ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2018.COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION In Copyright. Reproduced according to U.S. copyright law USC 17 section 107. Contact dcc@librarv.uiuc.edu for more information. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Preservation Department, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2018CURR. 371.30271 FECOMP 1927 PI ''UJSHSP Bi' -p v rnrPTAN a* COMPANY - CHIC AC ( f|3S?i?SSjPRACTICAL PROBLEM PROJECTS By F -W- RAWCLIFFE • B • A. Elementary School Supervisor CICERO-ILLINOIS YEAR MCMXXV PUBLISHED BY F- E- COMPTON &COMPANY Publishers of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia 1000 NORTH DEARBORN ST. » CHICAGOPUBLISHERS' NOTE THE Public School System of Cicero, Illinois, has done pioneer work in several parts of the educational field. The type of organization developed by Supt. W. W. Lewton and the hearty cooperation of his teaching staff have made possible several notable contributions to educational methods. The most striking of these has been that con- cerned with a thorough-going application of the project idea. For a number of years the teachers of the intermediate grades have been engaged in experimenting with this method, and out of their experience have gradually built up a sound plan of procedure for this type of school work. They have developed the Problem Project probably as far as has any other system in the country. In the fourth and the fifth grades particularly the several projects are centers out of which proceed all teaching and learning activities. x A visit to any one of the school rooms in this system is a revelation to one interested in modern education. Immediately upon stepping into the room you sense a most unusual spirit of enthusiasm and cooperation. Here the children are having fun at learning. There is no confusion. A spirit of industry and wisely directed effort pervades the whole classroom. The pupils are working in groups, each one contributing his share and cooperating to accomplish a definite end, while the teacher moves about, helping, directing, suggesting but never driving and on the whole, enjoying thoroughly the work she is doing. The growing interest in the project method of teaching, the attention given it by every institution where teachers are being trained, the desire of all teachers to have something definite to guide them in instituting this method in their work have led to the publication of this book which, to the best knowledge of the publishers, is the first publication that could be considered a text book of project teaching. The projects herewith presented are not theory. They are practical projects given just as nearly as possible in the way they have been worked out and applied in the Cicero System. Tf a teacher does not feel equal to applying the project method in all of her classes the development of even one of the projects herewith presented will go a long way toward adding that spirit of interest and enthusiasm in school work which is the aim of every good teacher. The comprehensiveness, the interest value, the illustrations, in a word, the very modernity of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia makes it possible for this publication alone to supply practically all of the supplementary material needed in the application of projects and other modern methods in education. The Publishers COPYRIGHT 1924-1927 BY F. E. COMPTON & COMPANY CHICAGO, ILLINOIS PRINTED IN THE U. S. A. 1 Why Should I Use the Project Method In My Teaching? IE business of the schools has now become a matter of "selling" ed- ucation to the child. In other words, the problem of making the * business of learning so interesting that the child enters into it more for the pleasure of the immediate task than with any desire of be- coming educated. The new text books, the new supplementary read- ers, the new encyclopedias can be considered modern only in the measure in which they are attractive and interesting and invite the reader to their pages. The modern teacher joins with the children in the activities of learning. Now it is not, "I want you to do," but rather, "Don't you think it would be fun if we do?" The whole trend of education is to develop initiative, resourcefulness and independence on the part of the child, to let him do his own thinking, exercise originality and bring out his native talents. Two things have resulted from the rather confusing discussion of the Problem-Project by educators. The first is the bringing out of the very simple fact that the most fun- damental thing about the method is that the children shall be actively working out their own purposes, no matter where they get those purposes. The second is that pro- jects lead children out of the narrow paths of the customary school subjects into the broad fields of knowledge and life. This means that once the pupil starts to understand something, to think and learn about it, he goes readily from geography to history, to arithmetic, to art, to science, in short he goes wherever the thread of explanation leads him. Of course, this means that our customary text-books must be used, if used at all, in a very different way than formerly and that all the resources of the school, the home and the community may be drawn on for information and suggestion. The teacher needs two things to encourage her to try the new method. One is a very simple but fundamental notion of what a Problem-Project is. This notion has been suggested above. The other is courage to move out into the free use of material. This freedom will come gradually. The best method of securing it is to read what others have done and try something like it for oneself. This book of projects is presented to teachers with the definite purpose of showing how they have been actually worked out in one school system. They have all been carried out in the schools of Cicero, a suburb of Chicago, in essentially the form presented here and with the use of the material and references listed. They are offered as examples of what any active and energetic teacher or school may undertake. Some school systems are using Problem-Projects as the nucleus around which the entire curriculum is built. Others are using them for only certain grades. Others still are using them only in one or two subjects as a means of keeping up the interest and enthusiasm of the pupils. The extent to which the project plan is used depends largely on the length of time a system has been using it. The wise teacher tries out one project—the simplest she can find, and adapts it to her own school. The good results of this one will lead her to try another. It is not advisable to attempt to put over a whole project program bodily. "Slow but sure" should be the watchword. Principal Chicago Normal School T 5The Secret of Successful Project Teaching THE Project is not one of a number of devices, nor one of several methods, of which we may choose according to our special interest or conditions. It is the Spirit of America in the school; it is the natural law of the junior citizen. It means in the school precisely what it means in the world outside the school: (1) Doing things with a definite end in view; (2) Doing these things in an atmosphere of freedom; (3) Doing these things in company with others. In the school where these conditions obtain almost all the traditional formality is gone. "Discipline" depends upon the public opinion of the class. Children engaged in project activities are too busy and happy to think of disorder. The old-time "recitation" is passing; where the project idea is thoroughly appreciated it is gone. In place of it, teacher and children as a group are engaged in activities that are purposeful and pleasurable. The schoolroom has become a laboratory. "Study periods," as such, have gone also. Class exercises now are "socialized," informal, each being such a combination of activities as suits the current purpose. Discussion, research, expression by means of reports, dialogs, debates, plays, drawing, construction, written composition—these are the principal activi- ties. Research is "finding out" from inference books, maps, charts, pictures, objects. As far as possible all activity is of the group kind. To be sure, there must be drill periods for practice in "tool subjects": technical English, pro- cesses in arithmetic, penmanship, and the like. Experience has shown that these drill periods, of certain duration, should come in the afternoon. In proportion as the children become accustomed to project work, the class groups and the group leaders will assume more and greater responsibility. They are dull children indeed who, presently, are not doing the major part of the directing themselves, with the teacher and her pre- pared material held in reserve for an emergency. It must not be supposed that it is necessary to purchase elaborate equipment before project work can be undertaken. Such an attempt would defeat one of the prime objects of this sort of work. The ideal would be to have the children make everything needed. In one fifth grade the boys even made a tray feet by V/i feet by 4 inches to serve as a table. Projects may be simple and limited in extent, short enough to be worked out in two or three days; or they may cover a large field, requiring a month or more for completion. One of the features common to all is that of correlation, the project combining as one effort work in as many of the school subjects as possible. This is brought out in the outlines and projects in this book. It may be well, here, to outline the elements that mark good project procedure. They do not all appear necessarily in every project. (1) Every project is opened with free, informal discussion, without books, building a basis out of the children's present knowledge, stimulating interest and awakening curiosity. (2) Consulting reference books in a general way, to define the field to be covered, to select the major topics of an outline, and to plan the type of work to be attempted. (3) The division of material among the groups and assigning of the several responsibilities for the activities decided upon. (4) Careful research in reference material for all significant details. (5) Organizing of the material thus gathered, discussion and comparison of the same, and drawing of conclusions. (6) Use of data gathered for written composition, in arithmetic problems, in geography problems, in drawing of posters, cartoons, landscapes, etc. (7) Construction of models in paper, cardboard, wood, clay, cement, papier mache, flour and salt. (8) Dressing of dolls and preparation of puppet shows illustrative of historical events, of scenes from a story, an opera, poem, etc. (9) Construction of any sort of representation on sandtable. (10) Dramatization of parts of a story, of scenes from an industry, life story of a thing, animal or person; tableaux; page- ants. (11) Collecting of material for individual notebooks: pictures, drawings, maps, outlines, compositions, lists of spelling words, poems, songs, arithmetic problems, magazine articles. (12) Collecting of material and preparation of an exhibit. It adds much to the general interest if this exhibit can be set up in a corridor or an assembly room. Such an exhibit has been placed in the show window of a local store, eliciting much favorable comment from the public. (13) The "socialized" type of class exercise. (14) "Hooking-up" one project with others and with life. If children have never done work of this sort, if the teacher herself is timid about venturing into new fields, begin in a small way. Take the simplest project and work it out according to material available and local interests. Confidence and enthusiasm will come with practice. The project makes children eager to go to school and reluctant to leave. dTABLE OF CONTENTS FIRST-GRADE PROJECTS Good Little Raggedy Ann............................ 7 The Importance of Water.................................10 SECOND-GRADE PROJECTS Our Brothers, the Eskimos............................13 Our Hero of Peace, the Fireman.........................15 THIRD-GRADE PROJECTS Our Little Friends in Topsy-Turvy Land.....................17 The Children of the Desert...........................20 Keeping Store—the Merchant . .........................23 FOURTH-GRADE PROJECTS America's Favorite Drink........................... . 25 Story of a Loaf of Bread............................29 The Story of Sugar...............................32 Let's Go Fishing...................................37 Life on a Farm..................................41 Making a Museum for a Rural School......................44 FIFTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Lumbering Industry.............................47 The Story of a Cotton Dress..........................50 The Plymouth Pilgrims..............................53 Bread and a Rope................................55 Building a House of Concrete........................: . 58 My Mother's Fur Coat..............................61 A Waist Made by a Caterpillar.........................63 Evolution of Housing..............................63 SIXTH-GRADE PROJECTS From Poplar to Paper..............................65 The Invincible Armada..............................67 The Workshop of the Nation..........................71 A Reading from Homer..............................76 Transparent Sand................................78 SEVENTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Story of Stone...............................79 The Story of Evangeline.............................82 The War of 1812 ................................83 An Ocean Trip..................................88 A New England Pilgrimage............................91 How Nature Disperses Seed...............................95 The Panama Canal................................96 Spices Open a New Period in History.......................99 Sir Galahad...................................100 EIGHTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Opera, "Aida"................................101 Iron and Steel .................................102 A Transportation Experience...........................106 The Monroe Doctrine..............................108 The Greatest War in History..........................Ill Petroleum and Politics..............................112 Black Diamonds That Do the World's Work...................114 NINTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Study of a Great Painting, "The Last Supper"...............117 Conservation....................................119 Electricity ...................................121 The Weather...................................124 Immigration ....................................126 Uncle Sam at Work ...............................128APPERCEPTION — THE FUNDAMENTAL OF THE PROBLEM-PROJEC T £ To the ape the stone of gold means no more than any other stone; he only perceives it .£"*» f. t *.Tn i*.. m „ Kmc:'. The principle of apperception must be the beginning of the problem-project. Its whole purpose must be to take what the child has learned out of his own experience as a basis on which he builds, through the skillful suggestion of the teacher, the structure that will embody an association of the ideas she wishes to inculcate. [6]PRIMARY GRADE PROJECTS The Aim of Project Teaching in the Primary Grades CHILDREN in the primary grades are in the wonder stage of their existence. For them the world is a vast museum of mysteries and a many-ringed circus featuring nothing but thrills. They are eager to explore, to find out, to have first-hand experience. Listening to tales of the marvelous or seeing the same in the movies is frequently so.close to first-hand experience as to be hardly distinguishable therefrom. Curiosity exudes from every pore. The typical boy can ask questions that the wisest parent or teacher cannot answer. Imagination is a spirited horse liable at any minute to take bit in teeth and bolt to lands that never were. Children of six to nine, generally, have a marked analytical tendency (unimaginative people call it destructiveness). But this is matched by an equally marked tendency to synthesize. They like to build, to construct. It is characteristic of them that they find pleasure in the making, the doing, and not so much in the possession or the contemplation of the product of their efforts. Boys and girls at this period of life are largely self-centered. This is necessarily so, since each child life is a reconstruction of the early history of the race. The teacher takes account of these conditions and utilizes the instincts which are the expression of them to enable the child to develop naturally. She will provide situations designed to give him the opportunities he craves,—to question, to find out, to express himself by making something. Activity, and plenty of it, but unobtrusively directed by the teacher toward definite ends,—that is primary grades method in brief. Good Little Raggedy Ann {A SPLENDID FIRST-GRADE PROJECT) EARLY in September we introduced the boys and girls to a real Rag- gedy Ann, who was to be a member of our class, and we added to the joy of having her with us every day by read- ing the story of Raggedy Ann. Now, if you have never been so fortunate as to know Raggedy Ann, let me tell you that she is a rag doll with shoe-button eyes, yarn hair, and, most t important of all, a candy heart which has printed upon it the words, "I love you." As Raggedy Ann's character was re- vealed to the children by the story, they grew to love her as perhaps they had never loved a doll before, and you will love her, too, when I tell you that she was patient, kind, unselfish, honest, loving, and always help- ful to the other dolls with whom she lived. By the time the story was finished, Raggedy Ann was well established as the model of deportment in that room. Now the question was asked, "How many in the room would like to have a little Raggedy Ann, or a Raggedy Andy, all his very own?" Every face in the room was aglow and every boy, as well as girl, rose promptly to his feet ♦ Raggedy Ann to make emphatic his desire for such a rare possession. The following day little flat dolls six inches long, cut out of unbleached mus- lin, were passed to the children. They had been stitched up on a machine, and were all ready for the children to stuff with clean, white cotton, just as Rag- gedy Ann is. You may be sure we did not forget to put in the tiny candy hearts with the love that was so essen- tial. Each child was given just one candy heart to put into dolly, and upon later investigation it was found that not a single dolly was minus this essen- tial bit of anatomy because of its love for candy. or three days elapsed before the dolls made their next appearance and then their fond owners found that they had mysteriously ac- quired faces (made by the teacher with black and red India ink) and their heads had been sewed up. Whether dolly should ever have hair or just wear some sort of cap or hat was left to the enterprise of its owner. So far the initiative had come largely from the teacher, but from now on dolly's future must depend upon the ingenuity of the children. owner i Two [7]Planning Clothes for Raggedy Ann In a general class conference some of dolly's pinned together at either back or front; some most essential needs were suggested, and clothing presented a front view of a real dress with sleeves naturally was agreed to be the first. Conse- all cut in one piece, but woe is me, there was no quently, the next morning bundles of pretty, back; and others wore real complete dresses, clean, new pieces were brought by each child and The designers of these latter creations, of course, tucked away in a work-bag attached to each were the older little girls in the room, to whom desk. This bag also proved a safe resting-place the mysteries of doll dressmaking were not en- for dolly. tirely new. Nearly all the dolls wore some kind When the project period came, the kiddies of a hat or bonnet. v/ere simply told that they might make something After viewing the exhibit for a time and freely for dolly. No suggestions were offered except discussing the merits of each costume, one began that if they wished pins, needles, and thread, to hear such expressions as this, "I like this one they were to be found on the teacher's desk, best," or, "Who made this one? It looks some- There was some deliberation and discussion of thing like Raggedy Ann." Now was the time to material and plans with particular friends (for select the very best ones in all the group. So a this was a free period) and then work began, vote was taken as to which were the most pleas- A busier or more earnest group it would have ing, and why. These dollies seemed to be been hard to find. When the period ended, the dressed in real clothes. Would the rest like to teacher, who had had no part in the work, sug- make their dollies look as though they were gested that the work and dolls be put away for dressed in real clothes? Oh, yes, but how could the day. There was a gratifying reluctance mani- they do it? So the idea of a pattern for each fested in complying with this suggestion, because garment was developed and a general wish ex- plans and work were not completed and the pressed that the teacher make the patterns of desire to do was compelling. When it was ex- the necessary garments. plained that every day hereafter they were to In the art lesson next day we all cut patterns have this free period for this work, there was a of the different garments suggested, and com- general expression of delight and dolly was put pared them as we had the dolls. Some were said away with a fond pat or hug. to be too little or too big, and some not the right In a couple of days another opportunity was shape at all, and at the close of the lesson all offered for discussion and the expression of free wished again that the teacher would give them judgments—which is a very vital feature of the the patterns. So the patterns were provided and project method of procedure—and such a funny clothes-making began in earnest. In the course doll display! The dolls appeared in a great va- of two or three weeks the teacher's patterns had riety of styles. Some were merely wrapped in had many original modifications, and at last bits of cloth; some wore dresses made by cutting dolly's wardrobe was pronounced complete and holes in a piece of cloth for the arms and were ready to wear. Giving Every About this time, had you passed along the streets near this school building, you would have seen small boys and girls tugging packing boxes toward the school. The grocery stores seemed to have been the best source of supply. Our dolls needed homes, but we did not have room for a complete house for every child. It was therefore arranged that we would work in groups of three. Little neighbors or particular friends arranged their boxes into such a group as best suited their idea of a house. And now, oh, strainge little people! They were quite satisfied with these crude houses—just piles of boxes. For the time being they wanted to make furniture for these homes. It may as well be explained here that the teacher had many individual problems of her own Doll a Home to solve to keep all this work moving in a con- structive way. She had anticipated this last desire, and had been supplied with the necessary tools, but the problem of material had not been so easy of solution. To be sure, the school would furnish them with boards suitable for making the diminutive furniture, but she knew that there is nothing very suggestive of form, from a child's standpoint, in just plain boards. She saw too that it was going to require the closest supervi- sion if the lumber was furnished by the school to guard against waste, and that thus much of the joy the kiddies had experienced so far in their work for dolly would be lost. She was finally seized by the happy idea that possibly she could find more workable material if she visited a cabinet shop in the town, and investigated their [8]waste pile of kindlings for soft woods. What a discovery! It took only a small stretch of the imagination to see tables, chairs, pianos, book- cases, fireplaces, beds, etc., in this assortment of pieces before her. The millman very generously donated to the cause two or three bushels of the pieces which were selected as having possibilities. The mill at the lumber yard also proved a source of supply. When the call came for furniture the teacher was prepared to meet the issue. She carefully selected some of the most suggestive pieces from her supply and placed them on the floor before the class. Now, "What could you make for dolly from these nice pieces of wood?" she asked. A shy little Greek boy, with a fine sense of form, was among the first to respond. He seized upon a pine block about five by three by one and one- half inches, and another thin piece an inch wide and about six inches long, and said, "I can make a piano if I saw this piece off to make the keys and fasten it to this large piece." By taking two journeys into the hall to study the piano more closely, the idea of two legs was evolved and some pieces of dowel were selected for them. By this time tables, and chairs, and davenports were being discovered in the rough, and the children were ready for the tools. Fine Furniture for the Doll House Raggedy Ann's benign influence was now quite apparent. There were far from tools enough of any one kind to go around, although the group of thirty had been divided into two shifts to work on alternating days to meet this emergency. We boasted of six hammers, six coping saws, three crosscut hand saws, three wood files, two pots of glue, an assortment of nails, nine clamps, and one brace and drill. We did not quarrel, but patiently waited our turn to use them. It was gratifying to see some sturdy boy putting down his work to help some dainty little maid with a refractory saw, until she could learn how to handle tools, too. Perhaps he remembered how some nimble little fingers had helped him to put his dolly's suit together. In the furniture making the teacher required each child to bring the material he had selected to her and to tell what he was going to make and how. If the selection and plans were workable and showed good judg- ment, the work was begun; if not, some tactful question or suggestion was offered as a help. Perhaps some little playmate made some helpful remark, or the little worker was taken to a table where a collection of mission doll furniture was to be found and a better sense of proportion was made plain; or better still, we visited some friend's doll house where the piece under discussion had been made satisfactorily, and by comparison the better idea was established. We made furniture for several weeks, or until our rough box-houses were satisfactorily fur- nished, and not until then did we turn our atten- tion to finishing the houses. A carpenter's son was the first one to discover that he was no longer satisfied with his house. One morning he whispered the very important secret into Teach- er's ear that his Daddy was going to give him some lumber for a roof to his house and he was going to bring it at noon and put it on. This was joyful news to the teacher, who was beginning to fear that the houses might never be completed according to her grown-up notion. This little carpenter now came to the rescue and in a couple of days he proudly displayed a house with a real roof, which later he shingled with heavy dark green paper shingles which he had made for it. Roofing soon became epidemic. Painting of houses, and staining or painting of furniture came now as a matter of course, and then attention was turned to the walls of the different rooms. They must be papered and we must have some rugs for our painted floors. Designing and stencil cutting soon became the all-absorbing occupation, followed by the wall- paper making with the favorite stencil patterns. Proud indeed were our little people when they felt that the homes were complete. Dolly was arrayed in its very best attire and sat in state in a real home. We have hinted at the unselfishness, patience, and helpfulness manifested during these activi- ties. There were other desirable characteristics fostered by this work. The children came to have the highest respect for each other's property, and a perfect trust in one another's honesty. Many of the children brought some choice toy from home for dolly's house, such as a tiny telephone, some pretty candles, a wee-silver candlestick, arid pretty little pictures, without a fear that they would lose their treasures, and they didn't. This work also furnished the subject-matter for many blackboard reading lessons. We came to call our little group of houses a village and this village in time boasted of a daily newspaper which was read with all-absorbing interest. In this news a special effort was made to stress the civic aspects of the undertaking. [9]The Importance of Water (A FIRST-GRADE PROJECT) Getting Ready for the Water Project A GLASS of water is on the desk in view of the children. Have any of us ever been very, very thirsty? Perhaps some of us were out in the country last summer when the weather was so hot. Maybe we were helping a little with the work on a farm or were playing some lively five by eight inches), one of a person or persons drinking water, and the other of some animal also drinking. The advertising pages of maga- zines are mines of story-telling pictures and other project material. Some children may have access to mail-order catalogs. Each child should paste A SANDY SEA OF ALGERIA Riding along the southern frontiers of Algeria during a high wind, one may enjoy the impressive sight of hills brought low and valleys raised up into hills under one's very eyes. {From. Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) game out in the sun. Jack, you may tell us a little story of what made you so thirsty. Can any others tell stories? (Calls for three or four more.) Were any of us, at the time we became thirsty, near a well of cold water or a spring? (A few children may volunteer their experiences.) The teacher now shows a picture of some sort of well, and others of haymakers or other workers refreshing themselves with water from well, foun- tain, or spring. There is a brief conversation about these pictures (pp. 221, 1033). Do any creatures, besides people, ever become thirsty and want water? The children will think of birds, dogs, horses, and cows. The teacher then suggests that each child bring in the next day two cut-out pictures (about four by six or his two pictures on sheets of print paper, five by seven or six by nine inches. These sheets should be marked to show ownership, then filed away. Do any other living things besides people and animals become thirsty for water? What hap- pens to our gardens when we have had a long dry spell? What do we do for our gardens when the weather is hot and dry? (pp. 3531, 2822). Did you ever think that plants and trees become thirsty and need water, just as you do? Isn't it pleasant to think of plants and trees, as the men who write poetry do, as being very much like people? Perhaps they have feelings, are proud of their beauty, are hurt when cut or broken or mistreated, and thankful for food and rain and sunshine and good care. Development of the Project by the Class The teacher now, by means of a simple black- what has happened in some places where it board drawing, shows how water goes down to never rains (pp. 3122, 3105-3106). What does little root-mouths (p. 2828). What would hap- this picture tell you? Teacher gives a brief pen to our house plants if we forgot to water description of a desert and how impossible life is them? Here is a picture (of a desert) that shows there. Now this picture (p. 1828) (of an irriga- Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [10]Hands and Feet \T (Root) Mouths \ (Root-Hairs)' t.ion project) shows us how men have changed some desert places. How is this place different from the other one? And yet, only a few years ago this place was like the other one. The teacher describes simply, perhaps illustrating, how water is brought in canals and spread over the land; how irrigation brings farms, orchards, and peo- ple; how children go to school and live happily where only a little while before was a dreary waste of sand. The children, then, are asked to bring pictures showing plants being given a drink (by watering and by rain). With the help of the teachcr, each child might have also two pic- tures showing a true desert and the same place after being irrigated. These pic- tures should be mounted, as before. (Looking again at the desert picture.) What do we find happens to trees and plants when they can't get water? Don't you sup- pose that we need water just as much as plants? What would happen to us if we were not able to get water? The teacher tells of the hardships of sailors wrecked and adrift in a small boat for days without water. A n alert pupil might be expected to ask why they didn't drink some of the water around them. The teacher gives a short expla- nation of the difference be- tween fresh and salt water, and tells the story of the mill that kept on and kept on grinding salt. How do you know when you need water? Of course, but how do you know whether you drink enough? How many glasses do you drink in a day? If the class is far enough along in the year, each one might cut THE PARTS OF A PLANT Nose,Lungs, and Stomach (Leaves) Throat (Stem) Here we see the "organs" of a typical plant and the work they do. Let's begin at the roots. The main roots grip the ground and hold the plant in place, while the root caps feel their way through the soil in search of moisture. The root hairs draw in this moisture and the minerals it contains, and send them up through the " arteries," which lie beneath the water-proof "skin" of the plant, to the leaves. The leaves not only "breathe in" oxygen from the air but also the major part of the plant's food (carbon dioxide) and digest it with the aid of the water and minerals. The whole structure is held together by the fibrous "skeleton" of stem and branches. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) [ii] out a representation of a glass. This should be mounted on a sheet of print paper, with the print lettering "6" before the glass and "of water every day" after it. This sheet also should be saved. What uses of water have we been talking about? Now let us find out some other uses of water. How many can we think of? It will probably require a num- ber of supplementary ques- tions and hints, or the show- ing of pictures, to draw out a fairly complete list. Then the children should be set to finding pictures to illustrate as many as pos- sible of these uses. They should have little difficulty in finding, for example, a majority of these: a foun- tain in a park, a boy being washed by his mother, a shower bath, laundering, people bathing or swim- ming; a man fishing in a stream, a fishing vessel on the sea, fish swimming; canoes, boats, a sailing ves- sel, steamers, some vessels being loaded and unloaded; a kettle boiling, a steam locomotive and trains of freight or passenger cars, a factory (run by steam power); a rushing mountain stream, a river, a lake, a canal, views on the sea; a water mill, a dam, a sluice, some noted waterfall; fire- men putting out a fire; street cleaners washing down or sprinkling a street. The bare facts of the making of electricity by falling water can be presented by the teacher, illustrated by blackboard sketches. (Am- ple pictures of the forego- ing subjects will be found under those headings in Compton's. They should be used as examples.) The collected pictures should be mounted, as be- fore. According to the de-THE "RIVER SYSTEM" OF AN IRRIGATED ORCHARD In distributing water by the method used in this Washington orchard, advantage is taken of the general slope of the country. If a stream from those distant mountains, for instance, enters the valley, a canal is cut near its point of entrance, and water is diverted along the upper slopes of the valley. From this canal ditches are taken out to the orchards below, and these ditches in turn feed the smaller ditches you see here sloping back toward the river bed. (From Com-ptori'8 Pictured Encyclopedia) gree of the children's advancement, they could write little sentence stories about water. These stories should be on paper the same size as the picture-mounted sheets. There will be a num- ber of these by this time. These sheets may now be "assembled" in a book by each child, with a cover of heavy manila, or colored cover paper. Each child may find a picture representing that use of water which most appeals to him. This picture, together with such lettering (written, drawn, or cut-out) as the child is capable of making, will complete the cover and give char- acter to the book. Before this project is finished the children will be amazed that so common a thing as water has so large a number of uses, is so vital to every one. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia is unusually helpful to the teacher in work- ing out this and other projects. A first-grade teacher told the writer that she could teach any suitable project to her class by the use of the pictures alone. For infor- mation and suggestions on the several phases of this study of water see pages 3693 (general), 3701 (waterworks), 1322 (diet), 1714 (diet), 2889 (picture), 2828 (plant sensitive for). It is understood, of course, in this and other primary grade projects, that when the children are set to finding things or "looking up," they are to seek the assistance, if needed, of the home folks. This is altogether desirable, since it is one of the means of co-ordinating school and home. »>--<♦ [ 12]Our Brothers, the Eskimos (,SECOND-GRADE PROJECT) THE most natural introduction to this project is through an informal conversation about our own winter life, varied of course, according to local differences of climate and to the season of year. The following is suggested for places in northern United States and Canada, and at a time of year other than winter. (A Splendid Sand Table Representation of This Project Prepared by Second-Grade Pupils) Introducing the How many of us like winter? Why do we? What do we enjoy doing then that we can't do in the summer? Perhaps two or three of the boys and girls will tell us little stories of some extra-good times they have had in the winter. How is winter different from summer? What changes do we make when winter comes? (Clothing, food, storm windows, weather strips, heat in the house, etc.) How do plants and trees get ready for the cold weather? What are some of the things that we don't like about winter? (Cold fingers and toes, storms, being shut in the house in bitter cold weather, absence of the birds and flowers, etc.) How would we like to live where it is winter weather nearly all the time? Well, how many of us would like to go for a short visit with some people who do live in such a place? These pic- tures (now produced, pp. 1948, 1175) show us what that land looks like. Yes, it's like that nine or ten months of the year. Here we see some of the people (pp. 1176, 1177, 2861). How are they different from us? They are called Eskimos. What do you notice about their clothes? This is the sort of house they live in during the long winter, and this one during the short summer. You wouldn't like to live in that kind of house, would you? Can any of us find pictures of that far-away land and of the people who live there? When the pictures found at home are brought in the children will be eager to tell the stories Eskimo Project these pictures suggest to them. They will be equally eager to make on the sand table a repre- sentation of Eskimo life. What are some of the things we wish to find out about the Eskimos? (How they get their food, build their houses, make their clothes, what sports and games they have.) What do you think would grow in a land such as these pictures show us? (Nothing). What can the people find to eat? Here the cold is so great that for months at a time it is below zero, very much colder than the coldest day of our winter. What kind of food is best in very cold weather? Where can the Eskimos get meat? Of course, and here is a picture in which we see some men hunting for seals and walrus or polar bears (p. 1176). These are pictures of the animals that are food for the Eskimos (pp. 3166-67, 3668, 355, 2864). When they kill one of these polar bears, what does it give them besides food? What other animals give them clothing? These seals and the walrus have thick layers of fat under the skin. I wonder if some one can find out what use the Eskimos make of this fat, besides eating it? These people also catch large numbers of the little auk, a sea bird. They eat the flesh and the eggs of these birds and sew the skins into under-coats for their children. Now look again at this picture of the land. What do you think the Eskimos will build then- houses of? What does the land furnish them [13]that they can use? This picture shows two men making the winter house, or igloo, as it is called. Can any one guess a reason for making the igloo of this shape? (Easier to build, stronger, warmer, offers no corners for the terrific wind storms to catch hold of.) This picture shows a man crawl- ing into the igloo, and this one the inside of the house. Tell us about what you see. In the short summer the Eskimos live in this kind of tent. What does it seem to be made of? Making the Sand Table Representation The class is now ready to plan what they will have on the table, and they should divide among themselves the work of procuring the materials and the assembling of the items into the finished whole. The igloos can be made of flour and salt dough or of clay molded over a small bowl, or, as in the picture, of marshmallow cubes. Small clothes pins can be made into doll figures. Cotton is good for the snowy landscape. The boys, with help at home, can make a kayak or two, sledges, and harpoons. Rough rocks, smeared with paste and with flour and salt sifted over, are capital for the ice hills and the edges of the glaciers. The children can model bears, seals, and dogs, sledges and kayaks, from clay or from stiff dough. Other Activities for the Class In addition to the table representation, classes usually make a large group poster. A strip of grayish white wrapping paper about 40 inches wide and 48 to 54 inches long can be obtained. Each child may cut out and color with crayon (things that are not white) at least one item for the finished picture. A committee should be chosen by the class to do the assembling. The teacher's help will be needed frequently, but should not be given until called for. This assist- ance probably will be best appreciated in sketch- ing in, on the blackboard or on the poster paper itself, a broad background of sea and sky. White chalk can be used to make ice and snow stand out. Correlation of Subjects in the Project During the development of the project there has been abundant opportunity for oral compo- sition. The teacher should see that not one child misses participation in this oral work. It should be followed up with such written stories as the children are capable of producing. Small cut-out pictures can be used to illustrate the stories. Simple number work which can be contrived to grow easily and naturally out of the oral development should be taken advantage of. The children will take delight in trying to draw their own pictures of some of the things used by the Eskimos: an igloo, a kayak, a dog, a bear on the ice. They may have practice in cutting, either from patterns made for them or freehand. Some attention should be given to a study of words used by the class in working out the proj- ect. Some are: ice, snow, Eskimo, seal, bear, polar, kayak, igloo, sledge, berg, auk, bird, eider, duck, fat, skin, fur, hunting. Eskimo is an Algonquin Indian word, meaning eaters of raw flesh. During the time this experience holds the center of the stage the class will read, of course, all the selections bearing on Eskimo life and the contacts of the white man with the far north in the school readers and supplementary books. The teacher may read to the class, or tell, from the accounts of polar exploration, emphasizing the part that Eskimos have taken in those ex- plorations. Tell of the Eskimo who visited United States cities in the summer and fall of 1926. Also of the better living conditions brought about for the Eskimos in Alaska by the enterprise of the United States Government,— schools and reindeer. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, pages as cited throughout the Project. Read to the class from Roy J. Snell's "Eskimo Legends," published by Little, Brown and Co. The film, "Nanook of the North" is an excellent reproduction of Eskimo life. The National Geographic Magazine for June, 1925. Note:- -All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [14]Our Hero of Peace, the Fireman (.SECOND-GRADE PROJECT) A WELL-PLANNED course in Civics is indispensable in any school. In the primary grades it will naturally take account of the more outstanding elements of community life with which the children are in daily contact, and the significance of which they can readily grasp. Knowledge of our common institutions, the Fire Department, Police Force, Mail Service, Street Cleaning Bureau, street lights, water, sewers, absolutely necessary as these are in present-day urban life, can be built into the children's consciousness in such a way as to form a solid basis for later formal study of government, its purposes and means. We may say that a "civic consciousness," which we hope to perceive growing in our Junior High pupils, begins with an awareness of our dependence on others, which second- graders are not too young to acquire. It is the aim of the teacher, therefore, to direct the civics work in primary grades toward that end. Somewhere later in school life we may expect the correlative idea, others depend upon us, out of which must come the sense of responsi- bility, to dawn in the pupils' minds. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) The fireman and the fire truck are common- place things in the lives of the children. Hun- dreds of times they have seen them, with little thought beyond the excitement of seeing a possi- ble fire. It is our cue, then, to so direct attention as to awaken wonder and admiration: the chil- dren will not be slow to perceive the hazardous and the heroic. Out of a somewhat detailed knowledge of the working of the Fire Department will come at least a partial appreciation of the value of that department to the community. Any normal child can be led to realize that the firemen stand between his home and its destruc- tion by fire. How many of the class know where their fire alarm box is located, and what its number is (if it has a number)? Can any one tell us how to give an alarm of fire? What would be the best way for us to find out more about the fire department? An Excursion The teacher might arrange with the nearest fire captain for a visit by the class to the station, (pp. 1257-1260) and to have an explanation of the working of the electric fire telegraph system, and possibly a demonstration of how the men respond to an alarm. The teacher should take notes to assist her memory. Let the children examine, as much as is permitted, all the appa- ratus and equipment, and ask questions of the men. Adventuresome boys are sure to want the thrill of personal experience: they will sit in the driver's seat on the truck and slide down the brass pole (p. 1258). Trust them to get all pos- sible out of the visit. Note:- -All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [15]Getting Results from the Fire Project Back in the classroom, the children will bub- ble over with eagerness to unload their impres- sions and to ask further questions. The teacher will need to use tact to guide the telling so that definite ideas emerge. It is likely that the class will want to dramatize the fireman. Leave it to them to organize and work out a little play in their own way. The result may be crude in particulars, but it will be a great success,, in a general way, a spontaneous expression. This impromptu drama will show the teacher what points have been missed and what misunder- stood. The weak places can be strengthened and distorted notions made straight by judicious questioning and suggestions. A cut-out figure poster is now in order. The truck coming out of a station (p. 1257) and the department in action at a burning building (p. 1260) will be represented, and individual fire- men in various poses. In the main, the children should be left free to carry out their own plan. Let them gradually learn to improve the quality of their work, as, for instance, in the matter of proportion, by criticizing their own efforts. A few hints from the teacher will help them to form standards of judgment. Each child in the class should have some part in this and other activities, generally choosing what he is to con- tribute. A sand table representation, if the children wish to make one, offers opportunity for paper folding and cutting, and coloring with crayons, as well as for modeling with sand. Along with one or more of these larger activi- ties, there will be the writing of three- or four- sentenoe stories about the children's contact with the work of the firemen. These stories may be illustrated by cut-out pictures. A Lesson in Fire Prevention This work may be followed by an informal talk on how fires start, how careful all should be with matches and the disposal of waste paper and other inflammable material, and in handling bon- fires in the alley or a vacant lot (pp. 1260-1262). Another conversation lesson may grow out of the children's knowledge of the uses of fire: heating, cooking, lighting. The teacher may direct attention to the burning of coal or oil to generate steam. What have the children noticed about steam in the kitchen? Do they know about the furnaces and boilers used to heat the school building? Does the father of any one work in a factory? Perhaps that child will find out and tell us something about the running of the machinery in the factory by a steam engine (pp. 3348-3354). All have seen and heard the steam locomotive, and some have been on a steamship. The children will agree that fire is a very good servant, but a bad master. This, in turn, may be followed up with some attention to the origin of fire (pp. 1249-1251). The teacher may tell of old methods of producing fire—by the burning glass, by flint and tinder, by the fire drill of the savage. She may read or tell Indian, Norse or Greek myths of the bringing of fire to the earth, of the sun-god, how the ancients accounted for the lightning, and why fire was considered sacred (pp. 771-772). By this time the class will be ready to drama- tize the story of fire, beginning with the old myths and down to the present services of fire and its dangers. The teacher will need to outline the plan and to give occasional assistance. This dramatization will be of the nature of a pageant. Costumes and properties should be of the sim- plest, leaving most to the imagination. Carried through in this way, the project will end as it began, with the service of the fireman and the gratitude of the community. [16]Our Little Friends in Topsy- Turvy Land ('THIRD-GRADE PROJECT) A JAPANESE project is unusually attractive to a class because, for one of a number of reasons, the child life in Japan comes nearer to being ideal than perhaps in any other country. There, the best thought of the people seems to be given to making their children's lives happy', natural, well-rounded, and, therefore, truly developed. Our children instinctively feel the joyousness in the play and the blossoming out of Japanese children, as well as the quaintness and interest in the customs of the country. (A Beautiful Sand Table Re-presentation for This » Approach to the There are a number of easy approaches to a project having Japan for its center: through the tea or rice on our tables, the silk of our clothing, or by means of some of the exquisite Japanese art prints or their characteristic legends. The latter are stimulating to the imagination and enticing to further study of that remarkable land. The teacher may read to the class several Japanese fairy tales or such a story as "The Burning of the Rice Fields.'.' Talk about them informally, and about child life in the island empire—the dolls, kites, lanterns, etc. Read from Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia the stor- ies on Japan, Japanese children, rice fields, etc. If there is available a set of readers containing stories or descriptions of Japan, read them. Have the children tell stories or give accounts of Japan Project Prepared by Third-Grade Pupils) Japan Project Japanese customs which they may have read or have seen in "the movies." By this time interest should have been kindled and curiosity aroused to know more of that land and its people, and the class will be ready to undertake the project. List on the board, as the children suggest them, the various things we desire to find out about Japanese life and the country. When the list seems long enough, it should be rewritten, classi- fying in a simple way. Included in this list might well be some of these: What we see in a Japanese city street: jinrikshas, with men as horses (p. 1865). Dress of the people (pp. 1867, 1868). Homes of the people (p. 1868). Children's sports and games (pp. 1871, 1872). Raising silk worms—reeling the silk (pp. 3235, 3236). •]Planting rice—women and children workers (p. 3014). Japanese love for flowers. Customs that seem strange to us—chop sticks. A trip through the country scenery—Fujiyama —temples (pp. 1866, 1867). Something of the history of the people—rapid adaptation of western ideas (pp. 1862-1870). Then, have each child make a note of one small topic or question which he is to "look up" at home, with the help of older folks. Also, to bring in whatever pictures he can find that have a bearing on any phase of the general subject. The little stories which result from this effort should be brought forward in as systematic a way as can be, with such supplementing by the teacher as may be needed to give definiteness and completeness to impressions or pictures. The small cut-out pictures which have been brought in should be mounted chart-fashion for inspec- tion by all and general discussion. The teacher, of course, will have in reserve mounted pictures to fill in gaps that may be left by the children. From the pictures and the discussions there will be formed a fairly comprehensive view of Japa- nese life, particularly of child life. Playing We Are in Japan Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [ 18] PLEASED! OF COURSE THEY'RE PLEASED! Now the ques- tion will come up, "What can we do to play we are in Japan?" Various sugges- tions will be of- fered, probably including a sand table representa- tion of a Japa- nese garden or of one or more typi- cal work scenes— as the rice fields, a tea farm, cherry orchard, silk worm farm; a poster of a gen- eral view of Jap- anese life; a little play to be made by the pupils with the help of the teacher. The class might like to have a garden party, in addi- tion to one or more of the above. To prepare for this affair, small committees should be appointed, one to have charge of the room decorations, and the other to arrange the program. The decorations may be of paper cut, folded, and colored: butterflies, lanterns, kites, cherry blossoms. A pretty effect is made by hanging two strings of these paper decorations diagonally from the upper corners of the room or from the lighting fixtures. The rising-sun flag If you were a Japanese girl coming home from school with your diploma hugged up to your kimono, to show to mother, you would have an expression on your face just like that. When modern schools were first started in Japan, the boys were the keenest to learn, but now the girls are just as eager as the boys. Besides "reading, 'riting, and 'rithmetic" the children are instructed in morals and etiquette, history, geography, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and manual work. Great stress is laid also upon domestic science. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) will be in evi- dence. The pro- gram might con- sist of fairy stories told, little verses recited or read, a song or two (there are simple melodies with words bear- ing on Japanese life in nearly all the school music readers), a short description of some interesting customs, a little play (crepe paper costumes), a showing of mounted pictures with brief expla- nations. Cos- tumes can be con- trived from crepe paper for all the guests at the party; Japanese parasols and paper fans are inexpensive. Fans can be made from manila drawing paper, folded and colored with crayons; scenery-backgrounds can be made easily from long strips of "poster paper," with characteristic landscape features, especially Fujiyama, broadly outlined by the teacher and colored in by the children. A cherry tree can be contrived from a branch of a local tree stuck in a small keg, or other container, of soil, dressed out with paper blossoms and leaves.Correlating the Project A project of this type can well be the central part of a month's work, furnishing material for oral composition and written stories, word study, number work, drawing, much construction, read- ing, some music, and informal geography lessons mixture of native and western ideas as to dress, building, transportation, industry; the island nature of the country; the volcanoes, and fre- quent earthquakes, with tidal waves; the bamboo tree forests. JAPANESE CHILDREN WINDING SILK These little girls are winding silk in one of the small silk factories. Silk spinning is also a family industry throughout Japan. Rows of dwarf mulberry trees are often seen forming a hedge around the upland fields, their leaves supplying food for the silk worms, and the cottages whir with the sound of spinning wheelSt (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) hooked up with some phase of home geography. The written stories can be illustrated with original drawings or cut-out pictures which are easily obtainable. Simple number problems can deal with the small daily wages of Japanese workers, prices of articles bought as souvenirs, cost of a jinriksha ride, the number of paper lan- terns needed for the party. Words such as the following are interesting for study: silk, tea, rice, Japan, temple, bamboo, cherry, blossom, garden, flowers, happy. Geographic facts to be taken account of: the The children may wish to put together in a booklet samples of the various parts of this proj- ect study. The cover of colored paper should have some lettering and a simple design or symbol to identify the booklet,—for example, J-A-P-A-N and a bowl of rice with chop sticks, or a sketch of distant Fujiyama. Story subjects: Trying to Eat with Chop Sticks; Kite Flying; A Japanese Dinner; Chil- dren's Games; Growing Tea; Feeding Silk Worms; How Houses are Made; What I Like about Japan. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, pages as cited throughout the Project. National Geographic Magazine for July, 1914; October. 1920; September, 1922; October, 1923. ■>>- [ 19]The Children of the Desert (!THIRD-GRADE PROJECT) THE VAST WAVES IN THE SEA OF SAND Only the tracks of small wild creatures break the rippling surface of the wind-sculptured sand waves stretching away to the far horizon. Here is the home of the wandering Arab and Tuareg with his camels. (From Compton'a Pictured Encyclopedia) The Observation and Question Method of Approach AS A PRELIMINARY to this project, the - teacher should have up in the room where the children will see them a number of pictures of the arid regions of our country. These pic- tures should not have captions, and the teacher should not say anything about them. After several days the teacher can begin by asking questions somewhat after this fashion: How many of us have gardens at home? Who have lived or visited on farms? Who have noticed the farms in riding through the country? What makes trees and plants grow? What do you do for your gardens when the summer is hot and dry? What happens on the farms when there has been a long dry spell? We are agreed that the most important thing in making plants grow is what? Now, let us look at these pictures. What do you notice about them? (They are the pictures already on the walls of the room.) How is that region different from our own farming country? Why do you think there are no plants growing there? How do you suppose that people live in such a country? A long way off, across the ocean, is a land which looks like the region shown in these pic- tures (bringing out pictures of the Arabian or Sahara deserts) (pp. 3122, 3105, 3106). You would not think any one could possibly live in a place so dry. But a large number of people do manage to get a living, in some way, in that land. Would you like to know how those people live? Living in a Desert Land Their country isn't all sand. In places there are springs of water; for a short distance around these springs plants and trees will grow (p. 1097). And in other places a little grass appears, not the soft grass which grows so long and close, carpet- ing the ground, in our land, but a coarse and wiry grass growing in patches, with bare sandy or stony ground showing everywhere. With only such thin grass growing, what do you suppose the people can do for a living? What could live 20 ]on that grass? The people, or Arabs, as they are known, have flocks of sheep and goats, with some camels and horses, as you see in this pic- ture. From these animals they get what for food? What else do they get from them that they can use for clothing? In the garden spots near springs, known as oases, the date palm grows (pp. 1097, 966); dates are almost as com- mon an article of food with the Arabs as pota- toes are with us. After a group of Arabs, often only one family or a small tribe, have been living in one place for a time, their animals have eaten all the grass to be seen. This means that the people must do what? Because they must move so often they have what sort of houses? What will their tents be made of? If we look inside one of these tents how much furniture would we be likely to see? (pp. 167, 168). Can you think of reasons why they have almost no furniture? Their beds are rugs. What are those rugs made of? Think of reasons why rugs are used. These rugs are often woven with bright colors and beautiful patterns or designs (pp. 3077-3079). Americans pay hun- dreds of dollars to get rugs of this kind to be used for floor coverings in their homes. The Arab moving day comes around often, every week or two. What do you suppose takes the place of the moving van? Can you imagine what this moving is like? What sort of place will they be seeking for a new home? What work will the boys do to help? The women and the girls have very little house work. What will they do with their time? What amusements will the children have? American boys like to "camp out" in the summer. Think what fun you would have to camp out all the year round! The teacher should read to the class The Story of Zaidee (pp. 167-168), depicting Arab child life. (Fine Sand Table Re-presentation for the Arabia Project Done by Third Graders) A Splendid Opportunity for a Sand Table Representation An Arab encampment in the desert is pecu- sand table. The various items of it are easy to liarly suited to a realistic representation on the make: tents, people, camels, sheep can be cut Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [21]out, folded, and colored; straight round sticks with green crepe paper for leaves make satis- factory palm trees; the spring of the oasis is a bit of blue paper under glass. In parts of Arabia near the sea, where there is some rain, we find the original home of the coffee shrub. The teacher will find the legend of the discovery of the stimulating qualities of coffee berries on page 820, Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Working Out a Each child will wish to make his little Book of the Arabs, with several short stories of life in the desert, the coffee story, his own drawings or cut-out pictures, a list of the words studied in connection with the project (such as: Arab, desert, oasis, dry, water, sheep, goats, camels, horses, sand, dates, palm, wandering, shep- herds), a few number problems relating to sheep, camels, dates. Dramatization The class will probably desire to dramatize the life of the Arabs. A simple play can be built around the visit of an American family to Arabia. They go through the Suez Canal, land at Jidda and journey inland on camels. At the edge of the desert they come upon a boy watching a flock of sheep. Through an interpreter they talk to him and are invited to visit his family a short dis- tance farther. An Arab meal is pre- pared for them. The children talk together and Arab life is de- scribed in detail. It happens that this is one of the moving days of the Arab family, and the Americans go with them. On the way character- istic features of the country are pointed out. A sandstorm is experienced, and the sudden cold when the sun has gone down. The next day the Americans help set up the tents in the new AN ARAB AT A PUBLIC WATERING PLACE Water is so scarce in Arabia that the wealthy Arabs consider that one of the things most pleasing to Mohammed, the author of their faith, is to establish public watering places such as the one you see here, beside which the Arab is resting and enjoying his long-stemmed pipe. Do you wonder that he loves that horse? (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) pasturage ground. The Americans are deceived by a mirage (p. 2260), and are frightened by a band of supposed robbers, who turn out to be pilgrims on their way to Mecca (p. 2186), the holy city of the Moham- medans. They con- clude, on leaving, that Arab life is in- teresting,—to look at; they have no de- sire to share it for any length of time. On the ship returning, the father tells some- thing of Arab history, the growth and spread of their reli- gion, and some of the thingstheyhavegiven to the world, in the arts and sciences. A consider- able number of words have come from the Arabic into our language, among which are these: cotton, shrub, sofa, alcohol, zero, mask, syrup, rob, jar, coffee, mattress. The children may have an added interest in arithmetic when they learn that the Arabs gave us the ordinary numbers we use. »>--<» [22]Keeping Store—The Merchant (THIRD-GRADE PROJECT) FOR a number of years the Third Grades in a city school system have "motivated" their number work and English (both oral and written) by a "keeping-store" project. Every other part of the school work, also, has entered into the project activities, to a greater or less degree. Two Approaches to This Project The simplest beginning is to ask the children whether they would like to play store. Another approach may be by suggesting to the class: Suppose that we make up some real number problems for ourselves. Several pupils can be delegated to go to nearby grocery stores and make a list of current prices on staple articles. While the problems are being made it will be . strange if some child does not ask that other features be added. Experience has shown that the gradual grow- ing into a large project is to be preferred to the full elaboration of details before it is submitted to the class. When the project starts in a small way and grows by suggestion and "sudden in- spiration," the children feeling that they are building their own plan of work and thinking out their own activities to be carried through, the effect and the result are immeasurably superior. It is possible to obtain miniature containers of some of the well-known advertised food prod- ucts and an equipment of toy money. Such things may seem to make the project more realistic, but this doubtful gain is at the expense of a decided loss of intended valuable features of the project type of school work. A project is truly successful in proportion as it is thought out (stimulated by the teacher's questions and sug- gestions), and the "properties" and necessary materials made or contrived by the children themselves. Practice in Paper Cutting It is good practice in paper folding and cutting and lettering for the pupils to make the cartons or other containers for the stock for the store. Likewise, they can supply themselves with a perfectly satisfactory outfit of money. Instead of formal arithmetic lessons out of a book, the class actually buys and sells, makes change, keeps simple accounts, makes and receipts bills. This real business has the further merit of hook- ing up the school with the community life, for the children are constantly on the alert as they pass by, or go into, the local stores, for new ideas. They will wish to display their goods in the most attractive fashion. They will now realize the purpose, in a way, of pure food and inspection laws (pp. 2936, 2937), and the need of protecting food on display. As they take turns in being storekeeper, they begin to see things from the viewpoint of the seller, and they may gain some notion of the place of the merchant in the community. They should be led, indirectly, to realize that the one who sells goods for profit is not only getting for himself; he is performing a civic service; there is much that he must give to the community (pp. 1076- 1078). Right here may be the dawning of the civic principle that an individual's interests are inseparably bound up with the interests of others: giving and getting are mutually condi- tioned. Selfishness is worst enemy of democracy. A Lesson in Economics There is hardly a limit to the possibilities of this project. It may be permitted or aided to expand in any one or more of several directions. The children will soon realize that the retailer must buy his goods from some one else (whole- saler or jobber), and that the wholesaler gets his goods from the producer (farmer or manufac- turer) . Then comes the notion of middlemen and transportation. Pupils will have their first (and a primary grade) view of business organization, Note:-^-All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found♦ [23.]and of the vast network of agencies that minister to our needs and comfort. It will be well worth while to follow, in mere outline, several typical commodities back from the retailer to the source of production. For example, bread (p. 496): the bakery (pp. 498, 499), transportation, the wholesaler, transporta- tion, flour mill (pp. 1301-1304), transportation, grain elevator (p. 604), transportation, wheat farm (p. 2522); Sugar: wholesaler, transporta- tion, refinery, transportation, sugar mill, sugar plantation (perhaps in Cuba) (pp. 3385-3389); Spices (pp. 3317-3319): wholesaler, transporta- tion, importer, ocean transportation, plantation in the East Indies. Activities for the Class Beside the class store, each child will wish to keep his individual store. This will be a book made by himself, with his name, as proprietor, on the cover. On the pages of this book are to be pasted small pictures, cut from newspaper and magazine advertising, from mail order and wholesale catalogs, or labels from cans and car- tons, of the various articles to be found on the shelves of a well-stocked grocery. Such as these are common: a sack of flour, package of butter, can of salmon, bottle of flavoring extract, etc. The pages of the book are the shelves of the store or the bins, and some effort should be made to have the stock grouped as it is in a real gro- cery. The price should be printed neatly beneath each picture. There will be keen rivalry to see who can acquire the largest and best-arranged stock. The cover is the store's signboard, and the first pager or two are the show windows. In one of these windows may be a "demonstration" of some advertised product, showing all the stages of its journey from source to consumer. In another there may be a display of pictures intended to tempt the appetites of passersby. The last pages are to be the store's advertising circular, containing a "trade mark" and several catchy phrases neatly lettered. For example: WE AIM TO PLEASE; BEST GOODS- LOWEST PRICES; GET GOOD GROCERIES; FANCY FOODS FOR FAMILY FEASTS; EVERYTHING YOU WANT TO EAT AT PRICES YOU WANT TO PAY. In the making of this book originality and in- genuity should be encouraged. The co-operation of the home can be enlisted. A friendly merchant may be induced to come in and tell the class interesting things about the business. The near- est wholesale house will be glad to furnish illus- trated information. As part of the written English work each child may write to a wholesale house or an importer ordering a new supply of goods. Letters can be written to imaginary persons at the place of origin of the products sold: the son of a sugar planter in Cuba, of the owner of a pineapple plantation in the Hawaiian islands, of a coffee grower in Arabia or Brazil, of a rice farmer in Japan. The "replies" to these letters should also be written. A long list of words,—names of groceries and terms connected with the business, can be made. The children may make this list. Care will be necessary that too difficult words are not in- cluded. For word study purposes these words should be grouped by phonetic elements. An effective poster might be made by the class showing our store as the center of a great world-wide movement of merchandise. A pic- ture or the name of each article represented is pasted in the proper place on an outline map of the world. A string is stretched from each prod- uct to the store at our city in the United States. Not only are we closely connected with the people of our immediate community, but our daily lives are influenced by people in far-away lands. How do we influence them? a [24]FOURTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Aim of Project Teaching in the Fourth Grade JUST out of the primary grades, fourth-grade children are accustomed to depend largely upon the teacher. This is the time when the development of self-reliance and independence must begin. Here is where the Project can serve the teacher well. Offering as it does ample opportunity for the use of the hands in a constructive sense, giving an outlet for the inventive instinct so strong in all children and an opportunity for originality, the Project is the best means of keeping the young minds and hands occupied at interesting, pleasant and instructive work. Children at this age must be accustomed gradually to work in groups; leaders must be developed. They must be encouraged to enter into the spirit of the socialized type of exercise. Although self-conscious at first, children of this age are great mimics, very imaginative and will enter into dramatics with enthusiasm if properly led out. In developing simple Projects with something tangible to work with and talk about, they soon feel at home in their school surroundings and their school work takes on a definite purpose in their minds. Projects for fourth-grade pupils must necessarily deal with things that have already come within their experience, and by simple and easy stages gradually lead them by the development into new experiences. The picture definition on page 6 illustrates perfectly the true Project beginning. Up to this time the child has been learning to read; from now on he must read to learn. He must be trained to use books—table of contents, index, chapter headings, etc.—to find the particular information he wants. The Project should require the solution of problems in simple numbers, oral and written composition, interpretation of maps and simple geographical data. Fourth-grade pupils are in the habit-forming age. The Project gives each one definite responsibility to which he is held by the opinion of the class. The very conditions of the Project type of activity, likewise, tend to enforce accuracy, neatness, and thoroughness. The following Projects are planned and worked out with the above points in mind. America's Favorite Drink (Sandtable representation of the Coffee Project as prepared by Fourth-Grade pupils in the Cicero Schools) Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. The teacher may introduce this project by some such questions as the following: What is our common breakfast drink? How many have seen coffee beans? Tell what the grocer does when we buy coffee. Why do people like to drink coffee? Would you like to find out how goats first showed man what coffee is good for? Would you like to learn of the use of coffee in connection with a religious service? Would you like to find out about certain farm- ers who welcome armies of ants? With interest aroused by these and similar questions, reference books should be consulted to discover the main outlines of the story of coffee and its uses. [25]Development of the Suggested class activities for the development of the Project: Sandtable:—Construction of a Brazilian coffee plantation, bushes (twigs, blossoms of crepe paper, berries of red tissue paper stuffed with cotton), pickers at work, sheets under bushes, troughs of clay for washing, concrete drying floor (concrete mixed and laid by the boys— pp. 674,856). If only roasted beans can be had, these can be painted green for the sake of accuracy (children insist on having smallest details cor- rect). Sheds and house. At one side a pier with vessel being loaded with bags of coffee. Class takes an imaginary trip to Santos (pp. 4344, 495, 3286, 824) and to a coffee plantation inland among the hills. Beautiful scenery, good air, work of plantation interesting, dress of work- ers picturesque. Have several members of the class represent workers and, by conversation, Project by the Class give information as to their mode of life, their amusements, education (not much of it), and ideas. Am. Tourist—"Is that a coffee tree? Why the fruit looks like cherries! How can we ever make a drink from it?" Worker—"0, we must first break this skin and get out the two seeds—'beans,' you call them—then we dry the seeds." Tourist—"I see, that's why coffee is brown when we buy it." Worker—-"No, no! In your country the beans are roasted to give them the right taste. That makes them brown." Tourist—-"Indeed. Will you tell us about your work?" Worker—"We pick three times a year. It is not hard work, A good picker can make a dollar a day." More than a billion pounds of coffee are produced in Brazil in a single year. Most of it comes from the state of Sao Paulo, which in itself furnishes more than half of the world's supply. Here are miles and miles of coffee bushes stretching as far as the eye can reach. {From, Com-pton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Building the 1. Early history (pp. 820-822). 2. Use of coffee in Europe and America (pp. 822- 5. 823). How does American use of coffee compare 6. with that of other countries? (pp. 822-823). 3. Where do we get the largest part of our 7. coffee? (pp. 822, 493). 8. Name the other coffee producing regions of the world, (pp. 822, 2885, 679, 836, 896, 1072, 1546). 9. 4. Why does not the coffee plant grow in the Project United States? (p. 822). Describe the kind of region best suited to coffee growing: surface, climate, (p. 822). How coffee is raised, cultivated, harvested, (p. 823). How coffee is prepared for shipping, (p. 823). Roasting by wholesale grocery houses in United States cities (New York and Chicago). Properties of coffee; effects of coffee drinking, (p. 823). A COFFEE PLANTATION IN BRAZIL [26]COFFEE —FROM BLOSSOM TO DRYING FLOOR The life of the coffee berry begins in the starry white blossoms, which are very beautiful against their dark glossy leaves. After the crimson berries are gathered, they must pass through several stages before they are ready for market. Above you can see the berries being washed in a huge cement trough, into which water is constantly flowing. As the workman stirs the berries, the mashed pulp is carried away by the current of water and the seeds (or "beans") allowed to settle. The beans are then dried, as in the picture at the bottom, which shows a drying ground in Brazil. With their brooms of native brush, the men stir the green beans about and finally, when they are ready to be removed, sweep them up in great piles on the brick-paved floor. The beans are allowed to remain here under the hot sun for several days, and are frequently turned so they may dry evenly. In some places the coffee beans are dried indoors by artificial heat. {Page 821 from Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) [27]Tourist—-"I don't think that's good pay!" Worker—"It is here." Tourist—-"What do you do to have a good time?" Worker—"We dance in the evening, or play cards. On Sunday we have rooster fights and bet on the winner." Tourist—-"Do your children go to school?" Worker—"School! What's that! Nothing like that here. The little ones roll around in the dust or mud until they are big enough to work; then they have to help us." Original problems were made by the children using data of latest importations (furnished by the teacher): From Brazil 857,454,200 lbs. From Central America 150,337,200 lbs. From Colombia 212,391,500 lbs. From Dutch East Indies 18,507,200 lbs. From Venezuela 51,974,300 lbs. From Mexico 23,415,400 lbs. From West Indies 18,875,100 lbs. From Aden 2,623,500 lbs. Total value of these imports $176,988,000. Tourist- "Thank you for what you have told us. Here, buy some- thing for your children." Each member of the class makes a booklet contain- ing story of coffee, outline map show- ing coffee regions of world, lists of words from coffee industry for spell- ing, pictures, clippings from newspapers and magazines. Java, Mocha, Santos, flavor, aroma, blending are a few words that the children learn to use. Arithmetic problems such as the following were put on the board by the teacher and worked out by the children and placed in their booklets. 1. Coffee is shipped in sacks of 132 lbs. each. What is the weight of 468 sacks? An ocean steamer carried to New York 22,308 sacks of coffee. How many lbs.? Two lbs. coffee make 49 cups of the beverage. How many cups can be made from 50 lbs.? These great roasters are much more efficient than our grandmothers' ovens, the roasters, the coffee beans are kept revolving so they will brown evenly, they are the proper color they are cooled with a suction draught. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Within When The following show the possibili- ties: How many lbs. coffee do we get from Brazil and Colombia? How many more lbs. from Brazil than from Colombia? From East Indies we get how many lbs. less than from West Indies? When coffee is 50c a lb., how many lbs. can I buy with $5.00. 2. 3. Other problems were made using coffee prices from local stores. A question that naturally occurred to the children was: Why do we have to pay different prices for coffee, all of which probably came from the same country? A wholesale grocery house in Chicago offered prizes for stories of the coffee industry by school children. Many of the children entered this contest and a considerable number won prizes. Note:—The result obtained from working out such a Project is that the children, being interested and enthusiastic over their work while the Project is in progress, learn many geography facts and relations. They have come to feel, in a way, the inter-dependence of the various parts of the earth and the different peoples upon one another. In the end they have a feeling that they have accomplished something very definite, something in which they can take genuine pride. »>- [28]The Story of a Loaf of Bread FOURTH-GRADE PROJECT) SINCE bread is the commonest of foods and a matter of vital interest to every child, it is the logical subject of study for the first month or two of the school year. Children revel in learning of the common things of life. Their interest is most easily aroused in the things with which they are already familiar. The following questions are suggestive. These, or others, should lead to free and informal discussion. A BREAD "RAISING'' MACHINE The balls turned out by the "umbrella machine" drop into the buckets inside this glass-inclosed "proofer." The buckets are attached to an endless chain, which carries them slowly through the proofer. Heat and moisture conditions are kept just right within the proofer, and when the lumps come out the dough has "raised" for the last time. It is delivered to a molding machine which shapes the loaves and delivers them to the ovens. (One of a series of illustrations in Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia on the making of bread) Preparing the Class for The Wheat Project Which of these things do we eat most often? (pp. 1321, 496). Why do you suppose that bread has been called the "Staff of Life"? (p. 496). How many have watched mother make bread? How many have helped make it? Tell us how she makes it. Name again the things she mixes together. Does anyone know what the flour was made from? (pp. 1301-1302). Can someone name other kinds of flour? (Com, oats, rye, barley, potato). the Project 1. Best place to see the growing of wheat, (pp. 3732, 2986, 2582). 2. Kinds of wheat, (p. 3731). 3. How wheat is grown, (pp. 3730-3731). It was decided to take an imaginary trip to a Why do we eat? What name do we give to things that we eat? (p. 1320). Name some of the things that we eat. (List on board), (p. 1320). Let's separate these into things that grow in the soil, things that come from animals, and things that are neither of these two. (Make three columns on board.) We shall name these three vegetable, animal, and mineral. Where do we get these various articles of food? (Farms, ranches, orchards, factories and the sea). Developing Would you like to make a little book telling the Story of Bread? Suppose we play the story. Then there was a consulting of reference books to find out: [29]wheat farm near Fargo, North Dakota (p 2522) (In the Red River Valley) (pp. 2986,2524) and by dia- logue on the part of the different members of the class take part in: 1. Life on the farm. HERE IS WHERE THE BAKER'S BREAD STARTS 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Preparing the ground, plowing, harrowing, (p. 3730). Sowing—drill seed- ers which cover grains as they go along. Once done by hand— see Millet's pic- ture "The Sower". Harvesting—the modern reaper cuts and bundles the wheat, (pp. 605, 3731, 2983, 2095). Threshing (separating the grain from the straw and chaff by a machine run by a gas engine), (pp. 3493, 605, 3731). Marketing. a. elevators where wheat is stored— usually near railroad station, (pp. 604, 1492, 264, 3731). This machine turns the flour, water, and other ingredients into dough. The funnel at the top drops the materials into the mixer below, where clean steel arms give them a more thorough working than could any human hands. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) b. shipping to the large mills, (pp. 3731 - 3732, 1492, 264). We accompanied a trainload of wheat from Fargo, N. Dak., to one of the largest mills at Minneapolis. In this mill wefollowed the grain through all the processes from the top of the mill until it was rolled out- at the bottom in barrels and sacks of flour, (pp. 1301-1304). 1. Cleaning. 2. Steaming and drying. 3. Rolling to break up the kernel. 4. Taking out the bran and germ. 5. Rolling the starchy part through steel rollers. 6. Sacking, barreling and loading. Then we accompanied a trainload of barreled flour to our home city and were taken through one of the largest bakeries in the world. There we saw the flour made into bread by great machines, without being touched by human hands, (pp. 496-500, 3828-3829). Required of the Members of the Class As our journey progressed we kept a suitable record for our books, and now with our journey completed we add to the book number problems relating to the measuring of wheat and flour (table of dry measure). We collect advertise- ments showing wheat growing, milling, and baking, and wheat products, which we paste in our books. We also make a large group poster entitled the "Story of Bread". (Free-hand, cut out). Then we prepare an exhibit consisting of samples of each different kind of grain (pp. 331, 890, 2549, 3102, 3731), and tiny bottles contain- ing samples of various grades and kinds of flour, (p. 1302). On the sand table we constructed on one side a representation of a wheat farm and on the other of a flour mill, with a railroad and a river connecting the two. Each one made a drawing for his book showing all the things that are mixed together to make the dough for bread. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Pages cited throughout Project. How the World is Fed. "The Story of Bo-Bo", (pp. 8-9 also pp. 7-43). The Later Cave-Men. (pp. 50-56). How We Are Fed. (pp. 7-17). The Story of Bread, issued by the International Harvester Co., Chicago. [30]LIFE ON CANADA'S GREAT WHEAT FARMS These three pictures illustrate three great phases of farming life on the vast and fertile plains of western Canada. Everything is done on a big scale. First comes the breaking of the rich black soil with ten or more plows working side by side and drawn by a tractor. Then at harvest time many reapers, from four to six, also drawn by tractors, reap the golden harvest. Last of all comes the threshing, and then the hauling of the grain to the market. (Page 605 from Compton'8 Pictured Encyclopedia) [31]The Story of Sugar CFOURTH-GRADE PROJECT) A CARDINAL point of "The Project" is that it starts, at least for young children, in their immediate interests, in the things'they already know a great deal about, in the things which to them are most worth while. "Something good to eat" is one of those major interests. What normal youngster would not spend his school-lunch money for cakes and candy instead of for the things unimaginative adults think are "proper food"! Knowing this, it is a simple matter to "build the approach" to this project. WHEN THE SAP BEGINS TO "RUN" Preparing the Class for The Why do you like candy? ("Tastes good"! "Very nice"! "Because it's sweet"!). What makes it sweet? What other things beside candy are sweet? How much sugar, in candy and other things, do you suppose this class eats every day? (Several pounds). Do you know, there is so much sugar used in our country that every, man, woman, and child (on the average) eats seventy-six pounds a year? An average family eats about four hundred pounds a year. This box (it is 10" x 12" x 20") holds seventy-six pounds, and this carton (it is 2' x 2' x holds about four hundred pounds. How large a box, or building, do you think it would take to hold the sugar used by all the people of the United States in a year? Well, if we could gather all the sugar our country uses in one year and press it into a large squared loaf, or block, it would cover a plot of ground one city block wide, two city blocks long, and as high as a twenty-five story building. (For country children this could be expressed in Sugar Project distances from the school: (600 feet wide, 1320 feet long and 370feet high. The above is based on 1921 figures in government bulletins.) Wouldn't it be interesting to find out where all this sugar comes from? If you asked for some candy, and I gave you some stalks of a plant to chew on, you would think I was trying to play a joke on you. But, if I show you a picture of a little child chewing just such a stalk and rolling his eyes around as if to say "Yum, yum", you might think differently. Suppose we go to work to find out about this sugar business. We shall discover that there are a great many kinds of sugar. Some is made in the United States but most of it comes from other countries, and a great many interesting things have happened before our sugar is in the form in which we buy it at the store. Here we see the men busily at work in the maple grove near the sugar camp. Some are boring the holes to let out the sap, one is emptying his bucket of juice, another is attaching his pail to the tree, and the little boy, of course, is testing the sap to see if it is up to the standard. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) [32]PLANTING AND HARVESTING SUGAR CANE CROP IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS On the left the mule is bringing up a load of cane to be planted in the furrows of the irrigated field. In every joint of the cane is a bud or eye which will sprout if properly planted and watered. The seed cane is cut from the tops of untasseled cane. Practically all Hawaiian sugar land has to be irrigated; irrigation is used also in Porto Rico and South and Central America. On the right is the full grown sugar cane jungle. (From Compton'a Pictured Encyclopedia) The Problem Where does our sugar come from ? How does it get to us? What has happened to it? I. Kinds of Sugar: Cane, Beet, Maple, Date, Grape, Corn, Honey. II. Geography and Manufacture of most important kinds of sugar. III. Value of sugar. Importance of sugar in our food. Need of regular rations of sugar, (p. 1320). Cane and Beet Sugar, (pp. 3385-3389). 1. Where grown, (pp. 3385-3386)—climate and soil needed (p. 3385). 2. How planted and cultivated, (p. 3386). 3. Methods of harvesting (p. 3386). 4. Shipping to the mill (p. 3386). In the Sugar Mill. (p. 3387). 1. Crushing. 2. Extracting the juice. Correlating English: Oral discussion and special reports on above topics. Written accounts and stories, descriptions, and little plays (following oral). History: Early uses of sugar: mention of sugar in the Bible; not used by Romans, (p. 3385). Increased use in Europe following the Crusades, (pp. 3385, 932). Seeking a new route to the East for spices and sugar led to the discovery of America (p. 3385). 3. Cleaning. 4. Separating sugar from molasses. 5. Refining: materials and processes used. 6. Shipping, preparations for Maple Sugar, (pp. 2138-2142). 1. Location of sugar maple groves. 2. Time for tapping the trees. 3. Boiling down. 4. Sirup and sugar. Corn Sugar and Sirup (Glucose), (pp. 1475,3388). 1. Treating starch to make sugar. Have pupils chew a grain of wheat, oats, or corn. Honey (pp. 359-364). 1. Life and work of the bees. 2. Proper care of bees 3. Kinds of honey: Comb, Strained, Candied. 4. Value of honey: Best form of sugar for children. this Project Geography: Locate sugar states of the Union. Where are the leading refineries (in U. S.)? (p. 3385). Other countries in Europe and Asia producing sugar, (p. 3385). The sugar islands, (pp. 936, 1602). Source of date sugar? (p. 966). Of Turkish fig paste? (p. 1237). Transportation routes to America? Map work: Fill in with crayola areas producing various sugars and sirups. [33]wood to feed it; somebody is busy most of the time gathering in the sap; somebody is required to watch the kettles that they do not boil over and to fill them. It is not the boy however; he is too busy!" Possible Class Activities in the Sugar Project (.Any one or two) Construction Vermont Maple Sugar Grove. (pp. 2138 - 2142 ). Snow, sleds, frolicking. CubaSugar Plantation and Mill. Characteris- tic landscape, (pp. 936, 937). California Beet Sugar farm and factory. Also, a Bee Farm near clover fields. Hawaiian Sugar plantation. Setting: Volcano and sea. (pp. 1601-1605). In- terior of Sugar Refinery. Machinery and Pro- cesses. (p. 3387). Drawing, Posters: Cane sugar plantation; negro workers; free-hand cut-out lettering. Life of the Honey Bee; hives, workers, drones, queen, comb. (pp. 359-364). Illustrated Mottoes: "I can't Be Beet for Sugar." "Northern Sweets for Northern Kids." "Days of Real Sport" (A candy pulling— all gummed up). "I've been working in de Sugar." Cartoon: Uncle Sam's Sugar Bowl. From every land and the isles of the sea for America's Sweet Tooth, (p. 628). Dramatization: Write and give "A Sweet Time." (Comedy, tragedy, farce, music, danc- ing, etc.) Note—In the following and other dramatiza- tions it is not necessary to make much effort to to have costumes or 'properties. Nearly everything can be left to the imagination,—except the action. Give the children a few suggestions, and "leave it to them." Act I Scene 1. At home. Prepara- tions for leaving for sugar camp in the woods, (pp. 594,2138- 2139) Collecting uten- sils, camping outfit, gloves (not too many "spoons"). Harnessing horses to sleigh (hay- rack on runners). All climb in and start off sing- ing "Jingle Bells." Scene 2. Arrival at camp. Unloading and unpacking. Building camp fire. Smoke in eyes. Tapping trees and hanging buckets for the night. Camp Fire Festival: Roasting wienies; toasting marshmallows; burned fingers. Telling jokesandriddles;telling ghost stories. Singing "The Dancing Song" (Progressive Bk. II, 59). Children sing and dramatize song while older people sit around fire laughing and enjoying the fun. Joking about mishaps. Off to Slumberland. Act II, Scene 1. Next Morning: Singing: "You can't get 'em up, You can't get 'em up, "You can't get 'em up, in the morning." [34]Diffusion Battery for freeing J beet juices 1 Cloth Filtei Hot Air Drier Crystallizing Vacuum Pan OTmany fpoon fulls ^please? Weigher and Packer These pictures show the process whereby we get sugar from sugar beets. In the upper left-hand corner is a sugar beet, sliced into "cossettes" and ready to yield its juices. Next to it you see the top of a battery of "diffusion tanks," arranged in a circle. Each new lot of cossettes is packed into one of the tanks, and water is turned on. The water visits each of the tanks in turn, absorbs the sugar contained in the cossettes, and passes to the purifying tanks, where it is treated, first with caustic lime and then with carbonic acid gas. The lime seizes upon impurities, and the gas precipitates the lime. Then the liquid visits the filter press, where tae precipitate is removed, and goes to the evaporator, which reduces the liquid to a somewhat thick sirupy consistency. After being subjected to sulphur fumes, which remove more impurities, the thickened liquid passes through cloth filters and is ready for the graining process. This is conducted in huge copper cylinders, called "vacuum pans." These cylinders are heated by steam coils, and an air pump maintains a partial vacuum within them, in order to permit boiling at low temperature. The heat causes the sugar to gather into crystals within the liquid. The crystals are then removed from the liquid by the centrifugal drier, the last moisture is driven out by the hot-air drier, and the sugar is graded for size, weighed, packed, and shipped. {Page 8887 from Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. An example of the illustrative treatment of various industries in this work) [35]Bringing in the sap, building the fires, filling the kettles, (p. 2140). Watching the boiling, stirring, tasting, burn- ing tongues (p. 2140). Rubbing smoke out of eyes, laughing, joking. Singing: "I've been working in the sugar "All the livelong day. "I've been working in the sugar, "To pass the time away; "Don't you smell the sugar cooking! "Rise up so early in the niawn; "Don't you want to come and taste it, "It will do no harm." Number: Use current prices of the various sugars and sirups. Find wholesale prices from the Newspaper market quotations. Consult government publications for data as to imports. Typical problems:— An acre of good soil will produce 35 tons of cane. How many tons should a planter obtain from 187 acres? If 75 lbs. juice are obtained from 100 lbs. cane, how much juice can be obtained from 900 lbs.? from one ton? Each member of a family uses 1Y2 lbs. sugar a week. How much is used by the family (6 persons)? What will this sugar cost for a month at 9c? A grocer sold 18,768 lbs. sugar at 8c. How much did he receive? A quart of honey costs 75c. Find the cost of 8 gal. A sugar house contains 14,000,000 lbs. sugar. This is how many tons? The molds in which the toothsome maple sugar cakes are made are very much like muffin pans, only there are a great many more molds to the tray. The sirup which is to be poured into these molds is boiled longer than the sirup which is to be used on the morning wheat cakes. The sirup for the cakes is put into those square cans you see on the shelf at the back. {From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Scene 2. Breaking up Camp: Licking sugar from fing- ers, combing sirup out of hair. Trying to pack up (can't find the right things). Singing: "Goodby, old Camp; Goodby, Old Camp; Goodby, Camp; "We're going to leave you now. "Merrily we skid along, skid along, skid along. "Merrily we skid along, "On the homeward way." Hygiene: Part played by sugar in the body, (p. 1321). Right use of sugar—quality and quantity— danger in eating cheap candy, (p. 1321). Best time to eat candy, (p. 1321). Special need of brushing the teeth after eating candy or other form of sugar. In working out this project each class group made its own choice among the several suggest- ions offered under each phase. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Pages cited throughout Project. Crissey: Story of Foods, (pp. 187, 427). Chase and Clow: Stories of Industry,—Sugar. Fisher, E. F.: Resources and Industries of the United States, (pp. 52-63). Allen, N. B.: Story of Sugar. Carpenter: How the World is Fed (pp. 328-345). Chamberlain: How We Are Fed. (pp. 77-86). Rochleau: Products of the Soil. (pp. 51-88). (Good map). [36]"Let's Go Fishing!" (.FOURTH-GRADE PROJECT) CHILDREN are so highly imaginative that they get many a thrill out of reading about, and more especially, out of acting through, experiences of adventure and danger. A project beginning with the codfish cakes at their own table leads them into the fogs off Newfoundland. Let the teacher but enter fully into the spirit of the little drama, and the experience will be so real to the children that some of them will feel the long swells and become almost seasick. The following description of this project as it was carried through by one fourth-grade class will indicate some of its many possibilities. (Sandtable representation of a Fishing Village made by Fourth-Grade pupils in the Cicero Schools.) Arousing Interest in the Project The month's work began with the question, "What kinds of fish have we eaten?" The list was not very long—canned salmon and sardines, smoked herring, cod and mackerel. Some of the boys had been out to the river and knew perch, carp and bullheads. Where do we get our fish? (Of course all knew). What two principal kinds of fish? (Salt and fresh-water.) What would the class like to do for our month's work? As ideas were rather vague, we looked in our geographies, industrial readers, and the ency- clopedia (pp. 1282-1286), for some definite sug- gestions. After several periods of socialized study we had the following list: salmon (p. 608) fishing in the Columbia (p. 3113), herring fishing in eastern waters (p. 1645), and cod (p. 608) fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland (p. 2450) as the three most promising possibilities. It was voted to take a trip on a Gloucester schooner to the Banks. On our maps we located Gloucester (pp. 4195, 1283) and by the help of railroad folders de- termined the route by which we could go there. We got information about fares, and pretended that our journey was made at night so that we paid no attention to points on our way. By means of pictures and printed descriptions we developed our trip from the time of boarding the schooner (pp. 3208-3210) and sailing down the bav, till we dropped anchor on the Banks (p. 2450). We went out in dories (p. 1283), set and took care of trawls, helped clean and salt away the fish (p. 1284), and became somewhat familiar with all the everyday experiences in the lives of the fishermen. These included cold and storms, narrow escapes from being run down by great ocean steamers, as well as the excitement of big hauls of fish, and the hard drive of work (15 and 18 hours at a stretch) to get a great quantity of fish salted down in the hold while the run lasts. One day we went ashore in a little cove of Newfoundland (p. 2450) and helped spread the fish out to dry. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [37]"HARVESTING" SALMON IN THE NORTHWEST On the Columbia River, ingenious "fish wheels" make the river do the work. During spawning season the salmon come in such numbers that they block navigation. The river turns the wheel, and its buckets dip the thronging salmon up and dump them into a trough. All that fishermen have to do is haul the catch to the cannery. {From, Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) We lived through an experience suggested by Winslow Homer's (p. 4216) picture "The Fog Warning." After we had returned to Gloucester we saw how the fish were marketed and shipped. We visited in the homes of the fishermen (p. 1282) and saw their life ashore, helping mend lines and seines and repair dories. We wonder why Gloucester is, perhaps, the greatest fishing port in the United States. The reasons are from history and geography. Away back at the beginning of settlement in America, several fishing stations were made on the shores the near-by waters were swarming with codfish, as the early explorers tell us. As these stations gradually changed into regular settlements the business of fishing continued as the main occu- pation of the people. Gloucester was in the best position with reference to the fishing grounds and to the markets. The industry became so im- portant here that it has continued (a large num- ber of the men are trained to it, many vessels are owned here, and all means of carrying it on center here) although fishing near by is not so profitable now, and vessels must go to New- foundland. of Massachusetts (p. 2166) and Maine, because Making the Experiences Real for the Class Our experiences were made as real as possible by oral accounts as of personal experiences, by dramatization, and by the construction of a fishing village on the sandtable. Our adventures were written up in story form, which together with original drawings, pictures cut from old books and magazines, maps, and number prob- lems, made up a good-sized booklet for each pupil. These booklets had a variety of cover drawings typical of the fishing industry and expressive of the pupils' individual ideas. It was surprising what a large amount of material, pictures, stories, and descriptions the children brought in. Before the month was over, two walls of the room were completely covered with this material arranged as an exhibit. Other Problems Considered Different methods of catching cod, mackerel, and halibut. What is meant by the "Banks of Newfound- land"? (p. 4289). What is the depth of the water? Why is this region so good a fishing ground? (p. 2450). (A meeting-place for cold and warm ocean currents; the drifting down of icebergs bringing sediment and materials which are food for low forms of marine life; these forms of life are food for the larger fishes.) After our main effort, the trip to the Banks of Newfoundland, was completed, we made a study of the life history of the salmon (pp. 1285, 3113-3114), which was worked up in a series of posters. We also became familiar with the work of the United States Bureau of Fisheries (pp. 1280-1282, 2042, 3114), from which study [38]INGENIOUS WAYS OF GATHERING THE OCEAN'S CROP At the top is one of the greatest fishing devices—the gill net. The fish thrusts his head through the meshes which are too small to permit the body to follow; then when he tries to back out, his gills catch and he is trapped. This net is simply set out, with floats on top and weights below, and allowed to become "loaded" with fish. Other nets are drawn through the water by the fishing boats. Sometimes the net has a "draw-string" at the bottom to close it into a "purse" when the ends have been brought together. At the bottom of the picture is shown a dredge net, used to scoop up fish and other creatures from the sea bed. We caught those codfish off the coast of Nova Scotia—let's play we did—and here they are drying in the sun at Halifax. On the right we are looking down the unloading platform of a big salmon cannery in British Columbia. (The Fishing Industry as shown illustratively in Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia [39]we wrote an illustrat- ed description and made a large co-oper- ative cartoon showing Uncle Sam in the role of promoting the fish- ing industry. By the time the month closed the children's small list of fishes known at the beginning of the month had grown to one of considerable proportions, including all the best food fishes (pp. 1271-1279, 3374, 3545,2726,3733,1565, 1645, 1558, 2102). We were fortunate in living near a large city so that many of the children could visit an aquarium (pp. 162-163) and study the live fish (pp. 1271-1277). We bought a bowl with several goldfish (p. 1483) and observed them closely, using them as models for drawings and subjects for oral and written descriptions. This was real work in science, though neither teacher "Paying out" the net is the opening ceremony of the day on a fishing smack. What looks to be a deck-load of coconuts is the net in its storage place, with the wooden floats which support it in the water. A line of the floats can be seen stretching astern. {From Compton'8 Pictured Encyclopedia) nor pupils would have thought of it as such. An abundance of material for number problems was brought in by the children— prices of fish at the local markets, and data about the indus- try found in the news- papers. The children made up lists of words for their spelling les- sons, these lists ed- ited, of course, by the teacher. It goes without saying that the children thor- oughly understood the use of all words selected, and as might be expected, an un- usually high average of spelling accuracy was attained. Books and magazines containing stories and descriptions of fishing were brought in to be used as reading lessons. Parts of "Captains Courageous" (p. 1927) and other stories were read to the class by the teacher. REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Pages cited throughout Project. Carpenter: How the World is Fed. Chamberlain: How We Are Fed. Rolt-Wheeler: Boy With the U.S. Fisheries. National Geographic Magazine, Dec. 1923, June 1916. Equipment for hatching cod eggs in the hatchery at Boothbay Harbor, Maine (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) [40]Life on a Farm CFOURTH-GRADE PROJECT) ASIDE from its obvious purpose to awaken an interest in, and give a familiar introduction A to farm life, for the benefit of city children—a project of the following type is necessary for the development of an important faculty on the part of pupils of this age—the faculty to be able to "listen" intelligently, retain and interpret, and also an ability or power to "see" pictures. It is to awaken and develop these faculties at as early an age as possible that this particular project, or one of a similar character, is recommended at this stage. On a given day the teacher read to her class the following story, "Life on a Farm." There was no comment or discus- sion. The following day the story was read again, after the chil- dren had been asked to keep a mental ac- count of everything that is done or that happens. After the reading the children told what they re- membered of the ac- tion. The third day the story was read once more, after the children had been di- rected to watch for "pictures." Then all who could, described That little calf shares its mother's milk with the little girl, and there seems to be enough for both, for these two small partners certainly look happy and healthy. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) the pictures that they remembered. Again on the fourth day the story was read an d the class built up an out- line which was written on the board. By this time the children had had considerable training in both silent and "listening" read- ing, in selecting im- portant points, and in "seeing" pictures. Each pupil now had a very good grasp of the story-description of "The Farm." Each group decided how it would work out its project. Following the story are some of the forms of representa- tion used. THE STORY Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. Life on a farm (pp. 43-48) would be most interesting to a boy or girl who lives in the city. Let us accompany some children on a vacation to a large farm in Wisconsin. We are awakened early in the morning, even before the sun is up, by a clatter and a whistling just outside our windows. We dress quickly and hurry out in time to follow after Tom, the farmer's boy, as he drives the cows (pp. 949-950) down a narrow grass-grown lane toward the pasture. How cool and fresh the air is! On both sides of the lane wild grape-vines have changed the fences into walls of living green. The sun has just risen. On every blade of grass and every little leaf sparkle tiny dew-drops (p. 1000). The cows whisk their tails and snatch a mouthful of the wet grass here and there, as Shep, the dog (pp. 1018-1020), tries to hurry them along. In the orchard blue jays (p. 440) are scolding, robins (pp. 420, 3028) chattering, and a bobolink (pp. 418, 446) seems ready to burst with happiness. At the end of the lane, after the last cow has gone through into the pasture, Tom slides across the wooden bars which close the gate, and we have a merry race back to the house to get breakfast. We wish some of our young friends in the city could enjoy such a meal. Straw- berries and cream, oatmeal, new graham biscuits and honey, and all the yellow milk we can drink. Nothing we ever ate tasted so good! After breakfast Tom takes us around the farm. Through the orchard (pp. 1379-1380) we troop, stopping for a few handfuls of ripe [41]cherries (p. 716) and along the edge of a long meadow where thousands of clover blooms (pp. 809-810) fill the air with their fragrance. Sitting on the top rail of the fence we look across the pasture where the cows are feeding on the rich bluegrass, or sleepily chewing the cud (p. 663) HOW FARMING WAS CONDU Then over the hill through woods of oaks (pp. 2457-2458), maples (p. 2138), wild cherries, and tangled underbrush, down into the tama- rack (pp. 1962-1963) swamp where the huckle- berries (p. 439) grow high and thick. We cross the stream on the slippery trunk of a fallen tree, CTED IN THE MIDDLE AGES fXLZ) JVQ 3 -mm m f/P* Here we have a bird's-eye diagram showing a lord's castle and village, with its woodlands and pasture, and the "three-field system" of inter- mixed holdings. The house of a typical peasant or "villein" (whom we will call "A") is shown in the village, with his scattered acre-strips, separated by unplowed turf, in two of the three fields. The lord's "domain," which his peasants tilled for him, was similarly scattered, as were also the holdings of the other peasants. Each year one of the three fields was plowed but allowed to "lie fallow" or unplanted, in order that the soil might recover its fertility. This wasteful system held the agriculture of Europe in its grip for a thousand years. {From, Comptori's Pictured Encyclopedia in the shade of some tall walnut trees (pp. 3667- 3668), or standing knee-deep in the water of a stream. Then we go on again, passing fields of wheat (pp. 3730-3731) and oats (pp. 2458-2459) and rye (p. 3102). One field looks strange to us. Tom tells us that it is alfalfa (pp. 88-90), which will be cut soon and be put green into the silo (p. 3240) for winter feed. We had noticed a large thing looking like a huge barrel about thirty feet high behind the barn. So that's a silo! Now we clamber over an old stone wall, scaring a chipmunk (p. 752) who chatters at us and disappears down a crack. We push care- fully past a thicket of blackberries (p. 432) and come to the cold spring (p. 3331) at the edge of the woods. Here we drink and rest for a while. and climb another rise through more woods where, Tom tells us, the wild flowers (pp. 2416- 2417) are thick in the Spring. The woods thin out and soon, pushing through a hedge of osage orange (p. 4299) we find our- selves at the edge of a long field where the hay- makers are at work (p. 1609). The hayracks are being loaded and are being hauled away to the barns (p. 43). We play "follow the leader" down the field, chasing one another over the long windrows of hay. The loader attached to the rear of the wagon pushes the hay up on the rack where it is distributed by Tom's father. Soon the rack is loaded, and we are boosted up on top. So we ride back to the barn, along a winding lane, brushed by trees on either side, passing the vegetable gardens (pp. 1394-1397) and into the barnyard, where the chickens (pp. 422908-2912) scatter in every direction. And then the dinner-bell rings! In the evening we go down the lane again with Tom and Shep. The cows are mooing im- patiently at the pasture bars. They want to crowd through the gate all at once, so eager are they for supper and the milking. They push against one another into the large, cool barn (p. 950), each cow finding her regular place. They stand in a long row, with their noses'in the mangers of oats, while they are being brushed down and washed carefully. Then Tom's father and the hired men wash their hands, put on clean white aprons, take bright tin pails and milk (pp. 2238-2239) the cows. As soon as the last cow is milked the milk is strained through muslin cloth into large cans, which are covered and put down into a tank of cold spring water. The cans are taken to the railroad station next morning with the morning's milk where it is picked up by the milk train for the city. Thus the milk is cared for that it may be kept sweet and wholesome for city children to drink. Before these children are awake the following morning the milk has been bottled and delivered at their back doors (pp. 949-953). Those farmers who do not send their milk to the city take the cream out of it by a machine called a separator (p. 950). This cream is sent to a neighboring creamery (pp. 950-952), while what is left, known as skimmed milk, is fed to calves and hogs. At the creamery most of the cream is put into a large barrel-like thing called a churn. An electric motor makes the churn turn round and round for some time. Then the churn is opened and a mass of butter (pp. 543-544) is taken out. The men work this over with wooden paddles, adding salt and coloring matter. Then it is packed into large tubs or made into the pound bricks that we see in the grocery stores. Some of the milk and cream is made into ice cream and sent away to the city packed in ice. Some of the milk, with the cream, is made into cheese (pp. 708-709). Another day we help pick strawberries (p. 3370), perhaps putting as many into our mouths as into the baskets. We can't help it, they're so delicious. And we watch Tom's mother and the girls can and preserve them. Won't they taste good in the winter! Thus the happy days go by, days full of such a variety of pleasant experiences. We explore every nook and corner of this delightful place, fishing in the creek, swimming in the little pond, hiking to the top of Signal Hill, picnicing at the lake, "tracking Indians" through the deep dark ravines of "Overman's Run." On a rainy day we play in the barn, tumbling from the rafters into the fragrant hay in the mow, and finding swallows' (pp. 3398-3399) nests up under the eaves. When our summer vacation is over, we regret- fully say goodby to this wonderful farm where we have had such a good time. How we would like to stay here all the year round! We think it would be good fun to enjoy all the sports that are possible here, and to help with the farm work, to keep the milk pails and cans so clean and shining, and to know that we were doing something to give food to little children in the city (pp. 43, 45). Class Activities for the Development of the Farm Project Sandtable representation of the farm. A series of pictures showing various parts of the farm and the farm activities. Dramatization—acting out the story as given with such added "color" as the children wished to inject. Written accounts, individual and then col- lective. In addition to one of the above the children in each class were asked to make a plan of the farm to see how well they sensed the relative layout of the several fields and buildings. During the time this project was in progress the work in spelling, arithmetic, and music, as well as in those subjects already indicated, was centered about this topic. [43]Making a Museum for a Rural School (.FOURTH-GRADE PROJECT) ON A Saturday morning a number of years ago a country school boy driving the horse for his father's plowing, picked up an unusually fine specimen of an Indian hatchet. He gave it to his teacher on Monday morning. This was years before the term "project" had been thought of, or the application of that method more than dreamed of. The young teacher, of course, could not avoid an opportunity so obvious, and the hatchet was made the central point of an oral language lesson. Others in the school (4th to 8th grades) said, "Why, I find Indian things all the time." It appeared that the immediate region must have been the location of an Indian village or camp, for large numbers of arrow points, spear heads, and a few rough implements were brought in. In the school yard itself spear heads were picked up. Soon a collection, greater than any city school could boast of, filled several shelves of the bookcase. Pupils reported having been to an Indian burial ground some eight or ten miles to the west, where "some men from the city (from the museum of natural history) had dug out a wagon load of things." Three miles to the north was a rise of ground known locally as "Indian Hill" (p. 2357), about which many Indian relics had been found. Several interesting lessons were given to a discus- sion of these things, and to telling Indian stories, but it ended there. What an opportunity for the application of the project idea if the teacher had only had the foresight to develop it! In these days, with the new view points in education, the following program would be carried out. Let us as- sume this or a similar happening in the present-day school and watch the project possi- bilities unfold. The children themselves, al- ready accustomed to work of the pro j - ect kind, asked many questions and offered many suggestions. The one that found the most favor » MAKING ARROW HEADS OF STONE Before the white man came, the Indians of North America made their Arrow Heads as here illustrated: 1, shaping a stone by hammering it with another stone; 2, fashioning finer work with the aid of a stone "chisel"; 3, a more delicate task requiring the aid of an assistant; 4 and 5, finishing the edges by chipping ana flaking away the rough places with "pliers" made of bono. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) was, "Let's make a school museum/ Presently there was so large an amount of the Indian material (pp. 1765-1767, 1769, 1771, 3361 pictures), with pictures, brought in by the children that, with their drawings, there was no room to display it. The difficulty was solved by several boys bringing lumber and tools to school, and at recesses and after eating the noon lunch, building a set of shelves, on which the relics were arranged carefully and neatly labeled, with crayola- made back- grounds to set them off. Since there was consid- erable room left en the shelves, the question was asked, "Why can't we have other things be- side these Indian relics?" Samples of "pretty stones" and various kinds of rock were brought from home. The study of geology had not been included in that teacher's experience, but by means of the encyclopedia (p. 1417) and a borrowed textbook, the teacher and children together were able to make a rough classification of these samples (p. 3864). The interest was now great, and to the rocks was added a study of soil (pp. 3272- 3273, 3233, 3864, 784). Bottles filled with samples of different kinds of soil from the vicinity were labeled and studied. Presently these country school children found themselves possessed of considerable knowledge Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found• [ 44 ]THE STONE PAGES THAT TELL EARTH'S STORY This picture illustrates how the old, old story of the Earth was written, so to speak, in the successive layers of stone laid down age after age and how geologists have been able to read it owing to the fact that the strata or "pages" are exposed by being wrinkled up into mountains and worn away by wind and weather and flowing streams. The great vertical crack running down the center of the picture is what is known as a "fault." The sudden development of such a break and the sinking of the rocks on one side is one of the causes of earthquakes, especially in mountain regions. In reading the stone book, you must start, not at the top, but at the bottom—the order in which the layers were formed. The oldest rock formation (1) consisting of gneiss, granite, and schist, is called Archean, meaning "ancient" and the era in which it was made is known as Archeozoic, meaning "ancient life." The next (2) is called Algonkian, formed in the Proterozoic era. The black vertical formation (3) is not one of the regular strata, but "trap rock" formed by molten stone which has welled up and broken through the layers above. The others in their order are Cambrian (4), Ordovician (5), Silurian (6), Devonian (7), Carboniferous or "coal-bearing" (8), which includes also Permian (9); then come Triassic (10), Jurassic, including Liassic (11), and Oolitic (12); Lower Cretaceous (13), and Upper Cretaceous (14); Eocene (15), which marks the beginning of the "Age of Mammals"; Oligocene (16), when the forerunners of the most of the present- day mammals began to take shape; Miocene (17), when such creatures as the mastodon appeared; Pliocene (18), which probably marks the beginning of the "Age of Man." The rock systems of the Quaternary period are the Pleistocene (19), formed about the time when man was struggling against the cave-bear and the mastodon, and the uppermost layer of comparatively modern origin, called the Holocene or "Recent." These rocks differ from each other in chemical composition, the character of fossils they con- tain, and in various other ways; but when you remember that countless ages of earthquakes, upheavals, and subsidences have mixed them together, you will appreciate what a task it has been to read their lesson correctly. {Page 1419 from Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia—a graphic example of the geological information contained in this work.) [45]of the story of the earth. One thing led to another. One boy who brought in a sample of sand (pp. 3121-3123), said it came from the long ridge passing near the school. This excited a great deal of interest because the only other samples like it were from the same ridge, north or south. It was wondered why that particular kind of sand should be found only in that particular ridge. The study of a bulletin A Geograp One day a school visit to the river turned into a geography lesson. The boys and girls became much interested in seeing what they had studied about as to the life history of a river valley (pp. 3022-3023). Here was a demonstration of a river cutting down its valley (p. 2791) and building a flood plain across which it wandered, now and then making a new course, undercut- Nature Interest now turned to the wild flowers (pp. 2416-2417), and many specimens were collected, mounted, and labeled (pp. 3849, 1304-1311) (For description of different flowers, see under flower name). Similarly shrubs and trees (pp. 3530-3539, 2138, 2547-2548, 2807-2809, etc.) were studied and sheets showing characteristic features (summer and winter pictures of a tree, a leaf (pp. 1980-1982), bit of bark (p. 330), and fruit (p. 1380) of each) were prepared for a con- siderable number of forest and roadside shade trees. A collection of the commonest weeds of Benefits Derived This project unified school, home, farm, prairie, and woods. It vitalized the school "subjects." It stimulated and resulted in better reading because children were using books for definite purposes. It resulted in much better work in arithmetic since the pupils real- ized that the problems now based on data which they had gathered themselves, were real and not artificial. It created a new and enthusiastic interest in geography, since it was seen to relate to the near-by, and could be studied at first hand. But it also hooked up naturally with issued by the Geological Survey (pp. 3600- 3601) showed that this ridge was an old lake beach, and the children could readily believe this because they remembered having seen sim- ilar sand on the present beach. Through this study the children learned a number of things about various kinds of soils and how they are formed which, even as farmer boys and girls, they had not known. hy Lesson ting a high bank on the outside of a curve and filling in on the inner side of the curve, carrying silt and building delta fans (pp. 3023, 2791), cutting across long curves, and leaving lagoons separated from the parent stream. Several of the children made sketches, which later at school were made into creditable drawings, and became part of the museum equipment. Study the region was also prepared (pp. 3712-3713). In the fall a special problem was taken up— that of Nature's methods of seed dispersal (pp. 2827, 2830, 3171, 3173). Samples of the various types (parachutes, burrs, tumbleweeds, wings, catapults) were mounted and hung on the walls. It was planned for the following year to extend this type of study to the vegetables and small fruits grown on the farms of this district, and to have a small experimental garden in the schoolyard. From the Project the outside world. The greatest progress was shown in English, both oral and written, since pupils had an abundance of material for talking and writing. They were eager to tell and keep a definite record of their own experiences. As a pedagogue would say, "Composition became motivated." By means of school work of this kind country boys and girls were awakened to the fact that they lived in a wonderful environment, and that they must use it. Their powers of observation were quickened and their apprecia- tion of the beauties of nature was increased. «•>--«* [46]FIFTH-GRADE PROJECTS Aims in Fifth-Grade Project Work IN THIS grade project work can be extended and intensified. Pupils will become more self-dependent and confident; they will readily undertake the leading forms of activity. They will develop considerable initiative, and will enjoy making their own plans; they will be eager to suggest "something different," and this tendency will need to be guided (with tact) so as to promote harmony between individuals and groups. They will work more readily as groups, taking considerable pride in their common productions, but the leaders will need much counsel to keep them from being "too bossy." In reading attention should be centered on "outlining," both as group or class, and individual activities. This should be confined to matter of an informational character such as that in Compton's Pictured Encyclo- pedia and the Carpenter industrial readers. A great deal of the time for written composition should be given to class composition, working from outlines which they have prepared. With the central idea for each paragraph determined, the composition is gradually built up and written on the board. Care is necessary that the effort and the corresponding develop- ment are not monopolized by the brighter pupils. The number work will consist of many problems of two and three steps, not too difficult, pupils to be aided in developing method of attack; the use of diagrams will help in the reasoning toward solution, frequently. Weaknesses which appear should be taken care of in the afternoon drill periods. Fifth-grade pupils will show surprising skill in construction activities; they take much pleasure in making things; they will not be satisfied with the result, and will make many changes; they will become particular as to details. They will develop alertness in finding material and ideas outside, and procuring "properties" from outside sources. The sense of responsibility grows slowly. The group will make unfashionable failure to carry individual responsibility. The Lumbering Industry (.FIFTH-GRADE PROJECT) LUMBERING is a basic industry, and as such occupies a large place in the life of the -J nation. For the same reason it should receive early and considerable attention in the schools. The study of the industry as a project fits well into the fifth grade because it is basic to the general topic of shelter and because it involves that element of adventure and danger which appeals to youngsters at this age. Following is an account of this project as carried through by a fifth-grade class. (.Activities in the Lumbering Industry shown by models made by Fifth-Grade pupils in the Cicero Schools.) 1. Children brought in samples of various kinds of wood (p. 4019). 2. Class made list of articles in our homes and school made from wood. 3. Class tested various samples with knives to make general classification—hard or soft. 4. Further examination to develop grain and texture. The discussion built up a rough scheme of organization. The class was to form a lumber company, with groups to take care of the following lines of work: First group—Transportation. Second group—Equipment. Third group—Workmen. Fourth group—The camp-site, buildings, etc. [47]Fifth group—Division of labor. The five group leaders at once went to work to list all possible (and available) reference mate- rial, so that all the pupils could be assigned duties. The transportation group wrote a letter to the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Company for information as to time, fares, etc., to western Washington (p. 3687), since it had been decided to locate the camp there. Each morning some member of each group reported as to progress made, and the class built up a more detailed plan of work: 1. Kinds of trees: Douglas fir (p. 1248), spruce (p. 3332), cedar (pp. 670-671), yellow pine (p. 2807). 2. Preparing the camp—clearing the site—erecting buildings (p. 2077). 3. The daily round. Work and recreation (pp. 2077, 2082). Tree survey—to locate and mark the best for our purposes (p. 2078). Felling—the platform—sawing (use of dynamite) (p. 2082). Trimming—proper disposal of waste material (p. 2082). Hauling the logs—donkey en- Europe: the Baltic region and Russia (pp. 2532, 1190 map, 3404); the cultivated forests of France, Belgium, Germany (pp. 433, 1441-1442); Switzerland. Asia (map opp. p. 232, p. 3228): teak (p. 3451), sandalwood (p. 3123), camphor (p. 594), ebony (p. 1073). WHERE THE "LUMBERJACKS" LIVE 1 ™ +* « flu ( We are here at the beginning of the long lumber route which leads from the gines, locomotives, mimes V.PP* great forests, down trails and rivers, over railways and through mills until it reaches our lumber yards. These lumber camps are rough and ready places, moving from time to time as the timber is cut away. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) 2077-2079, 2082). 4. The log raft: reasons for— building—the voyage (p. 2082). 5. The saw mill: types of saws—boards and timbers (p. 2082). 6. Forests and forestry, national forests (pp. 869-870, 1327-1331, 3060). 7. Other forest regions (p. 1327). California (p. 577): sequoias (p. 3175). Northern forest: Minnesota (p. 2256), Mich- igan (p. 2224), Maine (p. 2126); White pine (p. 2807), spruce (p. 3332), hem- lock (p. 1629). Appalachian (p. 158)-: the hard woods. Southern (pp. 1432, 2070, 2519, 3291): Yel- low pine (p. 2807), cypress (p. 946). Forests in other lands. Canada: a continuation of the northern for- est of the United States (pp. 606-607, 610). 8. New Zealand: blue gum and kauri (p. 2499). South America (map opp. p. 3288, pp. 3284, 493); mahogany (p. 2124). 9. Forest products. Lumber for construction: buildings, ships, cars, bridges (p. 4020). Wood for furniture, tools, implements (pp. 1385-1388). Wood pulp for paper (pp. 2666-2667). Fuel and alcohol (p. 84). Naval stores (p. 4287). After a few days of preliminary work, the class voted on the form of supplementary activ- ity to be undertaken for the month. It was de- cided to make the notebooks as usual, to make individual posters, to prepare an exhibit of for- est products, and to represent on the sandtable the camp in Washington. This was to be among the hills not far from the sea. A flume led down [48]This picture shows a method of loading in the summer time. The logs are hoisted upon motor trucks by the block and tackle arrangement, called a "skidder." This skidder runs on "caterpillar" wheels. The hoisting is done by a steam engine mounted on the platform of the skidder and the logs are guided to their place on the load by two men. Sometimes a convenient mountain stream is harnessed and made to haul logs out of the woods in the manner shown above. A sluice-way is built and the stream, or a portion of it, is turned into the upper part. Then the logs are dumped in, and rush and bump down the slide with the water until they reach the collecting point. (Two of the many illustrations in Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, showing the log from the forest to its final use.) to the mill on a narrow plain beside a small but deep bay. In the bay were ships and a giant raft. The work of securing and preparing the materials needed was apportioned so that every member of the class had some responsibility. The greater part of this preparation was done outside the school, enlisting the assistance of older brothers and sisters, and parents. In the "assembling" on the table, a committee was usually busied, though every one had a hand in it at some time or other. A visitor to the room, while this work was going forward, ex- pressed the greatest admiration because of the freedom, the "social atmosphere," the spirit of business, the very evident good time which all were having. Pupil Activities in the Development of the Lumber Project Notebooks: English, arithmetic, drawing, maps, clippings, samples. Posters: advertising advantages of wood— conservation (pp. 869-870). Collections of materials (classified). Preparation and giving of special reports: forestry—kinds of trees and their uses. Dramatization: the forest lovers—the pro- fessor with his friends, the trees. The sandtable: models—a lumber camp—a saw mill—a log raft—shipping lumber—the forest (before and after). REFERENCES Compton's Encyclopedia: pp. 2076-2082—Lumbering; pp. 2170-2174—Matches; pp. 2666-2673—Paper; p. 1327—Woodlands; p. 1383—Furniture; p. 3686— Washington State; pp. 869-870—Conservation. McMurry: Type Studies (p. 108); Larger Types (pp. 1-37). Carpenter: How the World is Housed (pp. 64-90); North America (pp. 134-198). Rochleau: Great American Industries, Products of the Soil (pp. 7-50). Allen: Industrial Studies, United States (pp. 253-286). [49]The Story of a Cotton Dress CFIFTH-GRADE PROJECT) SINCE clothing is one of the major physical interests of man, it is suggested that a half year of the fifth grade be given to a study of that subject, taking one of the leading kinds of clothing each month. Cotton, being the material of greatest importance, is the best one to begin such a half year's work. Let the teacher introduce this study by the following questions: How many in the class like new clothes? How many of us have new suits or dresses? How many went with their mothers to purchase their clothes or the materials from which dresses were made? How many articles of cloth- ing do we know? (List, as given, on board.) What are the purposes of clothing? (p. 805). (Covering, for warmth and coolness, to keep dry, for adornment.) Of what materials are our clothes made? (See "cloth" p. 804). Let us divide these ma- terials into groups according to the three kingdoms (p. 804). What is the most important of these materials? Why? What is the difference be- tween "fiber" and "fabric"? (p. 804). How many in the class are wearing cotton? Let us make a list of all these cotton articles. How many kinds of cotton cloth do we know? (pp. 804, 904). (List as many as are given.) What is the cost of these at the present time? IN PICKING TIME Negroes are the best cotton pickers, for they do not mind the burning sun. It is also a kind of work the "pickaninnies" can do. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Let us find the cost of all the cotton blouses and dresses in the class. Suppose we bring in samples of various kinds of cotton cloth and of cotton batting. Where does the department store get its cotton cloth? Where does the mill get the material from which it makes the cloth? The method thus far devel- oped should be obvious. The reasons for this type of ap- proach are not far to seek. Starting from the child's own plane of experience, his own interest and problems, his at- tention is gradually drawn back to a starting point from which he sees a whole field of major interest indicated. His child problem becomes identified with the man's problem. He begins to realize the connection of his own wants with the larger activ- ities of the world. He begins to see a reason for things and there is quickened in him a desire to reach back from his own needs to the sources from which these needs are supplied. Developing a Plan for the Project What do we need to know about cotton? After some discussion and the considering of a number of suggestions offered, the class finally agreed that there were two principal problems, the solution of which would be most interesting, namely:—Where is cotton grown? How is cotton cloth made? Before we could analyze the first problem we had to look up material on it. Our expe- rience has shown that the most satisfactory and economical way of having this done is in a class exercise, each child being supplied with a copy of some reference book. As soon as any consid- erable number of children have something to report the information thus gained is presented and discussed, and little by little an outline is developed. (Written on the board as we go along.) We first find that cotton is best grown in our southern states (p. 901). Maps are then con- sulted to locate these states with reference to our own state and city (pp. 3584, 3585), and the distance separating us from them is esti- mated. Then we wish to find the answer to the question, Why is cotton grown in the south? (pp. 3473-3474, 72). The answer is soon found. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [50]NINETEEN THINGS COTTON HELPS MAKE V Cotton and the products of cotton enter into the manufacture of a great variety of things, some of which are shown here. Paper and Books (1); Movie Films (2); Clothes (3); Antiseptic Cotton and Bandaging Gauze (4); Celluloid Photograph Frames and Toilet Articles (5); Mattresses (6); Lamp Wicks (7); Rope and Twine (8); Soap (9); Foodstuffs (10, 11, and 12); Textiles and Thread (13 and 14); Waste for Wiping Machinery (15); Guncotton used in Explosives (16); Sails (17); Cattle Meal and Dog Cakes (18): and Fertilizer (19). (Page 905 from Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, one of the many illustrative aids in this publication for wording out this project.) [51]It is evident that we want to know next about the growing of cotton from the sowing of the seed to the harvesting. Further consultation of reference books enables us to build the following outline: (pp. 901-906). Sowing the seed March-May (as soon as danger of frost is over). Planted by hand or machine. Kinds of cotton—best location for each (p. 904) Sea Island cotton—islands off South Caro- lina, Florida, Georgia (p. 1431). Egyptian cotton—Egypt, California, Ari- zona. Peruvian—Peru. American upland cotton. Culture of the growing plants Cultivating machines. Appearance of field of cotton Flowers, pods, bolls. Difficulties in raising Boll weevil—attacks and ruins bolls (pp. 904, 3713). Cotton caterpillar—eats leaves (p. 661). Wilt—kills roots (p. 906) . Picking cotton—when and how? (p. 902) July to November. Picked by negroes or, sometimes, by ma- chine pickers. Ginning and baling (p. 902) Driven in wagons to ginning factory. Weighed. Dumped into hopper. Sucked into gin—seeds combed out. Eli Whitney and the first cotton gin (pp. 3735-3736). Suggestions for The class may be divided into several groups, each to present dramatically, or give an illus- trated description, or make a series of drawings of one of the following: The life story of cotton (pp. 901-904). Life on a plantation (p. 902). Scene at the levee—loading a Mississippi steamboat (pp. 901, 2268, 2469). Scene at New Orleans—transferring baled cotton from river steamer to ocean liner (pp. 2468-2469). Life in a New England mill village (p. 2166). Visit to a cotton mill—party shown through and every process explained by a guide (pp. 902-904, 2167). Visit to a cotton exposition—exhibit of processes and products. Size of bale—450-500 pounds; number pro- duced yearly—12,000,000 What is raw cotton worth per pound? (See current market reports.) What is the value of a bale? Of a carload? Of a shipload? Where is the cotton shipped to be manufac- tured? (p. 902). New England, England, France, Japan. Why is the manufacture of cotton in the southern states themselves increasing rapidly? (pp. 2519, 3584). ^ Why did cotton manufacturing begin in New England? (pp. 3583-3584). v Water power, coal. Why is that region still the most important center for the industry? (p. 3584). What other country takes a large part of our cotton crop? England. Why is this country so much interested in cot- ton manufacturing? (p. 1158). What city in that country is known the world over for its cotton manufacturing? Manchester (p. 2134). The manufacture of cotton (pp. 902-904)— processes and machines used (pp. 3326-3327). Breaking the bales. Cleaning the cotton. Carding. Spinning (p. 3326). Weaving (p. 3326). Bleaching (p. 435). Dyeing (p. 1049). Printing (p. 804). Finishing (p. 2198-2199). Machines used—inventors of same (pp. 3326- 3327, 208, 923-924, 1589, 652). Glass Activities In the dry goods section of a department store-sales talk on value of various cotton fabrics on display. Comparison of ancient and modern cotton clothing (pp. 897-901). Comparison of ancient and modern methods of manufacturing (pp. 3326-3327, 1778). Exhibit of many and varied uses of cotton (including by-products) (pp. 3291, 902, 905, 906). A cotton dress tells its story from the cotton mill to the time of being worn by a little girl (pp. 805-809). Cotton plantation with river a;nd steamer near by, showing cultivation and picking of cotton, ginning, and loading of bales— (Negro workers) (p. 902). [52]Show window of a department store with various cotton goods. Case in a museum with samples or pictures of many articles made from cotton (p.905). REFERENCES Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Pages cited throughout Project. Carpenter, F. G.: How the World is Clothed. Chamberlain: How We are Clothed. Rochleau: Products of the Soil. The Plymouth Pilgrims CFIFTH-GRADE PROJECT) IN THE development of this project it is the teacher's aim to have the children, by living through the experiences of the Pilgrims, come to realize, somewhat, how much we owe to that heroic band of men and women; to have the children, as much as can be expected at their age, grasp the historical fact that our Pilgrim forefathers wrought into American life its most fundamental principle—"No human being can compel, or even prescribe for, the individual in matters of conscience." To this end, let her begin somewhat after the following fashion. The first houses were all built on a single street, which the Pilgrims named Leyden, after the Dutch city which had given them retuge. The house at the extreme left was built first. There the colonists stored their food, and there everybody ate and slept while the other houses were being built. The house surrounded by a stockade was the home of Governor Bradford. All the buildings were of rough hewn timber, with thatched roofs and windows of oiled paper. At the top of the hill, on the extreme right, is the first meet- ing house, which was also used as a fort. {From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Suppose that the President of the United States, next Sunday morning, should send officers to every house to notify the people that everyone must go to one certain church, the kind he likes the best, on penalty of being arrested and put into prison. "O! but that wouldn't be right!" clamor the children. No, of course it wouldn't. But, how long do you suppose people have had the right of worshipping in the way they wished? Now, if the President should try to force us to go to his church, what would we do? Yes, that would not be very hard in these days. We could get on a train, ride comfortably to Canada, and find there plenty of chance to make a living and good homes in a short time. But suppose we were living three hundred years ago, with no trains or steamships. If we left our homes we would have to go to a new land where there were only savages and wild beasts; we would have to face many hardships and great dangers; we would become sick and many of us would die. Do you think that, as we thought it all over in advance, we would be willing and brave enough to risk all the suffering and possible death just to have our own way in regard to religion? Wouldn't you like to find out about some people who did just that thing? Perhaps the most effective means of realizing the major aim of this project is that of dramati- zation. We might suggest to the children the writing and presenting of a play made from the story of the people we are going to study. Thereis no question as to their eagerness to under- take it. A class period or two of the socialized-study- -discussion type, using reference books and histories will give a general survey of the story sufficient to enable the children to outline the play. The class can then be divided into groups, each group to write and prepare for presenta- tion one Act. With some practice, children can be trained to work together, using low tones so as not to disturb other groups. The development of responsibility in an atmosphere of freedom is an ideal of citizenship. In consulting reference material we shall look for details of the story, for suggestions for conversation, costumes, properties, setting, etc. If the teacher can get from a library several books of source material giving the style of language used at that time, so much the better. The following outline is suggestive of what may be done: THE WANDERINGS OP BETTY ALDEN ACT I—In England (p. 2844) The secret meeting at Elder Brewster's house in Scrooby (p. 2175)—little group, or congrega- tion (whence, the name "Congregationalists") of Puritans (p. 2937) who have decided to "sep- arate" themselves from the Church of Eng- land—William Brewster (p. 2175), John Robin- son (p. 2176), Richard Clifton, and the youthful William Bradford, destined to become the gov- ernor and historian of a new state (pp. Ill, ACT II—The Large House The place of meeting and the home of Pastor Robinson—relief from persecution—growth in numbers—hard work—increasing prosperity— unusual spirit of kindliness and unanimity of feeling—scholarly ministrations of Robinson (p. 2176)—admiration and courtesies of their Dutch neighbors—discouragement because of ACT III—The Cabin of the Little Discomforts because of crowded conditions and lack of conveniences—rough treatment of Pilgrims by sailors—patient behavior of Pil- grims^—cracking of main beam in a storm—fears of sailors, but calmness of Pilgrims, the result of their faith—narrow escape from drowning of John Howland(washed overboard)—sighting of land—proves to be Cape Cod—tacking about to go farther south—shoals and breakers—terror 2841)—spying and persecutions of their neigh- bors—unwelcome attentions of the king's offi- cers, fines, imprisonments—devotion of the little company to one another—conference as to the best way out of their great difficulties, or, as they express it: "How shall we escape from the evils by which we are surrounded on every hand" (p. 2844)—the decision to go to Holland (pp. 2175-2176). in the Kloksteeg at Leyden their young people growing up to become Dutch rather than English—conference: expressions of satisfaction with peaceful life here, but great desire to maintain their English language, ideals, and nationalism—the Dutch offer large financial inducements for them to remain, but, seeing them determined, offer every aid for the journey. Mayflower (pp. 2176, 2844, 2845) of sailors—refusal of Captain Jones to continue —return to the Cape—the first New England washday—drowning of Dorothy May, young wife of Bradford, while he is away exploring— drawing up and signing of the famous "May- flower Compact" (p. 2176)—return of the ex- ploring party with report as to site at Plymouth —decision to go there (pp. 2176, 2841)—reasons for this decision. ACT IV—Harvest Time, the First American Thanksgiving Review of the tragic story of the winter: patience in suffering and devoted attentions of the few who kept their health (pp. 2841, 3338)— ship arrives from England—good crops—good health—rejoicings because of present blessings, favoring season and plenty of food—anticipations of continuing success—arrival of the Indian shear- ing gifts of fish and game—athletic sports and contests—the feast—speeches of friendship and thanksgiving (p. 3482). ACT V—Five Years Later The colony well established and prosperous— several settlements (p. 2846)—increasing trade with the Indians on the Kennebec (p. 1768) and the Dutch of the New Netherlands colony^ (p. 2496) on the Connecticut River—friendship of nearby Indians great, but often embarrassing because of frequent visits (eating up all the food)—the Pilgrims scandalized by the irrever- ent revelings of Morton (p. 4281) and his fol- lowers at Merry Mount (p. 4272)—Captain 54 1Miles Standish (p. 3338) and his men sent to put a stop to the same—Weston and other ad- venturers come to Plymouth to sponge on the good nature of the Pilgrims—spies sent out by the church party of England in an attempt to create division and dissension among the Pil- grims—their plots finally exposed and themselves humiliated, but allowed to depart without their deserved punishment—review of growth of the colony (the "Old Colony"), and prophecies for the future—vision of the abiding influence of the life here developed in the affairs of a great nation yet to be (pp. 2842, 2845, 2937, 2176). In the working out of this drama a month may well be employed. Simplicity of treatment should be the constant care. The "lines" can be read. Scenery can be made by coloring long strips of paper to represent typical backgrounds. Costumes can be fashioned easily from crepe paper and cheap muslin. Only such properties should be attempted as boys and girls can pre- pare readily. Any teacher can see the opportunities for constant correlation of history with geography, oral and written English, spelling, arithmetic, art, music. REFERENCES For Teachers: Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Pages cited throughout Project. Usher, R. G.: The Pilgrims and Their History. Brown, J.: The Pilgrim Fathers. Dexter, F. B.: The Pilgrim Church and Plymouth Colony. Bradford, Wm. (Paget ed.) History of Plymouth Settlement. For Children: Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. Hanks, C. S.: Our Plymouth Forefathers. Tappan, E. M.: Letters From Colonial Children (pp. 85-127). Gordy, W. F.: Leaders in Making America (pp. 59-81). Bread and a Rope (.FIFTH-GRADE PROJECT) CHILDREN, as well as grown people, like variety. It is effective, occasionally, to set up a novel starting-point for the working out of a project, by startling the children with a statement which they are sure to question—if they are at all alert. Following is an example.' Did you ever find rope or string in your bread? Well, rope is mixed with our bread so that we can't very well separate them. At least we can say that without rope we would find it hard to get bread and it would cost us so much we would hunt around for someone to blame. And, more strange still, the. very lives of the people in a little country far to the south of us hang on that same rope. If that rope were to be taken away from them suddenly, very many of these people would starve to death. The first row stand up on that side of the room; the last row on the other side. Now, I will tie this rope (it's a long piece of binder twine) around you (the six or seven children at one The Manila twine used in America comes from a plant harvested by a Filipino with a primitive tool. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) side), and then the other end around you (the six or seven at the other side of the room). Now, let's play that this group is all the people in our city, or better still, all the people in our country, and this group is all the people in the other country I mentioned. Each group pull back just as hard as you can (the rope is now taut). Suppose I cut the rope, what will happen? Of course, and some of you might get hurt. Now, you have acted out a story that is absolutely true. There is a rope (it's this same kind of rope) which binds the people of the United States and the people of that little country tightly together, and if this rope should suddenly be cut, we would all get a bad [55]PREPARING THE FTBRE FOR SPINNING After the plant is gathered it is shipped to a fac (From Compton's F tumble. In the other country thousands of the people would really starve to death. Don't you think it would be interesting to find out about this rope and to see whether we can prove what I have said to be true? Do you want to make this our project? Process of working back: Our bread comes from flour (p. 496). Flour is made from wheat (pp. 1301-1303). Wheat grows on broad farms (p. 2136). How is wheat harvested? (p. 3731). By combination reaping machines (pp. 2983, 2095). How do these machines work (p. 2983). They cut the wheat and throw it out in bundles at one side. How are these bundles held to- gether? (p. 2983). Where do we get this binder twine? (p. 3244). {It is assumed that Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia is at hand, if not some other good reference book will give much of the material. Answers can then be looked up at once, and other information obtained incidentally, as a basis for discussion.) Binder twine is made from the fibers of the henequen plant (pp. 3244, 2214), which grows chiefly in Yucatan (p. 3244). "But, how does this binder twine, made from henequen fiber, have anything to do with the price of our bread?" y in the United States to be separated into fibres. ured Encyclopedia) Suppose something happened so that the supply of henequen fiber from Yucatan was suddenly stopped. We would not be able to scurry around and find some other material from which to make binder twine, for a very long time, and then it would not be nearly so cheap as henequen fiber. We might not be able to harvest a large part of our crop of wheat; wheat and flour prices would suddenly take a jump upward; and our bread would cost a great deal more than it does today. Some poor children might not even have enough to eat. Thus, we see that plenty of henequen fiber com- ing into this country means cheap binder twine; which makes it possible to harvest wheat by machines; which means cheaper flour and cheap- er bread. Now, don't you think that every one of us, from this time, will see henequen fiber tied around every loaf of bread we buy at the bakery or which is made by Mother? The children will now understand our depen- dence upon Yucatan henequen (or sisal). It is likely that they will ask questions about the dependence of the Yucatan people on this same fiber. We see, at this point, that we must find out all about the raising of the plant from which binder twine is made, how much of the land and how many of the people are used in its pro- [56]In the spinning room of the factory the fibres are twisted by machines into twine. (From Com],ton's Pictured Encyclopedia) duction, or, as teachers would say, "How large a place henequen fills in the economic life of that land." Our research takes up the following topics: Where is Yucatan? (p. 3834). What is its rela- tion to Mexico (p. 2209), to the Caribbean Sea, and to the United States? (See map of North America, pp. 2514-2515). Its climate and surface, character of the soil (p. 3834). Effects of these three on the industry, char- acter and mode of life of the people (for general effects of climate and surface see p. 1413). Ruins of ancient civilization found in the jungle (p. 3835). Present life there—character and classes (pp. 3249, 2210). Type of agriculture prevalent in that region (p. 3834). The plant itself—its characteristics (pp. 42, 3244, picture p. 2214). How it is raised (p. 3244). Preparation for market (p. 3244)—amount and value of crop—rank among exports (p. 2214). Largest part of the crop shipped where (p. 3244)? Suggested Methods of Expression Divide the class into groups, each to work up one of the above topics; each to choose one of its members as "lecturer"; he to give the re- sults of his group work as a travelogue, illus- trated in the best way the group can contrive. (There will be considerable rivalry to produce the best results, the most interesting and most informative talk.) Sandtable: Construct a henequen planta- tion; plants of crepe paper and twigs; racks for drying fiber, and sheds; bit of ocean in corner (blue paper under glass), with a steamer being loaded for New Orleans. Dramatization: Class take trip: rail to New Orleans, vessel to Progreso. What do we see on the way? Ride on horses to plantation. Descrip- tion of people and appearance of country. A peon tells about his daily life; work, pay, food, amusements. Trip to ruined temple in the jungle. Speculations as to life of ancient people. Conclusion: Now, have we proved the truth of our first proposition? »>--<- [57]Building a House of Concrete (FJFTH-GRADE PROJECT) THE APPROACH to this project was through a general survey of the subject of Housing, geographical and historical. (See Project Outline "Evolution of Housing" p. 45.) Various kinds and forms of houses used by man through the centuries (see Study Outline for pictures, p. 3998) and in various lands today, and the materials used in their construction, were listed and discussed. Some notion was gained of the fact that the form and quality of the house denote the stage of civilization (see Study Outline) (pp. 3953-3955) at which a race has arrived, and the principle of adaptation was grasped. Some of the freak notions of modern man were noted: e. g., the building of houses suitable to an arid region in the suburbs of Chicago; the wild attempts of the "newly rich" to "show off" by ludicrously misplaced classical structures. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. Planning and Dev What are the principal things to be consid- ered in preparing to build your house? What should guide you in the choice of mate- rial? What are the chief materials used to-day? What are the advantages of each? (pp. 503, 856, 2076, 528-532). Which would you use for your house? Would you like to begin our month's project by building a house on the sandtable? What material shall we use? (Concrete was unanimously decided upon.) How shall we go to work? The class was organized as a construction company, with a number of groups, each charged with a particu- lar responsibility. John, whose father is a con- tractor, was, by common consent, made fore- man. Stanley, a radio fiend, was given charge of wiring and lighting (pp. 1123-1124). Mary, the artist-to-be, was entrusted with making the plan for landscaping the grounds. The several groups were: 1. Of boys more mathematically minded, to prepare the plans—real blueprints. 2. Of boys, a large group, to get cement, sand, and small stones, each member to bring in a small quantity of each material. This was not difficult to do, since there was a great deal of building going on in various parts of the city. Contractors, for the most part, were glad to help out by donating material. Some gave advice along with the cement (pp. 674-676). 3. Of boys, to make the forms, window and door frames, and braces. This was done at home. 4. Of girls, to do the mixing (p. 532). This was done in the schoolroom, using a galvanized iron tray about three feet square and six inches deep. Not very much damage was done to eloping the Project clothes or the floor. The girls thought it was as much fun as kneading dough. 5. Of boys, to do the pouring (pp. 531-532). (The boys insisted that this was a man's job.) 6. Of girls, to prepare small rugs, curtains and shades, and other furnishings. 7. Of girls, to work under Mary's super- vision in grading the grounds, setting out shrub- bery, and sowing seeds. The girls were just as resourceful and energetic as the boys in getting materials. There was an abundance of every- thing needed. When children are thoroughly interested, they "will find a way" to do and to get. The foundation walls were built up to the lower level of doors and windows, then door and window frames were put into place, the forms built up to the eaves, and filled. Then triangular forms for the two gable ends were put in place and filled. After three days the forms were carefully removed. The walls were sprayed with water several times daily for a week to help them to "set" or "cure." Then the walls were braced on the inside, the wiring and furn- ishings were installed, and the roof placed on. This was a sheet of asbestos building paper cut to proper size and bent into shape. The chimney was made of paper, folded, and colored with crayola. The wiring in this house was connected through a transformer (p. 3523) with a light socket in the room. The grounds were graded, with good soil brought in for the purpose, little plants set out, and lawn grass and flower seeds sown. Walks and driveways were made, and telephone and street-light poles were set up. When the room shades were drawn and the lights in the house and street switched on, the pride of the children in their achievement was beyond description, I 58]'!"W: CEnrd HOW PORTLAND CEMENT IS MADE C*ushedlimestoneis first passed through grinderSjwhich grind it up fine Coal is also passed through grinders to make coal dust, which turns with an intense heat The ground limestone is now fed into one end of this high-speed rotating kiln,while a stream: of white flame from the burning coal dust i® shot in from the other end, creating a heat of about 3000°. This heat fuses the ground limestone into small lumps These lumps are dumpeJ out of the kiln through a jet of live , Steam, into a chain of carriers EARLY HISTORY OF A CEMENT SIDEWALK All the processes of cement-making are shown here in their proper order, from crushing the stone to bagging the finished product ready to be turned into walls, dams, reservoirs, sidewalks, and the like. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, page 675—an example of simplified illustrative treatment of many industries to make the vror.ess clear to the students,) [59] M 'mmm i mmm, ..-r-sr-- The conveyors carry the sponge-like lumps of limestone into large piles,usually in the open,to cool and become seasoned. They remain here sometimes as long as 3 months Conveyors then carry the finished portland cement to the packing rooms where it is bagged and barreled This powdergoesnextto a rapidly rotating "finishing*kiln or tube mill,which con tains thousands of little steel halls, grinding the limestone into a fine powdler When properly seasoned, the lumps are ground fine This powder isplacedin storage bins for about 10 dav-a for finalIn this work of construction the children had automatically learned a great deal about cement. They could talk familiarly about forms, proper proportions for mixing, setting, and other technical terms. They were so much interested that they desired to go more in- tensively into the study of this material. The following problems were undertaken. Reference books were consulted and information sought from workmen and contractors. What is cement f (p. 674) • Three kinds: natural, puzzolan, and Portland. Why Portland? (p. 674). What are the materials of which it is composed? (p. 674). Where are these materials found? (pp. 674, 676). How are they gotten out? Why is natural cement not much used? (p. 676). Upon what other industry is the making of puzzolan cement dependent? (pp. 674, 1817-1819). For what is it chiefly used? How is Portland cement madef (see diagram p. 675). The final grinding must reduce the cement to a flour so fine that it will go through a 200 mesh bronze screen (200 openings to the square inch); this screen will hold water. The United States government requires this in the specifications for work on public buildings. This sets the standard for all cement. What is concretef (p. 856). What materials are mixed to make concrete? (p. 856). Cement, sand, and crushed rock (or slag, screened gravel, etc.) in varying proportions, according to the purpose to which the concrete is to be put. A common mixture is the 1-2-3, meaning three parts of crushed rock, two parts of coarse sand, and one part of Portland cement. What advantages are there in the use of con- cretef (pp. 531 y 856). The materials are found everywhere, can be mixed anywhere, can be used under a great variety of conditions, and in every possible form. Concrete is resistant to all sorts of weather, to storms, to earthquakes (when properly reinforced), to fire, to water (it can be made waterproof by the addition of a certain percent of oil in the mixing), to rats, mice, and destructive insects and worms generally, to termite ants in the tropics (p. 143), to the teredo (marine borer which destroys wooden piers, pilings, and bulkheads) (p. 4373). Concrete properly made can withstand enor- mous pressure (90 tons to the square inch, when properly reinforced with steel) (p. 530), It can be handled in wholesale lots, by carloads, and mixed, poured, or spread by huge machines, thus cutting the cost of labor. The materials are everywhere, thus lessening transportation costs. Building can be done much more ex- peditiously with concrete, again lessening the costs of construction (p. 530). The use of con- crete is a matter of economy in several ways, and an aid to the conservation of our rapidly disappearing forests. A concrete structure is more economical than a wooden one in the end, since there is practically no cost for upkeep. Concrete can be molded in every conceivable form, and it lends itself to the most varied architectural treatment. What are some of the uses of concrete? (pp. 856, 8026, 3218). What other uses can we safely predict? Suggestions for Sandtable Representations Sandtable construction: cement rock quarry, cement-making plant, (diagram p. 675), road gang laying concrete highway (pp. 3026-3027) or building sidewalks. Exhibit of cement materials at various stages of the process, and various mixtures of concrete. Wall exhibit: pictures showing wide range of uses of concrete, outline maps locating chief sources of cement, original drawings, cartoons and posters showing uses and importance of concrete. Notebook: history of the cement industry, and of the use of cement (p. 674); imaginative stqry told by a sack of cement; pictures clipped from cement advertisements. Dramatization: Visit of a group of people to a cement rock quarry, and to cement mills. The Portland Cement Association kindly gave us the use of a set of slides, sets of mounted photographs, and an abundance of printed material illustrative of the cement industry. [60]My Mother's Fur Coat (jFIFTH-GRADE PROJECT) A HUNTER'S AND FUR TRAPPER'S CABIN IN NORTHERN CANADA This scene is typical of the camps in the distant wilderness, where dwell the men who capture the world's supply of furs. Prepara- tions are under way for the winter campaign, during which the camp will probably be cut off by snow from all communication with civilization. A bear skin is drying on the rack at the right. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) The teacher opens the month's work and arouses in the children the attitude of expec- tancy by presenting for informal discussion such questions as the following: How many of the girls wear furs? Why do people like to wear fur coats, or those things you put around your necks? How many have seen a man's fur-lined coat? How do you suppose we get these furs? Would you like to find out the story of your mother's fur coat? Perhaps we can make up an interest- ing story about it. With reference books at hand, further ques- tions can be asked and the answers looked up at once. The children can be encouraged to question one another. Where was this fur in the first place? Why do animals have fur? Where shall we go to find the fur animals at home? (pp. 1389-1390). Let's see how we would go from here to reach those regions. (Consult wall maps and those in the geography texts.) Why do these animals live only here? Now, let's find out all the names we can of animals that have fur coats (p. 1390). (The list can be written on the board and a rough classi- fication made.) In the second class-hour the discussion will probably be concerned first with the question as to what form of activity we shall take up for this project. In this particular class there were a number of good suggestions offered, no one of which seemed to meet with the approval of a majority of the class. Finally, one of the most resourceful members said, "Why can't we do several things, each group doing the thing it wants? This was agreed to. This class had had regular working groups for several months for other projects. The list of activities as decided upon was as follows: 1. The life story of a seal, to be an original story written by the group. 2. The life story of a polar bear, worked up in the same way. 3. The diary of a trapper in the Canadian forests, also a group production in writing. 4. A sandtable representation showing the locale of fur trapping. 5. A Hudson Bay Company trading post. 6. The preparation of an exhibit. The first group story was written in the first person, giving the first impressions of a baby seal, basking in the sun on a rocky island, diving and swimming (pp. 3166-3168), and being taught by its mother—two bull seals fighting—the long journey south—the return to the same island the following year—the coming of strange beings (men with clubs)—terror in the rookery—many seals clubbed to death — mothers and young escape. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [61]A HOODED A novel method of illustrating this story was devised by the group. Permission was obtained to extend the width of the window ledge by means of a board built out and bracketed (with the help of the janitor), so that there was a shelf about two feet wide, with its length the width of the window. By means of cardboard a box was made on this shelf so as to give the effect of look- ing into a theater stage. A sheet of blue tissue paper over the window formed the back of the stage, and gave a novel light effect when the shade was drawn down to the box. On this theater stage was a representation of a rocky island with ocean, and seals in various positions (pictures pp. 3167-3168). The second group wrote its story also in the first person. The polar bear's (p. 355) early life in the far > , . r P ii- (From Compton s Pictured Encyclopedia) north, catching seals for food, being towed by his mother through the water away from danger—escaping Eskimo hunters (pp. 1175-1177) on the ice—a long journey on an iceberg (pp. 1721-1722) carried south by the Labrador current, gradual change of climate, the berg becoming smaller and smaller—finally when the ice was hardly large enough to sustain his weight bear captured and taken aboard a vessel—brought to a den in a city park, where he told his story to these children who wrote it down. This story was illustrated also by a window shelf with the same lighting effect. A repre- sentation of a scene in the far north (pp. 1174- 1175)—ice and snow, bears, and an Eskimo in a kayak (p. 443) on a narrow strip of open water. The third story purported to be expanded from the brief notes kept by a trapper (pp. 3527- 3529) of his experiences day by day through the winter, trapping and preparing pelts and taking his load in the spring to the trading post (p. 1692). This story was put up in an illustrated book- let with a cover-drawing representing the trap- per taking an animal from a trap (p. 3528, picture). Throughout the book were numerous pictures cut from the adver- tising pages of magazines, and many characteristic drawings. The fourth group built on the sand- table a representation of a scene in the north woods—snow, huts, traps, animals of various kinds (pp. 1389, 3529, 357, 1174). The fifth group drew a scene show- ing the Hudson Bay trading post near the mouth of a river flowing into Hudson Bay (pp. 1692, 1389, 1336). This was on a section of the black- seal board and it served as a setting for the giving of a little play written by the group, telling the story of the coming of the trappers (p. 1692), the dickering with the company agents (p. 3529, picture), the feasting and the gambling, and the departure with supplies for the year's work. The sixth group prepared a most extensive exhibit covering one entire wall. It consisted of pictures clipped and mounted, maps to show various fur-producing regions (pp. 1084, 3086, 3228, 190, 610), list of fur prices (obtained from a company in St. Louis) (p. 3109), drawings (posters and cartoons), sheets of arithmetic problems, lists of spelling words, and numerous samples of various furs (p. 1390). The members of the group were prepared to give a talk on the fur industry using the materials in the exhibit by way of illustration. At the close of the month the children were enthusiastic over the results of their work and declared it was the "most fun" of any project they had worked out. [ 62]A Waist Made by a Caterpillar (.PROJECT OUTLINE FOR FIFTH GRADE) A SIMPLE way to begin this project is for the teacher to ask questions like the following: How many would like to find out how this waist (or tie) came from a caterpillar? Would you like to go across the great ocean to a very strange land where this caterpillar is work- ing all the time to make clothes for us? Suppose that we take a train to Seattle, and there go aboard a large ocean steamer bound for Japan. On the way across we shall have a chance to learn something inter- esting about the habits of the ocean; we can study: Ocean Cur- rents (p. 2558), Wind Belts (p. 3750), Latitude and Longitude (pp. 1968, 2420), International Date Line (Map pp. 2624-2625, 3501), other features of geography of the Pacific (p. 2617). When we reach Japan, we can visit a silkworm farm (pp. 1864, 3234-3236). Here we shall see: Children picking mulberry leaves and feed- ing the silkworms (pp. 3234, 3236). Extreme care by attendants during the feeding season. No noises, no perfumes or strong odors (the worms object especially to tobacco). Sprinkling and dusting (ashes, lime, salt). Moths laying eggs on strips of white paper— storage of the eggs—hatching (p. 3236). Spinning of the cocoons (p. 3237). Sorting of the cocoons (some saved to have moths to lay more eggs) (p. 3237). Killing the worms by heat (p. 3237). Unwinding the threads and reeling (p. 3238). Packing the raw silk for export to the United States. Before our steamer leaves for America, we shall have time to visit other interesting features of this wonderful country: Fujiyama, the sacred mountain(pp. 1863, 1866). Various cities and towns— temples, parks, streets (pp. 1862- 1866, see out- line p. 3922). Silk Moth Silk Worm {From Comptoris Pictured Encyclopedia) Many interesting phases of Japanese life (pp. 1864-1876,3013, 3511, 2478, 1931.) The return voyage to San Francisco—the "Golden Gate"—"Home Again!" (p. 3124, pic- ture p. 576). Visit to a silk mill at Paterson, New Jersey (p. 2694). Processes in the manufacture of silk cloth (pp. 3237-3240). Many and varied uses of silk cloth (p. 3240). Silk fabrics (p. 804). Class Activities—Make Japanese decorations for the room; draw pictures of Japanese life. Construct a Japanese scene on the table: cherry trees (crepe paper and twigs), a small stream (blue paper under glass), mulberry trees, various steps of silkworm culture. The Evolution of Housing (.PROJECT OUTLINE IN THIS project the aim of the teacher is to have the pupils see the great advance in comfort and appearance due to civilization. Introductory questions: Why do men build houses? What materials do they use? (pp. 502- 505, 856, 2076, 528-532). Why have they used different materials? Why do men want better houses? What kinds of houses used now? To what are the differences in present houses due? (pp. 188-189). (Climate, occupation, mate- FOR FIFTH GRADE) rials available, influence of example, variation in ideas, taste.) This project can be developed from one of two standpoints: Historical, Geographical. Historical: Primitive man—caves, natural and hol- lowed out by stone implements (pp. 666- 670, 793-794). Nomads—shepherds—skin tents, easily moved (pp. 165, 772). [63]WHERE HOUSES ARE BUILT LIKE GIANT HATS Here is a view of a Kaffir kraal or village in South Africa. These famous "mushroom" huts are woven of tall grass with as much skill and perfection as many a product of a civilized hat factory. The grass stems are plaited and overlaid, and reinforced with ropes of vegetable fiber or strips of skin. The thick walls and domed roof are wind and rain proof. The doorways, generally very low, have ornamental friezes cut in the dried straw which denote the social position of its occupants. These round huts are peculiar to the Bantu tribes south of the great forest regions. The more primitive Congo and West Coast negroes build cruder dwellings, rectangular in form, with ridged roofs. (From Compton'a Pictured Encyclopedia) Early agriculturists—rude houses of sun- dried bricks (p. 503). Ancient Egyptians—buildings of stone (pp. 176, 4004)—slaves in rude mud huts (p. 1096). Babylonians and Assyrians—large buildings of brick and stone (pp. 176, 295, 298, 3179 picture, 4004-4005). Greeks and Romans—ornate houses of brick, stone, concrete (pp. 176-177, 3055 picture, 1521 picture, 1522, 2876-2877)— use of stucco (p. 4005). People of the Middle Ages—great stone castles for the nobles (pp. 654-657, 3665); wretched huts of mud or turf for peasants (p. 44). English of Elizabeth's day—the Manor house for the wealthy (pp. 188, 1154); huts of peasants not much improved. American colonists—log cabins (pp. 2842, 2845); later, frame houses (pp. 2358, 2761). American Indians—wigwam or tepee (pp. 1764-1770, 1774); houses of the Cliff- dwellers (pp. 203, 205, 793-794, 2933). American houses of today—great variety, from cottage to sumptuous apartment building. Geographical: Variations in size and style of houses and in materials used. In tropics—huts of branches and straw, mere shelters from rain (pp. 38-39, 2452, 2649, 2623, 2766); houses of brick and stone, with small windows, to keep out heat (p. 1746); houses of bamboo and other woods, verandas and shutters for coolness (p. 2130). In frigid zone—winter igloos of Eskimo (p. 1175)—summer hut of poles and skins; huts of Lapps and natives of northern Siberia (pp. 3084, 3228). In temperate zone—wide variations accord- ing to amount of rainfall (p. 189); accord- ing to location (pp. 272, 2533, 1155, 2345, 1439, 309, 3087, 1808); city or country; on mountain (pp. 1650, 1745, 2891) or in valley. Suggested Activities for the Class An exhibit (it can be placed on the window sills of the room) of models of many types of huts, tents and houses. Eskimo igloo can be made of flour and salt. Grass, twigs, straw, clay, and old chamois skin, are some of the materials which have been used by classes for building these models. Drawings of various kinds of huts, tents and houses now in use or illustrating the rise of civilization. Sandtable construction: Desert scene, Arab tents, camels, oasis. Kaffir kraals, huts, natives engaged in various occupations. American Indian Cliff-dwellers. ♦>--<» [64]SIXTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Aim of Project Teaching In the Sixth Grade SIXTH-GRADE boys and girls have gained power, are more resourceful and more alert. They should plan their work with some care; definiteness and continuity are to be expected of them. They should begin to show some ability to set a goal for their efforts, and, with some assistance, to prepare the way to reach that goal. In other words, they should now begin to plan things to do to realize a definite purpose they have formed. Group activities should be easier for them to put through, but still real generalship on the part of the class guide is necessary to preserve a proper balance between the assertiveness of the individual and the interests of the group. Dramatization appeals to these children: they like to write and stage, by their own unaided efforts, little plays relating to the project in hand. These childish dramas often violate every canon of dramatic art, but as long as they do represent a sincere effort and are an expression of a worth-while idea, the children should be encouraged, and suggestions for changes most tactfully put. In their reading the children can be expected to seek out the reasons for things, and to draw conclusions from simply-stated premises. Their outlining of informational subject matter should be continued. In oral composition they should be able to give short reports in a straight-forward fashion (that is, without doubling on their tracks or repeating). Their written work should, likewise, have definite starting and closing points and should move logically from one to the other. Some attention should be paid to paragraphing. At this stage pupils should have considerable facility in use of the dictionary and the encyclopedia. Spelling begins to be word study, with attention to diacritical markings and to precision in use. Arithmetic problems involve common and decimal fractions with all processes, and present opportunity for the development of the reasoning powers. The children should be trained to watch their own work, checking errors and setting standards of their own for neatness and dispatch. They should criticize their project work and judge whether they could have worked it out better in some other way. _ From Poplar to Paper (,SIXTH-GRADE PROJECT) THERE is a fascination for the adult mind in tracing from antiquity the evolution of some institution or thing; for instance, the historical development of a medium for the permanent recording of the thoughts of men. The child mind, on the contrary, finds delight in going backward from the thing in present use to its beginnings. The teacher, then, taking advantage of this fact, finds the means always at hand for launching a project which will be for the child an entrance into a world of wonder, and although paper of various weights, squeeze the water from a mass of each kind, and examine carefully— with a microscope if possible. Samples should be cutinuniform sizes, mounted and put up as a wall exhibit, to be labeled later. The class is now ready to make use of reference books (Comp- ton's Pictured Encyclopedia con- tains a splendid article on this subject beginning p. 2666), and should first look for some general information as to the sources of the chief kinds of paper. A dis- cussion of thisinformationshould lead to the consideration of the form of activity to be undertaken in this project. When thishasbeen settled, the real investigation can [65] he is unconscious of it, a mea It is the part of wisdom, wherever possible, to have the children do something as a be- ginning. Suppose that they have been asked to bring in sam- ples of various kinds of paper. These can be examined and com- pared, and a rough classification made. By tearing in a crooked line pieces of various papers the children will gain a notion of dif- erences in quality. Hold up toward the light and note coarse or fine clouded effects; note any lines due to process of manufac- ture, also watermark. If a mi- croscope is available examine carefully the torn edges of dif- ferent papers and discuss find- ings. Soak in water pieces of ns of educational development. THE FIRST PAPER FACTORY The Hornet knew the secret of paper making ages before men found it out. Here we see one of the Hornet's paper houses. With her strong jaws, the female shaves off tiny particles of wood and chews them up into a pulp. This pulp she spreads out thin, layer after layer, and as it dries it turns into a tough springy paper. {From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia)ALL THIS FOR ONE SUNDAY PAPER The scale indicates that this newspaper weighs less than two pounds. Yet more than five pounds of material—shown in the pile at the left—were require-! for its making. The 3 pounds of spruce wood, 1 ounce of sulphur, 1 ounce of bleaching powder, 1 y* ounces of unslacked lime, and the red and blue dye are converted into enough stock for one newspaper by about 2 pounds of coal. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) begin, for the purpose of obtaining the precise The following account of the working out of this details necessary for an adequate expression. project in one class contains further suggestions. Developing the Project An issue of a Sunday paper had a rotogravure art committee of three (those most skillful in section showing the making of the paper used by drawing) to direct the same. First there was a this newspaper, which owns its own plant in cooperative drawing of a Fourdrinier machine, Canada. The pictures were of the various steps (pp. 2668, 2671). For this we used a strip of paper stretching acrosstheentireend of the room and 42" wide. The com- mittee outlined the drawing and others filled in. Fifteen could work at one time, and everyone in the class contri- buted. Second, a series of drawings were made to repre- sent the life story of a sheet of paper. a. The forest primeval (pp. 1327-1328). b. The coming of a lumber- ing crew — felling—trimming—sawing into logs (pp. 2077-2079, 2082). c. Logs floating downstream (pp. 2082, 606 picture). d. Arrival at the mill—the great pile in the storage yard (p. 1728 picture). In the mill- logs going into the grinding machine (pp. 2668-2669). beating and "digesting" machines (pp. 2668-2669). bleaching vats (p. 2670). the great paper-making machine (not detailed but suggestive) (pp. 2668, 2671, 2672, 2673). Great rolls of paper loaded on freight cars or vessel. A printing plant (pp. 2916-2918, 2019- 2022, 457-460). h. My favorite book. Several pupils of an imaginative turn of mind wrote stories such as the page of the book might tell of its own life history, from the time it heard the birds sing in the woods to the time it received the impression (printing) of the songs of the poets. A poster drawing was also made showing a tree being drawn into a machine and a newspaper coming from the other end of the machine. from tree to roll of print paper, show- ing the different processes and ma- chines used. (Pages 2076-2079and2668- 2672 in Compton's Pictured Encyclo- pedia gives even a better series.) A number of the child- ren brought these pictures in with the request that the class be given an opportunity to study the making of paper. It was promised that this project would be taken up later, in the development of the geography outline. In the meantime pupils were requested to be col- lecting pictures and materials. The first discussion was concerned with a general survey of the subject and the making of a plan for our project. It was decided to be- gin with an exhibit of as many kinds of paper (pp. 2666-2667) as could be found. The enter- prise shown by many of the pupils in securing samples of papers was remarkable. The various samples were cut of uniform size, neatly labeled, and mounted in groups according to the best classification that the class could make at this stage. Then the class decided to make an intensive study of two types of paper: first, that made from wood pulp, and second, that made from linen rags (p. 2667), each to be taken by half the class. The first was studied to great advan- tage from the encyclopedia (pp. 2666-2673), and several other reference books. In preparing the second we had the advantage of a graphic chart which a writing-paper company had furnished us. This chart showed the layout of their plant, and in proper order all processes from the arrival of bales of rags at the mill to the loading of freight cars (20 daily), with the boxed, finished paper. It was further decided to have our representa- tion in the form of drawing, and to appoint an e. f. g- [66]"The Invincible Armada" (,SIXTH-GRADE PROJECT) SIXTH-GRADE history courses are generally concerned with preparation for the study of the history of the United States. This preparation consists in building up the European Background—a selecting and assembling of those salient factors from the Rise of Civilization which help to explain the why and the whence of the American People. The America of today is a composite made up of contributions from many peoples and centuries. We owe much to Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, the Phoenicians, Greece, Rome, to western Europe of the Middle Ages and early modern times. We owe most to that little island where mingled the culture of the South and the brawn of the North, where have accumulated, layer on layer, the racial deposits of many tribes—language, law, ideals. Out of the struggles of the English People have come the blessings of freedom enjoyed by us today. Americans rightfully claim the glorious victory of 1588 as a part, and a most significant part, of the history of this country. Not without reason has Creasy included it among his "Fifteen Decisive Battles" of world history. The story of the famous Armada is one of those highly-colored episodes which have seized upon the imaginations of men: there always has been, and always will be, a thrill in sharing in a titanic contest, in aiding the triumph of the right, in feeling the providential thwarting of "deep, dark conspiracies." This story, then, has all the elements which make a strong appeal to children, which makes it peculiarly suitable to intensive project treatment. Its possibilities are numerous and varied; its suggestions for activities almost unlimited. The following plan has been carried through successfully by the pupils in one sixth-grade class. Major Problems I. Why were Eng- land and Spain at war? II. How did the vic- tory affect the history of the United States? This project may be undertaken conveni- ently at the end of the sixth year or the begin- ning of the seventh as a preparation for the study of United States history. To solve the first problem it is necessary to take account of a number of forces which had been active in world history: the Crusades (pp. 929-932, 3111-3112), the Renaissance (pp. 2995-2997), the Reforma- tion (pp. 2987-2989, 2084-2085,1635-1636), and the Expansion of the English people (pp. 1153- 1154). The effect upon Europeans of the first three great movements and the directing of their imaginations westward, following the voyages of Cabot (pp. 561-562) and Columbus (pp. 846- ±_ Clumsy Spanish Galleons wrecked by the smaller English ships. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) 849), must be under- stood before we can grasp the significance of the migrations which peopled America. Two nations took the lead in this westward movement (pp. 109- 110), Spain and Eng- land. Americans cannot understand their own history until they have come to feel the oppos- ing aims in Spanish and English colonization in the New World. It was inevitable that the Spain of Charles V (pp. 690-691, 3304) and Philip II (p. 2763), and the English people of Henry VIII (pp. 1635-1636, 1153-1154) and Elizabeth (pp. 1136-1138) should be locked in deadly rivalry. It was this rivalry which profoundly influ- enced the entire continent of Europe. Upon the outcome of the rivalry hung the fortunes of America. Problem I. What were the causes of this rivalry? development of civilization) (pp. 1153- 1. Two opposing social and political orders 1154, 3304). (pp. 1154, 3304). 3. Two opposing policies in world affairs 2. Two opposing aims or tendencies (in the (pp. 109-110). [67]The striking differences between the Spanish and the English people are shown in the follow- ing chart: Two mutually hostile types of life: one a progressive people—the other a people repressed. England Spain a. strong tendency toward democracy; vig- orous town life; liberal grants of self- government; trade and craft guilds cen- ters of civic education (pp. 1153, 1460). repressed (p. 3302); submissive, inert; no civic life, the government autocratic in the extreme; the king, or emperor, ab- solutely irresponsible; no initiative on part of the people. b. separation from the Church of Rome; the Reformation under Henry VIII, Edward VI and Elizabeth (pp. 1896, 2988, 1636, 1154, 2157, 1136-1137). champion of the Church of Rome; "In- quisition" (pp. 3304, 1780); crusading ardor to extend the power and influence of the church (p. 2763); there was a close connection between political and reli- gious autocracy; cruelties in the Nether- lands (p. 2442). c. the English a nation, with real national feeling and pride (pp. 1153-1154); but the influence upon world affairs as yet but small; no standing army; a small navy; little commerce, lack of interest in matters beyond their borders. the Spanish a sodden mass of people; submissive to the direction of their masters; but the Spanish power great and menacing to other peoples (p. 3304); effective centralization (p. 3304); im- mense wealth of Mexico and Peru (pp. 894-895, 2747, 2814), and of the Portu- guese East Indies (now annexed to Spain) (pp. 2888, 2890); the finest army in existence; the greatest navy; immense commerce; boundless resources; prestige of the "Holy Roman Empire" (p. 1674); of the perpetuation of a single Christian state, as the successor of the Old Roman Empire dazzled the imaginations of men (pp. 1674-1675); strong probability that the empire would come to dominate the whole earth (pp. 690-691). d. the English people conscious that their liberties and national existence were im- perilled by Spanish pretensions (p. 1137); they knew that the Spanish power would descend upon them at the first opportune time (p. 1780); an enthusiasm for their own religion inspired the "Sea-dogs" to their attacks upon Spanish power every- where (pp. 1030-1031). Spanish government conscious that Eur- ope was not to be controlled with cer- tainty till English liberties should be suppressed (p. 2763); strategic position of England made its conquest and incor- poration within the empire an absolute necessity. e, English colonies permanent settlements (p. 3870). Spanish colonial policy of exploitation (pp. 3890-3891). f. the English champions of the new. Spain champion of the old. The striking differences between the Spanish and the English people are shown in the follow- ing chart: Two mutually hostile types of life: one a progressive people—the other a people repressed. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. Problem II. 1. Commercial expansion of England. agriculture to sheep raising) (p. 433). 2. The age of adventure—the "Sea-dogs" (Haw- 4. Strong national feeling among English. kins (p. 4209), Drake (pp. 1030-1031), Gilbert English Reformation but an expression of (p. 4194), Raleigh (pp. 2974-2976). the national feeling. 3. Economic changes in England (change from 5. Efforts of the English people to achieve De- [ 68 ]mocracy (pp. 1153, 2687). 6. Story of the fight with the Armada (pp. 210-211). 7. Significance of the victory (p. 211). Sea power passed from the Latins to the Anglo-Saxon race (pp. 1153-1154). Permanence of the Reformation secured (p. 1137). The fruits of the Renaissance (p. 1138): preserved the "bounds" in learning, art, literature (p. 1164), political, and social life. The principle of freedom of trade— freedom of the seas. The ocean open for westward expansion of the English people. Democratic life and government assured for America. Minor Problems 1. Aids to exploration. Compass (pp. 853-854), astrolabe (p. 2422), keeled ship, water-cask. 2. What new spirit was affecting the English people? (Effect of Hundred Years' War—victory of common soldiers over knights) (pp. 1699- 1700). Effect of Black Death upon labor (p. 433)— the Peasants' Revolt (pp. 3571-3572). 3. What was the Golden Age (p. 1164) and its effect on the a. Growth of nationalism among the English, b. Rise of democracy See Shakespeare (pp. 3188-3194), Jon- son (p. 4233), Spencer (p. 4360), Marlowe (p. 4266), Sidney (p. 4353). SIR FRANCIS DRAKE FINISHING THE 'Continental Policy"? "There's plenty of time to win this game and thrash the Spaniards too." Can't you hear him saying it? Drake, with the bowl in his hand, calmly refuses to listen to Lord Howard's suggestion that they put to sea at once. The English preparations had been so well made that now, when the Armada was at hand, Drake knew that they had nothing to do but wait for the propitious hour to arrive to give battle. (From Compton 8 Pictured Encyclopedia) 4. What was England's (p. 2157). Questions for discussion, debates and special reports: How had geographic conditions caused Spain and England to be interested in different parts of America? Why is it fortunate that the United States is in the same average temperature belts as Europe? Why was it that there was an interval of a century between the English discovery of America and the planting of their first settlement? In what different ways were England and Spain rivals? GAME OF BOWLS What were and are England's reasons for the "Continen- tal Policy"? This policy was made the chief cornerstone of England's for- eign relations by Cardinal Wolsey (pp. 3775-3776) and Thomas Crom- well (pp. 4145, 1636). Who were they? Make a contrast between Eng- lish and Spanish life at the time of the Armada. Why is it danger- ous to have so much power concentrated in the hands of one man? (as Charles V or Philip II). [69]Topic for a special report: The Holy Roman Empire (pp. 1674-1675). The Duke of Parma could not venture to invade England until the Spanish fleet should control the English Channel. Why? Give an imaginary description of what might have happened if Phillip had won? Suggestions for Things to Do Write a play based on the story of the Armada (individual or cooperative). Philip (p. 2763) and his officers plot the destruction of the English. Elizabeth and her council learn of the Spanish preparations (p. 1137). The Dutch learn of Philip's plans; effect on them; counter plans. The English captains at Plymouth, their plans, bowling game, joking, messenger (p. 211) comes with report of sight of Spanish fleet, departure for battle. Scene on a Spanish ship: boasting; later fear; still later demoralization (pp. 211, 1031). Scene on an English ship (p. 3301): confi- dence, determination, daring, relentless- ness, exaltation (pp. 210-211). Scene at Tilbury: all parties and sects give enthusiastic allegiance to Elizabeth and England (p. 1137). Realizing the significance of the victory: spirit of Cabot (p. 561) appears and warns the English not to lose the oppor- tunity now open to them. Draw cartoons illustrating the fight in Cadiz harbor (p. 1031), and the defeat of the Armada (p. 211). Draw cartoons: Beacons along the coast announcing the coming of the Armada. The fight in the Channel (p. 211). The fireships in Calais Roads (p. 211). Storms and wrecks along the coasts of Ireland (p. 211). Comparison of English and Spanish ships. English rejoicings after the victory. Make posters: Destruction of the "Invincible" Armada (p. 3301). "Singeing the King of Spain's beard" (pp. 210, 1031). Drake and the other captains bowling (p. 210). Make models of English and Spanish ships, cannon, guns and swords of the time (p. 3301). Dress dolls in costumes of the time: Courtiers, laborers, seamen, etc. (pp. 210, 1137, 897- 898). Make a model of the Shakespeare theatre (p. 3191), showing an English representation of: Drake plundering Spanish galleons (p. 1031). Elizabeth knighting Drake (p. 1031). Alva "Christianizing" the Dutch (p. 2442). l( (Sandtable representation for this Project as worked out by the pu-pils of the Sixth Grade, Cicero Schools) [70]The Workshop of the Nation (SIXTH-GRADE PROJECT) IN SEEKING in geography for a suitable subject for a problem project no better one can be found than that of determining why New England can be called the nation's workshop. It is the most clearly defined example of a geographical unit that we have in this country, it is a comparatively small section, and it can well be comprehended in such a study. Again, there is no section where the geographic sequence—geological history, present topography, climate, and man's industries and life—is so evident, even to young minds. New England presents so great a diversity and there are so many factors to be considered that the solving of the problem becomes fascinating as well as instructive. The study of New England usually comes early enough in the course to give opportunity to develop it as a model for the studying of other and larger units later. In other words, the conditions are most fortunate for making it a type study. The approach can begin with the geological story, graphically presented; but the best way, for sixth-grade children, is to start from present industries and mode of living and work back through the earth's history which has made those industries. CONTRASTS OF NEW AND OLD IN NEW HAMPSHIRE (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) Preparations for the Project It is assumed that the class has had some con- sideration of North America, its chief physio- graphic features, its various climates, and its countries; and has touehed upon the United States as a whole. We are now ready to lead into our project. Can we find (looking at a physical map of the United States) (p. 3876) some part of this country which we can call "a geographical unit," that is, a region which has natural boundaries? If we should go to this section, what would be the best way for us to get a broad view of it? How could we best see just where highlands and lowlands, rivers and forests are? (Some might answer, "from a hill or mountain," but we could expect at least one to reply, "from an airplane"). Why would this be the best way? (What we hope to bring out is that, from a widely extended view, we obtain an idea of the relation of things to one another, and of their relative importance.) "Don't you think that we can take a trip over New England—in our imagination, and gain about the impression of that region which we would from actually seeing it from above?" Preparations for the trip: Everyone bring in a picture, from newspaper or magazine, of some part of the earth's surface as photographed from an airplane; a study of these pictures will aid us in visualizing what the aviator sees, and in appreciating relations of the several elements in a landscape. Each one make an outline map of New England (p. 3877) to be filled in as our trip progresses. Each one prepare a notebook in which to keep a record of the trip, illustrating the same with clipped pictures, drawings, and items of interest. On the cover of this notebook Note:—All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [71]may be an original drawing expressing that New an outline map of eastern North America from England characteristic most evident to the indi- Labrador to Florida (map pp. 2514-2515), with vidual pupil. For the trip each one should make New England shaded in. The "Trip" Starting at the southwestern corner, north- some notion of the relation of the New England east over central New England to Mt. Katahdin (p. 4236), then west and following the inter- national boundary to Rouses Point, thence south above the Champlain-Hudson valley to New York City, thence following the "Fall Line" (pp. 3878-3879) (Philadelphia, p. 2760, Baltimore, p. 322, Richmond, p. 3018, Colum- bia, p. 3292, Macon, p. 1432). The aim is to get section to eastern North America. We return for a more leisurely and systematic survey of New England. In addition to the activities already initiated, various groups in the class may desire to choose one from the list at the end of this project, for sand-table construction, for poster work, or for dramatization. The New England Plateaus—A geographical unit Major Problem: Why is it that New England, since colonial days, has been the country1 s great workshopt Minor Problems: Why is New England a geographical unitf How does New England life differ from that in Marylandf What important changes are coming aboutf Whyf The North Atlantic Lowland: The North Atlantic Lowland includes a strip of land from seventy to one hundred miles wide; extending from northern Maine (p. 2125) to the Potomac River (p. 2902). In general, it reaches back from the coast to the point where the hills begin to become mountains (pp. 158, 3580). Though hilly in the north it is flat in the south. The irregularity due to the submergence of the coast (p. 2790) multiplies the advantages of the lowland by providing an abundance of good harbors for commerce and fishing. 1. General facts about New England: Location (pp. 4289, 3877); states and capitals (pp. 2125, 2453, 3630, 863, 2164, 3007); size, distance from north to south, from east to west, area; population, in numbers, distribution. About one per cent of the area of the United States contains one-fifth of its population, does one- third of the country's manufacturing, provides work for one-third of the immigrants from foreign countries, uses two-fifths of all the cotton produced in the country (p. 902), and carries on two-thirds of the country's com- merce (pp. 3590-3591). 2. Resources of New England for work and play: mountains (pp. 2453, 3630, 3878); forests (pp. 866, 2125); building stones (pp. 3632, 2454, 2128); fish (pp. 1283-1285, 2166, 2454) and fishing banks; some good farm land (pp. 864, 2454, 3632); rivers with falls and rapids (pp. 863, 2126, 2169, 2454, 3008), value, name important ones (p. 3878); lakes, (pp. 3632, 2128) value; transportation facilities (includ- ing Cape Cod Canal p. 640). 3. How some of these resources came to be: moun- tains, northern division of Appalachian Moun- tains (pp. 158, 3580), how made, wearing down (p. 2516); what great ice sheet did for New England, forming of ice sheet, movement and results, melting and results (pp. 1720- 1721); sinking of land and results (p. 2517). 4- Advantages and disadvantages of climate: more severe than other places farther north, (in central plain). a. Temperature (pp. 2516-2517, 2128, 3632, 3588): latitude; colder in north than in south portion; reasons, farther north, higher land, Labrador current, results; why warmer in south part, farther south, lower land, Gulf stream; time without frost, north four months, south six. b. Winds: mostly west (p. 3750), results; change often; east and southeast and results; northeast and results. c. Rain: enough for agriculture and tree growth (p. 3588); evenly distributed through year; moisture in air helpful to spinning and weaving. 5. Industries: Manufacturing, most important industry of New England. (Use outline map of the New England states and as each in- dustry is studied place a dot on the map to show the location of each city in the list important in that industry. By the side of the dot give each city a number.) 1. Textiles: a. Cotton goods (pp. 2165-2166): Fall River (p. 1223); New Bedford (pp. 2448-2449); Lowell (p. 2075); Taunton, Mass. (p. 4372); Manchester; Nashua, N. H. (p. 2454); Pawtucket, R. I. (p. 3007); Lewiston, Me. (p. 2128); Lawrence (p. 1973). [72]GLIMPSES OF "YANKEE INDUSTRY" IN MASSACHUSETTS Printing and Publishing jjj«y These pictures show plainly why Massachusetts is one of the richest states of the Union. Her factories pour forth a flood of goods that many an entire nation cannot equal—paper, textiles, watches, shoes, machinery, rope and twine, books, and countless others. Among the older enterprises of the state, the fisheries still hold an important place. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, p. 2167. The resources of every state in the Union are illustrated in the same comprehensive, graphic manner under the respective state heading.) [73]b. Woolen cloth- ing: (p. 3782) wool from sheep, shearing (pp. 3782,3783, 3787); making the cloth, same as cotton (pp. 3784-3787 ) ; finishing (p. 3787); making garments (pp. 805-809); sour- ces of material; cities: Bidde- ford; Auburn; Augusta, Me.; Dover, N. H.; Lawrence, (p. 1973); Pitts- field, Mass.; Woonsocket; Providence, R. I. (p. 2927). 2. Leather goods: articles made (p. 1975); hides of animals (p. 1975); preparation of hides, softening, cleaning, remov- ing of hair, tan- ning, finishing (pp. 1975-1979); im- portant center; making of shoes (pp. 3220-3222), cutting uppers and soles, sewing, joining uppers and soles, finish- ing; division of labor (p. 3221); cities important for leather work (p. 2165): Lynn (p. 2087); Haver- hill (p. 4209); Brockton, Mass. (p. 4109). 3. Articles made from metals: Watches and clocks (pp. 797-803); jewelry (pp. 1482, 3243); hardware; firearms (pp. 1252- 1257); sewing machines (pp. 3186-3188); reasons for light articles being made in New England (p. 863); cities: Waltham, Mass.; Waterbury, Conn. (p. 4397); Meriden, Conn. (p. 864); Jewelry (p. 1409), Providence, R. I. (p. 2927); wire HOW MOTHER NATURE HELPS THE QUARRYMAN As if Nature had meant the stone to be quarried, she frequently divides up rock masses as she has done in this Vermont marble quarry. First come the horizontal divisions, made in the laying down of the strata in the rock mills of the sea ages ago. Later come the vertical divisions made by the cracking of the rock when the earth's crust was upheaved or depressed. Thus great blocks can often be separated by merely driving in wedges, as you see in these pictures. (From Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) and iron goods, Worcester, Mass. (p. 3787); hardware and firearms, New Haven, Conn. (p. 2456); sewing machines and cartridges, Bridgeport, Conn. (p. 510); munitions, Springfield, Mass. (p. 3332), Hartford, Conn. (p. 1595), Fitch- burg (p. 4177), Fall River, Lowell, New Bedford, Taunton, Mass. 4. Forest products: appearance of forests (p. 1327); description, pictures (p. 2125); [ 74most important product, lumber; lum- bering in northern Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont (pp. 2126, 3632, 2076- 2082.) a. White pine tree; characteristics, uses of wood (p. 2808). b. Firs, spruces and hard woods (p. 2548); characteristics; uses of wood (p. 1208). c. Lumbering camp: location of build- ings (p. 2077). d. Cutting trees: sawing, wedge; trim- ming; cutting into lengths; marketing (pp. 2077, 2082). e. Hauling logs: dragging to roadway; on sleds to river, roads (pp. 2078, 2082). f. Floating to mills; spring; work needed; dangers; rafts (p. 2082). g. Manufacturing: saw mills, work done, machinery, lumber yard, planing mills, other factories (pp. 2080-2082). h. Other forest products: wood pulp (pp. 2667-2668); tannic acid (pp. 1975- 1976); maple sugar and sirup (pp. 2138-2142); wood alcohol (pp. 84, 2082). 5. Building stone industries: granite (p. 1497), characteristics, uses, where found; quarries (p. 2943), location (pp. 3632- 3633, 2454), reasons for location, appear- ance of quarries (pp. 2455,2943), loosening granite (p. 2943), removing from quarries (p. 2944), finishing; marble (pp. 2144- 2145), same points, compare with granite; slate (p. 3248), compare. 6. Fishing: importance—one of the best fish- ing regions in the world (pp. 1282, 2166, 3008, 2128); where fishing is done, near shore, far out at sea; centers (p. 1283); mackerel (pp. 2102,1278), characteristics, schooners used in fishing (p. 2102), seine- ing (p. 1285), time for marketing, fresh, salted; halibut and cod (pp. 1565, 1283- 1285), characteristics, large fishing boats, single and trawl line (pp. 1283-1284), dressing fish (p. 1284), time for fishing (p. 1283), preparation for market, dan- gers; other fish—herring (p. 1645), lob- sters (pp. 2041-2042), clams (p. 782), cities: Gloucester (p. 4195); Boston (p. 469); Provincetown, Mass. (p. 4322); Portland, Maine (p. 4318). 7. Farming: location, Conn, valley (p. 864), other valleys, some other level fertile land; why not everywhere; truck farms mostly (p. 3007), small products, markets for products (pp. 3632, 2126, 2454). 8. Cities: Boston (p. 469), population, ad- vantage of location, manufacturing center, commercial center, historic interest. On an outline map locate all the cities in New Eng- land that have over 100,000 population. Which are located on good harbors? Does any other region have so many good harbors? Relation of the leading cities to rivers. Which are located on navigable rivers or canals? Which are located at waterfalls? Does any other region have better opportunities for river cities? Relation of these cities to Europe as compared with other cities of the country. What advantages are there in this relation? Position of leading cities in respect to coal mines. 9. Recreationand summer resorts (pp. 2125,2168, 2453, 3010): scenery; mountains; seashore; forests and woods; farm homes; location and advantages of each. Places of historic interest —literary shrines (pp. 2128, 2164-2170, 856, 469, 2453.) Conclusion: (Under this head the answer to the main problem is to be given in the form of a brief summary of the chief factors in geological history and present geographical conditions. Likewise, brief reports on the minor problems). Possible Class The various groups made their choice from the following list for sand-table construction, for poster work, or for dramatization. A New England cotton-mill village (p. 1973). A fishing village on the coast of Maine (p. 1283). A lumber camp in the north woods (pp. 2077-2082). A relief model of New England (p. 2514). Activities Boston Harbor (p. 469). Cape Cod (p. 640)—Plymouth—Cape Cod Canal—N an tucket Island—Life-saving station (pp. 1995-1997)—summer resorts. The White Mountains (pp. 2453-2454). The Merrimac River (pp. 2454, 2455, 2075, 2166 map). A shipyard (pp. 3214-3218, 3210). The Berkshire Hills—Hoosac tunnel (pp. 2168, 3552). ♦>- [75]"A Reading from Homer" (,SIXTH-GRADE PROJECT) PICTURES are an invaluable means of getting ideas over to children. The modern school cannot function without them. Only through the experiences boys and girls get from pictures plus their own imagination can they come to appreciate the life of the past and of the present in other lands. There is a greatly augmented value in pictures that possess artistic merit, for example, works of the masters. The Homeric epics represent a large item in the heritage of childhood; children revel in the tales of daring and prowess, enjoy the craft of Odysseus, and feel natural indignation at the weighting down of the scales by the gods. They realize that human nature was the same in ancient times as it is today. It was a sixth-grade boy who aptly, though slangily, thus characterized Achilles when he sulked in his tent: "He thought he was the whole works." Pupils should know something of the hold Homer has exercised on the minds of men in all lands; they must come to believe that his influence was no less in classical Greece. This picture, "A Reading from Homer," well serves that purpose. Here art and literature and history join hands. What an opportunity for a project! 'A Reading from Homer', the Famous Painting by Alma-Tadema (From. Comptoris Pictured Encyclopedia) The Project and Its Development The study of this picture was timed to cor- relate with the reading of Church's "Story of the Iliad." What do you see in the picture? (p. 3542.) A public reader, at the right, is reading from a roll (the form of the ancient book) (p. 455), while four persons listen. Two of these seem to be a young man and woman, wandering musi- cians (p. 1590). The one stretched, or lying prone, in the foreground is a shepherd, and the fourth, at the left, is probably a citizen of the upper class (p. 1521). The reader is seated on a marble bench. As he reads he should unroll from the right and roll up with the left hand. He is so much interested in what he is reading that he has forgotten to roll up. The musicians have put to one side their instruments, a lyre (p. 1589), and what appears to be a tambourine. Near the tambourine is a bouquet of roses falling apart unnoticed. The shepherd is dressed in a rough animal skin. What is the Setting? Probably in a Greek city (p. 1524) near the entrance to a temple, a place prepared for this particular purpose, with marble seats and a space for the assembling of a crowd. Some sug- gestion of the beauty of Greek architecture (pp. 176-177) is evident. What is the thought of the artist, the spirit of the picture? The great power that "the mighty thunder-roll of Homer's verse" (pp. 1675-1676) has for people of all classes. This audience representing the ex- [76]THE WOODEN HORSE ENTERING TROY "Since the gates were not wide enough, a breach was made in the wall and the Horse was brought into the city." {From ComptorCs Pictured Encyclopedia) tremes of society, had been attracted by the appeal which the great writer of their race has for them. Their life work, duties, responsibili- ties, are altogether forgotten while they follow the wonderful rhythm, and in imagination, see the story enacted scene by scene. The artist, doubtless, wants us to feel that Homer's works are the crowning glory of Grecian culture (pp. 1675-1676.) The suggestion was made that the class drama- tize parts of the story that is being read. The following synopsis shows the scenes decided upon: 1. The Golden Apple of Discord—the award by Paris (pp. 2680, 3542). 2. Meeting of the Greek chiefs—plans for revenge (p. 3542). 3. Before Troy—fighting and death of Achilles (pp. 3543, 1626-1627, 8-9). 4. The strategem of the wooden horse (pp. 3543-3544). 5. The Greeks exult as they depart with the spoils of the destroyed city. Another suggestion for dramatization is to have Alma-Tadema's picture staged while drawings, representing several scenes of the story of Troy, drawn with crayola on long strips of paper, are drawn slowly across behind the reader. To give either form of dramatization effec- tively, it was necessary to look up costumes and all necessary properties. This necessarily led to a considerable examination of Greek life (p. 1520). It made the Homeric story more real than it had become to any other class. A third suggestion is to have pupils take the parts of the five characters in this picture and enter the scene with the music (pp. 2376-2377), the conversation and the action that would be characteristic of them respectively. Then as the reading begins they settle into the positions given by the artist and listen in rapt wonder- ment, while certain parts of the story are read. (Palmer's translation is probably the best for this purpose.) It can, also, be staged as a tableau. In concluding this project one pupil can be delegated to report on the life and work of the artist, his place in art, and the chief interest of his "school" (pp. 4080, 2632); another to report on the life of Homer and the importance of his epics (pp. 1675-1676). Have pupils write original stories 1. As told by the shepherd 2. As told by the citizen on their return home—how they came to be at this place, and their impressions of the Homeric story. Construction Activities for the Class Model, with clay, flour and salt, or papier- Model a part of the walls of Troy, showing mache, a relief map of the Aegean Sea (p. 27) defenders and besiegers (pp. 1626-1627). and the plain of Troy (p. 3543). Model the Wooden Horse (p. 3544). [ 77 ]Transparent Sand (.PROJECT OUTLINE FOR SIXTH GRADE) "It's as clear as mud," people sometimes say by way of a joke. Suppose one said, "It's as clear as lead, or lime." Would you not think that that, too, was a joke? Look at this box of sand. Can you see through it? Would you think that the glass of the window over there or this vase is the THE strange object the Phoenician cook produced same thing as the ..........8* m sand? Well, at least glass is made from sand. Would you like to find out how this magic thing happens? What kind of place shall we go to to see this change take place? Of course, and where do you think such a factory would be found? There's a very interesting story that tells us how some men more than two thousand years ago first found out by ac- cident how to make glass. We shall want to read that story (p. 1471). How many different things ean we think of that are made from glass? Shall we imagine we are taking a trip to a glass factory at ...... (Name to Of a11 the Strange things that cooks have turned out in the course of time, none, ^ it is safe to say, is more remarkable than the little lump of glass that, according be Supplied bv to the old story, those Phoenician sailors found under their cooking pot on the . p. v sands. Not even Aladdin with his wonderful lamp ever produced anything Class alter CllSCUS- half so amazing as the great industry that grew from finding this sparkling lump, sion.) We shall see (Fr0m Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia) ■ \ m drawings as we are able to make and by pictures clipped from magazine advertising pages. First we shall need to find the name and location of the city we are going to visit, and to draw a map showing how to reach the city (p. 2813). Early use of glass Discovery by Phoenicians (p. 1471). Use in Egypt 4,000 years ago (pp.1471,1100). Use in other countries (p. 1474). Mixing and melt- ing (pp. 1471, 1362); sand (pp. 3123, 3233), soda (p. 3271), lime (p. 2010), broken glass. Molding andblow- ing. By mouth. By machinery. Kinds of glass. Plate glass. Window glass. Cut-glass. Wire glass. Frosted glass. Spun glass. Colored glass. Varieties. Uses of glass: Optical glass (pp. 1986-1987, 3462-3463) — field glasses, periscopes, tele- scopes. Submarine bot- everything that is done in making many kinds of glass and we shall be shown a collection of the most beautiful objects you ever saw all made from glass. Each of us can then write a letter to some friend giving a full account of our trip. We can illustrate this account by such any. Stained glass windows. Glassware. Windows, sky lights, baking dishes, "mineral wool," doll's hair, mirrors (p. 2261), buttons (p. 550). Manufacturing centers—Pittsburgh (p. 2813), Venice (p. 1840), Bohemia (p. 550), other countries. Note: The article on "glass" pages 1471-1474, inclusive, in Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia will furnish adequate material on all of the above topics excepting where other page references are given. [78]SEVENTH-GRADE PROJECTS The Aim of Project-Teaching In the Seventh Grade IT WILL be noticed, from an examination of the projects in this book, that the most effective approach is made in, or out of, the children's immediate interests, local affairs, or timely events. A news happening furnishes a lead into a live project in history, geography, or civics. A magazine article or a book read by a pupil is a cue to teacher and children for the unfolding of an exhilarating experience. The season, a special day, something observed on an auto trip, or on a visit to the museum, factory, or store, may give entrance into a series of worth-while project studies. The aggressive teacher is constantly on the alert. In nearly all the grades above the primary, the children can be depended upon to provide many ideas and occasions for good projects. With care, these can be modified or diverted so as to become a part of, or contribute to, the general course of the year's work. One of the chief values of the project method is that the pupils, with the teacher, share the responsibility of planning class activities. In the seventh grade they should have more opportunities for this planning, which should be done systematically; a committee (preferably the group leaders) should prepare plans, subject to modification by the class. It must be remembered that the class includes the teacher. In this grade interest and skill in dramatization increase rapidly—usually it is the favorite form of ex- pression. There is great delight in little impromptu plays worked out by a group and presented at once. Drawing develops considerable originality, especially in the form of cartoons. In reading, there should be a continuation of analysis of the sources of information; in addition, pupils frame questions to bring out the outstanding points of a page or chapter, presenting these questions to the class. Pupils have gained confidence to give two-minute "lectures," illustrated as they are able to do. Written composition brings out original stories, plays, and verse based on the facts of the project subject. Word study devotes considerable attention to derivation, with a corresponding expectation of greater discrimination in use of words. In arithmetic, the pupils (individually and in groups) frame problems, using data they have obtained, involving percentage and simple mensuration. In history and geography, pupils are expected to reason back from effects to causes. The class sets up standards for all work and a court endeavors to uphold these standards. The Story of Stone oSEVENTH-GRADE PROJECT) THE Stone Project, as worked out in this particular school, well illustrates how an opening for a good project may appear suddenly in connection with some other work. The alert teacher is always on the watch for- such chance leads, and resourceful to turn them into line with already planned work. In the lack of such a beginning, an approach to the study of stone should be prepared, growing out of something of local interest. It is well to remember that the best project work begins with the child, not in subject matter. An initial activity on the pavt of the * children begets a desire to find out something. Soil is fundamental to life, and soil is broken- What have you observed about the soil? If we down rock. Rock of one or more kinds can be should dig down as far as we could, what would found everywhere and is, therefore, available for finally stop us? purposes of observation and experiment. Almost Then, various kinds of stone could be brought everywhere it can be seen in a variety of uses, in and examined as per the suggestions in the Children can, then, realize that it is an important following account, the project to go on there- natural resource. There need be little fear of after in a similar manner. exhausting the supply; there is enough to last. In the school where this particular project The story of the earth, that is, the story of the was developed it began with a trip to the Forest rock, is full of interest. It can be worked up Preserve, to study the birds. In the Preserve readily into an instructive problem-project, on was an old abandoned barn, built of heavy logs, seventh-grade level. chinked with clay, as was done in pioneer days. To begin, the children could bring in samples In looking at this barn, while speculating as to of soils—loam, clay, sand. Why are there differ- its age, some of the boys noticed what appeared ent kinds of soil? What is the origin of the soil? to be shells in the stones of the foundation. At How many have ever dug a deep hole, or have once a whole new field of inquiry was opened up. noticed the excavation for a large building? Further examination showed a number of these [79]shells. Within a hundred yards of this barn was a quarry and the pupils said that the rock was of the same kind as that in the foundation. Then, only a few feet away in the river, was a ledge of rock which it was thought was also of the same kind. In an open field of the Preserve was a good-sized boulder, which everyone noticed at once was of an entirely different kind of rock. Several told of seeing similar boulders in other places, especially a very large one in the woods. Then one boy remembered having found a piece of stone that crumbled into sand. Well, how many kinds of rock are there? The pupils asked to make a school study of rock. As the first step, samples of a number of different kinds of rock were brought in. These were examined carefully and grouped into: (1) those composed of crystals (p. 935); and (2) those having no crystals. The second group was studied further and subdivided into: sandstone (p. 3123), because it was seen under the microscope to be composed of particles like the sand on the beach at the lake; marble (pp. 2144-2145); slate (p. 3248), our blackboard; and the very common one which many remembered was the stone in the foundation of the old barn, in the quarry, and the river ledge. It was agreed that this was limestone (p. 2010). Where is this found in use? Everyone knew, of course, by this time, that it was used for building. (The teacher told that the Chicago Public Library is built of Bedford stone (p. 2010), which is a variety of limestone). Nearly all pupils had seen crushed limestone used to make concrete (pp. 674, 676, 856), and someone "guessed" that this rock must be crushed to make lime (p. 2010) for mortar. Where is limestone found in this region? A number of pupils reported having seen quarries which they believed to be of limestone, to the south within a mile of the school, southwest at Lyons and Summit, northwest in Elmhurst, north on Grand Avenue, and east of us. Others had seen bits of it in "hills" along the Drainage Canal (pp. 1733-1734). Others reported that they had seen it "sticking out of the sides of the hill on the road leading to Joliet" (p. 4233). It was evident, therefore, and the class concluded, that this rock underlay this entire region (p. 2516). "It's very thick, too," said one of the boys. "A man at one of the quarries (p. 2943) told me that they have gone down more than 150 feet, and that it was still much deeper." The entire class on the field trip had seen that it was more Note: than a hundred feet thick in the quarry we visited. The pupils then raised these questions: What is limestone? (pp. 2010, 571). In what way is it different from other kinds of rock? (p. 2010). How does it come to be here? (pp. 2010, 2516). The pupils were asked to recall what they had observed at the quarry as to the arrangement of the rock. Some remembered that it was in layers (p. 2010). Those who reported having seen it "outcropping" now remembered that there, too, it was in layers. The natural con- clusion was that there must be underlying this region a great bed of it. Why do we find shells in it? (p. 1417). (One boy reported that where a branch feeder canal has been cut through solid rock at "The Sag" large numbers of shells of various kinds can be seen in the piles on either side.) What kind of shells are these? A boy was asked to bring in some oyster shells crushed, and another some crushed limestone. Dilute hydrochloric acid was applied to both. "Why," exclaimed several, "it bubbles just like soda!" The class concluded readily that the limestone and the oyster shells were composed of the same material (p. 3201). It was then thought that the shells, fossil (pp. 1333-1335) which we find in the limestone are those of sea creatures. But how could the shells of sea creatures come here so far inland? It was "guessed" that at one time this region must have been under the sea (pp. 1417, 2516). It will be noticed that up to this point the project has been entirely by the method of science, namely, that of first-hand object study and comparisons. To verify our several conclusions we now con- sulted our reference books and learned of the findings of the geologists as to the history of this region (p. 2516—See outline in Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, page 3864). We learned that our limestone belongs to the "sedimentary" group of rocks (p. 1417); that the boulder which we had found in the prairie was of granite (p. 1497) belonging to the "igneous" group (pp. 1417, 1230)—made by action of fire; and that marble (p. 2144) and the slate of our blackboards (p. 3248) belong to the "metamorphic" group (p. 1417). This study was confined to limestone since we saw that if we undertook to make a study in detail of all the rocks we could not finish our project in the time allotted. The class told in written report and drawings the story of the formation of limestone. —All page references are to Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, where practically all of the supplementary material needed for the development of this Project will be found. [80]HOW THE SEA MAKES ANIMALS INTO FLINT The bottom of \be uc ■ gp HpflMHjH HHP) ^ |pi •3^-"" S"t zJmmi-' ms^zf " Fos«// Shells it the Chalk . fe o ' •• # . # Cavities in the Chalk into Whi