the Ethics have 
 all the appearance of being a development and improvement of those 
 in the Politics." Vol. I. p. 51. The inconsistency is merely appa- 
 rent. Grant forgets that a.VTn:eirovGo<; KO.T dvaXoyiav Kol fly Kar 
 la-oTrjTa is an 'a-ov jUSt as much as avrtTreTrovSos Kar icroTijTa, since 
 every dvaXoyia is an ia-orrj'; Xoyoyv. In fact to lctov to avTiTmrovdos 
 in Polit. II. 2 is identical with avrnreTrovOo's Kar avaXoytW here : 
 cf. § 8 idv ovv TrpioTov rj, k.t.X. It will be observed that in the place 
 in the Politics the statement to utov to avTamrovOm (Tu>t,u tos irokei^ 
 rests upon the statement that the ttoXis, being an organised unity, 
 has diverse reciprocating elements, just as in the present passage 
 the doctrine of to avTLTmrov06<i to ko.t dvaXoylav rests upon the 
 diversity of reciprocating professions, § 9, and as in viii. 7 §§ 2, 3 to 
 KCLT diiav is introduced to regulate friendship between persons in 
 diverse positions. Moreover in Polit. 11. 2. p. 24. 17 an example 
 is introduced which at once reminds us of the chapter before us. 
 So far from seeing any inconsistency, I should rather infer from the 
 passage in the Politics (as from that in viii.), that the lost Nico- 
 machean discussion of to avTwreirov^o's corresponded in the main with 
 that which has been preserved in this Eudemian book. 
 
 ■q yap to (ca/cios, k.t.X.J 'If the citizens are so completely subjected 
 to one or more individuals that they cannot requite any evil which is 
 done to them, they are rather slaves than citizens : if they do not 
 requite good, there is no reciprocity to bind the citizens together.' 
 
 § 7. Sto /cat XaptTUiv, k.t.X.] 'Hence it is (i.e. because the sta- 
 bility of the state depends upon to avTuronlv dvaXoyov) that men 
 set up a shrine of the XdpiTes in some frequented place.' For c/u,- 
 TToStoi' cf. IV. 7 § 16 Trept Ta jxrj Xiav ifiTroStav koX (f>avepa, but the 
 
 word does not seem very appropriate. Should we read iv iroXeo-tv ? 
 According to the commentators a temple to the Graces was fre- 
 quently to be found in the dyopd of a Greek town. For the XapiTes 
 as patronesses and personifications of evipyea-ta and evepyeoLas diro- 
 Soo-ts cf. Philodem. Trepl eio'c^cias : Tov Ala vo/jlov KJyqcnv tivai koI 
 Ttts XaptTas Tas ij/iCTepas KOTap^us koI tus avTairoSoo-eis Twv evepyeaiwv. 
 Gomperz Herkulanische Stiidien 11. 81. 
 
 dvdvTrrjp€Trja-al Te yap, k.t.X.] Mich. Ephes. tries to show that 
 these lessons are implied in the conventional attitude of the XapiTts. 
 
 § 8. 1; KttTtt SidfieTpov a-v^ev^i^] This phrase is understood by 
 
NOTES. 
 
 95 
 
 the older commentators and by Grant to mean the junction of 
 the diagonals AD, BC in the square ABDC, by Williams to 
 mean the junction of one diagonal of a parallelogram, the sides of 
 which are the lines A, B, D, C. 
 
 Architect (A) 
 
 Shoemaker (B) 
 
 House (C) 
 
 Shoes (B) 
 
 But (i) €^' w A, K.T.X. are lines, not, as in Grant's figure, points : 
 for if we take points for our proportionals, what is the use of intro- 
 ducing the notion of proportion at all? (2) in Williams' figure, 
 which avoids the former objection, JD and C are made equal to A 
 and B, i. e. the shoes and the house to the architect and the shoe- 
 maker respectively, whereas it is clear that the shoes should be equal 
 to the house, the architect to the shoemaker : (3) the junction of 
 the diagonal is called in Greek ejrt^eu^ts, not (n;^ev|ts; vide Euclid 
 passim : (4) the editors fail to show why ' the junction of the 
 diagonal ' is mentioned, whereas the author says expressly that -q Kara 
 Sid/Jt-eTpov (Tv^ev^K produces T?;i' avriSoaiv ■njv Kwr dvaXoyCav, and im- 
 plies that 1; Kara 8ia/i£Tpov (Tufeu^is and the proportion^ : B :: D : C 
 are both of them ways of representing the operation of barter ; com- 
 pare § 8 with § 12. 
 
 Now it seems reasonable to assume that otJ^c-u^is is used here in 
 the same sense as in 3 § 12, and that if cnj^eufts in the last-named 
 passage means the 'composition' of A and C, B and D, -q koto. 
 Sid/x-eTpov o-u^eufts, ' cross-conjunction,' means the 'composition' of 
 A and D, B and C. 
 
 'Cross-conjunction ' then will give us the proportion 
 
 A + I?:B+C::A:B, 
 
 whence A iB .:£>•. C as in § 12. 
 
 This interpretation is confirmed by £. E. vii. 10 §§ 9, 10, where 
 we are told that in an unequal friendship the virepe^ay conceives his 
 claims to be represented by the formula us airds wpos t6v ihiTTia ovtu 
 TO irapd Tov eXciTTOVOS yivo/iei/ov Trpos to irap avroS, but that the virepe- 
 
96 [nicomachean] ethics v. 5 §§ 8, 9. 
 
 XOfievoi TomavTLOv (TTpitttet to dvdXoyov Koi Kara, Sid/xeTpov crv^tvyvvcnv. 
 
 That is to say, if A and B are the persons, C and D their claims, A, 
 
 the superior in rank, thinking himself entitled to superior advantages, 
 
 A + C A A C 
 argues that -5 — =, = -= , or -^ = -=, : on the other hand B, the in- 
 
 A + Z) A 
 ferior, holding that ' noblesse oblige,' maintains that -ji — -^ = -=, or 
 
 A D 
 
 -r>= ~p- These opposing views are reconciled here in the same way 
 
 as in the Nic. Eth. (see above, introductory note upon this chapter) : 
 i.e. the'VTTcpexo'jU.Ei'os is held to be entitled to superior service, the 
 vTTcpe'p^ft)!/ to superior respect ; and consequently KepSos and Tt|Ui/ must 
 be bartered against one another, just as the house and the shoes are 
 bartered in commerce. In this way equality is effected. 
 
 i<t> w A] See note on 4 § 12. Here, and again in § 12, the 
 terms of the proportion are specified, but the example is not worked 
 out; may we infer that the treatise was supplemented by extempore 
 additions? Cf. Anal. Prior, i. 46. p. 52. a. 16. 
 
 Tov axnov\ Bekker reads to auroS, taking no notice of the reading 
 of the MSS. 
 
 kdv ovv ■KpSnov, k.t.X.] 'If the article offered by the shoemaker is 
 equal in value to the article offered by the builder, and then the 
 exchange is effected, the demands of commercial justice will be satis- 
 fied. Otherwise the transaction is not equal and does not hold, 
 because the article offered by the one may be, and in this case is, 
 more valuable than the article offered by the other.' For example 
 (i) a husbandman goes into the market with a bushel of corn and a 
 shoemaker with a pair of shoes. If the husbandman and the shoe- 
 maker agree that the bushel of corn is ko-t dvaXoy'iav equal to the 
 pair of shoes (kdv ovv Trpwrov rj to Kara ttjv dvaXoyCav lo'oi'), in Other 
 words that the bushel of corn is equal in value to the pair of shoes, 
 and then the articles are exchanged (elra to avriTrtirov^os yiv-qrai), 
 the justice of commerce is satisfied. But if (2) a builder offers a 
 house whilst the shoemaker offers only one pair of shoes, the market- 
 value of the house being more than one pair of shoes, an exchange 
 on this basis will not be equal and permanent. Hence the shoe- 
 maker must offer several pairs of shoes, the number of pairs being 
 determined by the higgling of the market. 
 
 oiSe oTj/^/ieVei] 'The settlement is not a final one': for one of 
 the two parties will be obliged to have recourse to corrective justice 
 in order to obtain his rights. 
 
NOTES. 97 
 
 § 9. €7ri Twv aWoiv Tex^£v\ See note on 4 § 12. 'The statement 
 already made in regard to the arts of the builder and the shoemaker 
 holds generally of all the arts.' (The remark is hardly necessary, but 
 cf. PoHt. I. 9. p. 13. 22 Tov axnov 8e rpoirov Ixet ko-1 irepi riav oAAoii/ 
 KTijiiaTiov. III. 1 1, p. 76. 20 O|u.o«os Bl TOVTO Kol TTepl Tcis ciAAtts 6/t7r«tptas 
 
 Kttl Texvas.) 'They would fall into disuse if there were no exchange, 
 and in order that an exchange may take place, some method of 
 equalizing unequal wares is required, exchange being between mem- 
 bers of different trades or professionSj whose wares are necessarily 
 unlike.' 
 
 dvripovvTo yap av, k.t.X.J This sentence is written and punctuated 
 
 by the editors thus : avypovvro yap av, ci /iij iiroUi to iroiovv Kal ocrov 
 KOI OLOV, Kill TO rraiT^ov tTrao^e rovro Kal toctovtov Kat toioijtoi', and is 
 understood to mean "for they would have been destroyed if there had 
 not been the producer producing so much, and of a certain kind, and 
 the consumer (to irairxov) consuming just the same quantity and 
 quality" (Grant). Accepting this interpretation I formerly suggested 
 (y^ourna^ of Philology 1872, iv. 318), the insertion of o before iiroia, a 
 conjecture which Rassow had anticipated. But on further con- 
 sideration I find myself wholly unable to harmonize the sentence, as 
 it is ordinarily punctuated and interpreted, with the main argument. 
 It is true that "the arts would perish if there were no demand for 
 their products : '' but how does this tend to prove the necessity and 
 importance of the principle of proportionate exchange? Moreover 
 the terms iraimsv and icaxrffov (which as Grant himself says "may 
 probably have some reference to the a.vTmf.-KovB6%") imply that the 
 reciprocity of the transaction is what we are here concerned with. 
 The sense required is then 'for the arts would fall into disuse if the 
 article manufactured by A and received in exchange by B were not 
 somehow equated with the article manufactured by B and received 
 in exchange by A.' Cf § 10 tovto 8", ci /a^ icrat'i/ ttwsj ovk ccrrau This 
 meaning I try to get by changing the punctuation, and making tovto 
 
 the subject, instead of the object, of hraa'jfi. : avr/povvro yap av, £1 /AjJ 
 iiroUi TO iroioSi', Kat ocrov Kal otoi' Kai to iracry^ov (subaud. iraa^ci), hraax^ 
 
 TOVTO (i. e. TO irOlOVv) KoX TOfTOVTOV KoX TOIOUTOI' " oi) yap, K.T.\. ' for 
 
 the arts would perish, if the producer did not produce, and did not 
 in return for his produce receive from the recipient of it an exact 
 equivalent, quantity and quality being taken into account ; [an equi- 
 valent, not an article precisely similar,] because two of a trade have 
 no occasion to exchange their wares.' Rassow, understanding 
 the drift of the passage as I do, and admitting that it would be 
 
 J. 7 
 
98 [nicomachean] ethics v. s §§ 9—13- 
 
 clearer if for Ixao-xe we had avmroUi or avrainKhov, nevertheless 
 thinks the insertion of o the only change which is necessary: "Man 
 muss nur bedenken, dass, wie es bei dem ai/TiTrerrov^o's nothig ist, 
 beide Theile geben und empfangen, dass also das iroiovv auch ein 
 traxTxov und das ira.a-)(ov auch ein ttolovv ist." Forschungen p. i8. 
 I should have thought that he would have found further change 
 necessary, either (with Trendelenburg) the omission of to before 
 irao-xoi', or the omission of to Traa-xov, or the substitution of iiroUi 
 for lirao-^e. I do not of course pretend that the text naturally and 
 properly bears the meaning which I have endeavoured to extract 
 from it ; but rather suspect that there is a lacuna after inoUi, and that 
 the sentence ought to run in some such way as this : dvypovvTo yap 
 
 av, el fJLrj iiroUi <to jrao'i^oi' otroi' kol olov Troiei> to ttoiovv, koI otrov Kai 
 otov KoX to Trd.a-)(ov, eTra(T)^e tovto Koi TocrovTov kol toiovtov. 
 
 § lo. 8io ndvTa (Tv/jL^XyjTa., k.t.X.J From this point the chapter 
 abounds in repetitions. Notel (Quaesf. Aristot. Spec. p. 28) would 
 condemn §§ 11, 12. Rassow again finds in §§ 10 — 16 three distinct 
 statements of the same matter; the first being contained in § 10 Sto 
 
 ■Kavra o-u/xj8A.»;Ta — ovk ecrrai, the second in §§ II — 14 Set apa ivi Tivi — 
 ixiveiv fJiaXXov, and the third in §§ 14 — 16 Sto Set Travra — irivre KXtvai. 
 The difficulty is also discussed by Imelmann, Observat. Crit. 
 p. 35 sqq. Certainly the chapter would gain in perspicuity if §§ 11 — 
 16 were rejected. The remarks upon currency, both as to thought 
 and as to expression, recal Plat. Rep. 11. 371 b. Laws xi. 918 b. 
 Polit. 289 E. 
 
 § II. ^7 OVK eo-Ttti aXXayi}] These words apply to the former of 
 the two cases mentioned {d fx-yfitv SeotvTo) ; ^ oi^ "h o^'"'/ to the latter 
 (7; /xi} op.olwi). 
 
 oTt ov (ftva- ft, K.T.X.] Cf. Po^t't 1, 9. p. 14. 28 sqq. 
 
 § 12. €ts crxv/J^ 8' araXo-yta?, k.t.X.] I have materially altered 
 the punctuation of this sentence which is usually printed thus: ets 
 fTX^fi-a 8' ai'aXoyia9 ov Set o-yeiv, OTav oXXafuVTat" et 8e firj, dfjLtjyorepai 
 efei Tas virepo)(ai to tTCpov cKpov, aXK otov e)(wcn ra avTwv, out(os to'oi 
 /cat Koivoivoi, ort avTrj -q to-OTJjs ^vvarax eif avTuiv yiveaOai.. yetopyos 
 A, K.T.k. As I understand this difficult passage, it is a warning 
 that the terms of the bargain must be determined by the ordi- 
 nary process of higgling, before the exchange takes place, that is, 
 during the continuance of the mutual demand, cf § 11: e.g. A 
 must arrange with £, before the transfer is effected, how many pairs 
 of shoes the latter is to give him in return for a house. If A 
 
NOTES. 99 
 
 accepts one pair of shoes on account, trusting that B will subse- 
 quently make up to him the market value of the house, and B takes 
 advantage of .<4's negligence, it is no longer an affair of commercial 
 justice, but of corrective justice, which, as has been pointed out in 
 2 §§ 12, 13 and in 4 § I, plays a part in the rectification of voluntary 
 transactions such as Trpaeris, wvri, Savetcr/Ao's, e-yyui^, XP^^^'S; irapaKara- 
 OrJKT], fiicrOuiarii, as well as in the rectification of involuntary transac- 
 tions such as kXowti], iioLx^La, k.t.X. In the case supposed A has now 
 got one pair of shoes only, whilst B has got a house worth x pairs of 
 shoes, and x- i pairs of shoes into the bargain. Hence A has x-i 
 pairs of shoes less than his just right, B has x- 1 pairs of shoes more 
 than his just right. Thus B has the advantage of A to the extent of 
 2 (x- i) pairs of shoes: in the language of our author 'B has both 
 superiorities.'. If then the time for arranging the terms of the bargain is 
 allowed to pass by, the two parties to the transaction are to be re- 
 garded as two extremes, one of which exceeds the mean by as much as 
 the mean exceeds the other: the reciprocal proportion of commercial 
 justice must therefore be supplemented by the arithmetical propor- 
 tion of corrective justice. The words to erepov aKpov point unmis- 
 takeably to this interpretation, since A and B cannot possibly be 
 regarded as extremes in the proportion A : B •.:£>■. C. For 0x01/ 
 £^0)0-1 TO, avTwv the commentators refer to 4 §§ 8, 14, forgetting that, 
 whereas by corrective justice each recovers his own, commercial 
 
 justice is attained when each surrenders his own (cf § 8 8ei airov 
 
 Ikuvio ixeraSiSovai rov avrov). It seems to me clear that in the present 
 passage these words are antithetical to orav dXXd^uivrai, and mean 'be- 
 fore they have delivered up their respective wares.' H. Richards 
 anticipates me in referring to 4 §§ 10 — 12 for the explanation of 
 d/j.<l)OTepa^ Tas Jn-fpoxasand to Inpov axpov {journal of Philology 1872, 
 IV. 150), but interprets otherwise. 
 
 § 13. ovK aWaTTovToi, mairep, k.t.X.^ Bekker reads c^ayjoy^s with 
 K'', and places a comma after otvov. We must then construe: 'whereas 
 when B wants what A has, wine for example, they exchange; that is, 
 A gives it to him in return for the privilege of exporting corn.' But 
 (i) the separation of the words olov oivon from 8i8oVTe<f, k.t.X., which 
 this reading involves, is surely an unnecessary complication of a sen- 
 tence already harsh enough; and (2) I conceive that the weight, as 
 well as the bulk, of the MS. authority is against i^ayioyrjs. For 
 wa-7Tcp with dWaTTovTai understood from ow aWaTTovTai in the main 
 sentence, 'as they do when,' 'whereas they do exchange when,' see 
 
 7—2 
 
loo [nicomachean] ethics v. s §§ 13 — 19: II §§ 7, 8 : 6 §4. 
 
 Berlin Index. In the present instance the construction is all the 
 harsher because StSo'n-cs belongs grammatically to both the parties 
 concerned, whereas in sense it refers only to one of them. For 
 aijTos used to distinguish the person chiefly thought of from the 
 other person concerned (rts), cf. 8 § 3 Sttnap ei ns \a.^w/ rrju xcTpa 
 avTov, K.T.A.. The same illustration of exchange occurs in Poh'f. i. 9. 
 p. 14. 3 olov oTvov 7rpo<; avrov SiSovTe? Kol Xa/AySavoircs. i^aytoyrj is 
 
 commonly translated here ' an export ' : but the passages referred to 
 in the Berlin Index seem to show that it is 'the privilege of ex- 
 porting.' Cf. Theophr. n-cpi akoZ,ovda.%. 
 
 § 14. fi.f)l\v SetTtti] Apparently the subject of htirai. is rts sup- 
 plied from SeijTat tis. 
 
 §£1, K.T.X.] Rassow's conjecture, ael yap toBto ^ipovn ecrrai 
 . Xa^eXv, is tempting. 
 
 § 15. oiKta, K.T.X.] 'The house A and the bed T are, t^ dXr/OeCq., 
 incommensurable ; but their values may be compared Trpos tijv )(piiav, 
 and expressed in minas. Now if the house is worth 5 minas and the 
 bed I, 5 beds = i house : and in primitive times, before currency 
 was invented, the terms of the contract were formulated in this way.' 
 
 § 16. ^ Kktvaij Rassow (Forschungen p. 94) conjectures ^ kXiWs: 
 "denn das unpersonliche SLacjiepu hat entweder einen indirecten 
 Fragesatz oder Infinitive nach sich.'' I have allowed the text to 
 stand, thinking that Zi.a.(j>epa is used personally, its subject being the 
 whole phrase rj KXivai, k.t.X., and that in that phrase a participle, not 
 an infinitive, is suppressed. 
 
 §§ 17 — 19. In these sections the investigation of the questions 
 proposed in i § i is concluded, and its results are summarized. It 
 remains in the second half of the book to distinguish particular kinds 
 of SUaiov and aSiKov, to investigate BiKaiov and aSiKov as exhibited by 
 individuals, to discuss certain supplementary oTropiai, and to deter- 
 mine the relations subsisting between justice and bruUiia. 
 
 ■^ Se hLKaiocrvvYj, k.t.X.] With Rassow I have inserted tis after 
 /u,£o-o7ijs (K'' £•> P''), and 8c after avrov {K> !> O^ V% and sub- 
 stituted aXXais for TrpoTcpov (K}' Ifi P''). For the form of the sen- 
 tence cf. 10 §§ 3, 6. 
 
 oTL /ittrou ea-TLv] The original theory of dpfrij as a /jLea-oTi]^ is here 
 virtually admitted to be a failure so far as justice is concerned. 
 Nevertheless in the £. E. 11. 3 § 4 xepSos, ^17/iia, and Sixatoi/ stand 
 side by side with doruna, aveXevdcpia, iXivSepioTq^. 
 
NOTES. lOI 
 
 ical mcnrep, k.t.X.] See Introduction, On dislocations in the 
 text. 
 
 § 1 8. Tov la-ov Tov KttT dvoXoyiav] This genitive is not anacolu- 
 thic, as it belongs to the main sentence, and is regularly governed by 
 
 y 8 aSiKia TovvavTLOv, k.t.X.] I. e. ij 8' aSiKia TOvvavrCov [eori Ka6 
 '^v o aSiKos XeycTtti wpaKTiKos Kara. Trpoatpeirti'] tov dSiKov. 
 
 eiri 8e tujv dKXmv, k.t.X.] 'The Statement made in the preceding 
 sentence, that e<^ avrov the unjust man assigns an unduly large share 
 of what is advantageous and an unduly small share of what is harm- 
 ful, from the nature of the case does not apply em Toii/ SXKmv, 1. e . 
 when he does not himself take a share in the distribution.' 
 
 II §§ 7, 8. See Introduction, On dislocations in the text. In § 7 
 I have bracketed koI (na-irep — yvuvacrnKfj (vide supra, 5 § 17), and added 
 «v oh 8' aSiKia — d8iKia from 6 § 4. If I am righ't in making the second 
 of these alterations, perhaps I ought to go a step further and vmte 
 yap for 8'. The sense of the passage is as follows : ' dSiK€i<T0ai and 
 dSiKelv are both bad, because, as has been shown, they are deviations 
 from the mean ; but dSiKiiv is the worse of the two, since it implies 
 KaKia, KaKta which is either TcXeia Koi dirXio's (if the act is « irpo- 
 aipccrcus), or nearly so (if the act, though not £k irpoaipia-ems, is Ikov- 
 crtov). Of course aStKcIo-^oi may be Kara (Tvp-Pip-qKo^ the greater evil, 
 because of its possible results.' Cf. ^. jE. 11. 10 §§ 18, 19 for the 
 distinction between irpoaiperov and sKova-Lov, of which we shall hear 
 more in the sequel. For the doctrine that it is worse dSiKetv ^ 
 dSiKf.la-$aL, see Plat. Gorg. 469 c, 508 B. 
 
 6 §§ I — 3. See Introduction, On dislocations in the text. 
 
 6 § 4.] ' Hitherto we have been considering to airXoJs SUaiov, i. e. 
 that which is characteristic of the virtue called SiKaiocnvr], irrespective 
 of the KoivioviaL in which it is exhibited. Our statements are therefore 
 true Ka66\ov, — of a trading company or a household as well as of a 
 TToXis — though our illustrations have been drawn for the most part 
 from the political koivoivm. We must now say something of Sixaiov 
 as it presents itself in different Kotvwi'tat : and of these species of 
 SUaiov, TO iroXiTLKov Stxaiov, i.e. the 8tKaioi' of a community of free 
 and equal citizens, is the most perfect representation of to aTrXaJs 
 SiKatoi' [and moreover concerns us most nearly, as this treatise is 
 preparatory to a treatise on politics]. Other species of SiKaiov are 
 TO SecTiroTiKov, TO iraTpiKov, and to oikovo/xikov, which differ from to 
 
102 [nicomachean] ethics v. 6 § 4. 
 
 iroXniKov SiKaiov in SO far as (i) master and slave, (2) father and 
 son, (3) husband and wife are not iXivdepoi koL tcrot rj Kar dvaXo- 
 yiav yj kot dpiOfiov possessing definite rights secured to them by 
 law. Of the three relations the last exhibits the nearest approach to 
 
 TO iroXlTLKOV SiKaiov.' 
 
 It will be seen that in dealing with the three imperfect or Kaff 
 o/xoioT-qra SiKaia Eudemus takes a purely legal view, recognizing no 
 rights except those which are embodied in law, and no law except 
 written law. Hence it has been supposed by some that the three 
 KaO' d/totoTijTtt SiKaia are not included in to oTrXcug ZUaiov, and con- 
 sequently that TO ctTrXoJs hUaiov is identical with to ttoXltikov hUaiov. 
 This is surely a mistake. In so far as there is a Si/catov between 
 father and son, the statements made about to airXuis hUawv are true 
 of it ; TO dvTLTmrovOos at any rate is very fully realized in this relation, 
 since father and son, like unequal friends {N. E. ix. i § i), or magis- 
 trate and citizen {Polit. 11. 2. p. 24. 13), barter protection and honour. 
 
 Hence OTai/ yovivai pXv tLkvo. d.irov€/J.rj a Sti Tots yevvijiTacTi, yovcLS 0£ 
 vlecriv a Set tois tIkvok, jU.ovijnos ij Ttui/ toioutojv koL iTneiKrj'S i<na.i ffuXca 
 
 (viii. 7 § 2). Moreover there are other relations in which Slkmov is 
 more perfectly realized than in the more or less one-sided relations of 
 the household. Thus a trading company and an tpavos are Kotvwvtat 
 governed by law, and consequently have their respective Sticata, 
 which are not identical with to itoXitikov SlKaLov : cf. omnino JV. E. 
 VIII. 9 §§ 4 — 6. I cannot therefore assent to the statement of Rassow 
 that TO a7rX(3s Si/catoi/ and to ttoXitikoi' StKaiov are different expres- 
 sions for the same thing (Forschungen p. 123). Again I cannot 
 allow that there is any force in the criticism of Trendelenburg : 
 "according to the traditional arrangement of the text the words 
 Set 8e /Hi; XavBdvuv, k.t.X. are preceded by two chapters and a half 
 in which the distributive and corrective justice of the state are 
 discussed at length : the warning that we must not overlook to iroXi- 
 TtKoi' SUaiov is therefore in this place unmeaning" {Beitrageiii. 418). 
 It is quite true that in the preceding chapters to airXoJs StWiov has 
 been constantly regarded in its political form, because reference to 
 some particular kind of Stxctiov was necessary, and political hUawv 
 afforded the most convenient examples. But nothing has been said 
 which is not capable of application to other forms of hiKaiov. Now, 
 however, we may proceed to distinguish the several species of to 
 ttTrXuJs StKaioi/, and to contrast the most important species, viz. iro- 
 XiTtKov hiKMov, with the Sixaia of the household. 
 
 fj Kar dvaXoyiav fj Ka/ dpiOfwv] Equality may be either actual or 
 
NOTES. 103 
 
 proportionate. Thus it may be assumed that all free men are Kar' 
 dpid/xov la-oi, and therefore that in distributions of conquests and of 
 offices all should share alike. Again in an aristocracy, (and in Paa-i- 
 Xeta, the limiting case of dpia-TOKpaTia, where the claims of a single 
 person are in virtue of his superior merit superior to those of all 
 the rest put together,) to kot" d.va\.oyiav "crov is the principle assumed, 
 regard being had to differences in merit. (See note on 3 § 7.) Bat 
 when the citizens are not lo-ot either Kar' dvaXoyiav or kwt' dpiOfiov, as 
 in a 8ea-iroT€ta, there cannot be said to be ttoXitikov SUaiov : still 
 even in this case there is a sort of SUaiov Kaff ojnoidriyTa, an undefined 
 SUaiov like that which is exhibited in the relation of master and 
 slave. 
 
 The chief passages in the Folitics which bear upon the subject of 
 these §§ are the following : 
 
 III. 9. p. 71. 21. It is generally assumed that to Socatoi/ consists 
 in TO to-ov, but TO lo-ov is differently interpreted. Hence the distinc- 
 tion between to iikiyap^iKov Swcaiov and to SrnxoKpariKov. 
 
 III. 12. p. 78. 15. What constitutes a claim to political privi- 
 leges ? There is something to be said for all the kinds of excellence 
 which are exhibited in the sphere of the state. 
 
 III. 17. p. 91. 31. Different sorts of irokiriKov SiKaiov are recog- 
 nized, which are <f>va-u. There is however no BiKaiov Kard tjiva-iv in 
 TvpavvU and the other irape/c/Sa'cret?, because these are Trapd (f>vcriv. 
 
 VII. (vi.) 2. p. 179. II and p. 180. 21. to SrjfioriKov (or Sijixo- 
 KpariKov) Sixaiov consists in TO l(Tov ^xeiv kwt' dpiO/jiov. 
 
 VIII. (vi.) 3. p. 181. 9. An 6\iyap)(iK6v Si/caiov is recognized. 
 VIII. (v.) 9. p. 214. 4. TO StKaiov is not the same in all polities. 
 
 There are therefore different sorts of SiKaioavvr), and the would-be 
 politician must possess that sort which is appropriate to the constitu- 
 tion of the state. 
 
 For the words Koivoivav ^Cov cf. Fo^if. iii. 3. p. 62. 23. iii. 4. 
 p. 63. 9 : for -TTpds to etvai airapKeiav cf Polit. III. I. p. 60. 26. VI. 
 8. p. 189. 29 : and for the marked distinction here made between 
 ij T(3v iKexQkpwv koX tatav dpyr) and 1; Seo-jrOTtm; cf. Polit. I. 7. p. 10. 3. 
 IV. (vil.) 14. p. 119. 16. p. 121. 15, 
 
 kv ots — Trao-ii/ aSiKi'a] Zell rejects these words. Miinscher, with 
 whom I so far agree, thinks that they are wrongly given in this place. 
 See Introduction, On dislocations in the text I take the sentence 
 eo-Tt ydp lUaiov, k.t.X.. to be a justification of the preceding remarks 
 about TrokiTiKov BUaLov: 'for there is SUaiov where there is law, and 
 law exists where oSiKt'a is recognized, Sikij, the administration of law. 
 
104 [nicomachean] ethics v. 6 §§ 4 — 8. 
 
 being the discrimination of tlie just and the unjust, where by the 
 unjust is meant the distribution to oneself of too large a share of 
 what is ctTrXcSs good, and too small a share of what is air\<3s evil.' 
 Thus there is a StVaiov ttoXitikov in a democracy, because all the 
 members of a democracy are subject to law based upon a certain 
 theory of right and wrong. But between a tyrant, properly so 
 called, and his subjects there is no Sucatov ttoXltikov, because there 
 is no law to determine their mutual rights and relations, and where 
 there is no law there is no polity: cf. I^o/if. vi. (iv.) 4. p. 154. 28 
 OTTOU yap juij vojxoi apypvariv, OVK eUTL 7roXiT€ia. Set yap rov fiiv vo/aov 
 ap^civ ■TravTwv, Tu)V Si Kad' €Ka(na ras ap)(a.s Koi Tiijv iroXireiav Kpiveiv. 
 
 For the argument as a whole cf J'olti. 1. 2. p. 4. 19 57 Si ScKatoa-vvr] 
 
 TToXtTLKOV 7; yap SiKr/ xoXtTtK^s KOLVtDvia'S Tofis icrTiV ij Bi SlKrj TOV 
 SiKaLov Kpiai^. 
 
 I have written irpos avTovs for irpos avrous in the first clause of this 
 sentence. 
 
 § 5. Sto, K.T.X.] This question irorepov cru/xc^epci p.5XKov viro TOV 
 apla-TOV avSpos jSociXci'ecr^ai i] viro Twv apLcrriav vonmv is discussed 
 by Plato in the Politicus 293 e sqq. and in the Laws ix. 874 e — 
 87s D, and by Aristotle in the Politics iii. 15. p. 87. 3 — 17 and iii. 
 16. p. ^o. r — 32. p. 91. 8 — 18. See also Polit. in. 11. p. 77. 31. 
 
 For the phraseology cf. omnino PolU. in. 10. p. 75. i (where 
 however emendation is necessary) and in. 16. p. 90. i tov apa 
 vofwv ap)(€LV alperunepov fiaXXov r) Ttav iroXiriav iva Tiva. These 
 passages would seem to countenance the reading of M'^Q, dXKa tov 
 vo/jLov, which is preferred by Susemihl (Bursian's Jahresbericht 1874 — 
 75, p. 368) ; but the change is not necessary, as \6yov may mean the 
 formula contained in the law; cf. Polit. in. 15. p. 87. 12 dXXa /x^v 
 KaKWOv Sci virapyf.iv tov Xoyov tov KaBoXov rots ap)(ov(ri,v. Plat. Polit. 
 294 C leapa. tov 'koyov ov avTO% [i. e. o vd/ios] eTreTafev. Grant in his 
 
 note on § 4 renders tov Xdyov " the impersonal reason \ " this can 
 hardly be right. 
 
 oTi lavTio rovTo iroict] ' Because a man rules in his own interest : ' 
 cf. Polit. in. 7. p. 70. II rj fj-iv yap TvpavvU lari ft-ovapf^ia irpos to 
 (rvfi^ipov TO TOV /Aovap^^owTos. 
 
 d apytavl 'The magistrate who executes the law.' There is 
 a certain awkwardness in the close proximity of d ap-j^mi (meaning 
 no more than the executive magistrate) and ap^vv (in the sense of 
 Kvpiov ilvai); but cf Polit. VI. (iv.) 4. p. 154. 28, quoted above on 
 ^4. I have marked ov yap vip-u — irpoTepov as a parenthesis, thinking 
 
NOTES. 105 
 
 with Grant that fiia-Ooi apa n?, k.t.X. is the apodosis of en-ei S' 
 ovOev avra irXiov eiyai Soke? (cf. Bonitz Aristot. Stud. I. II. 28) : ' The 
 administrator is the guardian of what is just, and therefore of what 
 is equal : and, seeing that it is assumed that in the distribution 
 he takes no more than his due, compensation for his services must 
 be given him in the shape of honour and dignity, otherwise he 
 becomes a tyrant.' 
 
 § 6. hrA 8' ovflev, /c.t.X.] " But since he does not seem to gain 
 at all." Grant. Rather, I think, 'but since it is assumed that he 
 does not profit in the distribution.' 
 
 810 erepo) ttovcT] The modern editors except Cardwell and 
 Michelet read irotei, and Bekker takes no notice of the reading -irova 
 which is to be found in every one of the MSS. which I have 
 consulted. It may perhaps be thought at first sight that eav™ 
 TovTo woui in the preceding § justifies Std kripw iroi^: but a little 
 consideration will show that though the two datives are in themselves 
 precisely similar, tovto ttoiCi, which represents apx", is no justification 
 of TToiei in § 6 in the sense of "acts," for so it is understood by 
 Grant, Williams, &c. On the other hand nothing could be more 
 suitable than irovet, and in Polit. 11. 5. p. 28. 24 {avrSiv 8' aiJTots 
 hva.iravavvTwv -ra. ■Ke.pl tos kt-ijo-eis irXctous av irapixpi 8va"KoXias) we 
 have authority for the conjunction with it of a dative of the person 
 interested. 
 
 § 7. /xto-^os apa Tts SoTcos] Fo/it. VIII. (v.) 8. p. 2 13. II rov 8e 
 aKcpSSi a.p\€w Tt/ias eii/at 8ei vevoix.oOe.Tiqp.iva': tois evSoKt/iovo-ti'. Plat. 
 Rep. I. 345 E, 347 A. Here, as in unequal friendships, the assistance 
 rendered by the superior and the honour or respect which compen- 
 sates it are equated by means of to avmrerrovOo^. Cf. Polit. 11. 2. 
 p. 24. II and N. E. viii. ix. ut supra. 
 
 §§ 8, 9. ' There are in the household lUam. which are analogous 
 to the above-mentioned Scxaia of the state. Of these domestic Stxata 
 that which appears in the relation of husband and wife corresponds 
 more nearly than to Seo-TroTi/cdi' and to TrarpiKov to the ttoXitikov 
 SUaiov of § 4, and is the true oi/covo/^tKoi/ SiKaiov.' 
 
 Seo-TTOTtKov SiKaiov, the 8tKaiov which appears in the relationship of 
 master and slave, and -iraTpiKov SUaiov, that which appears in the 
 relationship of father and son, correspond rather to the SiKotoV n koI 
 Kaff o>oio'TijTa of a tyranny, because here too aStxta is impossible on 
 the part of the superior, and therefore law has no place. Cf. Folit. i. 
 12. p. 19. 16 iTTiX hi rpia ixipr) ttjs oiKovo/ttK^s ^v, cV /xiv Seo-TTOTiKi/, 
 
io6 [nicomachean] ethics v. 6 § 8—y § 6. 
 
 irepl ^s etprjTaL irporipov, tv Se irarpiKi;, rpirov hi ya/xiKr]' /cai yap ywat- 
 Kos ap-)(0.v KoX T£KV<av, <Js eXcii^epcov /xcv ap.<^oIv, oi3 Toi/ airov oc rpowov 
 T^s oipX^s, aXXo yui/aiKos ju.ei' iroXiTiKoJs TeKvuiv Se ^a<TiXiK£s, (See the 
 whole of this chapter.) 
 
 KT^/ia] 'slave.' Cf. /fc/zA I. 4. p. 6. 7. 
 
 I<i)s av ^ in7\6Kov Kai x»/>'<^^r?-] With K''P'»N''0^ the V.A., 
 Miinscher, and the Berlin Index, I have omitted /ai? (which in all the 
 editions stands before yytpiaQ'^), translating Iws 'until' instead of 
 
 'whilst.' Cf. M. M. I. 34 § 18 wcnrep yap p-tpos Tt eoTi Tov Trarpoi 
 vlo?, ttX'^v orav ■^Sr] XaySij r^v rov dvSpoi rdicv (cat )(U)pia'6y [vt'] avTov, 
 
 § 9. ^v] 'are, as we said before:' sc. § 4. 
 olKovop-iKov] In Polit. III. 6. p. 68. 25 however olKovop.cK'^ as an 
 epithet of apx'y is used comprehensively to include all three relations. 
 
 7 § I. otov TO juvas XuTpoijCT-^at.] The editors point out that this 
 passage is inconsistent with Herodot. vi. 79 airotra Se cort IlcXoirov- 
 VYjo-Coun Svo (iviai T(Tayp.ivo.i Kar avSpa aip^aXuTov iKTiv€LV, and V- 'J'J 
 )^6v(f §£ fXvcrdv <r<^£as St/iveoos aTroTi/iijtra/ievot. But, as Blakesley 
 remarks, the prisoriers in the latter case being the Chalcidian Hippo- 
 botae, two minae "may be considered as the ransom of a man-at-arms, 
 not of an inferior soldier.'' One mina then may have been the ran- 
 som of men of the lowest rank. 
 
 rj TO atya, k.t.X.] On the Strength of Herodot 11. 42 ocroi /ilv 
 
 St; Atos ®y]Paiioi iSpuvrat Ipov rj vop.ov toij ©rj^aiov tl<Ti, ouTOi //.iv vvv 
 7ra^T£s OLOiV aTTCxo/tcvot atyas Ovovai Muretus proposed to read aiya 
 All 6v€iv dWd p-rj Trpo^aTa. Cf. iV; ^. IX 2 § 6. de Mirabilibus 844. a. 
 35. (In Athen. iv. i.^)^ f dvovcri 8' iv Tats /cowto'iv alyas aAAo 8* oiScv 
 Upeiov Zeus is not the divinity honoured.) But the addition of Ait 
 does not explain the awkward antithesis of the singular alya and the 
 plural 8uo irpojSaTa. Is it possible that aXXa /iij is a corruption of 
 p.Lav r/r 
 
 TO 6vuv Bpao-t'Sa.] The editors quote Thuc. v. 11. 
 
 §§ 2, 3. 'Some think that all SUaia are determined by conven- 
 tion, because to p,€V tjtvcrei, aKtVijTov, Ta 8e Si'sata Kivovjjicva opcotrtv. 
 (This last statement, that Ta Strata vary, though not true without 
 qualification, is true in a manner. It is positively untrue ?rapa tois 
 ^£ots; but Trap' ly'/aiv, although there is a ^j;o-£t Stxatov, every 8tKatoi' 
 is variable.) In spite of what they say, there is a ^vo-£i SiKaiov, as 
 well as a vofna hi.Ko.iov.' I conceive toCto S" ovk ^tiv — kivt/jtov /otei/Toi 
 TToiv to be a parenthetical explanation of the author's views about 
 
NOTES. 107 
 
 his opponents' minor premiss, which he practically concedes. That 
 is to say, the fact that fiixata differ in different places (Kivarat), and 
 are therefore capable of arbitrary variation (Kti/r/m), does not disprove 
 the existence of an eternal, natural Sikoiov to which the before-men- 
 tioned SiKaia more or less conform. Hence Stxaia may be divided 
 into (i) tpva-a SCxaia, i.e. those which represent the eternal, natural 
 StKaioi', and (2) vo/xu) or a-wOrjicri SUaia, which are wholly independent 
 of it. " Ein unveranderliches Gerechte gibt es freihch unter Men- 
 schen nicht, wohl aber bei den Gottern. Dagegen ein Gerechtes, 
 welches sich dem Menschen allenthalben durch eigene Kraft, wenn 
 auch nicht mit unwiderstehlicher Nothwendigkeit aufdrangt, besteht 
 allerdings." H.ildenhra.nd's JiecAts- unti Staafsph'/osop/ite p. 306. After 
 the parenthesis the author resumes the main argument with a flat 
 denial of their conclusion, leaving it to be understood that he demurs 
 to their major — to </>i;cret d.Kiv7]Tov. If the sentence is not broken 
 up in this way, the words dXk' o/xcos seem strangely out of place. 
 
 Sofcei 8' evLOLi, K.T.)iJ] Cf Plat. Laws x. 889 e koX 817 Kai [sc. 
 ^otrti'] Ta KttXa (jruaei fiiv aXXa itvai vo/xto 8e erepa' to, 8c SiKaia 
 ovS' tLvai TO irapaTrav <jiv(rei, o.\X a/x^«7^ijT0WTas SiaTeXctv oXXjjXois 
 Kai fueraTiOe/iivovi aci TatJTa" a 8 av ixeraOanirai koX otov, totc Kvpia 
 eKaara eivai, yiyvofieva Ts^vy koI tois vo//.ots, oAA. ov Srj tlvi (jivcrei. See 
 
 also [Plat.] Minos 315 A — 316 b, quoted by Grant, and N. E. 
 I- 3 § 2- 
 
 § 4. (^u'orci yap, k.t.X.] Nature intends the right hand to be 
 stronger than the left, but all men may become ambidextrous. In 
 place of TrivTos Bekker without remark reads Ttvas: but as tca.vTa.% is 
 found so far as I know in all the MSS. and gives a good sense, I 
 have, with Fritzsche (who compares M. M. i. 34 § 21) and Zell, re- 
 stored it to the text. 
 
 § 5- ui'oSiTat — TTuXoucrii'] SC. 01 e/xiropot. 
 
 d/i.otcos Se Kai, k.t.X.] Human 8tKata [as opposed to the eternal, 
 natural SiKaiov] differ, inasmuch as the iroXtTetai to which they belong 
 are all deviations from the one perfect iroXtTsio. 
 
 § 6. Each law stands to the variety of action included under it 
 in the relation of universal to particulars: cf. Polit. 11. 8. p. 44. z 
 KoBoKov yap dvayKalov ypatl>-qvai., al 8e Trpa^ets 'n-epl t(3v KaO' IxaoTov 
 t'uriv. This § and that which follows serve as a transition to another 
 part of the inquiry — the justice and injustice of the individual. 
 
io8 [nicomachean] ethics v. 7 § 7 — 8 § 6, 
 
 § 7. avTo Se TovTo] The editors write to avr(5 8e tovto in spite 
 of the best MSS. Is the article necessary? 'This very thing when 
 realized in fact is called an dBiKrujLO. : until it is realized, it is only an 
 aSiKov.' This statement is qualified in 8 § 2, where we are told that 
 every aSt'/oj/ia until it is committed is an aSiKov : but not every aSiKov 
 when it is committed is an dSiKij/xa, because, to be an a8iKi7//.a, an act 
 must be iKovo-iov. 
 
 KoXeiTai, K. T.X.J "It is not improbable," says Grant, "that 
 Eudemus here is correcting the phraseology of Aristotle, who at all 
 events in his Rhetoric, i. 13 § r, uses StKatm/ia as the opposite of 
 dSiKYjixa, merely to denote a just action." See Cope on JiAet i- 3 § 9. 
 I have enclosed this sentence within marks of parenthesis to show 
 that the original argument is continued in Kaff eKoarov Se, k.t.\. 
 
 va-Tcpov] 1. e. in the Politics, which treatise was evidently intended 
 to include a book or books irepi vo/jluiv. 
 
 8 § 2.J See note on 7 § 7. 
 
 § 3. TrpoTcpov] The reference is to £. E. 11. 9 § 3 oaa. pkv ow e</>* 
 eavTw ov /iij trpa.TTV.v irpofTTa p/tj dyvowv koI Bi avTov, exoijcna tovt 
 ovayKJj eivat, (cat to eKovaiov toDt' Iittlv oo-a 8' ayvoiov /cai 8ta to ayvoav, 
 aKw, rather than to JV. E. iii. i § 20 ovtos 8' aKovo-iov tov ^iq, koX 8t' 
 ayvoiav, to Ikovo-iov ho^nev av etvau ov tj ap)(rj iv avT^ ctSoTt to. Ka6 
 eKacrra iv oh -q Trpd^ii. Throughout this chapter we are reminded of 
 the Eudemian, rather than of the Nicomachean, investigation of to 
 
 tKOVCTLOV, 
 
 p.-qT€ ov] Before or after this phrase Bemays (Symb. Philol. 
 Bonn. I. 304) would add prfTe. o, comparing § 6. Would not this 
 addition necessitate the further addition of oTt ruTTTet koI before 
 TtVa in the next clause? The list of particulars whereof ignor- 
 ance is possible is not always given in full: even in E. ^. 11. 9 §§ i, 
 2, where we should have expected the lists to be complete, we have 
 in one place €i8oTa -q hv yj to rj ov eVeica, and in another dyvoovvTi 
 Kai OV Kai <i) Km o. 
 
 ov <£i/efca>] Bekker's addition of cvexa appears to be necessary. 
 
 m(7ir€p £1 Tis XajScov, k.t.X.] Cf. E. E. II. 8 § lo too-jrep ei tis Xa^wv 
 TTjv X"P" TWTTTOi Tivd avTiTfivovTOi KOI Tw jSouXeQ-^at Koi T<o iiriOvpLilv. 
 On avTov vide supra 5 § 13. 
 
 mv ovOev, k.t.X.] So E. E. II. 8 §§ 4, 5 Ka.96\ov 8£ to /St'atov koX rrjv 
 avayKrjv kol ctti t(3>' aij/v)(0)v Xeyoynev' Kai yap tov \iBov avu) Koi to 
 mjp KaTia j3ia koL dvayKatpp-iva ^epe<r6ai <l>ap,iv. TavTa 8' orav KaTa 
 Ti;v ff>v(Ta KoX KaO awra opp-Tjy ffiepryrai, ov )8ta, ov p.7jv ov8' 
 
NOTES. 
 
 109 
 
 eKovcria Xiyerai, aW avdJi/u/Aos ij dvTi^eo-is. orai/ Se irapd 
 ravrqv, )8to <^a(t.h>. Rassow however {Forschungen p. 95) corrects Siv 
 ovOkv ovT i<l> tj/uv ovd' Ikovctlov Iotlv, and Spengel {Aristoi. Stud. i. 
 43) tSv ovBhi eKovariov iariv, 
 
 § 4. Sta <^o)8ov] Cf. iVi -£. III. I §§ 4 — 6, where the conclusion 
 is the same, though somewhat differently expressed. 
 
 Here, as in £. E. 11., actions are 
 
 § 5. tS>v 8e EKOvcriW, k.t.X.] 
 
 classified as 
 
 a/cowta 
 
 , , f aTTpoaipeTa 
 cKovcria { , 
 
 { Trpoaipera 
 
 Cf. £. E. II. 10 § 19 01/x.a 8' «K toi5t(i)V (fiavepov kou oti koXuis 
 Swpi^ovrai 01 Tcuv Tra^rj/xdrajv rd /act iKovcria rd 8' aKovaia rd 8' ck 
 TTpovoCa'S voixo6erau(Tiv' ei -ydp Kai /tij SiaKpifiowiv, dXA.' airTOVTai ye 
 Tjj TTjs aXtjOeia^. aWd -irepi [ilv tovtohv epov/iev ei/ t^ irepi tcUi' 
 8(KatW eiruj-Ke^ei. In iV^ £. III. I § 13 oij^ e/cowia are interpolated 
 between aKoucria and tKoucrta. 
 
 § 6. rpuSi/ SI av(r<Sv, k.t.K.] The three sorts of ^Xd^r] are 
 arixqixa, dixdpTrjiJi.a, and d8tKi;p.a ; but aSiKTjfjM is afterwards subdi- 
 vided into simple d8iKi7p.a, and d8tifrjp.a which implies dSiKia in the 
 doer. If we further include otra ^laia koI p.i; £<^' avra, we have 
 the following classification : 
 
 (a) rd piaio. Kiii furj i<j> oijtm 
 
 ()8) rd /aet' dyvoias, oTai/ irapaXoycos ij aTupf^/uara 
 
 PXa^ri yivriTai, (oTav ij dpxv i^<^dev 
 
 y T^s dyi/ot'as) 
 (y) rd /^et' dyvotas, orav /*?; irapaXoycos afiMprrqixaTa 
 
 dvev hi KaKias, {arav rj apX"! ^v avrio 
 
 y T^s dyvotds) 
 fKovo'ia <, (8) OTav eiSujs fi€V \j.rj irpoySouXsuo-as 8e' 
 (e) oral' Ik irpoaipiveusi, {Ik Trpovoia's) 
 
 aSiKriixara 
 dSiKTJfiaTa which 
 imply dSiKia in 
 the doer 
 
 The dyi/oia here mentioned is of course ignorance of the circum- 
 stances of the act (rd KaO' eKao-ra), not ignorance of rules {rd Ka66- 
 \ov): cf. E. E. II. 9 §§ I, 2. N. E. III. I § 15. According to 
 the above Eudemian list the act of the p-tOvunv is ranked under (y), 
 that of the dvitM iromv under (8), and that of the «7ri^ovXeijcras under 
 
no [nicomachean] ethics v. 8 §§ 6—8. 
 
 (e). In the Rhet. I. 13. p. 47. 29 cort 8* a.Twy(J\\i.o.Ta fiXv 0(70. wapaXoya 
 Kai fiTj and fioxOrjpia's, a/iapTT/juara Se ocra /aij TrapoXoya koI jxyj oiro 
 irovqpiw;, aSiKyj/xara 8c o(ra /xifre trapdXoya dm irovr/pia? T tcniv, {y) 
 and (8) of the Eudemian list are classed together as d.pja.prrif).ara : 
 and in the same way in N. E. iii. i § 14 the act of the [iSiaiv and 
 the act of the opyi^ofjievoi are mentioned together as instances of ocra 
 /xij 81' dyvoiav dW dyvoSv. Thus the 6vp.(o ttolujv according to Aris- 
 totle acts dyvowv aXX' ov Si ayvoiav : according to Eudemus, eiSws 
 jAv ov Trpo^ov\eva-ai Se. For this difference of statement Eudemus 
 prepares us in 11. 9 § 3 Ittci 8e to IwtcrTao-^ai nai TO etSei/at 8ittov, ev 
 fiiv TO exciv tv &£ to xPW^"-'- ''V ^Tto-TTf/to?; ° ^x^^ f-V XP'"/'*^''°s ^^ 
 ea-Ti filv (US St/catcos <a.v> dyvowv XiyoiTO, i(TTi 8' ws ov Si/catcos, otoi' 
 £1 Si' d/xikeiav p,rj i^p-^ro. In the Jiket ad Alexand. (c. 4. p. 24. 4. 
 c. 36. p. 79. 27 Spengel) aStxia is said to be coextensive with to Ik 
 
 iTpovoLa%, dfJ-apTia with Tct 8t' ayi/otav, and drv^ia with Ta Si' erepovi 
 
 Tims ^ 8ia Tvx'iyv : but here rd 8t' dyvoiav is equivalent to Aristotle's 
 
 oo-a dyvowv dXXd jixij 8t' ayvoiav. In Ji/". ilf! I. 34 § 25, (y), (8), and 
 
 (e) of Eudemus's list are roughly thrown together under the title of 
 a8iK77/xa : see note on § 7. The Eudemian terminology seems to be 
 based upon that of Attic law : see Antiphon, passim. 
 
 dfji.apr>]fjiaTa] here includes drvxriixara as well as dp-ap-nj/jLaTa in the 
 narrower sense in which the word is used in § 7. 
 
 <S] So Rassow Forschungen p. 61, on the authority of K''. 
 Although the lists of particulars of which a man may be ignorant 
 are not always the same, (see note on § 3,) it is reasonable to expect 
 consistency in such a passage as the present, where the list occurs 
 three times in the space of five lines. In E. E. 11. 9 §§ i, 2 the 
 particulars are as here, ov, w, o, and ou cVcKa, ws being suppressed 
 and ov doing duty for the ircpi ti -^ iv rivi of JV. E. iii. 1 § 16. 
 
 § 7. dpaprdvci p-ev ydp, k.t.X.] It is plain that this sentence ought to 
 restate the distinction already drawn between drv^qpa and dpdprripa : 
 but it is difficult to see how orav ij dpxv ^v ai3T<3 ^ t^s a it i as — so 
 
 the MSS. except H^M'' (which have KaKias), and all the editors— can 
 be equivalent to /«.^ wapaXoytos, and oTav iiwOtv to wapaXo'yus. More- 
 over, TJ dpxn T^s aiTias is a Strange phrase. Hence I have supposed 
 AITIAS to be a corruption of ArNOIAS, and I find the strongest 
 possible confirmation of my conjecture both in the JV. E. and in the 
 
 M. M. Cf. N. E. III. 5 § 8 K.ax ydp hr avToi rw dyvoiiv KoXdlovtrw, 
 idv aiTios ttvai SoKy t^s ayvoi'as, olov tois peOvova-i SLTrXd to 
 iinTip.ta- tJ yap dpxv fv avTo)- Kvpios ydp tov /hi) p.e6va-6rjvai, tovto 
 
NOTES. 1 1 1 
 
 S' atriov T^s ayvoias: also § 'j : and M. ^ l. 34 §§ 27—28 
 loTO) 81J owos o Siopicr/io's" orai/ /tei/ •yap 1; ayvota alrU y tov irpafai 
 Ti, ovx «uv ToiJTo irpaTTEt, <oo-Te oi/c oiSiKft- orav S« t^s dyvoia^ 
 avTOi H aiTios, (cat irpaTrQ rt Kara tijv ayvotav ^s au'ros aiTio's 
 co-Tii/, ouTos ^817 aSiKtt, Kttl SiKatdJs aiTios o toiovto% K\y)BricreTai. 
 oiov eTTi T<uv /xefluovTwi'" 01 yap p.eSuoi'Tes koL -rpd^avrK ti Ka/cov 
 .aSiKouo-tV t:7s yap ayyotas airot cttrti/ atrtof €^^1; yap au'row 
 /^V TTtveiv Toa-ovTov (uo-r ayi/oiJo-ai'Tas tvtttuv tov Trarepa. dp.ot(fls Jtti 
 Tioi/ aXXuiv dyvoLiSv otrai /aei' yiVovTai 81' avrous, oi Kara raura? oSikowtcs 
 aStKoi- (uv 8€ ^tJ aiiTOL eia-LV amot, aW 1; ayvoia ko.kuvoi'; Icttiv 
 aiTLa TOis irpa^aa-i. tov irpd^ai, ovk dSiKoi: and again § 29 m yap 
 oyvota aiTi'a tov TrparTetv Tavra, T17S 8' ayvot'a? ovk avTa aiTta. 
 (I have already remarked on § 6 that the d/jLapr-^fiara of the present 
 passage are called aSiKif/iara in the M J^) See also £. £. 11. 9 § 3. 
 With this change the sentence becomes perfectly intelligible : it is 
 an aTvxw"- when the doer does not know and could not have been 
 expected to know, in other words when he is not answerable for 
 his ignorance: but it is an d/idpTrifia, when he might have been 
 expected to know, in other words when he is answerable for his 
 ignorance, otov ctti t(uv pLeOvovTwv. See Antiphon Tetral. II., espe- 
 cially the defence, in which the father of the accused argues that the 
 fatal accident was caused by the dfnapria of the deceased, who ought 
 not to have crossed the target. 
 
 With the received text the best rendering which I can devise is — 
 ' that is to say, a man dpLaprdvei when the origin of (the ignorance 
 which is) the cause of the wrong is in himself; he druxet when it is 
 external to him.' 
 
 § 8. ci8ujs] Thus o Ovfia iroiwv is accounted etSus. In the JV. E. 
 HI. I § 14 he is classed with the p.fBvu>v as an a'yvowv : tnpov 8' 
 
 EOiKE Kox TO 01 ayroiaf TrpaTTtiv roC ayvooiJi'Ta Trotetv " ydp [xedvMV 
 rj opyifo/icvos oi 8oK€r Si dyvoiav TrpaTTUV, dkXd Sid ti t(ov eiprifievuiv, 
 
 OVK £(8<os 8c, oX\ ayi'ooji'. See note on § 6. 
 
 olov oa-a t£, k.t.X.] Thinking that the second oaa is the subject 
 of o-v/x/3ai'i/£t, I expunge the commas which Bekker places after Tra^i; 
 and ^(TiKo. If the first oa-a were the subject of o-u/i/SatVet, tois 
 dvOpiawoK would be unmeaning and superfluous. On the other hand 
 these words are positively necessary to complete the sense of oo-a 
 avayKoia rj t^vcriKd. Cf. § 12 Sia irddos Se p-tJTC <j>V(tik6v jxt^t dvOpui- 
 iriKov. See also Po/t/. III. 10. p. 75. 3 e^ovra yc Ta (rvfi^aivovTa 
 trdOij Trepi rrjv ijivx^v. V. (vill.) 7. p. 142. 32 o yap iripX tvias cru^- 
 
112 [nicomachean] ethics v8§8:6§§i,2:8§9. 
 
 jSalvei Trd6o<s \]n})(aii l(r)(vpw, tovto iv Trao-ais vvrapp^ei, T(3 Si tjttov 
 Sia<j>ipu Kal T(3 jUaXXov, oToi' IXeos Kat <^o/3os, Itl 8' h/6ov<naafioi. By 
 (ftva-iKO, irddrj Eudemus means ocra kolvo. TToicri Kal i(j) o(Tov kolvo. : 
 
 the dvayKOLa irdOrj, which are a species of the <l>vcriKd mO-q, include 
 
 e-TriBv/xlai at irepl -rqv Tpocf>rjv, K.T.X. Opposed tO the (jivaiKoi Kal 
 dvdpoririKa, TrdBrj are the BrjpLwBr) and voorrj/taT(uSij Trd6rj, which in the 
 developed form of efets are described in JV. E. vii. 5. See N. E. vii. 
 
 6 § 2 ert TOis (^vcrt/cais jUaWov (ruyyi/co/xr; aKoXou^cii/ opiie(Tiv, iirel Kal 
 firi6vp,iais Tats Totaurats p,a\Xov ocrat KOivai iracri Kai i<ji oo'ov KOival ' 
 o 8e 6viJ,di <f)VcrLKuiTepov Kal rj ^(aXeTTOTrji tojv eiri^v/itw Tcui/ tijs VTrep- 
 /SoX^S Kat Twv /iij dvayKaiwv. VII. 4 § 2 avayKata /tev [sc. Tcov irotowTtDi' 
 i;ooviyi'] Ta (TutfiariKd. Xiyo) 8e ra roiaCTa, Ta tc jrept nji' Tpo^ijv Kat 
 Tjji' Ttov d<f>poSi.ariii)v )(pdav, koX Ta TOiavra twv xroi/JiaTiKwv irepl a r^v 
 aKoXaciav l^e/x.ei' Kat Trjv crij)<j)pocrvvr]v. VII. 6. § 6 wcrirep yap etpiyrat 
 Kar ap)(as, at p,ev [sc. tuji' £7rt5u/u,i(3v] dvOpunriKai ehri Kat i^ixrtKat, Kat 
 ™ yci'6t Kat Tu ix.eyi6ei, at 8e 07;ptojSets, at Sc 8ta irrfpumwi koX vooTJfiara. 
 
 (In iV; ^. III. II § I the distinction between avayKatat and <f>v(nKal 
 iTTtdvfjiiaL is not recognized.) 
 
 oi yap 8ta p,oxdripLav -q fiXd^rj] After these words I have intro- 
 duced 6 §§ I, 2. See Introduction, On dislocations in the text. 
 
 6 § I. rj OVTW /nei/ ovSev 8totcr£i,...OTav 8' Ik wpoatpeo-EMS, aSiKOS 
 Kat p.oxdripo'; ;] I conceive that these clauses, of which the first belongs 
 to 6 § I, the second to 8 § 9, are to be read in close connection with 
 one another, the intervening sentences being parenthetical. 'Or 
 shall we say that it is not (as the question thus expressed assumes) 
 the doing of certain acts, but the spirit of the doer, which makes 
 him aStKos Kat /io^^fljypo's ?' Cf. 8 § 1 1 infra. 
 
 6 § 2. olov ov KXiiTTi]?, tKXixj/e Se] On the authority of K*" ?•> I 
 have written ov KXiTrrrjs in place of ovSl kXcittijs, which is hardly 
 intelligible even if with Miinscher we expunge oiSe /iotxo's, t/toixcvcre 
 Se, so that oiiSe may introduce an example supplementary to the one 
 already discussed. As Bekker's text stands, oiSe cannot bear its 
 proper meaning. 
 
 8 § 9. Sto KaXcus, K.T.X.] ' Hence the law is right in not accounting 
 
 Ta Ik 6u/aov to be ek wpovotaj, because it is 6 6pyia-a% who ap;(€t, not d 
 6vp.w TTotiov. Indeed it is a legal maxim that it is only an issue of fact 
 on which it may be argued that one or other of the two parties is 
 necessarily Trovvypds \ji.rj XavBaviTia S' oTt dvayKatoi' iv ravrrj rij du.if>t(T- 
 Prp-tj(T€i p,6vri Tov erepov thai izovqpoV ov yap i<Tnv ayvoia atrtd, wa-irep 
 
NOTES. 1 1 3 
 
 av «i Tiyes ircpi Tov SiKaiou ajXtjiur^rjToiiv Rhet. III. 17. p. 143. 7], 
 "whilst in the case of to ek Ov/iov, done «7rt ^aivo/ievij aSiKta, the 
 issue is not one of fact (Trept tov yevia-Oai), but one of justice (irepl 
 rou TTOTepus Stxaiov). Hence the angry man may plead ignorance. 
 On the other hand d eirijSovXeuo-as,, i. e. the man who deliberately 
 attacks his neighbour, [whether by way of revenge or otherwise,] 
 cannot plead ignorance (ovk dyvoei), and therefore must be punished 
 as an offender «k irpovoia^. Thus the difference between the Ovy-w 
 TToiwv and the iTnj3ov\eua-ai is that the one can plead that he thought 
 he had been wronged, the other cannot.' But what is the ayvoia 
 which in Rhetoric iii. 17, quoted above, is said to be an atTta 
 or excuse in the a/x,<^icr/3ijTjjo-ts tc/ji toS SiKaiov and not to be so 
 in the o/xi^^ia-^ij'TJjo-is irepl tov yevso-Oai? Clearly not ignorance of 
 the act done in anger, else the question Trepl tov yevlcrOai would 
 have to be discussed, but ignorance or mistake about the supposed 
 provocation. Similarly in the passage before us, the 6vp.a ttokov may 
 plead ay»oia, not of his own action, for we have seen in § 8 that he 
 is EtSus fXAV firj Trpo^ovXeuo-a? Se, but of the ^aivoiiivrj oStKta which 
 he mistakes for a real dSt/cia. On the other hand the cTri/SovXewas, 
 who takes time to retaliate, cannot plead ayvota of this sort. The 
 action of the ^«/xm TrotcSv may be traced to the assumption, in this 
 case false, that he had been wronged, whilst the iiri^ovkeiiTws has 
 had time to consider the matter, and therefore cannot plead mistake 
 as an excuse. For example. A, wrongly thinking himself to have 
 been injured by JB, strikes him in the heat of passion. Here A is 
 ei8o)s in respect of his own act, but dyvowv in respect of the supposed 
 injury. Hence his act is not held by the law to be « irpovotas. If 
 however A broods over his supposed wrong before he retaliates, he 
 can no longer plead that he supposed himself to have been unjustly 
 treated by £, because he has had time to discover his mistake. His 
 act is therefore Ik wpovoias. Cf. Antiphon p. 126 tov ydp tirijSouXeij- 
 o-ai/Ta Kekfvei [sc. d vd/ios] <]}0via cTcat. 
 
 The conclusion is then that the law is right in drawing a line 
 between aStKif/xara done in the heat of passion and aSiKif/xara done 
 by way of revenge after an interval, the Ov/iS irotw being entitled to 
 plead that he supposed himself to have provocation, the iiri^vXevcra^ 
 not being entitled to do so. This result agrees very well (allowance 
 being made for differences in the use of the words sKovmov and 
 aKOva-iov) with Plato Zatas IX. 867 a d /nev tov OvfJidv <j>v\d.rTmv Koi ouic 
 Ik tov ■7rapa)(p^fi.a iia[(j)VT]i d\\.d /lerd hn^ovX^i vcTTcpov XP*""? Tt/i<B- 
 pov/xevos £«ov(7iM ioiKfv, d Si aTa/xievTUS rats opyais Koi £K tov irapa-* 
 
 J. 8 
 
114 [nicomachean] ethics v. 8 § 9—9 § I. 
 
 XPVf'''- ^v9vs xpoJ/xei'os aTrpojSovXeuTois o/xotos ft-ev aKova-iia, ta-ri, Se oiS' 
 OUTOS av iraVTaTracriv aKOvCTios aW' etKWV dK0V(TL0v...j3€kTL(rT0V fi-qv Kai 
 oXrjBicrraTov cis ei/cdva ^€v a/*^u> ^ctrai, Te/jniv 8e avro) X'^pis TJj c;rt- 
 ^ovXyj Koi dTrpoj3ov\ia., koX tois fxei' /i«T cirijSovX^s re xai opy^ Kxetvoo-t 
 Ttis Ti/xo)pias X'^^^''''"''^P'''5, Tois 8e OTrpoPovXcvTuis re koI iiattjivr]'; irpa- 
 
 oTepas vop-oOereiv. By water (yournal of Philology 1874, v. 115) 
 anticipates me in referring to the Laws for the explanation of the 
 phrase o eTri/SovXeuo-as ; but I fancy that he takes the remarks made 
 about d Qm^uZ ■Koi&v to apply also to d eirt/^ouXewas, as I did myself 
 in a paper in the same journal (1876, vi. 109). Mich. Ephesius, the 
 Paraphrast, and most of the editors seem to take d p.iv and d Sc to be 
 the two persons concerned in a quarrel, and d hn^ovKivaa.^ to be 
 equivalent to d TrpoKaTap^as. 
 
 On the a/A^wrySijTijcrcts or tTTacrtts (oti oi yeyovev, on ovk e^Xaifiev, 
 oTt oi Tocrdi'Se, oti StKaiios : Otherwise, crTo^ao'TtKi;, opiKtj, ttoiotijtos) vide 
 i?^«/. III. 17. p. 143. I, and Cope's Introduction pp. 355, 397. That 
 cases where the issue is irept toC iroTepus StKatov are not to be account- 
 ed Ik ■Kpovoia.% is assumed in Polit. vi. (iv.) 16. p. 176. 20 Trept tc tcuv 
 EK Trpovotas, Kai irepi toJv OKOvo'itov, xai ocra o/ioAoyeiTat /aev a.\x.<^i(T^f]- 
 reiTat 8c Trept toi; BiKalov, Teraprov 8e oo-a tois (f>€vyov<Ti (jiovov iirl 
 KaOoSu) lirKpiptrai. 
 
 § 10. wi/] This relative has no expressed antecedent. Should 
 we read ov ydp wa-wep <oi> iv Tois avvaXSAyp.a<ii ? For the sense 
 cf. Rket. III. 17 quoted above. 
 
 av p,rj hid Xijdrjv avro hpioinv] I think that the subject of Bpwa-LV 
 is o T£ dpyicras Kai d opyia-Qu?, who do not raise the issue of fact unless 
 they do it through forgetfulness, i. e. the forgetfulness which results 
 from anger. These words are commonly understood to refer to the 
 two parties concerned in a (rvvd\\ayp.a, " ubi fieri non potest quin 
 eorum alter qui ita controversantur pravus sit, nisi forte oblivio inter- 
 cessit" (Victorius on Ji/iet. in. 17): but (i) why is avro Bpiocnv in the 
 plural? and (2) what precise idea do these words convey? Accord- 
 ing to my interpretation they stand for wepi toS yeveo-^at d/i<^t(r/3ij- 
 
 T(3o-lV. 
 
 § II. aSiKcT KoX Kara ravr ■^Sr;, k.t.X..] All the editions with 
 which I am acquainted place a full stop, or at least a colon, after 
 aSiKEi, thus completely destroying the sense. It is clear from the 
 parallel statement in regard to d Stxatos and d BiKaioirpayiav which 
 succeeds, and indeed from the whole argument of the passage, that if 
 a man irapa to avoXoyov ^ Trapd to tcrov /SXairrti another €Kt6v, he aSiKct, 
 
NOTES. 1 1 5 
 
 but if a man irapa to dvdkoyov 7] Trapa to "Utov jSXaTrret another irpoiXo- 
 fj-evoi, he dSiKet koI oSikos Icttiv. Hence the words aSiKti xal Kara 
 TavT rjSr) to. dSiKij fj-ara o aSiKiSv oSikos must be closely connected 
 together, Kara ra-ur' ^817 rd dSiKrjfJiaTa representing dv kx irpoaipeo-ews 
 /SXaxj/y. The words orav irapd to dvakoyov jj rj rrapd to to'ov do not 
 refer exclusively to 6 aStKoJv who is also aSi/cos, and therefore cannot 
 constitute the distinction required : they are, in fact, part of the defi- 
 nition of TO iv ixipn aSiKov. Cf. 4 §§ 2, 3, where it is stated that to 
 dBiKov TO dvTiKap-evov T(3 Siavep-riTiKia SiKatca is Trapd to avdXoyov, and 
 that TO €V Tois a-waXKdyfjia<riv dSiKov is dvitrov Kara t-^v dpiOp-riTiKrjv 
 dvaXoytai/, i. e. in the language of the passage before us irapd to ta-ov. 
 
 SiKatorrpayjj] After this Word I have substituted a comma for a 
 full stop. 
 
 § 12. T^v S' dKovtTLdyv] These words answer to t(Sv 8e iKova-Cmv 
 in § 5 : but it must be observed that the dKovcria of the present section 
 include actions which do not appear at all in the foregoing classifica- 
 tion. The otra /jlt^ p-ovov dyvoovvTes dWa koI St ayvoiav dp.apTdvovcnv 
 are the arv^^jnaTa of § 7 : the ocra /iij St ayi/otai/, aX\ ayvoovvre^ /xev 
 Sta TrdOo's Sc p,TqTe <f>vaLKov p.i;T avOpoiiriKoV are neither the ap,apTrjpMTa 
 
 nor the dSucijp.aTa of §§ 7, 8, but acts characteristic of the inhuman 
 •Trddr]: see note on § 8 otov oo-a t€, k.t.X. and compare vii. g. The 
 acts in question are tiKovo-ia because the perpetrators of them are npt 
 responsible agents, but they are not (nyyv(op.oviKd, because they are 
 even more detestable- than ordinary vicious acts. (It may be worth 
 while to note that Tci efo) Tiav opwv tijs /caKt'as are in vii. 5 classified as 
 
 6ripiM&r] and V0(rr;p.aT<a8ii], Tci V0(rriiJ.aTwSr] being subdivided into TO 
 
 cf>v<TeL and Toi ii edovs.) Thus, as the TrdOr] here spoken of are such as 
 are p,7fTe (^uo-t/ca /hi/t' dvOpixmiKa, it is a mistake to say that "the word 
 [ttKouo-tW] is used less sternly here than it is by Aristotle in Eth. in. i 
 § 21, &c., where acts of passion are excluded from the class of the 
 involuntary." The acts done Sta 6vp.ov rj St' eirt^u/ttav of which 
 Aristotle speaks in the passage cited come under the head of oo-a 
 T£ Sta Ov/iov KOI dWa irdOr) o<ra dvayKoia rj (jiVtriKd crvix^aivu Tots 
 dvOpmiroK § 8, and as we have seen (see note on § 6) are reckoned 
 by Eudemus eKouVta. Mich. Ephes. and the Paraphrast similarly 
 misconceive the passage. 
 
 aV^ptoTTtKoV] I think that the passages cited in the Berlin Index 
 favour dvBpmTnKov rather than dvOpdmvov. See especially iV. E. vn. 
 6 § 6, quoted above on § 8. 
 
 9 §§ I — 7- The first of a series of dnopiai is investigated: iroTepov 
 
ii6 [nicomachean] ethics v. 9 §§ 1—5. 
 
 €(TTiv Ikovtu a8tK€to-6ai; 'It might be thought that as dSiKeiv and 
 BiKaioirpayeiv are Trdv kKoicnov, SO aStKcicr^at and SLKaLov(76aL axe either 
 wav iKovmov or irav aKova-iov. But no such Symmetrical determina- 
 tion is possible: for BiKaiovaOai is sometimes eKovcrtov, sometimes 
 aKovmov. Further, it may be asked irorepov 6 to aSiKov ttcitov^ojs 
 o8tK£tTai Tras ; No : for in order that A may be said aSticav, B aSiKettr- 
 Oai, A must be (.kwi and B aKiav. If ^ is a/cuv and ^ Ikojv, or both 
 aKoiv, or both EKcoi', A may be said aSiKa irpaTTuv but not aSiKcii', 
 j5 may be said aSiKa Trao-^etv but not aStKEccrfiat. That ^ must be 
 Ikioi/ we have assumed in the preceding chapter; that, B must be 
 oKO)v is necessary in order that there may be that contest of wills 
 which we suppose when we say that A aScxet B. Thus in either of 
 the two alternatives contemplated by Phegeus in the quotation from 
 Euripides Alcmaeon cannot be said aSiKeiv nor his mother aScKeto-^at.' 
 The meanings here put upon the words o&lkuv and a'StKeio-^at are 
 precisely those put upon them by the orators, with whom ahiKuv is 
 'to owe compensation,' dSiKeio-^ai 'to be entitled to compensation.' It 
 will be observed that in § 4 the author assumes that he will here- 
 after answer the question Trorepov ecSex^rat avrov avTov dSiKtiv ; in the 
 negative. The results of these §§ are briefly summarized in the J?/te(, 
 I. 13. p, 46, 10 £crT6 S»J TO dBiKeicrOai, to vtto Ikovto's to, aSiKa Tracrp^eiv. . , 
 avayKT] Tov aSiKovfjiivov ySXaTTTCcr^ai Kai aKOVcrtcos l3XaTrTecr6aL. I have 
 in §§ I — 3 departed from Bekker's punctuation on several occa^ 
 sions. 
 
 § I. iirjTepa, k.t.X.J Bekker reads with the MSS. KarUra and ^7 Be.- 
 Xovo-av, placing a comma at the end of the first, and a colon at the 
 end of the second; line. Nauck, Wagner, and others have altered 
 KartKra into KariKTav, and inserted ov before BeXova-av, placing a full 
 stop after Xo'yos, and a note of interrogation after ovx Ikwv. They 
 suppose that these lines are part of a conversation between Alcmaeon 
 and Phegeus in the 'k\Kfx.aiu)v 6 8ta ^ox^iSos, a tragedy which is also 
 referred to in JV. E. in. i § 8. Mich. Ephes. says that these lines are 
 from the Bellerophon; see Ellis's remarks in the Journal of Philo- 
 logy 1872, IV. 271. Adopting in the main the emendations above 
 mentioned, I have further written ^ oi^x exoiiijav in place of the rj ov 
 BkXovtrav of the editors. Cf. Eur. Hippol. 319 </)tA.o9 /a' airoAXvo-' ov^ 
 EKovo-av oux e-K-w/, quoted by the commentators. 
 
 SxjTttp K.OA, TO oiStK£tv iroM lKoiaLov\ Notel thinks that these words, 
 which are repeated immediately afterwards, should be omitted. I do 
 not see why they should not stand as part of the original question, as 
 
NOTES, n/ 
 
 well as of the more comprehensive question which in koI apa irSiv, 
 K.T.X. is substituted for it. 
 
 § 2. iScTT fvXoyov, K.T.X,.] The words ^ Ikowiov ^ aKovcnov €ivai, 
 grammatically regarded, are an awkward addition to this sentence. 
 Compare however, for a similar supplementary explanation, 4 § 14. 
 Rassow proposes to write koI instead of KaO'. 
 
 § 4. ivBixoiTo avTov avTov aSifceii'] ' We should be obliged to 
 answer in the affirmative the question "can a man aStKcti' himself?" 
 Whereas when the aTropta is discussed presently in § 8 sqq. and ch. 1 1 
 §§ I — 6, we shall see ourselves obliged to answer it in the negative.' 
 
 §§ 5, 6. 'A Si' aKpacriav Ikui/ vito B ckovtos ^XawreTai. If then 
 d8iK€i(T6ai, = V(j> tKovTos pXaiTTiaOai, the aKparrj's iKtov aStxeiTat, If 
 however aSiKtiv presumes opposition from the ySovXijorts of the aSucoi;- 
 /iei/os, the aKpartji cannot be regarded simultaneously as dSiKovfievos 
 and £K(ov. For the aKparqi (who acts Kara njv iiriOvixiav but irapa 
 Tqv l3ovkri<nv), (i) SO long as his ySouXrycris resists is not tKiov, and (2) 
 when his iTriOvjjLia has its way, is not dSiKo-ifievo^, because his ySovAijo-is 
 has ceased to resist. [In fact in the case of the aKpariji the opposi- 
 tion ofifered by his ^ovkrjcn's is overcome, not by the supposed aStxw, 
 but by his own iTriOv/iia, and therefore A ovk aSiKciTot vir6 B, though, as 
 we shall see in 1 1 § 9, Kara /^era^opai/ Koi o/iotoTijTo, A's Xoyov ep^oi' 
 may be said dSiKeia-daL by his dXoyov.] Thus the chief argument to 
 show oTi eirj dv €k6vt aSiKtwr^at is disproved.' The words ovOels "yap 
 /SovXcTat — TrpaTTeiv irparrei explain the condition of the aKpari/s when 
 he proceeds dxparevio-Oai, under the influence of ItnOvfLCa : he ov jSov- 
 Xerai pXdirTerOai, i.e. his iindvfjiCa cannot induce his fiovXijCTL's to 
 support it (as no one jBovXerai that which he does not suppose to be 
 good); but he irpdmi irapd Trjv ^ovXr](TLv, i.e. when the struggle is 
 over, his j8oi5Xijo-is retires from the field, and under the influence of 
 imOv/jLia he does that which his better reason assures him he ought 
 not to do. Cf. £. £. 11. 7 § 5 jSovXerai S ovdtli 6 oierat tivai kukov' 
 dXXd pjrjv 6 dxpaTcvo/ncvos ov^ "■ ^ovXerai iroiet" to yap irap 6 oterai 
 PiXTiarov ctvai. irpdrruv 81' lm$vp.iav dKpaTivtaOai 1<ttw, and JS. E. II. 
 7 § 1 1 jSovXerai fi,ev yap ov$els a oUrai eivai KaKa, irpaTTet 8' orai/ yiVjjrai 
 dKpanji. According to Eudemus then we must distinguish in to Kar* 
 dKpcuriav two successive stages: (i) that in which the /SoiJXjjo-ts resists, 
 and therefore the man is okwv, and (2) that in which, the ySovXi/cris 
 having given way to the iiriOvixia, the man is tKutv, but ovOlv Trapd t^v 
 avToH ■ird(T)(ti jSouXi/trtv. Thus the dxparyj^ is not simultaneously 
 
ii8 [nicomachean] ethics v. 9 §§ 5 — 8. 
 
 £K(ui/ and irapa t>jv ^ovXtjo-iv Trd<Tx<^v, and therefore the phenomena of 
 aKpaxria do not countenance the theory that a man may knuiv dSiKiLo-- 
 6ai. (For the successive predominance of jSovhrja-n and Trddos cf. 
 
 JV. E. VII. 2 § 2 OTi ydp 01JK oleruL ye 6 aKpaTCUo'/ieros Trpiv cv T<u 7ra.6ei 
 yevia-Oai, ^avepov, and jS. £. II. 7 § 4 quoted below.) The difficulty 
 of the passage is due in large measure to the phrase dXkd. irapd rrjv 
 P3v\r](TLv irpaTTiL, which seems to surrender Eudemus's position : it 
 win be well therefore to say a word or two more about it,' even at the 
 risk of iteration. In the earlier stage, during which A does not 
 succumb to ^'s seductions, A's /JovAi^cris directs his conduct, so that 
 £'s action is napd rrjv Tov A ^ovhfjcriv: but in the second stage A's 
 conduct is directed, not by his /SovXijo-ts, but by his iTnOvp-ia, which 
 plays into ^'s hands; hence £'s action is no longer irapd, ttjv toC A 
 fiov\rj(Tiv, but Kara T-!^v tov A eTnOvfJiLOLV. A's iin6viJ.La however is 
 
 resisted by his /SovXijo-ts : and consequently, though ^'s action is not 
 Trapd T-qv TOV A fiovX-qaiv, A himself may be said irpdiTeiv irapd r^v 
 iaVTOv PovXrjCTiv. (Cf. E- ^. II. 7 § 4 o 8' dKpartji 6 Kam ti})/ iiri6v- 
 [jiiav irapd tov Xoyurp-ov otos irpdiTeiv, aKpaTivcTai oTav ivepyrj KaT 
 aiJT)7V, TO S' dStKCiv iKovaiov, we'd' d a/cpaTjJs dSiKrjaei t(3 irpaTTCLV KaT 
 iiridvpLiav' Iki^v dpa irpd^ei Ka\ Ikovctlov to KaT liri6vp,Cav.) Hence in 
 the first stage A is not ekiuv, because ySo-uXiyo-is, being dominant, 
 resists; in the second stage A is Ikuiv but not aSiKov/xei/os, because 
 tTnOvfj-ia, being dominant, assents to B's solicitations, ^ovXrjcns having 
 now given way. 
 
 The passage has been variously understood or misunderstood. 
 The author of the Ml M. i. 34 § 35 interprets — 'the dKpaT-tj^ /3ov\6- 
 
 fjievos irpaTTei Td Kara T171' dxpaaiav and therefore kKmv fiXdirTerai: but 
 no one ySouXerat d^iKtlcrdai, and therefore no one ekujv oStKetTat,' as- 
 suming apparently, in defiance of E. ^. 11. 7 § 10 (to say nothing of 
 other passages), the identity of Pov\ca-6ai and ckcov elvai. This view 
 appears to be accepted by the Paraphrast, and by Hildenbrand, 
 Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie, i. 315, who however recognizes the in- 
 sufficiency of the argument. Mich. Ephes. boldly emends — aA.\' 
 ovS' d a/cpaTi}s izapd Ti)v jSovXrjcnv irpaTTd. Rassow virtually aban- 
 dons the attempt to make sense of the passage {Forschungen p. 41). 
 Notel holds that the sentences ovQv.% ydp ^ovXcTai, k.t.\. do not 
 justify the dictum ovOeU £k(ov aSixeiTai, but declare a new dictum 
 ousels PovXerai dStKeia-6at. This interpretation leaves the case of the 
 dKpar-^i unexplained : for the aKparifs is certainly ekw. It is no ex- 
 planation to say that because he acts irapd t'^v fiovXrjo-iv he is not Uiiv. 
 Moreover the ydp which introduces the supposed new dictum needs 
 
NOTES. 119 
 
 explanation. Grant seems hardly to have realized the difficulty of the 
 passage. 
 
 § 6. o ovK oierai, k.t.X.J This reading seems to me to express 
 Eudemus's meaning more clearly and correctly than oi3x a. oiirai, 
 the reading which Bekker prefers on the authority of K''. Is it pos- 
 sible that the copyist was puzzled by the negative ovk in the relative 
 sentence, and therefore transposed it ? It is of course perfectly cor- 
 rect here, as the dxpaTifs does not do 'iAose things which he thinks to 
 be wrong,' but ' things which he thinks to be wrong.' Cf. Plat. Rep. 
 I. 330 CTreiSdv Tts eyyiis § toB oticrOai rekiVTijauv, eio-cp^eTat avrQ Seos 
 Koi KJipoyrU Trepl <ov €fnrpo(r6iv ovk eicrjjci (quoted by Madvig, Gr. 
 Synt. § 203). In E. E. n. 7 § S however we have d aKpaTivofuvoi 
 
 §§ 8 — 13. In these paragraphs the author raises two diropiai (i) 
 TTorepov TTOT dSiKii 6 v£t/^as irapoi rijv d^iav to itXuov rj 6 6X'"''i (^) *' 
 OTTiv avVoV auVoi' dSmuv. They are put forward together, because it 
 might at first sight seem that, if it is decided that d veCfias dStxet, the 
 second question must be answered affirmatively, since the distributor 
 may assign to himself too small a share. But on further considera- 
 tion we see (i) that the distributor may assign to himself too small a 
 share with a view to an equivalent, e.g. reputation, and (2) that, 
 whether this is so or not, in the case supposed the distributor suffers 
 nothing irapd iiijv j3ovXrja-iv and therefore ovk dStKeiTat. Having thus 
 dissevered the two questions, the author proceeds to deal with the 
 former of them in §§ 10 — 13. He remarks (i) that it is the distributor 
 who dStKct, as it is with him that the action originates : (2) that if the 
 distributor is yivtaa-Kotv, he obtains by his unjust award either money 
 or gratitude or revenge, and is therefore dStKws ttXc'ov cxtoi/. 
 
 It will be seen from this summary that the question ci cortv avrov 
 auTdi/ dSiKEii', though mooted, is not discussed in these sections, 
 whilst the words en S' <Lv npoeiXoixeda, K.T.X. in § 8 show that the 
 reference to the dnopLa in § 4 is an anticipatory one. Hence the 
 discussion of the question in 11 §§ r — 6 is not, as Grant and 
 many others have thought, superfluous. On the contrary if these §§ 
 are excised the second part of the programme announced in 9 § 8 
 remains unfulfilled. If then 9 §§ 14—17 and ch. 10 are removed, 
 II §§ I — 6 immediately follow in their proper place. See Introduc- 
 tion, On dislocations in the text. 
 
 § 8. (uv 7rpoeiXd/xe0a] For this phrase cf. Foiit. viii. (v.) i. p. 193. 
 21. Mich. Ephes. remarks that these dTroplai have not been men- 
 
120 [NICOMACHEAN] ethics V; 9 §§ 8 — 13: II § I. 
 
 tioned before, arid that the sentence miist therefore mean on t^s 
 TTpoOea-eoK ij/xiv irepi BiKaiotrvvTji ciirav ovotjs, iirel 6 irepl avrrj^ Xoyos 
 TrerrXripuiTai, vTrokoiirov ia-ri irepi Svo TivuJv ihriiv. Although the second 
 ttTTopia has been incidentally alluded to in § 4, the objection is a just 
 one. The reference is perhaps, as Zell suggests, to the opening words 
 of 9 § I. 
 
 § 9. TO vporepov \ex6iv] Apparently by these words is meant 
 the former of the two alternatives of the first question. But this is 
 very awkward. Is it possible that the reading of K^" in § 8 repre- 
 sents a^iav TO uXeiov Ikiov ? 
 
 toBto] Sc. that the distributor in this case avrov aSixei. 
 
 Kara] The editors write km koto against the authority of most, if 
 not all, the MSS. 
 
 § 10. del] I think that this word may stand in the sense of 'in 
 every case.' Zell and Michelet translate ' nicht der, welcher jedesmal 
 mehr hat.' Rassow supposes the word to be a corruption of the 
 superfluous dStKct which in K*" appears in place of it. 
 
 § II. This § is commonly understood to contain a distinct argu- 
 ment, which according to some refers to the distributor, according to 
 others to the receiver. If the distributor is referred to, the § would 
 naturally mean that 'the distributor, who may be regarded as an 
 instrument, though he ovk dSiK«T, iroiel rd aStxa:' plainly this state- 
 ment is anything but a proof that he dSiKti. Nor can it be regarded 
 as an argument urged on the contrary part : for the author would 
 then have written ovk dSiKet dXXd iroiu rd aSt/ca. If again the argu- 
 ment is that the receiver ovk dSi/tei and therefore the distributor 
 dSiKei, the Greek is still questionable. The author would probably 
 have written iroiet /liv rd dSwa ov p.yjv aStK€i ye. Conceiving then 
 that some change is necessary, I have bracketed hi as a dittograph 
 of the first two letters of ciret, placing a colon instead of a full stop 
 after Xafi^dvovTi and removing the comma after eirird^avTos. I sup- 
 pose the sentence thus altered to be a justification of the distinction 
 just made between w to oSikov [sc. ttoiciv] -mdp-^^a and w to tKovra 
 TovTo TToiw. The Paraphrast seems to have understood the sentence 
 as I do. 
 
 Tti dil/v)(a KTEiVei] Plat. Laws IX. 873 D Idv 8' apa. vTToi^vyuyv •>} 
 tjiaov oXXo Ti fftoveva-y 7ivd....idv Si aij/v^ov Ti i/'«X'?s avOpunrov trnp-qtrg. 
 
 The commentators quote also Demosth. Aristocrat. 645. 16 and 
 Aeschin. Ctesiph. § 244. Is it possible that the reading of P*" is 
 
NOTES. 121 
 
 something more than a mere blunder, and that we should read koX 
 rd KTT^vri in place of KTeivei? 
 
 § 12. The argument is contained in the words el yiviia-Ktov txpivev 
 aSiKcos, irXeoveKTCi koX aiiros rj \dpiroi ^ Ti/xuptas. The words ci //.kv 
 dyvowv — TO Trpmrov merely set aside the case of ignorance as irrele- 
 vant to our present remarks. 
 
 § 13. 'If the judge secures to himself x"pw or Tip-mpia by giving 
 an unjust award, he is just as much a irXeovcKTiys as if he were to share 
 the plunder with the receiver. For it is not essential that the unjust 
 distributor should take a share of the property distributed, since even 
 if his share takes a more substantial form than x"P's and Ti/impia, he 
 may receive it not in land (land being the article distributed), but in 
 money.' 
 
 cTT e/cetVwv] ' In such cases,' i. e. in cases where the distributor 
 shares the profits with the receiver. I see no difficulty in the transi- 
 tion from the singular of ei tis p-epia-airo tov aSiKif/iaros to the plural 
 of eKeCviav. Rassow however would read with K"" iir iKeivw tov 
 dypov, K.T.X.., i.e. €Tr( tu p-epCa-aa-Oai tov aSiKijjuaTos {Forschungen p. 62). 
 
 §§ 14 — 17. I have placed §§ 14 — 16 after 1 § 3, and i § 17 after 
 I § 9. See Introduction, On dislocations in the text. 
 
 II §§ I — 6. The second of the two oMopLai raised in 9 § 8 'Can 
 a man aStKeiv kamdvl' is considered under two heads, first, when 
 the oStKia is universal, and secondly, when it is particular. 
 
 Suicide is an aStxij^a of the first kind, because it is a violation 
 of law, and as the suicide acts voluntarily (i.e. not under compulsion, 
 and with full knowledge of the circumstances), he aSiicet. But whom ? 
 Not himself, — for ovBfi% i.Km> dSiKetrot, — but the state : wherefore the 
 state exacts the penalty, and the penalty takes the form of a forfeiture 
 of civil ])rivileges. 
 
 That a man cannot dSiKcTv hanov in the other sense of the word 
 d8iK«ti', seems to be proved by the following considerations : 
 
 (i) the same thing cannot be subtracted from, and added to, the 
 same thing at the same moment; in fact, the commission of par- 
 ticular dliKia. implies two persons concerned, one who invades the 
 rights of another, and a second whose rights are invaded : 
 
 (2) the commission of particular oSiKid is always aggressive; 
 whereas, when a man harms himself, he does and suffers the same 
 thing at the same time,_and therefore is not an aggressor : 
 
 (3) volenti non fit iniuria : 
 
122 [NICOMACHEAN] ethics v. II §§ I — 6: § 9. 
 
 (4) no one can commit adultery with his own wife, burglary 
 upon his own premises, or theft upon his own property, and without 
 the commission of some such aStKij/ia no one can dSiKsiv. 
 
 Thus in general the aTropLa is resolved by a reference to the 
 maxim ou^ds extuv aStKcn-ai, established in 9 §§ S, 6, 
 
 § I. Ik twv elprifji,ivo>v\ I.e. from 9 §§ X — 13' 
 
 TO, fikv yap, k.t.K.] Cf. I § 8. 2 § 6. 
 
 ov KcXevei.'] ' Does not allow,' i. e. forbids. Cf. the well-known use 
 of ovK iav as the correlative of KeXevuv. The words a 8e [i,-^ KeXevei, 
 aTrayopivei are explanatory of the phrase ov KeXevei. So Victorius, 
 quoted by Cardwell. Eudemus wishes to say — ' What the law ditis 
 is SiKaiov, what the \a.w /oriids is SSlkov.' Cf. i § 14 irpoardTTei 8' 
 
 o vo/ios KoL TO. Tov avSpciov epya Troteti/, oiov //.rj XeLireiv Tiyi/ ra^iv... 
 d/iot(os 8e K.aX rd Kara, ras aA.A.as a'peras Ktti iJi,0)(6rjpLas, ra p.ev KcXtviav 
 
 rd S' dirayopivuiv. Not appreciating this idiomatic use of ov xeXevw, 
 Grant remarks "The extraordinary assertion is made that 'whatever 
 the law does not command it forbids.' We might well ask, Did the 
 Athenian law command its citizens to breathe, to eat, to sleep, &c. ?" 
 This criticism is endorsed by Rassow {Forschungen p. 42), who re- 
 gards the last section of the book (with the exception of ch. 10) as a 
 very unsatisfactory piece of patchwork. 
 
 § 2. oTav, K.T.X.J The words jM.17 wTijSXaTrTwi' are parenthetical. 
 Compare the parenthetical sentence d ydp Sidn eTra^c koX to oxto 
 dvTiMoiimi ov SoKeT dSiKeti'.in § 5. It is obvious that, in spite of the 
 editors, who place a comma before kKu>v, kKiisv should be connected 
 with ^XdirT-g. It is necessary to specify that d /SXaTTTtov is Ikcov, as 
 otherwise he would be, not dSiKwv, but dSt/ca irpdmov (cf. 9 § 3); whilst 
 with dSiKei, cKwv is superfluous. 
 
 iKtiiv Se d eiScos koX ov Kai <S] A man is Ikw when he does eKowia, 
 i. e. o<Ta €<f> lavTw ov ftrj irpaTTetv ■TrpdrTu fiij dyvomi koX Si' avTov E. E. 
 II. 9 § 2. Here as elsewhere the definition is abbreviated, as is also 
 the hst of circumstances in regard to which ignorance is possible. Cf. 
 9 §§ 4, S- 
 
 § 3. dTi/x.ia] For the dnp.iai of the suicide the commentators quote 
 Aeschin. Ctesiph. § 244 and Plat. Laws ix. 873 D. 
 
 § 4. oXus] I. e. Kara tt^v oXrjv aSiKiav. 
 
 toCto ydp — dSiKet] These sentences are manifestly parenthetical. 
 They explain the difference between universal and particular justice, 
 and declare the necessity of investigating the duopia. with regard to 
 the latter as well as to the former. 
 
NOTES. 123 
 
 § 5- ^' 8^ eKovcriov re xai £K irpoaipi<Tt<jii, kol irpoTtpov] The 
 words Ikovo-lov re xai ck Trpoatpeo-ecos are not necessary to the argu- 
 ment. Indeed to dStKctv is not necessarily Ik irpoatpeVcws : I have 
 therefore translated the phrase 'voluntary or deliberate, and aggres- 
 sive.' 
 
 o yap StoTi iira0€, k.t.X.] ov yap apx*' ° 6v[j,io ttomSv, dXX' d dpytcras. 
 
 8 §9- 
 
 § 6. wpds 8c TovTois, K.T.X.] ' If, instead of arguing from our con- 
 ception of dStKi'a, we examine special cases of it, we come to the same 
 conclusion.' 
 
 oXcjs, K.T.X.] ' The maxim ovOeh €K<av dStxeiToi is decisive in both 
 cases of the present diropia.' 
 
 §§ 7, 8. I have placed these §§ after 5 § 18. See Introduction, 
 On dislocations in the text. 
 
 § 9. Kara p.€Ta<jiOpo.v 8e Kal djuoidTijTa] ' There IS a BUaiov, ovk 
 aiJT(3 Trpds avTov, but between the parts of the individual's i/n'X'?- 
 This SiVaiov resembles that which subsists between master and slave, 
 or that which subsists between husband and wife. The parts in 
 question are to Xdyov Ixov and to aXoyoi', which, as we have seen in 
 
 9 §§ 5, 6, may be at variance.' 
 
 Fritzsche well compares the discussion in £. E. vii. 6 § i sqq. 
 TTcpi rail avTov awu ^i\ov exvai. tj jxtj. See especially §§ 2, 3 Kal 
 o/j-oiov Ta Toiavra irdvTa, £t ^iXos outo? avrw Kal i)(6p6%, koX A dSiKCt 
 Tts avTO's avTov. iravTa yap iv hva), Taura kol SvgprjixivoK. ei Se Svo 
 Trio's Kal ij i/t^XV, vTrdpxe' tws ravra' et 8' ov Si-gprifxiva, oix iirdp^u. 
 In these discussions there is an allusion (as all the commentators 
 from Mich. Ephes. downwards have seen) to Plato. See JieJ). iv. 
 443 D, &c. In the same way in the Gorgias, 491 d, a man is said 
 avToi kavrov apxn-v, when his reason controls his iiridvp-Lat. 
 
 iv TovTOK yap Tois Xdyois, k.t.X.] Mich. Ephes. ov \6yov cx" d SovXos 
 irpds 'iTov^ Sea-TroTtjv, tov avrov Kal to aXoyov p.ipo's rrji i/'^X'?^ irpds 
 TO koyL^op-evov. TOLavTrjv yap SUa-rrjKe Tavra Bidarao'LV aw oXXtjXcdv 
 <3o-<T£> eivat TO p-kv ap^ov to Si dpxofievov. Thus he makes iv tovtok 
 T0L1 Xd-yots SiicTTijKe equivalent to KaTa toutovs Toiis Xdyous 8. Grant 
 translates, " for in the theories alluded to there is a separation made 
 between the reasonable and the unreasonable part of man's nature :" 
 and Paley understands the sentence in the same way. As here 
 Eudemus compares the relation of Xdyov exov and aXoyov to the 
 relations of master and slave, husband and wife, so Aristotle in 
 I'o/if. I. 5. p. 7. 2 compares the relation of master and slqve to the 
 
124 [nicomachean] ethics v. 1 1 § 9 : 6 § 3 : io §§ I — 7. 
 
 relation of voCs and ope^is ; but whereas Eudemus is careful to say 
 (6 § 9) that the SUaiov of the domestic relations is not identical with 
 woXiTiKov SiKaiov, Aristotle, less precisely, attributes to voCs an dpxv 
 iroXiTLKY] KO.I PaaiXiKij, 
 
 Kol SoKEt] 'People go on to assume.' Cf. £. E. 11. 8 §§ 12, 13 
 
 cuore TO /x,ev /3ta iKarepov [sc. the eyKparijs and the a/cpaTi;?] (fiavai 
 Trotcti/ e)(ei Xoyov, koI &ia t^v ope^iv kol Sid tov Xoyiarfiov iKorepov 
 aKovra ttote TrpaTTetv Ki\tii>pi(T[ii,iva yap ovra eKarepa eKKpoverai vir 
 dWi^Xiov. o$ev KoX iirl Ttjv oXr/v [iera<j>€pov(Ti \j/v)0v, on ru>v iv i/t^W 
 Ti roiovTov opiocnv. iir\ /i,€v ow tmv fiopiuiv ivBe)(eTai to5to XiyeiV ■q 
 8' oXri knoxxra ijjv^'^ Koi tov aKpaTovi koL tov lyKpaTovi TrparTei, ^la 8' 
 oiSerepOi, aXXd twv tv £K£tvois tl, iirel Koi <f>vcr€i a./x(f>6Tepa t)(0fiev. 
 
 oTi [ev] To-oTots] The preposition seems to me superfluous : 
 compare ttvai Trpos aXXrjXa SiKawv tl koX tovtols in the next sentence. 
 The sentence evidently means : ' because there may be a struggle 
 
 between the Xoyov l^ov and the aXoyov' [Ke)(<apurp.eva yap ovra 
 cKotTcpa iKKpoviTai vir dXXijXwv. E. E. II. 8 § 1 2). Thus an optfts is 
 loosely and KaTo. p.€Ta<j>opa.v attributed to the Xoyov ex""- strictly 
 speaking, ^ovXtjo-k, which is ope^is dyadov, though determined by 
 the Xoyov tx°^' belongs to the aXoyov, i.e. the ^wis aXoyos jncre- 
 -Xovcra juevTOi tty] Xoyov oi JV. jE. I. 13 § 15. 
 
 uKTirep ovv ap^oVTi KoX d.pypii.ivia\ Cf. Plat. 6^1?^. 49 1 D. AristOt.' 
 
 Folit. I. 13. pp. 20, 21. 
 
 6 § 3. TTws phr ovv cx«i, K.T.X.] See Introduction, On disloca- 
 tions in the text. 
 
 10 § I. (oore Koi lirX to, aXXa, k.t.X.] For examples of this vague 
 use of the word eirteiKi^'s see Berlin Index. Grant aptly quotes 
 
 4 §3-^ 
 
 TO eirieiKeo-Tcpov oTt /SeXtiov SijXouvtes] Does this mean (i) 'mean- 
 ing by what is eirieiKeo-Tepov what is ySe'XTtov ' or (2) ' thus indicating 
 that what is cfftciKeo-Tepov is jStXTiov'? 
 
 oTE 8« Tw Xoyw, K.T.Xi\ ' Thcrc is an apparent inconsistency in 
 the statement that to eirtetKcs irapa to Slxaiov ti ov tTratvcTov eo'Ttv: 
 for if €iri£tK£s is distinct from SUatov, and at the same time so commend- 
 able a thing, do we not deny the excellence of St/catov? If again 
 we account both iineiKis and hUawv excellent, do we not deny that 
 there is any difference between them ?' This must be the meaning 
 of the sentence, but the ordinary text is perplexed by the words 
 ov hUaiov after yj TO ETTtci/ces. I think that Giphanius (on the 
 authority of the V. A.) and Trendelenburg (on conjecture) are 
 
NOTES. 12$ 
 
 right in omitting o-J StVatov. The words o-i Stxatov d are omitted 
 not only by the V. A., but also by N''. Lambinus reads rj to 
 ejrtctKcs oix, ei SiKaiov aWo: Michelet and Fritzsche punctuate ^ to 
 iirieiKt's ov, SUaiov ei aXXo : finally, Notel suggests rj to tTrtetKCs ou 
 
 (TTTOvSaLOV. 
 
 §§ 3, 4. Vide /V///. II. 8. p. 44. 2. in. 10. p. 78. i. 15. p. 87. 
 6. 16. p. 90. 10 and p. 91. 8. Plat. Po/if. 294 a sqq. Laws ix. 
 87s c sqq. 
 
 § 4. ToiauTj;] ' Such that it is not possible opdw^ etirtiv Ka66\ov.' 
 
 § 5. o KOLV, K.T.X.] I prefer eTirev to eiirot in this sentence, be- 
 cause it is distinctly assumed that the voixoOhrji is not present, and 
 therefore does not pronounce. The tenses are of course quite cor- 
 rect : the lawgiver would pronounce in this manner (a single act in 
 present time) if he were with us (a state in present time), and would 
 have legislated accordingly (a single act in past time) if he had 
 known tlie circumstances (a state in past time). 
 
 § 6. ov Tov cETrXois Se, k.t.A..] toC aTrXwt i. q. tou axXtos SiKaiov, 
 'the just not limited in any particular way'; Sta to airXcSs i. q. Sta 
 TO ottXcUs tiTreii', cf. airXus eliriov § 5 ^nd Sio to Ka^oXou infra, ' be- 
 cause the statement is not limited in any particular way.' I am 
 surprised that the editors do not suspect a/xapTif/taTos. I should 
 have expected a/xapTavovros. The Paraphrast writes 810 tovto 17 
 enct/ceia ScKaiov fiev icTTL ^cXtiov <Se> Ttvos BiKaioV ov tov Ka96X.ov 
 SiKaiov, aXXa TOV vo/aikou tov 8ta to Ka^oXov a/xapTavovTos. 
 
 § 7. d /AoXiySSii/os Kaviov] •' Quando murum construebant non 
 ex quadratis et laeuibus, sed ex lapidibus polygoniis, in quibus alia 
 eminerent alia essent concava, ut eiusmodi lapidi aspero et inae- 
 quali alium lapidem quam accuratissime (non interiectis lapidibus 
 minoribus) coaptarent, norma utebantur plumbea, qua ad inae- 
 qualitatem saxi prioris inflexa, quod aliud saxum polygonium ad 
 prius elegantissime accommodari posset, quaerebant. Eiusmodi 
 accuratissima polygoniorum constructio lapidum est in muro 
 quodam Cyclopio Mycenarum (Paus. 11. 16). Cf. Forchhammer. in 
 eph. Allgem. Bauzeitung von Forster, 9. Jahrg. 1844. p. 274. ibid. 
 Forster p. 275 : 'Noch jetzt baut man in Verona ahnliche Mauern 
 aus polygonischen Steinen, und die Steinhauer bedienen sich gleich- 
 falls einer beweglichen, aus mehreren Linealen zusammengesetzten 
 Schmiege.'" Fritzsche. 
 
Camtrilrge; 
 
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University Press, Cambridge, 
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 PINDAR. 
 
 OLYMPIAN AND PYTHIAN ODES. With Notes Explanatory 
 and Critical, Introductions and Introductory Essays. Edited by 
 C. A. M. Fennell, M.A., late Fellow of Jesus College. [In the Press. 
 
 PRIVATE ORATIONS OF DEMOSTHENES, 
 
 with Introductions and English Notes, by F. A. Paley, M,A. Editor 
 of Aeschylus, etc. and J. E. Sandys, M-A. Fellow and Tutor of St 
 John's College, and Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. 
 
 Part I. containing Contra Phormionem, Lacritum, Pantaenetum, 
 Boeotum de Nomine, Boeotum de Dote, Dionysodoruni. Crown 
 Odlavo, cloth. 6j. 
 
 ancient world." — Tiinfis, 
 
 "Mr Paley's scholarship is sound and 
 accurate, his experience of editing wide, and 
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 abilities to the production of such manuals 
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 throughout the higher schools of the country. 
 Mr Sandys is deeply read in the Gerrpan 
 literature which bears upon his author, and 
 the elucidation of matters of daily life, in the 
 delineation of which Demosthenes is so rich, 
 
 obtains full justice at his hands We 
 
 hope that this edition may lead the way 
 to a more general study of these speeches 
 in schools than has hitherto been possible. 
 .... The index is extremely complete, and 
 of great service to learners, 'W^c^i?;«j'. 
 
 Part II. containing Pro Phormione, Contra Stephanum I. II.; 
 Nicostratum, Cononem, Calliclem. js. 6>d. 
 
 "The fame of Mr Paley as one of the 
 best practical Grecians of this age would 
 alone be sufficient to secure attention for this 
 book among the Head Masters of our Public 
 Schools and the Tutors of our Colleges .... 
 It contains, in the small compass of 240 pages, 
 six of the speeches of the great Athenian 
 orator, which are less commonly read than 
 his 'Philippics* and the 'De Corona,' be- 
 fiause they rank among his ' private orations.' 
 And yet, equally with the greater speeches 
 of the same orator, they will be found to 
 illustrate not only the details of finance, 
 loans, interest, banking, and other mercantile 
 transactions in Greece in the time of Philip, 
 but also the laws and general polity of that 
 Athenian Sta4:e, lyhich was the model of the 
 
 " The six selected Orations, aided by 
 introductions and notes which supply all 
 that is needed for imderstanding the original 
 text, will place clearly before fhe student 
 some tolerably complete pictures of life and 
 lawsuits at Athens in the fourth century b.c. 
 For those who are preparing for the Cam- 
 bridge Tripos, the assistance which this 
 volume can give will be found of the utmost 
 value. " — Times, 
 
 " the edition reflects credit on 
 
 Cambridge scholarship, and ought to be ex- 
 tensively used," — AtneTtfEum. 
 
 "In this volume we have six of Demo- 
 sthenes' private speeches, well selected and 
 very carefully edited. The notes are very 
 full and minute, and the introductions to the 
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 tator. 
 
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 limits, though we can hardly conceive a task 
 more useful to the classical or professional 
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 pro and con to have the aid of Mr Sandys's 
 excellent running commentary .... and no 
 one can say that he is ever deficient 
 in the needful help which enables us to 
 form a sound estimate of riie rights of the 
 
 case [The speeches against Conon 
 
 and Callicles] seem to us eminently to de- 
 serve introduction into higher school read- 
 ing; if read with the notes and comments 
 of the edition before us, they would give 
 the tiro no vague idea of life as it was in 
 
 Demosthenic Athens and Attica. , 
 
 It is long since we have come upon a work 
 evincing more pains, scholarship, and varied 
 research and illustration than Mr Sandys's 
 contribution to the * Private Orations of 
 I>emosthenes*." — Saturday Review. 
 
 London: Cambridge Warehouse, 17 Paternoster Row, 
 
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 9 
 
 PLATO'S PH^DO, 
 
 literally translated, by the late E. M. CoPE, Fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. Demy 06lavo. S-y. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 THE RHETORIC. With a Commentary by the late E. M. COPE, 
 Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, revised and edited for the 
 Syndics of the University Press by J. E. Sandys, M.A., Fellow and 
 Tutor of St John's College, Cambridge, and Public Orator. With 
 a biographical Memoir by H. A. J. MUNRO, M.A. Three Volumes, 
 Demy Oiflavo. ;^i. i is. 6d, 
 
 "This work is in many ways creditable to 
 the University of Cambridge. The solid and 
 extensive erudition of Mr Cope himself bears 
 none the less speaking evidence to the value 
 of the tradition which he continuedj if it is 
 not equally accompanied by those qualities of 
 speculative originality and independent judg- 
 ment which belong more to the indi'«dual 
 writer than to his school. And while it must 
 ever be regretted that a work so laborious 
 should not have received the last touches of 
 its author, the warmest admiration is due to 
 MrSandys, for the manly, unselfish, and, un- 
 flinching spirit in which he has performed his 
 most difficult and delicate task. If an English 
 student wishes to have a full conception of 
 what is contained in the Rhetoric of Aris- 
 totle, to Mr Cope's edition he must go." — 
 Academy, 
 
 "Mr Sandys has performed his arduous 
 duties with marked ability and admirable 
 tact, so that it may fairly be doubted whether 
 the Commentary really suJTers from want of 
 the author's own editorial care. He has 
 everywhere tried, with reverent fidelity, to 
 do as Mr Cope would have djne, had he 
 not been prevented by untimely fate. Be- 
 sides the revision of Mr Cope's material 
 already referred to in his own words, Mr 
 Sandys has thrown in many useful notes; 
 none more useful than those that bring the 
 Commentary up to the latest scholarship by 
 reference to important works that have ap- 
 peared since Mr Cope's illness put a period 
 to his labours. When the original Com- 
 mentary stops abruptly three chapters be- 
 fore the end of the third book, Mr Sandys 
 carefully supplies the deficiency, following 
 Mr Cope's general plan and the slightest 
 available indications of his intended treat- 
 ment. In Appendices he has reprinted from 
 classical journals several articles of Mr 
 
 Cope's ; and, what is better, he has given the 
 best of the late Mr Shilleto's 'Adversaria.* 
 In every part of his work — revising, supple- 
 menting, and completing — he has done ex- 
 ceedingly well." — Exavtiuer. 
 
 " A careful examination of the work shows 
 that the high expectations of classical stu- 
 dents will not be disappointed. Mr Cope's 
 ' wide and minute acquaintance with all the 
 Aristotelian writings,' to which Mr Sandys 
 justly bears testimony, his thorough know- 
 ledge of the important contributions of mo- 
 dern German scholars, his ripe and accurate 
 scholarship, and above all, that sound judg- 
 ment and never-failing good sense which are 
 the crowning merit of our best English edi- 
 tions of the Classics, all combine to make 
 this one of the most valuable additions to the 
 knowledge of Greek literature which we have 
 had for many years. ... A glance at the very 
 complete indexes, for which our heartiest 
 thanks are due to the care of the ' Public 
 Orator, will show the extent of the contribu- 
 tions thus made to our knowledge of Aris- 
 totle's language — Mr Sandys's own additions 
 are of much value, although they are gene- 
 rally very brief, except in the third book. 
 Indeed, while recognising the strong reasons 
 agamst swelling the bulk of the Commentary, 
 we are inclined sometimes to wish them a 
 little more numerous." — Spectator. 
 
 " Mr Cope was an excellent Greek scho- 
 lar; he had a copious and at the same time 
 minute knowledge of the writings of Aristotle, 
 and he shows both very wide reading and, 
 what we think, very good judgment, in his 
 explanation of the innumerable difficulties of 
 Aristotle's language. His grammatical notes 
 are of unusual value; and almost everything 
 needed for a comprehension of the book was 
 brought together by him.."-^Contemporary 
 Review. 
 
 P. VERGILI MARONIS OPERA 
 cum Prolegomenis et Comtnentario Critico pro Syndicis Preli 
 Academici edidit Benjamin Hall Kennedy, S.T.P., Graecae 
 Linguae Professor Regius. Extra Fcap. Oiflavo, cloth, sj. 
 
 M. T. CICERONIS DE OFFICIIS LIBRI TRES, 
 
 with Marginal Analysis, an English Commentary, and copious Indices, 
 by H. A. HOLDEN, LL.D. Head Master of Ipswich School, late Fellow 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge, Classical Examiner to the University 
 of London. Crown Odlavo. js. 6d. 
 
 London: Cambridge Warehouse, 17 Paternoster Row. 
 
10 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF 
 
 ARABIC AND SANSKRIT. 
 
 POEMS OF BEHA ED DIN ZOHEIR OF EGYPT. 
 
 With a Metrical Translation, Notes and Introduction, by E. H. 
 Palmer, M.A., Barrister-at-Law of the Middle Temple, Lord 
 Almoner's Professor of Arabic and Fellow of St John's College 
 in the University of Cambridge. 3 vols. Crown Quarto. 
 
 Vol. I. The Arabic Text. ioj. 6d, ; Cloth extra, 15J. 
 
 Vol. II. English Translation, ioj. 6^.; Cloth extra, 15J. 
 
 " Professor Palmer*s activity in advancing 
 Arabic scholarship has formerly shown itself 
 in the production of his excellent Arabic 
 Grammar, and his Descriptive Catalogue of 
 Arabic MSS. in the Library of Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. He has now produced an 
 admirable text, which illustrates in a remark- 
 able manner the flexibility and graces of the 
 language he loves so well, and of which he 
 seems to be perfect master.... The Syndicate 
 of Cambridge University must not pass with- 
 out the recognition of their liberality jn 
 bringing out, in a worthy form, so important 
 an Axabic text. It is not the first time that 
 Oriental scholarship has thus been wisely 
 subsidised by Cambridge."— /^wfiiiw Mail. 
 
 " It is impossible to quote this edition with- 
 out an expression of admiration for the per- 
 fection to which Arabic typography has Men 
 brought in England in this magnificent Ori- 
 ental work, the production of which redounds 
 to the imperishable credit of the University 
 of Cambridge. It may be pronounced one of 
 the most beautiful Oriental books that have 
 ever been printed in Euroije : and the learning 
 of the Editor worthily rivals the technical 
 get-up of the creations of the soul of one of 
 the most tasteful poets of Isld,m, the study 
 of which will contribute not a little to save the 
 honour of the poetry of the Arabs. Here 
 first we make the acquaintance of a poet who 
 gives us something better than monotonous 
 descriptions of camels and deserts, and may 
 even be regarded as superior in charm to al 
 Mutanabbi." — Mythologv among the He- 
 brews {Engl. Trattsl.)y p. 194. 
 
 "Professor Palmer has produced the com- 
 plete works of Behi-ed-dfn Zoheir in Arabic, 
 and has added a second volume, containing 
 an English verse translation of the whole. 
 
 It is only fair to add that the book, 
 
 by the taste of its arabesque binding, as well 
 as by the beauty of the typography, which 
 reflects great credit on the Cambridge Uni- 
 versity Press, is entitled to a place in the 
 drawing-room." — Times. 
 
 "For ease and facility, for variety of 
 metre, for imitation, either designed or un- 
 conscious, of the style of several of our own 
 
 poets, these versions deserve high praise 
 
 We have no hesitation in saying that in both 
 Prof Palmer has made an addition to Ori- 
 ental literature for which scholars should be 
 grateful ; and that, while his knowledge of 
 Arabic is a suflicient guarantee for his mas- 
 tery of the original, his English compositions 
 are distinguished by versatility, command of 
 language, rhythmical cadence, and, as we 
 have remarked, by not unskilful imitations of 
 the styles of several of our own favourite 
 poets, living and A&aA,"— Saturday Review. 
 "This sumptuous edition of the poems of 
 BehA-ed-din Zoheir is a very welcome addi- 
 tion to the small series of Eastern poets 
 accessible to readers who are not Oriental- 
 ists. ... In all there is that exquisite finish of 
 which Arabic poetry is susceptible in so rare 
 a degree. The form is almost always beau- 
 tiful, be the thought what it may. But this, 
 of course, can only be fully appreciated by 
 Orientalists. And this brings us to the trans- 
 lation. It is excellently well done. Mr 
 Palmer has tried to imitate the fall of the 
 original in his selection of the English metre 
 for the various i)ieces, and thus contrives to 
 convey a faint idea of the graceful flow of 
 
 the Arabic Altogether the inside of the 
 
 book is worthif of the beautiful arabesque 
 binding that rejoices the eye of the lover of 
 Arab art." — Academy. 
 
 NALOPAKHYANAM, OR, THE TALE OF NALA ; 
 containing the Sanskrit Text in Roman Characters, followed by a 
 Vocabulary in which each word is placed under its root, with references 
 to derived words in Cognate Languages, and a sketch of Sanskrit 
 Grammar. By the Rev. Thomas Jarrett, M.A. Trinity College 
 Regius Professor of Hebrew, late Professor of Arabic, and formerly 
 Fellow of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Demy 0(5lavo. los. 
 
 Loudon: Cambridge Warehouse, i-j Paternoster Row. 
 
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. ii 
 
 MATHEMATICS, PHYSICAL SCIENCE, &c. 
 
 Nearly Ready, Volume I. Part I. of 
 A TREATISE ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 By Sir W. THOMSON, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of Natural 
 Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, Fellow of St Petei-'s College, 
 Cambridge, and P. G. Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy 
 in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Fellow of St Peter's College, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 By Professors Sir W. Thomson and P. G. Tait. Part I. 8vo. cloth, gj. 
 
 " This work is designed especially for the trigonometry. Tyros In Natural Philosophy 
 
 use of schools and junior classes in the Unl* cannot he better directed than by being told 
 
 versities, the mathematical methods being to give their diligent attention to an inteU 
 
 limited almost without exception to those of li^ent digestion of the contents of this excel- 
 
 the most elementary geometry, algebra, and lent vade mecum" — Iron. 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL RESEARCHES OF THE 
 HONOURABLE HENRY CAVENDISH, F.R.S. 
 
 Written between 177 1 and 1781, Edited from the original manuscripts 
 in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire, K. G., by J. Clerk 
 Maxwell, F.R.S. 
 
 THE ANALYTICAL THEORY OF HEAT. 
 
 By Joseph Fourier. Translated, with Notes, by A. Freeman, M.A., 
 Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, Demy Octavo. i6j. 
 
 "Fourier's treatise is one of the very few is a model of mathematical reasoning applied 
 
 scientific books which can never be rendered to physical phenomena, and is remarkable for 
 
 antiquated by the progress of science. It is the ingenuity of the analytical process em- 
 
 not only the first and the greatest book on ployed by the author. . . . . The trans- 
 
 the physical subject of the conduction of lation of Fourier's investigations into English 
 
 Heat, but in every Chapter new views are has been ably effected by Mr Freeman, who 
 
 opened up into vast fields of mathematical has also well and thoroughly annotated the 
 
 speculation. work." — Contemporary Review^ October, 
 
 "Whatever text-books may be written, 1878. 
 
 giving, perhaps, more succinct proofs of " There cannot be two opinions as to the 
 
 Fourier's different equations, Fourier him- value and importance of the Thiorie de la 
 
 self willin ail time coming retain his unique C/uileur, _ It nas been called 'an exquisite 
 
 prerogative of being the guide of his reader mathematical poem,' not once but many times, 
 
 into regions inaccessible to meaner men, how- independently, by mathematicians of different 
 
 ever GXperi."— Extract from letter of Pro- schools. Many of the very greatest of mo- 
 
 Jessor Clerk Maxwell. dem mathematicians regard it, justly, as the 
 
 "It is time that Fourier's masterpiece, key which first opened to them the treasure- 
 
 The Anahiical Theory 0/ Heat, trans- house of mathematical physics. It is still //«■ 
 
 lated by Mr Alex. Freeman, should be in- text-book of Heat Conduction, and there 
 
 troduced to those English students of Mathe- seems little present prospect of its being 
 
 matics who do not follow with freedom a superseded, though it is already more than 
 
 treatise in any language but their own. It half a century old."— iVrt/?<«r. 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON 
 QUATERNIONS. 
 By P. G. Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Univer- 
 sity of Edinburgh ; formerly Fellow of St Peter's College, Cambridge, 
 Second Edition. Demy 8vo. 14J. 
 
 London: Cambridge Warehouse, i^j Paternoster How. 
 
12 PUBLICATIONS OF 
 
 A CATALOGUE OF AUSTRALIAN FOSSILS 
 (including Tasmania and the Island of Timor), Stratigraphically and 
 Zoologically arranged, by Robert Etheridge, Jun., F.G.S., Acting 
 Palseontologist, H.M. Geol. Survey of Scotland, (formerly Assistant- 
 Geologist, Geol. Survey of Victoria). 
 
 "The work is arranged with great clear- papers consulted by the author, and an index 
 ness, and contains a full list of the books and to the genera. — '^Saturday Review, 
 
 THE MATHEMATICAL WORKS OF 
 ISAAC BARROW, D.D. 
 
 Edited by W. Whewell, D.D. Demy Octavo, -js. 6d. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF COMPARATIVE ANA- 
 TOMY, VERTEBRATE AND INVERTEBRATE, 
 
 for the Use of Students in the Museum of Zoology and Comparative 
 Anatomy. Second Edition. Demy Octavo, cloth, 2s. i>d, 
 
 A SYNOPSIS OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF 
 THE BRITISH PALEOZOIC ROCKS, 
 by the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Woodwardian 
 Professor, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge ; with a systematic 
 description of the British Palaeozoic Fossils in the Geological Museum 
 of the University of Cambridge, by Frederick M^Coy, F.G.S., 
 Professor of the Natural Sciences in the University of Melbourne ; 
 formerly Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the Queen's Uni- 
 versity in Ireland; with Figures of the New and Imperfectly known 
 Species. One volume, Royal Quarto, cloth, with Plates, ;^i. is. 
 
 A CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTION OF 
 CAMBRIAN AND SILURIAN FOSSILS 
 contained in the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge, 
 by J. W. Salter, F.G.S. With a Preface by the Rev. Adam Sedg- 
 wick, LL.D., F.R.S., and a Table of Genera and Index added by 
 Professor MORRIS, F.G.S. With a Portrait of PROFESSOR Sedgwick. 
 Royal Quarto, cloth, Js. 6d. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF OSTEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS 
 contained in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Cam- 
 bridge. Demy 0(5lavo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 
 made at the Observatory of Cambridge by the Rev. James Challis 
 M.A, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experi- 
 mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of 
 Trinity College. For various Years, from 1846 to i860. 
 
 London : Cambridge Warehouse, 17 Paternoster Row. 
 
THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 13 
 
 LAW. 
 
 THE FRAGMENTS OF THE PERPETUAL 
 EDICT OF SALVIUS JULIANUS, 
 
 collected, arranged, and annotated by Bryan Walker, M.A. LL.D., 
 Law Lecturer of St John's College, and late Fellow of Corpus Christi 
 College, Cambridge, Crown 8vo., Cloth, Price 6s. 
 
 THE COMMENTARIES OF GAIUS AND RULES 
 
 OF ULPIAN. (New Edition, revised and enlarged.) 
 With a Translation and Notes, by J. T. Abdy, LL.D., Judge of County 
 Courts, late Regius Professor of Laws in the University of Cambridge, 
 and Bryan Walker, M.A., LL.D., Law Lecturer of St John's 
 College, Cambridge, formerly Law Student of Trinity HaU and 
 Chancellor's Medallist for Legal Studies, Crown Oflavo, 16s. 
 
 " As scholars and as editors Messrs Abdy of Gaius and Ulpian from the Cambridge 
 and Walker have done their work well. University Press indicates that the Universi- 
 For one thing the editors deserve ties are alive to the importance of the move- 
 special commendation. They have presented ment, and the fact that the new edition has 
 Gaius to the reader with few notes and those made its appearance within four years from 
 merely by way of reference or necessary the original production of the book, should 
 explanation.. Thus the Roman jurist is encouragethe Syndics to further efforts in the 
 allowed to speak for himself, and the reader same direction. The auspices under which 
 feels that he is really studying Roman law Messrs Abdy and Walker produce their book 
 in the original, and not a fanciful representa- are a guarantee that it is a scholarly and 
 tion of it." — AthenauTtt' accurate performance; and Mr Abdy's prac- 
 
 "The number of books on various subjects tical experience as a County Court Judge 
 
 of the civil law, which have lately issued from supplies a link between theory and practice 
 
 the Press, shews that the revival of the study which, no doubt, has had a beneficial effect 
 
 of Roman jurisjirudence in this country is upon their work." — Law Jountal. 
 genuine and increasing. The present edition 
 
 THE INSTITUTES OF JUSTINIAN, 
 translated with Notes by J. T. ABDY, LL.D., Judge of County Courts, 
 late Regius Professor of Laws in the University of Cambridge, and 
 formerly Fellow of Trinity Hall ; and Bryan Walker, M.A., LL.D., 
 Law Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge ; late Fellow and 
 Lecturer of Corpus Christi College ; and formerly Law Student of 
 Trinity Hall. Crown 0(flavo, i6j. 
 
 "We welcome here a valuable contribution Instead of a general historical summary in 
 
 to the study of jurisprudence. The text of the form of an Introduction, we find a num- 
 
 the/?«<iV«<« is occasionally perplexing, even ber of disquisitions on various points, partly 
 
 to practised scholars, whose knowledge of historical and partly purely legal, in the 
 
 classical models does not always avail them Appendix at the end. We conceive that 
 
 in dealing with the technicalities of legal these short essays, treating oipatriatoiestas, 
 
 phraseology. Nor can the ordinary diction- marriage, adoption, and the like, will be of 
 
 aries be expected to furnish all the help that much service to the student, as presenting, 
 
 is wanted. This translation will then be of in a compendious form, yet not too scantily 
 
 ereat use. To the ordinary student, whose to be useful, that which would otherwise 
 
 attention is distracted from the subject-matter have to be gleaned with labour from a large 
 
 by the difficulty of struggling through the surface. The new book is also distinguished 
 
 language in which it is contained, it will be by another special feature; an 'Analysis of 
 
 almost indispensable."— i>S<t/«/OT-. 'he Institutes' is given, in a tabular form, at 
 
 "The notes are learned and carefully com- the beginning. . . The 'Analysis' is, undeni- 
 
 oiled and this edition will be found useful ably, a useful addition, and the authors de- 
 
 to students "—Law Times. serve credit both for the idea and for the 
 
 "Dr Abdy and Dr Walker have produced style of execution."— .4 <A«;<ct«k. 
 a book which is both elegant and useful. . . . 
 
 GROTIUS DE JURE BELLI ET PACIS, 
 
 with the Notes of Barbeyrac and others ; accompanied by an abridged 
 Translation of the Text, by W. Whewell, D.D. late Master of Trinity 
 College. 3 Vols. Demy Odlavo, 30J. The translation separate, \os. 
 
 London: Cambridge Warehouse, 17 Paternoster Row. 
 
H 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 HISTORY OF NEPAL, 
 
 translated by Munshi Shew Shunker Singh and Pandit Shri 
 GUNANAND ; edited with an Introductory Sketch of the Country and 
 People by Dr D. Wright, late Residency Surgeon at Kathmandu, 
 and with facsimiles of native drawings, and portraits of Sir Jung 
 Bahadur, the King of Nepal, &c. Super-royal 8vo. Price 2ij. 
 
 " The Cambridge University Press have wichte, ^ Zeittheilung, _ sodann ein kurzes 
 
 done well in publishing this work. Such 
 translations are valuable not only to the his- 
 torian but also to the ethnologist; Dr 
 
 Wright's Introduction is based on personal 
 inquiry and observation, is written intelli- 
 gently and candidly, and adds much to the 
 value of the volume. The coloured litho- 
 graphic plates are interesting." — Nature. 
 
 "The history has appeared at a very op- 
 portune moment.. .The volume. ..is beautifully 
 !>rinted, and supplied with portraits of Sir 
 Tung Bahadoor and others, and with excel- 
 ent coloured sketches illustrating Nepaulese 
 architecture and religion." — Exajjtmer. 
 
 " In pleasing contrast with the native his- 
 tory are the five introductory chapters con- 
 tributed by Dr Wright himself, who saw as 
 much of Nepal during his ten years' sojourn 
 as the strict rules enforced against foreigners 
 even by Jung Bahadur would let him see." — 
 Itidian Mail, 
 
 "Von nicht geringem Werthe dagegen sind 
 die Beigaben, welche Wright als 'Appendix' 
 hinter der 'history* folgen lasst, Aufzah- 
 lungen namlich der in Nepal iiblichen Musik- 
 Instrumehte, Ackergerathe, Miinzen, Ge- 
 
 Vocabular in ParbatlyS und NewSrt, einige 
 Newdri songs mit Interlinear-Uebersetzung, 
 eine Kdnigsliste, und, last not least, ein 
 Verzeichniss der von ihm mitgebrachten 
 Sanskrit- Mss., welche jetzt in der Universi- 
 tats-Bibliothek in Cambridge deponirt sind." 
 — A. Weber, Literaturzeitungf Jahrgang 
 1877, Nr. 26. _ 
 
 "This native history is a most interesting 
 contribution to our knowledge of Nepaul ; 
 and the accuracy of the translation is certified 
 by the fact of its having been made by the_ 
 Meer Moonshee attached to the British Re- 
 sidency at Khatmandoo, who has lived in 
 Nepaul for nearly 30 yeprs, assisted by the 
 Pundit Shree Gunanund, who is a native "of 
 Nepaul, and whose ancestors have for many 
 generations been the compilers of this his- 
 tory." — Times. 
 
 " On trouve le portrait et la g^n^alogie 
 de Sir Jang Bahadur dans I'excellent ouvrage 
 
 que vient de publier Mr Daniel Wright,, 
 
 sous le titre de * History of Nepal, translated- 
 from the Parbatiya, etc.*" — M. Garcin dh 
 Tassv in La Langite et la Liitirature Hin- 
 doiistanies in 1877. Paris, 1878. 
 
 SCHOLAR ACADEMICAE : 
 Some Account of the Studies at the English Universities in the 
 Eighteenth Century. By Christopher Wordsworth, M.A., 
 Fellow of Peterhouse ; Author of " Social Life at the English 
 Universities in the Eighteenth Century." Demy octavo, cloth, 15J. 
 
 "The general object of Mr Wordsworth's education, and we may add, upon the cat- 
 
 book is sufficiently apparent from its title. 
 He has collected a great quantity of minute 
 and curious information about the working 
 of Cambridge institutions in the last century, 
 with an occasional comparison of the corre- 
 5pondin|; state of things at Oxford. It is of 
 course impossible that a book of this kind 
 should be altogether entertaining as litera- 
 ture. To a great extent it is i^urely a book 
 of reference, and as such it will be of per- 
 manent value for the historical knowledge of 
 English education and learning." — Saturday 
 Review, 
 
 "This work follows the modem historical 
 method ; it is not an argumentative romance 
 with a few facts let in where they support 
 a favourite view, but a careful exhumation of 
 dead records; which are made to bring 
 before us a live past, by being placed in due 
 connection by a man who understands them 
 
 and loves his subject In the work before 
 
 us, which is strictly what it professes to be, 
 an account of university studies, we obtain 
 authentic information upon the course and 
 changes of philosophical thought in this 
 country, upon the general estimation of 
 letters, upon the relations of doctrine and 
 science, upon the range and thoroughness of 
 
 like tenacity of life of ancient forms.... The 
 particulars Mr Wordsworth gives us in his 
 excellent arrangement are most varied, in- 
 teresting, and instructive. Among the mat- 
 ters touched upon are Libraries, Lectures, 
 the Tripos, the Trivium, the Senate House, 
 the Scnoolii, text-books, subjects of study, 
 foreign opinion's, interior life. We learn 
 even of the various University periodicals 
 that have had their day. And last, but not 
 least, we are given in an appendix a highly 
 interesting series of private letters from a 
 Cambridge student to John Strype, giving 
 a vivid idea of life as an undergraduate and 
 afterwards, as the writer became a graduate' 
 and a fellow." — University Magazine. 
 
 "Only those who have engaged in like la- 
 bours will be able fully to appreciate the 
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