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Y* ~ ~ AIO | oh U S Te FR A L | A Lil. POATES, ENGRay N.Ys+ THE PHILIPPINES. were without question the first inhabitants of these islands of whom we have any knowledge, we shall speak of them at once. They are among the very smallest peoples in the world, the average height of the men being about 145 centi- meters, or the height of an American boy of twelve years ; the women are correspondingly smaller. They have such dark-brown skins that any people suppose them to be quite black ; their hair is very woolly or kinky, and forms thick mats upon their heads. In spite of these peculiarities, they are not unattractive in appearance. Their eyes are large and of a fine brown color, their fea- tures are quite regular, and their little bodies often beau- tifully shaped. The appearance of these little savages excited the attention of the first Spaniards, and there are many early accounts of them. Padre Chirino, who went as a mis- sionary in 1592 to Panay, begins the narrative of his labors in that island as follows: “Among the Bisayas, there are also some Negroes. They are less black and ugly than those of Guinea, and they are much smaller and weaker, but their hair and beard are just the same. They are much more barbarous and wild than the Bisayas and other Filipinos, for they have neither houses nor any fixed sites for dwelling. They neither plant nor reap, but live like wild beasts, wandering with their wives and children through the mountains, almost naked. They hunt the deer and wild boar, and when they kill one they stop right there until all the flesh is consumed. Of property they have nothing except the bow and arrow.” ! Manners and Customs. — The Negritos still have this wild, timid character, and few have ever been truly eciv- ' Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 38.= THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. o ilized in spite of the efforts of some of the Spanish mis- sionaries. They still roam through the mountains, seldom building houses, but making simply a little wall and roof of brush to keep off the wind and rain. They kill deer, wild pigs, monkeys, and birds, and in hunting they are very expert; but their principal food is wild roots and tubers, which they roast in ashes. Frequently in travel- ing through the mountains, although one may see nothing of these timid little folk, he will see many large, freshly dug holes from each of which they have taken out a root. The Negritos ornament their bodies by making little rows of cuts on the breast, back, and arms, and leaving the scars in ornamental patterns; and some of them also cut their front teeth to points. In their hair they wear bamboo combs with long plumes of hair or of the feathers of the mountain cock. They have curious dances, and ceremonies for marriage and for death. Distribution. — The Negritos have retired from many places where they lived when the Spaniards first arrived, but there are still several thousand in Luzon, especially in the Cordillera Zambales, and in the Sierra Madre range on the Pacific coast, and in the interior of Panay and Negros, and in Surigao of Mindanao. Relation of the Negritos to Other Dwarfs of the World. — Although the Negritos have had very little ef- fect on the history of the Philippines, they are of much ‘nterest as a race to scientists, and we can not help asking, Whence came these curious little people, and what does their presence here signify? While science can not at present fully answer these questions, what we do actually know about these pygmies is full of interest. The Actas of the Philippines are not the only black - dwarfs in the world. A similar little people, who must124 RACES AND PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES err 7 0 50 100 150 —_—_—— a 0 l 200 ) W777 wy) > I f£ilipinos (Christi lf ‘ } ; *rimitive Malayan Tribes ( Pagans F ey MARIN, VQUE ne \ ’ QTE X CT, we S MINDORO¢. Yy &® Ly t SS YA@ e ~S ee X | ° ~ CALAMIANEs W> >, ie “uy. SAMAR Y ss fae a 5 N 2p ; V Oe f @ , ‘Xe PALAWAN =4 ~~ Po Ged RO NEGROS/ eS) so CV aue Yy fy ve Y4LEYTE CEBU ’ (BOHOL oo. X J 2 Mamanwas g | — Sa b XS i gf | QA Sc 7 U ZG Qs fs mt ge \ fA D> 4, YF ZZ \ b L be V2 Tur S Vs ' 7 V4 Vf: ) ¥ \ i Yi Yo-Bukidan dn ‘2, ( , / SUbAN OnE AE oy j Vy 7 és reg < \ Kw | BOF Sy hy ERS ALD ia Ob os Or Bi) fe \ ane $4 l } } wy | dye “N- D) ALAN A. ov | Aw Mangdayans , | Zamboangarey.* Magititi dwar! } RTH a a LR a \ a A A } ais I xh Bagodhos | | BASILAN ey Yakans 2. Nei sh mS / | ‘ . Pee } \ | Ch eee SUlUs =-. Samals X £8: iN Ke c Bg oa, ——_~— ; - Ges = — 7“ 2 Prag hy : SULU (JOLO) ¢/ | BRITISH Pm corm TAWI TAWI +». °° 5 NORTH BORNEO.» : CELEBES |\SEHA ce A Longitude 120 East me Samals L. L, POATES ENCR'G CO., N.Y from 124 GreenwichTHE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 7 ~ belong to the same race, live in the mountains and jungles of the Malay peninsula and are called ‘‘ Semangs.” On the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, all the aborig- inal inhabitants are similar pygmies. Some traces of their former existence are reported from many other places in the East Indies. Thus it may be that there was a time when these little men and women had much of this island-world quite to themselves, and their race stretched unbrokenly from the Philippines across Malaysia to the Indian Ocean. As it would have been impossible for so feeble a people to force their way from one island to another after the arrival of the stronger races, who have now confined them to the mountainous interiors, we are obliged to believe that the Negritos were on the ground first, and that at one time they were more numerous. The Indian archipelago was then a world of black pygmies. It may be that they were even more extensive than this, for one of the most curious discoveries of modern times has been the finding of oe little blacks in the equa- torial forests of Africa The Negritos must nat be confused with the black negro race of New Guinea or Melanesia, who are com- monly called Papuans; for those Negroes are of taller stature and closer to the true Negroes of Africa, though how the Negro race thus came to be formed of several widely separated branches we do not know. The Malayan Race. — Origin of the Race. =a thought that the Malayan race originated in southeastern Asia. From the mainland it spread down into the pen- insula and so scattered southward and shee over the rich neighboring islands. Probably these early Ma- lavans found the little Negritos in possession and slowly8 THE PHILIPPINES. drove them backward, destroying them from many islands until they no longer exist except in the piaces we have already named. With the beginning of this migratory movement which carried them from one island to another of the great East Indian Archipelago, these early Malayans must have in- vented the boats or praus for which they are famed and have become skillful sailors living much upon the sea. Effect of the Migration. — Life for many generations, upon these islands, so warm, tropical, and fruitful, gradu- ually modified these emigrants from Asia, until they be- came in mind and body quite a different race from the Mongol inhabitants of the mainland. Characteristics. —'The Malayan peoples are of a light- brown color, with a light yellowish undertone on some parts of the skin, with straight black hair, dark-brown eyes, and, though they are a small race in stature, they are finely formed, muscular, and active. The physical type is nearly the same throughout all Malaysia, but the different peoples making up the race differ markedly from one another in culture. They are divided also by differ- ences of religion. There are many tribes which are pagan. On Bali and Lombok, little islands east of Java, the people are still Hindus, like most inhabitants of India. In other parts of Malaysia they are Mohammedans, while in the Philippines alone they are mostly Christians. The Wild Malayan Tribes. — Considering first the pagan or the wild Malayan peoples, we find that in the interior of the Malay Peninsula and of many of the islands, such as Sumatra, Borneo and Celebes, there are wild Malayan tribes, who have come very little in contact with the Successive civilizing changes that have passed over this archipelago. The true Malays call these folk ‘‘ OrangTHE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. J benua,” or “men of the country.” Many are almost savages, some are cannibals, and others are headhunters like some of the Dyaks of Borneo. In the Philippines, too, we find what is probably this same class of wild people living in the mountains. They are warlike, savage, and resist approach. Sometimes they eat human flesh as a ceremonial act, and some prize above all other trophies the heads of their enemies, which they cut from the body and preserve in their homes. It is probable that these tribes represent the earliest and rudest epoch of Malayan culture, and that these were the first of ths race to arrive in the Philippines and dispute with the Ne- gritos for the mastery of the soil. In such wild state ot life, some of them, like the Mangyans of Mindoro, have continued to the present day. The Tribes in Northern Luzon. — In northern Luzon, in the great Cordillera Central, there are many of these primi- tive tribes. ‘These people are preéminently mountaineers. They prefer the high, cold, and semi-arid crests and val- leys of the loftiest ranges. Here, with great industry, they have made gardens by the building of stone-walled ter- races on the slopes of the hills. Sometimes hundreds of these terraces can be counted in one valley, and they rise one above the other from the bottom of a cafion for several miles almost to the summit of a ridge. These terraced gardens are all under most careful irrigation. Water is carried for many miles by log flumes and ditches, to be dis- tributed over these little fields. The soil is carefully fer- tilized with the refuse of the villages. Two and frequently three crops are produced each year. Here we find un- doubtedly the most developed and most nearly scientific agriculture in the Philippines. They raise rice, cotton, tobacco, the taro, maize, and especially the camote, or ee10 THE PHILIPPINES. sweet potato, which is their principal food. These people live in compact, well-built villages, frequently of several hundred houses. Some of these tribes, like the Igorots of Benguet and the Tingians of Abra, are peaceable as well as industrious. In Benguet there are fine herds of cattle, much excellent coffee, and from time immemorial the Igorots here have mined gold. Besides these peaceful tribes there are in Bontok, and in the northern parts of the Cordillera, many large tribes, with splendid mountain villages, who until recently were in a constant state of war. Nearly every town was in feud with its neighbors, and the practice of taking heads led to Irequent murder and combat. A most curious tribe of persistent headhunters are the Ibilao, or Ilungots, who live in the Caraballo Sur Mountains between Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya. On other islands of the Philippines there are similar wild tribes. On the island of Palawan there are the Tagbanwas and other savage folk. Characteristics of the Tribes of Mindanao. — In Mindanao, there are many more tribes. Three of these tribes, the Bagobo, Mandaya, and Manobo, are on the east- ern coast and around Mount Apo. In Western Mindanao, there is quite a large but scattered tribe called the Suba- non. ‘These people make clearings on the hillsides and support themselves by raising maize and mountain rice. They also raise hemp, and from the fiber they weave truly beautiful blankets and garments, artistically dyed in very curious patterns. These peoples are nearly all pagans, though a few are being gradually converted to Moham- medanism, and some to Christianity. The pagans occa- sionally practice the revolting rites of human sacrifice and ceremonial cannibalism.THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. eT The Civilized Malayan Peoples. — Their Later Arrival. — At a later date than the arrival of these primitive Malayan tribes, there came to the Philippines others of a more developed culture and a higher order of attain- ment. These peoples mastered the low country and the coasts of nearly all the islands, driving into the interiot the earlier comers and the aboriginal Negritos. These later arrivals, though all of one stock, differed considerably, and spoke different dialects belonging to one language family. They were the ancestors of the present civilized Filipino people. Distribution of These Peoples. — All through the ceén- tral islands, Cebu, Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Bohol and northern Muin- danao, are the Bi sayas, the largest of these peoples. At the southern extremity | Of uzony im the provinces of Sorso- gon and the Cama- Belt of Rattan. rines, are the Bikols. North of these, holding central Luzon, Batangas, Cavite, Manila, Laguna, Bataan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija, are the Tagdlogs, while the great plain of northern Luzon is occupied by the Pampangos and Pangasinans. All the northwest coast is inhabited by the Ilokanos, and the valley of the Cagayan by a people commonly called Caga- vanes, but whose dialect is Ibanag. In Nueva Vizcaya province, on the Batanes Islands and the Calamianes, there are other distinct branches of the Filipino people, but they are much smaller in numbers and less important than the tribes mentioned above.i, THE PHILIPPINES. Importance of These Peoples.— They form politically and historically the Filipino people. They are the Filipinos whom the Spaniards ruled for more than three hundred years. All are converts to Christianity, and all have attained a somewhat similar stage of civilization. Early Contact of the Malays and Hindus. — These peo- ple at the time of their arrival in the Philippines were probably not only of a higher plane of intelligence than any Mindanao Brass Vessels. who had preceded them in the occupation of the islands, but they appear to have had the advantages of contact with a highly developed culture that had appeared in the eastern archipelago some centuries earlier. Early Civilization in India. — More than two thou- sand years ago, India produced a remarkable civili- zation. There were great cities of stone, magnificent palaces, a life of splendid luxury, and a highly organized social and political system. Writing, known as the San- skrit, had been developed, and a great literature of poetry—— THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 13 and philosophy produced. Two great religions, Brahmin- ism and Buddhism, arose, the latter still the dominant religion of Tibet, China, and Japan. The people who pro- duced this civilization are known as the Hindus. Fourteen or fifteen hundred years ago Hinduism spread over Burma, Siam, and Java. Great cities were erected with splendid temples and huge idols, the ruins of which still remain, though their magnificence has gone and they are covered to-day with the growth of the jungle. Influence of Hindw Culture on the Malayan Peoples. —This powerful civilization of the Hindus, established thus in Malaysia, greatly affected the Malayan people on these islands, as well as those who came to the Philip- pines. Many words in the Tagdlog have been shown to have a Sanskrit origin, and the systems of writing which the Spaniards found in use among several of the Filipino peoples had certainly been developed from the alphabets then in use among these Hindu peoples of Java and elsewhere. The Rise of Mohammedanism. —. Wohammed.— A few hundred years later another great change, due to religious faith, came over the Malayan race, — a change which has had a great effect upon the history of the Philippines, and ‘s still destined to modify events far into the future. This was the conversion to Mohammedanism. Of all the great religions of the world, Mohammedanism was the last to arise, and its career has in some ways been the most re- markable. Mohammed, its founder, was an Arab, born about 572 A.p. At that time Christianity was established entirely around the Mediterranean and throughout most of Europe, but Arabia was idolatrous. Mohammed was one of those great, prophetic souls which arise from time to time in the world’s history. All he could learn from14 THE PHILIPPINES. Hebraism and Christianity, together with the result of his own thought and prayers, led him to the belief in one God, the Almighty, the Compassionate, the Merciful, who as he believed would win all men to His Towed through the teachings of Mohammed himself. Thus inspired, Mo- hammed became a teacher or prophet, and by the end of his life he had won his people to his faith and inaugurated one of the greatest eras of conquest the world has seen. Spread of ie to Africa and Europe. —The armies of Arabian horsemen, full of fanatical enthusiasm to convert. the world to their faith, in a entury’s time wrested from Christendom all Judea, Syria, and Asia Minor, the sacred land where Jesus lived and taught, and the countries where Paul and the other apostles had first established Christianity. Thence they swept along the north coast of Africa, bringing to an end all that survived of Roman power and religion, and by 720 they had crossed into Europe and were in ies, of Spain. For the some eight hundred years that followed, the Christian Spaniards fought to drive Mohammedanism from the peninsula, before they were successful. [The Conversion of the Malayans to Mohammed- anism.— Not only did Mohammedanism move west- ward over Africa and Europe, it was carried eastward as well. Animated by their faith, the Arabs became the greatest sailors, explorers, merchants, and geographers of the age. They sailed from the Red Sea down the coast Africa as far as Madagascar, and eastward to India, where they had settlements on both the Malabar and Coro- mandel coasts. Thence Arab missionaries brought their faith to Malaysia. At that time the true Malays, the tribe from which the common term “Mal: ayan’’ has been derived, were apawunyopy {0 }Ua}xa JUasadd | uiS]uD szsanbuog snojbjjay uvpawunyowy < I V T i ly ¢ J 2 mS aS \ ‘ Bos n= =O Ae oPs> i Sor ( e ONS ESS D 5p Ve : WIA NESS o > e { => O hocks. \ Cc ~: \OoNaS = \ NS ¥ \o° > \ <= a6 = | 6 A © 9 o A ~ m Aes) . ax 5 a G af AS < X ae J. oa sf ets > 4 ae ~ A eevee . ( > \ t Bie v z y ( ro) \~ AUYONNH viuLSNV™ y J, od a2 “OS ANWINY oy. , yori 4 LY 4, (Vo ¥ GS | \ 3° cs » ee OKC “ A= A© - t $ WEN 3 AS = | : pu _ ~~ e ; — ¢ ? } J ¥ = ay te V , > ey x XK = By \ ie Gc Nees Se X NS // fa ° ~ S& = 3 : Ly \ on j ao: Bo ESS eS JS if 5 a Sr |N SSD mn: } as 5 ae a . \ eS i~ of wae > e & 3 SRS SSS LON ~~ a s © . SY > 7 pret \ > ¢ Ycoeat SM p LOL +r} - — 7 . 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Bowe ~ HR | ; Aaa | N foe . m4 ® 6 | Q\ o- | — Ry 9 - | As 44 81h 270 Sone aA XT “3 S pm == e pL wan J “9 £5 7? = pf == i Y re) | em vie a} ( “Os wo PgR a ¢ 2 A pr 7h » 8 Nurent ARIA Greenwich t & 1D OR Wy) A E es pe (Co Gr Ko) tmbur 4 men q uw | 8 r on Augy), 6 Ah ae a = ; ~ 2 ~~ b 2 he oe QR < ay D yes & > mi] i1Kdmbylu . welt ing ) a ” - 420 149 . , f~ rf | wy , > MALAy x Abe oe o CER o \ * O ; J 2 gy “ " eG PENINSY 5 Brunei. wa. 4 - \ ™ \ INSULA'S , \ ee | 9 4 a NaMlaluce E ® at ) | Tern ate (| 3 0 ws vy ks S : fn. - ‘ | Ss Tidor® 4 oo _~ ¢ YY {| BORNEO Ve Cs AN ica oe } ( I 3 a 3} { a . SIP con CCAS a Wee SN al ( [\ a GOEL | XK 9 ON. 2 ey os ee / \ HY. sinvoin> tH q S \ ~ "4 Won \ Y, =~ f ¥ NS | Oo Az ~~ | ) b ~A J , iat aon “ : | Asa Vaeeee laze | 10 = PRIS. — | THE COUNTRIES —> = ST OF THE FAR EAST \ pe | IN THE 16TH CENTURY oan et SCALE OF MILES ss sf \ 6 200 «400 600 800 1000 1200 s \ l eee | — oe : 100 Longitude 110 East from 120 Greenwich 130EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 895 and literature, and the Buddhist religion, which was in- troduced about 550 a.p. But in temperament they are a very different people, being spirited and warlike. Until recent years, they have despised trading and commerce. Since the beginning of her history, Japan has been monarchical. The ruler, the Mikado, is believed to be of heavenly descent; but in the centuries we are discussing the government was controlled by powerful nobles, known as the Shoguns, who kept the emperors in retirement in the palaces of Kyoto, and themselves directed the State. The greatest of these shoguns was lyeyasu, who ruled Japan about 1600, soon after Manila was founded. They developed in Japan a species of feudalism, the great lords, or “ daimios,” owning allegiance to the shoguns ; and about the daimios, as feudal retainers, bodies of samurai, who formed a partly noble class of their own. The samurai carried arms, fought at their lords’ command, were stu- dents and literati, and among them developed a proud, loyal, and elevated eode of morality known as ~ sAshido,”’ which has done much for the Japanese people. It is this samurai class who in modern times have effected the im- mense revolution in the condition and power of Japan. The Malay Archipelego. — If now we look at the Ma- lay Islands, we find, as we have already seen, that changes had been effected there. Hinduism had first elevated and civilized at least a portion of the race, and Mohamme- danism and the daring seamanship of the Malay had united these islands under a common language and reli- gion. There was, however, no political union. The Malay peninsula was divided. Java formed a central Malay power. Eastward among the beautiful Celebes and Moluceas, the true Spice Islands, were a multitude of small native rulers, rajas or datos, who surrounded themselves with retain-36 THE PHILIPPINES. ers, kept rude courts, and gathered wealthy tributes of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves. The sultans of Ternate, Tidor, and Amboina were especially powerful, and the islands they ruled the most rich and productive. Between all these islands there was a busy commerce. The Malay is an intrepid sailor, and an eager trader. Fleets of praus, laden with goods, passed with the chang- ing monsoons from part to part, risking the perils of piracy, which have always troubled this archipelago. Borneo, while the largest of all these islands, was the least devel- oped, and down to the present day has been hardly ex- plored. The Philippines were also outside of most of this busy intercourse and had at that date few products to offer for trade. Their main connection with the rest of the Malay race was through the Mohammedan Malays of Jolo and Borneo. The fame of the Spice Islands had long filled Europe, but the existence of the Philippines was unknown. Summary. — We have now reviewed the condition of Europe and of farther Asia as they were before the period of modern discovery and colonization opened. The East had reached a condition of quiet stability. Mohamme- danism, though still spreading, did not promise to effect creat social changes. The institutions of the East had become fixed in custom and her peoples neither made changes nor desired them. On the other hand western Europe had become aroused to an excess of ambition. New ideas, new discoveries and inventions were moving the nations to activity and change. That era of modern discovery and progress, of which we cannot yet perceive the end, had begun.CHAPTER IIL. THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. An Eastern Passage to India. — The Portuguese. — We have seen in the last chapter how Venice held a monopoly of the only trading-route with the Far East. Some new way of reaching India must be sought, that would permit the traders of other Christian powers to reach the marts of the Orient without passing through Mohammedan lands, This surpassing achievement was accomplished by the Portuguese. So different at the present day has the power of Portugal become that few realize the daring and courage once displayed by her seamen and soldiers and the enor- mous colonial empire that she established. Portugal freed her territory of the Mohammedan Moors nearly a century earlier than Spain; and the vigor and intelligence of a great king, John I., brought Portugal, about the year 1400, to an important place among the states of Europe. This king captured from the Moors the city of Ceuta, in Morocco; and this was the beginning of modern European colonial possessions, and almost the first land outside of Europe to be held by a European power since the times of the Crusades. King John’s youngest son was Prince Henry, famous in history under the title of “the Navigator.” This young prince, with something of the same adventurous spirit that filled the Crusaders. was ardent to extend the power of his father’s kingdom and to widen the sway of the religion which he devotedly professed. The power of the Mohammedans in the Mediterranean was too great for him hopefully to oppose and so he planned the conquest of the west coast 3/38 THE PHILIPPINES. of Africa, and its conversion to Christianity. With these ends in view, he established at Point Sagres, on the south- western coast of Portugal, a naval academy and obser- vatory. Here he brought together skilled navigators, charts, and geographies, and all scientific knowledge that would assist in his undertaking." He began to construct ships larger and better than any inuse. ‘To us they would doubtless seem very clumsy and small, but this was the beginning of ocean ship-build- ing. ‘The compass and the astrolabe, or sextant, the little instrument with which, by calculating the height of the sun above the horizon, we can tell distance from the equa- tor, were just coming into use. These, as well as every other practicable device for navigation known at that time, were supplied to these ships. Exploration of the African Coast. — Thus equipped and ably manned, the little fleets began the exploration of the African coast, cautiously feeling their way southward and ever returning with reports of progress made. Year after year this work went on. In 1419 the Madeira Islands were rediscovered and colonized by Portuguese settlers. The growing of sugarcane was begun, and vines were brought from Burgundy and planted there. The ‘See the noted work The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator, and its Results, by Richard Henry Major, London, 1868. Many of the views of Mr. Major upon the importance of Prince Henry’s work and especially its early aims, have been contradicted in more re- cent writings. The importance of the Sagres Observatory is belittled. Doubts are expressed as to the farsightedness of Prince Henry’s plans, and the best opinion of to-day holds that he did not hope to discover a new route to India by way of Africa, but sought simply the conquest of the ‘‘ Guinea,” which was known to the Europeans through the Arab Geographers, who called it ‘‘ Bilad Ghana” or ‘‘Land of Wealth.” The students, if possible, should read the essay of Mr. E. J. Payne, The Age of Discovery, in the Cambridge Modern History, Vol I.THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 39 wine of the Madeiras has been famous to this day. Then were rediscovered the Canaries and in 1444 the Azores. The southward exploration of the coast of the mainland steadily continued until in 1445 the Portuguese reached the mouth of the Senegal River. Up to this point the Afni- ean shore had not yielded much of interest to the Portu- euese explorer or trader. Below Morocco the great Sahara Desert reaches to the sea and renders barren the coast for hundreds of miles. South of the mouth of the Senegal and comprising the whole Guinea coast, Africa is tropical, well watered, and populous. This is the home of the true African Negro. Here, for almost the first time, since the be ginning of the Middle Ages, Christian Europe came in contact with a race of ruder culture and different color than its own. This coast was found to be worth exploit- ing; for it yielded, besides various desirable resinous gums, three articles which have distinguished the exploitation of Africa, namely, gold, ivory, and slaves. Beginning of Negro Slavery in Europe. — At this point begins the horrible and revolting story of European Negro slavery. The ancient world had practiced this owner- ship of human chattels, and the Roman Kmpire had de- elined under a burden of half the population sunk in bondage. To the enormous detriment and suffering of mankind. Mohammed had tolerated the institution, and slavery is permitted by the Koran. But it is the glory of the medieval church that it abolished human slavery from Christian Europe. However dreary and unjust feu- dalism may have been, it knew nothing of that institution which degrades men and women to the level of vattle and remorselessly sells the husband from his family, the mother from her child.40 THE PHILIPPINES. Slaves in Portugal. — The arrival of the Portuguese upon the coast of Guinea now revived not the bondage of one white man to another, but that of the black to the white. The first slaves carried to Portugal were regarded simply as objects of peculiar interest, captives to repre- sent to the court the population of those shores which had been added to the Portuguese dominion. But southern Portugal, from which the Moors had been expelled, had suffered from a lack of laborers, and it was found profit- able to introduce Negroes to work these fields. Arguments to Justify Slavery. —So arose the insti- tution of Negro slavery, which a century later upon the shores of the New World was to develop into so tremen- dous and terrible a thing. Curiously enough, religion was evoked to justify this enslavement of the Africans. It was argued that these people, being heathen, were fortunate to be captured by Christians, that they might thereby be brought to baptism and conversion; for it is better for the body to perish than for the soul to be cast into hell. At a later age, when the result of this teaching had been realized, men still sought to justify the institution by arguing that the Almighty had created the African of a lower state especially that he might serve the superior race. The coast of Guinea continued to be the resort of slavers down to the middle of the last century, and such scenes of cruelty, wickedness, and debauchery have occurred along its shores as can scarcely be paralleled in brutality in the history of any people. The Portuguese can hardly be said to have colonized the coast in the sense of raising up there a Portuguese population. As he approached the equator the white man found that, in spite of his superior strength, he could notTHE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 41 permanently people the tropics. Diseases new to his experience attacked him. His energy declined. If he brought his family with him, his children were few or feeble and shortly his race h: id died out. The settlements of the Portuguese were largely for the purposes of trade. At Sierra Leone, Kamerun, or Loango, they built forts and established garrisons, mounting pieces of artillery that gave them advantage over the attacks of the natives, and erecting warehouses and the loathsome ‘barracoons,” where the slaves were confined to await shipment. The successors of these settlements still remain along the African coast, although the slave-trade happily has ended. The Successful Voyage of Vasco da Gama. — Through- out the century Prince Henry’s policy of exploration was continued. Slowly the middle coast of Africa became known. At last in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the extremity of the continent. He named it the Cape of Storms: but the Portuguese king, with more prophetic vision, renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. It was ten years, however, before the Portuguese could send another expedition. Then Vasco da Gama rounded the cape again, followed up the eastern coast until the Arab trad- ing-stations were reached. Then he struck across the ses landed at the Malabar coast of ae and in 1498 red at Calicut. The end an f by all of Europe had been achieved. -A sea-route to ae Far East had been discovered. Results of Da Gama’s Voyage. — The importance of this performance was instantly recognized in HKurope. Venice was ruined. “It was a terrible day,” said a con- temporary writer, “when the word reached Venice. Bells were rung, men wept in the streets, and even the bravest492, THE PHILIPPINES. were silent.”’ The Arabs and the native rulers made a desperate effort to expel the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean, but their opponents were too powerful. In the course of twenty years Portugal had founded an empire that had its forts and trading-marts from the coast of Arabia to Malaysia. Zanzibar, Aden, Oman, Goa, Calicut, and Madras were all Portuguese stations, fortified and se- cured. In the Malay peninsula was captured the city of Malacea, which retained its commercial importance until the last century, when it dwindled before the competition of Singapore. The work of building up this great domain was largely that of one man, the intrepid Albuquerque. Think what his task was! He was thousands of miles from home and supplies, he had only such forces and munitions as he could bring with him in his little ships, and opposed to him were millions of inhabitants and a multitude of Mo- hammedan princes. Yet this great captain built up an Indian empire. Portugal at one bound became the great- est trading and colonizing power in the world. Her sources of wealth appeared fabulous, and, like Venice, she made every effort to secure her monopoly. The fleets of other nations were warned that they could not make use of the Cape of Good Hope route, on penalty of being captured or destroyed. Reaching India by Sailing West. — The Earth as a Sphere. — Meanwhile, just as Portugal was carrying to completion her project of reaching India by sailing east, Kurope was electrified by the supposed successful attempt of reaching India by sailing directly west, across the At- lantic. This was the plan daringly attempted in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Columbus was an Italian sailor and cosmographer of Genoa. The idea of sailing west toTHE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 43 India did not originate with him, but his is the immortal glory of having persistently sought the means and put the idea into execution. The. Portuguese discoveries along the African coast gradually revealed the extension of this continent and the presence of people beyond the equator, and the pos- sibility of passing safely through the tropics. This knowl- edge was a great stimulus to the peoples of Kurope. The geographical] theory of the Greeks, that the world is round, was revived. The geographers, however, in mak- ing their calculations of the earth’s circumference, had fallen into an error of some thousands of miles; that 1s, instead of finding that it is fully twelve thousand miles from Europe around to the East Indies, they had sup- posed it about four thousand, or even less. Marco Polo too had exaggerated the distance he had traveled and from his accounts men had been led to believe that China, Japan, and the Spice Islands lay much further to the east than they actually do. By sailing west across one wide ocean, with no interven- ing lands, it was thought that one could arrive at the ‘sland-world off the continent of Asia. This was the theory that was revived in Italy and which clung in men’s minds for years and years, even after America was discovered. An Italian, named Toscanelli, drew a map showing how this voyage could be made, and sent Columbus a copy. By sailing first to the Azores, a considerable por- tion of the journey would be passed, with a convenient resting-stage. Then about thirty-five days’ favorable sail- ing would bring one to the islands of “Cipango,” or Japan, which Mareo Polo had said lay off the continent of Asia. From here the passage could readily be pur- sued to Cathay and India.44 THE PHILIPPINES. The Voyage of Christopher Columbus. — The roman- tic and inspiring story of Columbus is told in many books, —his poverty, his genius, his long and discouraging pur- suit of the means to carry out his plan. He first applied to Portugal; but, as we have seen, this country had been pursuing another plan steadily for a century, and, now that success appeared almost achieved, naturally the Portuguese king would not turn aside to favor Columbus’s plan. For years Columbus labored to interest the Spanish court. A great event had happened in Spanish history. Ferdinand, king of Aragon, had wedded Isabella of Castile, and this marriage united these two kingdoms into the modern country of Spain. Soon the smaller states except Portugal were added, and the war for the expulsion of the Moors was prosecuted with new vigor. In 1492, Grenada, the last splendid stronghold of the Mohammedans in the peninsula, surrendered, and in the same year Isabella fur- nished Columbus with the ships for his voyage of dis- covery. Columbus sailed from Palos, August 3, 1492, reached the Canaries August 24, and sailed westward on September 6. Day after day, pushed by the strong winds, called the “trades,” they went forward. Many doubts and fears beset the crews, but Columbus was stout-hearted. At the end of thirty-four days from the Canaries, on October 12, they sighted land. It was one of the groups of beautiful islands lying between the two continents of America. But Columbus thought that he had reached the East Indies that really lay many thousands of miles farther west. Colum- bus sailed among the islands of the archipelago, discov- ered Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti), and then returned to convulse Europe with excitement over the new-found way‘soul] pevop SI aya Aq UMOYS uojisod oy Pret 40 «~DIdOHL HOOINd YO t N ost t re OOT Os gs OF ‘| S\NWONY — ww & D - So + <_ = > - -_- —_—_ ka a ~— —_ oS e = oe _ = S$ TR v =~ 4 ° y r | nat - > le » ab, ~ = =A > pi y wm _ —* k < = PSx8 Ss A 2 pa i Supe > ¥ \ . G ~ ‘ o S ~ — py J x mainte 4 Q “Old > Estill ~ Ay = ~a> On oy erty, Qe . , a PAN 70 & SPAN E w ey 4a ~ aS’ SD) Ooo ~ ™ ilies ie) — = + z a z o m 4 T 2 } "O° } m= am 7 o> 1 | m = ° | E > = * z z > | Am DO > en } D x > } < = =| : — qn 4 = me Ee OG off & @ ms & Vo t. - —Z4——a urs =~ unje4 |puv 4 o Ott OOT SH3LSWON1Y 4O 39V08 OOT HHG NI . w S3IIW 40 370V08 00% SUNIddITIHd Oct rf HAOOSIG HSINVdS ATHVA x 006 Ha x § 03154 THE PHILIPPINES prau, with its light outrigger, and pointed sail. So numerous were these craft that they named the group Las Islas de las Velas (the Islands of Sails): but the loss of a ship’s boat and other annoying thefts led the sailors to designate the islands Los Ladrones (the Thieves), a name which they still retain. The Philippine Islands.— Samar. — Leaving the La- drones Magellan sailed on westward looking for the Moluc- cas, and the first land that he sighted was the eastern coast of Samar. Pigatetta says: ‘‘ Saturday, the 16th of March, we sighted an island which has very lofty moun- tains. Soon after we learned that it was Zamal, distant three hundred leagues from the islands of the Ladrones.”’ ! Homonhon.— On the following day the sea-worn ex- pedition landed on a little uninhabited island south of Samar which Pigafetta called Humunu, and which is still known as Homonhon. It was while staying at this little island that the Span- lards first saw the natives of the Philippines. A prau which contained nine men approached their ship. They saw other boats fishing near and learned that all of these people came from the island of Suluan, which lies off to the eastward of Homonhon about twenty kilometres. In their life and appearance these fishing people were much like the present Samal laut of southern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. Limasawa. — Pigafetta says that they stayed on the island of Homonhon eight days but had great difficulty in securing food. The natives brought them a few cocoa- nuts and oranges, palm wine, and a chicken or two, but this was all that could be spared, so, on the 25th, the ' Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Spanish translation by Amoretti, Madrid, 1899, page 27.THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 55 Spaniards sailed again, and near the south end of Leyte landed on the little island of Limasawa. Here there was a village, where they met two chieftains, whom Pigafetta ealls ‘kings,’ and whose names were Raja Calambu and Raja Ciagu. These two chieftains were visiting Limasawa and had their residences one at Butuan and one at Cagayan on the island of Mindanao. Some histories have stated that the Spaniards accompanied one of these chieftains to Butuan, but this does not appear to have been the case. On the island of Limasawa the natives had dogs, cats, hogs, goats, and fowls. They were cultivating rice, maize, breadfruit, and had also cocoanuts, oranges, bananas, citron, and ginger. Pigafetta tells how he visited one of the chieftains at his home on the shore. The house was built as Filipino houses are today, raised on posts and thatched. Pigafetta thought it looked “ like a haystack.” It had been the day of Saint Lazarus when the Spaniards first reached these islands, so that Magellan gave to the eroup the name of the Archipelago of Saint Lazarus, the name under which the Philippines were frequently described in the early writings, although another title, Islas del Poniente or Islands of the West, was more common up to the time when the title Filipinas became fixed. Cebu. —Magellan’s people were now getting desper- ately in need of food, and the population on Limasawa had very inadequate supplies; consequently the natives directed him to the island of Cebu, and provided him with guides. Leaving Limasawa the fleet sailed for Cebu, passing several large islands, among them Bohol, and reaching Cebu harbor on Sunday, the 7th of April. A junk from Siam was anchored at Cebu when Magellan’s ships arrived56 THE PHILIPPINES. there: and this, together with the knowledge that the Filipinos showed of the surrounding countries, including China on the one side and the Moluccas on the other, is additional evidence of the extensive trade relations at the time of the discovery. Cebu seems to have been a large town and it is reported that more than two thousand warriors with their lances appeared to resist the landing of the Spaniards, but assur- ances of friendliness finally won the lilipinos, and Magellan formed a compact with the dato of Cebu, whose name was Humabon. The Blood Compact. — The dato invited Magellan to seal this compact in accordance with a curious custom of the Filipinos. Each chief wounded himself in the breast and from the wound each sucked and drank the other’s blood. It is not certain whether Magellan participated in this “blood compact,” as it has been called; but later it was observed many times in the Spanish settlement of the islands, especially by Legazpi. The natives were much struck by the service of the mass, which the Spaniards celebrated on their landing, and after some encouragement desired to be admitted to the Spaniards’ religion. More than eight hundred were baptized, including Humabon. The Spaniards established a kind of ‘factory’ or trading-post on Cebu, and for some time a profitable trade was engaged in. The Filipinos well understood trading, had scales, weights, and measures, and were fair dealers. Death of Magellan.— And now follows the great trag- edy of the expedition. The dato of Cebu, or the “Chris- tian king,” as Pigafetta called their new ally, was at war with the islanders of Mactan. Magellan, eager to assist one who had adopted the Christian faith, landed on Mac-THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. ol tan with fifty men and in the battle that ensued was killed by a wound in the arm and spear-thrusts through the breast. So died the one who was perhaps the greatest explorer and most daring adventurer of alltime. sabhusse says Pigafetta, “‘ perished our cuide, our light, and our support.” It was the crowning disaster of the expedi- tion. The Fleet Visits Other Islands. — After Magellan’s death, the natives of Cebu rose and killed the newly —————————— Magellan Monument, Manila. elected leader, Serrano, and the fleet in fear lifted its an- chors and sailed southward from the Bisayas. They had lost thirty-five men and their numbers were reduced to one hundred and fifteen. One of the ships was burned, there being too few men surviving to handle three vessels. After touching at western Mindanao, they sailed west- ward, and saw the small group of Cagayan Sulu. The58 THE PHILIPPINES. few inhabitants they learned were Moros, exiled from Borneo. They landed on an island called Pulaoan (hence Palawan), where they observed the sport of cock-fighting, indulged in by the natives. From here, still searching for the Moluccas, they were guided to Borneo, the present city of Brunei. Here was a powerful Mohammedan colony, whose adventurers were already in communication with Luzon and had es- tablished a colony on the site of Manila. The city was divided into two sections, that of the Mohammedan Ma- lays, the conquerors, and that of the Dyaks, the primi- tive population of the island. Pigafetta exclaims over the riches and power of this Mohammedan city. It contained twenty-five thousand families, the houses built for most part on piles over the water. The king’s house was of stone, and beside it was a large brick fort, with over sixty brass and iron cannon. Here the Spaniards rode upon elephants. There was a rich trade here in ginger, camphor, gums, and in pearls from Sulu. Hostilities cut short their stay here and they sailed eastward along the north coast of Borneo through the Sulu Archipelago, where their cupidity was excited by the pearl fisheries, and on to Mindanao. Here they , who piloted them south to the Mo- luceas, and finally, on November 8, they anchored at Tidor. These Molucea islands, at this time, were at the took some prisoners height of the Malayan power. The ruler or raja of Tidor was Almanzar, of Ternate, Corala; the “king” of Gilolo was Yusef. With all these rulers the Spaniards exchanged presents, and the rajas are said by the Spaniards to have sworn perpetual amnesty to the Spaniards and ac- knowledged themselves vassals of the king. In ex- change for cloths, the Spaniards laid in a rich cargo ofTHE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 59 cloves, sandalwood, ginger, cinnamon, and gold. They established here a trading-post and hoped to hold these islands against the Portuguese. The Return to Spain. It was decided to send one ship, the “ Victoria,’ to Spain by way of the Portuguese route and the Cape of Good Hope, while the other would return to America. Accordingly the “Victoria,” with a little crew of sixty men, thirteen of them natives, under the command of Juan Sebastian Eleano, set sail. The passage was unknown to the Spaniards and full of perils. They sailed to Timor and thence out into the Indian Ocean. They rounded Africa, sailing as far south as 42 degrees. Then they went northward, m constant peril of capture by some Portuguese fleet, encountering storms and suffering scarcity of food. Their distress must have been extreme, for on this final passage twenty-one of their small number died. At Cape Verde Islands they entered the port for sup- plies, trusting that at so northern a point their real voy- age would not be suspected. But some one of the party, who went ashore for food, in an hour of intoxication boasted of the wonderful journey they had performed and showed some of the products of the Spice Islands. Immediately the Portuguese governor gave orders for the seizure of the Spanish vessel and Hleano, learning of his danger, left his men who had gone on shore, raised sail, and put out for Spain. On the 6th of September, 1522, they arrived at San- licar, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, on which ‘s situated Seville, one ship out of the five, and eighteen men out of the company of 234 who had set sail almost three full vears before. Spain welcomed her worn and tired seamen with splendid acclaim. To Eleano was ea Sa ee60 THE PHILIPPINES. given a title of nobility and the famous coat-of-arms, showing the sprays of clove, cinnamon, and nutmeg, and the effigy of the globe with the motto, the proudest and worthiest ever displayed on any adventurer’s shield, Primus circumdedistt me. The First Circumnavigation of the Earth.—Thus with enormous suffering and loss of life was accomplished the first cireumnavigation of the earth. It proved that Asia could be reached, although by a long and circuitous route, by sailing westward from Europe. It made known to Europe that the greatest of all oceans lies between the New World and Asia, and it showed that the earth is in- comparably larger than had been believed and supposed. It was the greatest voyage of discovery that has ever been accomplished, and greater than can ever be per- formed again. New Lands Divided between Spain and Portugal. — By this discovery of the Philippines and a new way to the Spice Islands, Spain became engaged in a long dispute with Portugal. At the beginning of the modern age, there was in Europe no system of rules by which to regulate conduct between states. That system of regulations and customs which we call International Law, and by which states at the present time are guided in their dealings, had not arisen. During the middle age, disputes between sovereigns were frequently settled by reference to the em- peror or to the pope, and the latter had frequently asserted his right to determine all such questions as might arise. The pope had also claimed to have the right of disposing of all heathen and newly discovered lands and peoples. So, after the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus, on request of the Court of Spain, Pope Alexander VI. divided the new lands between them. He declared thataA. a 33 eae NE Ene So © S ce @ (me Tool T HR AT. = na eS Apppoxfnate’ position of & : mreridtie mn aoe from. 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J 4y | S c S €: ty \}} He ¥ / : graves, GW pa | aas Nad} 9H tt 3 S + ‘ Paes s a) 4 i / be ee ia Cee S ot Ee = o"- > o S > ; o e oN pt ea Peewee OQ; 6 cg “6 2 st” ay &o§ - 2g Ses ¢ =| 2° > 5 > : ae & S Q & a a OS) as: 8 dt x hy : S & ~ “ S = 2 2 2 += i , c S ° Ka ~ Cc tit : wo lll ~ I 1 ~} i a I Pies ~ U } tes <= | ty, =| f & a 4 4 “oy > i — \ ~ > £ [Ss = ] ~~ = 1 4, fon = 12 * oi ic De 14 6 Si i ‘ YS = aed | > ama hb p _ he © = oe ez mn v ” or ent Sie Ps _ — BE Approximate e. pesition of ~ meridian+80 Eas! rst from Liné of Der marc, ation - = cK | . . Ze f po ‘ > oD f G =p P g 4: > ~ ao} P| eb < Zz ¥ i “kB | Te RUN Te C o2 & LV een 38 | : = 7s ee a GEER eT Oe S © = = oS62 THE PHILIPPINES. all newly discovered countries to the west of a meridian 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands should be Spanish possessions. A year later Spain agreed with Portugal to shift this line to the meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands. This division, carried on the same meridian around the globe, resulted in giving India and Malaysia to Portugal and all the New World, except Brazil, to Spain. As a matter of fact, 180 degrees west of the meridian finally agreed upon extended to the western part of New Guinea, and not quite to the Moluccas; but in the absence of exact geographical knowledge both parties claimed the Spice Islands. Portugal denied to Spain all right to the Philippines as well, and, as we shall see, a conflict in the Far East began, which lasted nearly through the century. Portugal captured the traders whom Elcano had left at Tidor, and broke up the Spanish station in the Spice Islands. The “ Trinidad,’ the other ship, which was intended to return to America, was unable to sail against the strong winds, and had to put back to Tidor, after cruising through the waters about New Guinea. Effect of the Century of Discoveries. — This circumnay- igation of the globe completed a period of discovery, which had begun a hundred years before with the timid, slow attempts of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa. In these years a new era had opened. At its beginning the Europea knew little of any peoples outside of his own countries, and he held scarcely any land outside the continent of Europe. At the end of a hundred years the arth had become fairly well known, the African race, the Malay peoples, the American Indians, and the Pacific islanders had been seen and deseribed, and from now on the history of the white race was to be connectedTHE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 65 with that of these other races. The age of colonization, of world-wide trade and intercourse, had begun. The white man, who had heretofore been narrowly pressed in upon Europe, threatened again and again with conquest by the Mohammedan, was now to cover the seas with his fleets and all lands with his power.CHAPTER IV. THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF THE SPANIARDS. Position of Tribes. — On the arrival of the Spaniards, the population of the Philippines seems to have been dis- tributed by tribes in much the same manner as at present. Then, as now, the Bisayas occupied the central islands of the Archipelago and some of the northern coast of Mindanao. The Bikols, Tagdlogs, and Pampangos were in the same parts of Luzon as we find them to-day. The Ilokanos occupied the coastal plain facing the China Sea, but since the arrival of the Spaniards they have expanded considerably and their settlements are now numerous in Pangasinan, Nueva Vizcaya, and the valley of the Cagayan. The Number of People. — These tribes, which to-day number nearly 7,000,000 souls, at the time of Magellan’s discovery may not have been more than 500,000. An early enumeration of the population made by the Spaniards in 1591, which included practically all of these tribes, gave a population of less than 700,000. (See Chapter VII., The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago.) There are other facts too that show us how sparse the population must have been. The Spanish expeditions found many coasts and islands in the Bisayan group without inhabitants. Occasionally a sail or a canoe would be seen, and then these would disappear in some small “estero”’ or mangrove swamp and the land seem as unpopulated as before. At certain points, like Lina- sawa, Butuan, and Bohol, the natives were more numer- ous, and Cebu was a large and thriving community; but 64THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 65 the Spaniards had nearly everywhere to search for settled places and cultivated lands. The sparseness of population is also well indicated by the great scarcity of food. The Spaniards had much difficulty in securing sufficient provisions. A small amount of rice, a pig and a few chickens, were obtainable here and there, but the Filipinos had no large supplies. After the settlement of Manila was made, a large part of the food of the city was drawn from China. The very ease with which the Spaniards marched where they willed and reduced the Filipinos to obedience shows that the latter were weak in numbers. Laguna de Bay and the Camarines were among the most populous portions of the archipel- ago. All of these things and others show that the Fili- pinos were but a small fraction of their present number. On the other hand, the Negritos seem to have been more numerous, or at least more in evidence. They were im- mediately noticed on the island of Negros, where at the present they are few and confined to the interior; and in the vicinity of Manila and in Batangas, where they are no longer found, they were mingling with the Tagalog popu- lation. Conditions of Culture. —The culture of the various tribes, which is now quite the same throughout the archi- pelago, presented some differences. In the southern Bi- sayas, where the Spaniards first entered the archipelago, there seem to have been two kinds of natives: the hill dwellers, who lived in the ‘interior of the islands in small numbers, who wore garments of tree bark and who some- times built their houses in the trees; and the sea dwellers, who were very much like the present day Moro tribes south of Mindanao, who are known as the Samal, and who built tReir villages over the sea or on the shore and66 THE PHILIPPINES. lived much in boats. These were probably later arrivals than the forest people. From both of these elements the Bisaya Filipinos are descended, but while the coast people have been entirely absorbed, some of the hill-folk are still pagan and uncivilized, and must be very much as they were when the Spaniards first came. The highest grade of culture was in the settlements where there was regular trade with Borneo, Siam, and China, and especially about Manila, where many Moham- medan Malays had colonized. Languages of the Peoples. — Including the present speech of Negritos, all the languages of the Philippines belong to one great family, which has been called the “ Malayo- Polynesian.” All are believed to be derived from one very ancient mother-tongue. It is astonishing how widely these Malayo-Polynesian tongues have spread. Farthest east in the Pacific are the Polynesian languages, then those of the small islands known as Micronesia; then, excepting the Melanesian, the Malayan throughout the East Indian archipelago, and to the north the languages of the Philippines. But this is not all; for far westward on the coast of Africa is the island of Madagascar, many of whose languages have no connection with the African but belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family.! The Tagalog Language. —It should be a matter of real interest to Filipinos that the great scientist, Baron 1 The discovery of this famous relationship is attributed to the Spanish Jesuit, Abbé Lorenzo Hervas, whose notable Catdlogo de las Lenquas de las Naciones conocidas was published in 1800-05; but the similarity of Malay and Polynesian had been earlier shown by nat- uralists who accompanied the second voyage of the famous English- man, Captain Cook (1772-75). The full proof, and the relation also of Malagasy, the language of Madagascar, was given in 1838 by the great German philologist, Baron William von Humboldt. e iTHE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 6 “I William von Humboldt, considered the Tagdlog to be the richest and most perfect of all the languages of the Malayo- Polynesian family, and perhaps the type of them all. “It possesses,’ he said, “all the forms collectively of which particular ones are found singly in other dialects; and it has preserved them all with very trifling exceptions un- broken, and in entire harmony and symmetry.” The Spanish friars, on their arrival in the Philippines, devoted themselves at once to learning the native dialects and to the preparation of prayers and catechisms in these native tongues. They were very successful in their studies. Father Chirino tells us of one Jesuit who learned sufficient Tagdlog in seventy days to preach and hear confession. In this way the Bisayan, the Tagdlog, and the Iokano were soon mastered. In the light of the opinion of Von Humboldt, it is in- teresting to find these early Spaniards pronouncing the Tagdlog the most difficult and the most admirable. “Of all of them,” says Padre Chirino, “the one which most pleased me and filled me with admiration was the Tagalog. Because, as I said to the first archbishop, and afterwards to other serious persons, both there and here, I found in it four qualities of the four best languages of the world: Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish; of the Hebrew, the mysteries and obscurities; of the Greek, the articles and the precision not only of the appellative but also of the proper nouns; of the Latin, the wealth and elegance; and of the Spanish, the good breeding, politeness, and cour- tesy.”’ * | An Early Connection with the Hindws. — The Ma- iayan languages contain a considerable proportion of words borrowed from the Sanskrit, and in this the Tagalog, ' Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 52.68 THE PHILIPPINES. Bisayan, and Ilokano are included. Whether these words were passed along from one Malayan group to another, or whether they were introduced by the actual presence and power of the Hindu in this archipelago, may be fair ground for debate; but the case for the latter position has been so well and brilliantly put by Dr. Pardo de Tavera that his conclusions are here given in his own words. “The words which Tagalog borrowed,” he says, “ are those which signify intellectual acts, moral conceptions, emotions, su- perstitions, names of deities, of planets, of numerals of high number, of botany, of war and its results and conse- quences, and finally of titles and dignities, some animals, instruments of industry, and the names of money.” From the evidence of these words, Dr. Pardo argues for a period in the early history of the Filipinos, not merely of commercial intercourse, like that of the Chinese, but of Hindu political and social domination. “I do not be- lieve,’ he says, “and I base my opinion on the same words that I have brought together in this vocabulary, that the Hindus were here simply as merchants, but that they dominated different parts of the archipelago, where to-day are spoken the most cultured languages, — the Tagidlo, the Visayan, the Pampanga, and the Ilocano; and that the higher culture of these languages comes precisely from the influence of the Hindu race over the Filipino.” The Hindus in the Philippines.—“‘ It 1s impossible to believe that the Hindus, if they came only as merchants, however great their number, would have impressed them- selves in such a way as to give to these islanders the num- ber and the kind of words which they did give. These names of dignitaries, of caciques, of high functionaries of the court, of noble ladies, indicate that all of these high positions with names of Sanskrit origin were occupied at——$—$—$——— nen THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 69 one time by men who spoke that language. The words of a similar origin for objects of war, fortresses, and battle- songs, for designating objects of religious belief, for su- perstitions, emotions, feelings, industrial and farming activities, show us clearly that the warfare, religion, literature, industry, and agriculture were at one time in the hands of the Hindus, and that this race was effec- tively dominant in the Philippines.” ° Systems of Writing among the Filipinos. — When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, the Filipmos were using systems of writing borrowed from Hindu or Javanese sources. This matter is so interesting that one can not do better than to quote in full Padre Chirino’s account, as he is the first of the Spanish writers to mention it and as his notice is quite complete. “So given are these islanders to reading and writing that there is hardly a man, and much less a woman, that does not read and write in letters peculiar to the island of Manila, very different from those of China, Japan, and of India. as will be seen from the following alphabet. “The vowels are three; but they serve for five, and are, Nw UW Ves oo ml nl pl Sl ti yl me ne pe se te ye Placing the point below, it sounds with o or with wu. ® LL Ure "y A eee el) Ly ? bo co do 20 ho lo bu cu du cu hu lu 7 AY Nee ee: ? 9 2 9 9 mo no po SO to yo mu nu pu su tu yu For instance, in order to say ‘cama,’ the two letters alone suffice.THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. T1 me Cad = Tha ifetosthe 22 there is placed a point above, it will say ye GS que - ma If it is given to both below, it will say 9 9 co 7 mo The final consonants are supplied or understood in all cases, and so to say ‘cantar,’ they write Ti Ne ca - ta barba, GW GG: ba = ba But with all, and that without many evasions, they make themselves understood, and they themselves understand marvellously. And the reader supplies, with much skill and ease, the consonants that are lacking. They have learned from us to write running the lines from the left hand to the right, but formerly they only wrote from above downwards, placing the first line (if I remember rightly) at the left hand. and continuing with the others to the right, the opposite of the Chinese and Japanese. They write upon canes or on leaves of a palm, using for a pen a point of iron. Nowadays in writing not only J72 THE PHILIPPINES. their own but also our letters, they use a quill very well eut, and paper like ourselves. They have learned our language and pronunciation, and write as well as we do, and even better; for they are so bright that they learn everything with the greatest ease. . have brought with me handwriting with very good and correct lettering. In Tigbauan, I had in school a very small child, who in three months’ time learned, by copy- ing from well-written letters that I set him, to write enough better than I, and transcribed for me writings of importance very faithfully, and without errors or mis- takes. But enough of languages and letters; now let us return to our occupation with human souls.” * Sanskrit Source of the Filipino Alphabet.— Besides the Tagdlogs, the Bisayas, Pampangos, Pangasinans, and Ilokanos had alphabets, or more properly syllabaries sim- ilar to this one. Dr. Pardo de Tavera has gathered many data concerning them, and shows that they were un-: doubtedly received by the Filipinos from a Hindu source. Early Filipino Writings. —The Filipinos used _ this writing for setting down their poems and songs, which were their only literature. Little of this, however, has come down to us, and the Filipinos soon adopted the Spanish alphabet, forming the syllables necessary to write their language from these letters. As all these have pho- netic values, it is still very easy for a Filipino to learn to pronounce and so read his own tongue. These old char- acters lingered for a couple of centuries, in certain places. Padre Totanes2 tells us that it was rare in 1705 to find a person who could use them ; but the Tagbanwas, of Palawan 1 Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., pp. 58, 59, chap. XVII. 2 Arte de la Lengua Tagala.THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1671. 73 and the Mangyan of Mindoro use similar syllabaries to this day. Besides poems, they had songs which they sang as they rowed their canoes, as they pounded the rice from its husk, and as they gathered for feast or entertainment ; and especially there were songs for the dead. In these songs, says Chirino, they recounted the deeds of their ancestors or of their deities. Chinese in the Philippines.— Early Trade.— Very dil- ferent from the Hindu was the early influence of the Chi- nese. ‘There is no evidence that, previous to the Spanish conquest, the Chinese settled or colonized in these islands at all: and yet three hundred years before the arrival of Magellan their trading-fleets were coming here regularly and several of the islands were well known to them. One evidence of this prehistorie trade is in the ancient Chinese jars and pottery which have been exhumed in the vicinity of Manila, but the Chinese writings themselves furnish us even better proof. About the beginning of the thirteenth century, though not earlier than 1205, a Chinese author named Chao Ju-kua wrote a work upon the maritime com- merce of the Chinese people. One chapter of his work is devoted to the Philippines, which he calls the country of Mayi.’ According to this record it is indicated that the Chinese were familiar with the islands of the archi- pelago seven hundred years ago.” 1 This name is derived, in the opinion of Professor Blumentritt, from Bavi, or Bay, meaning Lazuna de Bay. Professor Meyer, in his Distribution of the Negritos, suggests an identification from this Chinese record, of the islands of Mindanao, Palawan (called Pa-lao-yu) and Panay, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Luzon. 2 Through the courtesy of Professor Zulueta, of the Manila Liceo, permission was given to use from Chao Ju-kua’s work these quota- tions, translated from the Chinese manuscript by Professor Blumentritt. The English translation is by Mr. P. L. Stangl.74 THE PHILIPPINES. Chinese Description of the People. — “The country of Mayi,”’ says this interesting classic, “is situated to the north of Poni (Burney, or Borneo). About a thousand families inhabit the banks of a very winding stream. The natives clothe themselves in sheets of cloth resembling bed sheets, or cover their bodies with sarongs. (The sarong is the gay colored, typical garment of the Malay.) Scattered through the extensive forests are copper Buddha images, but no one knows how they got there.’ “When the mer- chant (Chinese) S . hips arrive at this port they an- chor in front of an open place. . which serves as a Moro Brass Betel Box. market, where they trade in the produce of the country. When a ship enters this port, the captain makes presents of white umbrellas (to the mandarins). The merchants are obliged to pay this tribute in order to obtain the good will of these lords.” The products of the country are stated to be yellow wax, cotton, pearls, shells, betel nuts, and jute cloth, which was perhaps one of the several cloths still woven of abacd, or pia. The articles imported by the Chinese were “porcelain, trade gold, objects of lead, glass beads of all colors, iron cooking-pans, and iron needles.” The Negritos. — Very curious is the accurate mention in this Chinese writing, of the Negritos, the first of all * “This would confirm,’’ says Professor Blumentritt, ‘ Dr. Pardo de Tavera’s view that in ancient times the Philippines were under the influence of Buddhism from India.’’—~] THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. accounts to be made of the little blacks. “In the in- terior of the valleys lives a race called Hai-tan (Aeta). They are of low stature, have round eyes of a yellow color, curly hair, and their teeth are easily seen between their lips. (That is, probably, not darkened by betel-chewing or artificial stains.) They build their nests in the treetops and in each nest lives a family, which only consists of from three to five persons. They travel about in the densest thickets of the forests, and, without being seen themselves, shoot their arrows at the passers-by; for this reason they are much feared. If the trader (Chinese) throws them a small porcelain bowl, they will stoop down to catch it and then run away with it, shouting joyfully.” Increase in Chinese Trade. —These junks also visited the more central islands, but here traffic was conducted on the ships, the Chinese on arrival announcing them- selves by beating gongs and the Filipinos coming out to them in their light boats. Among other things here offered by the natives for trade are mentioned “strange cloth,” perhaps sinamay or jusi, and fine mats. This Chinese trade continued probably quite steadily until the arrival of the Spaniards. Then 11 received an enormous increase through the demand for Chinese food- products and wares made by the Spaniards, and because of the value of the Mexican silver which the Spaniards offered in exchange. Trade with the Moro Malays of the South. — The spread of Mohammedanism and especially the foundation of the colony of Borneo brought the Philippines into important commercial relations with the Malays of the south. Pre- vious to the arrival of the Spaniards these relations seem. to have been friendly and peaceful. The Mohammedan76 THE PHILIPPINES. Malays sent their praus northward for purposes of trade, and they were also settling in the north Philippines as they had in Mindanao. When Legazpi’s fleet, soon after its arrival, lay near the island of Bohol, Captain Martin de Goiti had a hard fight with a Moro vessel which was cruising for trade, and took six prisoners. One of them, whom they call the “ pilot,” was closely interrogated by the commander and some interesting information obtained, which is recorded by Padre San Augustin. Legazpi had a Malay slave inter- preter with him and San Augustin says that Padre Urdan- eta “knew well the Malayan language.” The pilot said that ‘those of Borneo brought for trade with the Fili- , copper and tin, which was brought to Borneo from China, porcelain, dishes, and bells made in their fashion, very different from those that the Christians use, and benzoin, and colored blankets from India, and cooking- pans made in China, and that they also brought iron lances very well tempered, and knives and other articles of barter, and that in exchange for them they took away from the islands gold, slaves, wax, and a kind of small seashell which they call ‘ sijueyes,’ and which passes for money in the kingdom of Siam and other places; and also they carry off some white cloths, of which there is a great plnos. quantity in the islands.” ’ Butuan, on the north coast of Mindanao, seems to have been quite a trading-place resorted to by vessels from all quarters. This region, like many other parts of the Philippines, has produced from time immemorial small quantities of gold, and all the early voyagers speak of the gold earrings and ornaments of the natives. Butuan also produced sugarcane and was a_ trading-port for 1 Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, p. 95.THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. -I -1 slaves. This unfortunate traffic in human life seems to have been not unusual, and was doubtless stimulated by the commerce with Borneo. Junks from Siam trading with Cebu were also encountered by the Spaniards. Result of this Intercourse and Commerce. — ‘This inter- course and traffic had acquainted the Filipinos with many of the accessories of civilized life long before the arrival of the Spaniards. Their chiefs and datos dressed in silks, and maintained some splendor of surroundings; nearly the whole population of the tribes of the coast wrote and Moro Brass Cannon, or ‘‘Lantaka.’’ communicated by means of a syllabary; vessels from Lu- zon traded as far south as Mindanao and Borneo, al- though the products of Asia proper came through the fleets of foreigners; and perhaps what indicates more clearly than anything else the advance the Filipinos were making through their communication with outside people is their use of firearms. Of this point there is no ques- tion. Everywhere in the vicinity of Manila, on Lubang, in Pampanga, at Cainta and Laguna de Bay, the Span- ‘ards encountered forts mounting small cannon, or ~ lan- takas.””1 The Filipinos seem to have understood, more- 1 Relacién de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzén, 1572; in Retana, Archivo del Biblidfilo Filipino, vol. I.78 THE PHILIPPINES. over, the arts of casting cannon and of making powder. The first gun-factory established by the Spaniards was in charge of a Filipino from Pampanga. Early Political and Social Life. — The Barangay. — The weakest side of the culture of the early Filipimos was their political and social organization, and they were weak here in precisely the same way that the now uncivilized peoples of northern Luzon are still weak. Their state did not embrace the whole tribe or nation; it included simply the community. Outside of the settlers in one immedi- ate vicinity, all others were enemies or at most foreigners. There were in the Philippines no large states, nor even ereat rajas and sultans such as were found in the Malay Archipelago, but instead on every island were a multitude of small communities, each independent of the other and frequently waging war. The unit of their political order was a little cluster of houses of from thirty to one hundred families, called a “barangay,” which still exists in the Philippines as the “barrio.” At the head of each barangay was a chief known as the “dato,” a word no longer used in the northern Philippines, though it persists among the Moros of Mindanao. The powers of these datos within their small areas appear to have been great, and they were treated with utmost respect by the people. The barangays were grouped together in tiny federa- tions including about as much territory as the present towns, whose affairs were conducted by the chiefs or datos, although sometimes they seem to have all been in obedience to a single chief, known in some places as the “hari,” at other times by the Hindu word “raja,” or the Mohammedan term “sultan.’’ Sometimes the power of one of these rajas seems to have extended over theTHE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 79 whole of a small island, but usually their “kingdoms” embraced only a few miles. Changes Made by the Spaniards. — The Spaniards, in enforcing their authority through the islands, took away the real power from the datos, grouping the baran- gays into towns, or “ pueblos,” and making the datos, headmen, caciques or principales. Something of the old distinction between the dato, or “ principal,’’ and the ce common man may be still represented in the “ gente ilustrada,”’ or the more wealthy, educated, and influential class found in each town, and the ‘“ gente baja,’ or the poor and uneducated. Classes of Filipinos wnder the Datos. — Beneath the datos, according to Chirino and Morga, there were three classes of Filipinos. First were the free © maharlhka,’’ who paid no tribute to the dato, but who accompanied him to war, rowed his boat when he went on a journey, and attended him in his house. This class 1s called by Morga SavIMAIAS. Then there was a very large class, who appear to have been freedmen or liberated slaves, who had acquired their own homes and lived with their families, but who owed to dato or maharlika heavy debts of service; to sow and harvest in his ricefields, to tend his fish-traps, to row his canoe, to build his house, to attend him when he had guests, and to perform any other duties that the chief might command. These semi-free were called “aliping namamahay,” and their condition of bondage descended to their children. Beneath these existed a class of slaves. These were the “siguiguiliris,’ and they were numerous. Their slavery 1 Sucésos de las Filipinas, p. 297.80 THE PHILIPPINES. arose in several ways. Some were those who as children had been captured in war and their lives spared. Some became slaves by selling their freedom in times of hunger. But most of them became slaves through debt, which de- scended from father to son. A debt of five or six pesos was enough in some cases to deprive a man of his freedom. These slaves were absolutely owned by their lord, who could theoretically sell them like cattle; but, in spite of its bad possibilities, this Filipino slavery was apparently not of a cruel or distressing nature. The slaves frequently associated on kindly relations with their masters and were not overworked. This form of slavery still persists in the Philippines among the Moros of Mindanao and Jolo. Chil- dren of slaves inherited their parents’ slavery. If one parent was free and the other slave, the first, third, and ffth children were free and the second, fourth, and sixth slaves. This whole matter of inheritance of slavery was curiously worked out in details. Life in the Barangay.— Community feeling was very strong within the barangay. A man could not leave his own barangay for life in another without the consent of the community and the payment of money. If a man of one barrio married a woman of another, their children were divided between the two barangays. The barangay was responsible for the good conduct of its members, and if one of them suffered an injury from a man outside, the whole barangay had to be appeased. Disputes and wrongs between members of the same barangay were referred to a number of old men, who decided the matter in accord- ance with the customs of the tribe, which were handed down by tradition.’ ! These data are largely taken from the account of the customs of the Tagdlog prepared by Friar Juan de Plasencia, in 1589, at thea 7 = ee 5 : -—— THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 81 The Religion of the Filipinos. — The Filipinos on the arrival of the Spaniards were fetish-worshipers, but they had one spirit whom they believed was the greatest of all and the creator or maker of things. The Tagdlogs called this deity Bathala,* the Bisayas, Laon, and the Llokanos, Kabunian. They also worshiped the spirits of their an- cestors, which were represented by small images called “snitos.” Fetishes, which are any objects believed to possess miraculous power, were common among the people, and idols or images were worshiped. Pigafetta describes some idols which he saw in Cebu, and Chirino tells us that, within the memory of Filipinos whom he knew, they had idols of stone, wood, bone, or the tooth of a crocodile, and that there were some of gold. They also reverenced animals and birds, especially the crocodile, the crow, and a mythical bird of blue or yellow color, whch was called by the name of their deity Bathala.’ They had no temples or publie places of worship, but each one had his anitos in his own house and performed his sacrifices and acts of worship there. As _ sacrifices they killed pigs or chickens, and made such occasions times of feasting, song, and drunkenness. The life of the request of Dr. Santiago de Vera, the governor and president of the Audiencia. Although there are references to it by the early his- torians of the Philippines, this little code did not see the light until a few years ago, when a manuscript copy was discovered in the con- vent of the Franciscans at Manila, by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and was It treats of slave-holding, penalties for crime, by him published. (Las Costumbres de los inheritances, adoption, dowry, and marriage. Tagtlog en Filipinas, segun el Padre Plasencia, by T. H. Pardo de Tavera. Madrid, 1892.) 1 Qoe on this matter Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas, by Blu- mentritt; Retana, Archivo del Biblisfilo Filipino, vol. II. 2 This word is of Sanskrit origin and is common throughout Malay- sla.82 THE PHILIPPINES. Filipino was undoubtedly filled with superstitious fears and imaginings. The Mohammedan Malays. —The Mohammedans out- side of southern Mindanao and Jolo, had settled im the vicinity of Manila Bay and on Mindoro, Lubang, and adjacent coasts of Luzon. The spread of Mohammedan- ism was stopped by the Spaniards, although it is nar- rated that for a long time many of those living on the shores of Manila Bay refused to eat pork, which 1s for- bidden by the Koran, and practiced the rite of circum- cision. As late as 1583, Bishop Salazar, in writing to the king of affairs in the Philippines, says the Moros had preached the law of Mohammed to great numbers in these islands and by this preaching many of the Gentiles had become Mohammedans; and further he adds, “Those who have received this foul law guard it with much persistence and there is great difficulty in making them abandon it: and with cause too, for the reasons they give, to our shame and confusion, are that they were better treated by the preachers of Mohammed than they have been by the preachers of Christ.” * en Progress of the Filipinos. —'The mate rial sur- roundings of the Filipino before the arrival of the Span- ‘ards were in nearly every way quite as they are to-day. The “center of population” of each town to-day, with its ereat church, tribunal, stores and houses of stone and wood, is certainly in marked contrast; but the appear- ance of a barrio a little distance from the center is to-day probably much as it was then. Then, as now, the bulk of the people lived in humble houses of bam- 1 Relacién de las Cosas de las Filipinas hecha por Sr. Domingo de Salazar, Primer obispo de dichas islas, 1583; in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 83 boo and nipa raised on piles above the dampness of the soil; then, as now, the food was largely rice and the excellent fish which abound in river and sea. There were on the water the same familiar bancas and fish corrals, and on land the rice fields and cocoanut groves. The Fili- pinos had then most of the present domesticated animals, — dogs, cats, goats, chickens, and pigs, —and perhaps in Luzon the domesticated buffalo, although this animal was widely introduced into the Philippines from China after the Spanish conquest. Horses followed the Spaniards and their numbers were increased by the bringing in of Chinese mares, whose importation is frequently mentioned. The Spaniards introduced also the cultivation of to- baeco, coffee, and cacao, and perhaps also the native corn of America, the maize, although Pigafetta says they found it already growing in the Bisayas. The Filipino has been affected by these centuries of Spanish sovereignty far less on his material side than he has on his spiritual, and it is mainly in the deepening and elevating of his emotional and mental life and not in the bettering of his material condition that advance has been made.CHARTERS V. THE SPANISH SOLDIER AND THE SPANISH MISSIONARY. History of the Philippines as a Part of the History of the Spanish Colonies. — We have already seen how the Philippines were discovered by Magellan in his search for the Spice Islands. Brilliant and romantic as is the story of that voyage, it brought no immediate reward to Spain. Portugal remained in her enjoyment of the Eastern trade and nearly half a century elapsed before Spain obtained a settlement in these islands. But if for a time he neg- lected the Far East, the Spaniard from the Peninsula threw himself with almost incredible energy and devo- tion into the material and spiritual conquest of America. All the greatest achievements of the Spanish soldier and the Spanish missionary had been secured within fifty years from the day when Columbus sighted the West Indies. In order to understand the history of the Philippines, we must not forget that these islands formed a part of this great colonial empire and were under the same ad- ministration; that for over two centuries the Philippines were reached through Mexico and to a great extent influ- enced by Mexico; that the same governors, judges, and soldiers held office in both hemispheres, passing from America to the Philippines and being promoted from the Islands to the higher official positions of Mexico and Peru. So to understand the rule of Spain in the Philippines, we must study the great administrative machinery and the 84SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 85 ereat body of laws which were developed for the govern- ment of the Indies.’ Character of the Spanish Explorers. — The conquests themselves were largely effected through the enterprise and wealth of private individuals; but these men held commissions from the Spanish crown, their actions were subject to strict royal control, and a large proportion of the profits and plunder of their expeditions were paid to the royal treasury. Upon some of these conquerors the erown bestowed the proud title of “adelantado.” The Spanish nobility threw themselves into these hazardous undertakings with the courage and fixed determination born of their long struggle with the Moors. Out of the soul-trying circumstances of Western conquest many ob- scure men rose, through their brilliant qualities of spirit, to positions of eminence and power; but the exalted of- fices of viceroy and governor were reserved for the titled favorites of the king. The Royal Audiencia. — Very early the Spanish court, in order to protect its own authority, found it necessary to replace the ambitious and adventurous conqueror by a ruler in close relationship with and absolute dependence on the royal will. Thus in Mexico, Cortés the conqueror was removed and succeeded by the viceroy Mendoza, who established upon the conquests of the former the great Spanish colony of New Spain, to this day the most populous of all the states planted by Spain in America. To limit the power of the governor or viceroy, as well 1 Consult The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, by Professor 3ernard Moses, Philippine Commissioner and first Secretary of Publie Instruction: also ‘‘The Governor-General of the Philippines under Spain and America,” by David P. Barrows, American Historical Re- view, vol. XxX1.86 THE PHILIPPINES. as to act as a supreme court for the settlement of actions and legal questions, was created the ‘‘ Royal Audiencia.” This was a body of men of noble rank and learned in the law, sent out from Spain to form in each country a co- lonial court; but its powers were not alone judicial; they were also administrative. In the absence of the governor the audiencia assumed his duties. Treatment of the Natives by the Spanish. — In his treat- ment of the natives, whose lands he captured, the Span- ish king attempted three things, — first, to secure to the colonist and to the crown the advantages of their labor, second, to convert the Indians to the Christian religion as maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and third, to protect them from cruelty and inhumanity. Edict. after edict, law after law, issued from the Spanish throne with these ends in view. As they stand upon the greatest of colonial law-books, the Recopilacién de Leyes de las Indias, they display an admirable sensitiveness to the needs of the Indian and an appreciation of the dangers to which he was subjected; but in the actual practice these benefi- cent provisions were too often useless. The first and third of Spain’s purposes in her treatment of the native proved incompatible. History has shown that liberty and enlightenment can not be taken from a race with one hand and protection given it with the other. All classes of Spain’s colonial government were frankly in pursuit of wealth. Greed filled them all, and was the mainspring of every discovery and every settlement. The king wanted revenue for his treasury; the noble and the soldier, booty for their private purse; the friar, wealth for his order; the bishop, power for his church. All this wealth had to come out of the native toiler on the lands which the Spanish conqueror had seized; and while nobleST eer SS SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 87 motives were probably never absent and at certain times prevailed, yet in the main the native of America and of the Philippines was a sufferer under the hand and power of the Spaniard. “The Encomenderos.”? —Spain’s system of controlling the lives and the labor of the Indians was based to a cer- tain extent on the feudal system, still surviving in the Peninsula at the time of her colonial conquests. The captains and soldiers and priests of her successful con- quests had assigned to them great estates or fruitful lands with their native inhabitants, which they managed and ruled for their own profit. Such estates were called first “repartimientos.”’ But very soon it became the practice, in America, to grant large numbers of Indians to the ser- vice of a Spaniard, who had over them the power of a master and who enjoyed the profits of their labor. In return he was supposed to provide for the conversion of the Indians and their religious instruction. Such a grant of Indians was called an “enecomienda.”’ The “encomen- dero”’ was not absolute lord of the lives and properties of the Indians, for elaborate laws were framed for the latter’s protection. Yet the granting of subjects without the land on which they lived made possible their transfer and sale from one encomendero to another, and in this way thou- sands of Indians of America were made practically slaves, and were foreed into labor in the mines. As we have already seen, the whole system was attacked by the Dominican priest, Las Casas, a truly noble char- acter in the history of American colonization, and various efforts were made in America to limit the encomiendas and to prevent their introduction into Mexico and Peru; but the great power of the encomendero in America, together with the influence of the Church, which held extensive88 THE PHILIPPINES. encomiendas, had been sufficient to extend the institution, even against Las Casas’ impassioned remonstrances. Its abolition in Mexico was decreed in 1544, but ‘‘ commis- sioners representing the municipality of Mexico and the religious orders were sent to Spain to ask the king to re- voke at least those parts of the ‘New Laws’ which threatened the interests of the settlers. By a royal decree of October 20, 1545, the desired revocation was granted. This action filled the Spanish settlers with joy and the en- slaved Indians with despair.” ’ Thus was the institution early established as a part of the colonial system and came with the conquerors to the Philippines. Restrictions on Colonization and Commerce. — For the management of all colonial affairs the king created a ereat board, or bureau, known as the “Council of the In- dies,’ which sat in Madrid and whose members were among the highest officials of Spain. The Spanish government exercised the closest supervision over all colonial matters, and colonization was never free. All persons, wares, and ships, passing from Spain to any of her colonial posses- sions, were obliged to pass through Seville, and this one port alone. This wealthy ancient city, situated on the river Gua- dalquivir in southwestern Spain, was the gateway to the Spanish Empire. From this port went forth the mailed soldier, the robed friar, the adventurous noble, and the brave and highborn Spanish ladies, who accompanied their husbands to such great distances over the sea. And back to this port were brought the gold of Peru, the silver of Mexico, and the silks and embroideries of China, dis- patched through the Philippines. | Moses: Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, p. 12.SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. So It must be observed that all intercourse between Spain and her colonies was rigidly controlled by the govern- ment. Spain sought to create and maintain an exclusive monopoly of her colonial trade. To enforce and direct this monopoly, there was at Seville the Commercial House, or “Casa de Contratacion.’”’ No one could sail from Spain to a colonial possession without a permit and after government registration. No one could send out goods or import them except through the Commercial House and upon the payment of extraordinary imposts. Trade was absolutely forbidden to any except Spaniards. And by her forts and fleets Spain strove to isolate her col- onies from the approach of Portuguese, Dutch, or English, whose ships, no less daringly manned than those of Spain herself, were beginning to traverse the seas in search ot the plunder and spoils ot foreign conquest and trade. Summary of the Colonial Policy of Spain. — Spain sought foreign colonies, first, for the spoils of accumulated wealth that could be seized and carried away at once, and, secondly, for the income that could be procured through the labor of the inhabitants of the lands she gained. In framing her government and administration of her colo- nies, she sought primarily the political enlightenment and welfare neither of the Spanish colonist nor the native race, but the glory, power, and patronage of the erown. The commercial and trade regulations were devised, not to develop the resources and increase the prosperity of the colonies, but to add wealth to the Peninsula. Yet the purposes of Spain were far from being wholly selfish. With zeal and success she sought the conversion of the heathen natives, whom she subjected, and in this showed a humanitarian interest in advance of the Dutch and Eng- lish, who rivaled her in colonial empire.90 THE PHILIPPINES. The colonial ideals under which the policy of Spain was framed were those of the times. In the centuries that have succeeded, public wisdom and conscience on these matters have immeasurably improved. Nations no longer make conquests frankly to exploit them, but the public opinion of the world demands that the welfare of the co- lonial subject be sought and that he be protected from official greed. There is great advance still to be made. It can hardly be said that the world yet recognizes that a stronger people should assist a weaker without assurance of material reward, but this is the direction in which the most enlightened feeling is advancing. Every undertak- ing of the white race, which has such aims in view, Is an experiment worthy of profound interest and _solicitous sympathy. Result of the Voyage of Magellan and Elcano. — The mind of the Spanish adventurer was greatly excited by the results of Sebastian Elcano’s voyage. Here was the opportunity for rich trade and great profit. Numerous plans were laid before the king, one of them for the build- ing of an Indian trading-fleet and an annual voyage to the Moluceas to gather a great harvest of spices. Portugal protested against this move until the question of her claim to the Moluccas, under the division of Pope Alexander, could be settled. The exact longitude of Ter- nate west from the line 370 leagues beyond the Verde Islands was not well known. Spaniards argued that it was less than 180 degrees, and, therefore, in spite of Por- tugal’s earlier discovery, belonged to them. © The pilot, Medina, for example, explained to Charles V. that from the meridian 370 degrees west of San Anton (the most westerly island of the Verde group) to the city of Mexico was 59 degrees, from Mexico to Navidad, 9 degrees, andSPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 91 from this port to Cebu, 100 degrees, a total of only 168 degrees, leaving a margin of 12 degrees; therefore by the final treaty the Indies, Moluccas, Borneo, Gilolo, and the Philippines were Spain’s." A great council of em- bassadors and cosmographers was held at Badajoz in 1524, but reached no agreement. Spain announced her resolu- tion to occupy the Moluccas, and Portugal threatened with death the Spanish adventurers who should be found there. The First Expedition to the Philippines. — Spain acted immediately upon her determination, and in 1525 dis- patched an expedition under Jofre de Loaisa to reap the fruits of Magellan’s discoveries.”, The captain of one ves- sel was Sebastian Eleano, who completed the voyage of Magellan. On his ship sailed Andrés de Urdaneta, who later became an Augustinian friar and accompanied the expedition of Legazpi that finally effected the settlement of the Philippines. Not without great hardship and losses did the fleet pass the Straits of Magellan and enter the Pacific Ocean. In mid-ocean Loaisa died, and four days later the famous Sebastian Elcano. Following a route somewhat similar to that of Magellan, the fleet reached first the Ladrone Islands and later the coast of Mindanao. From here they attempted to sail to Cebu, but the strong northeast monsoon drove them southward to the Mo- luccas, and they landed on Tidor the last day of the year 1526. t Demarcacién del Maluco, hecha por el maestro Medina, in Docu- T EEO mentos inéditos, vol. V., p. 902. 2 This and subsequent voyages are given in the Documentos inéditos, vol. V., and a graphic account is in Argensola’s Conquista de las Islas Molucas. They are also well narrated in English by Burney, Dis coveries in the South Sea, vol. I., chapters V., XII., and XIV.92 THE PHILIPPINES. The Failure of the Expedition. — The Portuguese were at this moment fighting to reduce the native rajas of these islands to subjection. They regarded the Spaniards as enemies, and each party of Europeans was shortly en- gaged in fighting and in inciting the natives against the other. The condition of the Spaniards became desperate in the extreme, and indicates at what cost of life the con- quests of the sixteenth century were made. Their ships had become so battered by storm as to be no longer sea- worthy. The two officers, who had successively followed Loaisa and Eleano in command, had likewise perished. Of the 450 men who had sailed from Spain, but 120 now survived. These, under the leadership of Hernando de la Torre, threw up a fort on the island of Tidor, unable to eo farther or to retire, and awaited hoped-for succor from Spain. Relief came, not from the Peninsula, but from Mexico. Under the instructions of the Spanish king, in Octo- ber, 1527, Cortés dispatched from Mexico a small expedi- tion in charge of D. Alvaro de Saavedra. Swept rapidly by the equatorial trades, in a few months Saavedra had traversed the Carolines, reprovisioned on Mindanao, and reached the survivors on Tidor. Twice they attempted to return to New Spain, but strong trade winds blow without cessation north and south on either side of the equator for the space of more than twelve hundred miles, and the northern latitude of calms and prevailing westerly winds were not yet known. Twice Saavedra beat his way eastward among the strange islands of Papua and Melanesia, only to be at last driven back upon Tidor and there to die. The sur- vivors were forced to abandon the Moluccas. By sur- rendering to the Portuguese they were assisted to returnad SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. Je to Europe by way of Malacca, Ceylon, and Africa, and they arrived at Lisbon in 1536, the survivors of Loaisa’s expedition, having been gone from Spain eleven years. The efforts of the Spanish crown to obtain possession of the Spice Islands, the Moluccas and Celebes, with their coveted products of nutmeg, cinnamon, and pepper, were for the time suspended. By the Treaty of Zaragoza (1529) the Emperor, Charles V., for the sum of three hundred and fifty thousand gold ducats, mortgaged his claim to the Moluccas. For thirteen years the provisions of this treaty were respected by the Spaniards, and then another attempt was made to obtain a foothold in the East Indies. The Second Expedition to the Philippines. — The facts that disaster had overwhelmed so many, that two oceans must be crossed, and that no sailing-route from Asia back to America was known, did not deter the Spaniards from their perilous conquests; and in 1542 another expedition sailed from Mexico, under command of Lopez de Villa- lobos, to explore the Philippines and if possible to reach China. Across the Pacific they made a safe and pleasant voyage. In the warm waters of the Pacific they sailed among those wonderful coral atolls, rings of low shore, decked with palms, grouped in beautiful archipelagoes, whose appearance has never failed to delight the navi- eator, and whose composition is one of the most interest- ing subjects known to students of the earth’s structure and history. Some of these many islands Villalobos took pos- session of in the name of Spain. These were perhaps the Pelew Islands or the Carolines. At last Villalobos reached the east coast of Mindanao, but after some deaths and sickness they sailed again and94 THE PHILIPPINES. were carried south by the monsoon to the little island of Sarangani, south of the southern peninsula of Mindanao. The natives were hostile, but the Spaniards drove them from their stronghold and made some captures of musk. amber, oil, and gold-dust. In need of provisions, they planted the maize, or Indian corn, the wonderful cereal of America, which yields so bounteously, and so soon after planting. Food was greatly needed by the Spaniards and was very difficuit to obtain. The Naming of the Islands.— Villalobos equipped a small vessel and sent it northward to try to reach Cebu. This vessel reached the coast of Samar. Villalobos gave to the island the name of Felipina, in honor of the Spanish Infante, or heir apparent, Philip, who was soon to succeed his father Charles V. as King Philip the Second of Spain. Later in his correspondence with the Portuguese Villalobos speaks of the archipelago as Las Felipinas. Although for many years the title of the Islas del Poniente continued in use, Villalobos’ name of Filipinas gradually gained place and has lived. The End of the Expedition.— While on Sarangani demands were made by the Portuguese, who claimed that Mindanao belonged with Celebes, and that the Span- iards should leave. Driven from Mindanao by lack of food and hostility of the natives, Villalobos was blown southward by storms to Gilolo. Here, after long negotiations, the Portuguese compelled him to surrender. The survivors of the expedition dispersed, some remain- ing in the Indies, and some eventually reaching Spain; but Villalobos, overwhelmed by discouragement, died on the island of Amboyna. The priest who ministered to him in his last hours was the famous Jesuit missionary to the Indies, Saint Francis Xavier.SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 95 Twenty-three years were to elapse after the sailing of Villalobos’ fleet before another Spanish expedition should reach the Philippines. The year 1565 dates the perma- nent occupation of the archipelago by the Spanish. Increase in Political Power of the Church. — Under Philip the Second, the champion of ecclesiasticism, the Spanish crown cemented the union of the monarchy with the church and devoted the resources of the empire, not only to colonial acquisition, but to combating the Pro- testant revolution on the one hand and heathenism on the other. The Spanish king effected so close a union of the church and state in Spain, that from this time on religious issues increasingly gained in importance, and profoundly influenced the policy and fate of the nation. The policy of Philip the Second, however, brought upon Spain the revolt of the Dutch Lowlands and the wars with England, and her struggle with these two nations drained her resources both on land and sea, and occa- sioned a physical and moral decline. But while Spain was constantly losing power and prestige in Europe, the king was extending his colonial domain, lending royal aid to the ambitious adventurer and to the ardent mis- sionary friar. Spain’s object being to christianize as well as to conquer, the missionary became a very important ficure in the history of every colonial enterprise, and these great orders to whom missions were intrusted thus became the central institutions in the history of the Philippines. The Rise of Monasticism. — Monasticism was introduced into Europe from the East at the very commencement of the Middle Ages. The fundamental idea of the old mo- nasticism was retirement from human society in the belief that the world was bad and could not be bettered, and96 THE PHILIPPINES. that men could lead holier lives and better please God by forsaking secular employments and family relations, and devoting all their attention to purifying their characters. The first important order in Europe were the Benedictines, organized in the sixth century. Their rule and organ- ization were the pattern for those that followed. The clergy of the church were divided thus into two groups, — first, the parish priests, or ministers, who lived among the people over whom they exercised the cure of souls, and who, because they were of the people themselves and lived their lives in association with the community, were known as the “secular clergy,’ and second, the monks, or “ regular clergy,’ who were so called because they lived under the “ rule ” of their order. In the early part of the thirteenth century monasti- cism, which had waned somewhat during the preceding two centuries, receilved a new impetus and inspiration from the organization of new orders known as brethren s or “friars.” The idea underlying their organization was noble, and higher than that of the old monasticism; for it emphasized the idea of service, of ministry both to the hearts and bodies of depressed and suffering men. The Dominicans. —The Order of Dominicans was or- ganized by Saint Dominic, of Spain, about 1215. The primary object of its members was to defend the doc- trines of the Church and, by teaching and preaching, destroy the doubts and protests which in the thirteenth century were beginning to disturb the claims of the Cath- olic Church and the Papacy. The Dominican friars did not live in seclusion, but traveled about, humbly clad, preaching in the villages and towns, and seeking to ex- vose and punish the heretic. The medieval universities, through their study of philosophy and the Roman law,SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. Q7 were producing a class of men disposed to hold opinions contrary to the teachings of the Chureh. The Dominicans realized the importance of these great centers of instruc- tion and entered them as teachers and masters, and by the beginning of the fifteenth century had made them strongholds of conservatism and orthodoxy. The Franciscans. —In the same epoch of revival, the Order of Franciscans was founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in Italy. The aims of this order were not only to preach and administer the sacraments, but to nurse the sick, provide for the destitute, and alleviate the dreadful misery which affected whole classes in the Middle Ages. They took vows of absolute poverty, and so humble was the garb prescribed by their rule that they went barefooted from place to place. The Ausustinian Order was civen organization by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256, and still other orders followed. The Degeneration of the Orders. - —~Without doubt the early ministrations of these friars were productive of great good both on the religious and humanitarian sides. But, as the orders became wealthy, the friars lost their spiritu- ality and their lives grew vicious. By the beginning of the sixteenth century the administration of the Church throughout Europe had become so corrupt, the economic burden of the religious orders so great, and religious teaching and belief so mate rial, that the best and noblest minds in all countries were agitating for reform. The Reformation. —In addition to changes in church administration, many Christians were demanding a greater freedom of religious thinking and radical changes in the Church doctrine which had taken form in the Middle Ages. Thus. while all the best minds in the Church were united in seeking a reformation of character and of admin-98 THE PHILIPPINES. istration, great differences arose between them as to the possibility of change in Church doctrines. These differ- ences accordingly separated them into two parties; the Papal party adhered strongly to the doctrine as it was then accepted, while various leaders in the north of Europe, including Martin Luther in Germany, Swingli in Switzer- land, and John Calvin in France and Geneva, broke with the authority of the Pope and declared for a liberation of the individual conscience. Upon the side of the Papacy, the Emperor Charles the Fifth threw the weight of the Spanish monarchy, and to enforce the Papal authority he attacked the German princes by force of arms. The result was a great revolt from the Roman Catholic Church, which spread all over northern Germany, a large portion of Switzerland, the lowlands of the Rhine, and England, and which ineluded a numerous and very influential element among the French people. These countries, with the exception of France, have remained Protestant to the present day; and the great expansion of the English people in America and the Kast has established Protestantism in all parts of the world. Effects of the Reformation tn the Roman Catholic Church. —The reform movement, which lasted through the century, brought about a great improvement in the oman Catholic Church. Many, who remained devoted to Roman Catholic orthodoxy, were zealous for admuinistra- tive reform. A great assembly of Churchmen, the Council of Trent, for years devoted itself to legislation to correct abuses. The Inquisition was revived and put into force against Protestants, especially in the dominions of Spain, and the religious orders were reformed and stimulated to new sacrifices and great undertakings. But greater, perhaps, than any of these agencies in re-SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 99 establishing the power of the Pope and reviving the life of the Roman Catholic Church was the organization of a new order, the “Society of Jesus.” The founder was a Span- iard, Ienatius Loyola. The Jesuits devoted themselves especially to education and missionary activity. Their schools soon covered Europe, while their mission stations were to be found in both North and South America, India, the Hast Indies, China, and Japan. The Spanish Missionary. —The Roman Catholic Church, having lost a large part of Kurope, thus strove to make up the loss by gaining converts in heathen lands. Spain, being the power most rapidly advancing her conquests abroad, was the source of the most tireless missionary effort. From the time of Columbus, every fleet that sailed to gain power and lands for the Spanish kingdom carried bands of friars and churchmen to convert to Christianity the heathen peoples whom the sword of the soldier should reduce to obedience. “The Laws of the Indies” gave special power and prom inence to the priest. In these early days of Spain’s colonial empire many priests were men of piety, learning, and un- selfish devotion. Their efforts softened somewhat the vio- lence and brutality that often marred the Spanish treatment of the native, and they became the civilizing agents among the peoples whom the Spanish soldiers had conquered. In Paraguay, California, and the Philippines the power and importance of the Spanish missionary outweighed that of the soldier or governor in the settlement of those coun- tries and the control of the native inhabitants.©) by Ny Sy NS CALAMIANES 2p» Al 6 9 9 ASS 1571 7 J 377° & eS A >> Fernandin: 7 el Mat i Sl (B ean SO EU <1 (SOLO) WN WV - Y; MASEALE®. |° a KIX >, y° Gre, ISLAas dE LOS. ‘xv : > 124 ¢ CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT foe BY THE SPANIARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES, 1565-1590 ® e SCALE OF MILES 0 50 100 150 200 250] ne, SCALE OF KILOMETRES | U 100 200 300 i 5 O —18 O; ° x —— > £ —EEEE —— ———_ Of 2 oOMnw._4 7 : | of Nucva Segovia rm 1 (Hy q hi is S 4 > y i) Vp POuLLO x) > Gs. 1572 Soe... parack’ 3 1 Oe oot SQ Yate ot Be ee ING ~F i} ~~ S 7A CATANDUANES } Ps 4% U7 Nu Vil * ZEETCS oe Gm Ve ms eee By | 0 <8 1a & JK ry © op AY) RAG aan oe 1.8 VY (pi TD a © SAMAR (TANDAYA) ( -Q PANAYSs: 34 VARY, pisses -’ fp ay 1569 Y&* _, YA < iy j ~ NUEYTE v \ o. l (1) G oe Arevalome | . dan on . GY UYU xa Ol (ABU YOG) @ ei f 4 Jéity of Mbst-Holy « b o NEGROS T/FName of Jeswgy ¢ = z LA Celuryanpo .? re LLP if Yt Af —7, Oreste a - Cy fH E BOHOL ae ESO ’ VHA & / CS Pp , “UY as Ye > ty ‘\ WZ 2 2 . OU Butban pf ~) 4 Sy | ts A j gO | > A ae) : f GZZ®Q j win ack. CAGAY A N * ne oe OL AyCHARTER VE PERIOD OF CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. Cause of Settlement and Conquest of the Philippines. — The previous Spanish expeditions whose misfortunes have been narrated, seemed to have proved to the Court of Spain that they could not drive the Portuguese from the Molueeas. But to the east of the Moluccas lay great un- explored archipelagoes, which might lie within the Span- ish demarcation and which might yield spices and other valuable articles of trade; and as the Portuguese had made no effective occupation of the Philippines, the minds of Spanish conquerors turned to this group also as a coveted field of conquest, even though it was pretty well under- stood that they lay in the latitude of the Moluccas, and so were denied by treaty to Spain. In 1559 the Spanish king, Felipe II., commanded the viceroy of Mexico to undertake again the discovery of the islands lying “toward the Moluccas,’ but the rights of Portugal to islands within her demarcation were to be respected. Five years passed before ships and equipments could be prepared, and during these years the objects of the expedition received considerable discussion and under- went some change. The king invited Andrés de Urdaneta, who years before had been a pilot in the expedition of Loaisa, to accom- pany the expedition as a guide and director. Urdaneta, after his return from the previous expedition, had re- nounced military life and had become an Augustinian friar. He was known to be a man of wise judgment, 101102 THE PHILIPPINES. with good knowledge of cosmography, and as a missionary he was able to give to the expedition that religious strength which characterized all Spanish undertakings. It was Urdaneta’s plan to colonize, not the Philippines, but New Guinea; but the Audiencia of Mexico, which had charge of fitting out the expedition, ordered it in minute instructions to reach and if possible colonize the Philip- pines, to trade for spices and to discover the return sail- ing route back across the Pacific to New Spain. The natives of the islands were to be converted to Christianity, and missionaries were to accompany the expedition. In the quaint language of Fray Gaspar de San Augustin, there were sent “holy guides to unfurl and wave the banners of Christ, even to the remotest portions of the islands, and to drive the devil from the tyrannical pos- session, which he had held for so many ages, usurping to himself the adoration of those peoples.” * The Third Expedition to the Philippines. — The expedi- tion sailed from the port of Natividad, Mexico, November 21, 1564, under the command of Miguel Lopez de Legazp1. The ships followed for a part of the way a course further south than was necessary, and touched at some inhabited islands of Micronesia. About the 22d of January they reached the Ladrones and had some trouble with the natives. They reached the southern end of Samar about February the 13th. Possession of Samar was taken by Legazpi in the name of the king, and small parties were sent both north and south to look for villages of the Fil- ipinos. A few days later they rounded the southern part of Samar, crossed the strait to the coast of southern Leyte, 1 Fray Gaspar de San Augustin: Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, ND ye Ce Lo:CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 103 where Captain Martin de Goiti discovered the town of Kabalian, and on the 5th of March the fleet sailed to this town. Provisions were scarce on the Spanish vessels, and great difficulty was experienced in getting food from the few natives met in boats or in the small settlements discovered. Legazpi at Bo- hol. — About the middle of March the fleet arrived at Bohol, doubt- less the southern or eastern shore. While near here Goiti in a_ small boat captured a Moro prau_ from Borneo and _ after m, IngyirGl sere ler brought back the Moros as pris- oners to Legazpl. There proved to be quite a trade Legazpi. (From a painting by Tuna, in the Malacanan palace at Manila.) the Moros from Borneo and the natives of Bohol and existing between Mindanao. Here on Bohol they were able to make friendly terms with the natives, and with Sicatuna, the dato of Bohol, Legazpi performed the ceremony of blood covenant. The Spanish leader and the Filipino chief each made a small104 THE PHILIPPINES. cut in his own arm or breast and drank the blood of the other. According to Gaspar de San Augustfn, the blood was mixed with a little wine or water and drunk from a goblet.’ This custom was the most sacred bond of friendship among the Filipinos, and friendship so pledged was usu- ally kept with fidelity. Legazpi in Cebu. —On the 27th of April, 1565, Le- gazpi's fleet reached Cebu. Here, in this beautiful strait The Blood Compact. (Painting by Juan Luna.) and fine anchoring-ground, Magellan’s ships had lingered until the death of their leader forty-four years before. A splendid native settlement lined the shore, so Father Chirino tells us, for a distance of more than a league. The natives of Cebu were fearful and greatly agitated, * One of the best paintings of the Filipino artist Juan Luna, which hangs in the Ayuntamiento in Manila, represents Legazpi in the act of the ‘ Pacto de Sangre ” with this Filipino chieftain.le CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 105 and seemed determined to resist the landing of the Span- iards. But at the first discharge of the guns of the ships, the natives abandoned the shore, and, setting fire to the town, retreated into the jungles and hills. Without loss of life the Spaniards landed, and occupied the harbor and town. Finding of ‘the Holy Child of Cebu.’ — The Spanish soldiers found in one of the houses of the na- tives a small wooden image of the Child Jesus. A similar image, Pigafetta tells us, he himself had given to a native while in the island with Magellan. It had been pre- served by the na- tives and was re- garded by them as an object of vener- ation. To the pious The Holy Child (Santo Nino) of Cebu. Spaniards the discovery of this sacred object was hailed as an event of great good fortune. It was taken by the monks, and earried to a shrine especially erected for it. It still rests in the church of the Augustinians, an object of great devotion. Settlement made at Cebw.—In honor of this image this settlement of the Spaniards in the Philippines later TE SR SE106 THE PHILIPPINES. received the name of “ City of the Most Holy Name ol Jesus.”’ Here Legazpi established a camp, and, by great tact and skill, gradually won the confidence and friend- ship of the inhabitants. A formal peace was at last concluded in which the dato, Tupas, recognized the sover- elgnty of Spain; and the people of Cebu and the Spaniards bound themselves to assist each other against the enemies of either. They had some difficulty in understanding one another, but the Spaniards had with them a Mohammedan Malay of Borneo, called Cid-Hamal, who had been taken from the East Indies to the Peninsula and thence to Mexico and Legazpi’s expedition. The languages of Malaysia and the Philippines are so closely related that this man was able to interpret. Almost immediately, however, the mission- aries began the study of the native dialect, and Padre Chirino tells us that Friar Martin Herrada made here the first Filipino vocabulary, and was soon preaching the Gospel to the natives in their own language. Discovery of the Northern Return Route across the Pacific. — Before the arrival of the expedition in the Philippines, the captain of one of Legazpi’s ships, in- spired by ungenerous ambition and the hopes of getting a reward, outsailed the rest of the fleet. Having arrived first in the islands, he started at once upon the return voyage. Unlike preceding captains who had tried to return to New Spain by sailing eastward from the islands against both wind and ocean current, this captain sailed northward beyond the trades into the more favorable westerly winds, and found his way back to America and New Spain. Legazpi’s instructions required him to dispatch at least one vessel on the return voyage to New Spain soon afterCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 107 arriving in the Philippines. Accordingly on June Ist the “San Pablo” set sail, carrying about two hundred men, including Urdaneta and another friar. This vessel also followed the northern route across the Paeifie, and after a voyage of great hardship, occupying three and a half months. it reached the coast of North America at Califor- nia and followed it southward to Acapulco. The discovery made by these captains of a favorable route for vessels returning from the islands to New Spain safe from capture by the Portuguese, completed the plans of the Spanish for the occupation of the Philippines. In 1567 another vessel was dispatched by Legazpi and made this voyage successfully. The sailing of the ‘San Pablo” left Legazpi in Cebu with a colony of only one hundred and fifty Spaniards, poorly provided with resources, to commence the conquest of the Philippines. But he kept the friendship and respect of the natives, and in 1566 and 1568 ships with reinforce- ments arrived from Mexico. While Legazpi was at Panay, in 19/0, there finally arrived a ship which brought instructions from the king, in reply to Legazpi’s first reports, that the islands should be held and colonized. These orders appointed Legazpi adelantado and-governor, and allowed the assignment of natives in encomiendas to the soldiers who had effected the conquest. The further exploration of the islands had meanwhile proceeded. The great difficulty experienced by Legazpi was to pro- cure sufficient food for his expedition. At different times he sent a ship to the nearest islands, and twice his ship went south to Mindanao to procure a Cargo of cinnamon to be sent back to New Spain.108 THE PHILIPPINES. Meanwhile, a captain, Enriquez de Guzman, had dis- covered Masbate, Burias, and Ticao, and had landed on Luzon in the neighborhood of Albay, called then ‘ Italon.”’ Thus month by month the Spaniards gained acquaint- ance with the beautiful island sea of the ee with its green islands and brilliant sheets of water, its safe harbors and scattered settlements. While Legazpi’s resources were weakest, he was attacked and blockaded at Cebu by a Portuguese fleet which sought to prevent the Spanish occupation. Both to strengthen his position and to secure better supplies, Legazpi moved his camp in 1569 to the island of Panay. The Bisayan tribes tattooed their bodies with ornamental designs, a practice widespread throughout Oceanica, and which still is common among the tribes of northern Luzon. This practice caused the Spaniards to give to the Bisayas the title of “‘ Islas de los Pintados ”’ (the Islands of the Painted). Legazpi found that the island of Mindoro had been par- tially settled by Moros from the south, and many of these settlements were devoted to piracy, preying especially upon the towns on the north coast of Panay. In Jan- uary, 1570, Legazpi dispatched his grandson, Juan de Salcedo, to punish these marauders.’ Capture of Pirate Strongholds.—Salcedo had a force of forty Spaniards and a large number of Bisayas. He landed on the western coast of Mindoro and took the pirate town of Mamburao. The main stronghold of the Moros he found to be on the small island of Lubang, north- west of Mindoro. Here they had three strong forts with high walls, on which were mounted small brass cannon, ‘ There is an old account of this interesting expedition by one who participated. (Relacién de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, Manila, 1572; Retana, Archivo del Bibliéfilo Filipino, vol. IV.)CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 109 or “lantakas.” Two of these forts were surrounded by moats. There were several days of fighting before Lu- bang was conquered. ‘The possession of Lubang brought the Spaniards almost to the entrance of Manila Bay. Conquest of the Moro City of Manila. — Hxpedition from Panay.— Reports had already come to Legazpi of an important Mohammedan settlement named “ May- nila,’ on the shore of a great bay, and a Mohammedan chieftain, called Maomat, was procured to guide the Spaniards on their conquest of this region.’ For this pur- \ i" = \ \ TYPUS FRETI MANE = \ Y \ *. a ? x ep eee Ns: \uan— A, X : my olin Santas oe : = : ‘ty GN peor oa NX \ \ \ % Yor ee oN = 1 : dX. oS 4 — ’ , \ » DN (Zs Sah de cron 4 MINDORA A } e, aie a + =, % 4 ¢ ¢ F ~~ “te Me ot EA \ es 2 , 4 iS SS 2 Ww ‘ \ " > Nag a gy , Sood s “ \ 4 2 Fe tor BEN’ ; Straits of Manila. (From an old Dutch chart. See page 193.) pose Legazpi sent his field-marshal, Martin de Goiti, with Saleedo, one hundred and twenty Spanish soldiers, and fourteen or fifteen boats filled with Bisayan allies. They left Panay early in May, and, after stopping at Mindoro, came to anchor in Manila Bay, off the mouth of the Pasig River. The Mohammedan City.—On the south bank of the river was the fortified town of the Mohammedan chief- tain, Raja Soliman; on the north bank was the town of Tondo, under the Raja Alcandora, or Lacandola. Morga* tells us that these Mohammedan settlers from the island 1 Morga: Sucésos de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 10. 2 Sucésos de las Islas Filipinas, Pp. 316.SCALE OF FEET 400 600 1. Artiller Store Howse ae Al nal & Audtenc $. Military Host 5.Untversity Ayuntamient ind Naval a or Court Chu of Recoletos Santo Dumingu Gate 21. Parian Gate 22. Real Gat , Santa L ia Gate REFERENCE ll. Church of Sant 2. Cathedral | 13. College of San Juan de House Letran » 14. Church and College of Santa Isabel . lof S J. 16. Hospital of S Jua 16. Chur and C San Augustin ») Domingo . de Dios vent of 17. Orden Tercera 18. Church of San Francisco en Gate l LI Gate Jo" THE CITY OF MANILA ( Adap sted from Buzeta Dicclonarlo de las Islas Filipinas )CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 11] of Borneo had commenced to arrive on the island only a few years before the coming of the Spaniards. They had settled and married among the Filipino population already occupying Manila Bay, and had introduced some of the forms and practices of the Mohammedan religion. The city of Mania was defended by a fort, apparently on the exact site of the present fort of Santiago. It was built of the trunks of aie and had embrasures where were mounted a considerable number of cannon, or lantakas. Capture of the City.— The natives received the for- eigners at first with a show of friendliness, but after they had landed on the banks of the Pasig, Soliman, with a large force, assaulted them. The impetuous Spaniards char BoC and earried the fortifications, and the natives fled, setting fire to their settlement. When the fight was over ne Spaniards found among the dead the body of a Portuguese artillerist, who had directed the defense. Doubtless he was one who had deserted from the Portu- euese garrisons far south in the Indian archipelago to cast in his fortunes with the Malays. It being the commence- ment of the season of rains and typhoons, the Spaniards decided to defer the occupation of Manila, and, after ex- ploring Cavite harbor, they returned to Panay. A year was spent in strengthening their hold on the Bisayas and in arranging for their conquest of Luzon. On Masbate were placed a friar and six soldiers, so small was the number that could be spared. HoenGne of the Spanish City of Manila. — With a force of 230 men Legazpi returned in the spring of 1571 to the conquest of Luzon. It was a bloodless victory. ‘The Filipino rajas declared themselves vassals of the Spanish king, and in the months of May and June the Spaniards established themselves in the present site of the city.Lhe THE PHILIPPINES. At once Legazpi gave orders for the reconstruction of the fort, the building of quarters, a convent for the Au- eustinian monks, a church, and 190 houses. The bounda- ries of this city followed closely the outlines of the Tagalog city ‘‘ Maynila,” and it seems probable that the location of buildings then established has been adhered to until the present time. This settlement appeared so desirable to Legazpi that he at once designated it as the capital of the archipelago. Almost immediately he organized its municipal government, or ayuntamiento. The First Battle on Manila Bay.— In spite of their ready submission, the rajas, Soliman and Lacandola, did not yield their sovereignty without a struggle. They were able to secure assistance in the Tagdlog and Pampango settlements of Macabebe and Hagonoy. A great fleet of forty war-praus gathered in palm-lined estuaries on the north shore of Manila Bay, and came sweeping down the shallow coast to drive the Spaniards from the island. Against them were sent Goiti and fifty men. The protect- ive mail armor, the heavy swords and lances, the horrible firearms, coupled with the persistent courage and fierce resolution of the Spanish soldier of the sixteenth century, swept back this native armament. The chieftain Soliman was killed. The Conquest of Central Luzon. — Goiti continued his marching and conquering northward until the southern end of the plain of central Luzon, that stretches from Manila Bay to the Gulf of Lingayen, lay submissive before him. A little later the raja Lacandola died, having accepted Christian baptism, and the only powerful resist- ance on the island of Luzon was ended. Goiti was sent back to the Bisayas, and the command of the army of Luzon fell to Salcedo, the brilliant andCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. eS daring grandson of Legazpi, at this time only twenty-two years of age. This young knight led his command up the Pasig River. Cainta and Taytay, at that time impor- tant Tagdlog towns, were conquered, and then the coun- try south of Laguna de Bay. The town of Cainta was fortified and defended by small cannon, and although Saleedo spent three days in negotiations, it was only taken by storm, in which four hundred Filipino men and women perished.t. From here Salcedo marched over the mountains to the Pacific coast and south into the Cam- arines, where he discovered the gold mines of Paracale and Mambulao. At about this time the Spaniards discovered the Cuyos and Calamianes islands and the northern part of Palawan. Exploration of the Coast of Northern Luzon. — In 1572, Salcedo, with a force of only forty-five men, sailed north- ward from Manila, landed in Zambales and Pangasinan, and on the long and rich Ilokos coast effected a permanent submission of the inhabitants. He also visited the coast farther north, where the great and fertile valley of the Cagayan, the largest river of the archipelago, reé aches to the sea. From here he continued his adventurous Journey down the Pacific coast of Luzon to the island of Polillo, and returned by way of Laguna de Bay to Manila. Death of Legazpi. — He arrived in September, 1572, to find that his grandfather and commander, Legazpi, had died a month before (August 20, 1572). After seven years of labor the conqueror of difficulties was dead, but almost the entire archipelago had been added to the crown of Spain. Three hundred years of Spanish dominion se- cured little more territory than that traversed and pacified 1 Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, p. 24.114 THE PHILIPPINES. by the conquerors of these early years. In spite of their slender forces, the daring of the Spaniards induced them to follow a policy of widely extending their power, effect- ing settlements, and enforcing submission wherever rich coasts and the gathering of population attracted them. Within a single year’s time most of the coast country of Luzon had been traversed, import- ant positions seized, and the inhabitants por- tioned out in encomien- das. On the death of Legazpi, the command fell to Guido de Labe- Zares. Reasons for this Easy Conquest of the Philip- pines. — The explana- tion. of how so small a number of [uropeans could so rapidly and sue- cessfully reduce to sub- jection the inhabitants of aterritory like the Phil- ippines, separated into Legazpi Monument, Luneta. so many different islands, is to be found in several things. First. — The expedition had a great leader, one of those knights combining sagacity with resolution, who glorify the brief period when Spanish prestige was highest. No policy could ever be successful in the Philippines which did not depend for its strength upon giving a measure of satisfaction to the Filipino people. Legazpi did this. HeCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. eS appears to have won the native datos, treating them with consideration, and holding out to them the expectations of a better and more prosperous era, which the sovereignty of the Spaniard would bring. Almost from the beginning, the natives of an island already reduced flocked to his standard to assist in the conquest of another. The small forces of the Spanish soldiers were augmented by hun- dreds of Filipino allies. Second. — Another reason is found in the wonderful courage and great fighting power of the Spanish soldier. Each man, splendidly armored and weaponed, deadly with either sword or spear, carrying in addition the arquebus, the most efficient firearm of the time, was equal in combat to many natives who might press upon him with their naked bodies and inferior weapons. Third. — Legazpi was extremely fortunate in his cap- tains, who included such old campaigners as the field- marshal Martin de Goiti, who had been to the Philippines before with Villalobos, and such gallant youths as Salcedo, one of the most attractive military figures in all Spanish history. Fourth. —In considering this Spanish conquest, we must understand that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legazpi’s time, only a small fraction of their present great popula- tions. This population was not only small, but it was also extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes sep- arated by the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny community was practically inde- pendent, and the power of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting re- tainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portu-116 THE PHILIPPINES. guese had encountered among the Malays south in the Eastern Archipelago. Fifth. — But certainly one of the greatest factors in the yielding of the Filipino to the Spaniard was the preaching of the missionary friars. No man is so strong with an unenlightened and barbarous race as he who claims power from God. And the preaching of the Catholic faith, with its impressive and dramatic services, its holy sacraments, its power to arrest the attention and to admit at once the rude mind into the circle of its ministry, won the heart of the Filipino. Without doubt he was ready and eager for a loftier and truer religious belief and ceremo- nial. There was no powerful native priesthood to oppose the introduction of Christianity. The preaching of the faith and the baptism of converts proceeded as rapidly as the missionaries could be obtained. The Dangers of the Spanish Occupation. — Such condi- tions promised the success of the Spanish occupation, pro- vided the small colony could be protected from outside attacks. But even from the beginning the position of this little band of conquerors was perilous. Their numbers were small and at times much scattered, and their only source of succor lay thousands of miles away, across the greatest body of water on the earth, in a land itself a colony newly wrested from the hand of the savage. Across the narrow waters of the China Sea, only a few days’ distant, even in the slow-sailing junks, lay the teeming shores of the most populous country in the world, in those days not averse to foreign conquest. Attempt of the Chinese under Limahong to Capture Manila. — Activity of the Sowthern Chinese. — It was from the Chinese that the first heavy blow fell. The southeastern coast of China, comprising the provinces ofCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 117 Kwangtung and Fukien, has always exhibited a restless- ness and passion for emigration not displayed by other parts of the country. From these two provinces, through the ports of Amoy and Canton, have gone those Chinese traders and coolies to be found in every part of the Kast and many other countries of the world. Three hundred years before the arrival of the Spaniards, Chinese Junks traversed the Philippine seas and visited regularly Luzon and the coast of Mindanao. Limahons’s Expedition to the Philippines. This coast of China has always been notorious for its piracy. The distance of the capital at Peking and the weakness of the provincial viceroys have made impossible its suppres- sion. It was one of these bold filibusters of the China Sea, called Limahong, who two years after the death of Legazpi attempted the conquest of the Philippines. The strong- hold of this corsair was the island of Pehon, where he fortified himself and developed his power. Here, reports of the prosperous condition of Manila reached him, and he prepared a fleet of sixty-two war- junks, with four thousand soldiers and sailors. The ac- counts even state that a large number of women and artisans were taken on board to form the nucleus of the settlement, as soon as the Spaniards should be destroyed. In the latter part of November, 1974, this powerful fleet came sweeping down the western coast of Luzon and on the 29th gathered in the little harbor of Mariveles, at the entrance to Manila Bay. Hight miles south of Manila is the town of Parafiaque, on an estuary which affords a good landing-place for boats entering from the bay. Here on the night following, Limahong put ashore six hundred men, under one of his venerals, Sioco, who was a Japanese. The Attack upon Manila. — From here they marched118 THE PHILIPPINES. rapidly up the beach and fell furiously upon the city. Almost their first victim was the field-marshal Goiti. The fort of Manila was at this date a weak affair, without ditches or escarpment, and it was here that the struggle took place. The Spaniards, although greatly outnum- bered, were able to drive back the Chinese; but they themselves lost heavily. Limahong then sent ashore heavy reinforcements, and prepared to overwhelm the garrison. The Spaniards were saved from defeat by the timely ar- rival of Salcedo with fifty musketeers. From his station at Bigan he had seen the sails of Limahong’s fleet, cruising southward along the Luzon coast, and, suspecting that so great an expedition could have no other purpose than the capture of Manila, he embarked in seven small boats, and reached the city in six days, just in time to participate in the furious battle between the Spaniards and the entire forces of the Chinese pirate. The result was the complete defeat of the Chinese, who were driven back upon their boats. The keswlt of Limahons’s Expedition. — Although defeated in his attack on Manila, Limahong was yet de- termined on a settlement in Luzon, and, sailing northward, he landed in Pangasinan and began constructing fortifi- cations at the mouth of the river Lingayen. The Span- iards did not wait for him to strengthen himself and to dis- pute with them afresh for the possession of the island, but organized in March an expedition of two hundred and fifty Spaniards and fifteen hundred Filipinos under Salcedo. They landed suddenly in the Gulf of Lingayen, burned the entire fieet of the Chinese, attacked the camp of the pirates, and killed a number of them. The rest, though hemmed in by the Spaniards, were able to construct small boats, in which they escaped from the islands.CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 119 Thus ended this formidable attack, which threatened for a time to overthrow the power of Spain in the Kast. It was the beginning, however, of important relations with China. Before Limahong's escape a junk arrived from the viceroy of Fukien, pet tioning for the delivery of the Chinese pirate. Two Au jaca friars accompanied his junk back to China, eager for such great fields of missionary conquest. They carried letters from Labezares inviting Chinese friendship and intercourse. Beginning of a New Period of Conquest. — In the spring of 1576. Saleedo died at Bigan, at the age of twenty- seven. With his death may be said to close the first period of the history in the Philippines, — that of the Conquest, extending from 1565 to 1576. For the next twenty-five years the ambitions of the Spaniards were not content with the exploration of this archipelago, but there were greater and more striking conquests, to which the minds of both soldier and priest aspired. Despite the settlement with Portugal, the rich Spice Islands to the south still attracted them, and there were soon revealed the fertile coasts of Siam and Cambodia, the great empire of China, the beautiful ‘sland of Formosa, and the Japanese archipelago. These, with their great populations and wealth, were more allur- ing fields than the poor and sparsely populated coasts of the Philippines. So, for the next quarter of a cen- tury, the policy of the Spaniards in the Philippines was not so much to develop these islands themselves, as to make them a center for the commercial and spiritual eoG Ue of the Orient.’ : See the letter of Bishop Salazar to the king, explaining his mo- tives in coming to the Philippines. Retana, ana Filipina, vol. lil., Carta-Relacién de las Cosas de ( ‘hina, p.120 THE PHILIPPINES. A Treaty with the Chinese. — The new governor arrived in the Islands in August, 1575. He was Dr. Francisco de Sande. In October there returned the ambassadors who had been sent to China by Labezares. The viceroy of Fukien had received them with much ceremony. He had not permitted the friars to remain, but had forwarded the governor’s letter to the Chinese emperor. In Febru- ary following came a Chinese embassy, granting a port of the empire with which the Spaniards could trade. This port, probably, was Amoy, which continued to be the chief port of communication with China to the present day. It was undoubtedly commerce and not the mission- aries that the Chinese desired. Two Augustinians at- tempted to return with this embassy to China, but the Chinese on leaving the harbor of Manila landed on the coast of Zambales, where they whipped the missionaries, killed their servants and interpreter, and left the friars bound to trees, whence they were rescued by a small party of Spaniards who happened to pass that way. Sir Francis Drake’s Noted Voyage. — The year 1577 is notable for the appearance in the East of the great Eng- lish sea-captain, freebooter, and naval hero, Francis Drake. Kngland and Spain, at this moment, while not actually at war, were rapidly approaching the conflict which made them for centuries traditional enemies. Spain was the champion of Roman ecclesiasticism. Her king, Philip the Second, was not only a cruel bigot, but a politician of sweeping ambition. His schemes included the conquest of France and England, the extermination of Protestant- ism, and the subjection of Europe to his own and the Roman authority. The English people scented the danger from afar, andCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 121 while the two courts nominally maintained peace, the dar- ing seamen of British Devon were quietly putting to sea in their swift, predatory vessels, for the crippling of the Spanish power. The history ot naval warfare records no more reckless adventures than those of the English mariners during this period. Audacity could not rise higher. Drake’s is the most famous and romantic figure of them all. In the year 1577, he sailed from England with the avowed purpose of sweeping the Spanish Main. He passed the Straits of Magellan, and came up the western coast of South America, despoiling the Spanish shipping from Valparaiso to Panama. Thence he came on across the Pacific, touched the coast of Mindanao, and turned south to the Moluccas. The Portuguese had nominally annexed the Moluccas in 1522. but at the time of Drake’s visit they had been driven from Ternate, though still holding Tidor. Drake entered into friendly relations with the sultan of Ternate, and secured a cargo of cloves. From here he sailed boldly homeward, daring the Portuguese fleets, as he had defied the Spanish, and by way of Good Hope returned to England, his ship the first after Magellan’s to circum- navigate the globe. A Spanish Expedition to Borneo. — The appearance of Drake in the Moluccas roused Sande to ambitious action. The attraction of the southern archipelagoes was over- powering, and at this moment the opportunity seemed to open to the governor to force southward his power. One of the Malay kings of Borneo, Sirela, arrived in Ma- nila, petitioning aid against his brother, and promising to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of Spain over the kingdom of Borneo. Sande went in person to restore122 THE PHILIPPINES. this chieftain to power. He had a fleet of galleys and frigates, and, according to Padre Gaspar de San Augustin, more than fifteen hundred Filipino bowmen from Pangasi- nan, Cagayan, and the Bisayas accompanied the expedition. He landed on the coast of Borneo, destroyed the fleet of praus and the city of the usurper, and endeavored to se- cure Sirela in his principality. Sickness among his fleet and the lack of provisions foreed him to return to Manila. The First Attack upon the Moros of Jolo. — On his re- turn he sent an officer against the island of Jolo. This officer forced the Joloanos to recognize his power, and from there he passed to the island of Mindanao, where he further enforced obedience upon the natives. This was the beginning of the Spanish expeditions against the Mo- ros, and it had the effect of arousing in these Moham- medan pirates terrible retaliatory vengeance. Under Sande the conquest of the Camarines was completed by Captain Juan Chaves and the city of Nueva Caceres was founded. The Appointment of Governor Ronquillo. —It was the uniform policy of the Spanish government to limit the term of office of the governor to a short period of years. This was one of the futile provisions by which Spain at- tempted to control both the ambition and the avarice of her colonial captains. But Don Gonzalo Ronquillo had granted to him the governorship of the Philippines for life, on the condition of his raising and equipping a force of six hundred Spaniards, largely at his own expense, for the better protection and pacification of the archipelago. This Ronquillo did, bringing his expedition by way of Panama. He arrived in April, 1580, and although he died at the end of three years, his rule came at an impor- tant time.Ww CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. Pe The Spanish and the Portuguese Colonies Combined. — In 1580, Philip II. conquered and annexed to Spain the kingdom of Portugal, and with Portugal came necessarily to the Spanish crown those rich eastern colonies which the valor of Da Gama and Albuquerque had won. Portu- gal rewon her independence in 1640, but for years Manila was the center of a colonial empire, extending from Goa in India to Formosa. Events of Ronquillo’s Rule. — Ronquillo, under orders from the crown, entered into correspondence with the ‘aptain of the Portuguese fortress on the island of Tidor, and the captain of Tidor petitioned Ronquillo for assist- ance in reconquering the tempting island of ‘Ternate. Ronquillo sent south a considerable expedition, but after arriving in the Moluccas the disease of beri-beri in the Spanish camp defeated the undertaking. Ronquillo also sent a small armada to the coasts of Borneo and Malacca, where a limited amount of pepper was obtained. The few years of Ronquillo’s reign were in other ways important. A colony of Spaniards was established at Oton, on the island of Panay, near the site of the present city of Iloilo. And under Zonquillo was pacified for the first time the great valley of the Cagayan. At the mouth of the river a Japanese adventurer, Tayfusa, or Tayzufu, had established himself and was attempting the subjuga- tion of this important part of northern Luzon. Ronquillo sent against him Captain Carreon, who expelled the ‘intruder and established on the present site of Lallok the city of Nueva Segovia. Two friars accompanied this expedition and the occupation of this valley by the Span- iards was made permanent. The First Conflicts between the Church and the State. — In March, 1581, there arrived the first Bishop of Manila,124 THE PHILIPPINES. Domingo de Salazar. Almost immediately began those conflicts between the spiritual and civil authorities, and between bishop and the regular orders, which have filled to no small degree the history of the islands. The bishop was zealous for his church, a good friend of the natives, but arrogant toward civil authority. It was largely due to his protests against the auto- cratic power of the governor that the king was induced to appoint the first Audiencia. The character and power of these courts have already been explained. The president and judges arrived the year following the death of Ronquillo, and the president, Dr. Santi- ago deVera, became act- ing gover- Moro Spear. nor during the succeeding five years. In 1587, the first Domini- cans, fifteen in number, ar- rived, and founded their celebrated mission, La Pro- vineia del Santisimo Ro- Moro Shield. sarlo. Increasing Strength of the Malays. — De Vera continued the policy of his predecessors and another fruitless attack was made on Ternate in 1585. The power of the Malay people was increasing, while that of the Europeans was decreasing. The sultans had expelled their foreign masters,CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. Ly bo Ot and neither ae nor Se were able to effect the conquest of the Moluccas. There were uprisings of the natives in Manila and in C: agayan and Ilokos. The Decree of 1589. — Affairs in the Islands did not yet, however, suit Bishop Salazar, and as the representa- tive of both governor and bishop, the Jesuit, Alonso Sanchez, was dispatched in 1586 to lay the needs of the colony before the king. Philip was ap- parently impressed with the necessity of putting the gov- ernment of the Islands upon a better adminstrative basis. To this end he published the im- portant decree of 1589. The governor Now became a paid officer of the crown, at a salary of ten thousand ducats. For the proper protection of the colony and the conquest of the Moluccas, a regular force of four hundred soldiers ac- companied the governor. His powers were extended to those of an actual viceregent of the king, and the Audiencia was abolished. The man selected to occupy this important post was Don Gomez Perez Dasmarifas, who arrived with the new con- stitution in May, 1590. So great was the chagrin of the bishop at the abolition ol f the Audiencia and the increase of the governor’s power, that he himself set out for Spain Moro Shield. to lay his wishes before the court. The Missionary Efforts of the Friars. — Twenty-four126 THE PHILIPPINES. Franciscans came with Dasmarifas and the presence now of three orders necessitated the partition of the Islands among them. The keenest rivalry and emulation existed among them over the prosecution of missions in still more foreign lands. To the missionaries of this age it seemed a possible thing to convert the great and conservative nations of China and Japan to the Western religion. In the month of Dasmarifias’ arrival, a company of Dominicans attempted to found a mission in China, and, an embassy coming from Japan to demand vassalage from the Philippines, four of the newly arrived Franciscans ac- companied the Japanese on their return. A year later, in 1592, another embassy from the king of Cambodia arrived, bringing gifts that included two ele- phants, and petitioning for succor against the king of Siam. This was the beginning of an alliance between Cambodia and the Philippines which lasted for many years, and which occasioned frequent military aid and many efforts to convert that country. Death of Dasmarinas. — But the center of Dasmarifas’ ambitions was the effective conquest of the East Indies and the extension of Spanish power and his own rule through the Moluccas. With this end in view, for three years he made preparations. For months the shores were lined with the yards of the shipbuilders, and the great forests of Bulacan fell before the axes of the Indians. et More than two hundred vessels, “galeras,’’ “galeotas,”’ and “virrayes,”’ were built, and assembled at Cavite. In the fall of 1593, the expedition, consisting of over nine hundred Spaniards, Filipino bowmen and rowers, was ready. Many of the Filipinos, procured to row these boats, were said to have been slaves, purchased through the Indian chiefs by the Spanish encomenderos. ‘TheCONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 127 governor sent forward this great fleet under the command of his son, Don Luis, and in the month of October he him- self set sail in a galley with Chinese rowers. But on the night of the second day, while off the island of Marikaban, the Chinese oarsmen rose against the Spaniards, of whom there were about forty on the ship, and killed almost the entire number, including the governor. They then escaped in the boat to the Ilokos coast and thence to China. The murder of this active and illustrious general was a decisive blow to the ambitious projects for the con- quest of the East Indies. Among other papers which Dasmarifias brought from Spain was a royal cédula giving him power to nominate his successor, who proved to be his son, Don Luis, who after some difficulty succeeded temporarily to his father’s position. Arrival of Morga.— In June, 1595, there arrived Don Antonio de Morga, who had been appointed leutenant- eovernor with judicial powers in cases of appeal. With Morga came several Jesuit missionaries. He was also the bearer of an order granting to the Jesuits the exclu- sive privilege of conducting missions in China and Japan. The other orders were forbidden to pass outside the Islands. An attempt to Colonize Mindanao. — In the year 1596, the Captain Rodriguez de Figueroa received the title of governor of Mindanao, with exclusive right to colonize the island for “the space of two lives.” He left Iloilo in April with 214 Spaniards, two Jesuit priests, and many natives. They landed in the Rio Grande of Mindanao, where the defiant dato, Silonga, fortified himself. and re- sisted them. Almost immediately Figueroa rashly ven- tured on shore and was killed by Moros. Reinforcements were sent under Don Juan Ronquillo, who, after nearly128 THE PHILIPPINES. bringing the datos to submission, abandoned all he had gained. The Spaniards burned their forts on the Rio Grande and retired to Caldera, near Zamboanga, where they built a presidio. Death of Franciscans in Japan. — The new governor, Don Francisco Tello de Guzmén, arrived on June 1, 1596. He had previously been treasurer of the Casa de Contrata- cion in Seville. Soon after his arrival an important and serious tragedy occurred in Japan. The ship for Acapulco went ashore on the Japanese coast and its rich cargo was seized by the feudal prince where the vessel sought assist- ance. The Franciscans already had missions in these islands, and rivalry existed between them and the Por- tuguese Jesuits over this missionary field. The latter succeeded in prejudicing the Japanese court against their rivals, and when the Franciscans injudiciously pressed for the return of the property of the wrecked galleon, the feudal ruler, greedy for the rich plunder and suspicious of their preaching, met their petitions with the sentence of death. They were horribly crucified at the port of Nagasaki, February 5, 1597. This feudal lord was the proud and mighty Hidéyoshi. He was planning the conquest of the Philippines themselves, when death ended his plans. The First Archbishop in the Philippines. — Meanwhile the efforts of Salazar at the Spanish court had effected further important changes for the Islands. The reestab- lishment of the Royal Audiencia was ordered, and his own position was elevated to that of archbishop, with the three episcopal sees of Ilokos, Cebu, and the Camarines. He did not live to assume this office, and the first arch- bishop of the Philippines was Ignacio Santibanez, who also died three months after his arrival, on May 28, 1598.CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 129 Reéstablishment of the Audiencia. — The Audiencia was reéstablished with great pomp and ceremony. ‘The royal seal was borne on a magnificently caparisoned horse to the cathedral, where a Te Deum was chanted, and then to the Casas Reales, where was inaugurated the famous court that continued without interruption down to the end of Spanish rule. Dr. Morga was one of the first oidores, and the earliest judicial record which can now be found in the archives of this court is a sentence bearing his signature. The Rise of Moro Piracy. — The last years of De Guz- man’s governorship were filled with troubles ominous for the future of the Islands. The presidio of Caldera was destroyed by the Moros. Following this victory, in the year 1599, the Moros of Jolo and Magindanao equipped a piratical fleet of fifty caracoas, and swept the coasts of the Bisayas. Cebu, Negros, and Panay were ravaged, their towns burned, and their inhabitants carried off as slaves. The following year saw the return of a larger and still more dreadful expedition. The people of Panay aban- doned their towns and fled into the mountains, under the belief that these terrible attacks had been inspired by the Spaniards. To check these pirates, Juan Gallinato, with a force of two hundred Spaniards, was sent against Jolo, but, like so many expeditions that followed his, he ac- complished nothing. The inability of the Spaniards was now revealed and the era of Moro piracy had be- eun. “From this time until the present day” (about the year 1800), wrote Zuniga, “these Moros have not ceased to infest our colonies; innumerable are the Indians they have captured, the towns they have looted, the rancherias they have destroyed, the vessels they have taken. It seems as if God has preserved them for130 THE PHILIPPINES. vengeance on the Spaniards that they have not been able to subject. them in two hundred years, in spite of the expeditions sent against them, the armaments sent almost very year to pursue them. In a very little while we conquered all the islands of the Philip- pines; but the little island of Jolo, a part of Mindanao, Moro ‘‘Vinta.’’ and other islands near by we have not been able to subjugate to this day.” * Battle at Mariveles with the Dutch. — In October, 1600, two Dutch vessels appeared in the Islands; it was the famous expedition of the Dutch admiral, Van Noort. They had come through the Straits of Magellan, on a voy- age around the world. The Dutch were in great need of provisions. As they were in their great enemy’s colony, they captured and sunk several boats, Spanish and Chi- 1 Zufliga: Historia de Filipinas, pp. 195, 196.CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 131 nese, bound for Manila with rice, poultry, palm-wine, and other stores of food. At Mariveles, a Japanese vessel from Japan was overhauled. Meanwhile in Manila great excitement and activity prevailed. The Spaniards fitted up two galleons and the Oidor Morga himself took com- mand with a large crew of fighting men. On December 14, they attacked the Dutch, whose erews had been reduced to no more than eighty men on both ships. The vessel commanded by Morga ran down the flagship of Van Noort, and for hours the ships lay side by side while a hand-to-hand fight raged on the deck and in the hold. The ships taking fire, Morga disengaged his ship, which was so badly shattered that it sank, with ereat loss of life; but Morga and some others reached the little island of Fortuna. Van Noort was able to extin- cuish the fire on his vessel, and escape from the Islands. He eventually reached Holland. His smaller vessel was ‘aptured with its crew of thirteen men and six boys. The men were hanged at Cavite.’ Other Troubles of the Spanish. — In the year 1600, two ships sailed for Acapulco, but one went down off the Catanduanes and the other was shipwrecked on the La- drones. “On top of all other misfortunes, Manila suffered, “1 the last months of this government, a terrible earth- quake, which destroyed many houses and the church of the Jesuits.” The Moros, the Dutch, anxieties and losses by sea, the visi- tations of God,—how much of the history of the seventeenth century in the Philippines is filled with these four things! 1 Both Van Noort and Morga have left us accounts of thissea-fight, the former in his journal, Description of the Failsome Voyage Made Round the World, and the latter in his famous, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. 2 Montero v Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. L, p. £99:CHAPTER VII. THE PHILIPPINES THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. Condition of the Archipelago at the Beginning of the Seventeenth Century. — Zhe Spanish Rule Completely Established. — At the close of the sixteenth century the Spaniards had been in possession of the Philippines for a veneration. In these thirty-five years the most striking of all the results of the long period of Spanish occupation were accomplished. The work of these first soldiers and missionaries established the limits and character of Span- ish rule as it was to remain for 250 years. Into this first third of a century the Spaniard crowded all his early feats of arms and exploration. Thereafter, down to 1850, few new fields were explored, but all through the seven- teenth century the missionaries were Christianizing the conquered peoples. The survey of the archipelago given by Morga soon after 1600 reads like a narrative of approximately modern conditions. It reveals to us how great had been the activities of the early Spaniard and how small the achieve- ments of his countrymen after the seventeenth century began. All of the large islands, except Palawan and the Moro country, were, in that day, under encomiendas, their inhabitants paying tributes and for the most part ready to embrace the Catholie faith. The smaller groups and islets were almost as_ thor- oughly exploited. Even of the little Catanduanes, lying off the Pacific coast of Luzon, Morga could say, “ They are well populated with natives, —a good race, all en- 132Dea - es sini = THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 133 comiendas of Spaniards, with doctrine and churches, and an alcalde-mayor, who does justice among them.” The Babuyanes at the north of the archipelago were an exception. ‘‘They are not encomended, nor is tribute collected among them, nor are there Spaniards among them, because they are of little reason and politeness, and there have neither been Christians made among them nor have they justices.’’ In 1591, however, the Babuyanes had been given in encomienda to Esteban de la Serna and Francisco Castillo. They are put as having two thou- sand inhabitants and five hundred “ tributantes,” but all unsubdued (‘‘todos algados’’). On some islands the hold of the Spaniards was more extensive in Morga’s day than at a later time. Then the ‘sland of Mindoro was regarded as important, and in the sarly years and decades of Spanish power appears to have been populous along the coasts. Later it was desolated by the Moro pirates and long remained wild and almost uninhabited except by a shifting population from the mainland of Luzon, and of pirates from Sulu. The Encomiendas. — As we have already seen, one of the vessels that followed the expedition of Legazpi brought orders from the king that the Islands should be divided “1 encomiendas among those who had conquered and won them.! On this instruction, Legazpi had given the Fili- pinos in encomienda to his captains and soldiers as fast as the conquest proceeded. We are fortunate to have a review of these encomien- das, made in 1591, about twenty years after the system was introduced into the Islands.? There were then 267 1 Relacién de la Conquista de Luzon, W525 ps Lo 2 Relacién de las Encomiendas, existentes en Filipinas, Retana. Archivo del Bibliéfilo Filipino, vol. IV.134 THE PHILIPPINES. encomiendas in the Philippines, of which thirty-one were of the king, and the remainder of private persons. Population under the Encomiendas. — From the enu- meration of these encomiendas, we learn that the most populous parts of the archipelago were La Laguna, with 24.000 tributantes and 97,000 inhabitants, and the Cam- arines, which included all the Bikol territory, and the Catanduanes, where there were 21,670 tributantes and a population of over 86,000; the vicinity of Manila and Tondo, which included Cavite and Marigondon, the south shore of the bay, and Pasig and Taguig, where were col- lected 9.410 tributes, from a population estimated at about 30,000. In Ilokos were reported 17,130 tributes and 78,520 souls. The entire valley of the Cagayan had been divided among the soldiers of the command which had effected the conquest. In the list of encomiendas a few can be recog- nized, such as Yguig and Tuguegarao, but most of the names are not to be found on maps of to-day. Most of the inhabitants were reported to be “ rebellious” (algados) and some were apparently the same wild tribes which still occupy all of this water-shed, except the very banks of the river; but none the less had the Spaniards divided them off into ‘‘ repartimentos.’’ One soldier had even taken as an encomienda the inhabitants of the upper waters of the river, a region which is called in the Relacién ‘“Pugao,”’ with little doubt the habitat of the same Igo- rot tribe as the Ipugao, who still dwell in these moun- tains. The upper valley of the Magat, or Nueva Vizcaya, had not at this date been occupied and probably was not until the missions of the eighteenth century. The population among the Bisayan islands was quite surprisingly small, considering its present proportions.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 135 Masbate, for example, had but 1,600 souls; Burias, a like number; the whole central group, leaving out Panay, only 15,833 tributes, or about 35,000 souls. There was a single encomienda in Butuan, Mindanao, and another on the Caraga coast. There were a thousand tributes collected in the encomienda of Cuyo, and fifteen hundred in Cala- mianes, which, says the Relacién, included “los negrillos,” probably the mixed Negrito population of northern Pala- wan. The entire population under encomiendas 1s set down as 166,903 tributes, or 667,612 souls. This Relacién is one of the earliest enumerations of the population of the Philippines. Barring the Igorots of northern Luzon and the Moros and other tribes of Mindanao, it is a fair estimate of the number of the Filipino people three hun- dred years ago. It will be noticed that the numbers assigned to single encomenderos in the Philippines were large. In America the number was limited. As early as Lolz, King Ferdi- nand had forbidden any single person, of whatever rank or grade, to hold more than three hundred Indians on one ‘sland! But in the Philippines, a thousand or twelve hundred “tributantes” were frequently held by a single Spaniard. Condition of the Filipinos under the Encomtiendas.— Frequent Revolts.— That the Filipinos on many of these islands bitterly resented their condition is evidenced by the frequent uprisings and rebellions.. The encomenderos were often extortionate and cruel, and absolutely heedless of the restrictions and obligations imposed upon them by the Laws of the Indies. Occasionally a new governor, 1 Ordenanzas ... para la Reparticion de los Indios de la Isla Es- paitola, in Documentos Ineditos, vol. I., p. 230-136 THE PHILIPPINES. under the first impulse of instructions from Mexico or Spain, did something to correct abuses. Revolts were almost continuous during the year 1583, and the condition of the natives very bad, many encomenderos regarding them and treating them almost as slaves, and keeping them at labor to the destruction of their own crops and the misery of their families. Gov. Santiago de Vera reached the Islands the following year and made a charac- teristic attempt to improve the system, which is thus related by Zuniga: — “ As soon as he had taken possession of the government, he studied to put into effect the orders which he brought from the king, to punish certain encomenderos, who had abused the favor they had received in being given en- comiendas, whereby he deposed Bartolomé de Ledesma, encomendero of Abuyo (Leyte), and others of those most culpable, and punished the others in proportion to the offenses which they had committed, and which had been proven. “Tn the following year of 1585, he sent Juan de Morones and Pablo de Lima, with a well equipped squadron, to the Moluceas, which adventure was as unfortunate as those that had preceded it, and they returned to Manila without having been able to take the fortress of Ternate. The governor felt it very deeply that the expedition had failed, and wished to send another armada in accordance with the orders which the king had given him; but he could not execute this because the troops from New Spain did not arrive, and because of the Indians, who lost no occasion which presented itself to shake off the yoke of the Spaniards. “The Pampangos and many inhabitants of Manila con- federated with the Moros of Borneo, who had come forTHREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 137 trade, and plotted to enter the city by night, set it on fire, and, in the confusion of the conflagration, slay all the Spaniards. This conspiracy was discovered through an Indian woman, who was married to a Spanish soldier, and measures to meet the conspiracy were taken, before the mine exploded, many being seized and suffering ex- emplary punishment. “The islands of Samar, Ybabao, and Leyte were also in disturbance, and the encomendero of Dagami, pueblo of Leyte, was in peril of losing his life, because the Indians were incensed by his thievings in the collection of tribute, which was paid in wax, and which he compelled them to have weighed with a steelyard which he had made double the legal amount, and wanted to kill him. They would have done so if he had not escaped into the mountains and afterwards passed by a banka to the island of Cebu. The governor sent Captain Lorenzo de la Mota to pacify these disturbances; he made some punishments, and with these everything quieted down.” * Three years later, however, the natives of Leyte were again in revolt. In 1589 Cagayan rose and killed many Spaniards. The revolt seems to have spread from here to the town of Dingras, Ilokos, where the natives rose against the collectors of tribute, and slew six Spaniards of the pueblo of Fernandina.” Effects of the Spanish Government. —The Spanish oc- cupation had brought ruin and misery to some parts of 1 Historia de Filipinas, p. 157, et sq. 2 Among other documents, which throw a most unfavorable light upon the condition of the Filipinos under the encomiendas, is a letter to the king from Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of the Philip- pines, which describes the conditions about 1583. (Zuniga, Historia de Filipinas, p. 165.)138 THE PHILIPPINES. the country. Salazar describes with bitterness the evil condition of the Filipinos. In the rich fields of Bulacan and Pampanga, great gangs of laborers had been im- pressed, felling the forests for the construction of the Spanish fleets and manning these fleets at the oars, on voyages which took them for four and six months from their homes. The governor, Don Gonzalo Ronquillo, had forced many Indians of Pampanga into the mines of llokos, taking them from the sowing of their rice. Many had died in the mines and the rest returned so enfeebled that they could not plant. Hunger and famine had de- scended upon Pampanga, and on the encomienda of Guido de Labezares over a thousand had died from starvation.’ The Tribute. — The tribute was a source of abuse. Theoretically, the tax upon Indians was limited to the “tributo,” the sum of eight reales (about one dollar) yearly from the heads of all families, payable either in gold or in produce of the district. But in fixing the prices of these commodities there was much extortion, the encomenderos delaying the collection of the tribute until the season of scarcity, when prices were high, but insist- ing then on the same amount as at harvest-time. The principal, who occupied the place of the former dato, or ‘‘ maharlika,” like the gobernadorcillo of recent times, was responsible for the collecting of the tribute, and his lot seems to have been a hard one. “If they do not give as much as they ask, or do not pay for as many Indians as they say there are, they abuse the poor prin- cipal, or throw him into the pillory (cepo de cabeza), because all the encomenderos, when they go to make col- lections, take their pillories with them, and there they keep ae Domingo de Salazar, Relacién de las Cosas de las Filipinas, 1583, p. 5, in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.— - " 7 ———————— THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 139 him and torment him, until forced to give all they ask. They are even said to take the wife and daughter of the principal, when he can not be found. Many are the prin- cipales who have died under these torments, according to reports.” Salazar further states that he has known natives to be sold into slavery, in default of tribute. Neither did they impose upon adults alone, but “they collect tribute from infants, the aged and the slaves, and many do not marry because of the tribute, and others slay their children.” ’ Scarcity of Food. —Salazar further charges that the alealdes mayores (the alealdes of provinces), sixteen in number, were all corrupt, and, though their salaries were small, they accumulated fortunes. For further enumera- tion of economic ills, Salazar details how prices had evilly ‘nereased. In the first years of Spanish occupation, food was abundant. There was no lack of rice, beans, chickens, pigs, venison, buffalo, fish, cocoanuts, bananas, and other fruits, wine and honey; and a little money bought much. A hundred gantas (about three hundred liters) of rice could then be bought for a toston (a Portuguese coin, worth about a half-peso), eight to sixteen fowls for a like amount, a fat pig for from four to six reales. In the vear of his writing (about 1053), products were scarce and prices exorbitant. Rice had doubled, chickens were worth a real, a good pig six to eight pesos. Population had decreased, and whole towns were deserted, their in- habitants having fled into the hills. General Improvement under Spanish Rule. — This is one side of the picture. It probably is overdrawn by the bishop, who was jealous of the civil authority and who began the first of those continuous clashes between the ) 1 Relacién, pp. 13, 14.140 THE PHILIPPINES. chureh and political power in the Philippines. Doubt- less if we could see the whole character of Spanish rule in these decades, we should see that the actual condition of the Filipino had improved and his grade of culture had risen. No one can estimate the actual good that comes to a people in being brought under the power of a government able to maintain peace and dispense Justice. Taxation is sometimes grievous, corruption without ex- cuse; but almost anything is better than anarchy. Before the coming of the Spaniards, it seems unques- tionable that the Filipinos suffered greatly under two ter- rible grievances that inflict barbarous society, — in the first place, warfare, with its murder, pillage, and destruction, not merely between tribe and tribe, but between town and town, such as even now prevails in the wild mountains of northern Luzon, among the primitive Ma- layan tribes; and in the second place, the weak and poor man was at the mercy of the strong and rich. The establishment of Spanish sovereignty had certainly mitigated, if it did not wholly remedy, these conditions. ‘are pacified ‘ “ All of these provinces,” Morga could write, and are governed from Manila, having alcaldes mayores, corregidors, and lieutenants, each one of whom governs in his district or province and dispenses justice. The chief- tains (principales), who formerly held the other natives in subjection, no longer have power over them in the manner which they tyrannically employed, which is not the least benefit these natives have received in escaping from such slavery.” * Old Social Order of the Filipinos but Little Disturbed. — Some governors seem to have done their utmost to im- prove the condition of the people and to govern them— ae - SS re Sa = = sss THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 14] well. Santiago de Vera, as we have seen, even went so far as to commission the worthy priest, Padre Juan de Plasencia, to investigate the customs and social organ- ization of the Filipinos, and to prepare an account of their laws, that they might be more suitably governed. This brief code—for so it is—was distributed to alealdes, judges, and encomenderos, with orders to pat- tern their decisions in accordance with Filipino custom.’ In ordering local affairs, the Spaniards to some extent left the old social order of the Filipinos undisturbed. The several social classes were gradually suppressed, and at the head of each barrio, or small settlement, was appointed a head, or cabeza de barangay. As these barangayes were grouped into pueblos, or towns, the former datos were appointed captains and goberna- doreillos. The Payment of Tribute. — The tribute was introduced in 1570.2. It was supposed to be eight reales or a peso of silver for each family. Children under sixteen and adults over sixty were exempt. In 1590 the amount was raised to ten reales. To this was added a real for the church, known as ‘‘sanctorum,” and, on the organization of the towns. a real for the caja de communidad or municipal treasury. Under the encomiendas the tribute was paid to the encomenderos, except on the royal encomiendas; _ but after several generations, as the encomiendas decreased in number, these collections went directly to the insular treasurv. There was later, besides the tribute, a com- pulsory service of labor on roads, bridges, and public ae rr? s i . - > 2 “2 2 1 Las Costumbres de los Tagdloes en Filipinas segun el Padre Pla- sencia. Madrid, 1892. 2 Blumentritt: Organization Communale des Indigines des Philip pines, traduis de l Allemand, par A. Hugot. 1881.142 THE PHILIPPINES. works, known as the “corvée,” a feudal term, or perhaps ‘ more generally as the ‘polos y servicios.” Those dis- + charging this enforced labor were called “ polistas.” Conversion of the Filipinos to Christianity. — The popu- lation was being very rapidly Christianized. All accounts agree that almost no difficulty was encountered in baptiz- ing the more advanced tribes. “ There is not in these islands a province,” says Morga, “which resists conver- 1 Indeed. the Islands seem sion and does not desire it.” to have been ripe for the preaching of a higher faith, either Christian or Mohammedan. For a time these two ereat religions struggled together in the vicinity of Ma- nila? but at the end of three decades Spanish power and religion were alike established. Conversion was delayed ordinarily only by the lack of sufficient numbers of priests. We have seen that this conversion of the people was the work of the missionary friars. In 1591 there were 140 in the Islands, but the Relacién de las Enco- miendas calls for 160 more to properly supply the peoples which had been laid under tribute. Coming of the Missionaries. — The Augustinians had been the pioneer order, a few accompanying Legazpi. The first company of Franciscans arrived in 1577. The first Jesuits, padres Antonio Sedefio and Alonzo Sanchez, had come with the bishop of the Islands, Domingo de Salazar, in 1581. They came apparently without resources. Even their garments brought from Mexico had rotted on the voyage. They found a little, poor, narrow house in a suburb of Manila, called Laguio (probably Concepcion). “So poorly furnished was it,’ says Chirino, “that the same chest which held their books was the table on which 1 Sucésos de las Filipinas, p. 332. * See Salazar’s relation on this point.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 143 they ate. Their food for many days was rice, cooked in water, without salt or oil or fish or meat or even an egg, or anything else ex¢ept that sometimes as a regalo they 1 Dominicans came in 1587, and finally in 1606 the Recollects, or unshod Augustinians. enjoyed some salt sardines.” Before the end of the century there were over four hundred. Division of the Archipelago among the Religious Orders. — The archipelago was districted among these mission- ary bands. The Augustinians had many parishes in the Bisayas, on the Ilokano coast, some in Pangasinan, and all of those in Pampanga. The Dominicans had parts of Pangasinan and all of the valley of Cagayan. The Fran- ciscans occupied the Camarines and nearly all of southern Luzon, and the region of Laguna de Bay. All of these orders had convents and monasteries both in the city of Manila and in the country round about. The imposing churches of brick and stone, which now characterize nearly every pueblo, had not in those early decades been erected; but Morga tells us that “the churches and monasteries were of wood, and well built, with furniture and beautiful ornaments, complete service, crosses, candlesticks, and hy) chalices of silver and gold The First Schools. — Even in these early years there seem to have been some attempts at the education of the natives. The friars had schools in reading and writing for boys, who were also taught to serve in the church, to sing, to play the organ, the harp, guitar, and other instru- ments. We must remember, however, that the [Filipino before the arrival of the Spaniard had a written language, and even in pre-Spanish times there must have been in- struction given to the child. The type of humble school, 1 Chirino: Relacién, pp. 19, 20. 2 Morga, p. 329144 THE PHILIPPINES. that is found to-day in remote barrios, conducted by an old man or woman, on the floor or in the yard of a home, where the ordinary family occupations are proceeding, probably does not owe its origin to the Spaniards, but dates from a period before their arrival. The higher edu- cation established by the Spaniards appears to have been exclusively for the children of Spaniards. In 1601 the Jesuits, pioneers of the Roman Catholic orders in educa- tion, eciahliche .d the College of San José. Establishment of Hospitals. — The city early had nota- ble foundations of charity. The high mortality which visited the Spaniards in these islands and the frequency of diseases ee called for the establishment of institu- tions for the orphan and the invalid. In Morga’s time there were the orphanages of San Andres and Santa Potenciana. ‘There was the Royal Hospital, in charge of three Franciscans, which burned in the conflagration of 1603. but was reconstructed. There was also a Hospital of Merey, in charge of Sisters of Charity from Lisbon and the Portuguese possessions of India. Close by the Monastery of Saint Francis stood then, where it stands to-day, the hospital for natives, San Juan de Dios. It was of royal patronage, but founded by : friar of the Franciscan order, Juan Clemente. “Here,”’ says Morga, “sre cured a great number of natives of all kinds of sicknesses, with much charity and care. It has a good house and offices of stone, and is administered by the barefooted religious of Saint Francis. Three priests are there and four lay-brethren of exemplary life, who, with the doctors, surgeons, and apothecaries, are so dex- terous and skilled that they work with their hands mar- velous cures, both in medicine and surgery.” * 1 Sucésos de las Filipinas, p. 323THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 145 Mortality among the Spaniards. — Mortality in the Phil- ippines in these years of conquest was frightfully high. The w aste of life in her colonial adventures, indeed, drained Spain of her best and most vigorous manhood. In the famous old English collection of voyages, published by Hakluyt in 1598, there is printed a captured Spanish let- ter of the famous sea-captain, Sebastian Biscaino, on the Philippine trade. Biscaino grieves over the loss of life which had accompanied the conquest of the Philippines, and the treacherous climate of the tropics. “The coun- try is very unwholesome for us Spaniards. For within these 20 years, of 14,000 which have gone to the Philip- pines, there are 13,000 of them dead, and not past 1,000 of them left alive.” ’ The Spanish Population. — The Spanish population of the Islands was always small, —at the beginning of the seventeenth century certainly not more than two thou- sand, and probably less later in the century. Morga divides them into five classes: the prelates and ecclesi- astics: the encomenderos, colonizers, and conquerors; sol- diers and officers of war and marine; merchants and men of business: and the officers of his Majesty's govern- ment. ‘Very few are living now,” he says, “of those first conquistadores who won the land and effected the conquest with the Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Le- gazpl.” ” The Largest Cities. — Most of this Spanish population dwelt in Manila or in the five other cities which the Span- : The eencipal Navigations, V ovages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, .. . by Richard Hakluyt, Master of Artes and sometime Student of Christ Church in Oxford. Imprinted at London, 1598. Vol. I., p. 560. 2 Sucésos de las Filipinas, p. 347.146 THE PHILIPPINES. ‘ards had founded in the first three decades of their oc cupation. These were as follows: — The City of Nweva Segovia, at the mouth of the Cagayan, was founded in the governorship of Ronquillo, when the valley of the Cagayan was first occupied and the Japanese colonists, who had settled there, were expelled. It had at the beginning of the seventeenth century two hundred Spaniards, living in houses of wood. There was a fort of stone, where some artillery was mounted. Be- sides the two hundred Spanish inhabitants there were one hundred regular Spanish soldiers, with their officers and the alealde mayor of the province. Nueva Segovia was also the seat of a bishopric which included all northern Luzon. The importance of the then promising city has long ago disappeared, and the pueblo of Lallok, which marks its site, is an insignificant native town. The City of Nweva Caceres, in the Camarines, was founded by Governor Sande. It, too, was the seat of a bishopric, and had one hundred Spanish inhabit- ants. The Cities of Cebu and Iloilo.—In the Bisayas were the Cities of the Holy Name of God (Cebu), and on the island of Panay, Arévalo (or Iloilo). The first maintained something of the importance attaching to the first Spanish settlement. It had its stone fort and was also the seat of a bishopric. It was visited by trading-vessels from the Moluccas, and by permit of the king enjoyed for a time the unusual privilege of sending annually a ship loaded with merchandise to New Spain. Arévalo had about eighty Spanish inhabitants, and a monastery of the Augustinians. The City of Fernandina, or Bigan, which Salcedo bad founded, was nearly without Spanish inhabitants.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 147 Still, it was the political center of the great lokano coast, and it has held this position to the present day. Manila. — But all of these cities were far surpassed in importance by the capital on the banks of the Pasig. The wisdom of Legazpi’s choice had been more than justified. Manila, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, was unquestionably the most important [uro- pean city of the Hast. As we have already seen, in 1580 Portugal had been annexed by Spain and with her had come all the Portuguese possessions in India, China, and Malaysia. After 1610, the Dutch were almost annually warring for this colonial empire, and Portugal regained her independence in 1640. But for the first few years of the seventeenth century, Manila was the political mistress of an empire that stretched from Goa to Formosa and embraced all those coveted lands which for a century and a half had been the desire of European states. The governor of the Philippines was almost an inde- pendent king. Nominally, he was subordinate to the viceroy of Mexico, but practically he waged war, con- cluded peace, and received and sent embassies at his own discretion. The kingdom of Cambodia was his ally, and the states of China and Japan were his friends. The Commercial Importance of Manila. — Manila was also the commercial center of the Far Hast, and the en- trepot through which the kingdoms of eastern Asia ex- changed their wares. Here came ereat fleets of junks from China laden with stores. Morga fills nearly two pages with an enumeration of their merchandise, which included all manner of silks, brocades, furniture, pearls. and gems, fruits, nuts, tame buffalo, geese, horses and mules, all kinds of animals, “even to birds in cages, some of which talk and others sing, and which they make per-148 THE PHILIPPINES. form a thousand tricks; there are innumerable other gew- gaws and knickknacks, which among Spaniards are in much esteem.” * Each year a fleet of thirty to forty vessels sailed with the new moon in March. The voyage across the China Sea, rough with the monsoons, occupied fifteen or twenty days, and the fleet returned at the end of May or the beginning of June. Between October and March there came, each year, Japanese ships from Nagasaki which brought wheat, silks, objects of art, and weapons, and took away from Manila the raw silk of China, gold, deer horns, woods, honey, wax, palm-wine, and wine of Castile. From Malacea and India came fleets of the Portuguese subjects of Spain, with spices, slaves, Negroes and Kafirs, and the rich productions of Bengal, India, Persia, and Turkey. From Borneo, too, came the smaller craft of the Malays, who from their boats sold the fine palm mats, the best of which still come from Cagayan de Sulu and Borneo, slaves, sago, water-pots and glazed earthenware, black and fine. From Siam and Cambodia also, but less often, there came trading-ships. Manila was thus a great em- porium for all the countries of the Hast, the trade of which seems to have been conducted largely by and through the merchants of Manila. Trade with Mexico and Spain Restricted. —'The com- merce between the Philippines, and Mexico and Spain, though it had vast possibilities, was limited by action of the crown. The trade with China apparently admitted of infinite expansion, but the shortsighted merchants and manufacturers of the Peninsula clamored against its development, and it was subjected to the severest limitations. Four large galleons were at first main- 1 Sucésos de las Filipinas, p. 352.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 149 tained for this trade, which were dispatched two at a time in successive years from Manila to the port of Aca- pulco, Mexico. The letter on the Philippine trade, already quoted, states that these galleons were great ships of six hundred and eight hundred tons apiece. They went “very strong with soldiers,” and they carried the annual mail, reénforceements, and supplies of Mexican silver for trade with China, which has remained the commercial currency of the East to the present day. Later the num- ber of galleons was reduced to one. The Rich Cargoes of the Galleons. — The track of the Philippine galleon lay from Luzon northeastward to about the forty-second degree of latitude, where the westerly winds prevail, thence nearly straight across the ocean to Cape Mendocino in northern California, which was dis- covered and mapped by Biscaino in 1602. Thence the course lay down the western coast of North America nearly three thousand miles to the port of Acapulco. We can imagine how carefully selected and rich in quality were the merchandises with which these solitary ealleons were freighted, the pick of all the rich stores which came to Manila. The profits were enormous, — six and eight hundred per cent. Biscaino wrote that with two hundred dueats invested in Spanish wares and some Flemish commodities, he made fourteen hundred ducats: but, he added, in 1588 he lost a ship, — robbed and burned by Englishmen. On the safe arrival of these ships depended how much of the fortunes of the colony! Capture of the Galleons. — For generations these gal- leons were probably the most tempting and romantic prize that ever aroused the cupidity of privateer. The first to profit by this rich booty was Thomas Cavendish, MReteh the Indies: VIEL. 45; 46: x _ SS a SS ee —150 THE PHILIPPINES. who in 1587 came through the Straits of Magellan with a eet of three vessels. Like Drake before him, he ravaged the coast of South America and then steered straight away across the sea to the Moluccas. Here he acquired ‘nformation about the rich commerce of the Philippines and of the yearly voyage of the galleon. Back across the Pa- cific went the fleet of Cavendish for the coast of California. In his own narrative he tells how he beat up and Capture of the Galleon ‘* Cabadonga,’’ off the Coast of Samar. (From a print in Anson’s Voyage Around the World.) down between Capes San Lucas and Mendocino until the valleon, heavy with her riches, appeared. She fell into his hands almost without a fray. She carried one hun- dred and twenty-two thousand pesos of gold and a great and rich store of satins, damask, and musk. Cavendish landed the Spanish on the California coast, burned the “Santa Ana,’ and then returned to the Philippines and made an attack upon the shipyard of Hoilo, but was re-en THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 151 pulsed. He sent a letter to the governor at Manila, boast- ing of his capture, and then sailed for the Cape otf Good Hope and home. There is an old story that tells how his seaworn ships came up = Thames, their masts hung with silk and damask sails. From this time on the venture was less safe. In 1588 there came to Spain the overwhelming disaster of her history, —the destruction of the Great Armada. From this date her power was gone, and her name was no longer a terror on the seas. English free- booters controlled the oceans, and in 1610 the Dutch appeared in the East, never to wit hdraw. The a of Manila Three Hundred Years Ago. — We ean hardly close this chapter without some further ref- erence to the city of Manila oe appeared three hundred years ago. Morga has fortunately left us a detailed de- scription from which the following points in the main are drawn. As we have already seen, Legazpi had laid out the city on the blackened site of the town and fortress of the Mohammedan prince, which had been destroyed in the struggle for occupation. He gave it the same extent and dimensions that it possesses to this day. Like other colonial capitals in the Far East, it was primarily a citadel and refuge from attack. On the point between the sea and the river Legazpi had begun the famous and permanent fortress of Santiago. In the time of the great adelantado it was Par only a wooden stockade, but under the governor Santiago de Vera it was built up of stone. Cavendish (1587) deseribes Manila as “an unwalled town and of no great strength,” but under the improvements and completions made by Das- marifias about 1590 it assumed much of its present ap- pearance. Its guns thoroughly commanded the entrancetee, THE PHILIPPINES. to the river Pasig and made the approach of hostile boats from the harbor side impossible. It is noteworthy, then, that all the assaults that have been made upon the city, from that of Limahong, to those of the British in 1762, and of the Americans in 1898, have been directed against the southern wall by an ad- vance from Malate. Dasmarifias also inclosed the city with a stone wall, the base from which the present noble rampart has arisen. It had originally a width of from seven and a half to nine feet. Of its height no figure is given. Morga says simply that with its buttresses and turrets it was sufficiently high for the purposes of de- fense. The Old Fort.— There was a stone fort on the south side facing Ermita, known as the Fortress of Our Lady of Guidance; and there were two or more bastions, each with six pieces of artillery, —St. Andrew’s, now a powder mag- azine at the southeast corner, and St. Gabriel’s, over- looking the Parian district, where the Chinese were settled. The three principal gates to the city, with the smaller wickets and posterns, which opened on the river and sea, were regularly closed at night by the guard which made the rounds. At each gate and wicket was a permanent post of soldiers and artillerists. The Plaza de Armas adjacent to the fort had its ar- senal, stores, powder-works, and a foundry for the cast- ing of guns and artillery. The foundry, when established by Ronquillo, was in charge of a Pampangan Indian called Pandapira. The Spanish Buildings of the City. — The buildings of the city, especially the Casas Reales and the churches and monasteries, had been durably erected of stone. Chirino claims that the hewing of stone, the burning of lime, andTHREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 153 the training of native and Chinese artisans for this build- ing, were the work of the Jesuit father, Sedeho. He him- self fashioned the first clay tiles and built the first stone house, and so urged and encouraged others, himself direct- ing, the building of public works, that the city, which a little before had been solely of timber and cane, had be- come one of the best constructed and most beautiful in the Indies.t He it was also who sought out Chinese painters and decorators and ornamented the churches with images and paintings. Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or “arrabales,”’ all occupied by Spaniards (“todos son vivienda y pob- lacion de los Espanoles’’).* This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty,’ the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes. The Malecon and the Luneta. —TIt is interesting at this earlv date to find mention of the famous recreation drive, the Paseo de Bagumbayan, now commonly known as the Malecon and Luneta. “ Manila,” says our historian, “has two places of recreation on land; the one, which is clean and wide, extends from the point called Our Lady of Guidance for about a league along the sea, and through the street and village of natives, called Bagumbayan, to 1 Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, chap. V., P. 23, and chap. XIII. Pe 47. . . . ‘ ‘ * Morga, Suce sos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 323. 3 Ibid., p. 321.154 THE PHILIPPINES. a very devout hermitage (Ermita), called the Hermitage of Our Lady of Guidance, and from there a good distance to a monastery and mission (doctrina) of the Augustin- ians, called Mahalat (Malate).’”?* The other drive lay out through the present suburb of Concepcion, then called Laguio, to Paco, where was a monastery of the Francis- cans. The Chinese in Manila. — Harly Chinese Commerce. — We have seen that even as long ago as three hundred years Manila was a metropolis of the Eastern world. Ves- sels from many lands dropped anchor at the mouth of the Pasig, and their merchants set up their booths within her markets. Slaves from far-distant India and Africa were sold under her walls. Surely it was a cosmopolitan popu- lation that the shifting monsoons carried to and from her gates. But of all these Eastern races only one has been a constant and important factor in the life of the Islands. This is the Chinese. It does not appear that they settled in the country or materially affected the life of the Fili- pinos until the establishment of Manila by the Spaniards. The Spaniards were early desirous of cultivating friendly relations with the Empire of China. Salcedo, on his first punitive expedition to Mindoro, had found a Chinese junk, which had gone ashore on the western coast. He was careful to rescue these voyagers and return them to their own land, with a friendly message inviting trading rela- tions. Commerce and immigration followed immediately the founding of the city. The Chinese are without question the most remarkable colonizers in the world. They seem able to thrive in any climate. They readily marry with every race. The ’ Morga: Sucésos, p. 324.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 155 children that follow such unions are not only numerous but healthy and intelligent. The coasts of China teem with overcrowding populations. Emigration to almost any land means improvement of the Chinese of poor birth. These qualities and conditions, with their keen sense for trade and their indifference to physical hardship and danger, make the Chinese almost a dominant factor wherever political barriers have not been raised against their entrance. The Chinese had early gained an important place im the commercial and industrial life of Manila. A letter to the king from Bishop Salazar shows that he befriended them and was warm in their praise.’ This was in 1590, and there were then in Manila and Tondo about seven thou- sand resident Chinese, and they were indispensable to the prosperity of the city. Importance of Chinese Labor and Trade. — In the early decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines were poor in resources and the population was sparse, quite insufficient for the purposes of the Spanish colonizers. Thus the early development of the colony was based upon Chinese labor and Chinese trade. As the early writers are fond of emphasizing, from China came not only the finished silks and costly wares, which in large part were destined for the trade to New Spain and Europe, but also cattle, horses and mares, foodstuffs, metals, fruits, and even ink and paper. “And what 1s more,” says Chirino, “from China come those who supply every sort of service, all dexterous, prompt, and cheap, from physicians and barbers to burden- bearers and porters. They are the tailors and shoemakers, metal-workers, silversmiths, sculptors, locksmiths, paint- 1 Carta Relacién de las Cosas de la China y de los Chinos del Parvan de Manila, 1590; in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.156 THE PHILIPPINES. ers, masons, weavers, and finally every kind of servitors in the commonwealth.” * Distrust of the Chinese.— In those days, not only were the Chinese artisans and traders, but they were alse farmers and fishermen, — occupations in which they are now not often seen. But in spite of their economic neces- sity, the Chinese were always looked upon with disfavor and their presence with dread. Plots of murder and in- surrection were supposedly rife among them. Writers ob- ject that their numbers were so great that there was no security in the land; their life was bad and _ vicious; through intercourse with them the natives advanced but little in Christianity and customs; they were such terrible eaters that they made foods scarce and prices high. If permitted, they went everywhere through the Islands and committed a thousand abuses and offenses. They ex- plored every spot, river, estero, and harbor, and knew the country better even than the Spaniard himself, so that if amy enemy should come they would be able to cause infinite mischief.2 When we find so just and high- minded a man as the president of the Audiencia, Morga, viving voice to such charges, we may be sure that the feel- ing was deep and ominous, and practically universal among all Spanish inhabitants. The First Massacre of the Chinese. and suspected the other, and from this mutual distrust came in 1603 a cruel outbreak and massacre. Three Chi- nese mandarins arrived in that year, stating that they had been sent by the emperor to investigate a report that there was a mountain in Cavite of solid precious metal. Each race feared 1 Relacién de las Islas Filipinas, p. 18. See also Salazar, Carta Relacién. 2 Sucésos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 364.THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 157 This myth was no more absurd than many pursued by the Spaniards themselves in their early conquests, and it doubtless arose from the fact that Chinese wares were largely purchased by Mexican bullion; but the Spaniards were at once filled with suspicion of an invasion, and their distrust turned against the Chinese in the Islands. How far these latter were actually plotting sedition and how far they were driven into attack by their fears at the conduct of the Spaniards can hardly be de- cided. But the fact is, that on the evening of Saint Francis day the Chinese of the Parian rose. Their banners were raised, war-gongs were beaten, and that night the pueblos of Quiapo and Tondo were burned and many Filipinos murdered. In the morning a force of 130 Spaniards, under Don Luis Dasmarifas and Don Tomas Bravo, were sent across the river, and in the fight nearly every Spaniard was slain. The Chinese then assaulted the city, but, according to the statement of the priests, they were driven back in terror by the apparition of Saint Francis on the walls. They threw up forts on the site of the Parian and in Dilao, but the power of their wild fury was gone and the Spaniards were able to dislodge and drive them into the country about San Pablo del Monte. From here they were dis- persed with great slaughter. Twenty-three thousand Chinese are reported by Zuniga to have perished in this sedition. If his report is true, the number of Chinese in the Islands must have increased very rapidly between 1590 and 1603. Restriction of Chinese Immigration and Travel.— Commerce and immigration began again almost immediately. The number of Chinese, however, allowed to remain was reduced. The Chinese ships that came annually to tradeMDS THE PHILIPPINES. were obliged to take back with them the crews and pas- sengers which they brought. Only a limited number of merchants and artisans were permitted to live in the Is- lands. They were confined to three districts in the city of Manila, and to the great market, the Aleayceria or Parian. The word ‘“ Parian’’ was first used for the Chinese quarter adjoining the walled city on the present site of the Botanical Garden, but about 1640 the ‘‘ New Parian ’ was built in Binondo, about the present Calle San Fern- ando. It consisted of a block of stores in the form of a square, with small habitations above them. Here was the great market of Manila. The Chinese could not travel in the Islands, nor go two leagues from the city without a written license, nor remain over night within the city after the gates were closed, on penalty of their lives. They had their own alcalde and judge, a tribunal and jail; and on the north side of the river Dominican friars, who had learned the Chinese lan- euage, had erected a mission and hospital. There was a separate barrio for the baptized Chinese and their families, to the number of about five hundred. The Chinese in the Philippines from the earliest time to the present have been known by the name of “Sang- ) leyes.”’ The derivation of this curious word is uncertain; but Navarrete, who must have understood Chinese well, says that the word arose from a misapprehension of the words spoken by the Chinese who first presented them- selves at Manila. “Being asked what they came for, they answered, ‘Xang Lei,’ that is, “We come to trade.’ The Spaniards, who understood not their language, con- ceiving it to be the name of a country, and putting the two words together, made one of them, by which they still distinguish the Chinese, calling them Sangleyes.”THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 159 The Japanese Colony. — There was also in these early years quite a colony of Japanese. Their community lay between the Parian and the barrio of Laguio. There were about five hundred, and among them the Franciscans S claimed a goodly number of convel The Filipino District of Tondo. — We have described at some length the city south of the river and the surround- ing suburbs, most of them known by the names they hold to-day. North of the Pasig was the great district of Tondo, the center of that strong, independent Filipino feeling which at an early date was colored with Moham- medanism and to this day is strong in local feeling. This region has thriven and built up until it has long been by far the most important and populous part of the metrop- olis, but not until very recent times was it regarded as a part of the city of Manila, which name was reserved for the walled city alone. A bridge across the Pasig, on the site of the present Puente de Espaiia, connected the two districts at a date later than Morga’s time. It was one of the first things noticed by Navarrete, who, without describing it well, says it was very fine. It was built during the governor- ship of Nifio de Tabora, who died in 1632. Montero states that it was of stone, and that this same bridge stood for more than two centuries, resisting the incessant traffic and the strength of floods.” The Decline of Manila during the Next Century. — Such was Manila thirty-five and forty years after its founda- tion. It was at the zenith of its importance, the capital of the eastern colonies, the mart of Asia, more splendid than Goa, more powerful than Malacea or Macao, more 1 Zuniga: Historia de las Filipinas, p. 252 2 Historia General de Pilipinas, vol, I., p- Sie160 THE PHILIPPINES. populous and far more securely heid than Ternate and Tidor. “Truly,” exclaimed Chirino, “it is another Tyre, so magnified by Ezekiel.” It owed its great place to the genius and daring of the men who founded it, to the free- dom of action which it had up to this point enjoyed, and to its superlative situation. In the years that followed we have to recount for the most part only the process of decline. Spain her- self was fast on the wane. A few years later and the English had almost driven her navies from the seas, the Portuguese had regained their independence and lost em- pire, the Dutch were in the East, harrying Portuguese and Spaniard alike and fast monopolizing the rich trade. The commerce and friendly relations with the Chinese, on which so much depended, were broken by massacre and reprisal; and, most terrible and piteous of all, the awful wrath and lust of the Malay pirate, for decade after de- cade, was to be visited upon the archipelago. The colonial policy of the mother-land, selfish, short- sighted, reactionary, was soon to make its paralyzing influence felt upon trade and administration alike. These things were growing and taking place in the next period which we have to consider,—the years from 1600 to 1663. They left the Philippines despoiled and insignifi- cant for a whole succeeding century, a decadent colony and an exploited treasure.CHAPTER VIII. THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. Loss of the Naval Power of Spain and Portugal. — The seizure of Portugal by Philip II. in 1580 was disastrous in its consequences to both Portugal and Spain. For Portugal it was humiliation and loss of colonial power. Spain was unequal to the task of defending the Portu- guese possessions, and her jealousy of their prosperity seems to have caused her deliberately to neglect their in- terests and permit their decline. In one day Portugal lost possession of that splendid and daring navy which had first found a way to the Indies. Several hundred Portu- guese ships, thousands of guns, and large sums of money were appropriated by Spain upon the annexation of Por- tugal.! Many of these ill-fated ships went down in the English Channel with the Great Armada. When the terrible news of the destruction of this power- ful armament, on which rested Spanish hopes for the con- quest and humiliation of England, was brought to the Escorial, the magnificent palace where the years of the king were passed, Philip II., that strange man, whose countenance seldom changed at tidings of either defeat or victory, is reported to have simply said, “1 thank God that I have the power to replace the loss.’ He was fatu- ously mistaken. The loss could never be made good. The navies of Spain and Portugal were never fully rebuilt. In that year, 1588, preéminence on the sea passed to the English and the Dutch. 1 Morris: The History of Colonization, yol, I., p. 215 sq. 16]162 THE PHILIPPINES. The Netherlands Become an Independent Country. — Who were these Dutch, or Hollanders? How came they to wrest from Spain and Portugal a colonial empire, which they hold to-day without loss of prosperity or evidence of decline? In the north of Europe, facing the North Sea, is a low, rich land, intersected by rivers and washed far into its interior by the tides, known as Holland, the Low Countries, or the Netherlands. Its people have ever been famed for their industry and hardihood. In manufacture and trade in the latter Middle Age, they stood far in the lead in northern Hurope. Their towns and cities were the thriftiest, most prosperous, and most cleanly. We have already explained the curious facts of succes- sion by which these countries became a possession of the Spanish king, Emperor Charles the Iifth. ‘The Low Coun- tries were always greatly prized by Charles, and in spite of the severities of his rule he held their affection and loyalty until his death. It was in the city of Brussels that he formally abdicated in favor of his son, Philip I1., and, as described by contemporary historians, this solemn and imposing ceremony was witnessed with every mark of loyalty by the assembly. | The Rebellion. — But the oppressions and _ persecu- tions of Philip’s reign drove the people to rebellion. ‘The Protestant religion had been introduced into the Nether- lands and when, in addition to intimidation, the quartering of Spanish soldiery, and the violation of sovereign prom- ises, Philip imposed that terrible and merciless institution, the Spanish Inquisition, the Low Countries faced the ty- rant in a passion of rebellion. War, begun in 1567, dragged on for years. There was pitiless cruelty, and the sacking of cities was accompanied by fearful butchery. In 1579 the seven Dutch countiesTHE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 163 effected a union and laid the basis of the republic of the Netherlands. Although the efforts of Spain to reconquer the territory continued until after the end of the cen- tury, independence was maintained for years before. Trade between Portugal and the Netherlands Forbidden. — A large portion of the commerce of the Low Countries had been with Lisbon. The Portuguese did not distrib- ute to Europe the products which their navies brought from the Indies. Foreign merchants purchased in Lisbon and carried these wares to other lands, and to a very large degree this service had been performed by the Dutch. But after the annexation of Portugal, Philip forbade all ecommerce and trade between the two countries. By this act the Dutch, deprived of their Lisbon trade, had to face the alternative of commercial ruin or the gaining of those Eastern products for themselves. They chose the latter course with all its risks. It was soon made possible by the destruction of the Armada. The Dutch Expeditions to the Indies. — In 1595 their first expedition, led by one Cornelius Houtman, who had sailed in Portuguese galleons, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian domain. The objective point was Java. where an alliance was formed with the native princes and a cargo of pepper secured. Two things were shown by the safe return of this fleet, —the great wealth and profit of the Indian trade, and the inability of Spain and Portugal to maintain their monopoly. In 1598 the merchants of Amsterdam defeated a com- bined Spanish and Portuguese fleet in the East, and trad- ing settlements were secured in Java and Johore. In 1605 thev carried their factories to Amboina and Tidor. Effect of the Success of the Dutch. —The exclusive monopoly over the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans,164 THE PHILIPPINES. which Portugal and Spain had maintained for a century, was broken. With the concurrence of the Roman See, they had tried to divide the New World and the Orient between them. That effort was now passed. They had claimed the right to exclude from the vast oceans they had discovered the vessels of every other nation but their own. This doctrine in the History of International Law is known as that of mare clausum, or ‘‘ closed sea.”’ The death-blow to this domination was given by the entrance of the Dutch into the Indies, and it is not a mere coinci- dence that we find the doctrine of closed sea itself scien- tifically assailed, a few years later, by the great Dutch jurist, Grotius, the founder of the system of international law, in his work, De Libero Mare. The Trading Methods of the Dutch.—The Dutch made no attempts in the Indies to found great colonies for po- litical domination and religious conversion. Commerce was their sole object. Their policy was to form alliances with native rulers, promising to assist them against the rule of the Portuguese or Spaniard in return for exclu- sive privileges of trade. In this they were more than suc- cessful. In 1602 they obtained permission to establish a factory at Bantam, on the island of Java. This was even then a considerable trading-point. “Chinese, Arabs, Persians, Moors, Turks, Malabars, Peguans, and merchants from all nations were established there,” the principal object of trade being pepper.’ The character of the treaty made by the Dutch with the king of Bantam is stated by Raffles. “The Dutch stipulated to assist him against foreign invaders, particu- | Raffles: History of Java, vol. I1., p. 116.> - siete ine a: THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 41600-1663. 165 larly Spaniards and Portuguese; and the king, on his side, agreed to make over to the Dutch a good and strong fort, a free trade, and security for their persons and property without payment of any duties or taxes, and to allow no other European nation to trade or reside in his territories.” Spanish Expedition against the Dutch in the Moluccas. — The Spaniards, however, did not relinquish the field to these new foes without a struggle, and the conflict fills the history of the eighteenth century. When the Dutch expelled the Portuguese from Amboina and Tidor in Feb- ruary, 1605, many of the Portuguese came to the Phil- ippines and enlisted in the Spanish forces. The governor, Don Pedro Bravo de Acufa, filled with wrath at the loss of these important possessions, with great activity organ- ized an expedition for their conquest. In the previous year there had arrived from Spain eight hundred troops, two hundred of them being native Mexicans. Thus Acuna was able to gather at Iloilo a fleet that mounted seventy-five pieces of artillery and earried over fourteen hundred Spaniards and sixteen hundred Indians.!. The fleet sailed in January, 1606. Tidor was taken without resistance and the Dutch fac- tory seized, with a great store of money, goods, and weapons. The Spaniards then assailed Ternate; the fort and plaza were bombarded, and then the town was car- ried by storm. Thus, at last was accomplished the adventure which for nearly a century had inspired the ambitions of the Spaniards, which had drawn the fleet of Magellan, which had wrecked the expeditions of Loaisa and Villalobos, for =o On the history of this notable expedition see Argensola, Conquista de las Islas Molucas. Madrid, 1609.166 THE PHILIPPINES. which the Spaniards in the Philippines had prepared ex- pedition after expedition, and for which Governor Das- marifas had sacrificed his life. At last the Moluccas had been taken by the forces of Spain. Capture of a Dutch Fleet at Mariveles. —So far from disposing of their enemies, however, this action simply brought the Dutch into the Philippines. In 1609, Juan de Silva became governor of the Islands and in the same year arrived the Dutch admiral, Wittert, with a squadron. After an unsuccessful attack on Iloilo, the Dutch fleet anchored off Mariveles, to capture vessels arriving for the Manila trade. At this place, on the 25th of April, 1610, the Spanish fleet. which had been hastily fitted at Cavite, attacked the Dutch, killing the admiral and taking all the ships but one, two hundred and fifty prisoners, and a large amount of silver and merchandise. These prisoners seem to have been treated with more mercy than the captives of Van Noort’s fleet, who were hung at Cavite. The wounded are said to have been cared for, and the friars from all the religious orders vied with one another to convert these “Protestant pirates”? from their heresy. An Expedition against the Dutch in Java. — Spain made a truce of her European wars with Holland in 1609, but this cessation of hostilities was never recognized in the East. The Dutch and Spanish colonists continued to war upon and pillage each other until late in the century. En- couraged by his victory over Wittert, Silva negotiated with the Portuguese allies in Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from Java. A powerful squadron sailed from Cavite in 1616 for this purpose. It was the largest fleet which up to that date had ever been assembled in the Philippines. The expedition, however, failed to unite withTHE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 167 their Portuguese allies, and in April, Silva died at Malacca of malignant fever. The Dutch Fleets. — Battles near Corregidor. — The deet returned to Cavite to find that the city, while stripped of soldiers and artillery, had been in a fever of anxiety and apprehension over the proximity of Dutch vessels. They were those of Admiral Spilbergen, who had arrived by way of the Straits of Magellan and the Pacific. He has left us a chart of the San Bernardino Straits, which is reproduced on page 133. Spilbergen bombarded Iloilo and then sailed for the Moluccas. A year later he returned, met a Spanish fleet of seven galleons and two galeras near Manila and suffered a severe defeat.t The battle began with cannonading on Friday, April 13, and continued throughout the day. On the following day the vessels came to close quarters, the Spaniards boarded the Dutch vessels, and the battle was fought out with the sword. The Dutch were overwhelmed. Probably their num- bers were few. The Relacién states they had fourteen galleons, but other accounts put the number at ten, three vessels of which were destroved or taken by the Spaniards. One of them, the beautiful ship, “The Sun of Holland,” was burned. This combat is known as the battle of Playa Honda. Another engagement took place in the same waters of Corregidor, late in 1624, when a Dutch fleet was driven away without serious loss to either side. The Dutch Capture Chinese Junks, and Galleons. — But through the intervening years, fleets of the Hollanders 1 An account of this victory, written the following year, Relacién Verdadera de la Grand Vittoria, que el Armada Espaiiola de la China ‘p * » y 2 1T é « tuuo contra los Orlandeses Pirates, has been reprinted by Retana, Archivo Biblifilo Filipino, vol. If.168 THE PHILIPPINES. were continually arriving, both by the way of the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. Those that came across the Pacific almost invariably cruised up the Strait of San Bernardino, securing the fresh provisions so desir- able to them after their long voyage. The prizes which they made of Chinese vessels, passing Corregidor for Manila, give us an idea of how consider- ably the Spaniards in the Philippines relied upon China for their food. Junks, or “champans,’’ were continually passing Corregidor, laden with chickens, hogs, rice, sugar, and other comestibles.* The Mexican galleons were frequently destroyed or cap- tured by these lurking fleets of the Dutch, and for a time the route through the Straits of San Bernardino had to be abandoned, the galleons reaching Manila by way of Cape Engafio, or sometimes landing in Cagayan, and more than once going ashore on the Pacific side of the island, at Binangonan de Lampon. The Dutch in Formosa. — The Dutch also made repeated efforts to wrest from Portugal her settlement and trade in China. As early as 1557 the Portuguese had established a settlement on the island of Macao, one of these numerous islets that fill the estuary of the river of Canton. This 1s the oldest European settlement in China and has been held continuously by the Portuguese until the present dav, when it remains almost the last vestige of the once mighty Portuguese empire of the Hast. It was much coveted by the Dutch because of its importance in the trade with Canton and Fukien. 1 “Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda, the Dutch intercepted junks on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their car- goes of food, as many as twelve thousand capons.’? — Foreman: The Philippine Islands, p. 104.SS aeeenenenne - nine ———S THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 169 In 1622 a fleet from Java brought siege to Macao, and, being repulsed, sailed to the Pescadores Islands, where they built a fort and established a post, which threatened both the Portuguese trade with Japan and the Manila trade with Amoy. Two years later, on the solicitation of the Chinese government, the Dutch removed their settlement to Formosa, where after some years they broke up the Spanish mission stations and gained exclusive possession of the island. Thus, throughout the century, these European powers harassed -and raided one another, but no one of them was sufficiently strong to expel the others from the Hast. The Portuguese Colonies. —In 1640 the kingdom of Portugal freed itself from the domination of Spain. With the same blow Spain lost the great colonial possessions that came to her with the attachment of the Portuguese. “All the places,” says Zuiiga, “which the Portuguese had in the Indies, separated themselves from the crown of Castile and recognized as king, Don Juan of Portugal.’ “This same year,” he adds, “the Dutch took Malacca.” ’ The Moros. — Increase of Moro Piracy. — During all these years the raids of the Moros of Magindanao and Jolo had never ceased. ‘Their piracies were almost con- tinuous. There was no security; churches were looted, priests killed, people borne away for ransom or for slavery. Obviously, this piracy eould only be met by destroying it at its source. Defensive fortifications and protective fleets were of no consequence, when compared with the necessity of subduing the Moro in his own lars. In 1628 and 1630 punitive expeditions were sent against Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao, which drove the Moros from their forts, burned their towns, and cut down their groves of cocoanut trees. | Historia de Filipinas, p. 982.170 THE PHILIPPINES. But such expeditions served only to inflame the more the wrathful vengeance of the Moro, and in 1635 the govern- ment resolved upon a change of policy and the establish- ment of a presidio at Zamboanga. Founding of a Spanish Post at Zamboanga.— This brings us to a new phase in the Moro wars. The gover- nor, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca, was determined upon the conquest and the occupation of Mindanao and Jolo. In taking this step, Salamanca, like Corcuera, who succeeded him, acted under the influence of the Jesuits. Their mis- sions in Bohol and northern Mindanao made them ambi- tious to reserve for the ministrations of their society all lands that were conquered and occupied, south of the Bisayas. The Jesuits were the missionaries on Ternate and Siao and wherever in the Moluccas and Celebes the Span- ish and Portuguese had established their power. The Jesuits had aecompanied the expedition of Rodriguez dle Figueroa in 1595, and from that date they never ceased petitioning the government for a military occupation of these islands and for their own return, as the missionaries of these regions. The Jesuits were brilliant and able administrators. For men of their activity, Mindanao, with its rich soil, attractive productions, and compara- tively numerous populations, was a most enticing field for the establishment of such a theocratic commonwealth as the Jesuits had created and administered in America.' On the other hand, the occupation of Zamboanga was strenuously opposed by the other religious orders; but the Jesuits, ever remarkable for their ascendancy in affairs of | How attractive the island appeared and how well they knew its peoples is revealed by the accurate descriptions in the first book of Combés’ Historia de Mindanao y Jolo.THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 171 state, were able to effect the establishment of Zamboanga, though they could not prevent its abandonment a quarter of a century later. Erection of the Forts. — The presidio was fc yunded 1635, by a foree under Don Juan de Chaves. His army consisted of three hundred Spaniards and one thousand Bisayas. The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June the foundations of the stone fort were laid under the direction of the Jesuit, Father Vera, who is described as being experienced in mal tary engineering and architecture. To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built from the river Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles, which brought a cope stream to the very walls of the fort. The advantage or failure of this expensive fortress is very hard to ie ‘termine. Its planting was a partisan measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise and partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked the Moros and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them to fresh anger and aggression. The same year that saw the establishment of Zam- boanga, Hurtado de Corcuera became governor of the Philippines. He was much under the influence of the Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest. Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal.— A few months later a notable fleet of pirates, recruited from Mindanao, Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by a chieftain named Tagal, a brother of the notorious Corralat, sultan of Magin- danao, went defiantly past the new presidio and north- ward through the Mindoro Sea. For more than seven months they cruised the Bisayas. The islands of the Camarines especially felt their ravages. In Cuyo they captured the corregidor and three friars. Finally, withcae -1 bo THE PHILIPPINES. 650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments and services of churches, Tagal turned southward on his return. The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him and a fierce battle took place off the Punta de Flechas, thirty leagues to the northeast of Zamboanga. a AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 269 patience, and during the succeeding months made a constant effort to maintain the peace, but the radical party among the Filipinos was led by a man of real gifts and fiery disposition, Antonio Luna. He had received an education in Europe, had had some instruction in military affairs, and when in September the Fili- pino government was transferred to Malo- los, Luna became the general-in-chief of the military forces. He was also editor of the most radical Filipino newspaper, “ La In- dependencia.”’ New Filipino Gov- ernment. — On Jan- Wanye LEO.oF President McKinley issued a special mes- sage to General Otis, who commanded the armies of the United States in the Philip- pines, declaring that American sovereignty must be recog- nized without conditions. It was thought in the United States that a firm declaration of this kind would be accepted by the Filipinos and that they would not dare to make re- sistance. The intentions of the American President and Apolinario Mabini. nation, as subsequent events have proved, were to deal with the Filipinos with great liberality; but the I resident s270 THE PHILIPPINES. professions were not trusted by the Filipinos, and the re- sult of Mr. McKinley’s message was to move them at once to strengthen their independent organization and to decide to defend it with arms. A new government was framed at Malolos, Bulacan, by a congress with representatives from most of the prov- inces of central Luzon. The ‘ Malolos Constitution ”’ was proclaimed January 23, 1899, and Don Emilio Agui- naldo was elected president. The cabinet, or ministry, included Don Apolinario Mabini, secretary of state; Don Teodoro Sandico, secretary of interior; General Baldo- mero Aguinaldo, secretary of war; General Mariano Trias, secretary of treasury; Don Engracio Gonzaga, secretary of public instruction and agriculture. War with the Americans. — Battle of Manila. — The Filipino forces seemed impatient for action, and attack on the American lines surrounding Manila began on the night of February 4th. ‘It is probable that battle had been decided upon and in preparation for some time, and that fighting would have been begun in any case, before the arrival of reénforeements from America; but the at- tack was precipitated a little early by the killing at San Juan Bridge of a Filipino officer who refused to halt when challenged by an American sentry. On that night and the following day, the battle raged along the entire circle of defenses surrounding the city, from Tondo on the north to Fort San Antonio de Abad, south of the suburb of Malate. Along three main avenues from the north, east, and south the Filipinos attempted to storm and enter the capital, but although they charged with reckless bravery, and for hours sustained a bloody combat, they had underestimated the fighting qualities of the American soldier.te = aa SS AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 271 The volunteer regiments of the American army came almost entirely from the western United States, where young men are naturally trained to the use of arms, and are imbued by inheritance with the alert and aggressive qualities of the American frontier. When the day ended, the Filipino line of attack had, at every point, been shattered and thrown back, and the Americans had ad- vanced their positions on the north to Caloocan, on the east to the Water Works and the Mariquina valley, and on the south to San Pedro Macati and Pasay. Declaration of War. — Unfortunately, during the night attack and before the disaster to Filipmo arms was ap- parent, Aguinaldo had launched against the United States a declaration of war. This declaration prevented the Americans from trusting the overtures of certain Fili- pinos made after this battle, and an armistice was not secured. The Malolos Campaign. —On March 25th began the American advance upon the Filipino capital of Malolos. This Malolos campaign, as it is usually called, occupied six days, and ended in the driving of the Filipmo army and government from their capital. The Filipino army was pursued in its retreat as far as Kalumpit, where on the southern bank of the Rio Grande de Pampanga the American line rested during the height of the rainy season. During this interval the volunteer regiments, whose terms of service had long expired, were returned to America, and their places taken by regiments of the regular army. Some hard fighting had taken place during this cam- paign, and two American regimental commanders, Colo- nels Egbert and Stotsenberg, were killed.DAZ THE PHILIPPINES. The American Army.— The American regular army, besides the artillery, consisted of twenty-five regiments of infantry and ten of cavalry. Congress now author- ized the organization of twenty-four new regiments of infantry, to be known as the 26th to the 49th Regiments of U. S. Volunteers, and one volunteer regiment of cavalry, the 11th. for a service of two years. These regiments were largely officered by men from civil life, familiar with a wide variety of callings and professions, — men for the most part of fine character, whose services in the months that followed were valuable not only in the field, but in gaining the friendship of the Filipino people and in representing the character and intentions of the American government. Anti-War Agitators in America. — Through the summer of 1899 the war was not pressed by the American general, nor were the negotiations with the Filipino leaders conducted with success. The Filipinos were by no means dismayed. In spite of their reverses, they believed the conquest of the Islands impossible to foreign troops. Furthermore, the war had met with tremendous opposition in America. Many Americans believed that the war was against the funda- mental rights of the Filipino people. They attacked the administration with extreme bitterness. They openly ex- pressed sympathy for the Filipino revolutionary cause, and for the space of two years their encouragement was an important factor in sustaining hostilities. Spread of the Insurrection.—In these same summer months the revolutionary leaders spread their cause among the surrounding provinces and islands. The spirit of re- sistance was prominent at first only among the Tagdlogs, but gradually nearly ali the Christianized population was united in resistance to the American occupation.AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. Diltes Occupation of Negros. —The Americans had mean- while occupied Iloilo and the Bisayas, and shortly after- wards the presidios in Mindanao surrendered by the Span- iards. In Negros, circumstances had been exceptional. The people in this island invited American sovereignty ; and General James Smith, sent to the island in March as governor, assisted the people in forming a liberal govern- ment, through which insurrection and disorder in that island were largely avoided. Death of General Luna. — With the cessation of heavy rains, the fighting was begun again in northern Luzon. The Filipino army had its headquarters in Tarlak, and its lines occupied the towns of the provinces of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija, stretching in a long line of posts from the Zambales Mountains almost to the upper waters of the Rio Pampanga. It was still well armed, provisioned, and resolute; but the brilliant, though radical, organizer of this army was dead. The nationalist junta, which had directed the Philippine government and army, had not been able to reconcile its differences. It is reported that Luna aspired to a dictatorship. He was killed by soldiers of Aguinaldo at Kabanatuan. The Campaign in Northern Luzon. — The American generals now determined upon a strategic campaign. Gen- eral MacArthur was to command an advance up the rail- road from Kalumpit upon Tarlak ; General Lawton, with a flying column of swift infantry and cavalry, was to make a flanking movement eastward through Nueva Ecija and hem the Filipino forces in upon the east. Meanwhile, General Wheaton was to convey a force by transport to the Gulf of Lingayen, to throw a cordon across the Ilokano coast that should cut off the retreat of the Filipino army120 122 BABUYAN AMERICAN CAMPAIGNS ISLANDS IN ‘ Cape ngano NORTHERN LUZON Gon, ft} Zz, SCALE OF KILOMETERS eS Taal K eVvanrnroCrTe. > \ \y 0 S Y ik Q =) if <_ = 2°38 = 18 4 He 18 : (Be 12 iS ale P- 5 ic a g (7 tS Ne, Poas iF DY — , malta, “2 b ia o => § Rosario gq 1d oe e opiad t iGaee soe » Bt Eg Ling: y én - Pozdrubio Degupan/ Le 16}———_% |e 16 ~ \ KS WN a ny Ss VA (Catbanatuan 1JA z t> o San Isidro s i, 3s BULACA N= 4 V $ es i Yr | ~~ palemanis s/l oN \ POLILLO >», eMalolos i 4 3 ¢2. ™>, ’ 4 fOlong: \po- “ori Montalban —y» pnd es e ie QR i Cs uloocan| S, » Sr qy <4 4 an ateo ae \ Manila yalate_ 4 Cory « CALAGUAS IS. 5 4 Cavit Arrant 5 bo aeeeaueree yowatie* a, . I ? Wr CORREGIDOR E AAV, Imus», Lagu mag yas arnt, so" he 4 \ de Bag Pen | go >; Cay, >, > s * ~ on Gun} Pan. “OLE 4 x 14 ~ Pa Bp’ & L. DOUG EH cde: th Bis. Xe a rAV, — iio 14 F uA ™ ht he 4 lp Oy ya On. FY. ee |” em, mm a} vo ,8 \ oO | >A, @ ee S 3 Tn 20 oN YP LUBANG “{ 6 2 Batangas \ 4 3 2 ee. J | > c pe tae a ed hen AA °.. aa. ~ @ f Leta ue DP We > = WN “ ~ My se "? \ 2 % ~ MARINOUGUES i 4 , @ ¢ ; 2 at ke MINDORO wp ~ L 4 / »* L.L. POATES, ENGR., N.Y. ‘ { ~ 120 Longitude East from Greenwich 122 274es “ iss SSS AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 275 northward. As a strategic movement, this campaign was only partially successful. MacArthur swept northward, crushing the Filipino line on his front, his advance being led by the active regiment of General J. Franklin Bell. Lawton’s column scoured the country eastward, marching with great rapidity and tremendous exertions. Swollen rivers were crossed with much loss of life, and the column, cutting loose from its supplies, was frequently in need of food. It was in this column that the Filipino first saw with amazement the great American cavalry horse, so large beside the small pony of the Philippines. Lawton’s descent was so swift that the Philippine government and staff narrowly escaped capture. On the night of November 11th, the Filipino generals held their last council of war at Bayambang on the Rio Agno, and resolved upon dispersal. Meanwhile, Wheaton had landed at San Fabian, upon the southern Ilokano coast. but his force was insufficient to establish an effec- tive cordon, and on the night of November 15th Aguinaldo, with a small party of ministers and officers, closely pursued by the cavalry of Lawton under the command of General Young, slipped past, through the mountains of Pozorubio and Rosario, and escaped up the Ilokano coast. Then began the most exciting pursuit of the entire war. The chase never slackened, except in those repeated in- stances when for the moment the trail of the Filipino gen- eral was lost. From Kandon, Aguinaldo turned eastward through the comandancias of Lepanto and Bontok, into the wild Igorot country of the Cordillera Central. The trail into Lepanto leads over the lofty mountains through the precipitous Tila Pass. Near the summit, in what was regarded as an impregnable position, Gregorio del276 THE PHILIPPINES. Pilar, little more than a boy, but a brigadier-general, with a small force of soldiers, the remnant of his command, at- tempted to cover the retreat of his president. But a bat- talion of the 33d Infantry, under Major March, carried the pass, with the total destruction of Pilar’s command, he himself falling amid the slain. Capture of Agu- naldo.— Major March then pursued Aguinaldo into Bon- tok and thence south- ward into the wild and mountainous ter- ritory of Kuiangan. On Christmas night, 1899, the American soldiers camped on the crest of the Cor- dillera, within a few miles of the Igorot village where the Fili- pino force was sleep- ing. Both parties ME BES ; were broken down General Pilar. and in dire distress through the difficulties of the flight and pursuit, but for several weeks longer Aguinaldo’s party was able to remain in these mountains and elude its pursuers. A month later, his trail was finally lost in the valley of the Cagayan. He and his small party finally passed over the exceedingly difficult trail through the Sierra Madre Mountains, to the little Tagdloges bo AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. T7 town of Palanan near the Pacific coast. Here, almost en- tirely cut off from active participation in the insurrection, Acuinaldo remained until March of 1901, when he was captured by the party of General Funston. For some weeks following the disintegration of the Filipino army, the country app sared to be pacified and the insurrection over. New regiments arrived from the United States, and an expedition was formed under Gen- eral Schwan, which in December and January marched southward through Cavite and Laguna provinces and oc- cupied Batangas, Tayabas, and the Camarines. Other regiments were sent to the Bisayas and to northern Luzon, until every portion of the Archipelago, except the islands of Mindoro and Palawan, contained large forces of Amer- ican troops. Reorganization of the Filipino Forces. — The Filipinos had by no means, however, abandoned the contest, and this period of quiet was simply a calm while the msurgent forces were perfecting their organization and preparing for a renewal of the conflict under a different form. It being found impossible for a Filipino army to keep the field. there was affected a secret organization for the purpose of maintaining irregular warfare through every portion of the Archipelago. The Islands were partitioned into a great number of districts or “‘ zones.” At the head of each was a zone commander, usually with the rank of general. The operations of these men were, to a certain extent, guided by the counsel or directions of the secret revolutionary Juntas ‘n Manila or Hongkong, but, in fact, they were practically absolute and independent, and they exercised extraordinary powers. They recruited their own forces and commissioned subordinate commanders. They levied “ contributions ”’278 THE PHILIPPINES. upon towns, owners of haciendas, and individuals of every class. and there was a secret civil or municipal organization for collecting these revenues. The zone commanders, more- over, exercised the terrible power of execution by adminis- trative order. Assassination of Filipinos. — Many of the Filipino leaders were necessarily not well instructed in those rules for the conduct of warfare which civilized peoples have agreed upon as being humane and honorable. Many of them tried, especially in the latter months of the war, when understanding was more widely diffused, to make their conduct conform to international usage; but the revolu- tionary junta had committed the veritable crime of order- ing the punishment by assassination of all Filipinos who failed to support the insurgent cause. No possible justification, in the light of modern morality, can be found for such a step as this. The very worst passions were let loose in carry- ing out this policy. Scores of unfortunate men were assassi- nated, many of them as the results of private enmity. End- less blackmail was extorted and communities were terrorized from one end of the archipelago to the other. Irregular Warfare of the Filipinos. — Through the sur- render of Spanish forces, the capture of the arsenals of Cavite and Olongapo, and by purchase through Hong- kong, the revolutionary government possessed between thirty thousand and forty thousand rifles. These arms were distributed to the different military zones, and the secret organization which existed in each municipality received its proportion. These guns were secreted by the different members of the command, except when occasion arose for effecting a surprise or making an attack. There were no general engagements, but in some towns thereAMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 279 was almost nightly shooting. Pickets and small detach- ments were cut off, and roads became so unsafe through- out most of the archipelago that there was no travel by Americans except under heavy escort. For a long time, also, the orders of the commanding general were so lenient that it was impossible to punish adequately this conduct when it was discovered. Death of General Lawton. — The American army, in its attempt to garrison every important town in the Islands, was cut up into as many as 550 small de tachments or post garrisons. Thus, while there were finally over seventy thousand American soldiers in the Islands, it was rare for as many as five hundred to take the field, and most of the engagements of the year 1900 were by small detachments of fifty to one hundred men. It was in one of these small expeditions that the Ameri- ‘an army suffered the greatest personal loss of the war. A few miles east of Manila is the beautiful Mariquina Valley, from which is derived the city’s supply of water, and the headwaters of this pretty stream lie in the wild and pictur- esque fastness of San Mateo and Montalban. Although scarce a dozen miles from the capital and the headquar- ters of a Filipino brigade, San Mateo was not permanently occupied by the Americans until after the 18th of Decem- ber, 1899, when a force under General Lawton was led around through the hills to surprise the town. Early in the morning the American force came pressing down over the hills that lie across the river from the vil- lage. They were met by a brisk fire from the imsurgent command scattered along the banks of the river and in a sugar hacienda close to the stream. Here Lawton, con- spicuous in light clothing and helmet, accompanying, as280 THE PHILIPPINES. was his custom, the front line of skirmishers, was struck by a bullet and instantly killed. Filipino Leaders Sent to Guam. — In November, 1900, after the reélection in the United States of President McKinley, a much more vigorous policy of war was in- augurated. In this month General MacArthur, command- ing the division, issued a notable general order, defining and explaining the laws of war which were being violated, and threatening punishment by imprisonment of those guilty of such conduct. Some thousands of Filipinos under this order were arrested and imprisoned. Thirty-nine leaders, among them the high-minded but irreconcilable Mabini, were in December, 1900, sent to a military prison on the island of Guam. Campaigning was much more vigorously prosecuted in all military districts. By this time the American officers had found out the names and the whereabouts of the 1m- portant insurgent leaders, and these were now obliged to leave the towns and seek refuge in remote barrios and in the mountains. These measures, pursued through the winter of 1900-01, broke the fighting strength of the revolutionists. The Philippine Civil Commission. — To supplement the efforts of the army in winning the Filipinos to a recognition of American rule and to reorganize the political institutions of the Islands, President McKinley in April, 1900, appointed the first Philippine Commission.!. The work of this mem- 1 This Commission is to be distinguished from a previous commission headed by President Schurman of Cornell, which was sent to the Philip- pines in 1899 to secure information as to the actual conditions. The re- port of the Schurman Commission is published in four volumes, Wash- ington, 1900.AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 281 orable Commission will stand as one of the most striking events in American history. It was ably constituted. Its President was Judge William H. Taft of Ohio. The other members were Professor Dean C. Worcester of the University of Michigan, Honorable Luke E. Wright of Tennessee, Honorable Henry C. Ide of Vermont, Professor Bernard Moses of the University of California. Mr. Wright had been Attorney-General of Tennessee ; Mr. Ide, Judge of the Supreme Court of Samoa under the tripartite pro- tectorate of the United States, Great Britain, and Ger- many; Professor Worcester had three times previously vis- ited the islands, twice as a naturalist and once as a mem- ber of the Schurman Commission ; Professor Moses had for many years been a student of Spanish colonial history and institutions. ‘The Commission reached Manila in June, 1900, and commenced its legislative labors September 1. Its work in this capacity was remarkable. Between the first of September, 1900, and August, 1902, it enacted 449 laws, organizing with considerable completeness an entire form of government composed of insular bureaus and provin- cial and municipal administrations. In much of this work the way had already been opened by the efforts of the army and the general orders of the military commander. The revenues, derived mainly from customs, were from the beginning of the Commission’s efforts adequate for the civil expenditures. This Commission was able at last to bring about an under- standing with Filipino leaders and to assure them of the honorable purposes of the American government. By the winter of 1900 many Filipino gentlemen became convinced that the best interests of the islands lay in the acceptance of American sovereignty and that they could honorably ad-282 THE PHILIPPINES. vocate the surrender of the insurgent forces. In December, 1900, they formed a political association known as the Federal Party (El Partido Federal) for the purpose of se- curing recognition of American authority and the conclusion of peace. The positive evidences of the liberal American policy in the Philippines which the work of the Commission offered; together with the active operations of the American army, brought an end to the Philippine insurrection in the spring and summer of 1901, when the Filipino ‘‘ zone commanders,’ who for many months had been exercising practically imde- pendent authority in the different provinces of the Archi- pelago, were captured or forced to surrender. ‘They were all promptly paroled and allowed to return to their homes. Not one of these revolutionary leaders ever broke his parole or again took up arms against the United States. On July 4, 1901, Judge Taft was inaugurated Civil Gover- nor, relieving the Military Governor, Major-General Arthur MacArthur, and the executive power hitherto exercised by the Military Commander was organized as a civil admin- istration. On September 1, 1901, the Philippine Commission was increased by the appointment of three Filipino members — the Hon. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, M.D., the Hon. Benito Legarda, and the Hon. José Luzuriaga of Negros. President McKinley’s Letter of Instructions. — In as- suming its duties and in the direction of its efforts, the Philip- pine Commission was guided by a letter of instructions from the President which may be ranked as among the most notable public papers in American history. This document, after defining the very large responsibilities which the Com- mission was to assume, charged that body to follow a liberales AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 283 policy, create a system of government in which the Filipino himself would have the largest possible share, establish a civil service upon a merit basis, and particularly to extend to the local units of government the largest possible degree of self-government or autonomy. It recognized the re- sponsibility of the United States primarily as a trustee, and it placed in the first order the duty of guarding every legiti- mate right and interest of the Filipino, thus giving the basis for the policy subsequently defined as “‘ the Philippines for the Filipino.”’ This policy was loyally followed by every member of the Philippine Commission, and particularly by the three men most responsible for its adoption; namely, President McKinley, the Secretary of War, Mr. Elihu Root, and the first governor, Mr. Taft. If there was a mistake made anywhere in the early establishment of self-govern- ment, it lay perhaps in intrusting too great responsibility to municipal governments neither fully informed as to their duties nor practiced in the performance of them. Local Government. — In establishing local government, the Philippine Commission utilized as far as possible the subdivisions of the country as they had been developed by the government of Spain. These subdivisions were primarily the province and the pueblo, described in Chapter X. A new provincial law and a new municipal law were early en- acted, and then, in the course of an extended journey through- out the Islands in the spring of 1901, the Commission in- troduced these governments and made the necessary ap- pointments. There were, at the end of Spanish rule, about 1132 organized pueblos. These were given a new corporate form under municipal councils chosen by a limited native electorate. For the local mayor or head of municipal ad- ministration the title of ‘“ presidente > took the place of the284 THE PHILIPPINES. former title of ‘‘ gobernadorcillo.”” The municipal officers were accorded salaries, and a wide local autonomy was intrusted to the town as represented by its council. The thirty-eight provinces were likewise given an ad- ministrative and legislative autonomy. The government of each province was placed in the hands of a commission called the ‘“ provincial board,” composed of a governor, a treasurer, and ‘a supervisor, who was a civil engineer and the custodian of the public property. The two latter officials, who at first were invariably Americans, were appointed by the Civil Governor, but it was provided that the governor should be chosen for a term of two years by an assembly of the municipal councilors of all the towns of the province forming an “electoral college.’ With few exceptions, Filipinos were chosen as governors, and a new office of dignity and responsibility was opened to Filipino leaders. Among the reconstituted provinces was one composed partly of the District of Morong and partly of former territory of the eovernment of Manila, to which was given the name of the Province of Rizal. A system of local taxes was devised for the support of both provinces and towns, and within certain limits the power of fixing the rate of taxation and of making appropriations of public money was accorded to municipal councils and provincial boards. Bureaus and Departments of the Government. — Neither the municipal council nor the provincial board, however, was made an instrument of the central government for the discharge of insular services. These had already in most cases been confided to organizations called bureaus, directed by a head at this time usually known as the “ chief.” These bureaus covered a wide range of the government’s activities. They included not only the customs service and the generalAMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 285 maintenance of the insular treasury, but education, public works, constabulary, public health, the administration of the forests, the mines, agriculture and the weather bureau, posts, prisons, and other services. The constabulary, re- lieving the army of the task of maintaining public order, had already organized a force of some 6500 officers and men. A coast guard and transportation service had obtained about twenty beautiful little cutters named after islands of the Archipelago, and nearly all of them built especially for this service. A cold-storage and ice plant was under construction and was intrusted to a separate management. Likewise there were created a bureau of printing and engraving, a bureau of archives, a bureau of statistics, a Philippine mu- seum, and a bureau of government laboratories for making chemical and bacteriological investigations. A bureau of non- Christian tribes was shortly organized for conducting recon- naissance among the little-known pagan and Mohammedan peoples, for negotiation with these people, and for framing legislation for their government. An insular auditor had already been provided by appointment of the Secretary of War. and a bureau of public lands was commencing a survey of the public domain. ‘These services, so far as necessary, employed their own local agents and had their own staffs. It will be apparent that in many fields, such as education, public health, and police, the government preferred a cen- tralized administration to the organs of local government. It now became necessary to establish a superior adminis- trative oversight of these services, and this was done by creating four departments, to which the bureaus were as- signed; namely, Interior, Secretary Worcester ; Finance and Justice, Secretary Ide ; Commerce and Police, Secretary Wright; and Public Instruction, Secretary Moses. This286 THE PHILIPPINES. action was coincident with the assumption by Mr. Taft of the office of Civil Governor. The Civil Governor had direct oversight of the insular auditor, the government of the city of Manila, and the civil service board. Civil Service Law. — To provide just and meritorious conditions for government employment and to open this employment progressively to Filipinos was one of the first concerns of the Philippine Commission, and the fifth statute enacted by the Commission at the commencement of its duties in September, 1901, was a civil service law drafted by Mr. Taft. In its emphasis upon the merit principle, this statute probably surpassed any similar law at that time ex- istent in the United States. Eligibility for public employ- ment was placed upon a merit basis as determined by com- petitive examinations. The service was classified in such a way as to afford the constant prospect of advance and pro- motion and all employees were protected, so far as any law can protect them, against improper political, religious, or personal influences. The operation of this law was con- fided at first to a board of three members, who conducted the examinations, certified to the appointing authority the lists of those eligible, and had the duty of offering reeommenda- tions upon all actions for promotion, dismissal, or discipline. The existence of this civil service system was of the utmost advantage to Filipinos, who were given preference for ap- pointment wherever they could demonstrate their qualifi- vations, and it greatly stimulated the interest of the younger generation in the operations of government and encouraged them to make preparation, by adequate education, for entrance into the public service. Public Schools. — Perhaps no step taken by the American authorities more gratified the Filipinos or created a moreAMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 287 favorable impression of the intentions of the United States than the emphasis placed upon public instruction. Ameri- ean soldiers, no less than civilians, believed in the importance of diffusing among the people the elements of knowledge and of the English tongue. The prospects of the popular in- stitutions which it was the purpose of America to implant depended upon the success of general education. imme- diately after the American army occupied Manila, August 13. 1898, the public schools of the city were reopened under Chap- lain W. J. McKinnon. Little attempt was made at first to change the teaching or discipline, but American teachers were engaged to com- mence instruction im English. As the occu- pation of the Islands ad- vanced schools were opened generally. Army Governor cen ar officers were charged with their oversight and enlisted men were detailed to teach English. Even during the period of warfare probably a thousand schools were thus conducted by the army. The Military Governor encouraged school work as a measure “ealculated to pacify the people and procure and expedite the restoration of tranquil- lityae The Philippine Commission before leaving America had engaged a general superintendent of education, Dr. Fred W. Atkinson. On January 21, 1901, the commission enacted an288 THE PHILIPPINES. organic school law which centralized the administration of all public schools in the Bureau of Education; made in- struction free and secular; and adopted the English language as the basis of the curriculum. The general superintendent requested authority to engage five hundred American teachers in the United States, but upon the urgent repre- sentations of Filipinos who appeared before the Commis- sion in the public discussions of this measure the number was increased to one thousand. These teachers were promptly secured. By October, 1901, seven hundred and sixty-five were at work in nearly all parts of the Islands. In 1902 the number was increased to nine hun- dred and twenty-six, the largest ever at one time in the field. The pioneer work of these teachers was accomplished under conditions of exceptional difficulty and danger. Life in the provinces was disorganized. Communications were lacking. Many islands were infested by ladrones, or bandits. Local government, upon which the maintenance of primary schools depended, did not function well at first. A severe epidemic of cholera in 1902-1903 swept the Archipelago. In spite of these extreme disadvantages, some two thousand schools were conducted, the diffusion of English was begun, and a large number of promising young people, under the encouragement of high-minded American teachers, gained new ambitions and made remarkable progress in the acquisi- tion of modern knowledge. These young men and women became the nucleus of the new clerical and teaching forces of the Islands. The need for higher instruction in English was soon felt and by Act 372, of March 6, 1902, secondary schools were authorized. Meanwhile a normal school and a trade school had been opened in Manila.AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 289 The Judicial System.— The early labors of the Com- mission were devoted also to reéstablishing the judicial system and the codes of law. Even under military government it had been possible to restore the civil courts in Manila. The Spanish law which had been introduced into the Philippines was embodied in five excellent codes: the Civil Code, cover- ing such relations as family, inheritance, property, and con- tracts, which was supplemented by a Code of Commerce ; the Criminal Code, defining crimes and misdemeanors and fixing their punishments; the Code of Civil Procedure for the trial of cases in controversy between individuals ; and the Code of Criminal Procedure for the trial of persons accused of offenses against the law. These codes early secured the attention of American soldiers and civilians in the Philippines and evoked much admiration. It was wisely decided not to substitute American law for this Spanish law of Roman origin. The Civil Code therefore remained in full effect and vigor. S54 did the Criminal Code, except so far as its provisions were altered by new laws or amendments. The Code of Criminal Procedure appeared not to give that security to the accused demanded by American conceptions of justice. It’ was accordingly set aside during the period of military occupation and a brief code governing criminal trials, pre- pared by Major Young of Utah and known as General Orders No. 58, was put into force. In order to simplify civil procedure, a new code was drafted under the Secretary of Finance and Justice, Mr. Ide. The judicial system as reorganized consisted of a Supreme Court of seven judges, three of whom, including the Chief Justice, were Filipinos. This Supreme Court was given original jurisdiction over certain matters, but in the main was an appeal court from the courts of first instance. These290 THE PHILIPPINES. lower courts were at first fixed at fifteen, for the trial of both civil and criminal cases in the fifteen districts of the Islands. In the towns justice of the peace courts were provided for the trial of small cases and for holding preliminary exam- inations in cases of crimes. During the final decades of Spanish rule numerous Fili- pinos had embraced the opportunity of acquiring legal education, and it was found possible at once to appoint certain Filipinos, learned in the law, to be judges of the courts of first instance and to take places upon the Supreme Court. The Philippine Act. — In 1902 Congress passed the first organic law for the government of the Philippines. This measure, the so-called ‘‘ Philippine Bill,’ was enacted July 1, 1902. Before this law was adopted, there was a long and detailed congressional examination of the conditions in the Islands, of the manner in which warfare had been con- ducted, and of the effect of the measures taken by the Commission. There was strong and continuing opposition to American conquest and possession of the Islands, and this opposition was ably represented in Congress. The Democratic Party officially pronounced against retention of the Islands, and in the presidential campaign of 1900 declared that ‘‘ imperialism’? — that is, the assumption by the United States of colonial responsibilities, — was inconsistent with American political principles and the ‘paramount issue’ of American politics. Many Repub- licans shared these views. At the Treaty of Paris negotiations, two of the five Amer- ican commissioners had opposed the cession of the Philip- pines by Spain and, because the treaty included their acquisition, it was ratified in the Senate only by the nar-ee ) AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 2971 rowest majority... The motives of the American government in extending its demands upon Spain to include the sur- render of the Philippines were denounced as lust of empire, cupidity, and the intoxication of military success. These charges by no means explain the situation. The dominant motive quite clearly had been to protect the Islands from further bloodshed and turmoil. Aguinaldo and the Filipinos had had the encouragement of the American forces against Spain and they had codperated in some degree in the taking of Manila. The American com- manders had employed only legitimate means of warfare in encouraging the rebellion of the enemy’s subjects, but this very encouragement had created a responsibility to protect the Filipinos from the consequences of their temerity in rising once more against Spain. The termination of the war released for action in the Philippines the Spanish forces employed in Cuba, and had the Filipinos been left to settle their cause alone, Spain would have swept the Islands once more with a besom of destruction. These considerations were the dominant motives with the American government and people. Acquisition seemed to be unavoidable except by a repudiation of clearly existing responsibility. This was the view which finally prevailed with the Congress, and which was now urged by the administration of President Roosevelt. who had become President through the assassina- tion in 1901 of President McKinley. This was the view also of Governor Taft, who was present in Washington during this session of Congress, and whose testimony was extensively taken by the congressional committees. The first care of Congress in this important statute was 1 Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain, Sen. Doc. No. 62, part I, 55th Congress, 3d session, p. 274. >292, THE PHILIPPINES. to validate the acts of the President and the Philippine Commission. The work of pacification and the organiza- tion of government in the Philippines had been accomplished solely by authority of the President of the United States. It was an extension of his war and treaty-making powers. By the Philippine Act the government was made to rest upon a law of the highest constitutional authority — the Congress of the United States. In legislating for territories or possessions of the United States the Congress has far broader powers than in legislating for the Union. In fact, in this field, according to decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Congress appears to have all legislative powers which the Constitution has not specifically denied. The sole limitations are those provisions of the Constitution which guarantee the liberty of the individual ; his freedom of religious belief and worship; his right to just, open, and speedy trial; his right to the possession of his property ; and other precious rights which make up “ civil liberty’ as that expression is understood by the English- speaking race.! The Congress took care to establish for the inhabitants of the Philippines these civil rights, with the aim of protecting them for all time against arbitrary or impulsive action of government. This so-called ‘‘ Bill of Rights,” reén- acted in subsequent congressional legislation such as the Jones Bill of 1916, is the legal basis of the liberties of the Filipinos. 1 See the decisions of the Supreme Court in the cases of American Insurance Co. v. Canter (1 Peters, 511), decided in 1828; National Bank v. County of Yankton (101 U.S. Reports, 129), decided in 1879; The Mormon Church v. United States (136 U. S. Reports, 1), decided May, 1890. On the domain of personal liberty possessed by the in- habitants of a territory, in addition to above cases, see also the cases of Reynolds v. United States (98 U. S. Reports, 154), 1878; and Murphy v. Ramsey (114 U.S. Reports, 15), 1884.AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 293 For another interest of the Philippine people the Congress showed special solicitude. Legally the Treaty of Paris transferred from Spain to the United States an immense public domain, the unowned lands, the forests, and the mineral wealth of the Archipelago. The Congress in the Philippine Bull determined that this great property should be conserved for the fullest possible use of the Filipinos themselves. Extensive provisions were introduced in the Act to guard against excessive exploitation of this w salth in order that it might not generally pass into the title of foreigners, or of Americans themselves. The possible ac- quisition of agricultural land was limited to 16 hectares for an individual, this figure being taken as the proper s1Zze of a homestead for a Filipino family ; and to not more than 1000 hectares for a private corporation. The Act was silent on the question of independence, but it clearly did everything to safeguard the right of the Filipino in aspiring to independence, and it treated this noble feeling as a legitimate aspiration. While confirming the Commis- sion as the temporary legislative authority of the islands, it made provision for the early introduction of a popularly elected Filipino legislative assembly.’ 1 Material for the study of the American occupation of the Islands is to be obtained from the reports of the Philippine Commission, 1900 to 1916, and of the Governor-General from 1917 to the present. From 1901 to 1908 these reports were ‘ssued annually in several volumes, and. besides the reports of the Commission and the secretaries of the executive departments, contain complete reports of the bureaus. Since 1909 the report is issued in a single volume and the bureau reports are published separately. The reports of the Military Governors of the Philippines for 1899 to 1901 give the work of the Army. Valuable tes- timony before the Senate Committee in 1902 is published as a Senate Document. The laws of the Commission have been published in six octavo volumes, Acts 1 to 1800, Sept., 1900, to Oct., 1907.CHAPTER XIII A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 1903-1913. General Character of the Decade. — No one can review the achievements of the years from 1903 to 19138 in the Philippines without granting it to be a signal triumph over unusual difficulties and misunderstandings. Ten years is a brief period as measured by the usual progress of society, but in colonial administration it has frequently happened that great changes have not waited upon long lapse of time. Caesar was in Gaul only eight years; Clive’s famous Indian governorship lasted less than six; Raffles was in Java only five. A decade of codperative effort between Americans and Filipinos changed the future of the Archi- pelago; it is the intention here to summarize the histori- ‘al events of this decade. Policy of the United States. — Throughout this decade the Republican Party was in power in the United States, and the policy originally outlined by President McKinley, and developed by Mr. Root and Mr. Taft, continued to be the guiding principle of Americans in administering the government of the Islands. This policy, first laid down in the President’s Instructions to the Taft Philippine Com- mission, while fully accepting and insisting upon American responsibility for the Archipelago, was a policy of concili- ation and generous concession. It contemplated the larg- 294A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 295 est possible participation of Filipinos in legislation and administration and an increasing measure of autonomy as enlightenment and experience advanced; the conserva- tion of the natural resources and the public domain; the education of the masses, and the training of Filipinos for leadership. Assailed at first by opponents from both quarters, this policy finally gained general recognition among Americans and Filipinos. Although the Republican Party controlled the adminis- tration, the Philippine question was nob regarded or treated as a partisan matter. Of the four governors-general who succeeded Mr. Taft, Mr. Ide was a Republican, Mr. Wright and Mr. Smith were Democrats, and Mr. Forbes had never been prominently identified with either party. Appointments to the Philippine service, with a few excep- tions, were made without reference to political affiliations in the United States. Achievements of Governor Taft. — Mr. Taft left Manila in December, 1903, to become Secretary of War in Pres- ‘dent Roosevelt's Cabinet. He left the Philippines with unconcealed reluctance, having previously in the year de- clined the coveted position of associate justice of the Su- preme Court of the United States in order to continue at the head of Philippine affairs. His governorship had been one beset with immense difficulties. Active revolution ended in the spring of 1901 with the surrender and parole of all but a few of the revolutionary zone commanders and. with the capture of General Aguinaldo; but guerrilla war- fare continued, in Batangas under General Malvar until June, 1902, in Samar under General Lukban until Febru- ary, 1902, and in Bohol and Cebu for some months after Mr. Taft’s inauguration. July 4, 1902, saw all of these296 THE PHILIPPINES. provinces organized under the general provincial govern- ment plan.! Ladronism. — In several provinces, including the vicinity of Manila, numerous subordinate chieftains refused to fol- low their leaders in submission and, falling back into the old life of “ tulisanes” or “ ladrones,” kept up a period of raid and pillage which was not ended until 1906. This persistence of “ladronism”’ was perhaps the most discour- aging problem that faced the new and untried civil gover- ment. Parts of the Philippines had not been free from tulisanes for many decades. Among the common people they enjoyed a kind of popularity, while their habitual acts of cruelty and retaliation terrorized the barrio popula- tion. Landowners, failing of public security for their crops and carabaos, had for years followed the practice of paying for protection, thus implicating themselves in keeping ladronism alive. To meet this situation the Com- mission in November, 1902, added to the Penal Code an act creating and defining the crime of brigandage or “ ban- dolerismo.” Membership or participation in any armed band of robbers engaged in robbery, carabao stealing, or roaming the country with deadly weapons, was punishable by death or imprisonment for not less than twenty years. The activities of the constabulary led to the arrest of thou- sands of offenders charged under this act. The courts were overwhelmed with the duty of their trial and men were frequently convicted in companies. The barbarities practised by the ladrones, the fact that they delayed all progress and occasioned untold misery, warranted the severest measures ; but it was impossible to do individualA DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 297 justice, and men suffered punishment who were rather the victims of misfortune than deliberate criminals. Jails were overcrowded and the hygiene of the thousands of prisoners suffered. The evil could only be reached by substantial codperation between the eovernment and the barrio people, upon whom fell both the depredations of ladrones and the punitive measures of the police; and in the state of misunderstanding and inexperience which existed there was at first no accord. It would be impos- sible within the limits of this chapter to give an idea of the extent and injury of ladronism. No less than half the provinces were seriously affected during the years 1902- 06, and bands more or less formidable appeared in practi- cally all. On June 1, 1903, the Commission, by Act 781, authorized the Governor-General to place municipal police under the orders of the constabulary, to grant immunity from arrest by ordinary police to officers or members of the constabulary, and, upon resolution of the Commission, to “reconcentrate ”’ the barrio population in town centers where the district was infested with ladrones and where protection could not be afforded to the people nor could they be prevented from supplying the ladrones with food and resources. This policy was practised in Albay to secure the bandit Ola and later in Cavite, without effect, against Sakay and Felizardo. Another measure, the ‘‘ Vagrancy Act,” was directed not at Filipino outlaws but at abandoned and dissolute Ameri- cans, both white and colored, who were a disturbing element in many towns. On conviction they were de- ported from the Islands." 1 Act 519.998 THE PHILIPPINES. Epidemics. — But lawlessness was not the sole affliction of this trying period. Pestilence and famine descended upon the country. The sanitary service first organized in Manila by the American army achieved a triumph in 1903 in the extirpation of bubonic plague. But smallpox, until controlled by a resumption of general vaccination, swept many parts of the Islands for a number of years. And in March, 1902, appeared a terrible visitation of cholera. The disease had not been officially recognized in the Islands since the epidemic of 1888-89, although it may have been endemic during the entire period.!. In Manila the epidemic lasted until the end of February, 1904, and killed 4386 victims. In the provinces, owing to the inef- ficiency of sanitary measures, the absence of medical help, and the inexperience of officials in combating epidemics, it swept unhindered until it had devastated all the Archi- pelago except the mountainous region of Lepanto-Bontok and the islands of Palawan and Batanes. There are no trustworthy figures as to the sick and dead. The offi- cial reports seem excessively low to one who saw the dis- ease in several provinces. The census figures, which ac- count for over 200,000 deaths, are probably still under the truth. The cholera, introduced into island after island by the visits of infected ships and native boats, spread from town to town at about the rate of a walking man. No remedial measures were known or tried. General sanitation, removal of filth, precautions in cooking and care of food, were advocated, but in many localities the disease raged until it seemed that only the immune were spared. There was no panic. The people took it with tragic submis- ‘This is the opinion of Professor Worcester. See his History of Asiatic Cholera in the Philippine Islands, Manila, 1908.A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 299 sion. Processions in honor of San Roque and other cere- monies were practiced, but the population was beyond the influence of such expert advice as was offered. American officials in the provinces, teachers, and scout and constabulary officers, with very few exceptions, stood to their tasks with heroic fidelity. Not a few fell victims. For months the normal industrial life, the work of the schools, and the operation of the newly established local eovernments were demoralized.! Disease assailed the animals as well. Surra killed most of the horses in the Islands and a still more serious calam- ity, the rinderpest, destroyed the cattle and carabaos indis- pensable to rice cultivation. Agriculture was paralyzed. Agricultural Distress and Economic Crisis. — The eco- nomic crisis was serious. For years the Islands had not raised their own food in adequate amounts. The develop- ment of the culture of tobacco, hemp, copra, and sugar had lessened the rice cultivation, and Saigon and Burma had supplied the deficiency. In 1903 the importations of rice reached 20,000,000 pesos ; in 1904 they rose further to 23,097,628 pesos. The army, which had kept a great deal of money in circulation, had been much reduced and this economic support was gone. 3y the summer of 1902 in many parts of the Islands there was suffering for lack of food. The price of rice was rising rapidly in Manila and there was evidence that a combination had been formed among importers to control its price. Under these cir- cumstances the Commission, by Act No. 495, appropri- ated 2,000,000 pesos to buy and distribute rice to needy districts, selling it at reasonable prices. The transaction 1 Census of the Philippine Islands, vol. III, p. 47-300 THE PHILIPPINES. occasioned a loss to the government of $100,000, but it broke the ‘‘ corner ”’ in rice. Drought of unusual length continued through many months of 1903 and locusts invaded nearly every province. The earliest records of Spanish occupation rehearse the losses through the armies of these winged invaders, and beginning with an early date, ordinances of Philippine gov- ernors had authorized the general levy of the population to destroy the young of the locusts. This practice was followed by the Commission, and an appropriation was made to aid the provinces in their efforts at extermination. The introduction of a fungus fatal to locusts was tried also, but without results. The relief fund of $3,000,000 voted by Congress, the only appropriation ever made by the United States government for the aid of the Islands, was used to supply food to populations engaged in fighting lo- custs as well as for building roads and constructing school- houses. Efforts were also made to restock the Islands out of this fund with carabaos from China and the Malay states. The economic distress was further aggravated by the de- preciation of silver, which impaired the purchasing power of the Mexican money in general circulation, by the ab- sence of markets for such exports as tobacco and sugar, and by the unfamiliar character of the local taxation. The prestige and success of the new government were greatly damaged by a number of defalcations of disbursing and property officers. The system of audit was inadequate, untried men had been intrusted with responsibilities be- yond their ability or integrity, the number of officers at first charged with the receipt and disbursement of funds was unnecessarily large, and numerous irregularities occurred.A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 301 The offenders were swiftly prosecuted and unsparingly punished, but their behavior was a great mortification to the Commission and to the community.’ These are some of the difficulties under which the ad- ministration of Governor Taft labored. That progress was made is eloquent tribute to him and his associates. Busi- ness was suffering from the loss of army trade, from currency disorder, and from failure of products, but the fnances of the Government were kept solvent. Public order suffered from ladrones and from fanatical outbreaks, but cradually friendships were established between Americans and Filipinos and cooperation was attained. The schools, in spite of delays of organization and the lack of means of communication, made progress and were attended in 1902-3 by about 150,000 pupils. The personality of Governor Taft went far to reassure Filipinos and conquer their distrust and antipathy, but the American business community did not sympathize with his policy of ‘ the Philippines for the Filipinos.” He was continually embarrassed by the lack of support from men who preferred the military régime, who clamored for a free hand in appropriating the natural wealth of the Islands and for legislation favoring exploitation. One of Mr. Taft’s last services was the delivery of an address in Manila on the eve of his departure, entitled ‘‘ The Duty of Americans in the Philippines.” This was perhaps the fullest and ablest defense of the American policy in the Philippines ever made.’ Settlement with the Catholic Church. — Mr. Taft had la- bored to complete one other task. This was the purchase 1 Report, 1903, vol. I, p. 70. 2 Official Gazette, vol. I, p. 68.802 THE PHILIPPINES. of the “ Friar Lands.” These lands, the possession of the Augustinian, Franciscan, Dominican, and Recollect orders. amounted to about 425,000 acres, 275,000 acres being in the vicinity of Manila. Some had belonged to the orders for centuries, but the Augustinian estate in the Kagayan valley had been granted to that order in 1880 and the San José estate in Mindoro had been granted to the Recollects in 1894. Filipino feeling against the clerical ownership of these properties was intense. After 1896 it had never been possible to collect rentals from the tenants. The Malolos Convention which adopted the constitution of the Filipino Republic had decreed the secularization of these lands. The Schurman Commission had recommended their purchase by the government, their subdivision and sale to tenants. The Philippine Commission adopted this plan. It was urged by Mr. Taft in Washington in the spring of 1902, and sanctioned by Congress in the Act of July 1. On his way back to the Philippines in 1902, Mr. Taft went to Rome, hoping by direct application to the Pope to secure a contract for the purchase of the estates and the entire withdrawal of the friars from the Islands. This effort was unsuccessful, but a new Apostolic Dele- gate, Monsignor Guidi, was appointed to the Philippines, and after long negotiations it was agreed in December, 1903, that the friar lands should be purchased by the Philippines government for $7,237,000. Subsequently other disputes involving the ownership of property, in- cluding the San José College, were settled or compromised in a manner generous to the church, and the difficult questions involved in the separation of government and church were met without inheritance of ill feeling. Fur- thermore, by Act of March 26, 1908, Congress appropriatedA DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 303 24()3.030.19 for the benefit of the Roman Catholic Church to settle its claims for damages to church property during the Spanish War and the Insurrection.! Meanwhile the religious predominance of the Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines had been menaced by a, remarkable secession which found its strength in hostil- ity to the continued service of the friars as curates of the parishes. This schism was led by a Filipino priest, Gre- gorio Aglipay, who proclaimed himself Pontifex Maximus of the Independent Catholic Church of the Philippines. Hundreds of towns fell in with this movement, and their churches were turned over by the people to the Aglipay leaders. The Roman Catholic Church authorities de- manded of the government that the churches be restored to their bishops by armed interference of the constabulary, but the government maintained a neutral attitude and re- quired the matter to take its way in the courts. Deci- sions of the Supreme Court of the Philippines eventually gave the title of all these churches to the Roman Catholic bishops. Administration of Governor-General Wright. — Following Mr. Taft’s departure, Mr. Luke E. Wright was inaugu- rated on February 1, 1904.? In his inaugural address Mr. Wright dwelt upon the need of industrial development and ot transportation, especially railroads, and urged that 1 See Report War Dept. 1900, I, part 4, pp. 502-9; Report Phil. Com. 1902, pp. 22-83; Ib. 1905, Exhibits F.G.H.1.; Ib. 1904, Exhibit I.; Cor- respondence between the Holy see and Hon. Wm. H. Taft, Manila, 1902. Sen. Doc. 190, 56th Cong. 2nd sess.; Special Report of Secretary Taft. Washington, 1908. 2 Congress by Act of Feb. 6, 1905, the © Cooper Act,”’ changed the designation of the chief executive of the Philippines from Civil Governor to that of Governor-General.304 THE PHILIPPINES. encouragement and friendliness be shown to all who de- sired to enter the islands for their legitimate clevelopment. The policy, he said, should be one of “ equal opportunities to all.” Economic Policy. — This announcement was welcomed by Americans who had opposed Mr. Taft, as indicating more favorable concessions to business and foreign capital, while Filipinos were to some degree disturbed. It was apparent that Mr. Wright’s sympathies inclined more toward meas- ures for industrial development than to the political train- ing of the Filipinos or to public instruction of the child. As Secretary of Commerce and Police he had already given extensive study to the question of increasing railroad fa- cilities in the islands, and the most important achievement of his administration was the interesting of American cap- ital in railroad building. President Roosevelt appointed to the Commission to succeed Mr. Wright as Secretary of Commerce and Police, Mr. W. Cameron Forbes of Mass- achusetts, then a young man of thirty-four, who had had successiul experience in financial reorganization of electric roads and similar business in the United States. Building of Railroads. — Except for a short steam tram- way running from Manila to Malabon, the islands had but one railway, of 196 kilometers length, running north from Manila through the rich level plain of Luzon to Dagupan on the Gulf of Lingayen. The royal decree granting a con- cession was dated April 25, 1885, the grant following in 1887 when construction work commenced. The road was opened to traffic in several sections from 1891 to 1894. The Spanish decree had controlled the fixing of rates and regulation of service and this control continued to be ex- ercised by the government under the United States. TheSeen A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 305 Commission served as a public utilities commission.’ The conditions authorized by Congress and published by the Philippine government were somewhat different from those of the Spanish period. The presence of revolution and disorder and the uncertainty of the political future of the Islands had made foreign capital distrustful of Philippine investments. In order to attract investors, it was found necessary for the government to guarantee interest at four per cent. for a period of thirty years on the bonds of rail- way companies making contracts for the building of rail- ways, the government reserving the right to supervise the construction and operation.’ Under these easy terms 725.8 kilometers of railway were constructed on Luzon, uniting with Manila the provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, and Tayabas; 118.74 kilo- meters on Panay, joining the coast of Kapis with Iloilo; and 98.83 kilometers along the eastern coast of Cebu. These roads appear to have been successfully operated, but at times have received financial aid under the government euarantee of interest on the bonds. Roads and Highways.— The public road policy inaug- urated by Governor Wright was less fortunate. Moun- tain roads from Iba to Tarlak, from Pagbilao to Atimonan, a road designed to cross the island of Samar, and a road built across Cebu, were practically not utilized by the people and relapsed into ruin. Local roads built at heavy expense afforded scant returns. ‘The absence of draft animals frequently made it impossible to use such 1 Later a board of rate regulation was created by Act 1779, composed of the Governor-General, the Secretary of Commerce and Police, and one other person. (Rep. 1908, p. 33.) 2 Revort 1905, p. 3, Sq.306 THE PHILIPPINES. roads when built. There was not provided, as later, an organized service to keep them in repair, and the damage by storms and typhoons each year was great. This last difficulty has been too little heeded. Road building in the Philippines is a different task from that in British Ma- laysia or Java, where mere dirt roads suffice and macadam with reasonable attention will stand unaffected season af- ter season. In the Philippines the rainfall accompanying a typhoon disturbance is enormous, and even roads of most durable construction suffer heavy damage. Unable to utilize these improvements fully, the people resented the burden of their maintenance. It would seem as if the Philippines, like Mexico and some Spanish American countries, would most economically pass from the stage of trails and paths to that of steam or electric roads. The Islands have abundant water power that could be utilized, and the heavy expenses incurred for wagon roads would have sufficed in many cases to build light railways affording immediate transportation to a people lacking both horses and vehicles. Civil Service System. — Mr. Wright was a strong friend of the civil service system, which had been planted in the islands at the very beginning of the work of the Commis- sion. Amplification of the law having been found desir- able, an additional act, regulating the service and settling questions of absence and leave, was enacted on January 12, 1904, and on the first of September following were promulgated revised civil service rules further systematiz- ing the service and strengthening the merit principle on which it was based. Reorganization of the Administration. — The insular ad- ministration had been created with great rapidity and onA DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 307 the whole with admirable results, but 1t now appeared that the cost of the government might be reduced and a higher efficiency reached by a reorganization of bureaus and 4 standardizing of othce methods. On April 1, 1905, Gov- ernor Wright appointed a committee, with Mr. Forbes as chairman, which carried out a series of bureau investiga- tions and recommended certain changes which were in large measure adopted by the Commission and incorpo- rated in Act No. 1407, enacted October 16, 1905. This measure, known as the “ Reorganization Act,” consoli- dated certain branches of the government. The bureaus of Archives and of Patents, Copyrights and Trade Marks were united to the Executive Bureau. The Civil Service office, which had before been a board of three members, after the usual American pattern, was changed to a bu- reau. Tbe Board of Health likewise became a bureau and to its custody were added the Civil Hospital, the Baguio Sanatorium and the health of Bilibid Prison. The Bureau of Government Laboratories became the Bureau of Science and the Mining Bureau was consolidated with it. The Bureau of Architecture was abolished and its work given to the Bureau of Public Works. ‘The com- missary and supply store in Manila organized by the con- stabulary was transferred to the insular purchasing agent, whose office became the Bureau of Supply. The tele- eraph system operated by the constabulary was transferred to the Bureau of Posts. The Ethnological Survey (pre- viously the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes) and the Ma- nila Library were added to the Bureau of Education, the first to be transferred a little later to the Bureau of Science and the latter in 1908 to be reorganized under the Philippine Library Board. The resulting reorganization308 THE PHILIPPINES. and administration of the insular government was as fol- lows: The Governor-General retained under his executive su- pervision the Executive Bureau and the Bureau of Civil service. The Department of the Interior embraced the Bureaus of Health, Lands (newly created to administer the acquired friar lands and other public domain), Science, Agriculture, Forestry, Quarantine Service, and Weather, with general supervision over the non-Christian tribes except the Moros, and over Philippine fisheries. The Department of Commerce and Police embraced the Bureaus of Constabulary, Public Works, Navigation, Posts, Port Works, and Coast and Geodetic Survey, with super- vision of corporations except banks. The Department of Finance and Justice embraced the Bureaus of Justice, Audits, Customs, Internal Revenue, Insular Treasury, and the city of Manila, together with general supervision of banking, coinage, and currency. < The Department of Public Instruction embraced the Bu- reaus of Education, Supply, Prisons, Printing, and Cold Storage, with general supervision over libraries, public charities, and museums. In 1908 a Bureau of Labor was added to the Department of Commerce and Police and in 1910 the Bureau of Agriculture was transferred to the Department of Public Instruction.! By this act the centralized system of administration was confirmed. Executive authority was centralized in the Govy- ernor-General and the Secretaries of Departments, who ex- ercise administrative control over the bureaus. The heads of the bureaus, uniformly styled by this act “ directors,” 1(Act 1912 of Philippine Legislature. )A DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 309 are the responsible heads with authority over the person- nel and the undertakings of their bureaus. This form of administration, modelled as it is upon successful continen- tal and American federal experience, is a great improve- ment over the ordinary decentralized and ununified admin- ‘stration of American states. Its advantages have been fully demonstrated. Only in a few instances has the Phil- ippine government shown a disposition to adopt the ire- sponsible and disunited “ board type” of administration so common in American state governments. The administra- tion of the University of the Philippines, however, has fol- lowed the usual American plan, being committed to a Board of Regents, partly ex-officio and partly appointed by the Governor-General. The Library Board and the Board of Industrial Sales Exhibit are recent innovations of the board type of administration. The above reorganization somewhat improved the admin- ‘stration. It did not greatly reduce the office personnel or simplify the methods except in the field of disburse- ments, where authority was consolidated and the for- mer system of auditing replaced by a system of pre-audit and a better property accountability. The Philippine Government was perhaps the first under the American flag to investigate and reform its administration in the interests of economy and efficiency, and the effort is correspond- ingly interesting to the student of administration. Changes in Local Government.—This is a suitable place to notice certain modifications 1n the plan of provincial and municipal government. The American government in the Philippines had retained the Spanish administrative divi- sions, the “ provinces,” but had attempted to introduce the principle of local autonomy. Almost without excep-310 THE PHILIPPINES. tion modern colonial governments place the district or pro- vincial administration directly under the head of the colony and fill the chief post of responsibility with a trained ap- pointive official. But the American Commissioners had in view the American county as a model and were impressed te with the evils of ‘‘ centralization ”’ and ‘‘ autocracy.” They undertook to decentralize, and created provincial govern- ts ments of the ‘‘ commission type ”’ ostensibly autonomous in their powers. However, these governments were never in- trusted with important branches of the service or utilized by the insular authorities as local agents. Education, con- stabulary, forests, mines, lands, and posts were committed to insular bureaus with headquarters in Manila and repre- sentatives in all parts of the Islands. At first, roads and similar public improvements were constructed by the pro- vincial boards, but in 1905 the office of ‘‘ supervisor ”’ was abolished and provincial road work intrusted to district engineers of the insular Bureau of Public Works. The place of the supervisor on the provincial board was taken by the division superintendent of schools. Local boards of health also were abandoned in favor of sanitation by the Bureau of Health. These arrangements indicate a failure of the plan of decentralized provincial governments, and a disposition not to intrust them with extensive powers. The Reorganization Act made a decisive change toward admin- istrative oversight by providing that the Executive Secre- tary should have general supervision over the provincial treasurers and provincial administration, review the action of provincial boards in assessing the land tax, and approve all appointments to the subordinate personnel of the pro- vincial governments. The provincial governments, how- ever, were obviously too expensive for the slender dutiesA DECADE OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 311 left to them. Economy was gained by «uniting several small provinces with larger (Marinduki with Tayabas, An- tiki with Iloilo, Abra with Ilokos Sur, Masbate with Sor- sogon), and by consolidating the offices of governor and secretary, or secretary and treasurer. The separate court for Abra was abolished,! and the office of fiscal in two different provinces was united in a number of instances. Several years later an effort was made to increase the re- sponsibilities of the provincial governments and the third member of the board was made elective, like the governor. More recently the terms of office of both these officials have been extended to four years. In spite of the lack of any sound theory in the plan of provincial governments, they have interested the people and have accomplished some notable improvements, including the erection of many ex- cellent provincial buildings. The Commission had originally adopted the ‘“ pueblo ”’ as the basis of municipal eovernment. But the plan pro- vided by the Municipal Code of 1901 2 was overelaborate and artificial, required too many paid officials, and was too expensive for the average town. Consolidation was early resorted to. In 1903 the number of municipalities was reduced by over four hundred. Many former town cen- ters were thus left without local officials; buildings and plazas were neglected. The whole civic spirit, which with Filipinos centers in their locality, was hurt. More recent years have seen the reincorporation of many of these towns. ‘The Governor-General was given authority to effect this rehabilitation, and the return of more pros- perous years has brought improvement in the manner 1 Act 1345, May 19, 1905. 2Act 83.Sie, THE PHILIPPINES. in which municipal government is conducted, though many of the initial defects remain. For the municipalities, as in the case of the provincial governments, no adequate admin- istrative supervision has ever been created. Improvements to the City of Manila. — Other public un- dertakings which date from this time are the Manila harbor and the replanning of the city. To a large degree the Americans followed plans which the Spaniards had originated but had pressed with insufficient energy to real- ize in their time. The port of Manila had remained for centuries unpro- tected from heavy winds and typhoons. Cavite offered the only passable anchorage for ships too large to enter the Pasig river. Ocean-going steamers at Manila lay two miles or more off shore and transferred their freight and passengers to lighters, exposed to danger during the sea- son of typhoons. Io between,INDEX. English language, ISOS Epidemics, 295 Esteybar, Francisco de, 182 Ethnological survey, 307 Ethnology, study of, 1 YOY) Europe, wars in, Executive Bureau, 307, 905 Executive Secretary, 310 Explorers, Spanish, 55 Federal Party, 282, 322; 327 Fernandina, 146 Fetishes among the Filipinos, 79 Feudalism, 19 Figueroa, Rodriguez de, 127 Filipino alphabet, source ol, Filipino writings, early, 72 Filipinos ae assassination of, 278 before arrival ol Spaniards, 64-595 classes of, 79 eonverted to ‘ ‘hristianity, distribution of, 64 142 in eighteenth century, 199 reform, 253 in movement for increase 1n educated, 251 liberal ideas among, 247 life and progress of, 52, L180 misunderstanding with Americans, 267 reorganize forces, 277 religion of, 31 under the Encomiendas, 139 Finance and Justice, 985, 308, 366 Florida, discovered, 49 Food, searcity ol, 159 Forbes, 339 340, 379 Jureau of, 287, 3U5 Forestry, Formosa, 168, 176 France — about 1400, 22 war with England, 206 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 97 Franciscans, 97, 125, 179 Freer, Paul C., 355 French revolution, 223 Friars attitude toward education, 251 coming of, 142 lands of, 340 Department ol, W. Cameron, 304, 207. 338, 401 missionary efforts of, 125 opposed, 253 organization of, 96 repress the people, 25 resist English, 210 Funston, General, 277 Gabaldén Act, 339 Galleons, capture of, Gallinato, Juan, 129 Gama, Vasco da, 41 Geographical discoveries, 37-63 Germany about 1400, 22 Gibbon, Edward, 18 Gil, Padre, 257 Gilbert, Newton W., 338, 357 Gilmore, Eugene, 381 Goiti, Captain Martin de, 76, LOY Gomez, Dominador, 321, 324, 32! Gomez, Father, 254 149 Gonzaga, Eneracio, 270 (Government bureaus ol, 984, 307, 308 departments of, 284, 308, 365 local, 983, 309 municipal, 239, 311 provincial, 284 (;overnors American, 394 Spanish, 391 LSS, 2380, 314 Francisco Tello de, 125 (Guam, Guzman, Hai-tan, 79 Haiti discovered, 14 Harding, President, 378 Harl, 738 Harrison, Francis Burton, 357-359 364 Health, Bureau of, 289, 208, 310, 354 Henry, Prince, 37 Herrada, Friar Martin, 106 Hindus, 12, 65 Hispaniola discovered, 44 Holy Child of Cebu, 105 Homonhon, 904 Horses, 83 Hospitals, 179 House ol 2epresentatives, 361 Humabon, 56arthquake at, 131 founded, 111 importance of, 147 improvements in, 192, 312 Normal School, 950, 288 opened to trade, 233 taken by the English, 209 taken by the Spanish, 109 Manobo, 10 Mapa, Victoriana, 358, 366 March, Major, 276 Mariveles, Dutch at, 166 Martin, Henderson, 358 Masonry, 254 Maximilian, 49 May-nila, 109 McKinley, President, 269, 982. 283, 291, 294 Mediaeval period, 18 Mendoza, viceroy of Mexico, Mexico, 49, 227 Mincopies, 7 Mindanao, 10, 240 Mindoro, pirates of, 108 Ming dynasty, 33 Mining, Bureau of, 985, 307 Missionary, the Spanish, 99 Missions to the United States, 378, 386 Mogul, Great, 32 Mohammed, 13 Mohammedans, Moluccas abandoned, Monasticism, rise of, 95 Mongols, Tartar, 30 Monroe Doctrine, 263 Morones, Juan de, 136 Moros — activity of, 181 Corcuera’s expedition against, 172 first expedition against, 105 forts destroyed, 244 government of, 345, in 1771, 214 increase of, 202 Fleet captured 970, 280, RH 99 ORK 272 93, 285, 3/9 182 347, 373 403 of Jolo, ZZ of Tawi Tawi, 194 origin of name, 17 rise of, 129 trade with, 75 Moses, Prof. Bernard, 281, 285 Mota, Captain Lorenzo de la, 137 Municipal governments, 239, 311 Museum, Philippine, 289 Napoleon I., 225 National Bank, Philippine, QQ2 AOD 371, 381, Natives under Spanish rule, SA Navigation, Bureau of, 308 Navigator, the, 37 Navy established, 219 Negritos, iL Ze! Negros, occupation of, 273 Netherlands become independent, 162 Newspapers, 247 Non-Christian Tribes, 985, 307, 3409, 362 Normal School, Manila, 250, 288 Northern route discovered, 107 Nueva Caceres, founded, 122, 146 Nueva Segovia, 123, 146 ne Bureau of, Nueva Vergara, 242 Obando, Marquis of, 202 Ocampo de Leon, Pablo, 337 Opium, 319 Orang benua, 5 Orang laut, 242 Orinico River, 46 Ortega, Joaquin, 2 Osmefa, Sergio, 325, 34 335. 336, 364 Otis, General, 269 Oyanguran, José, 241 Ozeariz, Mariano, 240 Pacific Ocean discovered, 49 Palaos, 1938 Palma, Rafael, 338, 357, 366 Pampangos, 11, 180 Pangasinan, 11, 273 Papuans, 7 Pardo de Tavera, Drv. Hos: 282, 338 Pelew Islands, 93, 198, 227 Pershing, General, 350, 3951, 374404 Peru, conquest of, 49 Philip the Handsome, 49 Philippine Act of 1902, 290 Philippine Civil Commission, 338, 358 280, Philippines — America and, 26] Americar as a Spanish colony, 84 9O3 ideas about, 267 Chinese in, 73 coming of the Spaniards, 16 discovered, 54 during the period o revolution, 205—232 expedition to, 91, 93, 102 first archbishop in, 128 independence of, 293, 324, 336, 345, 360, 377, 38: inquisition in, 186 Jesuits expelled from, 213 navy established in, 219 peoples of, 1-18 political decline of, 186 rebellions in, 228 returned to Spain, 210 separated from Mexico, 227 184 f European wt } threatened by Chinese, under the English, 208 Philosophy of the eighteenth tury, new, 205 Pilar, Gregorio del, 276 Pineda, Antonio, 219 Pintados, Islas de los, 107 Piracy, 170, 202, 220, 245 Pirates, 108, 129, 194, 214, 2492 Pizarro, 49 Polistas, 142 Polo, Marco, 350 Poniente, Islas del, 55 23% Portuguese discover F Cen= 169 astern passage, Portuguese colonies. 37 Postal Savings Bank, 320 Posts, Bureau of, 285, 307, 308, 320 Press, influence of, 247 Primo de Rivera, General, 259 Printing, Bureau of, 285, 308 285, 308 Progress and revolution, 233 Provinces, government of, 284 Public Instruction, Department 285, 308, 353, 365 Prisons, of, Se ——— THE PHILIPPINES. Public Works, 308, 310 Pueblo, 236. 283, 311 Pulahan, the, 315 Bureau of, 285, 307, Quarantine Service, 308 Quezon, Manuel, 326, 337 Railroads, 304, 372 Raja, 78 tebellion of 1896, 257 Receipts and Expenditures, 370 Recollects, 143 Reformation, 97 Regidor, Antonio, 254 Religion of the Filipinos, 81 Renaissance, 21 Reorganization, of 1916, 365 Repartimentos, 87 Residencia, 178 Revolt of 1841, 237 Revolution, 223 American, 223 French, 223 Riggs, John L., 358, 359 Rizal y Mercado, Dr. José, 254, 258. 319 Roads, 305, 368 Rojo, Manuel, 203 Ronquillo, Gonzalo, 122, 123, ) toosevelt, President, 291, 295, Act of 1905, 307, 356 Root, Elihu, 283 Saavedra, Alvaro de, 92 Salamanca, Juan Cerezo de, 170 Salazar, Domingo de, 142 Salcedo, Diego de, 186 Salcedo, Juan de, 108 Samal pirates, 242 Samal ports destroyed, 243 amar, 54, 295 an Andres, orphanage of, 144 an Augustin, Fr. Gaspar de, 76, 102 anchez, Alonso, 125 DT Th op Sanchez, Padre Alonzo, 142 Sandico, Teodoro, 270 Sangleyes, 158 San Juan de Dios hospital, 96 inta Potenciana, 144 santibanez, Ignacio, 128 St. hINDEX. Santo Nino, 105 Sanvitores, Padre Diego Luis de, 156 Saranganl, 94 School law, 287 Schools, 143, 948, 250, 286 Schurman Commission, 280, 309, 350 Schwan, General, 271 Seience, Bureau of. 308, 320, 355 Sedefio, Padre Antonio, 142 Sedition Act, 314 Segovia, Nueva, 146 Seljuks, 23 penate, Philippine, 361 Shuster, W. Morgan, 328, Sierra, Juan, 192 Silonga, 127 Silva, Juan de, 166 Silver money, 300, 315 Singson, Vicente, 305 Sioco, 117 Slavery, 39, Smith, Gen. 398 359 Soliman, Raja, 109 South America 338 iY 79 James, 2/0, rebellion 1n, 227 republics of. 263 Spain — colonial policy of, decline of, 226 economic policy of, 194 war with United States, 264 Spanish — and Portuguese, 151 attitude toward education, expedition to Borneo, 121 found a post at Zamboanga, &9 251 170 sovernment, 137 ‘nerease in population, 290 law, 2355 occupation, 116 revolt in 1823, 230 rule established, 132, settle Mindanao, 240 soldiers and missionaries, 34 take Moro city of Manila, 109 Spilbergen, Admiral, 167 Statistics, Bureau of, 285 139 Sual opened to trade, 235 Subanon, 10 Sulu, 242 Sulu treaty, 245 405 Sumulong, Juan, 335 Supply, Bureau of, 307 Supreme Court, 289 Swingli, 98 Taal Voleano, 344 Taft, William H., 281, 982, 283, 991, 295, 301, 302, 316, 334 Tagal, Moro pirate, 171 Tagilog language, 66 Tagilog people, 11 Tagbanwas, 10 286 Tamerlane, 32 Tartar Mongols, 30 Tattooing, 107 Tawi Tawi, pirates of, 194 Taxation, 329, 370 Taycosama, 125 Tierra del Fuego, 52 Timour, 32 Tobacco industry, 216 Tondo, District of, 159 Torre, Carlos de la, 252 Torre, Francisco de la, 210 lorre, Hernando de la, 92 Toscanelli, 45 Totanes, Padre, 72 Trade foreign, 342 restricted, 88, 145 routes Ole zi Venetian monopoly of. 25, 28 with the East, Dill ‘Treason and Sedition Law, 32: Insular, 285, 505 Mariano, 270 wy Treasurer, Trias, (gen Turks, 23 ala phoons, 206, 343 < (See America) 261 war with Spain, 264 University 0! Philippines, ( rbistondo, Governor 242 United State development ol, SOY, 350 Urdaneta, Andrés de, 76, 91, 101 Vagrancy Act, 297 Van Noort, 130 Vargas, José Basco y, 216 Venice, 20, 25 Vera, Dr. Santiago de, 124, 136 Vey ra, Jaime dewozo. 258, 3864.06 Vespucci, Amerigo, 47 Vigan, 146 Villalobos, Lopez de, 93 Voleanic eruptions, 228, 344 Weather Bureau, 285, 308, 343 Weights and Measures, 320 Wellington, 226 Weyler, Governor-General, 264, 348 Wheaton, General, 273 White, Frank R., 354 Wilson, President, 356 Wittert, Admiral, 166 Wolfe, General, 207 Wood, Leonard, 350, 379 Wood-Forbes Mission, 379 Worcester, Dean C., 281. 357 World War, 366, 369, 376 Worms, Diet at, 50 98! i) v1 or rage a a _ awal , 009, THE PHILIPPINES. Wright, Luke E., 281, 285, 303, 316 Writing, systems of, 69 Writings, early Filipino, 72 Xavier, Saint Francis, 94 Yeater, Charles E., 358, 365, 38 Young, Major, 289 Yusef, 58 Zamal, 54 Zamboanga — abandoned, 182 expedition to Samal, 243 opened to trade, 235 refounded, 192 settled, 240 Spanish post at, 170 Zamora, Father, 253, 254Cartography of the Philippine Islands HODGSON’S MAP OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Compiled by Caspar W. Hopcson. Engraved on stone by A. Briesemeister. 42” X59’. Printed in six colors. : This map embodies the results of political changes and explorations made since the American occupation, and is based on original sources. In its preparation, the maps and other data of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, of the United States Navy and War Departments, and of the various bureaus of the Philippine Government, all existing Spanish and American maps of recognized value, and sketch maps and notes of explorers of the unmapped portions of the Islands were consulted. Before the map was engraved, blue prints of the drawings were made and each division superintendent of schools, each constabulary officer, and each district engineer in the Islands, was asked to correct the details of the region with which he was familiar. Many other persons, officers of the United States Army, government officials, and private ‘ndividuals who had special knowledge of the little known and unmapped regions, made corrections in the blue prints. This is the most carefully pre- pared and engraved map of the Philippines ever made, and is, therefore, the most authoritative map to be obtained at the present time. Major-General Leonard Wood, U.S.A: From what I have seen of it, I am sure that it is a wonderfully good map, and I appreciate it very much. Honorable Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior, Philippine Islands: The portfolio edition of your map is proving invaluable to me on my trips. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, New York: This is the best map that has been compiled of the Philippines. . . . The map fills a need and will be necessary to all persons and institutions requiring cartographic information of the Philippines as we now know them. Price by mail, prepaid, of the paper edition is $5.40; of the wall edition, cloth backed and mounted on plain sticks, $0 00: of the portfolio edition, cloth backed and mounted in buckram portfolio, $7.50. HODGSON’S GRAPHIC OUTLINE MAPS. A series of six maps in accurate but faint outline, to be used for filling +n and tracing, in connection with the development of the various historical, geographical, and industrial studies of the Philippine Islands and adjacent countries. The titles are: (x) The World on Mercator’s Projection, (2) The Philippine Islands and Adjacent Coasts, (3) The Philippine Islands, (4) Luzon and Neighboring Islands, (5) The Bisayan Islands and Mindanao, and (6) The Sulu Archipelago and Palawan. The price is $1.50 a hundred, postpaid. WORLD BOOK GC O M PUA NEY YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 1126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago Also Atlanta Dallas ManilaTNT TEATETTEN IVETE CTO THE NEW WORLD PROBLEMS IN POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY By ISAIAH BOWMAN, Ph. D. Director of the American Geographical Society RESENTS in convenient form the facts bearing upon the ew territorial, racial, religious, commercial, and political alignments in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Many highly significant racts contained in this book can be Breinedt a1 =. aden - . obtained from no other source. roblems are presented in their relation to world politics and in their historical and geo- graphical setting. ‘The latest reliable statistics are given when- ever they serve to make a point clear. J There r > ~ ba 1a. dy 7 romans _}] he (hic Ad ripn 1@7T€ ATE QIYS Aadnd-adrawn MAPS, All SPecl fie GANGA CLEaT, y f Y? 7 . ; . . y ‘ <2 do ro f ; <0 ‘é - wlAy . - I hey are designed to bring out particular economi ’ © oO s y. Fi 7 : : ; he - 5 ae oy } : z political, Or £eOLTa hical features LGEGLEG LR The LEX. A reading of THe New Wor tp will enable the student of geog- raphy, history, and economics to see the significance of the changes that have been made in the map of the world, to un- derstand the influences that have brought them about, to esti- mate their bearing upon the course of political events, and to think in a more comprehensive way about the many vital prob- lems in the field of international relations. Cloth. vii + 632 pages. Price $0.v0 WORLD BOOK COMPANY YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEw York 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO HanTTT he < OULVUUUEUULUUUDAVEDEGULEUUUDOQUVEAUEEYLOUU O00 EEUU EEE EES PULUUEAULULLUUEEEEETLU TTL CUTE NSELO RU riko l Okay Ok ison Db Ral itor! COMMONWEALTH IN TWO VOLUMES By Ramsay Muir | HE complete stor: of the British Commonwealth resarded as a single whole, with due space given to foreign and colonial history While the critical military and Pp litical events are treated fully, emphasis throughout 1s upon the develop- PEUEEVECUUCTLTEDE EEE TEE ment of institutions and of -ocjal conditions in all lands = of the British Empire. The causes and the real signi- Feance of constitutional changes are brought out in a clear and interesting way. | conomic and social history AULOTULU LD TTT EEE PTET are introduced as a vital element of the Story. ULUNTUELEE EDU LTOCU EET EU DEO TTLTETE The main features of European history are worked in as a part of the narrative ‘1 order to illustrate the 1n fluence of European movements upon British develop- ment and the position of the British Commonwealth in western civilization The work of other nations in foreion trade and col mization is given particular attention. This work embodies a sane, modern view of British historv. The scale on which it is planned shows a s und 4 1 . . . . . "Ts rar and discriminating judgment of proportions The tacts are authoritative and the interpretations O01 periods, events, and personalities are 1 ithful and impartial. Volume I (to 1703). § loth. Svo. xvits24 pages V oluite Il (7702-1910 /. ( lot! . SUO. XX Wi) f SIO pages SYNUUUTENUUUDEONOVUUUULONSQOUDEUETOU00ECESEYUUUUETAET CUESTA EET EEE EET EET PUEUEUEUEELUTLEE TED LUTTE EET WORLD BOOK COM PANY | \ N ERS-ON-LLUDS' q, INE W 1 9126 PRAI AVENUE, CHICAGO TALLNUUSEDUEEUAUEETTTELISIEETI THEUUEEUTE “1 POM LLL HET HT UUULJUUDNOULUDNUUULTNOULLOTUUECATU EASED LCE PLEA +SUT School History of the American People TUTE EEET EEE i } HNN | By CHARLEs L. RopBins Professor of Education, State University of Iowa HIS text makes effective application of modern educa- ee theory in presenting the main body of facts on United States history as required in seventh or eighth grade. In general, the treatment is topical; but a careful balance is maintained between the topical method of presentation and the chronological method. Each chapter begins with the statement of a problem that is intended to guide the student in his study and cause him to think about the significance of the material pre- sented. Interspersed through the text are questions which present live problems, as closely as possible related to the interests and needs of students. At the end of each chapter there are a Summary, a Study Test, Dates Worth Remembering, a short list of Interesting Readings, and Suggestions for Special Work. The material in this history was selected with a view to giving young citizens an understanding of social institu- tions, their development, and _ their relationships. American history is construed in its world setting, but throughout, the point of view is patriotic: and it ‘is impartial without being indifferent. Facts are given, rather than opinions. TT The text is effectively illustrated with 238 engravings from photographs and paintings, 36 line drawings and facsimiles, and 44 specially-prepared maps. TUTTO HUT Cloth. xxxiv+606 pages. Price $1.72 HT WORLD BOOK COMPANY YONKERS-ON-Hupson, New York TUETETEETATT TEETH 2126 PRAIRIE AVENUE, CHICAGO Hill “CTT eee eee eee TETTEEENEL THEE ses CR re a poten en ee —_—— ee —WENT Barrio Iatmemcmnc Barrio Education By CamiLo Ostas President of the National University and formerly Assistant ‘Director of Education for the Philippines ELLS in detail the general and special problems of barrio (village) school education with reference to the conditions of rural life in the Philippine Islands. It is designed as a handbook on the conduct of rural schools for the use of the teacher and the supervising teacher in the Philippine school system. This is a book of both practical advice and inspiration. The author holds before the country school teacher the ideal of making the school a rallying point for a more prosperous life for the whole community as well as for the school children. He knows the local conditions and needs. and he is never too visionary in his recommenda- tions. He presents to the country school teacher the basic ideas upon which rural education and progress must rest and shows him in what concrete and practical ways he can do his part to help his community. It is a book calculated to encourage all who would ex- amine the record of the relations of the United States with the Philippines. It is a credit to both sides; for it shows that the Filipinos are able to investigate what ‘s offered and to select wisely what will fit their needs; and it shows also that there is in the American educa- tional system inspiration and help to give them. Cloth. x+175 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.80 or ¥3.60 WORLD BOOK COMPANY Von KERS-ON-Hupson, NEw YorK 34 Escorta, MANILA LUUUIENTAN ENTESee HUT TODD TUTTO es The Sulu Archipelago and Its People By Srixto Y. Orosa, M.D. District Health Officer and United States Quarantine Officer for the Port of Jolo, Sulu, P. I. ets book tells of a most interesting section of the Philippine Islands and of its inhabitants. [he Moro people of Sulu have always figured promin- ently in tales of adventure in the Orient, and many stories of them have been made interesting rather than entirely just. In this book Dr. Orosa gives a sympathetic account of his Mohammedan fellow countrymen from the days of the “Malay pirates” to the present time, and incidentally he becomes very informative about the Philippines in general. TTT oe HA Wut | While the book begins with an account of the war- fare between Mohammedan and Christian, which lasted three centuries, it deals mainly with the period since the American occupation of the islands. It records the work of our army and our civil administrators and points out the great progress made through the enlightened policy of the Philippine government. The volume is fully illustrated with a map and photo- graphs, some of which are of more than usual interest. Cloth. x + 134 pages. Illustrated Price $1.20 or 2.40 Wii WORLD BOOK COMPANY YONKERS-ON-Hupson, NEw York 384 Esconta, MANILA TATE eee Tee i cQUUOUUOUEUVOCTTEEED ENON AQUA ETOS TOUTE i Te OI ET a TIT —ALDERMAN LIBRARY The return of this book is due on the date indicated below DUE DUE Usually books are lent out for two weeks, but there are exceptions and the borrower should note carefully the date stamped above. Fines are charged for over-due books at the rate of five cents a day; for reserved books there are special rates and regulations. Books must be presented at the desk if renewal is desired. L-1 sain aac ng en IE SEES SOR aaaex 000 37e 536