D

ILLINOIS

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE

University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Library
Brittle Books Project, 2015.COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION

In Public Domain.
Published prior to 1923.

This digital copy was made from the printed version held
by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
It was made in compliance with copyright law.

Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Main Library,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
by

Northern Micrographics
Brookhaven Bindery
La Crosse, Wisconsin

2015LI E> R;A R.Y
OF THE
U N1VER5 1TY
i or ILLINOIS

170.9

N55 :THE WORKS

OF

FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE

edited by

ALEXANDER TILLE
Vol. X

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

TRANSLATED BY
WILLIAM A. HAUSSMANN, PH.D.

POEMS

TRANSLATED BY

JOHN GRAY

Ntfo ffotfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1907

All rights reservedCopyright, 1897,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1897. Reprinted
March, 1907.

NortoooU

J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick <fe Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.CONTENTS

FAGS

Introduction by the Editor.......ix

A Genealogy of Morals........xxi

Foreword ...........xxiii

i

First Essay: "Good and Evil," "Good and Bad". . .	15

Second Essay: "Guilt," "Bad Conscience," and the like .	61
Third Essay: What do Ascetic Ideals^mean? . . .127

Poems ............229

Poems 1871-1877

1.	To Melancholy........233

2.	After a Night-Storm.......235

3.	The Wanderer........236

4.	To the Glacier ........	237

5.	Autumn.........239

6.	Songs and Epigrams.......241

Maxims 1882-1885

7.	Warning: Poison.......245

8.	The New Testament.......245

9.	At Sight of a Dressing-Gown.....245

10.	A Roman Sigh ........	246

11.	The "Real German".......246

12.	Every Hunchback's Hump Grows Steeper . .	246

13.	To Spinoza.........246

14.	Arthur Schopenhauer .......	247

15.	To Richard Wagner.......247

16.	To the Disciples of Darwin.....248

vCONTENTS

PAGE ^

17.	The Hermit Speaks.......248

18.	Whose Word will One Day Rise and Crash . .	248

19.	Rules of Life ........	248

20.	The Loveliest Body — but a Veil ....	249

21.	A Riddle.........249

22.	The World Stands not Still.....249

23.	With Wits Wit Well may Trickle ....	249

24.	'Twas Here Gold Rolled......249

25.	From Diogenes his Tub......250

26.	Timon Says.........250

27.	For False Friends.......250

28.	The Word.........250

29.	When Next thy Thought......251

30.	Decision....... . .252

31.	All Eternal Founts of Meaning.....252

32.	Concluding Stanza .......252

33.	Dance of the Thoughts, Behold ....	253
Poems 1882-1885

34.	The Honey-Offering.......257

35.	Zeal and Genius........257

36.	To the Ideal........257

37.	To Friendship........258

38.	Pia, Caritatevolc, Amorosissima ....	258

39.	The Little Brig Called "Angeline" ....	259

40.	Maiden Song...... . .261

41.	Desperate.........262

42.	Human, Ail-too-Human......262

43.	The Wanderer and his Shadow ....	263

44.	Joyful Science........263

45.	Joyful Science........263

46.	The New Columbus .......	264

47.	Left Alone........ .	264

48.	Answer.........265CONTENTS	Vii

PAGE

49.	Venice.........266

50.	Said a Dame to me in the Morning Ray. . .	266

51.	To Hafiz.............266

52.	Tree in Autumn........267

53.	The Tree Speaks.......268

54.	Among Enemies........268

Dionysos-Dithyrambs 1888

55.	Of the Poorness of the Richest.....271

56.	Among Birds of Prey.......276

57.	The Sun Sinks........280

58.	Last Command........283

59.	The Beacon........284

60.	Fame and Eternity.......286INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

A Chinese historian of English Morals living in the twen-
tieth century who would use any of the English standard works
on Ethics written 'in our time, for the purpose of arriving
at a true and complete picture of the moral convictions and
principles of the English-speaking peoples of to-day, could
not fail,-however unconsciously, to be guilty of a gross mis-
statement of the facts by presenting an altogether one-sided
description of the somewhat complicated state of moral con-
sciousness which existed in Great Britain and the United
States, in the time of his father or his grandfather. For
without exception all those works on Ethics which he could
use as his basis, are one-sided as dealing merely with a
kind of Ethics which, according to the point of view reckoned
most important by various men, has been variously termed:
Ethics of unselfishness; neighbour-morality; Ethics of eudse-
monistic utilitarianism, Christian Ethics or Socialist Ethics.
Their fundamental traits are the enunciation of unselfishness
as something morally better than egotism; of the welfare
of the neighbour as of at least equal importance with one's
own welfare; of the happiness of the many as surpassing
by far the happiness of individual man, however great he
be; the acceptance as a moral obligation of the sentence
of Scripture that man shall love his neighbour as he loves

xixii

INTRODUCTION

himself; and logical premises which, of necessity, must ulti-
mately lead to Communism, as they led to it in the little
Christian Community at Jerusalem about the middle of the
first century of our era. If, all other documents on the
actual social status of Great Britain in the nineteenth cen-
tury being lost or inaccessible to our Chinese historian of
English morality, he were to proceed to construct, out of
the theoretical elements furnished by his English ethical
library, a social system in absolute accordance with them,
it would be mainly communistic; and if he had the same
confidence in the creations of his own deductions as our
modern historians of ancient morality have in theirs, he
would pronounce the verdict that the immense industrial
system of Great Britain in the nineteenth century — of which
he knew the popular legend told such frightful stories — had
in reality been worked upon pure and simple socialistic and
more especially communistic principles, everyone deeming
the welfare of his brethren of far greater importance than
his own. His rival who would declare that he possessed
some memoires from which it was evident that a Chinaman
resident in England at that time had lived among a caste
which was rich, whilst other castes were poor; which denied
the names of " gentleman " and " lady " to other castes, and
also denied them in consequence all sorts of social privileges,
including the most important ones of social intercourse and
intermarriage and of being regarded as trustworthy, sincere,
and accountable in matters of tact and delicacy — would be
declared to be the greatest liar in the world, his alleged
facts being so utterly at variance with the established general
drift of English thought at the time in question that there
was no possibility of such opinions and such facts being
coexistent.INTRODUCTION

xiii

Yet we know that the advocate of the memoires would
be right. A great English scholar whom years ago I asked
to explain how at this time of day a philosophy so utterly
absurd as that of Hegel was in full sway in English aca-
demic circles, whilst it had long ago died out at the German
Universities, told me he did not wonder at it in the least.
The English mind was so absolutely practical that for a
philosophy it needed something absurd in the highest degree,
because it would at once pull to pieces every reasonable
philosophy offered. I do not think this was quite a satis-
factory explanation, but must confess I know of no better;
and if one thing is certain, it is that the chasm which
everywhere in civilised Europe exists between theory and
practice, and more especially between current social theories
and the actual state of things, is felt nowhere less than in
Great Britain. By intoxicating themselves with phrases like
altruism, charity, social justice, equality before the law, free-
dom and right to labour and happiness, the majority of
English-speaking people do not feel that they live in a
world in which these things are by no means self-evident or
fundamental to society. It is an open question whether it
would be better for them, if the world of their fancy were
also the world of reality; but there is no doubt that the
altruistic ideals, everywhere on British soil, are spoken of and
regarded as infinitely greater and loftier than the egotism
which characterises everyone in the business of actual life,
and that no nation is less inclined to enter into a discussion
of the question: are these ideals actually worthier of human
striving than the wish to get the upper hand in the social
struggle for existence ? It is by no means certain that ideals,
simply because they are ideals, and are believed in by many,
must necessarily represent something better than reality does,xiv

INTRODUCTION

though the doctrine be inherited from Plato that such is the
case. There is no need to discuss this here, but it will be
admitted that the historian of the English morality of our
days who — like the theoretic speculator — should devote all
his space to those essentially Christian ideals of neighbour-
morality would fall very far short of doing perfect justice to
his subject.

It is a fact, and a fact very important for the history of
European Morals, that the English man and the English
woman of our days are by no means exclusively pervaded
by the principles of Christian-democratic neighbour-morality,
but show also very distinct traces of a very different kind of
moral valuation, of a morality which in its deepest essence
is aristocratic, however hateful this word be to many who
are possessed of this sort of moral feelings. It is difficult to
say whether it would more thoroughly deprive an Englishman
of the right to be esteemed by his fellows, — to take away
from his character all traces of Christian morals, of pity and
charity, or to take away from him all those qualities which
for an Englishman constitute the " gentleman " or the " lady."
It is true that by people who are not accustomed to think
for themselves these words are only too frequently employed
in a very superficial sense, and occasionally refer even to
certain peculiarities of dress, pronunciation, bearing, conver-
sation, or to things which can be bought. But this does not
prove that these denominations are worth nothing. And he
who would maintain such a proposition would certainly not do
justice to the British national character and the high concept
of personal honour which is laid down in the words. " Gentle-
man " represents the ideal of the upper fourth-part of the
English nation, and determines how a man should be if he
wishes to be unobjectionable. It involves all those qualitiesINTRODUCTION

XV

of personal honour, truthfulness, discretion, sincerity, trust-
worthiness, honesty, and besides that command of the forms
of educated intercourse, and that education, culture and
freedom from violent eruptions of feeling which are indis-
pensable for anybody who claims to belong to good society.
He who lacks in any of these qualities, will not be admitted
to any club or similar association, into any society or to
family-intercourse, but will be excluded wherever those meet
who, in their own opinion as well as in that of the rest of
the nation, form the upper caste. This moral code lays stress
upon a number of qualities, the want of which could not in
the common use of words even be called immoral; it ascribes
weight to some personal traits the contrary to which is neither
interdicted by the penal code nor regarded as in any way
inte.fering with the honour of a man of the lower classes.
Although some (though by no means all) actions forbidden
by the ten commandments disqualify for the position of a
"gentleman," that code is not at all identical with the old
Jewish rules of moral conduct, but demands unspeakably
more than they do.

The peculiarity by which this moral valuation is distin-
guished from that of Christian morality as taught by the New
Testament, the school and the church, is that it is merely a
morality of an upper caste in contradistinction from the lower
classes of the people. By force of the qualities demanded
by this code, the upper class feels itself to be something
better than the lower. He who does not comply with the
demands of that essentially aristocratic code, is " not a gen-
tleman," she who does not master its requirements, is "not
a lady," however good, industrious, economical, prudent peo-
ple they may be, nay, however great things they may, occa-
sionally, have accomplished. For it is not the single deedxvi

INTRODUCTION

of magnanimity, nor the accomplishment of something great
and valuable, which makes the gentleman. All his inventions
would not make Mr. Edison a gentleman, if he were none
in his everyday life. For it is the whole of one's life on
which the verdict of this aristocratic mode of valuation is
given. In numerous cases, though not in all, the command-
ments of this gentleman-morality, e.g., in matters of discretion,
are absolutely contrary to those of the ten commandments, or
Christian duties towards the neighbour, and the ideal of a per-
fect man is very different, according to the code by which it is
determined. In the practice of life the relationship of the
two codes is as follows: the true Englishman speaks more
of the Jewish-Christian code, but he acts more upon the
Germanic-aristocratic code which survives in his gentleman-
morality ; and — if a Russian writer is right — it is just the
things never or least uttered which have the greatest power
over our minds.

Nietzsche's book, A Genealogy of Morals, seeks to bring
into the foreground the gentleman-morality which in scien-
tific investigation has been absolutely neglected hitherto. He
contrasts it with what he terms slave-morality, and seeks for
the origin of both moralities in certain primitive conditions
of society in remote past. Of all English writers there comes
clearest him Mr. Stuart Glennie, who like Nietzsche — but I
am not sure whether he knew the German philosopher —
ierives the most important facts of civilisation from the
>pposition of a fair and higher and a dark and lower race
ving in the same country, the former being the ruling, the
itter the serving race.1 A Genealogy of Morals—meant to

1 Compare Mr. Stuart Glennie's Appendix to Miss Lucy Garnett's book,

e Women of Turkey (London, 1890. Vol. II), and his two papers
he Papers and Transactions of the International Folklore-Congress,
(London, Nutt, 1892).INTRODUCTION

xvii

defend the book, Beyond Good and Evil, against certain
attacks, and written in June 1887, at Sils Maria, Upper
Engadine — consists of three Essays, each of which is almost
self-dependent. The first is devoted to the two mutually
exclusive antitheses, " Good and Evil" and " Good and
Bad," the former representing the valuation of master-moral-
ity, the latter being the valuation of slave-morality. Nietzsche
himself knew that, with this essay, he had not furnished a
complete historical proof of the case; but he also knew that
the historical side was his weakest point, and looked for co-
operators especially in the field of etymology of Aryan denom-
inations of moral qualities. Thus the etymological proof he
undertook in aphorism 5 of the first Essay is a complete
failure.1 With perhaps one exception, where the derivation
given is at least philologically possible, the etymological ex-
planations are doubtless all wrong or perfectly arbitrary.
That the actual evolution of meaning of the Greek examples
given in aphorism 10 is, in several cases at least, the reverse
of that which Nietzsche assumes, I hope to show in some
other place. But by the withdrawing of this prop the theory
does not necessarily fall to the ground. In the Germanic
languages, and more especially in the Eastern Germanic, a
great number of etymological facts can be gathered which
point in the direction indicated by Nietzsche, though not
leading to the specific result wanted by him.

1 There is 110 reason to assume that aryan ever meant the rich; £<rd\6s
cannot possibly be derived from the Aryan copula, the 0 and the circum-
stance that the copula does not form derivations in any Aryan language
excluding this etymology; malus cannot be identical with jue'Xas; bonus
cannot be duonus, because the form of the root dui as in bis (older duis)
would have to appear in an adjective derived from the number two, and
the existence of such an adjective is, besides, very unlikely; the words
good and god have no relation to the name of the Goths, the different
/-sounds occurring in these words in Gothic being irreconcilable.xviii

INTRODUCTION

The Second Essay has for its object some local develop-
ments of guilt, bad conscience, and the like. A revival of
the old theory that guilt and debt are originally identical
gives the starting point. According to Nietzsche's opinion,
in recompense for material loss suffered, the unpaid creditor
received a claim to exercise some cruelty on the debtor,
which was later on felt to be some punishment. As regards
punishment, Nietzsche arrives at conclusions similar to those
which a great English philosopher reached twenty years ago
though he published them so late as 1894,1 and as to bad
conscience Nietzsche is quite at one with Mr. Stuart Glennie's
theories on the origin of civilisation.

The most remarkable part of the Volume is Essay III,
which tries to answer the question: what do ascetic ideals
mean? In this sense ascetic ideals are identical with the
ideals of slave-morality, and more especially with the ideals
of poverty, humility (or unrestricted obedience), and chastity.
Except a few sects and orders, Christendom has never lived
according to these ideals, the realisation of which leads with
absolute certainty to the economic ruin of whole peoples.
And not only to economic ruin, but to the disappearance
of a people from the surface of the earth. For the means of
subsistence are an unavoidable presupposition for the exist-
ence of human beings who are so imperfect as to be com-
pelled to live on food. In recent times the neighbour-
morality has declared its own bankruptcy in Malthusianism
and Neomalthusianism. The demand not to produce any
more progeny, in order that the neighbour may be able to
produce some, can only be surpassed by the other demand
not to eat any more but to die of hunger in order that the

1 F. H. Bradley, Some Remarks on Punishment. International Journal
of Ethics. April 1894. PP- 269-284.INTRODUCTION

xix

neighbour may be able to live and feed. It is, however, not
the consequences of the realisation of these ascetic ideals to
which Nietzsche directs his attention, but the state of mind
from which they proceed, and in this respect he arrives at the
result that they are a necessary accompaniment of decadence,
the gospel of all who are mentally or bodily inferior and who,
by means of them, take revenge on the well-constituted and
superior.

Besides A Genealogy of Morals the present volume con-
tains Nietzsche's Poems, i.e.f that part of his poetry which
he did not choose to incorporate in any of his larger writings
as he did with the Collections he placed at the beginning
and end of his Joyful Science or with the single poems to
which he gave a place in his Zarathustra, in Beyond Good and
Evil, etc. The Poems cover the time from 1871 till 1888
(the years 1878 till 1881 and 1886 till 1887 having yielded
no contributions) and are chiefly didactic and dithyrambic.

ALEXANDER TILLE.A GENEALOGY OF MORALSFOREWORDFOREWORD

% i

We are strangers to ourselves, we perceivers — we
ourselves to ourselves; for this there is reason enough.
We have never sought for ourselves, — how, then, could
it happen, that some day we should find ourselves?
Rightly has it been said : " Where your treasure is, j
there will your heart be also." Our treasure is where
the bee-hives of our knowledge are. We are ever on
the road thither, as born hymenoptera and honey-
gatherers of the spirit; we care at bottom but for
this — to "bring something home." As regards life
otherwise, so-called "experience,"— who among us has
even earnestness enough for it? Or time enough?
On such matters, I fear, we were never really "by
the matter;" for our heart is not there — and not
even our ear! Nay, rather like one divinely-distracted
and absorbed in himself, into whose ear the bell with
powerful clang has sounded its twelve strokes of noon-
day, and who thereupon suddenly awakes and asks
himself: "What is it that the clock has struck?"
Once in a while, we rub our ears afterwards asking,
quite amazed, quite perplexed: " What is it we have

B	I2

FOREWORD

experienced ? ay: who are we ?" and recount, after-
wards, all the palpitating twelve bell-strokes of our
experience, our life, our being—alas! and count amiss
in doing so ... . We must remain strangers to our-
selves ; we do not understand ourselves; we must mis-
take ourselves; for us, the saying holds to all eternity
"each one is the greatest stranger to himself,"—for
ourselves, we are no " perceivers . . .

2

My reflections on the origin of our moral preju-
dices— for these form the theme of our tract — have
found their first chary and provisional expression in
that collection of aphorisms which bears the title
"Human, All-too-human. A Book for Free Spirits"
which I first began to put on paper in Sorrento, dur-
ing a winter which permitted me to make halt like
some wanderer, and to survey the far-spread and dan-
gerous land through which my mind had wandered so
far. This took place in the winter of 1876—77; the
thoughts themselves are older. In the main, however,
they were the same thoughts as those which I take
up again in these essays. Let us hope, that the long
interval proved beneficial to them; that they grew riper,
clearer, stronger, more perfect! And that to-day I still
hold firmly on to these thoughts; that in the meantime
they have come to hold ever more firmly on to oneFOREWORD

3

another; that they have grown together and into one
another; — these facts confirm in me the cheerful confi-
dence, that from the very beginning they arose not iso-
latedly, not at random, not sporadically, but from one
common root and source, from a profoundly command-
ing, ever more definitely speaking, ever more definitely
defined fundamental will of perception. For thus and
only thus it befits a philosopher. We have not the
right to be single in any one respect: we must neither
err singly nor singly hit upon truth. But with the
same necessity with which a tree will bear its fruits,
our thoughts will grow from out ourselves, and
our values, our "Yeas" and " Nays" and "ifs" and
"whethers" — all related and inter-connected and tes-
tifying to one will, one health, one soil, one sun.—
Whether they are pleasant to your taste, these fruits
of ours ? — But what matters that to the trees ! What
matters that to us, the philosophers! . . . .

3

Having a kind of scrupulousness peculiar to myself,
which I do not readily acknowledge — inasmuch as
it has reference to morality, to all that so far was
known on earth, and celebrated as morality —, a
scrupulousness which arose in my life so prematurely,
so uncalled-for, so irresistibly, so in contradiction to
surroundings, age, precedent and ancestry, that I4

FOREWORD

should almost be justified in calling it my A priori,
— my curiosity as well as my suspicion had to be
confronted, at an early date, by the question of what
origin really are our Good and Evil? In very deed,
while but a boy of thirteen the problem of the origin
of evil haunted me: to it I dedicated in an age, when
we have in heart half play, half God, my first literary
child-play, my first philosophical composition; and
as regards my solution of the problem then, well, I
gave, as is but fair, God the honour, and made him
father of evil. Was it that my A priori wanted it
just so? that new immoral, or, at any rate, non-moral
A priori and what sounded forth from it, — the alas!
so anti-Kantian, so mysterious " categorical imperative,"
to which afterwards I gave ever better hearing and not
only hearing ? . . . . Fortunately, I learned betimes to
separate theological from moral prejudices and to seek
no longer behind the world for the origin of evil. A
little historical and philological schooling, together with
an inborn and delicate sense regarding psychological
questions, changed my problem in very short time into
that other one: under what circumstances and condi-
tions did man invent those valuations Good and Evil?
and what is their own specific value ? Did they retard
or further human progress so far? Are they a sign
of need, of impoverishment, of degeneration of life?
Or is the reverse the case, do they point to the ful-
ness, the strength, the will of life, its courage, its con-FOREWORD	5

fidence, its future? — To this question I found and
ventured sundry answers; I distinguished between
times, peoples and rank-degrees of individuals; I
specialised my problem; the answers became new
questions, investigations, suppositions, probabilities: till
at last I had to myself a private land, a private soil,
an altogether hidden and reserved, thriving and flour-
ishing world, secret gardens as it were, of which no
one beside me durst have an inkling .... Oh, how"\
happy we are, we perceivers, provided we understand I
the art of keeping silence long enough! .... J

4

The first impulse to make known something of my
hypotheses on the origin of morality, I received from
a clear, clean, smart, also over-smart, little book, in
which I was for the first time brought plainly face
to face with a reverse and perverse kind of genealogi-
cal hypothesis, the truly English kind, — a book which
attracted me with that attractive force, peculiar to all
things contrary, all things antipodal. The title of the
little book was "The Origin of Moral Sensations;" 1
its author Dr. Paul R6e; the year of its publication
1877. Never perhaps have I read aught, to which,
proposition by proposition, conclusion by conclusion,
I said in like emphatic manner No, as I did to this

1 Der Ursprung der moralischen Empfindungen.FOREWORD

book: yet without the slightest vexation or impatience.
In the work afore-mentioned, at which then I laboured,
I made reference, opportunely and inopportunely, to
the statements of Dr. Ree's book, not with the inten-
tion of refuting them — for what have I to do with
refutations!—but as befits a positive mind, placing
instead of the improbable the more probable thing,
or, as the case might be, in place of one error another.
Then, as stated, I advanced for the first time those
derivational hypotheses, to which these essays are
devoted, — awkwardly, as I would least of all hide
from myself, still unfree, still without an original lan-
guage for these original things, with much relapsing
and wavering. Regarging single points, I refer to
my observations in Human, All-too-human, aph. 45
on the two-fold derivation of Good and Evil (to wit,
from the sphere of the gentlemen and of the slaves);
also aph. 136 ff. on the origin and value of ascetic
morals; also aph. 96, 99, II, aph. 89 on "morality of
custom," that far older and far more original kind of
morality, which is removed toto coelo from the altru-
istic manner of valuation (which Dr. Rde, like all
English genealogists of morals, holds to be the man-
ner of moral valuation as such); also aph. 92. Wan-
derer, aph. 26. Dawn of the Day, aph. 112 on the
origin of justice, as a compensation between the ap-
proximately equally-potent (balance of power being
the fundamental condition of all treaties, i.e., of allFOREWORD

7

.law); also on the origin of punishment, Wanderer,
aph. 23, 33, for which purposes of determent are
neither essential, nor original (as Dr. Ree thinks); —
on the contrary, they are superadded, under certain
circumstances, to punishment, and are always some-
thing secondary, something adventitious.

5

At bottom, something far more important interested
me when I wrote that than any hypothetical concern,
of my own or of others, relative to the origin of morality
(or, more exactly stated: the latter only interested me
because of an end to which it is one among many
means). The question with me was the value of moral-
ity, — and on this point I had to settle accounts almost
exclusively with my great teacher Schopenhauer, to
whom as to one present that book,—the ardour and
secret opposition of that book — is directed (— for
that book also was " controversial"). More especially,
the point in question was the value of "unselfishness,"
of the sympathising, self-denying, self-sacrificing in-
stincts, which Schopenhauer had persistently just gilded
over, deified and beyondified, to such an extent, that
finally they remained to him as the " values as such,"
on the basis of which he said No to life and also to
himself. But against these very instincts an ever more
fundamental suspicion, an ever deeper-digging scepti-8

FOREWORD

cism within me gave utterance! Just here I saw the
great danger threatening mankind, the sublimest entice-
ment and seduction — whither? into the Nothing? —
Just here I saw the beginning of the end, the stopping,
the retrospective weariness, the will turning itself
against life, the final disease announcing itself softly
and melancholily. To me this ever further spreading
morality of sympathy, attacking and prostrating even
philosophers, revealed itself as the most dismal symp-
tom of our dismal-grown European civilisation, as its
round-about way to a new Buddhism ? to a European
Buddhism? to—Nihilism? For this modern philos-
opher's predilection for and over-valuing of sympathy
is something altogether new: even on the worthless-
ness of sympathy philosophers hitherto were agreed.
I but mention the names of Plato, Spinoza, La Roche-
foucauld and Kant, four minds differing as much as
possible from one another, but of common opinion in
this one point: in the underestimation of sympathy.

6

The problem of the value of sympathy and morality
of sympathy (I am an opponent of shameful modern
effeminacy of sentiment) seems, at first sight, to be
something isolated, — a single interrogation-mark; but
he who will pause here and will learn to question
here, will fare even as I have fared: a vast, new pros-FOREWORD

9

pect reveals itself to him, a possibility seizes upon
him like some giddiness; every kind of distrust, sus-
picion, fear springs up; the faith in morality, in all
morality, is shaken, — and finally, a new demand makes
itself felt. Let us pronounce this new demand: we
stand in need of a criticism of moral values; the
value of these values is first of all itself to be put in
question — and to this end a knowledge is necessary
of the conditions and circumstances from which they
grew and under which they developed and shifted in
meaning (morality as effect, as symptom, as mask, as
tartuffism, as disease, as misunderstanding; but also,
morality as cause, as remedy, as stimulant, as impedi-
ment, as poison), — a knowledge which hitherto was
not existent, nay, not even desired. The value of
these "values" was taken for granted, as a matter of
fact, as being beyond all putting-in-question. Never
until now was there the least doubt or hesitation, to
set down " the good man " as of higher value than " the
evil man," — of higher value in the sense of furtherance,
utility, prosperity as regards man in general (the future
of man included). What if the reverse were true?
What if in the "good one" also a symptom of decline
were contained, and a danger, a seduction, a poison, a
narcotic by which the present might live at the expense
of the future? Perhaps more comfortably, less danger-
ously, but also in humbler style, — more meanly ? . . . .
So that just morality were to blame, if a highest mighti-IO

FOREWORD

ness and splendour of the type of man — possible in
itself — were never attained? And that, therefore,
morality itself would be the danger of dangers ? . . . .

7

Suffice it to say, that I myself had reasons, since
this prospect presented itself to me, to look about for
scholarly, bold and industrious fellow-workers (I am
still looking at this moment). Our task is to travel
through the wide-spread, distant and so very hidden
land of morality — of morality once actually exist-
ing and experienced — with altogether new questions
and, as it were, new eyes: and is not this almost
equivalent to discovering this land itself ? . . . . If,
in so doing, I thought among others also of the afore-
said Dr. R6e, I did so, not doubting in the least,
that the nature of the problems confronting him
would force him to adopt a more suitable methodic
for enabling him to arrive at answers. Have I been
deceived ? My desire it was, at all events, to point
out to so keen and impartial an eye a safer direction,
the direction to the real history of morality and to
warn him betimes against such an English fashion of
hypothesising into the blue. For it is plain on the
face of it, what colour must be a hundred times more
important to the genealogist of morals than the blue:
namely the gray, i.e., what is documental, actually-FOREWORD

II

determinable, and was once actually-existing, in short,
the whole long and not easily decipherable hiero-
glyphics of the past of human morality ! — Of this his-
tory Dr. Ree knew nothing; but he had read Darwin;
and so, in a manner quite entertaining at least, the
Darwinian beast and the most modern and modest
morality-tenderling, who "no longer bites," in his hy-
potheses gracefully join hands,—the latter with a kind
of goodnatured, complacent and indolent expression of
countenance, to which even a grain of pessimism and
fatigue is added, as if it were hardly worth while to
take all these things — the problems of morality — as
serious. To me, on the other hand, there seems to
be nothing which it pays so well to take seriously ;
in which pay is included, for instance, the permission
of taking these things some day cheerfully. Cheer-
fulness, to wit, or, expressing myself my own way,
joyful science—is a reward, a reward for a long, brave,
laborious, subterranean earnestness, which of course
not each and every one will share. But on the day
in which with full heart we say: "Forward, march!
our old morality too is a piece of comedy !" on that day
we shall have discovered a new complication and pos-
sibility for the Dionysian drama of the "fate of the
soul" — and he will know how to make use of it, we
may be sure — he, the grand, old and eternal come-
dian of our existence! . . . .12

FOREWORD

8

If this tract reads unintelligibly to some one and
will not easily pass into the ears, the fault, it seems
to me, is not necessarily mine. It is clear enough,
presupposing, what I did presuppose, that my earlier
writings have first been read and that, in so doing, a
little trouble was not shunned: they are, indeed, not
easily accessible. As regards, for instance, my Zara-
thustra, no one will pass for a connoisseur of it with
me, whom each word in it did not at some time deeply
wound and at some time deeply delight. Then only
will he be allowed to enjoy the privilege of piously
taking his share of the halcyonic element from which
the work has sprung, of its sunny brightness, distance,
breadth and certainty. In other cases the aphoristical
form occasions difficulty: the reason is, that this form
is not taken weightily enough at present. An aphorism
honestly coined and shaped, in being read is as yet
far from being " deciphered";" on the contrary, the in-
terpretation now really has to commence, for which
purpose a special art of interpretation is needed. In
the third essay of this book I have presented a speci-
men of what in such cases I call interpretation: the
essay itself is headed by an aphorism, of which it is
the commentary. To practice reading in th's manner,
as an art, one thing of course is necessary, which to-
day has been best forgotten — and hence the "read-FOREWORD

13

ableness" of my writings is in no hurry—, for which
thing it is almost necessary to be a cow and certainly
not a modern man: chewing the cud is necessary ....

Sils-Maria, Upper Engadine,

July 1887.FIRST ESSAY
"GOOD AND EVIL," "GOOD AND BAD"I

These English psychologists, to whom, among other
things, we owe the only attempts hitherto made to
bring about a history of the origin of morality, — they
give us in their own persons no slight riddle to solve;
they have even, if I may confess it, for this very
reason, as living riddles, something distinctive in
advance of their books — they themselves are inter-
esting! These English psychologists — what is it
they want ? We find them, voluntarily or involun-
tarily, ever engaged in the same work, — the work of
pushing into the foreground the partie honteuse of
our inner world and of seeking for the really opera-
tive, really imperative and decisive factor in history
just there, where the intellectual pride of man would
least wish to find it (for example, in the vis inertice of
custom or in forgetfulness or in some blind and acci-
dental hooking-together and mechanism of ideas or in
something purely-passive, automatic, reflex-motion-like,
molecular and thoroughly stupid).* What is it that
always drives these psychologists into just this direc-
tion ? Is it a secret, a malignant and mean instinct of
belittling man, which is, perhaps, even loath to confess
itself ? Or some pessimistic suspicion — the distrust
c	17i8	a genealogy of morals

of disappointed, morose, poisonous and angry-grown
idealists? Or a little subterranean enmity and in-
trigue against Christianity (and Plato), which perhaps
did not even pass the threshold of consciousness ? Or
even a libidinous taste for what is strange, painfully-
paradoxical, questionable and nonsensical in existence ?
Or finally, a little of each, a little meanness, a little
moroseness, a little anti-christianism, a little tickling
and need of pepper ? . . . . But I am told that they
are in reality nothing but so many stale, cold and tire-
some frogs, hopping about and creeping into man, as
if here they felt themselves at home, in their proper
element, — namely in a swamp. I hear this unwill-
ingly ; nay, I do not believe it. And if, where know-
ledge is denied to us, I may venture to express a wish,
then I wish quite heartily, that the reverse may be the
case with them,—that these explorers and microsco-
pists of the soul are, in reality, courageous, proud and
magnanimous animals, who can, at will, set a curb to
their heart, and also to their smart, and who have edu-
* cated themselves to sacrifice all desirableness to truth, to
each truth, even simple, bitter, ugly, repulsive, unchris-
tian, immoral truth .... For there are such truths.,

2

All due deference, therefore, to the good spirits who
may hold sway in these historians of morality! But
I am sorry to say that they are certainly lacking in theFIRST ESSAY

*9

historical spirit, that they have been, in fact, deserted
by all good spirits of history itself. They think, each
and every one, according to an old usage of philoso-
phers, essentially unhistorically; no doubt whatever!
The botchery of their genealogy of morals becomes
manifest right at the outset in the determination of
the origin of the concept and judgment "good."
" Unselfish actions " — such is their decree -—" were
originally praised and denominated ' good' by those to
whom they were manifested, i.e., those to whom they
were useful; afterwards, this origin of praise for-
gotten, r.nd unselfish actions, since they were always
accustom *d to be praised as good, were as a matter
of course also felt as such, — as if, in themselves, they
were something good." We see at once that this first
derivation contains all the typical traits of English
psychological idiosyncrasy,—we have "utility," "for-
getting," "custom" and last of all "error," and all this
as the basis of a valuation which hitherto formed the
pride of superior man as being a kind of prerogative
of man in general. This pride must be humbled, this
valuation—devalued. Did they succeed in this? . . . .
Now in the first place it is clear to me, that the true
and primitive home of the concept "good,, was sought
for and posited at the wrong place: the judgment
"good" was not invented by those to whom goodness
was shown! On the contrary, the "good," i.e., the
noble, the powerful, the higher-situated, the high-20

A CENEALOGY OF MORALS

minded felt and regarded themselves and their act-
ing as of first rank, in contradistinction to everything
low, low-minded, mean and vulgar. Out of this j)atkos
of distance they took for themselves the right of creat-
ing values, of coining names for these values. What

i

had they to do with utility! In the case of such a
spontaneous manifestation and ardent ebullition of
highest rank-regulating and rank-differentiating valua-
tions, the point-of-view of utility is as distant and out
of place as possible; for in such things the feelings
have arrived at a point diametrically opposite to that
low degree of heat which is presupposed by every
kind of arithmetical prudence, every utilitarian calcu-
lation, — and not momentarily, not for a single, excep-
tional hour, but permanently. The pathos of nobility
and distance, as I said, the lasting and dominating, the
integral and fundamental feeling of a higher^domi-
nating kind of man in contradistinction J:Q_a„,lo3g§r
jkind, to a " below." — such is thc^origin of the an-
Jithesis "good" and "badL." (The right of masters to
confer names goes so far that we might venture to
regard" the origin of language itself as a manifestation
of power on the part of rulers. They say: " This is
such and such," they seal every thing and every hap-
pening with a sound, and by this act take it, as it were,
into possession.) It follows from this derivation, that
the word "good" has not necessarily any connection
with unselfish actions, as the superstition of these gen-FIRST ESSAY

21

ealogists of morals would have it. On the contrary,
i; is only when a decline of aristocratic valuations sets
i, that this antithesis "selfish" and "unselfish" forces
i:self with constantly increasing vividness upon the
t onscience of ma% — it is, if I may express myself
ny own way, the herding instinct which by means of
this antithesis succeeds at last in finding expression
(and in coining words). And even after this event a
long time elapses, before this instinct prevails to such
an extent that the moral valuation makes halt at and
actually sticks to this antithesis. (As in the case, for
instance, of modern Europe. To-day, the prejustice
which regards "moral," "unselfish," " disinteressi" as
notions of equal value, already holds sway with the
force of a "fixed idea " and brain-disease.)

3

But again: disregarding the historical untenable-
less of such a hypothesis on the origin of the valuation
' good," it suffers from psychological self-contradic-
tion. The utility, we are told, of an unselfish action
accounts for the praise bestowed upon it, and this
origin was afterwards forgotten. But, we ask, is this
forgetting even so much a^ rossible? Did the utility
of such actions ever cease to exist at any time ? The
very opposite is the case. This utility was the every-
day experience at all times, i.e., something which againA GENEALOGY OF MORALS

and again was underscored anew; and which, there
fore, could not only not disappear from consciousness 01
become forgettable, but actually had — with constantly
increasing vividness — to impress itself upon conscious-
ness. How much more reasonable is that opposite
theory (it is, because more reasonable, not a bit more
true), which, for instance, is represented by Mr. Her-
bert Spencer who regards the concept "good^' to be
essentially identical with the concept "useful," "suit-
able," so that precisely in the valuations " good" and
" bad " mankind is said to have summed up and sanc-
tioned its tinforgotten and unforgettable experiences as
to what is useful - suitable and harmful-unsuitable.
Good, according to this theory, is that which—at all
times proved itself to be useful: hence it may keep^
its authority as "valuable in the highest degree," as
"valuable in itself." This kind of explanation also, I
say, is false, but the explanation itself is at least rea-
sonable and psychologically tenable.

4

The hint, which put me on the right track, I re-
ceived from the question as to the etymological signi-
fication of the names cc :ed by different languages
for denoting what is "good." Pushing this inquiry I
found that they all pointed to one and the same shift-
ing of concepts,— that "superior," "noble" in its casteFIRST ESSAY

23

sense, was in every instance the fundamental concept
from which "good" in :he sense of "superior in sen-
timent," noble in the sense of "with lofty sentiment"
" privileged in sentiment" necessarily developed; —
a development running in all cases parallel with that
other one which causes "mean," "moblike," "com-
non," to turn at last into the concept of "bad." The
most striking instance, illustrating this latter devel-
opment, is presented by the German word " schlecht"
itself. It is identical with "schlicht" (simple). Com-
pare "schlechtweg" (simply, plainly) and "schlecht-
erdings " (absolutely). It denoted originally the simple,
the ordinary man, in contradistinction to the gentleman,
no secondary or equivocal sense attaching as yet to
its meaning. About the time of the Thirty-years' war
— quite late, we see — the sense shifted into that
which obtains at present. — With reference to the
genealogy of morals, this seems to me to be an essen-
tial iisrernment; the fact that it was found so late,
lis to be attributed to the retarding influence which
In the modern world the democratic prejudice exercises
in regard to all questions of origin. And this preju-
dice extends even into the seemingly most objective
territory of natural science and physiology, as we
shall but cake occasion to intimate in this connection.
Whit amount of mischief this prejudice, once unbridled
a d become hatred, may cause, especially in the do-
1 ain of morality and history, the notorious case of24

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

Buckle teaches us: the plebeianism of modern thought,
which is of English origin, broke out once again upon
its native soil: violently, like some slimy volcano, and
with that briny, boisterous, common eloquence, with
which volcanoes at all times have spoken.

5

In respect to our problem, which for good reasons
may be called a silent problem and which with quite
particular taste addresses itself to but few ears, it is
of no small interest to establish, that in the case of
the words and roots denoting "good," the principal
nuance is in many cases still apparent, on the ground,
of which the gentlemen felt themselves as of higher
rank. Most frequently, perhaps, they will simply
name themselves according to their superiority of
power (i.e., the "mighty," the "lords," the "rulers"),
or according to the most visible emblem of sue h supe-
riority,— for instance "the rich," "the owners" (such
is the sense of arya; and correspondingly in the Ira-
nian and Slavic languages). But again, according to
some typical trait of character, and this is the c ase
which more especially interests us. They will, for
instance, call themselves " the truthful:" this is shown
most clearly in the case of Grecian nobility of which
the Megarian poet Theognis is spokesman. The wrni
ecrflXo's, coined for this purpose, signifies, in its mFIRST ESSAY

one who jo, who has reality, who is real, who is true;
then with a subjective turn, the true one as the truth-
ful man; in this phase of shifting its concept, it is
made the watch-and-catch-word of the nobility and
passes over entirely into the concept "noble," as a
mark of distinction from the lying common man, as
Theognis conceives and describes him, — till at last the
same word, after the decline of nobility, simply re-
mains to denote noblesse of soul and now attains, as
it were, to ripeness and sweetness. In the word /ea/co?
as in SaXo? (the Plebeian in contradistinction to the
man who is ayados) we find cowardice underscored.
This may, perhaps, serve as a hint as to the direction
in which we must seek for the etymological derivation
of ayados, a word which allows several interpretations.
In the case of the Latin malus (by the side of which
I place /xeXas), the dark-complexioned, especially the
black-haired man ("kic niger est") might possibly have
been characterised, he being the pre-Aryan habitant
of Italian soil, whom his colour marked out most
clearly as against the prevailing, to wit, the Aryan
conquering race. At any rate, the Gaelic furnished
me with a precisely analogous case. Fin (for instance,
in the name Fin-Gal), the word characterising nobility,
denoting ultimately the good, the noble, the pure,
originally the flaxen laired man in contradistinction
to the dark, black-haired aborigines. The Celts, it
may be observed here, were throughout a blond race.56

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

We do wrong if, as is still done by Virchow, /e con-
nect those streaks of an essentially dark-haired popu-
lation, noticeable on the more carefully prepared
ethnographical maps of Germany, with some doubtful
Celtic origin and blood-admixture. On the contrary,
it is the pre-Aryan population which makes itself felt
in such places. (The same holds true for almost the
whole of Europe. All in all, the conquered race has
there once more succeeded in getting the upper hand,
in colour, in shortness of skull, nay, perhaps even in
the intellectual and social instincts. Who will guaran-
tee that modern democracy, anarchy, which is still
more modern, and especially the hankering for la
commune, the most primitive form of society — which
is held in common by all our European socialists, do
not represent in the main an immense afterclap> and
that the conquering and gentleman racc, the /race of
the Aryans, is not among other things physiologically
succumbing ?....) Latin bonus I think I may inter-
pret as the warrior: granting, that I correctly trace
back bonus to an older duonus (compare be ium =
duellupi = duen-lum\ in which latter form I suppose
duonus to be contained. Bonus, therefore, would be
the man of quarrel, of dissension (duo), the warrior:
we see, what constituted the " goodness " of a man in
ancient Rome. Our own German "gut" — might it
not denote " one godlike," the man of divine origin ?
And be identical with the name " Goths," denoting theFIRST ESSAY

27

people (originally, the nobility) ? The reasons for such
a supposition do not belong here.

6

To this law, — that the concept of political prece-
dence finally passes over into a concept of precedence
of sentiment,— it is as yet not an exception (though
it furnishes occasion for exceptions), if the highest
caste is at the same time the priestly caste and, con-
sequently, as its collective name, fixes upon a predicate
which points to its priestly function. Here, for in-
stance, "pure" and "impure" are, for the first time,
contrasted as caste-distinctions, and here also a " good"
and " bad " are afterwards developed which have lost
their caste-sense. In general, the warning may be pro-
nounced here, not to take, from the very outset, these
concepts "pure" and " impure" as too important, too
comprehensive or even symbolical: on the contrary,
all concepts of infantile mankind were at first under-
stood— to an extent which we can hardly realise — in
a rough-hewn, heavy, superficial, narrow, straight-for-
ward and, above all, unsymbolical\ way. " Pure " man
is, from the very beginning, merely one who washes
himself; who abstains from certain aliments liable to
beget skin diseases, who will not lie with the filthy
women of the common people; who betrays a horror
of blood; — he is no more, not much more! The very28

A GENEALOGY OF MOKALS

nature of a prevailingly priestly aristocracy makes clear,
on the other hand, why precisely here the antitheses of
valuation could be sharpened and deepened in a dan-
gerous way at an early time; and indeed, through these
antitheses, chasms were finally opened between man
and man, which even an Achilles of freethinkinf will
tremble to leap over. From the very beginning, there
is something unhealthy in such priestly aristocracies
and the habits which prevail in them are adverse to
action, partly given to brooding, partly indulging in
explosions of the feelings, and are almost inevitably
followed by that intestinal morbidity and neurasthenia
occurring almost inevitably in the priests of every age.
As to the remedy, however, invented by themselves
against this—their specific—morbidity is it not true,
that in its final effects it has proved a hundred times
more dangerous than the disease for which it was
intended as a cure? Mankind itself still suffers from
the effects of these priestly nawetis in the art of cur-
ing. Let us, for instance, but call to our minds certain
kinds of diet (abstention from meat), fasting, sexual
abstinence, the flight "into the desert" (Weir-Mitchell's
isolation, — of course without the subsequent fattening
and hypertrophy, which form the most effective pre-
ventive of all hysteria of the ascetic ideal), as also
all priestly metaphysics inimical to the senses — sloth-
begetting, and subtilising, priestly self-hypnotisation in
the manner of the Fakirs and the Brahmans — BrahmanFIRST ESSAY

29

used as glass-button and fixed idea—and that which in
the end follows but too naturally, the general state of
being satiated with this radical cure, the Nothing (or
God — the longing for an unio mystica with God is
the longing of the Buddhist to go into the Nothing,
Nirvana — it is no more!). In the case of priests, we
observe, everything becomes more dangerous; not only
the means and art of curing, but also their pride, ven-
geance, sagacity, intemperance, love, imperiousness,
virtue, sickness. Of course, we might also add with
some degree of fairness, that only on the basis q£ jthis
essentially dangerous form of existence^ oLlJian — the
priestly form—has man come to be an interesting ani-
mal, that only here the human soul has in a...higher
sense, gained depth and become evil. And are not
these the two fundamental forms of man's superiority
over the remaining animal world ? . . . .

7

The reader will have conjectured by this time,
how readily the priestly manner of valuation will
branch off from that of the chivalric-aristocratic caste
and develop into the antithesis of it; which is especially
prone to happen whenever the priest and the warrior-
caste jealously oppose each other and fail to come to
an agreement as to the prize. The chivalric-aristo-
cratic valuations presuppose a powerful corporality, a3°

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

vigorous, exuberant, ever extravagant health, and all
that is necessary for its preservation, — war, adventure,
hunting, dancing, sports, and in general, all that in-
volves strong, free and cheerful activity. The priestly-
aristocratic valuation has — as we have seen — other
presuppositions: so much the worse it fares in case of
war! The priests are, as is well knowr. the worst
enemies — and why ? Because they are the most im-
potent From impotence in their case hatred grows
into forms immense and dismal, the most spiritual and
most poisonous forms. The greatest haters in history
were, at al" times, priests; and they were also the
haters with the most esprit. Indeed, compared with
the esprit of priestly vindictiveness all the remaining
intelligence is scarcely worth consideration. Human
history would be an extremely stupid affair, but for
the esprit brought into it by the impotent. Let us at
once consider the greatest instance! All that has ever
been accomplished on earth against the "noble," the
"powerful," the "lords," the "mighty" is not worth
speaking of, when compared with that which the Jews
have done against them ; the Jews, that priestly people,
which finally succeeded in procuring satisfaction for
itself from its enemies and conquerors only by a trans-
valuation of their values, i.e., an act of the keenest,
most spiritual vengeance. Thus only it befitted a
priestly people, — the people of the most powerfully
suppressed, priestly vindictiveness. It was the Jews,FIRST ESSAY

31

who, with most frightfully consistent logic, dared to
subvert the aristocratic equation of values (good =
noble = powerful = beautiful = happy = beloved of
God), and who, with the teeth of the profoundest
hatred (the hatred of impotency), clung to their own
valuation: " The wretched alone are the good; the
poor, the impotent, the lowly alone are the good; only
the sufferers, the needy, the sick, the ugly are pious;
only they are godly; them alone blessedness awaits; —
but ye, ye, the proud and potent, ye are for aye and
evermore the wicked, the cruel, the lustful, the insati-
able, the godless; ye will also be, to all eternity, the
unblessed, the cursed and the damned! " . . . . It is
known, who has been the inheritor of this Jewish
transvaluation .... In regard to the enormous initi-
ative fatal beyond all measure, which the Jews gave by
this most fundamental declaration of war, I refer to the
proposition which elsewhere presented itself to me
(Beyond Good and Evil, aph. 195) — viz., that with the
Jews the slave-revolt in morality begins: that revolt,
which has a history of two thousand years behind it,
and which to-day is only removed from our vision,
because it — has been victorious ....

8

But this ye do not understand? Ye are blind
to something which needed two thousand years ere
it came to be triumphant? There is nothing m it32

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

surprising to me: all long things are hard to see, hard
to survey. But this is the event: from the trunk of
that tree of revenge and hatred, Jewish hatred — the
deepest and sublimest hatred, i.e., a hatred which
creates ideals and transforms values, and which never
had its like upon earth — something equally incompa-
rable grew up, a new love, the deepest and sublimest
kind of love: — and, indeed, from what other trunk
could it have grown ? . . . . Quite wrong it is, how-
ever, to suppose, that this love grew up as the true
negation of that thirst of vengeance, as the antithesis of
the Jewish hatred! No, the reverse is true! This
love grew out of this trunk, as its crown, — as the
crown of triumph, which spread its foliage ever farther
and wider in clearest brightness and fulness of sun-
shine, and which with the same vitality strove upwards,
as it were, in the realm of light and elevation and
towards the goals of that hatred, towards victory, spoils
and seduction, with which the roots of that hatred pene-
trated ever more and more profoundly and eagerly into
everything deep and evil. This Jesus of Nazareth, as
the personified gospel of love, this saviour bringing
blessedness and victory unto the poor, the sick, the
sinners — did he not represent seduction in its most
awful and irresistible form — the seduction and by-way
to those same Jewish values and new ideals ? Has not
Israel, even by the round-about-way of this "redeemer,"
this seeming adversary and destroyer of Israel, attainedFIRST ESSAY

33

the last goal of its sublime vindictiveness ? Does it not
belong to the secret black-art of truly grand politics
of vengeance, of a vengeance far-seeing, underground,
slowly-gripping and fore-reckoning, that Israel itself
should deny and crucify before all the world the proper
tool of its vengeance, as though it were something
deadly inimical, — so that "all the world," namely all
enemies of Israel, might quite unhesitatingly bite at this
bait? And could, on the other hand, any still more
dangerous bait be imagined, even with the utmost re-
finement of spirit ? Could we conceive anything, which
in influence seducing, intoxicating, narcotising, corrupt-
ing, might equal that symbol of the "sacred cross,"
that awful paradox of a "God on the cross," that
mystery of an unfathomable, ultimate, extremest cruelty
and self-crucifixion of God for the salvation of man?
.... Thus much is certain, that sub hoc signo Israel,
with its vengeance and transvaluation of all values,
has so far again and again triumphed over all other
ideals, over all nobler ideals.

9

But, Sir, why still speak of nobler ideals ? Let us
submit to the facts: the folk has conquered — or the
" slaves," or the "mob," or the "herd" or—call it what
you will! If this has come about through the Jews,
good! then never a people had a more world-historic

D34

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

mission. The "lords" are done away with; the mo-
rality of the common man has triumphed. This vic-
tory may at the same time be regarded as an act of
blood-poisoning (it has jumbled the races together) —
I shall not object. But, beyond a doubt, the intoxica-
tion did succeed. The redemption of mankind (from
"the lords," to wit) is making excellent headway;
everything judai'ses, christianises, or vulgarises in full
view (words are no matter!). The progress of this
poisoning, through the entire body of mankind, seems
irresistible; the tempo and step of it may even be, from
now on, ever slower, finer, less audible, more cautious
— time is not wanting .... " With reference to this
end has the church to-day still a necessary mission, or
even a right to existence? Or could it be dispensed
with ? Quaeritur. It seems as though it rather im-
pedes and retards this progress, instead of hastening it?
But perhaps this very fact constitutes its utility ....
At all events, the church is something coarse and rustic;
something repugnant to a more delicate intelligence,
to a truly modern taste. Should it not at least refine
itself a little? .... It rather tends to estrange to-
day than to seduce .... Who among us would be
a freethinker, if there were no church? It is the
church that we disrelish, not its poison .... Dis-
regarding the church, we even love the poison . . . ."
Such is the epilogue of a " freethinker " to my disquisi-
tion,— an honest animal, as he abundantly betrayed,FIRST ESSAY

35

moreover a democrat; he had been attentive until
then, and could^not suffer to see me silent For, for
me there are many things about which I must be
silent.	.

The slave-revolt in morality begins by resentment
itself becoming creative and giving birth to values —
the resentment of such beings, as real reaction, the
reaction of deeds, is impossible to, and as nothing
but an imaginary vengeance will serve to indemnify.
Whereas, on the one hand, all noble morality takes
its rise from a triumphant Yea-saying to one's self,
slave-morality will, on the other hand, from the very
beginning, say No to something "exterior," "different,"
"not-self;" this No being its creative deed. This re-
version of the value-positing eye—this necessary glance
outwards instead of backwards upon itself—is part of
resentment. Slave-morality, in order to arise, needs, in
the first place, an opposite and outer world; it needs,
physiologically speaking, external irritants, in order to
act at all; — its action is, throughout, reaction. The
reverse is true in the case of noble valuation. It acts
and grows spontaneously. It only seeks for its an-
tithesis in order to say, still more thankfully, still more
rejoicingly, Yea to itself. Its negative concept "low,"
"mean," "bad," is merely a late-born and pale after-
image in comparison with the positive fundamental*6

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

concept of the noble valuation which is thoroughly sat-
urated with life and passion and says?"We, the noble,

reality, this happens in respect to the sphere, which is
not sufficiently known to it, — the true knowledge of
which, in fact, it stubbornly opposes. Under certain
circumstances it will mistake the sphere it despises, the
sphere of the common man, of the lower people. On
the other hand, one should observe, that in any case
the emotion of contempt, of looking down upon, of
looking superior (supposing even that the picture of
the despised be falsified by it), will remain far behind
the falsification, with which suppressed hatred, the re-
venge of the impotent, will—of course in effigy — mal-
treat its opponent Indeed, too much carelessness, too
much easy-taking, too much looking away, too much
impatience, nay, even too much self-rejoicing, are ad-
mixed with contempt, to transform its object into a
monster and caricature. One should not fail to take
notice of the almost benignant nuances, which, e.g.,
Grecian nobility puts into all words with which it con-
trasts the common people with itself; how a kind of
pity, regardfulness and indulgence is mixed and
sugared into such words, with the result, that neaily
all expressions characterising the common man, finally
remain as mere denominations for " unhappy," " piti-
able" (compare BeiXos, SeiXaios, 7rowy/oo'?, 110x61ipos—the

we, the good, we, the fair, we, the
noble manner of valuation mistakes i

>py!" If the
!d sins againstFIRST ESSAY

37

two latter words originally denoting the common man
as working-slave and beast of burden) — and how, on
the other hand, "bad," "low," "unhappy," always .sug-
gested to the Greek ear a tone in whicl the timbre
"unhappy" preponderated: as being the inherits, e
of an ancient nobler and aristocratic manner of valua-
tion, which even in the act of despising remains true
to itself (—philologists may be reminded here of the
sense in which o'i&pds, avo\/3o$, rXrjficov, bvajv^elvy
%vfi<f)opd are used). The "well-born" naturally fe.lt
themselves as the " happy;" they did not find it neces-
sary to construct, through a glance at their ei emies,
their happiness artificially; as the case might be, talk
it into themselves, lie themselves into it (as is the prac-
tice of all men of resentment); and again, as complete
men, men teeming with strength and, therefore, of
necessity active men, they could not sever happiness
from action, — activity with them being the necessai y
concomitant of happiness (hence the derivation of 15
7rparreiv). All this is quite in contrast with the "hap-
piness " which is felt in the state of the impotent, the
oppressed, those suppurative from venomous and hos-
tile feelings, with whom it appears mainly as narcosis,
numbness, rest, peace, "Sabbath," unharnessing of the
mind, and stretching of the limbs, in short, is a passive
state. Whereas, on the one hand, the life of the noble
man is self-confident and self-sincere (7evvalos "noble-
born" underscores the nuance "sincere" and perhaps38

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

also "yhai've"), the man of resentment, on the other
hand/is neither sincere, nor naive, neither honest nor
straightforward against himself. His soul squints; his
mijfid loves 'riding-places, alleys and back-doors; every-
thing hidden appeals to him as his world, his shelter,
Ms cqmfort; he is master in the art of keeping silence,
of forgetting nothing, of waiting, of provisional self-
j diminution, of self-humiliation. A race of such men
of resentment will at last, of necessity, be more prudent
than any noble race; it will also learn to appreciate
prudence in quite different measure: namely as a pri-
mary condition of existence; whereas prudence in the
case of noble men is very apt to have about it a dainty
tang of luxury and raffinement. For in their case pru-
dence is far less essential than the perfect reliableness
of function of the regulating, unconscious instincts or
even a certain imprudence, such as readiness to en-
counter things— whether danger or an enemy—or that
eccentric suddenness of anger, love, reverence, grati-
tude and revenge by which noble souls at all times
have recognised themselves as such. Even the resent-
ment of superior man, when it appears in him, acts and
exhausts itself in the reaction which follows at once,
and hence it does not poison. And again, it will not
manifest itself at all in countless cases, in which with
the poor and the feeble it is inevitable. Not to be able
to take seriously, for a long time, an enemy, or a mis-
fortune or even one's own misdeeds — is the character-FIRST ESSAY

39

ist' * of stjrong and full natures, abundantly endowed
wi, i plastic, formative, restorative, also obliterative
foi :e (a ££ood example of this, in recent times, is Mira-
beau, whci) had no memory for insults and affronts re-
ceived, and who could not forgive for the sole reason
that—he forgot). Such a man, with a single jerk,
shakes off much vermin which burrows in others.
Only here is also possible, if on earth it be possible
at all, true "love" for one's enemies. How much ven-
eration for his enemy has not superior man! — and such
veneration is already a bridge to love .... He de-
mands an enemy for himself, as his distinction, he will
only suffer an enemy in whom he finds nothing to
despise and very much to honour! On the other hand,
let us figure to ourselves the enemy as conceived by
the man of resentment—just therein, we shall have his
deed, his creation: he lias conceived the "foul fiend,"
" the Evil one," as his fundamental concept, proceed-
ing from which he now ;om>eives also a complementary
image and counterpart, a Good one" himself! . . . .

ii

Quite reversely, therefore, from superior man, with
whom the fundamental concept "good '* is the primary
and spontaneous conception, proceeding from himself,
out of which Le wi?l subsequently create for himself
an idea of "bad! "40	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

that "evil" from the brew kettle of unquenched .hatred
— the former an after-creation, something accidental,
a complementary colour; the latter the original, the
beginning, the real deed in the conception of slave-
morality — how different ai aspect is offered by these
two words "bad" and "evl," though, seemingly, they
are opposed to one and the same concept, viz., " good!"
But it is not the same concept "good." On the con-
trary, let people ask themselves, from the standpoint
of resentment morality as to who is " evil ? " Answer-
ing in all severity: just the " good " one of the opposite
morality, even the noble man, the powerful and the
ruling one, — but reversely coloured, reversely inter-
preted, reversely looked at through the venom-eye of
resentment. Here let us deny one thing least of all.
He, who learned to know these good ones only as
enemies, in so doing learned to know only evil enemies,
and those very men, who by manners, reverence, usage,
gratitude, and still more by nutual superintendence,
by jealousy inter pares are rigorously held within
bounds, and who, on the other hand, in their conduct
among one another prove themselves so inventive in
regardfulness, self-restraint, delicacy, faith, pride and
friendship,—these same men are towards that which
is without, which to them is foreign, a foreign land,
not much better than so many disencaged beasts of
prey. Here they enjoy liberty from all social restraint;

em for the tensionFIRST ESSAY

41

produced by a long incarceration and impalement in
the "peace" of society; they step back into the inno-
cence of the conscience of the beast of prey, as exult-
ant monsters, which, perhaps, walk away from an
abominable sequence of murder, burning down, viola-
tion, torture, with such wantonness and equanimity, as
if merely some student-trick had been accomplished;
with the conviction, that now for a long time again the
poets will have something to celebrate and sing of.
At the ground of all these noble races, the beast of
prey, the splendid, blond beast, lustfully roving in
search of spoils and victory, cannot be mistaken. An
outlet is necessary from time to time for this hidden
ground; the animal must come out again, must go
back into wilderness: Roman, Arabian, Germanic,
Japanese nobility, Homeric heroes, Scandinavian vik-
ings— in this need they all are one. It is the noble
races, that left the concept " barbarian" on every
trace, wherever they passed; even in their highest
civilisation the consciousness of this fact is visible and
even a certain pride in it (for instance, when Perikles
addresses his Athenians in that celebrated funeral
oration: " In every land and sea, our boldness has cut
a way for itself, setting up for itself, everywhere, im-
perishable monuments for good and for bad"). This
"boldness" of the noble races, foolhardy, absurd, sud-
den, as is its manifestation; what is unforeseeable, and
even improbable of their enterprises, — Perikles speaks4 2

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

highly of the paOvjiCa of the Athenians, — their indiffer-
ence and contempt for safety, life, body, comfort; their
terrible gaiety and profundity of delight in all destruc-
tion, in all blisses of victory and cruelty — all this, to
the minds of those, who suffered from it, finally was
united into the picture of the *4 barbarian/5 of the
" foul fiend," as the case might be, of the " Goth" or
the "Vandal." The deep, icy mistrust, which the
German causes, as soon as he attains to power, also
now again, — is still the afterclap of that unquench-
able horror, with which Europe, for centuries, wit-
nessed the raging of the blond Germanic beast
(although between the ancient Germanics and us Ger-
mans there exists scarcely a relationship of ideas, not
to say blood-relationship). I have called attention on
one occasion to the embarrassment of Hesiod, when
contriving the sequence of the ages of civilisation and
seeking to express it in gold, silver and bronze: with
the contradictions presented to him by the glorious,
but likewise so awful, so violent world of Homer, he
could only settle by making two ages of one, which
he placed in succession — first the age of the heroes
and demigods of Troy and Thebes, as that world had
remained fixed in the memory of noble families, who
traced their ancestry back to it; then the age of
bronze, as that same world appeared to the descend-
ants of the down-trodden, robbed, maltreated, of those
led into captivity and sold as slaves: an age of bronze,FIRST ESSAY

43

as I mentioned, stern, cold, cruel, devoid of feeling
and of conscience, demolishing and dyeing all things
in blood. Assuming it to be true, what now at all
events is believed as "truth," that this is the very
sense of all civilisation: to change and rear the beast
of prey of " man " into a tame and civilised animal, a
domestic animal, — then undoubtedly all those instincts
of reaction and resentment, by the aid of which the
noble families and their ideals were at last overcome
and debased, would have to be regarded as the proper
tools of civilisationy which, however, would not mean
that the bearers of such tools represented civilisation
themselves. The contrary is not only probable — no ! it
is to-day evidential! These bearers of prostrating and
vengeance-craving instincts, the progeny of all Euro-
pean and non-European serfdom, of all pre-Aryan pop-
ulations in particular — they represent the decline of
mankind! These " tools of civilisation " are the shame
of man, and rather a suspicion, a counter-argument
against "civilisation" in general. We may be fully
right if the fear of the blond beast* lurking at the
bottom of all noble races, will not leave us, and if
we are on the look-out; but who would not a hundred
times sooner fear — if, at the same time, he may ad-
mire — than have nothing to fear, but, at the same time,
not be able to rid himself of the loathsome sight of
the ill-constituted, the stinted, the stunted and the
poisoned ? And is not this our doom ? What, to-day,44	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

constitutes our aversion from " man ?" For we suffer
from man, no doubt whatever! Not fear, but the fact
that we have no longer anything in man to fear; that
the vermin " man " is in the foreground and majority;
that "tame" man, man hale and hopelessly mediocre
and disagreeable has already learned to feel himself
as the end and aim, as the sense of history, as " higher
man;"—in fact that he has a certain right to feel
himself as such, inasmuch as he feels himself at a
distance from the superabundance of that which is
spoiled, sickly, weary and worn-out, of which Europe
begins to stink to-day, — hence, at any rate, as some-
thing relatively perfect, something still capable of life,
something still saying Yea to life ....

12

Here I shall not suppress a sigh and a last confi-
dence. What is it that just I find intolerable ? That,
which alone I cannot away with; which makes me
suffocate and pine ? Bad air! Bad air! That some-
thing ill-constituted comes near me; that I must smell
the entrails of an abortive soul! . . . . How much
need, privation, bad weather, sickness, hardship, iso-
lation, can we not ordinarily stand? In fact, we get
through everything else, born as we are for a subter-
ranean and warring existence; we always again suc-
ceed in coming up to light, we always again live toFIRST ESSAY

45

see our golden hour of victory, — and then we stand
as we have been born, infrangible, with tension, pre-
pared for things new, still more difficult, still more
distant, like some bow, which by every danger is
stretched only still more tightly. But from time to
time permit me — assuming that there are heavenly
patronesses, beyond Good and Evil — a glance, permit
me but one glance upon something perfect, something
completely finished, something happy, mighty, trium-
phant, in which there is still something to be feared!
Upon a man that justifies man; upon a complement-
ary, lucky and redeeming case of man, which vindi-
cates our faith in man! For thus it is: the dwarfing
and levelling of European man hides our greatest
danger, for this sight makes weary. We see, to-day,
nothing which will grow larger; we divine, that it
goes still downwards, ever downwards, downwards into
the thinner, into the more good-natured, the more
prudent, the more comfortable, the more mediocre, the
more indifferent, the more Chinese, the more Christian.
Man, no doubt whatever, grows ever "better" . . . .
Even here lies tho doom of Europe — with the fear
of man, we have lost also the love and reverence for
man, the hope in man, in fact, the will to man. The
sight of man now makes tired. What, to-day, is nihil-
ism if not this ? .... We are tired of man ....46

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

13

But to revert to our theme : the problem of the other
origin of " good," of "good " as conceived by the man
of resentment, calls for its settlement. —That the lamt
should bear a grudge to the big birds of prey, is no-
wise strange; but this is no reason for blaming the big
birds of prey for picking up small lambs. And if the
lambs say among themselves: " These rapacious birds
are wicked, and he who is as little as possible of a bird
of prey, but rather the opposite, i.e., a lamb — should
not he be good ?" we cannot find fault with the estab-
lishment of such an ideal, though the birds of prey
may make rather mocking eyes and say: " We do not
bear at all a grudge to them, these good lambs, we
even, love them. Nothing is more delicious than a
tender lamb." To demand of strength, that it should
not manifest itself as strength, that it should not be a
will to overpower, to subdue, to become master of, that
it should not be a thirst for enemies, resistance, and
triumphs, is as absurd as to demand of weakness that
it should manifest itself as strength. A quantum of
power is an equal quantum of impulse, will, action.
More correctly speaking, it is even this impelling, will-
ing, acting itself, and nothing else, — and it is caused to
appear otherwise only through the seduction of lan-
guage (and the cardinal errors of reason, fossilised in
language), which takes and mistakes all action as con-FIRST ESSAY

47

ditioned by something acting, by a "subject." Even
as the people will separate the lightning from its flash
and take the latter for the doing, the effect of a subject
called lightning, so popular morality will sever strength
from the manifestations of strength, as if behind the
strong man there existed an indifferent substratum
which is free to manifest strength or not. But there is
no such substratum ; there is no " being " behind doing,
acting, becoming. " The doer" is merely a fictitious
addition to the doing; the "doing" is all. People in
reality double the doing when they make the lightning
flash. That is a doing-doing; the same happening
being once posited as the cause and again as the effect
of the cause. Natural philosophers do not much better
when they say that power moves, power causes, and
the like. All our science, despite all its coolness, its
freedom from emotion, still labours under the seduction
of language and has not yet got rid if the changelings
which were foisted in, the "subjects" (the "atom," e.g.,
is one of these changelings, also the Kantian " thing in
itself"). No wonder, therefore, if the suppressed, and
secretly glowing emotions, hatred and revenge, avail
themselves of this belief and, in fact, support no belief
with so much zeal as this, that the strong are free to be
weak, and that a rapacious bird can, if it will, be a lamb.
For in this way they appropriate in their minds the
right of imputing to the bird of prey the fact that it is
rapacious .... If the suppressed, the down-trodden48

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

and the wronged, prompted by the craft of impotence,
say to themselves: " Let us be different from the bad,
let us be good! and good are all those, who wrong no
one, who never violate, who never attack, who never
retaliate, who entrust revenge to God, who, like us, live
aloof from the world, who avoid all contact with evil,
and who, altogether, demand little of life, as we do, the
patient, the humble, the just"—this means, viewed
coolly and unprejudicially, no more than : "We, the
v\ ak, are — it is a fact — weak; it is well for us not to
do anything, for which we are not strong enoughBut
this stern matter of fact, this meanest kind of prudence,
shared even by insects (which occasionally simulate
death, in order not to do " too much " in case of great
danger), has, thanks to the trickery and self-imposition
of impotence, clothed itself in the apparel of renounc-
ing, silent, abiding virtue, as if the weakness of the
weak one itself, i.e., presumably his being, his action,
his entire, unavoidable, inseparable reality — were a
voluntary performance, a thing self-willed, self-chosen,
a deed, a desert. To this kind of man, the necessity of
the belief in an indifferent, free-willed "subject" is
prompted by the instinct of self-preservation, self-asser-
tion,— an instinct by which every falsehood uses to
sanctify itself. The subject (or, speaking more popu-
larly, the soul) has perhaps been, so far, the best relig-
ious tenet on earth, even for the reason that it made
possible for the majority of mortals, the weak andFIRST ESSAY

49

oppressed of every description, 'chat sublime self-de-
fraudation of interpreting weakriess itself as freedom,
the fact of their being thus and thus as a desert.

M

Will some one look down and into the secret of the
way in which ideals are manufactured on earth ? Who
has the courage to do so ? Up ! Here the view into
this dark workshop is open. Yet a moment, my good
Sir Pry and Break-neck! Your eye must first get
accustomed to this false and fickle light .... So!
Elough! Now speak! What is going on below?
Speak out, what you see, man of most dangerous curi-
osity ! Now I am the listener. —

"I see n)thing, I hear the more. It is a cautious,
knavish, suppressed mumbling and muttering together
in every nook and corner. It seems to me they lie.
A sugared nildness cleaves to every sound. Weakness
is to be fals fied into desert, no doubt whatever — it is,
as you said." —

Go on !

—" And ii potence which requiteth not is to be
falsified into 'goodness;' timorous meanness into ' hu-
militysubnission to those, whom one hates, into
4 obedience' (namely to one, who they say commands
this obedieice; they call him God). The inoffensive-
ness of the * weak one,' cowardice itself in which he

EA G3NEAL0GY OF MORALS

is rich, his standing aSt the door, his unavoidable neces-
sity of waiting corned here by good names, such as
'patience;' they even call it the cardinal virtue. Not-
to-be-able-to-take-revenge is called not-to-will-revenge,
perhaps even forgiveness f°r they know not what
they do; we alone know what they do'). They also
talk of 'love for their enemies '—and sweat in doing
so."

On!

"They are wretched, no doubt, all these mumblers
and underground forgers, though warmly seated to-
gether. But they tell me that their wretchedness is a
selection and distinction from God, that the dogs which
are liked most are whipped, that their misery may, per-
haps, also be a preparation, a trial, a schooling, per-
haps even more — something which at seme time to
come will be requited and paid back with immense
interest in gold, no! in happiness. Thi? they call
'blessedness.'"

On!

"Now they will have me understand, 4nat not only
they are better than the mighty, the lords :>f the earth,
whose spittle they must lick (not from fear, no, not at
all from fear! but because God commaids to have
respect for all authority) — that not only tiey are bet-
ter, but are also, or certainly will be, ' bettr off' one
day. But enough! enough! I cannot stnd it any
longer. Bad air! Bad air! This work-sho in whichFIRST ESSAY

51

ideals are manufactured—methinks, it stinks from lying
all over."

No! Yet a moment! You have not yet said any-
thing of the masterpiece of these necromancers, who
from every black prepare white, milk and innocence.
Did you notice what the very acme of their raffinement
is, —their keenest, finest, subtlest, falsest artist manipu-
lation ? Mark well! These cellar-animals filled with
hatred and revenge — what is it they are making just
out of hatred and revenge ? Have you ever heard
such words? Would you believe, if trusting merely
their words, that you are all among beings of resent-
ment? ....

a

" I perceive, once again I open my ears (ah! ah !
ah! and shut my nose). Now only I hear, what they
were saying so often : 4 We, the good, we are the just'
What they ask for, they do not call retribution, but
'the triumph of justicewhat they hate, is not their
enemy, no! they hate 'wrong-doing/ and 4ungodli-
ness/ What they believe in, and hope for, is not the
hope of revenge, the drunkenness of sweet revenge
(— sweeter than honey, already Homer called it),
but 'the victory of God, just God, over the god-
less.' What remains for them to love on earth, is
not their brethren in hatred, but their 'brethren in
love,' as they say,—all the good and the just on
*earth."

And how do they call that which serves them as con-52

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

solation in all the sufferings of life — their phantas-
magoria of an anticipated future blessedness ?

" What ? Hear I right ? They call it ' the final
judgment,' the coming of their kingdom, of the 4 king-
dom of God!' Meanwhile they live ' in faith, in love,
in hope.'--Enough ! Enough ! "

15

In faith in what ? in love for what ? in hope of what ?
These weak ones (for at some time also they intend to
be the strong, no doubt whatever; at some time also
their " kingdom " is to come) " the kingdom of God "
they call it simply, as I remarked; for they are in
everything so lowly! If for no other purpose, to live
to see that) it is necessary to live long, beyond death,—
indeed, life everlasting is necessary in order that, in the
kingdom of God, they may be eternally indemnified for
the life on earth " in faith, in love, in hope." Indem-
nified what for ? Indemnified what with ? Dante, it
seems to me, made a gross mistake when, with fright-
ful ingenuity, he placed the inscription above the gate
to his hell "Me too eternal love created." Above the
door of the Christian paradise and its " eternal blessed-
ness " the inscription " Me too eternal hate created "
would certainly be more appropriate — granting a truth
to be appropriate above the entrance to a falsehood!
For what is the blessedness of that paradise ? WeFIRST ESSAY

53

might perhaps guess it; but it is better to have an
authority to testify to it, which, in such matters, is not
to be underestimated, Thomas of Aquino, the great
saint and teacher. "Beati in regno ccelestihe says,
meek as a lamb, " videbunt poenas damnatorum, ut
heatitudo illis magis complaceat." Or, shall
we hear it in a stronger tone, perhaps from the mouth
of a triumphant church-father, who dissuaded his Chris-
tians from the cruel pleasures of the public spectacles
— and why? "Faith," he says de spectac. c. 29 jx,
"presents unto us much more — and much stronger
things; thanks to salvation much greater joys are at
our disposal; in place of the athletes we have our
martyrs; will we blood, well, we have the blood, of
Christ .... But lo! what shall await us on the day
of his second advent, of his triumph ! " And then he
goes on, the delighted visionary: "At enim supersunt
alia spectacula, ille ultimus etperpetuus judicii dies, ille
nationibus insperatus, ille derisns, cum tanta sceculi ve-
tustas et tot ejus nativitates uno igne haurientur. Quce
tunc spectaculi latitudo! Quid admirer! Quid
rideam ! Ubi gaudeam ! JJbi eocultem, spectans
tot et tantos reges9 qui in ccelum recepti nuntiabantur,
cum ipso Jove et ipsis suis testibus in imis tenebris con-
gemescentes ! Item prcesides (provincial governors) per-
secutor es dominici nominis scevioribus quam ipsi Jlammis
scevierunt insultantibus contra Christianos liquescentes !
Quos prceterea sapientes illos philosophos coram disci•54

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

pulis suis una conjlagrantibus erubescentes, quibus nihil
ad deurn pertinere suadebant, quibus animas aut nullas
aui non in pristina corpora redituras affirmabant!
Etiam poetas non ad Rhadamanti nec ad Minois, sed
ad inopinati Christi tribunal palpitantes ! Tunc magis
tragcedi audiendi, magis scilicet vocales (better with
voice, still worse shouters) in sua propria calamitate;
tunc histriones cognoscendi, solutiores multo per ignem ;
tunc spectandus auriga in flammea rota totus rub ens y
tunc xystici contemplandi non in gymnasiis, sed in igne
jaculati, nisi quod ne tunc quidem illos velim vivos, ut
qui malim ad eos potius conspectum insatiabilem, con-
ferred qui in dominum descevierunt. ' Hie est ille, dicam,
fabri aut qucestuari<z jilius (as is shown by all that fol-
lows, and more especially by this denotation of the
mother of Jesus, known from the Talmud,— Tertullian
from now on is speaking of the Jews), sabbati de-
structor, Samarites et dczmonium habens. Hie estt
quern a Juda redemistis, hie est ille arundine et cola-
phis diverberatus, sputamentis de-decoratusy felle et aceto
potatus. Hie esty quem clam discentes subripuerunt, ut
resurrexisse dicatur vel hortulanus detraxit, ne lactuca
suce frequentia commeantium IcederenturUt talia
spectes, ut talibus exultes, quis tibi prcetor aut
consul aut qucestor aut sacerdos de sua liberalitate
prcestabit ? Et tamen hcec jam habemus quodammodo
per fidem spiritu imaginante reprcesentata. Ceterum
qualia ilia sunt, quce nec oculus vidit nec auris audivitFIRST ESSAY

55

nec in cor hominis ascenderunt ? (I Cor. 2, 9.) Credo
circo et utraque cavea (first and fourth rank or, accord-
ing to others, comic and tragic stage) et omni stadio
gratiora ."—JPer fidem : thus it is written.

16

Let us come to a close ! The two antithetical values
"good and bad," "good and evil" have fought a terri-
ble battle, a battle lasting thousands of years. And
though undoubtedly the second of these values has
long since succeeded in getting the upper hand, yet
places are not wanting even now, where the struggle is
continued with doubtful issue. We might even say,
that the struggle was, in the meantime, shifted into ever
higher regions and even thereby became ever deeper,
ever more spiritual; so that to-day perhaps no more
distinctive characteristic of a " higher nature," of a
more spiritual nature exists, than to be dual in this
sense and still a battle-ground for these antitheses.
The symbol of this struggle, written in letters which
remained readable, above the entire history of man
until now, is called "Rome against Judea, Judea
against Rome." So far no greater event has occurred
than this struggle, this question, this deadly inimical
antithesis. Rome felt in the Jew something like the
embodiment of anti-natu!*alness, its anti-podal monster,
as it were ; in Rome the Jew was looked upon as "con-56

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

victed of hatred against all mankind;" and rightly so,
in so far as we have a right to connect the welfare and
future of mankind with the unconditional dominance of
aristocratic values, Roman values. The feelings, on
the other hand, of the Jews against Rome ? A thou-
sand signs enable us to guess what they were; but it
will suffice once again to call to mind the Johannean
Apocalypse, that vilest of all written outbursts of which
revenge is guilty. (By the way : let us not undervalue
the keen, logical consistency of the Christian instinct,
which it showed, when it superscribed just this book of
hatred with the name of the disciple of love, that same
disciple to whom it assigned that gospel of love-enthusi-
asm. This fact evinces a bit of truth, however much
literary counterfeiting may have been necessary for that
purpose.) The Romans, we know, were the strong and
the noble, so that stronger and nobler men had never
existed on earth before, nay, had not even been dreamt
of. Every relic of them, every inscription delights,
granted that one feels what is writing therein. The
Jews, on the contrary, were that priestly people of
resentment par excellence, which was possessed of an
ynparalleled, popular ingenuity of morals. Let one but
compare to them the similarly gifted peoples, the
Chinese, perhaps, or the Germans, to form an idea as
to what is of the first rank and what is of the fifth rank.
Which of the two has gained the victory for the time
being, Rome or Judea ? But there is no doubt whatever ?FIRST ESSAY

57

Let us but consider to whom to-day people bow in
Rome as to the essence of all the highest values — and
not only in Rome, but almost over half the globe,
wherever man either has become tame, or is about to
become so. To three Jews, as is known, and one Jewess
(to Jesus of Nazareth, Peter the fisherman, Paul the
tentmaker, and the mother of the aforesaid Jesus,
called Maria). This is very remarkable: Rome, beyond
all doubt, did succumb. True enough that the Renais-
sance witnessed a dazzlingly-haunted reawakening of the
classic ideal, of the noble manner of valuation in all
things: Rome itself moved, like some asphyctic coming
back to life, beneath the pressure of the new, Judaised
Rome built upon it, which presented the aspect of an
ecumenical synagogue and was called " Church." But
forthwith Judea triumphed again, thanks to that
thoroughly moblike (German and English) movement
of resentment, called the Reformation, — added thereto,
what had to follow, the restoration of the Church, the
restoration also of the sepulchral silence of classic
Rome. Once again, in an even still more decisive and
deeper sense, Judea triumphed over the classic ideal
through the French revolution: the last political no-
blesse in Europe, that of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth French centuries, broke down under the popular
resentment-instincts. Never a louder jubilation, a more
tumultuous enthusiasm was heard on earth ! True it is
that in the very midst of this event the most extraordi-A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

nary, the most unexpected thing happened: the antique
ideal appeared bodily and with unheard-of splendour
before eyes and conscience of humanity, — and once
again, more strongly, more plainly, more forcibly than
ever, against the old, false battle-cry of resentment
about the right of the most, against the will to the
grading, degradation, and levelling, to the downward
and dusk-ward of man, — resounded the terrible and
rapturous counter-cry of the privilege of the fewest!
Like some last hint pointing to the other road appeared
Napoleon, that most isolated and latest-born of men that
ever was; and in him appeared the incarnate problem
of the noble ideal as such. Let it be well considered
what kind of problem this is: Napoleon, this synthesis
of monster and beyondman ....

17

Was this the end of it ? Was therewith that greatest
of all ideal antitheses laid ad acta for all times ? Or
merely adjourned, adjourned for a long time ? Might
there not be, at some time or other, a necessity for a
still more terrible, a still longer prepared-for blazing up
of the old conflagration ? Nay, is not even this to be
wished for as much as possible? Even to be willed?
Even to be furthered ? Whoso, like my readers, begins,
at this place, to reflect, to reflect further, will not very
likely come soon to an end, — reason enough for me, toFIRST ESSAY

59

come to an end myself, provided that it has long since
become sufficiently clear what I will, what I will just
with that dangerous watchword, written on the body of
my last book: "Beyond Good and Evil" .... This
does, at any rate, not mean " Beyond Good and Bad."

Note. I take the opportunity presented by this essay, publicly and
formally to express a wish so far only mentioned by myself in occasional
conversation with scholars: that some Faculty of Arts should, by adver-
tising a number of academical prize-dissertations, deserve well of the
furtherance of studies in the history of morality. Possibly this book will
serve to give a rigorous impetus in even this direction. With a view to a
possibility of this kind let the following question be proposed. It deserves
attention on the part of students of the Humanities and historians as well
as of professional students of philosophy.

" What hints are furnished by philology, more especially by etymological
research, with reference to the history of the development of moral concepts ? "

On the other hand, it is, of course, quite as essential, to gain the sym-
pathy of Physiologists and students of medicine for these problems (of the
value of the valuations of the past) : in which undertaking it may be left
to professional philosophers to be, in this particular case, as in others, the
spokesmen and mediators, after having succeeded on the whole in chang-
ing the relations between philosophy, physiology and the science of medicine
— which were originally so prudish, so jealous — into the friendliest and
fruitfullest exchange. And, in fact, all tables of goods, every " thou shalt"
known to historical or ethnological research, call first of all for physiological
consideration and interpretation, at any rate sooner than for psychological.
All, likewise, await criticism from the side of medical science. The ques-
tion : what is this or that table of goods and " morality " worth ? must be
viewed from the most widely different perspectives; especially, " the worth
forivhat? cannot be analysed with sufficient delicacy. A factor, which,
for instance, possesses evident value with reference to the greatest durabil-
ity of a race (or an increase of its powers of adaptation to a certain climate,
or the preservation of the greatest number) would by no means possess
the same value, if the problem were the formation of a stronger type. The
welfare of the greatest number and the welfare of the smallest number are6o

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

antithetical points-of-view of valuation. To regard the former as being by
itself of higher value, — this we shall leave to the simplicity of English
biologists .... All sciences now must do the preparatory work for the
future task of the philosopher : understanding this task to be, that the phi-
losopher has to solve the problem of value% that he has to determine the
rank-sequence of values.SECOND ESSAY

"GUILT," "BAD CONSCIENCE," AND
THE LIKEI

To rear an animal, which may premise,—is not even
this that paradoxical task which nature has set herself,
as regards man ? Is not even this the true problem of
man ? . . . . That this problem has, to a considerable
extent, been solved, must seem all the more astonishing
to any one capable of duly appreciating the reversely
operative force, — that of forgetfillness. Forgetfulness
is not merely a vis inerticel as superficial people be-
lieve; on the contrary, it is an active, and, in the
strictest sense, a positive faculty of check, to which
must be attributed the fact that whatever we live to see,
whatever we experience and receive into ourselves,
does not rise into consciousness during the state of
digestion (which state we might call inanimation); no
more so, than the entire, thousandfold process, by
which the nourishment of our body — so-called " incor-
poration " — is carried on. To close, for certain times,
the doors and windows of our consciousness; to remain
undisturbed by the noise and feud, with which the
serving organs of our nether-world operate for and
against one another; a little silence, a little tabula rasa
of consciousness, in order to make room for something
new, especially for the nobler functions and function-

6364

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

aries, for governing, fore-seeing, predetermining (for
our organism is constituted oligarchically) — such is
the advantage of—as we called it — active forgetfulness,
comparable to a door-keeper and preserver of the order
of soul, of peace and etiquette; which fact makes ap-
parent at once the reason miythere can be no hap-
piness, no cheerfulness, no hope, no pride, no presence
— without forgetfulness. The man, in whom this
apparatus of checking is injured and stops may be
compared (and not only be compared) to one suffering
from dyspepsia — he never gets beyond things . . . .
Even this of necessity forgetful animal, in which the
forgetting represents a force, a form of vigorous health,
has reared and acquired for itself a counter-faculty, a
memory by the aid of which, in certain cases, forgetful-
ness is unhinged — for those cases, to wit, in which a
promise is to be made. Hence this is not merely a
passive not-to-be-able-to-get-rid-of an impression once
imprinted; not merely the indigestion caused by a
word pledged at some former time with which one
cannot settle accounts; but an active not-to-^z'/Z-to-get-
rid-of, a continuous willing of that which once has been
willed, a specific memory of will; so that between the
original " I will," " I shall do " and the actual discharge
of will, its act, we may unhesitatingly interpose a world
of new and foreign things, circumstances and even
acts of will, without causing this long chain of willing
to break. But what does all this presuppose ? HowSECOND ESSAY

65

must man, in order to be able in this wise to dispose of
the future, have learned to distinguish between neces-
sary and accidental happening; to think causally; to
see, as though it were present, and anticipate what is
distant; to posit with certainty what constitutes the
end and what the means for the end; and, in general,
to be able to reckon and calculate; — how reckonable,
regular and necessary must man himself have become,
also to himself, to his own consciousness, in order to be
able finally, in the manner of one making a promise, to
guarantee for himself as for a future.

2

Just this is the long story of the origin of responsi-
bility. That task of rearing an animal which may
promise, involves, as we have seen already, by way of
condition and preparation the more immediate task of
making man, in the first place, in some degree neces-
sary, uniform, equal among equal beings, regular and
consequently reckonable. The gigantic labour of that
which I have called "morality of custom" (cf. Dawn
of the Day, aph. 9, 14, 16) — the, specific labour of man
at himself during the longest period of the existence of
mankind, the entire prehistoric work of man, receives
its sense and grand justification by this fact, however
much of rigour, tyranny, stupidity and idiocy may
attach to such work : with the aicl of morality of custom

F66

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

and the social strait-jacket, man was made really reck-
onable. But if we place ourselves at the end of this
gigantic process, there where the tree matures its
fruits, where society and its morality of custom at last
gives birth to that for which it was but the means: we
shall find as the ripest fruit pendent from the tree, the
sovereign individual, like to itself alone, delivered from
the morality of custom, autonomous, supermoral (for
" autonomous" and "moral" are mutually preclusive
terms), in short, the man of private, independent and
long will who may promise — and in him a proud con-
sciousness vibrating in all his fibres, of that which finally
has been attained and realised in his person, a true
consciousness of power and freedom, a feeling of
human perfection in general. This freed one, who is
really allowed to promise, this master of a free will,
this sovereign — surely, he cannot be ignorant of what
a superiority he is given by such a will over everything
which is not allowed to promise and pledge for itself;
how much confidence, how much fear, how much rever-
ence he creates (he deserves all three); and how, with
this mastery over his self, he has also been intrusted
with the mastery over circumstances, nature, and all
creatures possessed of a shorter will and less trustwor-
thy than himself. The '4free" man, the possessor of a
long, infrangible will, h£S, in this possession, his stand-
ard of valuation; judging others by himself he will
either honour or despise, and with the same necessitySECOND ESSAY

6/

with which he honours his equals, the strong and the
reliable (those that may promise), — every one, to wit,
who promises as a sovereign does, reluctantly, rarely,
slowly, who is niggard of his confidence, who distin-
guishes by confiding, whose word is given as something
which can be depended upon, because he feels himself
strong enough to keep it even against misfortunes, ay,
even against fate. With the same necessity he will
hold his kick in readiness for the slender greyhounds
that promise without having the right to do so, and his
scourge for the liar who breaks his word in the very
moment when it 'scapes his lips. The proud know-
ledge of the extraordinary privilege of responsibility,
the consciousness of this rare freedom, of this power
over self and fate, has penetrated into the inmost depth
of his personality and become instinct, dominating in-
stinct : — by what name will he call it, this dominating
instinct, supposing, that he personally needs a word for
it? But there can be no doubt: this sovereign man
will call it his conscience ....

3

His conscience? .... It can be told in advance,
that the concept " conscience," which here presents
itself to us in its final, almost strange phase of devel-
opment, had before reaching this stage experienced
a long history and transmutation of forms. To be68

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

able to pledge for one's self and to be, consequently,
also able to say yes to one's self — this, as I said, is
a ripe fruit, but it is also a late fruit. How long it
had to remain pendent from the tree in a state of
bitter, acid taste! And for a still longer time noth-
ing could be seen of such a fruit! No one was allowed
to promise it, though certainly the entire tree was in
a state of preparation for and growth towards this
very fruit! "How may a memory be made for the
animal man? How may this superficial, this half
blunted, half giddy understanding, this walking forget-
fulness, be impressed in such a manner as will leave
a permanent mark	This primeval problem

was, as may be supposed, not solved exactly with deli-
cate answers and means; indeed, perhaps nothing in
the early history of man is so terrible and so awful
as his mnemotechny. " In order to make a thing
stay, it must be burned into memory; only that which
never ceases to hurt, remains fixed in memory; " these
are among the fundamental truths of the oldest (un-
fortunately also longest) psychology on earth. We
might even say that wherever on earth solemnity,
earnestness, mystery and sombre colours are still to
be found in the life of men and peoples, something
of the terribleness operates still with which promises,
pledges and vows were made in former times. The
past, the longest, deepest, sternest past breathes upon
us and rises within us whenever we grow "earnest.,,SECOND ESSAY

69

Blood, tortures, sacrifices were indispensable whenever
man found it necessary to make a memory for himself;
the most frightful sacrifices and pledges (in which
category are included the offerings of the first-born),
the most abominable mutilations {e.g., castrations), the
most barbarous ritual observances in all religious cults
(all religions are at the lowest bottom systems of cruel-
ties) — all these things owe their origin to that instinct,
which found out pain mental and physical to be the
most potent adjutory means of mnemonics. In a cer-
tain sense asceticism altogether falls under this head:
a few ideas are to be rendered indelible, omnipresent,
unforgettable, "fixed," for the purpose of hypnotising
the entire nervous and intellectual system by means
of these "fixed ideas" — and the ascetic procedures
and forms of life furnish the means for freeing these
ideas from competition with all the other ideas, for
rendering them "unforgettable." The poorer the
memory of mankind, the more terrible the aspect
which its customs present! The rigour of the penal
laws, especially, furnishes us with a standard for the
trouble it had to take in mastering forgetfulness and
in keeping present a few primitive requirements of
social life to these fickle-mooded slaves of emotion and
desire. We Germans certainly do not consider our-
selves to be an extraordinarily cruel and hard-hearted
people, nor a people over-much addicted to thoughtless-
ness and unconcernedness for the morrow; but a mere70

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

glance at our ancient penal codes will serve to convey
an idea of the effort expended in the task of rear-
ing a " nation of thinkers" (rather say: that nation
in Europe, in which at this very day the maximum
amount of confidence, earnest tastelessness and matter-
of-factness is to be found, and which, with such endow-
ments, is entitled to rear every variety of European
mandarins). By the aid of terrible means these Ger-
mans have made for themselves a memory to conquer
their fundamental mob-instincts and their brutal blunt-
ness. We but call to mind the ancient German pun-
ishments, " stoning" for instance (already the legend
makes the millstone fall on the head of the evil-doer),
the rack (the most private invention and specialty of
German genius in the domain of punishment!), the
operation of piercing the criminal with pales, the pun-
ishment of being mangled and trampled upon by horses
(" quartering"), the seething of the criminal in oil or
wine (as late as the fourteenth and fifteenth century),
the favourite punishment of flaying (" slice-cutting"),
the cutting of flesh out of the breast, and I suppose
also the painting of the evil-doer with honey and subse-
quent exposure to the flies in hot sunshine. By means
of such pictures and performances the memory will
at last take hold of some five or six " I-will-nots " in
regard to which it has made its promise, in order to
enjoy the boons of society — and sure enough! by
means of this kind of memory people at last becameSECOND ESSAY

71

" reasonable ! " Alas, reason, earnestness, the mastery
over the emotions, the entire, dreary affair ca*' ed re-
flection, all these privileges and pageants of man, how
dearly they have ultimately been paid for! how much
blood and horror is at the bottom of all "good
things

4

But how did that other "dreary affair,"—the con-
sciousness of guilt, the whole of "bad conscience"
come to make its appearance upon earth ? — And this
brings us back to our genealogists of morals. Once
again I say — or, is this the first time I say so ? they
are good for nothing. A mere "modern" subjective
experience, some five spans in length! no knowledge,
no will to know the past, still less any historical in-
stinct, any gift of "second sight," which just for our
problem is necessary! and, for all that, to practise
" history of morals!" It is but reasonable that this
should have results the relations of which to truth
are rather more than prudish. Have these geneal-
ogists of morality who lived heretofore ever had even
so much as an inkling of the fact, that, e.g., that funda-
mental notion of morality "guilt" takes its origin from
the very material notion " debts ?" Or that punish-
ment as a retaliation developed quite aloof from every
presupposition as to the freedom or not-freedom of
the will? — and so much so, that always a very ad-72	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

vanced stage of humanisation must first be reached
before the animal "man" may begin to make those
much more primitive distinctions "intentional," "neg-
ligent," "accidental," "responsible," and their antith-
eses, cind to turn them to account in the administration
of punishment. That idea now so cheap and seem-
ingly so natural, so inevitable, which I suppose was
even made to serve the purpose of an explanation of
the origin of the feeling of justice upon earth, — the
idea, that the malefactor deserves punishment because
he might have acted otherwise, is, in fact, an extremely
late, nay, a refined form of human judgment and rea-
soning; and he, who puts it into the beginning of
history, will, very indelicately, sin against the psychol-
ogy of early mankind. During the longest period of
man's history punishment was not inflicted for the
reason that the offender was held responsible for his
deed; that is to say, not upon the supposition that the
guilty party alone was to be punished; but rather, for
that same reason for which parents even now-a-days
punish their children: from anger over a damage done,
\^iich anger vents itself against the wrong-doer, but
is, at the same time, checked and modified by the idea,
that every damage finds its equivalent in some thing or
other and can actually be paid off, perhaps even by
the wrong-doer's pain. Whence, ye ask, the power
of this ancient, deep-rooted, and now perhaps inexstir-
pable idea, the idea of an equivalence of wrong andSECOND ESSAY

73

pain? I have already betrayed the secret: — in the
agreement between creditor and debtor, which is as old
as the very existence of legal parties, and which in
its turn points back to the fundamental forms of buy-
ing and selling, exchange 01 coiximcrce ?nd intercourse.

5

The representation to ourselves of these circum-
stances of agreement will of course, as is but natural
to expect from all that has been said, give rise to
much suspicion and antagonism against early mankind
which created and permitted them. Just here promises
are made; just here the problem is to make a memory
for him who promises; just here, as we may suppose,
will be a storehouse of all that is stern, cruel and
painful. To awaken confidence for the promise of
payment made by him, to guarantee the earnestness
and sacredness of his promise, to impress his own con-
sciousness with the fact that payment is an obligation
and duty, the debtor will, by virtue of his agreement,
consign by way of security in case of nonpayment to
the creditor something which he still " possesses," —
his body, e.g., or his wife or his freedom or his life
(or even, under certain religious presuppositions, his
blessedness, the salvation of his soul, and finally even
his peace in the grave: such was the case in Egypt,
where not even the grave afforded rest to the body74

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

of the deL*or from the pursuit of his creditor, — true
enough, that precisely in the case of the Egyptians
this rest was something very peculiar). More espe-
cially, the creditor could subject the body of the debtor
to all kinds of insult and torture, e.g., cut so much
from it as seemed adequate to the magnitude of the
debt; and, proceeding from this point of view, there
existed everywhere, at an early date, careful estima-
tions, often frightfully minute and circumstantial and
sanctioned by law, as to the value of individual limbs
and parts of the body. I regard it as a step in ad-
vance and as the proof of a freer, more liberally judg-
ing, more Roman conception of law, when the Roman
code of the twelve tables decreed the large or small
quantity, which the creditors cut out in such a case, to
be a matter of indifference "si plus minusve secuerunt,
ne fraude esto." Let us make clear to ourselves the
logic of this form of compensation: it is strange
enough! The equivalence is brought in in this man-
ner that, in place of some direct advantage covering
the loss (that is to say, in place of compensation by
way of money, land or property of any kind) the cred-
itor is conceded a sort of pleasurable feeling as his
remuneration and compensation, — the feeling of pleas-
ure arising from an arbitrary manifestation of power
against some less powerful being, the keen delight
"de faire le mal pour le plaisir de le faire," the joy of
doing violence: which joy will be appreciated moreSECOND ESSAY

7 5

highly according as the position of the creditor is
lower and farther down in the scale of society, and
which he is very apt to regard as a delicious morsel,
nay, the prelibation of a higher rank. By the admin-
istration of punishment against the debtor, the creditor
will become a sharer in a privilege of the masters. At
last he also will for once be inspired by the elevating
feeling of being allowed to despise and maltreat some-
body as being " lower than himself "— or, at any rate,
in case the proper power of punishment, the executive
power, has already passed to the authorities, the feel-
ing of seeing him despised and maltreated. The co n-
pensation, therefore, consists in a grant and claim upon
cruelty.

6

In this sphere, i.e., the sphere of the law of obliga-
tion, the cradle of the world of moral concepts is to
be found, — "guilt," "conscience," "duty," "sacredness
of duty." Their origin, as the origin of everything
great on earth, was for a long time sprinkled and thor-
oughly saturated with blood. And might we not add
that this world never again could rid itself entirely of
a certain smell of blood and torture? (Not even ex-
cepting the old Kant: the categorical imperative smells
of cruelty . ... ) Here also that dismal — and now
perhaps inseparable — combination of the ideas of
"guilt and suffering" was first made. To put the;6

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

question once again : in what way may suffering be a
compensation for "debts ?" In that the act of making
another suffer produced the highest kind of pleasure;
in that the loss (to which must be added the vexation
caused by the loss) brought, by way of exchange, to
the damaged party a most remarkable counter-pleas-
ure : the making another suffer, — a true festival, as
it were, — something which, as I said, was valued the
more highly, the greater the contrast between it and
the rank and social position of the creditor. This,
however, I offer merely by way of conjecture: for the
bottom of these subterranean things it is difficult to
see, — disregarding even the fact that such a sight is
painful; and he who with heavy hand throws between
tliese things the concept of "revenge," will, instead of

making the task easier for himself, rather cut off and

i

obscure his own view (for revenge leads, in its turn,
back to the same problem, " How can the act of mak-
ing another suffer be a satisfaction ?"). The feeling of
delicacy, and still more the tartuffism of tame, domesti-
cated animals (rather say — of modern men, rather say
— of us) abhors, it seems to me, the energetic repre-
sentation of the extent to which cruelty constituted
the great festive joy of early mankind, and, in fact, is
admixed as a necessary ingredient of nearly all their
joys; and on the other hand, the representation of the
naivetiy the innocence with which this desire of cruelty
manifests itself; of the deliberate manner in whichSECOND ESSAY

77

" disinterested malignity " (or, in the words of Spinoza,
sympathia malevolens) is posited as a normal attribute
of man, i.e., as something to which his conscience with
hearty will says Yes ! A keener eye will perhaps be
aware even now of much of this oldest and most thor-
ough of man's festive joys. In Beyond Good and Evil,
apli. 188 (and before that in Dawn of the Day, aph. 18,
77, 113), I have pointed out, with cautious finger, the
steadily increasing spiritualisation and " divinification "
of cruelty, which twines through the entire history of
higher civilisation (and which, if taken in a deeper
sense, even constitutes it). At any rate, the period is
not yet so very distant, when princely weddings and
first-class popular celebrations were inconceivable with-
out executions, tortures or an auto-da-fe; and when,
similarly, an aristocratic family was inconceivable with-
out a being against whom all were at liberty to direct
the shafts of their malice and banter. We recall, for
instance, the case of Don Quixote at the court of the
duchess. In reading Don Quixote we modern readers
experience a bitter sensation upon our tongues, almost
a torture, and hence we should, for this very reason,
appear very unintelligible and unfathomable to the
author of it and his contemporaries. They read it
with the very best conscience, as the most cheerful
of books; they would almost — split with laughter.
To see another suffer is pleasant; to make another
suffer is still more pleasant — a stern dictum this is,A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

but also a fundamental proposition, old, mighty, human,
all-too-human, which, perhaps, even the apes would sign.
For we are told that, in the devising of bizarre cruel-
ties, the apes abundantly announce and, as it were,
"prelude" man. No festival without cruelty: thus the
oldest and longest history of man teaches us — and in
punishment, also, there is so much that is festival!

7

With such thoughts I am, by the bye, not at all will-
ing to supply a fresh current of water for our pessi-
mists upon their jarring and ill-sounding mill-wheels
of life-weariness; on the contrary, we expressly attest
the fact, that formerly, when mankind did not as yet
feel ashamed of its cruelty, life on earth was more pleas-
ant than now that there exist pessimists. The darken-
ing of the sky above man has ever increased in the same
latio that man's shame of man kept growing. The
weary, pessimistic look, the mistrust towards the riddle
of life, the chilling No of the surfeit of life — these are
not the symptoms of the evilest periods of humanity.
On the contrary, being swamp-plants, they appear only
when the swamp to which they belong has sprung into
existence. By that I mean the sickly effeminacy and
moralisation, by means of which the animal " man " is
taught to feel ashamed at last of all his instincts. On
the road to become an "angel" (not to use a harderSECOND ESSAY

79

word in this connection) man has reared for himself
that spoiled stomach and "furred" tongue, which ren-
dered obnoxious to him not only the pleasure and inno-
cence of the animal, but made life itself of ill taste to
him: — so that at times he will stand before himself
with shut nose and sum up, disapproving of them, the
catalogue of his disagreeableness (" impure generation,
nauseous alimentation in the womb, meanness of the
matter from which man develops, fearful stench, secre-
tion of saliva, urine and filth "). Now that " suffering"
always is made to march along as the first of the argu-
ments against existence, and as the most serious inter-
rogation mark of it, we do well to recall the times in
which the reverse opinion prevailed, because the pleas-
ure of making another suffer was held to be indispen-
sable and constituted a most potent charm, a special
bait of seduction to life. Peradventure pain in those
days — so much by way of consolation to tenderlings
— did not smart so much as now; thus at least would
a physician be allowed to infer who has treated negroes
(taking the negro as representative of prehistoric man)
in cases of serious internal inflammation, such as drive
almost to despair even the soundest-constitutioned
European. This is not the case with negroes. (The
curve of man's receptivity for pain seems, in fact, to
undergo an uncommonly rapid and almost sudden
lowering, as soon as the upper ten-thousand or ten-
million of over-civilisation are once left behind, and I, forSo

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

my part, do not doubt that, compared with one single
painful night of one single, hysterical, dainty woman
of culture, the sufferings of all animals so far ques-
tioned, knife in hand, with a view to scientific answers,
simply fall out of consideration.) Perchance the possi-
bility is even admissible that this delight in cruelty has,
in reality, not altogether become extinct: but that, in
proportion to the augmented intensity of pain now-a-
days, it only requires a certain sublimation and sub-
tilisation; it would, more especially, have to be trans-
planted into the territory of the imaginative and the
intellectual; and be decorated with nothing but names
so innocent as to banish every suspicion from even
the most delicate hypocritical conscience. "Tragic
pity " is such a name; another is " les nostalgies de la
croix" That which makes man revolt against suffer-
ing, is not suffering as such, but the senselessness of
suffering: neither for the Christian, however, who
interpreted into suffering a complete system of secret
machinery of salvation, nor for the na'fve man of still
earlier times, who contrived to interpret all suffering
with a view to the spectator and the begetter of suf-
fering, did this senseless suffering exist. In order to
make it possible to banish from the world and honestly
deny all hidden, undiscovered and unwitnessed suffer-
ing, man in those days was almost forced to invent
gods and intermediary beings of every rank and degree,
something, in short, also straying in secret abodes, see-SECOND ESSAY

8l

ing in the dark, and not very likely to let any interesting
and painful exhibition escape its notice. By means of
such inventions, to wit, life then practised the feat, which
it has ever practised, — the feat of self-vindication, of
vindicating its own "ills." At present other adjutory
inventions would seem to be necessary for this purpose
(life for instance regarded as riddle, or life as problem of
perception). "All ills are justified, the sight of which
edifies a god:" so ran in times of yore the logic of
feeling. And rightly considered, did it so run only in
times of yore ? The gods conceived as the friends of
cruel spectacles, — oh, how far this primeval concep-
tion reaches over and into our European humanisation!
On this point Calvin, or Luther e.g., may be consulted.
Certain it is at any rate that a people as late as the
Greeks could think of no more delicious condiment of
the happiness of its gods than the pleasures of cruelty.
With what kind of eyes, do you think, Homer made
his gods look down upon the fortunes of man ? What
was the ultimate meaning of Trojan wars and similar
tragic enormities ? No doubt whatever: they were
intended as festive games for the gods : and very likely,
in so far as in such matters the poet — more than the
rest of mankind — is of " godlike" tribe, as festive
games also for poets .... Quite in the same manner,
later on the moral philosophers of Greece represented
to themselves the eyes of God as looking down upon
the moral struggle, the heroism and self-torment of the

G82

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

virtuous: the " Herakles of duty " acted upon a stage
and was conscious of this fact; virtue without witnesses
was something quite inconceivable to this nation of
actors. Might we not suppose, that that daring and so
extremely fatal invention of the philosophers then first
made for Europe, the invention of " free will," of abso-
lute spontaneity of man as regards Good and Evil, was
made with the express purpose of getting the right to
have the concept, that the interest of the gods in man,
and human virtue, could never be exhausted? On this
terrene stage truly novel things — unheard-of agita-
tions, complications, catastrophes — must never be
wanting; such was their idea. An exclusively deter-
ministically conceived world would have been divinable
for gods, and thereby, before long also fatiguing,—
reason enough for these friends of the gods, the philoso-
phers, not to impute to them such a deterministic
world! All mankind of antiquity is full of delicate
considerations for the "spectator,"—being, as it was,
an essentially public, an essentially ostentatious world
to which happiness without feasts and spectacles was
inconceivable. — And, once again, in grand punishment
also, there is so much that is festival.

8

The feeling of guilt—to resume the trend of our
investigation — and of personal obligation has, as we
have seen, its origin in the oldest and most primitiveSECOND ESSAY

personal relationship which ever existed, — the relation-
ship between buyer and seller, creditor and debtor.
Here for the first time person stood face to face with
person, here for the first time person weighed itself
with person. No stage of civilisation, however inferior
it might be, has yet been found without a trace of this
relationship being noticeable. To fix prices, to adjust
values, to invent equivalents, to exchange things — all
this has to such an extent preoccupied the first and
earliest thought of man, that, in a certain sense, it con-
stitutes thinking itself: here the oldest kind of sagacity
was reared, here likewise the first beginning of man's
pride, of his feeling of superiority as against the re-
maining animal world, might be supposed to be found.
Perhaps our word " man " (manas) expresses something
of even this self-assertion. Man named himself as the
being which weighs values, which weighs and values,
as the " valuing animal as such." Buying and selling,
together with their psychological appurtenances, ante-
date even the beginnings of any forms of social or-
ganisation and corporation. The nascent feeling of
interchange, contract, debt, right, obligation, adjustment
was transferred from the most rudimentary form of
personal right to the crudest and most incipient social
complexes (in their relation to similar complexes) to-
gether with the custom of comparing, measuring, cal-
culating might by might. For the eye was adjusted
to this perspective. And with that heavy consistencyA GENEALOGY OF MORALS

peculiar to the clumsily-moving (but if once in motion,
persistently moving in one direction) thought of early
mankind, the grand generalisation was soon arrived at
" that all things have their own price; that everything
can be paid off"—the oldest and most nai've moral
canon of justice, the beginning of all "goodnaturedness,"
of all " equity/' " good will," and " objectivity " on
earth. Justice in this first stage means the good will
among people who are possessed of approximately
equal power, to come to a mutual agreement and
"understanding" by way of adjustment—and, as
regards the less powerful, to compel them to accept
some adjustment.

9

If measured by the standard of primeval times (which
primeval times, by the bye, are at all times either
present or again possible), the community finds itself
in the same important relation to its members, — the
relation of the creditor to his debtors. We live as
members of a community, we enjoy the advantages of
a community (oh, what advantages! we sometimes
underrate them now-a-days), we live sheltered and
shielded, in peace and confidence, quite at ease as re-
gards certain injuries and hostilities to which the man
without, the peaceless one, is exposed. Every German
is alive to the significance attaching to the originalSECOND ESSAY

85

meaning of the German word for misery, ilend;1 and
it is just with regard to these injuries and hostilities
that peopfe have bound and pledged themselves to the
community, If they do not so, what will happen ?
Community, the disappointed creditor, will have itself
indemnified, as well as possible; thus much is certain.
The question here has least to do with the immediate
damage occasioned by the clamager. Apart from it,
the criminal is, first of all, a " breaker," — a breaker of
a contract and of a word given —• towards the whole, in
regard to all possessions and advantages of the common
weal of which up to that time he had enjoyed his share.
The criminal is a debtor, who not only fails to pay back
the advantages and advances received, but even ag-
gresses his creditor. Hence he forfeits, justly enough,
for the future not only all these possessions and advan-
tages,— but, besides, he is now again reminded as to the
real meaning of these possessions* The an ger of the dam-
aged creditor — community—plunges him back into
the wild, out-law condition, against which so far protec-
tion had been granted him. Community repudiates
him, and now all sorts of hostilities may wreak them-
selves upon him. "Punishment/* in this stage of
civilisation, is simply the image, the mimus of normal
conduct, as manifested towards a hated, disarmed and
cast-down enemy, who has forfeited not only all privi-

1A lend meant originally £he sojourn in a foreign country, then the
sufferings connected with such a sojourn, and means to-day misery.86	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

leges and all protection, but even every claim to mercy;
it is, therefore, the martial law and triumphal celebra-
tion of the vee victis! with all its unrelentingness and
cruelty; — which serves to account for the fact that
war itself (including the sacrificial cult of war) has fur-
nished all the forms in which punishment makes its
appearance in history.

10

As its power increases, a community will attach less
weight to the transgressions of the individual, inasmuch
as these transgressions are now alleged to be far less
calculated to endanger and subvert the body politic.
The wrong-doer is no longer " rendered peaceless " and
cast out; public anger may no longer vent itself against
him with the same unbridled fury as formerly. On the
contrary, the wrong-doer is now even carefully defended
and shielded by the community against this anger,
especially against the wrath of those immediately in-
jured. The traits characterising ever more sharply the
further development of penal law are the following:
the compromise with the anger of those immediately
suffering from the misdeed; an effort to localise the
case and to guard against further, and perhaps even
general, participation and disturbances; attempts to
find equivalents and to settle the whole affair (compo-
siiio); above all, the ever more definitely pronouncedSECOND ESSAY

will to regard every transgression as payable in some
way or other,—that is to say, to isolate, in some meas-
ure at least, the transgressor from his deed. With the
growing power and self-consciousness of a community,
the rigour of the penal laws will always lessen; while
every weakening and serious endangering of the com-
munity will be followed by a reappearance of the
sterner forms of the penal laws. In proportion as his
wealth increased, the creditor has at all times become
more humane; and the amount of detriment to which
he may be exposed without suffering from the loss, will
at last even be made the standard of estimation for his
wealth. We might even conceive a consciousness of
power on the part of society so far advanced as to"
permit itself the noblest of all luxuries which it can
afford—to let her wrong-doer go unpunished. "Of
what concern for me are my parasites?" society might
say. " Let them live and prosper: I am still a match
for them!" .... Justice, which began with the decla-
ration : " All is payable, all must be paid off," ends by
closing its eyes to those unable to pay and letting them
go; it ends, like all good things on earth, by abrogating
itself\ This self abrogation of justice — we know, by
what excellent name it calls itself — mercy. It remains,
as is self-evident, the privilege of the mightiest one —
or, more exactly, it is his " Beyond the law."88

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

II

Here a word, by way of refutation, against certain
attempts recently made to seek for the origin of justice
in quite another field, — the field of resentment. This
plant (as we may whisper into the ears of our psychol-
ogists, in case they should themselves like to study
resentment closely for once) flourishes now most lus-
ciously among anarchists and anti-Semites, in secrecy,
by the bye, where it has always flourished, like the
violet, with different odour however. And since it is
law universal that like will beget like, we shall not be
surprised to witness attempts proceeding from such
spheres, such as have been made at various times
(compare above the First Essay, section 14) to sanc-
tion revenge under the name of justice (as if justice
were in reality only an advanced stage of the develop-
ment of the feeling of wrong-suffering) and by hon-
ouring revenge, to re-establish all re-active emotions
whatsoever. This latter effect I should least of all
object to; with reference to the whole problem of
biology (in respect to which the value of these emotions
has hitherto been underestimated) it would even seem
to me to be a desert. That to which alone I call atten-
tion, is the fact that this new nuance of scientific
equity (in favour of hatred, envy, jealousy, suspicion,
rancour, revenge) takes its origin from the spirit of
resentment itself. For this "scientific equity" comesSECOND ESSAY

89

to a sudden halt and yields to manifestations of mortal
hatred and prejudice as soon as it has to do with
another group of emotions, the biological value of
which is, in my opinion, far greater than that of the
re-active feelings, and which, for this very reason,
have a still greater claim to scientific estimation and
appreciation. I mean the specifically active emotions,
such as thirst of power, avidity and the like. (E. Diih-
ring, The Value of Life; A Course of Philosophy;1
in fact, all his works.) So much may be said against
this tendency in general. But as regards the particu-
lar proposition of Diihring, that the home of justice
is to be sought for in the territory of the re-active feel-
ings : out of love of truth, completely turning round
his statement, we have to propose this different view:
the last bit of ground conquered by the spirit of justice
is the territory of re-active feelings. If it ever hap-
pens, that the just man is just even against him who
has injured him (and not merely cold, moderate, re-
served, indifferent; to be just is always a positive
conduct); if, even when attacked by personal insult,
derision, slander, the lofty, bright, mild-and-deep-vis-
ioned objectivity of the just and judging eye is not
dimmed, good, then this is a bit of perfection and high-
est mastery on earth — something, in fact, which, in
this case, prudence tells us not to expect, and in which
at any rate it is advisable not to believe too readily.

1 Der Werth des Lebens; Cursus der Philosophic.9°

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

Certain it is on the average that, even in the case
of the most honest persons, a small dose of offence,
malice and insinuation will suffice to force their blood
to, and fairness from the brow. The active, aggres-
sive, and transgressive man is, in any case, yet a, hun-
dred degrees nearer to justice than the re-active man;
for the active one is not forced to a false and biassed
estimation of his object as the re-active is. And hence,
as a matter of fact, the aggressive man, being also the
stronger, braver, nobler man, has, at all times, had
the freer eye and better conscience for his party.
Reversely we see at once whose conscience must be
held responsible for the invention of "bad con-
science." It is the man of resentment. And finally,
let people but pay attention to history. In what
sphere, we ask, has the execution of law and the
requirement of law been at home on earth? Perad-
venture in the sphere of reactive man ? By no means.
Rather in that of active, strong, spontaneous, ag-
gressive men. Historically considered, — and be this
said with the purpose of discomforting the afore-
mentioned agitator (who somewhere confesses of him-
self : " the doctrine of vengeance is, as it were, the
red thread of justice twining through all my writings
and endeavours"), — law represents the war waged
just against the re-active feelings by the active and
aggressive powers, part of whose strength was directed
to restraining and curbing the extravagance of re-activeSECOND ESSAY

91

pathos and of compelling the opponent to an agree-
ment. Wherever justice is practised, wherever justice
is maintained, we observe how a stronger power, as
regards weaker, subordinate powers (either groups or
individuals), will seek for means of putting an end to
the blind fury of resentment raging among the latter,
partly by withdrawing the object of resentment from
the clutches of revenge, partly by placing instead of
revenge, the war against the enemies of peace and
order, partly by inventing, proposing, or, according
to circumstances, even enforcing adjustments, partly
by establishing certain fixed equivalents of injury as
a norm, to which then once for all resentment must
address itself. The most decisive step, however, taken
by the highest power against the overwhelming might
of contrary feelings and after-feelings — and this step
is always taken as soon as this power is strong enough
for undertaking it — is the establishment of law, the
imperative declaration as to what, in its opinion, is
to be regarded as right and lawful or as wrong and
forbidden. By treating, after the establishment of
law, transgressions and cases of arbitrary conduct on
the part of individuals or entire groups as a revolt
against the supreme power itself, the feeling of those
subjected to its sway is diverted from the immediate
damage resulting from such crimes, and in this manner
the reverse result is reached from that which is desired
by all revenge,—which notices and recognises only92

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

the point of view of the wronged party. From this
time forward the eye gets accustomed to an ever more
impersonal estimation of the deed, even the eye of the
wronged party itself (though, of course, his eye last of
all, as already observed). Hence, only after the law has
once become established, do "right" and "wrong" exist
{not, as Diihring argues, after the act of violation has
been done). To speak of right and wrong in itself \ is
altogether meaningless; in itself the act of injuring, vio-
lating, exploiting, destroying can, of course, not be any-
thing "wrong," inasmuch as life essentially, i.e., in its
fundamental functions, works injury, violation, exploita-
tion and destruction, and cannot be conceived otherwise.
Indeed, we are even forced to submit to still more
delicate truths : such as the fact that, viewed from the
highest biological point of view, legal conditions can
never be anything else but exceptional conditions, that
is to say, partial restrictions of the proper will of life
which seeks power; and subordinating themselves to its
collective aim in their capacity of separate means, i.e.,
means for bringing about greater units of power. A
legal order conceived as sovereign and universal; not
as a means of which different complexes of power
avail themselves in their struggle with one another,
but as a means against all war whatsoever — such as
is suggested, for instance by the communistic pattern
of Diihring, which would enforce the principle that
every will should treat every other will as its equal —SECOND ESSAY

93

such an order would be a principle hostile to life,
tending to destroy and disintegrate life, an outrage
upon the future of man, a sign of languor, a by-way
to the Nothing.

12

Here one more word on the origin and purpose of *
punishment — two problems which are and should be
kept separate. Unfortunately, however, they are com-
monly confounded. And how do our moral genealo-
gists go to work in this matter? Naively, as always:
they find, by seeking some purpose in punishment, that
of vengeance, for instance, or of determent, and then
innocently set this purpose at the head, as the causa
fiendi of punishment, and — that settles it. But the
" purpose in law"1 can least of all be used for a his-
tory of the origin of law. On the contrary, for every
kind of history there exists no more important proposi-
tion than even this (which it has taken so much pains
to acquire, but which, once acquired, should be acquired
for good), namely the proposition that the cause of the
origin of a thing and its ultimate utility, its actual
application and linking into a system of purpose, lie
toto ccelo asunder; that a thing which is present, a thing

1 An allusion to Professor Ihering's celebrated book " Der Zweck im
Recht" which is, among other things, the first work speaking of a " mor-
ality of custom " on which Nietzsche lays so much stress in the First Essay
of the present work,94

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

which has come about in some way, is ever again by
some power superior to it interpreted to contain new
purposes, is arrested anew, is transformed and directed
to a new use; and that finally all "happening" in or-
ganic nature implies an over-powering, over-mastering,
which in turn implies a re-interpretation and adjust-
ment, by which, of necessity, the past " sense" and
" purpose " become obscured and even altogether ex-
tinguished. Assuming the utility of some physio-
logical organ (or, let us say, a legal institute, or social
custom, or political usage, or some form of the arts or
a religious cult) to be perfectly understood, such is, as
yet, far from being the case with respect to its origin;
unpleasant and unwelcome though this truth may sound
to older ears, — for from times immemorial it was cus-
tomary to think that by understanding the demonstrable
purpose, the utility of a thing (or form, or institution)
the reason for its origin was also understood; the eye
being explained as having been made for the purpose
of seeing, the hand for the purpose of seizing. So,
also punishment was conceived as having been in-
vented for the purpose of punishing. But all pur-
poses, all utilities, are but indications of the fact, that
some will to power has become master over something
inferior in power, and has, proceeding from itself, as-
signed to it the meaning of a function; and the entire
history of a "thing/' an organ, a custom may, in this
way, be one unbroken sign-series of constantly chang-SECOND ESSAY

95

ing interpretations and adjustments, the causes of
which need not even be connected among themselves,
but may, according to circumstances, follow upon, and
replace one another quite at random. By no means,
therefore, is the " evolution " of a thing (or a custom,
or an organ) its own progressus towards a goal, still less
a progressus logicus advancing in a straight line and
with the least expenditure of power and pains,—but
rather a series of more or less important, more or less
independent processes of over-powering, the scene of
which the thing is; to which must be added, in each
case, the amount of energy consumed in the opposi-
tion to such processes, as also the attempts in the way
of form-changes undergone for the purpose of defence
and re-action, and finally, also the results of successful
counter-actions. The form is mobile, but the "sense"
is still more so ... . The same phenomenon is to be
observed in the make-up of each individual organism:
every essential growth of the whole will cause the
" sense " of the individual organs to shift. According
to circumstances the partial destruction of these or-
gans, their diminution in number (for instance, by the
annihilation of intermediary members) may be a sign
of growing power and perfection. Rather say: the
partial loss of usefulness, the stinting and degenera-
tion, the loss of sense and expediency, in one word,
death, is among the conditions of true progress: which
progress always appears in the form of a will and way96

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

to greater power and is always enforced at the expense
of a large number of lesser powers. The amount of
" progress " is, in fact, even measured by the mass of
all that had to be sacrificed in order to bring it at out:
mankind en masse sacrificed in order to insure the
growth of a single, stronger species of man — that
would be progress .... — I emphasise this main
point of view of historical methodics, and all the more
so for the reason that at bottom it runs counter to the
now reigning instinct and modern taste, which would
rather reconcile itself to the absolute fortuitousness
and even mechanistical nonsensicalness of all "hap-
pening " than to the theory of a will to power as
manifesting itself in all happening. The democratic
idiosyncrasy against all that sways or wills to sway,
modern misarchism (to coin a bad word for a bad
cause), has gradually become merged to such an ex-
tent into, and so taken on the guise of, spirituality,
keenest spirituality, that to-day it forces, and is allowed
to force, its way, step by step, into the exactest and
seemingly most objective sciences; in fact, it seems to
me to have already succeeded in usurping the entire
science of physiology and biology, much to its disadvan-
tage, as is self-evident, — for it has eliminated from this
science a fundamental notion, the notion of functional
activity. Labouring under this idiosyncrasy, " adapta-
tion,that is to say, a second-rate activity, in fact, a
mere re-activity, is pushed into the foreground, and in-SECOND ESSAY

97

deed, life itself has even been defined as " a continuous
better adjustment of internal relations to external rela-
tions " (Mr. Herbert Spencer). But this is to mistake
the true nature and function of life, which is will to
power. It is to overlook the principial priority which
the spontaneous, aggressive, transgressive, new-inter-
pretative and new-directive forces possess, from the
result of which "adaptation" follows. It is to deny
the sovereign office of the highest functionaries in
the organism, in which functionaries the will to life
appears as an active and formative principle. The
readers will recall here what Huxley objected to in
Spencer—his "Administrative Nihilism." But we
have to deal here with much more than mere " admin-
istration" ....

13

In punishment, therefore—to return to our theme,
namely punishment — two things are to be discerned:
on the one hand, the relatively durable element, the
usage, the act, the drama, a certain strict sequence
of procedures; and on the other hand, the element
of mobility, the sense, the purpose, the expectation con-
nected with the execution of such procedures. And
true to the principal point of view of historical method-
ics, as set forth in the last section, in this statement
it is assumed, without further demonstration, per analo-
giam, that the procedure itself ante-dates its applica-

H98

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

tion as a means of punishment; that the latter was,
only at a later date, laid into, interpreted into the
procedure (which had for a long while existed, but had
been differently understood); that, in short, the case
is quite different from what our na'fve genealogists of
morals and law have so far assumed, who, without
exception, conceived the procedure as having been
invented for the purpose of punishment, even as the
hand was formerly conceived as invented for the pur-
pose of seizing. But again, as regards the other
element in punishment, the element of mobility, the
" sense," in a very late stage of civilisation (such as,
e.g., that of modern Europe) the concept " punish-
ment " implies no longer a single sense but a com-
plete synthesis of " senses." In fact, the entire past
history of punishment, of its utilisation for the most
heterogeneous purposes, crystallises at last into a kind
of unity which is difficult to reduce, to analyse into
its elements, and which, as must be emphasised, defies
each and every definition.' (It is impossible to-day to
offer a definite answer to the question as to the actual
wherefore of punishment. All concepts in which an
entire process is semiotically contained escape defini-
tion. Only that which has no history is definable.)
In an earlier stage, however, that synthesis of
"senses" appears as yet somewhat more reducible,
somewhat more shiftable; we may still observe how,
in each individual case, the constituent elements ofSECOND ESSAY	99

the synthesis change their value, and re-arrange them-
selves accordingly, so that at one time this, at another
that element prevails and dominates at the expense
of the rest, and that even, circumstances favouring,
some one element (such as, for instance, the purpose
of determent) seems to render void all other elements.
To convey at least an idea of the vagueness, the sec-
ondariness, the accidentalness attaching to the "sense"
of punishment, and to show how one and the same
procedure is utilised for, interpreted for, and adjusted
to fundamentally different ends, I insert the following
scheme here, which has suggested itself to me on the
basis of comparatively scanty and accidental material.
Punishment as rendering the criminal harmless, as a
preventive of further mischief. Punishment as the
sufferer's compensation for the damage, as payment
in any form (even as compensation in the form of an
emotion). Punishment as the isolation of a disturbed
equilibrium, in order to prevent spreading of the dis-
turbance. Punishment as a means of inspiring others
with fear for those who decree and award punish-
ment. Punishment as a kind of equivalent for the
advantages which the criminal has so far enjoyed
(when, for instance, he is utilised as a slave in the
quarries). Punishment as the elimination of a degen-
erating element (sometimes even of an entire branch,
as is instanced by Chinese law; as a means, therefore,
for preserving the purity of the race or for the perma-IOO	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

nent establishment of a social type). Punishment as
a festival, namely as the violation and taunts practised
against an enemy at last subdued. Punishment as the
making of a memory, be it for him who suffers pun-
ishment (so-called correction) or be it for the spectator
witnessing the execution. Punishment as the payment
of a fee stipulated by the power which protects the
evil-doer against the excesses of revenge. Punishment
as a compromise with the natural state of revenge, in
so far as the latter continues to be maintained and
claimed as a privilege by mighty clans. Punishment
as a declaration and measure of war against an enemy
of peace, law, order, the authorities, — an enemy who,
with such means as war will prompt, is combated, as
being dangerous to the community, as having violated
the contract underlying the community, as an insur-
gent, traitor and peace-breaker.

14

This list will not be complete; and yet, as appears
from it, punishment is brimful of utilities of every sort.
So much the more readily, therefore, we may venture
to withdraw from it a certain presumable utility, which,
it is true, by the popular view of the matter, is held
to be its most essential utility; (the belief in punish-
ment, which for more than one reason is shaky at
present, finds just in it its firmest support.) The valueSECOND ESSAY

IOI

attributed to punishment is supposed to consist in the
fact that it awakens in one guilty the feeling of guilt;
in it, the proper instrumentum of that mental re-action
which is known as "bad conscience" or "prick of con-
science/' is sought for. Bu* this explanation violates
reality and psychology even with respect to the prob-
lem in its modern aspect, and still more so, as regards
the longest period of man's history,—the prehistoric
period! True remorse just among criminals and con-
victs is very rare; prisons and reformatories are not
places which favour r e growth of this species of
"gnaw-worm" — on this point all conscientious inves-
tigators agree, who, in many cases reluctantly enough
and against their own most private desires, pronounce
such a judgment. All in all, punishment hardens and
renders people more insensible; it concentrates; it
increases the feeling of estrangement; it strengthens
the power of resistance. If cases occur at all in which
people's energy is really broken by punishment, and
a pitiable prostration and self-humiliation follows, such
a result is certainly still less comforting than the aver-
age effect of punishment which is characterised by a
dry, sombre earnestness. And if, moreover, we take
into consideration the thousands of years elapsing be-
fo-rt the entrance of man into history, we may, without
hesitation, say that punishment itself, more than any
other factor, served to retard the development of the
feeling of guilt, — at any rate, as regards the victims102

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

affected by the punishing power. Let us, above all,
not undervalue the measure in which, just by the spec-
tacle of the legal procedure and punishment, the crimi-
nal will be prevented from feeling his own deed, the
kind of action he did, to be, as such, objectionable;
for he sees precisely the same kinds of actions per-
formed, and approved of, done with good conscience,
in the service of justice, such as espionage, outwit-
ting, bribery, trap-setting, the entire art of the police-
man and indicter, with all its crafty and underhand
machinery, and further the principial practice (which
not even emotion will excuse), of spoliation, violation,
dishonouring, imprisoning, torturing, murdering, as we
find it in the various kinds of punishment, — actions,
therefore, which are by no means in themselves repu-
diated and condemned by his judges, but only in a
certain respect and application. " Bad conscience,"
this most dismal and interesting plant of our subter-
ranean vegetation, did not grow from out this soil,—
indeed, for the longest time, in the consciousness of
those who passed judgments and distributed punish-
ment, nothing was expressed of the concept of having
to deal with a "guilty" person; but only with a
damage-doer, with a piece of irresponsible destiny.
And the victim himself whom punishment befell,
again like a piece of destiny, experienced no other
" inner pain " than that which any sudden, unforeseen
event will produce, some terrible catastrophe, suchSECOND ESSAY

I03

as the falling of a crushing rock against which there
is no resistance.

15

This suggested itself, in very captious wise, to
Spinoza (much to the annoyance of his interpreters
who do all they can to misunderstand him in this
passage—so Kuno Fischer), when some afternoon,
grating away at some remembrance or other, the
thought occupied him as to what of the celebrated
morsus conscientice had remained for him who had
relegated the notions of Good and Evil to the realm
of human imaginations, and strenuously defended the
honour of his "free" God against those blasphemers
maintaining that God did all sub ratione boni ("but
this would be equivalent to subordinating God to fate
and were, forsooth, the greatest of absurdities" —).
The world, for Spinoza, had returned to that state
of innocence in which it lived before the invention of
bad conscience. What, by this logic, had become of
the morsus conscientice? The opposite, he at last said
to himself, of gaudium, a sadness accompanied by the
notion of a past event which has turned out contrary
to all expectations. Eth. Hi, propos. xviii. schol i. ii.
Not otherwise than Spinoza evil-doers have felt in
regard to their " offence " for thousands of years when
reached by punishment. " Here something has unex-
pectedly gone wrong," and not: "I should not have104	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

done so." They submitted to punishment, even as we
submit to a disease, or calamity, or death, with that
daring fatalism sans rfoolte by which, in the handling
of life, e.g., the Russians enjoy still an advantage over
us occidentalists. If in past ages the deed was criti-
cised at all, it was prudence which suggested criticism.
The real effect of punishment is, undoubtedly, in the
first instance to be sought in an intensification of pru-
dence ; in a lengthening of memory, a will to approach
one's deeds in future more carefully and with greater
suspicion and secrecy; in the recognition of the fact
that, to many undertakings, our strength is absolutely
inadequate; in a kind of improvement of self-judg-
ment. What by punishment can really be accom-
plished all in all, in the case of man and animal, is an
augmentation of fear, an intensification of prudence,
a subjugation of passions. And in so doing, punish-
ment tames man, but it does not make him "better."
In fact, the opposite might even be maintained with
better reasons. (" Damage suffered makes you wise,"
says a popular proverb: in so far as it makes wise, so
also it makes mean. Fortunately, it very often makes
stupid.)

16

At this point of our inquiry a first provisional ex-
pression of my own hypothesis on the origin of "bad
conscience " can hardly be avoided. It is not easy toSECOND ESS.A

make it intelligible and requires long and earnest
attention and consideration. Bad conscience I take
as the deep sickness which man had to fall into, when
under the pressure of that most radical of all changes
to which he was ever subjected,—that change which
he experienced when he found himself for ever locked
within the ban of society and peace. Precisely as
the water-animals must have felt, when forced to the
alternative of either becoming land-animals or of per-
ishing, even so in the case of men, those semi-ani-
mals happily adapted to wildness, warring, roving and
adventure. All at once their instincts were rendered
worthless and " unharnessed." They were expected
henceforth to go on their feet and to "carry them-
selves," whereas all along they had been carried by
the water; a terrible heaviness lay upon them. For
the execution of the simplest functions they found
themselves too clumsy; for this new and strange
world their old, reliable guides sufficed no longer — the
unconsciously-regulating and safely-leading instincts.
They were reduced to the necessity of thinking, rea-
soning, calculating, of combining causes and effects
(what misery!), to their consciousness, — their meanest
and least reliable organ! I believe that never before
on earth did there exist a like feeling of misery, a simi-
lar state of leaden uncomfortableness. And, worse
still, those old instincts had by no means ceased all
at once to make their demands! Only it was diffi-i06	A Gt. iALOGv OF MORALS

cult and rarely poss^ole for man to comply with their
claims. As a general rule they had to seek for new
and, metaphorically speaking, subterranean satisfac-
tions. All instincts which do not discharge them-
selves outwards will receive an inward direction — this
is what I call the internalisation of man. It is only
by this process that that grows up to man which later

on is called his " soul"/ The entire inner world of

,¥

man, being originally thin, as if it were stretched be-
tween two hides, has become expanded and extended,
has received depth, breadth and height, in the same
measure as man's outward discharges have been
checked. Those terrible bulwarks by means of which
a political organisation guarded itself against the an-
cient instincts of freedom (punishments are first of all
among these bulwarks) effected the result that all
those instincts of wild, free and roving man turned
inward against man himself. Enmity, cruelty, the
pleasures of persecution, of surprise, of change, of
destruction — imagine all these turning against the
owners of such instincts: this is the origin of "bad
conscience." Man who, from a lack of outer enemies
and obstacles and because he found himself wedged
into the unbearable straits and regularities of custom,
impatiently tore, persecuted, gnawed at, maltreated
himself, — stirred up man, this captive animal grating
against the bars of his cage, intended to be " tamed,"
this creature deprived of, and pining for its home, theSECOND ESSAY	IO?

desert, he, who was compelled to make out of him-
self an adventure, a torture chamber, an unsafe and
dangerous wilderness — this fool, this homesick and
despairing captive, became the inventor of "bad con-
science." And, with it, the greatest and most dismal
morbidity was instituted from which mankind has not
as yet recovered, the suffering of man from man, from
himself: the consequence of a violent breaking with
his past animal history, a leaping and plunging, so
to speak, into other states and conditions of existence,
a declaration of war against the old instincts, on which
so far his strength, his pleasure and his terribleness
had depended. Let us at once add that, on the other
hand, with the fact of the existence upon earth of
a self-antagonising, against-self-directed animal soul,
something so new, deep, unheard-of, enigmatical, self-
contradictory, future-promising was likewise given, that
the aspect of the earth had therewith undergone an
essential change. And truly, divine spectators were
necessary in order to appreciate the spectacle which
thereby was inaugurated and of which the outcome
can not as yet be imagined,—a spectacle too fine, too
wonderful, too paradoxical for its possibly being a
mere meaningless and ludicrous side-show upon some
ridiculous star. Man ever since that time has counted
among the oddest and most exciting hap-hazard throws
practised by the " great child " of Heraclitus, call it as
you will, Zeus or chance. Man awakens for himselfIo8	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

an interest, a suspense, a hope, almost a confidence
that something important is about to happen, that
something is in preparation, that man is not an end,
but merely a way, an interact, a bridge, a great
promise ....

*7

Our hypothesis on the origin of bad conscience pre-
supposes first of all that that change did not take
place gradually, or spontaneously, and did not repre-
sent an organic ingrowing into new conditions, but
rather a rupture, a leap, a compulsion, an unavoidable
fate against which there was no opposition, and not
even any resentment. Furthermore, that the fitting
of a mass of people until then shapeless and unde-
fined into a fixed form beginning, as it did, with an
act of violence, could ipso facto only be accomplished
by a whole series of acts of violence, — and hence,
that the first " state " made its appearance in the form
of a terrible tyranny, a violent and regardless piece
of machinery which kept grinding away till such a
raw-material, half men, half animals, was not only
thoroughly kneaded and pliant, but also fashioned. I
made use of the word u state/' It is plain on the
face of it what it means —any herd of flaxen-haired
robber-beasts, a conqueror and master race, which,
organised for war and possessing the power of or-
ganisation, will unhesitatingly lay its terrible clutchesSECOND ESSAY

log

upon some population perhaps vastly superior in num-
bers but as yet shapeless and roving. This is the
origin of the "state" on earth; the fantastic theory
which would have it begin by an "agreement," I
should think, is done away with. He who can com-
mand, he who is a " master " by nature, he who in deed
and gesture behaves violently — what has he to do
with agreements ! Such beings are not reckoned with;
they come as fate will come, without reason, common
sense, indulgence, pretext; they appear as a flash of
lightning appears, too terrible, too sudden, too con-
vincing, too " different" to be even so much as hated.
Their work is an instinctive creating of forms, impress-
ing of forms — they are the most involuntary, most
unconscious of all artists;—wherever they appear,
something new will at once be created, a governmental
organism which lives, in which the individual parts
and functions are defined and brought into correlation,
and in which nothing at all is tolerated unless some
"sense" with respect to the whole be implanted in
it. They are innocent, as regards the meaning of
guilt, of responsibility, of regard, — these born organ-
isers; they are ruled by that terrible artist-egotism
which looks stern like bronze and knows itself to be
justified to all eternity, in the "work," as the mother
knows herself justified in the child. " Bad conscience "
has not grown among them, thus much is self-evident,
— but it would never have grown at all but for them,no

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

that ill-shaped growth; it would be wanting altogether
if, beneath the blows of their hammer, their artist-
violence, an immense quantity of freedom, had not
disappeared from the world, or at any rate from visi-
bility, and become latent, as it were. This instinct of
freedom, suppressed, drawn back and imprisoned in
consciousness and finally discharging and venting itself
only inwards, against self: only this is the beginning
of bad conscience.

18

Let us guard ourselves against thinking lightly of
this entire phenomenon for the mere reason that, from
the very outset, it is unsightly and painful. For at
bottom the same active force which — only on a greater
scale — is at work in these perforce-artists and organ-
isers, and sets up states, creates — but on a smaller,
pettier scale, and acting inward and backward, "in
the labyrinth of the breast" (in the words of Goethe) —
bad conscience and erects negative ideals for itself; —
that very same instinct of freedom (or, expressing my-
self my own way, the will to power). Only in this
case the stuff upon which this form-creative and vio-
lating power acts, is man himself, his entire ancient
animal self — and not, as in the case of that other and
more ostensible phenomenon, the other man, the other
men. This secret self-violation, this artist-cruelty, this
lust of giving to one's self as being a heavy, unyield-Second essay

iii

ing^,, passive stuff, a form of burning into it a will, a
criticism, an opposition, a contempt, a No, — this dis-
mal and frightfully-lustful work of a voluntarily-divided
soul which, because it delights to make suffer, makes
itself suffer,—this entire activic " bad conscience"
has (my readers foresee the result) at last, being the
true womb and cradle of ideal and imaginative events,
among other things, brought to light an exuberance
of new and startling beauty and assertion and, possi-
bly, even beauty itself .... For, indeed, what would
be beautiful, if contradiction had not become previ-
ously conscious of itself, if ugliness had not previously
said to itself: "I am ugly	This hint will

at least serve to make the riddle less puzzling as to
how far in such self-contradictory concepts as un-
selfishness y self-denial, self-sacrifice an indication of an
ideal, a beauty can be given. And one thing, I do
not doubt, will be known for the future, — it is the
nature of the lust which unselfish, self-denying, self-
sacrificing man experiences: this lust is a sort of
cruelty. — So much, for the present, on the origin of
" unselfishness " as a moral value, and by way of sur-
vey of the soil from which this value has grown. It
is only bad conscience, only will to self-maltreatment
that furnishes the presupposition on which the value
of unselfishness hinges.112

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

19

It is a disease — bad conscience — thus much is cer-
tain, but in the sense that the state of pregnancy is a
disease. Let us seek for the conditions under which
this disease has reached its frightfulest and sublimest
climax. We shall see what therewith has made its
appearance on earth. But for this purpose a long
breath is requisite, and, first of all, we have to recur
once again to a former point of view. The relation
of the debtor to his creditor, as established on the
basis of private law (of which we have already spoken
at length), has, a second time and in a manner most
memorable in respect to history and most question-
able, been interpreted into another relation in which,
perhaps, it will seem most unintelligible to us modern
men; namely into the relation of those who live at
any given time towards their ancestors. Within the
original federation of families — we are speaking of
primitive times — in every case, the living generation,
in its relation to the older, and especially to the oldest
generation which founded the family, acknowledges
itself to be bound by a juristic liability (and by no
means merely by an obligation of feeling; indeed, for
the longest period of the history of mankind, the ex-
istence of this feeling might be — not without reason —
denied altogether). Here the conviction prevails, that
the family exists only through the sacrifices and ser-SECOND ESSAY

113

vices of its ancestors, — and that these sacrifices and
services must be paid back with other sacrifices and
services. Thus, a guilt is acknowledged which, more-
over, grows continually inasmuch as these ancestors,
in their post-existence as mighty spirits, never cease
to supply the family with new advantages and ad-
vances out of the store of their power. For nothing ?
But there exists no "for nothing" for those times
rude and poor of soul. What, then, may they be
given back? Sacrifices (i.e., at first food in its most
literal sense), festivals, temples, demonstrations of
honour, and, above all, obedience. For all usages are
the work and, as such, also the precepts and com-
mandments of the ancestors. Can one ever give them
enough ? This suspicion remains and grows. From
time to time it extorts a wholesale commutation, a
back-payment, to the " creditor" in the form of some-
thing immense (the notorious offerings of the first
born, for instance, — blood, human blood in any case).
The fear of the ancestor and his might, the conscious-
ness of debts towards him, increases — according to
this kind of logic — exactly in proportion as the power
of the family itself increases, in proportion as the
family itself grows more victorious, more independent,
more intensely feared. The reverse is out of the
question! Every step in the direction of degeneration
of the clan, every pitiable accident, every indication
of degeneration and approaching disintegration always
1114	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

lessens the fear of the spirit of its founder and conveys
an ever feebler idea of his prudence, providence and
powerful presence. Suppose this rough kind of logic
to be carried through, by the fantasy of growing fear
the progenitors of the mightiest clans must at last
have grown to immense dimensions, and have been
pushed into the darkness of a divine awfulness and
unimaginableness. The progenitor will, of necessity,
become at last transfigured into a God. Possibly here
may even be the origin of the gods, an origin to wit
from fear! And he who should think it necessary
to add: "but also from piety !" would hardly be right
with respect to the longest period of man, his fore-
time. Much more so for the middle period in which
noble families are being formed. For these actually
paid back with interest to their founders and progeni-
tors (heroes, gods) all those qualities, which in the
meantime, have become apparent in themselves, —
noble qualities. We shall later cast a glance upon
the ennoblement and nobilitation (which is, of course,
by no means their " sanctification ") of the gods. For
the present, let us bring to a provisional close the dis-
cussion of this whole development of the consciousness
of guilt.

20

The consciousness of having debts to pay to the
godhead, has, as history teaches us, by no means
ceased to develop even after the decline of the organi-SECOND ESSAY

US

sation of the " community" based on blood-relation-
ship ; on the contrary, mankind has, in the same
manner that it inherited the notions " good and bad "
from the family-nobility (together with their funda-
mental psychological inclination to posit degrees of
rank), inherited also the godheads of families and
tribes and the oppressive feelings occasioned by un-
paid debts and the desire of redeeming the same.
(The transition is effected by those large populations
of slaves and bondmen, which — be it by compulsion
or by submissiveness and mimicry — accommodated
themselves to the cult of gods practised by their
masters. From them this heritage will flow over
towards all parts.) The feeling of obligation towards
the godhead kept steadily increasing for several thou-
sands of years, in the same proportion in which the
concept of God and the feeling of dependence from
God grew and were elevated. (The whole history of
ethnical wars, victories, reconciliations, and amalga-
mations, all that precedes the final regulation of rank
of all parts of a people in each great synthesis of
races, is reflected in the genealogical confusion of
their gods, in the legends relating their wars, victo-
ries and reconciliations. The development into uni-
versal empires is always a progressus to universal
divinities, and despotism with its overcoming of inde-
pendent nobility will always pave the way for some
form of monotheism.) Therefore the rise of theIl6	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

Christian God, as being the maximum-god so far at-
tained, has given rise also to the maximum feeling
of guilt on earth. Assuming that we at last have
entered a period of the reverse movement, then the
steady decline of the faith in the Christian God might
lead us to infer with no small degree of probability
that the human consciousness of guilt is, at this mo-
ment, likewise experiencing a considerable decline;
indeed, the prospect cannot be rejected that the per-
fect and final triumph of atheism might altogether
rid and quit mankind of this entire feeling of obliga-
tion to its beginning, its causa prima. Atheism and
a kind of second innocence are parts of a whole.

21

So much in the rough and short on the connection
of the concepts of "guilt" and "duty" with religious
presuppositions. I have purposely so far left out of
consideration the specific moralisation of these con-
cepts (the problem of the pushing of them back into
conscience or, still more definitely, the complication
of bad conscience with the concept of God) and, at
the close of the last section, I have even spoken as
if this moralisation did not exist at all and, therefore,
these concepts of necessity ceased to exist after their
presupposition has fallen away, the faith in our
"creditor/' in God, But the facts of the case differSECOND ESSAY

ii 7

from this speculation in a terrible manner. The
moralisation of the concepts of guilt and duty, the
pushing of them back into bad conscience, implies, in
fact, an attempt to reverse the direction of the devel-
opment now described, or, at least, to stay its progress.
Now the very prospects of a final commutation of
guilt are asked, once for all, to be shut up in a pessi-
mistic way; now the look is asked to shrink back
and recoil disconsolately as though from some iron
wall of impossibility; now those concepts " guilt" and
" duty " are asked to turn backwards. Against whom ?
No question whatever: first of all against the "debtor,"
in whom bad conscience will now establish itself, eat
into his flesh, extend, and polype-like branch out into
every depth and breadth until at last, in the concep-
tion of the irredeemableness of guilt, the idea of its
unpayableness (<everlasting punishment) is also con-
ceived; but at last even against the "creditor,"
whether this be thought to be the causa prima of
man, the beginning of mankind, its progenitor, who
now will be burdened with a curse (" Adam," " original
sin," "unfreedom of will"), or nature herself, from
whose womb man takes his origin, and into which
now the evil principle is laid (" diabolification of
nature"), or existence in general which is declared
as worthless in itself (nihilistic desertion of life, long-
ing to reach the Nothing, or longing for one's an-
tithesis, the state of being otherwise, Buddhism and118	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

kindred religions)—until, all of a sudden, we find our-
selves face to face with that paradoxical and fright-
ful expedient which afforded at least temporary relief
to tortured humanity, that master-stroke of Chris-
tianity : God himself sacrificing himself for the guilt
of man; God himself making himself paid; God being
alone able to redeem from man what for man him-
self has become irredeemable—the creditor sacrificing
himself for his debtor, from love (would you believe
it ?), from love for his debtor! . . . .

22

We shall have divined by this time the real and
inner meaning of this entire phenomenon: that will to
self-torture, that stemmed-back cruelty of animal man
who has become internalised, who is, as it were, chased
back into himself, who is encaged in the "state," to
the end of being tamed, who invented bad conscience
for the purpose of causing pain to himself after the
more natural outlet of this will to cause pain had be-
come obstructed, — this man of bad conscience availed
himself of religious presuppositions as a means of car-
rying his self-torture to an excess of frightful severity
and cruelty. A guilt against God — this thought be-
comes his instrument of torture. In the concept of
"God" he finds the ultimate antitheses to be tracked
to his own and irredeemable animal instincts; by inter-SECOND ESSAY

119

pretation he transforms these animal instincts into a
guilt against God (as enmity, insurrection, rebellion
against the "Lord," the "Father," the Progenitor, the
Beginning of the world), he yokes himself into the
antithesis "God" and "Devil;" every Nay he pro-
nounces upon himself, upon the nature, naturalness
and actuality of his own essence, he utters as a Yea,
as something existing, bodily, real, as God, as the
holy God, as God the judge, as God the hangman, as
another world, as eternity, as everlasting torture, as
hell, as immeasurableness of punishment and guilt.
This is a kind of volitional insanity in spiritual cruelty,
such as has not its parallel anywhere; it is the will
of man to find himself guilty and condemnable even
unto irredeemableness; it is his will to conceive him-
self as punished, the punishment being incapable of
ever balancing the guilt; it is his will to infect and
poison the inmost nature of things with the problem
of punishment and guilt, in order to make impossible
for himself, once for all, the exit from this labyrinth
of "fixed ideas;" it is his will to erect an ideal — the
ideal of the " holy God" — in order to be in the
presence of what plainly assured him of his absolute
unworthiness. Oh, for this insane, wretched beast of
man! What notions it will take! What anti-nature,
what paroxysms of nonsense, what bestiality of idea
will forthwith break out, if it be but in the least hin-
dered from being a beast of action / . . . . All this120

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

is abundantly interesting, but it is also of a black,
cloudy, enervating sadness, so that we must sternly
forbid ourselves to gaze too long into these abysses.
Here is disease, no question whatever, the most ter-
rible disease that has ever raged in man. And he
who is able to hear it (but modern ears are dead to
such sounds!) how, in this night of torture and non-
sense, the cry of love, the cry of keenest longing and
ecstasy, of salvation in love, has sounded, will turn
away conquered by a feeling of invincible horror! ....
In man there are so many frightful things! . . . . For
too long a time the earth has been a madhouse! . . . .

23

So much be once for all enough on the origin of the
"holy God." — That in itself the conception of gods
need not necessarily lead to this degradation of fantasy
(to which we were obliged to devote a moment's con-
sideration); that there are nobler ways of inventing
gods than for the purpose of this self-crucifixion and
self-shaming of man in which Europe during the last
thousands of years has attained to perfection; — thus
much fortunately can be seen by every glance which
we cast upon Grecian gods, these personifications of
high-born and self-glorying men, in whom the animal
in man felt itself deified, and did not tear itself for
rage against itself! These Greeks for the longest timeSECOND ESSAY

121

used their gods just for keeping "bad conscience" it
a safe distance, in order to enable them to remain
happy in their freedom of the soul; i.e., reversely from
the practice of Christianity in the application of its
God! They went very far in this, these splendid,
lion-hearted children; and no less an authority than
t^at of the Homeric Zeus himself gives them to un-
derstand at times that they make life too easy for
themselves. "Strange!" he says on one occasion —
the case in question is that of ^Egisthus, a very bad
case —

" Strange, that for ever mortals the gods will be sorely
accusing!

Evil of us only cometh, they ween, but by their own
folly

They will heap on themselves hard misery, even against
fate."

But here we both see and hear, that this Olympian
spectator and judge is far from being wroth or from
thinking ill of them: " How foolish they are!" he
thinks when contemplating the misdeeds of mortals, —
and "folly," "unreasonableness," a little "disturbance
in the head," thus much the Greeks even of the strong-
est and most heroic age have admitted to be the reason
of many ominous events and fatalities. Folly, not sin!
Ye understand this ? . . . . And even this disturbance
in the head was a problem with them. "How could122	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

if be even so much as possible ? Whence did it come
into heads as we have them, we men of noble descent,
of happiness, of well-constitutedness, of the best soci-
ety, of superiority, of virtue ?" Thus for centuries the
noble Greek would ask himself in the face of every
horror and outrage inexplicable to him and committed
by one of his equals. " 'Tis like some god has blinded
him/' he at last said to himself, shaking his head ....
This explanation is typical for Greeks .... In this
manner the gods, in those times, subserved the purpose
of justifying, in some measure at least, man also in
his wrong-doings. They served as causes of evil.
Then they took upon themselves, not punishment, but,
as is nobler, guilt ....

24

I close with three interrogation marks, as you will
see. "Is here," some one will ask, "an ideal being
erected, or an ideal being broken down?,, But have
ye ever really asked yourselves sufficiently as to how
dearly the erection of all ideals on earth was paid for ?
How much reality had to be slandered and miscon-
ceived for this purpose; how much falsehood sanc-
tioned ; how much conscience confused; how much
"God" sacrificed each time? In order that a sanctu-
ary may be erected, a sanctuary must be broken down:
this is the law — name me an instance in which it isSECOND ESSAY

123

violated! . . . . We modern men, we are the heirs of
the vivisection of conscience and self-torment of thou-
sands of years in which we have had our longest
practice, perhaps our artist-mastery or, in any case,
our raffinementi our fastidiousness of taste. For too
long a time man regarded his natural bents with an
" evil eye," so that in the end they became related to
"bad conscience." A reverse experiment is in itself
possible — but who is strong enough for it? — who will
bring into relation to bad conscience all unnatural
bents, all those aspirations for another life for all that
is hostile to the senses, the instincts, to nature, to
animality; in one word, all the old ideals, which are,
each and every one, ideals hostile to life and slandering
the world ? To whom to-day apply with such hopes
and claims? .... Just the good we should thereby
have against us; and, of course, also the indolent, the
reconciled, the vain, the enthusiastic, the tired ....
What offends more, what estranges more than to make
others aware of the rigour and altitude of our self-
treatment! And, on the other hand, how obliging,
how amiable all the world will show itself to us, as
soon as we behave like all the world and " indulge our
humour" like all the world! . . . . For such a task
there is requisite a different kind of spirits than our
age is likely to produce: spirits, strengthened by wars
and victories; to whom conquest, adventure, danger,
even pain have become a need; for it an accustoming124

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

to thin, Alpine air, to winterly wanderings, to ice and
mountains in every sense; nay, even a kind of sublime
maliciousness; an ultimate and most self-assured
sprightliness of knowledge, indispensable for the great
health; to say a bad thing in one word: even this
great health is requisite! . . . . But is just this even
so much as possible to-day ? . . . . But at some time,
and in a stronger time than this tottering and self-
doubting age of ours, he is to come, the redeeming man
of the great love and contempt, the creative spirit who,
by his thronging power, is ever again driven away,
from every corner and other world; whose loneliness
is misunderstood by the people, as though it were a
flight from reality, whereas it is but his sinking, bury-
ing, and deepening into reality, in order that, when
again he rises unto light, he may bring home with him
the redemption of reality, its redemption from the curse
which the old ideal has laid upon it This man of the
future who will redeem us from the old ideal, as also
from that which had to grow out of this ideal, from
great surfeit, from the will to the Nothing, from nihil-
ism ; this bell-stroke of noon-day and the great deci-
sion which restores freedom to the will, which restores
to the earth its goal, and to man his hope; this Anti-
christ and Antinihilist, this conqueror of God and of the
Nothing — he must come some-day ....SECOND ESSAY

125

25

But what say I here ? Enough! Enough! At this
place but one thing befits me — silence: lest I should
infringe on that which only one younger than I am,
one more " futurous " than I am, one stronger than I
am is free to do — on that which only Zarathustra is
free to do, Zarathustra the Ungodly ....THIRD ESSAY

WHAT DO ASCETIC IDEALS MEAN?

Regardless, mocking, violent,
thus wisdom wisheth us: she is a
woman, she ever loveth a warrior
only.

Thus Spake Zarathustra►X

What do ascetic ideals mean ? — In the case of
artists nothing or too many things; in the case of
philosophers and scholars something like a scenting
and instinct of the most favourable conditions of high
intellectuality; in the case of woman, at best, an ad-
ditional amiableness for seduction, a little morbidezza
on a pretty piece of flesh, the saintliness of some fine,
fat animal; in the case of the physiologically aborted
and depressed (the majority of mortals) an attempt to
think themselves " too good " for this world, a sacred
form of dissipation, their chief weapon in the struggle
with slow pain and ennui; in the case of priests the
specific priestly creed, their most effective instrument
of power, also their " supreme " license to power; and
finally in the case of saints a pretext for going into
hibernation, their novissima gloria cupido, their rest in
the nothing ("God "),-their form of madness. But the
fact that the ascetic ideal has meant so much for man,
expresses that other fundamental fact of human will,
its horror vacui. It needs a goal, —and it will rather
will nothingness, than not will at all, — Am I under-
k	129A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

stood? .... Have I been understood? .... "By
no means, Sir/"— Well let us, then, begin at the
beginning!

2

What do ascetic ideals mean ? — Or, to pick out a
single case, in regard to which I have often enough
been asked my advice: what does it mean, for instance,
when an artist like Richard Wagner, in the eve of
his life, gives an ovation to chastity? In a certain
sense, it is true, he has always done so; but in an
ascetic sense only in his very last years. What does
this alteration of his " mind/' this radical revulsion of
his mind mean? For such it was, inasmuch as Wagner,
in so doing, turned straightway into his antithesis:
What d^es it mean when an artist turns into his
antithesis	Here, if we will stop a moment at

this question, the remembrance will at once suggest
itself, of the best, strongest, most joyful and most
courageous period which perhaps existed in Wagner's
life: the period, when his mind was deeply occupied
by the thought of a " Marriage of Luther." Who
knows to what incidents it is due that to-day, in place
of this marriage-music, we possess the Mastersingers ?
And how much of this marriage-music perhaps sounds
on in the Mastersingers ? But there is no doubt, that
also in this " Marriage of Luther " the plot would have
turned on the praise of chastity. It is true, also on theTHIRD ESSAY

praise of sensuality; and even so I should have thought
it proper; and even so it would have been " Wag-
nerian." For chastity and sensuality are not neces-
sarily antithetical; every true marriage, every genuine
love-affair is past that antithesis. Wagner, it seems
to me, would have done well to apprise his Germans
once more of this agreeable fact by means of some
fine, brave comedy, with Luther figuring as hero, — for
among the Germans there always were and still are
many slanderers of sensuality; and perhaps the greatest
merit of Luther is that he had the courage of his sen-
suality (in those days it was called, delicately enough,
"evangelical freedom") .... But even in those cases
in which that antithesis between chastity and sensual-
ity really exists, it fortunately needs not at all to be a
tragical antithesis. This might at least be the case
with all better constituted and more cheerful mortals,
who are not at all disposed, without further ado, to
reckon their fluctuating state of equilibrium betwixt
"angel and petite bite" among the arguments against
existence; the finest, the brightest, such as Hafiz or
Goethe, have even discerned an additional charm of life
therein. It is just such " contradictions " that seduce to
life .... But if, on the other hand, the ill-constituted
swine can be induced to worship chastity — and there
are such swine! — they will, as is but too plain, see and
worship in it only their own antithesis, the antithesis
of ill-constituted swine — and oh, one can imagine with132	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

how much tragic grunting and eagerness! —, that same
painful and superfluous antithesis which Richard Wag-
ner, at the end of his days, undoubtedly intended to set
to music and produce on the stage. Prithee, where-
fore? as we have a right to ask. For what had he,
and what have we to do with swine?

3

Here, to be sure, that other question cannot be
avoided: what had Wagner really to do with that
manly (also, so very unmanly) " rustic simplicity," that
poor devil and country lad Parsifal whom, by such
insidious means, he finally succeeded in making a
Roman Catholic ? What ? was this Parsifal really meant
seriously ? For one might be tempted to believe, and
even to wish, the reverse, —namely that the Wagnerian
Parsifal had been meant to be gay, like a finale or
satiric drama with which, precisely in a due and worthy
manner, the tragedian Wagner had intended to take
his farewell of us, also of himself, and above all of
tragedy, namely with an excess of the greatest and
most wanton parody on the tragic itself, on all the
awful earth-earnestness and earth-sorrowfulness of the
past, on the stupidest form of the anti-naturalness of
the ascetic ideal finally surmounted. Thus, as I said,
it would have precisely been in keeping with a great
tragedian: who, like every artist, only reaches the lastTHIRD ESSAY

133

summit of his greatness, when he learns to see him-
self and his art below him, when he knows how to
laugh at himself. Is Wagner's " Parsifal" his secret
laugh of superiority at himself, the triumph of his
greatest, finally attained, artistic freedom and artistic
other-world ? As has been said, one might wish that
it were so! For, what sense could we attach to a
Parsifal seriously meant? Is it really necessary to
suppose (as I have been told), that Wagner's " Parsifal"
is "the product of a maddened hatred of perception,
intellect, and sensuality ?" an anathema on the senses
and the intellect in one breath, in a fit of hatred ? an
apostasy and return to sickly, Christian, and obscu-
rantist ideals? And finally, worst of all, the self-
negation and self-annulment of an artist, who had
striven, so far, with all his will-power, for the opposite,
namely for the highest spiritualising and sensualising
of his art? And not only of his art, but of his life
as well. Let us recollect how enthusiastically Wagner
once walked in the footsteps of Feuerbach the philoso-
pher. Feuerbach's phrase of "a healthy sensuality"
echoed in the third and fourth decades of this century
to Wagner as to many other Germans — they called
themselves the "young Germans" — like the word of
salvation. Did the older Wagner unlearn his former
creed ? Very likely he did! judging from the dispo-
sition he evinced toward the end of his life to unteach
his first belief .... And not only with the trumpets134

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

of Parsifal from the stage; but there are also a hun-
dred passages in the gloomy, constrained, and per-
plexed writings of his last years in which a secret wish
and will, a wavering, hesitating, unacknowledged in-
clination is shown actually to preach return, conver-
sion, negation, Christianity, medievalism, and to tell
his disciples: " All is vain ! Seek your salvation else-
where !" Even the " blood of the Saviour" is once
invoked ....

4

Let me in such a case, somewhat painful but typical,
give my opinion: — it is certainly best to separate an
artist so far from his work as not to take him as seri-
ously as his work. All in all, he is but the condition
of his work, — the womb, soil, nay, at times even
the dung and manure upon which and out of which
it grows, and hence, in most cases, something which
must be forgotten if we would enjoy the work itself.
The insight into the origin of a work is the business
of the physiologists and vivisectors of the mind: never
of the aesthetic people, the artists. Just as a pregnant
woman is not spared the many odiousnesses and odd-
nesses peculiar to pregnancy (which must be forgotten
if one would take pleasure in the child), so the poet
and artificer of Parsifal had deeply, thoroughly and
even frightfully to penetrate and descend into medie-
val psychological antitheses; he could not be sparedTHIRD ESSAY

135

a life aloof from every height, rigour and training of
the spirit (if I may use the word), a kind of intellect-
ual perversity. We must guard against the error into
which an artist is but too apt to fall from psychologi-
cal contiguity (as Englishmen call it) of supposing that
he himself is really that which he is able to represent,
to think out, to express in words. The fact is that,
if he were such, he could under no circumstances rep-
resent it) * nor think it out, nor express it in words.
Homer would never have created an Achilles, Goethe
would never have created a Faust, had Homer been
Achilles, or Goethe Faust. A perfect and genuine
artist is, for aye and evermore, separated from that
which is " real," actually existing. On the other hand,
it is seen how an artist can, at times, grow tired even
to surfeit of this eternal " unreality " and falseness of
his own inmost existence, — and that, then, he will
attempt an excursion into the realm most strictly for-
bidden to him, into reality, into being real. With what
success ? It is easily found out .... This is the
typical velleity of the artist; that same velleity, to
which also Wagner grown-old fell a victim and for
which he had to pay so dearly, so fatally (losing, as
he did, the valuable part of his friends). But alto-
gether disregarding this velleity, who is there that
does not wish — for Wagner's own sake — that he
had taken farewell from us and from his art, not by
means of a Parsifal, but in different wise, — more vie-136	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

torious, more self-confident, more Wagnerian, — less
misleading, less double-dealing in regard to his whole
intention, less Schopenhauerian, less nihilistic ? . . . .

5

What, then, do ascetic ideals mean ? In the case of
an artist, as by this time will have become clear to us, —
nothing! . . . . Or so many things that it is the same
as if they meant nothing! . . . . Let us, therefore,
first of all, eliminate artists. Their position in and
against the world is not at all of sufficient indepen-
dence to make their valuations and the evolution of
them in themselves deserve our attention. They were
at all times the * chamberlains of some morality or
philosophy or religion; not even considering the fact
that, I am sorry to say, often enough they were the
all-too-pliant courtiers to their followers and patrons,
and the sharp-nosed flatterers of long established or
newly rising powers. In any case, they always stand
in need of a safe-guard, a backing, some firmly estab-
lished authority: artists never stand alone; they have
a deep and instinctive aversion to standing alone. So,
for instance, Richard Wagner, when the time "had
come to pass," took Schopenhauer the philosopher as
his front-line man and safe-guard. Who would even
so much as deem it possible that Wagner would have
had the courage for an ascetic ideal, but for the back-THIRD ESSAY

137

ing furnished to him by the philosophy of Schopen-
hauer, but for the authority of Schopenhauer himself
which in the seventies gained the ascendency in Eu-
rope?' (Here we shall pay no regard to the question
whether an artist — unless suckled by the milk of
meek, loyally meek disposition — would have been at
all possible in the new Germany.) — And this brings
us to the more serious question: what does it mean,
when a genuine philosopher renders homage to the
ascetic ideal, a really independent spirit like Schopen-
hauer, a man and knight with iron look, who has the
courage for himself, the strength to stand alone, and
disdains to wait for front-line men and hints from
above ? — Let us here consider the remarkable and
for a certain class of people even fascinating position
which Schopenhauer held in respect to art. For ap-
parently this it was that formed the immediate reason
of Wagner's going over to Schopenhauer (persuaded
to this step, as is well known, by a poet, Herwegh).
He went ov^r to such an extent that thereby arose
a complete theoretical contradiction between his earlier
and his later ae sthetic creed, — the former, for instance,
being expressed in " Opera and Drama" the latter in
the writings which he edited after 1870. Especially
(what is, perhaps, strangest of all) Wagner changed
regardlessly his judgment as to the value and posi-
tion of music itself. What did it concern him that
so far he had us^d it to. a means, a medium, a138	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

"woman" who, in order to thrive, must be given an
end, a man, the dram?., to wit! He all at once under-
stood that by means of Schopenhauer's theory and
innovation more might be accomplished in majorem
musicce gloriam, — namely by means of the theory of
the sovereignty of music, as Schopenhauer understood
it: music being placed aside from and against other
arts, as the independent art as such, and differing from
the other arts in that it presents not merely copies of
phenomenality, as they do, but rather speaks the lan-
guage of the will itself immediately from the " abyss,"
as its most private, most original, most undefined and
underived revelation. By means of this extraordinary
enhancement of the value of music which seemed to
grow from Schopenhauerian philosophy, the value,
also, of the musician himself underwent an unheard-of
increase: he now became an oracle, a priest, nay, more
than a priest — a kind of mouth-piece of the " In-
itself" of things, a telephone from another world.
Henceforth he talked not merely music, this ventrilo-
quist of God, — he talked metaphysics. Was it won-
derful, then, that someday he should talk ascetic
ideals? ....

6

Schopenhauer availed himself of the Kantian for-
mulation of the aesthetic problem, — although he cer-
tainly did not view it vith Kantian eyes. KantTHIRD ESSAY

139

thought he did an honour to art, when among the pred-
icates of beauty, he gave preference to, and empha-
sised those which constitute the honour of knowledge:
impersonality and omnivalence. Whether, in the main,
this was not a mistake, is a question which this is not
the place to discuss. All that I wish to underscore is
that like all philosophers, Kant, instead of approaching
the problem of aesthetics from the experiences of the
artist (the creator), meditated over art and beauty
merely from the standpoint of the " spectator " and so
quite unconsciously got the "spectator himself" into
his concept of "beauty." The case were not so bad, if
this " spectator" had, at least, been sufficiently known
to the philosophers of beauty! — namely as a great
personal fact and experience, as an abundance of most
private, strong experiences, desires, surprises, ecstasies
in the domain of beauty. But the reverse, I fear, has
ever been the case. Hence, from the very beginning,
we receive from them definitions in which, as in that
celebrated definition of beauty given by fcant, the lack
of subtler self-experience lurks in the form of a big
worm of fundamental error. " Beautiful," according to
Kant, "is that, which pleases without interestWith-
out interest! Compare with this definition that other
one made by a genuine spectator and artist, — Stendhal,
who somewhere calls beauty une promesse de bonheur.
In this definition, at any rate, precisely that is refused
and expunged which Kant emphasises in the aesthetic140	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

state: le desinteressement. Who is right, Kant o.:
Stendhal ? If, to be sure, our aestheticians will not
tire to advance in favour of Kant, the old argument
that, under the spell of beauty, one can behold even
naked female statues "without interest,"—then I
should think that we have a right to laugh a little at
their expense. The experiences of artists in regard to
this delicate point are "more interesting," and Pygma-
lion was, at any rate, not necessarily an "unaesthetic
man." Let us think all the more highly of the inno-
cence of our aestheticians which is reflected by such
argument; let us duly appreciate in Kant, for instance,
what, with the naivete of some country-parson he has
to teach us on the peculiarities of the sense of touch!
— And this brings us back to Schopenhauer who, to
quite another extent than Kant, was familiar with art,
and nevertheless failed to break the ban of this Kantian
definition. Why ? The thing is curious enough : the
phrase " without interest" he interpreted for himself in
the most personal manner, out of an experience which
seems to have been among the most regular occurrences
with him. On few topics Schopenhauer talks with
such confidence as on the effects of aesthetic contem-
plation. He claims that it tends to counteract just
sexual " interestedness," in a way similar to that of
lupulin and camphor. He never wearied of celebrat-
ing this escape from will as the great advantage and
boon of the aesthetic state. Indeed, one might beTHIRD ESSAY

141

tempted to raise the question whether his fundamental
conception of "will and representation/' — the thought
that redemption from will is only possible through " rep-
resentation/' may not owe its origin to a generalisation
of even this sexual experience. (In all questions, by
the bye, as to the philosophy of Schopenhauer, regard
must be had for the fact that it is the conception of a
youth of twenty-six, and partakes, consequently, not
only of the specifics of Schopenhauer, but also of the
specifics of that season of life.) Let us, for instance,
hear one of the most express among the many passages
written by him in honour of the aesthetic state (The
World as Will and Representation, I, p. 54); let us note
the tone of his language, the suffering, the joy, the
thankfulness of it. " It is the painless state which
Epicurus praised as the highest good and as the state
of the gods; for we are, for that moment, set free from
the striving of vile will; we keep the Sabbath of the
penal servitude of willing; the wheel of Ixion stands
still" . . . . What vehemence of language! What
pictures of torture and of long surfeit! What almost
pathological contra-positing of the time of "that mo-
ment" and the usual "wheel of Ixion/' the "penal ser-
vitude of willing/' the " vile striving of will! " — But
granting even Schopenhauer to be a hundred times
right with respect to his own person, — would thereby
our insight into the nature of beauty be promoted?
Schopenhauer describes one effect of beauty,—the will-142

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

calming effect. But is this effect even so much as a
rule ? Stendhal, as I said, a not less sensual but more
happily constituted nature than Schopenhauer, lays
stress on a different effect of beauty: " beauty prom-
ises happiness." With him the very stimulation of will
("interest") by beauty seems to be the fact. And
might we not finally object to Schopenhauer that he is
very far wrong in calling himself a Kantian in this re-
spect; that he did not at all understand the Kantian
definition of beauty in the sense of Kant; — that also
his pleasure derived from beauty was due to an " inter-
est" even the strongest and most personal interest, the
interest of one tortured who escapes his torture ? And,
to revert to our first question: "What does it mean4
when a philosopher renders homage to the ascetic ideal ?"
we now receive at least a first hint: he wishes toget,
rid of a torture.

7

Let us guard ourselves from making gloomy faces
at the mere sound of the word "torture!" For in
this very case quite a number of allowances and de-
ductions can be made. There even remains some-
thing to laugh at. Let us, above all, not undervalue
the fact that Schopenhauer—who actually treated sen-
suality (including the tool of sensuality, woman, this
instrumentum diaboli) as his personal enemy — stood
in need of enemies, to keep him in good spirits;THIRD ESSAY

143

that he loved the grim-humoured, gaily, black-browed
words; that he frowned for frowning's sake; from
inclination; that he would have become sick, become
pessimist (—for pessimist he was not, much though he
wished to be so), but for his enemies, but for Hegel,
for woman, for sensuality, and the whole will to life,
the will to stay here. Had Schopenhauer been a
pessimist, he would not have stayed here, to be sure;
he would have run away. But his enemies held him
fast; his enemies kept seducing him to existence; his
anger, quite as in the case of the ancient cynics, con-
stituted his comfort, his recreation, his reward, his
remedium for surfeit, his happiness. So much in
regard to that which is specifically personal in the
case of Schopenhauer! But on the other hand his
case presents also something typical, — and now only
we come back to our problemv Undoubtedly there
exists, as long as philosophers exist on earth, and
wherever philosophers have existed (from India as far
as England — to take the opposite poles of philo-
sophical ability), a specific philosopher's sensitiveness
and rancour against sensuality; Schopenhauer being,
in fact, only the most eloquent and, if we have ears
for such sounds, the most ravishing and rapturous
outburst of it. In the same manner there exists a
singular philosopher's, prepossessedness and heartiness
in favour of the whole ascetic ideal; — about which
and" against which fact it will hardly do for us to144

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

shut our eyes. Both things are, as I said, essential
to the type. If either be wanting in a philosopher,
then, we may be sure, he is always but a " so-called "
philosopher. What does that mean? For this fact
must first be interpreted: in itself it stands stupid to
all etenrty, as every " thing in itself." Every animal,
and hence also la bete philosopher instinctively strives
for an optimum of favourable conditions under which
it is free to discharge fully its power and attains its
maximum consciousness of power; every animal, quite
as instinctively and with a keenness of scent which
" passeth all understanding," abhors every kind of dis-
turber or obstacle which obstructs or could obstruct
his road to the optimum ( — it is not its road to "hap-
piness," of which I am now speaking, but its road to
power, to action, to mightiest action, and, actually, in
most cases, its road to unhappiness). So, also, the
philosopher abhors wedlock and all that would fain
persuade to this state — as being an obstacle and
fatality on his road to the optimum. Who among the
great philosophers is known to have been married?
Heraclitus, Plato, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant,
Schopenhauer — they were not; nay, we cannot even
so much as conceive them as married. A married
philosopher is a figure of comedy, this is my proposi-
tion ; and that exception, Socrates, mischievous Soc-
rates, married, it seems, ironice, with the express pur-
pose of demonstrating this very proposition. EveryTHIRD ESSAY

145

philosopher would say what Buddha said, when the
birth of a son was announced to him: " Rcihula is
born unto me, a fetter is forged for me" (R&hula
means here "a little demon "). For every "free spirit"
a thoughtful hour would be bound to come (assuming,
that before he had a thoughtless hour), as it came to
the same Buddha! " 1 Closely confined/ he thought
within himself, * is the life in the house, a place of
impurity! Freedom is in the leaving of the house.' "
"Because he thought in this wise, he left the house."
In the ascetic ideal there are indicated so many bridges
leading to independence that a philosopher will not be
able to hear, without some inner chuckling and exulta-
tion, the story of all those resolute souls, who one day
said No to all un-freedom and went into some desert;
even assuming that they were nothing but mighty
asses and the very counterparts of mighty spirits.
What, then, does the ascetic ideal mean in the case
of a philosopher ? My answer is — as long ago will
have been anticipated —: the aspect of the ascetic
ideal draws from the lips of the philosopher a smile
because he recognises in it an optimum of the condi-
tions of highest and keenest spirituality. In so doing,
he does not negate " existence," but rather asserts his
own existence and only his own existence, and this
perhaps so much so that the frivolous wish is not far
from him: pereat mundus, fiat philosophia, fiat philoso-
phus, fiam ! ....

L146

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

8

These philosophers, we see, are anything but un-
biassed witnesses and judges as to the value of the
ascetic ideal! They think of themselves — what does
"the Saint" concern them! In valuing the ascetic
ideal, they think of that which is most indispensable
to them: freedom from constraint, interference, noise,
from business, duties, cares; they think of a clear head,
of dancing, leaping, flying of thoughts; good air, thin,
clear, free, dry mountain-air, spiritualising and lending
wings to all animal being; peace in all souterrains;
all dogs securely chained; no barking indicative of
hostility or shaggy rancour; no gnaw-worms of
thwarted ambition; modest and obsequious intestines,
busy as mills, but absent; the heart distant, beyond,
futurous, posthumous. All in all, the ascetic ideal sug-
gests to them that aerial asceticism of some deified and
newly fledged animal which more roves than rests aloof
from life. It is known what are the three great show-
words of the ascetic ideal: Poverty* Humility, Chastity.
And now let people for once examine the lives of all
great productive and inventive spirits: to a certain
extent all three will be found again in them. Not at
all theirJ^wtg^su'! ^ This kind of man, what has it
to do with virtues! But as the most essential, most
natural conditions of their best existence, of their finest
productivity. And it is also quite possible that theirTHIRD ESSAY

147

dominating spirituality had, first of all, to subdue an
untamable and tender pride or an unruly sensuality;
or that it found it rather difficult to keep up their will
to the " desert" perhaps against a hankering for luxury
and most exquisite things, as also against an extrava-
gant liberality of heart and hand. But this spirituality
prevailed, even by virtue of its function of dominating
instinct which insisted on its postulates against all other
instincts. This spirituality still does so; for if it did
not, then it would not dominate. In this kind of
abstinence, therefore, is anything but a "virtue." The
^ desert, by the bye, of which even now I spoke, into
which the strong and independently constituted spirits
retire to be lonesome — oh, how different it looks from
the desert, as our "educated classes " imagine it. For,
as the case may be, they themselves are the desert,
these educated classes. And certain it is that all stage-
players of the spirit have ever found it unbearable.
For them it is not by far romantic enough, not Syrian
enough, not stage-desert enough! Camels, it is true,
are not absent from it; but this is the only respect in
which it resembles a real desert. Perchance, that
desert consists in a self-willed obscurity; in a going out
of the way of one's self; in a horror of noise, honours,
newspapers, influence; in a little office, an everyday,
something which more hides than exposes; in an
occasional intercourse with harmless, gladsome, little
" foules and beastes," the sight of which refreshes; in148

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

some mountains as one's company — yet not mountains
dead, but provided with eyes (—with lakes, to wit); at
times even in a room in some crowded everybody hotel
where one is sure to be mistaken and may safely con-
verse with everybody else. This is a " desert" in this
sense. Oh, believe me, it is lonesome enough! If
Heraclitus retired into the courtyards and colonnades
of the gigantic Artemis-temple, that " desert," I admit,
was rather more dignified. Why are such temples
wanting to us ? (Peradventure they are not wanting to
us: I am just thinking of my finest study, the piazza
di San Marco; spring presupposed, as also forenoon,
the hours between ten and twelve.) But that which
Heraclitus fled, is even this which we also flee: the
hubbub and Democrat gossip of the Ephesians, their
politics, their news from the " empire" (Persia, you
understand), their market-truck of "to-day/' For we
philosophers must have rest from one thing first of all,
from every "to-day," We revere what is still, cold,
calm, distant, past, everything, in fact, the aspect of
which does not assault or freeze the soul, — something
with which we may talk, without talking aloud.
Mark but the timbre which a spirit has when talking;
every spirit has his own timbre, loves his own timbre.
Yonder man, for instance, must, I think, be an agitator,
say rather a hollow-head, a hollow-pot. Whatsoever
goes into him, is sure to reverberate, heavy and hollow,
laden with the echo of great emptiness. That one overTHIRD ESSAY

149

there speaks rarely otherwise than with a hoarse voice.
Has he thought himself into hoarseness ? Possible
enough—one may ask physiologists;—he, however,
who thinks in wordsy thinks, not as thinker but as
speaker. (It shows that he thinks, at bottom, not of
matters, not to the point, but only in regard to matters;
that he thinks, in reality, of himself and of his listen-
ers.) This third one, here, talks impertinently, his
body rubs against our own; his breath breathes upon
us. Involuntarily we shut our mouths, though it is a
book through which he speaks to us. The timbre of
his style tells the reason why; that he has no time,
that he has little faith in himself, that to-day or never
he has a chance to speak. But a spirit, convinced of
himself, speaks softly; he seeks retirement; he waits
to be asked. It characterises the philosopher that he
avoids three showy and noisy things, — glory, princes
and women; whereby it is not meant to be said, how-
ever, that they should not come to him. He shuns all
too glaring brightness; hence he shuns his own time
and the "day" of it. In this respect he is like a
shadow; the farther the sun sinks, the bigger he grows.
As regards his " humility," he will endure, even as he
endures darkness, so also a certain amount of depend-
ence and obscurity; nay, he fears to be disturbed by
lightnings, he shrinks back from the unprotectedness
of an all too isolated and exposed tree against which
every storm vents its temper, and every temper ventsA GENEALOGY OF MORALS

its storm. His " motherly" instinct, the secret love
for that which grows within him, consigns him to con-
ditions in which he is freed from the duty of taking
care of himself; in the same sense that the instinct of
the mother in woman has so far maintained the depend-
ent condition of woman in general. All in all, it is
little enough they demand, these philosophers. Their
motto is: " He who possesses, is possessed;" not, as
again and again I must urge, from a virtue, or a meri-
torious will to simplicity and contentedness, but because
their supreme lord demands it of them, demands it
wisely and inexorably; which lord, has but one end in
view and gathers and saves exclusively for it time,
strength, love, interest, everything. Men of his kind
like to be disturbed by enmities, as little as by amities:
they are quick to forget, quick to despise. They deem
it a poor taste to play the martyr. "To suffer for
truth" — this they leave to the ambitious, the stage-
heroes of the spirit and whoso has time enough for it.
(They themselves, the philosophers, have to do some-
thing for truth.) They are niggard in the use of big
words; we are told that they cannot brook to hear
the word "truth;" they-say, it sounds grandiloquent
.... And finally, as regards the " chastity " of phi-
losophers, the productivity of such spirits consists mani-
festly in something else than in children. Perhaps they
also have somewhere else the continuance of their name,
their little immortality. (Still more immodestly theTHIRD ESSAY

ancient Indian philosophers expressed themselves:
"Wherefore posterity for him whose soul is the
world ?") Therein is nothing of chastity out of any
ascetic scrupulosity or hatred of the senses; as little
as it is chastity if an athlete or jockey abstains from
woman. Rather, thus it is demanded by the dominat-
ing instinct of the philosopher, especially during the
period of his great pregnancy. All artists know the
injurious effects of sexual intercourse in times of great
spiritual suspense and preparation; in the case of the
most powerful among them, and those in whom the
instinct operates with the greatest certainty, experience,
fatal experience is not even necessary, — for in their
case it is even their " motherly " instinct which, for the
benefit of the work in preparation, will regardlessly
dispose of all other supplies and advances of power, —
of the vigour of animal life. In such cases the greater
power will absorb the lesser. — Let people expound the
above-considered case of Schopenhauer in the light of
this interpretation. The sight of beauty in his case, it
seems, acted as a kind of disengaging irritant upon the
main power of his nature (the power of reflection and
intensified eye), so that this power then exploded and,
all of a sudden, gained the upper hand in conscious-
ness. With this explanation the possibility is not at all
meant to be precluded that that peculiar sweetness and
fulness owned by the aesthetic state may take its origin
from the very ingredient of "sensuality/' (as from that152

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

same source that idealism springs which belongs to
" marriageable maidens")—and that, therefore, sensual-
ity upon che origination of the aesthetic state is by no
means annulled, as Schopenhauer thought, but merely
transfigured, and now no longer presents itself to con-
sciousness as sexual irritant. (To this point of view I
shall some other time revert, in connection with still
more delicate problems relative to the hitherto so un-
touched-upon, so undisclosed Physiology of ^Esthetics.)

9

A certain asceticism, we saw, a hard and cheerful
will to renunciation, are among the favourable condi-
tions of highest spirituality, as also among the most
natural consequences of it. Hence nobody can won-
der that, from the very beginning, the ascetic ideal
has always been treated with some prepossession just
by philosophers. On an exact historical investigation,
the tie of relationship between the ascetic ideal and
philosophy proves to be much more intimate and
severe. One might say that only in the leading-
strings of this ideal has philosophy learnt to take her
first steps and steplets on earth, alas, how very awk-
wardly ! alas, how very peevishly! alas, how very ready
to tumble over and lie flat on the belly, — this dear
little toddler and tenderling with bent legs! Philoso-
phy in her infancy fared, as all good things have
fared ; for a long time they lacked self-confidence;THIRD ESSAY

153

they ever looked about for some one to extend a
helping hand; they feared, in fact, all those that wit-
nessed their efforts. Let us but review the individual
bents and virtues of the philosopher, one after the
other; — his sceptical bent, his negating bent, his ex-
pectant (" ephectical") bent, his analytical bent, his
searching, scrutinising, daring bent, his comparing and
levelling bent, his will to neutrality and objectivity, his
will to every "sine ira et studio"' Has any one
understood that all these bents for the longest period
ran directly counter to the first demands of morality
and of conscience ? (to say nothing of reason which
Luther nicknamed Madame Smartness the smart
whore); and that a philosopher, if he had become
conscious of himself, would of necessity, have felt him-
self as the incarnation of the "nitimur in vetitum9"
and that, therefore, he took good care not " to feel him-
self and not to become conscious of himself ?" . . . .
The same is true, as I said, of all good things in
which to-day we pride ourselves. Even measured by
the standard of the ancient Greeks, our whole modern
life — in so far as it is not weakness, but power and
consciousness of power—appears as sheer hybris and
godlessness. For the very opposite things from those
which to-day we revere, had — for the longest period
— consciousness upon their side and God as their
guardian. Hybris is to-day our whole attitude towards
nature, our violation of nature with the aid of ma-154

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

chines and the quite unscrupulous inventiveness of
technologists and engineers. Hybris is our attitude
towards God, say rather towards any alleged spider
of purpose and morality, seated behind the great cob-
web and catch-trap of causativeness. We might say
with Charles the Bold, when warring against Louis the
Eleventh : "Je combats Vuniverselle araignee ." Hybris
is our attitude towards ourselves; for we experiment
upon ourselves, as we should not allow upon any
other animal, and quite merrily and curiously rip up
our soul in our live body. What do we care for the
salvation of the soul! Afterwards we heal ourselves.
To be sick is instructive, no question whatever, — more
instructive even than to be well. The sickmakers seem
to us to be more necessary to-day than any medicine-
men and " saviours." We now violate ourselves, no
doubt whatever, we nut-crackers of the soul, we ques-
tioners and questionable ones, as if life were nothing
but sheer nut-cracking; and, by virtue of that, we
must, from day to day, become more questionable,
more worthy to question, and hence perhaps also
worthier—to live? All good things were at one time
bad things; every original sin has developed into an
original virtue. Matrimony, for instance, seemed for
a long time to be a trespass upon the right of the
community; formerly a fine was paid for the pre-
sumption of claiming a woman for one's self (under
this head must be considered, for instance, the jusTHIRD ESSAY

primce noctis, — at this very day in Combodja the pre-
rogative of the priests, these preservers of " good old
customs "). The gentle, benevolent, indulgent, sympa-
thetic feelings — rated at present so high that they
almost are the "values as such " — were for the longest
period branded self-contempt. People were ashamed
of " mildness,'' as one now is ashamed of severity (cf.
Beyond Good and Evil, aph. 260). The submission
to law — oh, with what opposition of conscience the
noble families have relinquished their privilege of
vendetta and acknowledged the supremacy of law!
44 Law" for a long time was a vetitum, a crime, an
innovation ; it made its appearance with violence, — as
a violence to which man did not submit but with shame
to himself. Every step on earth, however small, has,
in past ages, been contended for with spiritual and
bodily pangs. This entire point of view, "that not
only progress, nay, the mere act of going, motion,
change, has needed its countless martyrs, sounds very
strange just to-day." I have placed it in its proper
light in Dawn of the Day, aph. 18. "Nothing," I say
in that work (aph. 18), "has been more dearly paid for
than the trifle of human reason and of the feeling of
freedom which constitutes our pride to-day. But this
pride it is which renders it almost impossible for us to
share the feelings of those immense periods of the
4 morality of custom/ which precede * general history/
and which constitute real, principal and decisive his-A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

tory in which the character of mankind was fixed —
those times in which suffering was identified with vir-
tue, cruelty with virtue, simulation with virtue, revenge
with virtue, the negation of reason with virtue; and,
on the other hand, welfare with danger, thirst of
knowledge with danger, peace with danger, pity with
danger, the being-pitied with disgrace, labour with
disgrace, madness with godlikeness, change with im-
morality and doom!"

10

In the same work (aph. 42) is explained by what
valuation, under what pressure of valuation, the oldest
race of comtemplative men was forced to live, — as men
despised to precisely the extent that they were not
feared! Contemplation has first made its appearance
on earth in muffled guise, in questionable repute, with
evil heart and often with a timorous head; no doubt
whatever! That which was inactive, brooding, unwar-
like in the instincts of contemplative men, for a long
time enshrouded them in deep mistrust. To counteract 4
this there was no other expedient but to beget fear
in others. And this art the ancient Brahmans, for in-
stance, understood to perfection! These most ancient
philosophers contrived to give to their life and appear-
ance a sense, a footing and backing, such as might
teach their fellowmen to fear them. Considered more
exactly they were prompted by a still more funda-THIRD ESSAY

157

mental need, — that o* begetting, in themselves, fear
and reverence of themselves. For in themselves they
found all valuations turned against themselves; they
had, against " the philosopher in themselves/' to com-
bat and subdue every variety of suspicion and opposi-
tion. And, as beings of a terrible age, they did so with
terrible means: self-cruelty, inventive self-mortification
— that was the principal means of these power-craving
hermits and thought-innovators who, to enable them-
selves to believe in their own innovation, required to do
violence to the Gods and to tradition in themselves. I
recall the celebrated story of king Vigvamitra who, by
thousands of years of self-torture, attained to such con-
sciousness of power and self-confidence that he under-
took to build a new heaven ; — the awful symbol of the
oldest as well as of the most recent philosopher's his-
tory on earth; — all those who undertook at some time
or other to build a new heaven found the power for
such an undertaking only in their own hell. Let us
compress all facts into short formulae: the philosophi-
cal spirit has at all times been compelled to adopt pro-
visionally the garb and guise of the priority-established
type of contemplative man, as priest, sorcerer, sooth-
sayer, — in general, as religious man, in order to be, in
some measure at least, even so much as possible. For a
long time the ascetic ideal served the philosopher as a
form of appearance, as a condition of existence. He
had to represe7it this ideal, to be able to be philoso-i58

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

pher; he had to believe in this ideal, to be able to
represent it. The peculiarly world-negating, life-hos-
tile, sense-doubting, de-sensualised state of aloof-keep-
ing of philosophers, which has been maintained up to
most recent times, and thereby has almost come to be
recognised as the philosophers' attitude as suchy — is,
above all, a consequence of a deficiency and of the
conditions under which philosophy came into, and
maintained her existence, in so far as for the longest
time philosophy would have been quite impossible on
earth, but for some ascetic garb and integument, but
for some ascetic self-misunderstanding. Clearly and
ostensibly expressed: the ascetic priest has until quite
recent times acted as the dismal and repulsive larva
under which alone philosophy was permitted to live
and move about .... Has this state of affairs really
changed? Has that many-coloured and dangerous
winged-animal, that " spirit" which this larva con-
tained, thanks to a sunnier, warmer, more enlight-
ened world, after all succeeded in breaking its prison
and in escaping to the light of day ? Is the supply of
pride, of daring, of bravery, of self-confidence, of will
of the spirit, of will to responsibility, of freedom of
will\ already large enough to-day for "the philosopher"
to be henceforth really —possible on earth ? . . . ,THIRD ESSA3T

159

II

Only now, after having* gained sight of the ascetic
priest, we attack sen'susly our problem: what does the
ascetic ideal mean ? — Only now matters are growing
"earnest." Now we stand face to face with the true
representative of all earnest. "What does all earnest
mean ? " This even still more fundamental question will
perhaps forthwith prepare to escape our lips : a question
for physiologists, of course, which we, however, for the
present slide past. The ascetic priest has in that ideal
not only his faith, but also his will, his power, his in-
terest. His right to exist stands and falls with that
ideal; no wonder if here we encounter a dangerous
antagonist (assuming us to be the antagonists of that
ideal), an antagonist who will fight for his existence
against the deniers of that ideal ? . . . . On the other
hand it will ipso facto not be very probable that such a
prepossession in favour of our problem will be espe-
cially useful for it. The ascetic priest himself will not
very 'likely make the most successful defender of his
own ideal (for precisely the same reason that a woman
is wont to make a mess of it, when she undertakes to
defend "woman as such")and far less the most objec-
tive judge and referee in the controversy raised here.
More likely — and this much is plain even now — he
will need our help in order to defend himself well
against ourselves, than that we need fear a too goodA genealogy of morals

refutation on his part ... The thought, round which
the struggle turns, is the valuation of out life as pro-
nounced by the ascetic priest. Life (together with that
of which it forms part — "nature," " worid," the entire
sphere of becoming and of change) is brought by him
into relation with an existence of an altogether differ-
ent kind, to which it bears an antithetical and exclu-
sive attitude, unless it be that it turn against itself, that
it negate itself \ In this case — the case of an ascetic
life — life is regarded as a bridge leading to that other
existence. The ascetic treats life as a wrong way
which man had best retrace to the point whence it
starts; or as an error which can be, should be dis-
proved by our deeds. For he demands, that one
should follow him; he enforces, wherever he can, his
valuation of existence. What does that mean? A
manner of valuation thus eccentric is not marked down
in the history of man, as an exception and curiosum.
It is one of the most diffused and longest facts in exist-
ence. Read from some far-off star, the majuscules of
our earthly existence would perhaps lead the looker-on
to infer that our earth is the essentially ascetic stary —
a corner of malcontent, conceited and ugly creatures,
unable to rid themselves of a deep chagrin at self, at
the earth, at all life, and causing each other as much
pain as possible, from the pleasure of causing pain: —
probably, their only pleasure. Let us but consider how
regularly, how universally, how almost at any period,THIRD ESSAY

161

the ascetic priest makes his appearance; he does not
belong, exclusively, to any one race; he flourishes any-
where; he grows out of all classes. Wrong it were
to suppose that he fosters and propagates his man-
ner of valuation by way of heredity. The contrary is
the case: a deep instinct rather denies him, all in all,
propagation. It must be a necessity of cardinal import,
which will have this kind of life-inimical species thrive
and flourish again and again, — or, perhaps, it is an
interest of life itself \ which prevents this type of self-
contradiction from dying out. For an ascetic life is a
self-contradiction. Here a most extraordinary resent-
ment prevails, — the resentment of an insatiate instinct
and will to power, which would fain lord it — not
merely over something in life but over life itself, over
the deepest, strongest, and most fundamental condi-
tions of life. Here an attempt is made to use power
for the purpose of stopping the sources of power.
Here physiological thriving itself, — especially, its ex-
pression, beauty and joy, is viewed with dark and jeal-
ous eye; whereas a satisfaction is felt and sought in all
abortive, degenerate growth, in pain, in mishap, in ugli-
ness, in voluntary detraction, in self-mortification, in
self-castigation, in self-sacrificing. All this is paradoxi-
cal in the highest degree. We have before us a case
of duality which wills itself dual; which in this suf-
fering enjoys itself and grows more and ever more
self-confident and triumphant, in proportion as its

MI62	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

own presupposition — physiological vitality — dimin-
ishes. " Triumph in the very hour of last agony,"
under this superlative symbol all battles of the ascetic
ideal have ever been fought. In this riddle of seduc-
tion, in this emblem of ecstasy and torture, it perceived
its own brightest light, its salvation, its final victory.
Crux, nux, lux,— these three with it are one.

12

Assuming that this kind of impersonate will to
contradiction and anti-naturalness undertakes to phi-
losophise,— against what will it discharge its inmost
arbitrariness ? Against that which is felt to be most
certainly true, real. It will seek for error even there
where the functional instinct of life in an absolute
way posits truth. It will for instance, in the manner
of the ascetics of Vedanta philosophy, abase corporal-
ity to mere illusion, as also pain, multiplicity, the entire
antithesis between the concepts of "subject" and "ob-
ject." Errors, all errors! To refuse to believe in
one's own ego, to deny one's own "reality" — what
triumph! no longer over the senses merely, over visible
nature, no! a much higher kind of triumph, a violation
and cruelty against reason itself; which voluptuous-
ness reaches its climax, when the ascetic self-contempt
and self-scorn of reason decrees that there is a realm
of truth and of being, but just reason is shut out fromTHIRD ESSAY

it. (By the bye: even in the Kantian concept of the
" intelligible character of things" a trace of this
libidinous asceticist-duality— which delights in setting
reason against reason — still remains. " Intelligible
character," to wit, with Kant betokens a kind of con-
dition of things of which the intellect comprehends
just this that it is for the intellect altogether incom-
prehensible.)—Let us finally — cognisers as we are —
be not ungrateful to such resolute subversions of the
ordinary perspectives and valuations with which the
spirit has, for all too long a time and, as it would seem,
criminally and futilely raged against itself! Thus to
see and to will to see things in another manner forms
a most excellent training and preparation of the intel-
lect for its future "objectivity,"— understanding the
latter to be not an " uninterested contemplation"
(which is a perversity and misconcept) but as the fac-
ulty of commanding and disposing, at perfect pleasure,
of our For and our Against, to put in and unhinge
them: so that one knows how to make use of the
very manifoldness of perspectives and emotional inter-
pretations for the furtherance of knowledge. For,
Messrs. philosophers, let us henceforth guard ourselves
better against the dangerous, old fabling with concepts
which posited a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless sub-
ject of knowledge;" let us guard ourselves against
the clutches of such contradictory concepts as "pure
reason," "absolute spirituality," "cognition as such."164

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

Here always an eye is postulated to be conceived which
cannot be conceived; an eye which is asked to have
no direction at all; an eye the active and interpreta-
tive faculties of which are asked to be tied up or want-
ing altogether, — through which alone a looking at
becomes a seeing something; i.e., a perversity and
misconcept of an eye is postulated. There is no other
seeing but a perspective seeing; there is no other
knowing but a perspective "knowing;" and the more
emotions we make speak on a matter, the more eyes,
the more different eyes, we place in our face, the more
complete will be our "concept" of this matter, our
" objectivity." But to eliminate will altogether, to un-
hinge— provided this were possible—each and every
emotion — what? would not this mean to castrate the ,
intellect ? . . . .	\

13

But let us revert! The kind of self-contradiction
which seems to present itself in the ascetic, i.e.9 "life
against life," is — this much is clear on the face of it
— physiologically (and no longer psychologically) con-
sidered, sheer nonsense. It can be but a seeming
contradiction; it is to be expected to be a kind of
provisional expression, an interpretation, formula, ac-
commodation, a psychological misunderstanding of a
something the real nature of which could, for a long
time, not be understood, not be denoted by itself—aTHIRD ESSAY

mere word crammed into an old gap of human know-
ledge. And, to state briefly the facts of the case :
the ascetic ideal is prompted by the self-protective and
self-preservative instinct of degenerating life,— a life
which struggles for existence and seeks to maintain
itself by all means; it points to a partial physiologi-
cal stagnation and languishment which the deepest,
intact-preserved instincts of life incessantly seek to
counteract with ever changing means and inventions.
The ascetic ideal is such a means: and hence, pre-
cisely the reverse is the case from what the wor-
shippers of this ideal believe, — in it and through it,
life struggles with and against death; the ascetic ideal
is an artifice for the preservation of life. In the fact
that this ideal could, to the extent that history teaches
us, sway and prevail over man, and especially wherever
the civilising and taming of man was enforced, an im-
portant truth is expressed: the morbidity of the type
of man which hitherto prevailed, at least of tamed
man; the physiological wrestling of man with death
(more exactly stated: with the surfeit of life, with
weariness, with the wish for the " end "). The ascetic
priest is the incarnate wish for a state of being other-
wise, being elsewhere; in fact, the highest grade of
this wish, the hottest fervour and passion of this wish.
But the very power of his wishing is the chain which
binds him fast to life and makes him a tool for bring-
ing about more favourable conditions, for being here166

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

and being a man. By this very power and by leading
them instinctively as their shepherd, he holds fast to
existence the entire herd of the mis-fashioned, the dis-
appointed, the maltreated, the defective, every de-
scription of sufferers from their self. I am already
understood: this ascetic priest, this seeming enemy
of life, this benayer,—this very man is among the
great conserving, and yea-creative powers of life ....
On what turns it, that morbidity ? For man, no ques-
tion whatever, is sicker, less secure, more changeable,
more unfixed than any other animal, — he is the sick
animal. And why so ? Certainly he has also dared
more, innovated more, defied more, challenged fate
more than all other animals taken together, — he, the
great self-experimenter, the unsatisfied and insatiate
one, struggling with animal nature and the gods for
final supremacy, — he, the still unconquered, the eter-
nally futurous one who finds no rest from his own
thronging power, so that his future like a spur inex-
orably rakes the flesh of every Now of his. How
could it happen that such a courageous and rich ani-
mal should not also be of all sick animals the one
most jeopardised, the one with the longest and deepest
sickness ? Man is satiated to surfeit, often enough;
there are entire epidemics of this satiety (—for in-
stance, about the year 1348, the time of the "dance
of death"). But even this nausea, this weariness, this
self annoyance, — all this becomes so powerfully ap-THIRD ESSAY

167

parent in him that at once it turns into an additional
fetter. The Nay which he pronounces upon life,
brings to light, as if by magic, an abundance of more
delicate Yeas. Nay, when he has wounded himself —
this master of destruction, of self-destruction, — it is
the wound itself which forces him to live ....

14

The more normal the sickliness in man—and we
cannot deny this normality — the more highly those
rare cases of spiritual and bodily capability, the lucky
cases of man, should be honoured; and the more rigor-
ously the well-constituted should be guarded against
that worst air, sickroom air. Is that done ? ... .
The sick are the greatest danger for the sound. Not
from the strongest do bale and mischief come upon
the strong, but from the weakest. Is that known ?
.... All in all, it is by no means the diminution
of the fear of man which is desirable. For this fear
compels the strong to be strong, nay, as the case may
be, even terrible. Fear preserves the well-constituted
type of man. That which really is to be feared; that
which proves fatal beyond all fatalities—is not the
great fear, but the great surfeit of man, and in the
same way the great pity for man. Assuming that
soibeday these two were to embrace in wedlock, then
forthwith something most awful would inevitably bei68

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

born, — the last will of man, his will to the Nothing,
„ nihilism. And truly, for that much has been prepared.
He who smells not only with his nose but with his
.eyes and ears as well, will, almost wherever he steps
to-day, experience a sensation as of mad- and sick-
house air. (I am, as is but fair, speaking here of
the realm of human civilisation,— of every kind of
" Europe " existing now-a-days on earth.) The sickly
are the great danger of man: not the evil, not the
"beasts of prey." They who are ill-shaped, pros-
trated and wrecked from birth — they, the weakest, are
those who most undermine life among men; who most
dangerously poison and question our confidence in life,
in man, in ourselves. Where do we not encounter it
— that veiled look which begets in our mind a heavy
sadness, — that retrospective look of the primordially
aborted one, — which betrays how such a man speaks
to himself; that look which is a sigh. " Would I
were some one else!" this look will sigh. " But all
hope is vain. I am he that I am. How could I flee
myself from myself? And yet I am tired of myself"
Out of such a soil of self-contempt — a truly swampy
soil, every weed and poisonous herb will grow, and
everything so pettily, so secretly, so dishonestly, so
sweetishly. Here the feelings of resentment and re-
venge will swarm like so much vermin; here the air
will stink of secretnesses and unconfessednesses; here
continually a net will be spun of the most malignantTHIRD ESSAY

169

conspiracy, — the conspiracy of sufferers against the
well-constituted and victorious; here the aspect of the
victorious will be hated. And what a falsehood is
employed to conceal that this hatred is hatred! What
pageant of great words and attitudes; what art of
" righteous " calumny ! These ill-constituted — what
noble eloquence streams from their lips! How much
sugared, slimy, humble resignation beams from their
eyes ! What is it they wish ? At least to represent
justice, love, wisdom, superiority — such is the ambi-
tion of these "lowest," these sick ones. And what
dexterity such an ambition gives! Let people admire
especially the counterfeiter-skilfulness with which the
stamp of virtue, nay, even its metal " ring," the gold-
sound of virtue, is imitated. No doubt, they have now
got a monopoly of virtue, these weak and hopelessly
sick ones. "We u>ne are the good, the just," they
say; " we alone are the homines bonce voluntatis
They walk about among us like so many live re-
proaches, likt so many warnings, — just as if health,
well-constitutedness, strength, pride, consciousness of
power, were, in themselves, vicious things which one
day must be atoned for, bitterly atoned for. Oh, how
much are they at bottom ready to make others atone
for! — Oh, how much long they to play the hangman !
Among them there is an abundance of such as are
revengeful ones disguised as judges, who always carry
about in their mouths the word "justice" like a poi-170

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

sonous spittle; ever with rounded lips, ever ready to
spit on everything which is not, like themselves, "of
sad countenance/' but cheerfully pursues its way.
Neither is there wanting among them that most de-
testable species of the vain,—those abortions given
to lying whose ambition it is to represent "beautiful
souls " and peradventure bring to market their bungled
sensuality wrapped in verse and other napkins, calling
it "purity of heart:" the species of moral onanists and
" self-gratifiers." The will of the sick to represent
some form or other of superiority; their instinct for
finding secret ways leading to a tyranny over the
sound—where could it not be found, this will to power
of the very weakest! Sick woman especially ; no one
excels more in raffinements—of ruling, of oppressing, of
tyrannising. A sick woman will spare nothing living,
nothing dead; she will dig up tb^ most deeply buried
things (the Bogos say: "Wonian is a hyrna"). Let
people glance into the backgrounds of f.very family,
every corporation, every community: everywhere there
exists the battle of the sick with the sound, — gen-
erally, a silent battle carried on with little poisonous
mixtures, with needle-pricks, with malignant sufferers'
countenance, but occasionally also with that sick-
pharisaism of ostentative posture which delights most
of all in playing " noble indignation." Even as far
as the hallowed realms of science it would like to be
heard,—the hoarse indignant barking of the sicklyTHIRD ESSAY

171

dogs, the mordacious lying and fury of such " noble "
Pharisees (— readers, who have ears, may be reminded
once again of that Eugen Duhring, the Berlin apostle
of revenge, who in the Germany of to-day makes the
most indecent and repulsive use of moral bum-bum;
Duhring, the biggest moral braggadocio now in exist-
ence, not even excepting his kin, the anti-Semites).
All these are men of resentment, these physiological
failures and worm-eaten creatures, a whole, trembling
soil of subterranean revenge; inexhaustible, insatiable
in outbursts against the happy, as well as in masquer-
ades of revenge, in pretexts to revenge. When, we
ask, would they attain their final, finest, sublimest tri-
umph of revenge ? At the moment, no doubt, when
they should succeed in charging their own misery,—
all misery in the world —, to the conscience of the
happy, so that someday these would begin to be
ashamed of their happiness and probably declare
among themselves: " It is a disgrace to be happy!
There is too much misery !" But there could be no
greater, no more fatal misunderstanding than if thus
the happy, the well-constituted, the mighty in body
and soul, were to begin to doubt their own right to
happiness. Away, with this world " turned upside
down ! " Away, with this shameful effeminacy of sen-
timent! That the sick may not make the sound sick
— and this would be the meaning of such an effemi-
nacy—surely, this should be the first point of view172

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

on earth. But for that the first condition is that the
sound be removed from the sick, guarded from the
very aspect of the sick, that they may not confuse
themselves with the sick. Or, is it peradventure their
task to be the nurses and leeches of the sick? But
they could not more misjudge or abnegate their own
task than if they did so. What is higher shall not
degrade itself to a tool of what is lower; the pathos
of distance shall to all eternity keep tasks asunder as
well as other things. For the right of the happy to
exist, to be there, is a thousand times greater; just
as the privilege of the sonorous bell beats that of the
bell discordant and cracked. The happy alone are
the pledges of the future; they alone lie under an
obligation for the future of man. What they are able
to do, what they shall do, that the sick could never
and should never do. But in order that they may do
what only they shall do, how could they be at liberty
to act also as leeches, comforters, " saviours " of the
sick? And therefore, good air! good air! And at
any rate, away from the neighbourhood of all sick-
and mad-houses of civilisation ! And therefore, good
company, our company! Or loneliness, if so be it
must! But away, at any rate, from the foul vapours
of internal corruption and the secret worm-eatenness
of the sick! . . . . In order that we, my friends, may
guard ourselves, for some time at least, against the
two most fatal plagues which may have been re-THIRD ESSAY

*73

served just for us — against the great surfeit of man
and the great pity for man.

15

If it has been thoroughly comprehended — and I
must insist on the thorough prehension, thorough com-
prehension of this necessity — that it can, under no
circumstances, be the task of the sound to wait upon
the sick, to make the sick whole, then also another
necessity has been comprehended, — the necessity of
leeches and nurses who are themselves sick. And now
we have and hold with both hands the sense of the
ascetic priest. The ascetic priest must be taken as the
predestined saviour, herdsman and advocate of the sick
herd; it is only thereby that we understand his vast
historic mission. The sway over suffering is his king-
dom; to it his instinct leads him; in it he proves his
own most private art, his mastery, his kind of happi-
ness. To understand the sick one and disinherited one
and himself in them, he must be sick himself, he must
be thoroughly related to them. But he must also be
strong, be more completely master of himself even than
of others, be undaunted, especially in his will to power,
— in order to secure for himself the confidence and the
fear of the sick, in order to be a hold, an opposition, a
support, a constraint, a taskmaster, a tyrant, a god for
thenl. He has to defend them, his herd. Against
whom ? Against the sound, no doubt whatever, and174	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

also against their envy of the sound; he must be the
natural opponent and despiser of all health and capa-
bility which are rude, impetuous, unbridled, brutal,
relentless, robber-animal-like. The priest is the first
form of that more delicate animal which is quicker to
despise than to hate. He will not be spared the
necessity of waging war against the beasts of prey, a
war of cunning (of " spirit") rather than of power, as
is self-evident; for that he will, under certain circum-
stances, be compelled to fashion of himself almost a
new variety of the beast of prey type, or, at least, to
signify such a type, — a new animal monstrosity in
which the ice-bear, the agile and calmly-deliberative
tiger-cat and, last but not least, the fox seem to be
fused into a unity interesting and at the same time awe-
inspiring. Suppose he is compelled by need, he may,
with bearlike earnestness, gravity, sagacity, coldness,
and superior craft, make his appearance among the
other kind of beasts of prey; as the herald and mouth-
piece of more mysterious powers; with the resolution
of scattering, wherever he can, the seed of mischief,
discord and self-contradiction on this soil; and only
too sure of his power to lord it over sufferers at all
times. He brings with him salves and balms, no
doubt whatever; but before acting as a leech he must
inflict the wound. Then, in the very act of soothing
the pain caused by the wound, he will at the same time
pour poison into the wound. For in this art he isTHIRD ESSAY

175

master, this great sorcerer and tamer of beasts of prey
in whose presence whatever is sound, of necessity be-
comes sick, and whatever is sick, tame. And truly,
well enough he will defend his herd,—this curious
herdsman. He will also defend it against itself,
against the meanness, knavery, malignity secretly
smouldering within the herd; against whatever is
owned by all the sick and sickly among themselves.
He wages a prudent, hard and secret war against
anarchy and self-dissolution, threatening at any mo-
ment to break out in the herd in which that most dan-
gerous blasting and explosive power — resentment—,
keeps steadily accumulating. To discharge this pow-
der in such a manner as not to blow up either the herd
or the herdsman, this is his specific artist feat, as also
his highest usefulness. Were we to express the value
of the priestly existence in the shortest formula, we
should have straightway to put it thus: the priest is
the person who changes the direction of resentment.
For every sufferer will instinctively seek for a cause of
his suffering; more exactly, a doer; still more defi-
nitely a doer susceptible of suffering, and guilty; in
short, anything living against which, under some pre-
tence or other, he may discharge his emotions — either
in deed or in effigy. For the discharge of emotions
is the greatest attempt on the part of the sufferer to
procure for himself alleviation, — or rather, to bring
about stupefaction of his pain. It is his narcotic which176

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

he wants instinctively against pain of any kind. Here
only, according to my supposition, is to be found the
real physiological causality of resentment, revenge and
their sister-feelings, i.e., in a longing for stupefaction of
pain through an emotion. That causality is generally
and, as I think, very erroneously, sought for in a coun-
ter-thrust given in defence, a mere protective measure
of re-action, a " reflex-motion " in case of a sudden in-
jury or impending danger, such as is still performed
by a decapitated frog which tries to rid himself of
some macerating acid. But the difference is funda-
mental : in the one case the guarding against further in-
jury is intended; in the other the object is to narcotise
some torturing, secret pain which grows intolerable,
by means of a violent emotion of any kind, and to
remove it, for the moment at least, from consciousness.
For this an emotion is needed, the wilder the better;
and for causing it, some pretence is required. " Some-
body must be to blame because I feel badly" — this
kind of logic is shared by all the sick; and this is the
more the case the more the true — the physiological —
cause of their feeling badly is hidden to them. (It may
peradventure consist in a diseased state of the nervus
sympathicus, or in an abnormally large secretion of
bile, or in a poverty of the blood in sulphate and phos-
phate of potash, or in pressures in the abdomen which
impede the circulation of the blood, or in a degenera-
tion of the ovaries and the like.) All sufferers showTHIRD ESSAY

177

a frightful readiness and inventiveness in pretexts to
painful emotions. They rejoice in their suspicion and
in the brooding over wrongs and seeming injuries suf-
fered from others. They ransack the intestines of
their past and their now for dark and suspicious stories
in which they are at liberty to revel in some harassing
suspicion and narcotise themselves with their own
poison of malignity. They will tear open the oldest
wounds; they bleed to death from scars healed long
ago; they make evil-doers of friend, wife and child and
whatever else is nearest them. "I suffer; for this
some one must be to blame " — so all sick sheep think.
But their shepherd, the ascetic priest, says: " Right
so, my sheep! Some one must be to blame for this.
But thou thyself art this some one; thou thyself art
alone to blame for this; — thou thyself art alone to blame
for thyself/" .... This is bold enough and false
enough. But one thing, at least, is attained through
it; as we have seen, the direction of resentment — is
changed.

16

Now my readers will make out what the iEsculapian
instincts of life have accomplished or, at least, have
tried to accomplish through the ascetic priest, and for
what purpose he has used, for the time being, the
tyranny of such paradoxical and paralogical concepts
as "guilt," "sin," "sinfulness," "perdition," "damna-

N178	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

tion;" to render, in some measure, the sick harmless;
to destroy the incurable through themselves; to give
the less diseased strictly the direction towards them-
selves, a backward direction of their resentment (" One
thing is needed"}\ and to make full use, in this man-
ner, of the bad instincts of all sufferers for the purpose
of self-discipline, self-control and self-vanquishment.
It is apparent that a " medication" of this kind (a
mere medication of emotions) is nothing less than an
actual healing of the sick in the physiological sense.
One is not even entitled to maintain that the instinct
of life therewith in any way has in view the end and
aim of healing. A kind of crowding and organisation
of the sick on the one side (the most popular term for
this is " church ") and, on the other side, a kind of pro-
visional protection of the more soundly-constituted, the
more full-fraught; the tearing-up of a gap between
the sound and the sick — this was, for a long time, the
only thing done! And it was much! very much!
.... [It will be observed that, in the present essay,
I have started out with a presupposition which, with
the class of readers I stand in need of, requires no
demonstration: that " sinfulness" in man is not a
matter of the fact, but only the interpretation of a fact,
viz.y of a physiological depression, — the latter being
viewed in the perspective of morality and religion,
which for us has lost its obligatory force. — The fact
that any one feels himself " guilty " or " sinful/' by noTHIRD ESSAY

179

means proves that he is right in feeling himself so; as
little as that anybody is well merely because he feels
well. I but recall the celebrated witch-trials. In those
days the most sagacious and humanest judges did not
doubt the actua^ existence of a guilt; the "witches"
themselves did tot doubt it,— and yet, such a guilt
did not exist.—To express this presupposition in an
enlarged form: "mental pangs" themselves I do not
recognise as a fact at all, but only as an interpreta-
tion (causal interpretation) of facts which so far defied
exact formulation: as something, therefore, which has,
so far, escaped our grasp and is scientifically not bind-
ing— no more than a stout word in place of a con-
sumptive interrogation mark. If any one cannot away
with "mental pangs," the fault, roughly speaking, lies
not in his "soul," but rather in his belly (I say, roughly
speaking, which, however, by no means implies the
wish to be roughly heard, roughly understood ....).
A strong and well-fashioned man will digest his expe-
riences (including deeds and misdeeds) as he will his
meals, even if he has to devour hard morsels. In case
he fail to "get beyond" an experience, this kind of
indigestion is physiological no less than that other —
and, in many cases, merely one of the consequences of
the other. — With such a view, one may, entre nous,
nevertheless be the most determined opponent of all
materialism . . . .]180	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

17

But is he, actually, a leech, this ascetic priest ? We
have already seen in what respect we are hardly jus-
tified in calling him a leech, however much he likes to
feel himself a "saviour," to be revered as a "saviour."
It is only suffering itself, the distemper of the sufferer,
which he combats; not the cause of these states, not
actual sickness. This must constitute our most fun-
damental objection to priestly medication. But if we,
over and above, place ourselves in the perspective
which the priest alone knows and holds, then our
admiration will know no bounds in beholding how
much he has seen, sought and found in it. The miti-
gation of suffering, the "comforting" in all its forms,
appears to be his proper genius. How ingeniously has
he understood his task of " comforter! " How reck-
lessly and daringly has he chosen the means for it!
Christianity, especially, might be called a great store-
house of most ingenious sedatives; containing, as it
does, so many restorative, palliative and narcotising
physics and potions; having dared, as it did, so many
most dangerous and bold things for that purpose; and
having made out, as it did, in such a fine, refined,
southern-refined fashion by what stimulative emotions,
temporarily at least, the deep depression, the leaden
languor, the sullen sadness of the physiologically de-
pressed can be conquered. For generally speaking:THIRD ESSAY

181

the principal problem of all great religions was to com-
bat a certain heaviness and weariness which had be-
come epidemic. We may posit as extremely probable
that from time to time on certain spots of the earth,
almost necessarily, a feeling of physiological depression
will prevail over large masses of people, which, how-
ever, from a lack of physiological knowledge, does not
appear in consciousness as such, so that the " cause " of
it, the treatment to be applied to it, can only be sought
for and tried in an exclusively psychologico-moral way.
(— This, to wit, is my most general formula of that
which ordinarily is called "religion") Such a feeling
of depression may be of the most diverse origin:
it may, peradventure, be the consequence of an inter-
mingling of all too heterogenous races (or of classes;
classes always express differences of descent and race;
European "resignation," the "pessimism" of the nine-
teenth century is, in the main, the consequence of an
irrationally sudden intermingling of the classes); or it
may be due to a wrongly-directed emigration — a race
having come into a climate for which its powers of
adaptation are insufficient (the case of the Indians in
India); or the effect of age and exhaustion of the
race (Parisian pessimism after 1850); or to improper
diet (alcoholism of the middle ages; the nonsense of
the vegetarians, who, of course, have the authority of
younker Christopher in Shakespeare to speak in their
favour); or of blood-poisoning, malaria, syphilis and182

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

the like (German depression after the Thirty-years'
war which infected the half of Germany with pesti-
lential diseases and thus paved the way for German
servility, German faint-heartedness). In every such
case on the largest scale a war is waged against the
feeling of low-spiritedness. Let us take a short survey
of the most important practics and forms of it. (Here,
as is but fair, I pass over entirely the specific phi-
losophers'-struggle against the feeling of low-spirited-
ness, which, as a rule, is contemporaneous with it. It
is interesting enough, but too absurd, too practically
indifferent, too cobweb-like and commonplace: e.g.,
when an attempt is made to demonstrate the errone-
ousness of pain, — by nai'vely supposing that pain
must vanish as soon as the illusoriness of it is recog-
nised — but lo and behold! it took good care not to
vanish . . .). That dominating low-spiritedness is com-
bated first of all by such means as will reduce vitality
in general to its lowest point. If possible, no more
willing and no more wishing at all; to avoid all that
causes emotions, that makes "blood" (to eat no salt;
hygiene of the fakir); not to love; not to hate; equa-
nimity ; not to take revenge; not to enrich one's self;
not to work; to beg; if possible, no woman, or as
little woman as possible; in spiritual respects the
maxim of Pascal "il faut s abetir." Result, expressed
psychologico-morally, " self-mortification," "sanctifica-
tion;" expressed physiologically: hypnotisation, — theTHIRD ESSAY	183

endeavour to bring about for man a state approxi-
mately equivalent to the winter-sleep of some kinds of
animals, or the summer-sleep of many equatorial plants,
— a minimum of nourishment and metabolism with
which life can just exist but no more rises to the
threshold of consciousness. To compass this end, an
astonishing amount of human energy has been ex-
pended. In vain peradventure ? .... That such
sportsmen of "holiness," who abound at all times and
almost among all peoples, did really succeed in finding
for themselves a salvation from that which they com-
bated by means of such rigorous training, this must
not be doubted. By means of their system of hypnotic
processes, they did, in countless cases, actually suc-
ceed in getting rid of that deep physiological depres-
sion, and hence their methodic reckons among the
most general ethnological facts. Nor have we any
right to count (in the manner of a certain clumsy
kind of roastbeef-chewing " freethinkers " and younker
Christophers) such an intention of starving the body
and the "desire," as in itself among the symptoms of
insanity. The more certain it is that it is, or may
be, the way to all kinds of mental disturbances,—for
instance, to "inner lights " (as in the case of the Hesy-
chasts on mount Athos), or to hallucinations of sounds
and apparitions, or to voluptuous outbursts and ecsta-
sies of sensuality (story of St. Theresa). The inter-
pretation given to this kind of conditions by those184

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

who are subject to them has, as is self-evident, always
been as fancifully-false as possible. Yet, let people
not over-hear the tone of most deeply convinced thank-
fulness which sounds even in the mere will to this
kind of interpretation. The most exalted state, salva-
tion itself, that finally attained total hypnotisation and
stillness, they always regard as the mystery in itself,
for the expression of which not even the highest sym-
bols will suffice, — as a putting up at, and return to
the inmost nature, as a becoming free from all illusion,
as "knowing," as "truth," as "being;" as an escape
from every goal, every desire, every doing; also as
a Beyond Good and Evil. " Good and Evil," says the
Buddhist, —" both are fetters; each is mastered by the
perfect one." "Deeds and not-deeds," says the be-
liever of the Ved&nta, " do not bring him pain. Good
and Evil, either he shakes from him being a wise
man; his realm no longer suffers from any deed;
Good and Evil, he has transcended both." This view,
we see, prevails in the whole of India, in Brahmanism
as well as in Buddhism. (Neither according to the
Indian nor the Christian manner of thinking is that
"salvation" regarded as attainable through virtue,
through moral improvement, highly though the hyp-
notising value of virtue be prized in these religions.
This must be borne in mind. It is, by the bye, simply
in accordance with facts. To have, in this respect,
remained true, may perhaps be regarded as the bestTHIRD ESSAY

I85

bit of realism in the three greatest and otherwise so
thoroughly moralised religions. " For the knowing one
no duty exists " .... By the apposition of virtues sal-
vation is not attained; for salvation consists in the
being at one with the Brahman which allows of no
increase of perfection; nor is it attained by the depo-
sition of vices; for the Brahman, with which to be at
one constitutes that which is salvation, is eternally
pure." These passages are taken from the commen-
tary of the Cankara, as quoted by the first true con-
noisseur of Indian Philosophy in Europe, my friend
Paul Deussen.) The " salvation " in the great religions
we shall therefore honour. A little difficult we find
it, however, to preserve a serious countenance when
seeing the valuation at which a thing so small as deep
sleep is held by these life-weary ones who have grown
too tired even for dreaming; deep sleep being re-
garded as an entering into the Brahman, as the
attained unio mystica with God. " When he after-
wards has altogether fallen asleep"—thus we are
taught in the oldest and most venerable " scripture " —
"and fully come to rest, so that no longer he will
behold anything in dream, then he is, O dear one,
united with that which is; into himself he has entered;
enshrouded by the knowledge-like self he no longer has
any consciousness of that which is Without or Within.
This bridge is not passed over by the day nor by the
night, not by age nor by death, not by suffering, not186	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

by a good deed nor an evil deed." "In deep sleep,"
so say likewise the faithful of this deepest of the three
great religions, "the soul rises from the body, enters
into the highest light and thereby appears in its proper
form: then it is the highest spirit itself which walks
about, jesting and sporting and joying, be it with
women, with waggons or with friends ; then it thinks
no longer of this bodily appendage to which the prdna
(the life-breath) is yoked, as a cart-horse is to the
cart." Nevertheless, here also, as in the case of "sal-
vation," we shall never lose sight of the fact that,
however much resplendent with oriental exaggeration,
at bottom the very same valuation is expressed, which
was the valuation of the clear, calm, Grecian-calm, but
suffering Epicurus: the hypnotic feeling of nothing-
ness, the rest of deepest sleep, impassiveness in short.
This state with the suffering and thoroughly-disap-
pointed may pass for the highest good, for the value
of values; it must receive positive value and be
regarded as the positive itself. (According to the
same logic of feeling in all pessimistic religions, the
nothing is called God.)

18

Much more frequently than such an hypnotic sub-
duing of all sensibility, of sensitiveness (which presup-
poses comparatively rare powers, above all, courage,
contempt of the opinion of others, "intellectual Stoi-THIRD ESSAY

187

cism "), another and much easier training is tried as a
remedy for states of depression: machinal activity.
That thereby in no slight degree a sufferer's existence
is made more bearable, is true beyond a doubt. In our
days this fact is rather equivocally called " the blessings
of labour." The alleviation consists in the sufferer's
interest being deliberately turned away from his suf-
fering, — so that, continually, an acting, and again an
acting only, rises into consciousness, little room being
left in consequence for suffering. For it is narrow,
this chamber of human consciousness ! Machinal activ-
ity and all its appurtenances — such as absolute regu-
larity, punctual and unconditional obedience, the final
regulation of habits, the filling-up of one's time, a cer-
tain permission of, nay training to " impersonality," to
self-forgetting, to incuria sui —: how thoroughly, how
cunningly, has the ascetic priest understood to avail
himself of this activity in the war against pain ! Espe-
cially when he had to deal with sufferers coming from
the lower classes, with working-slaves or prisoners (or
women, who, as a rule, are both in one, working-slaves
and prisoners), all that was requisite for making them
thenceforth regard things hated as a boon, a relative
happiness, was a little art in changing names and ana-
baptising things. The discontentedness of the slave
with his lot at any rate has not been invented by
priests. — A still more highly prized means in the
struggle with depression is the ordaining of a little joy,A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

easily accessible and capable of being made the rule.
This medication is frequently employed in connection
with the one just mentioned. The most frequent form
in which joy is thus ordained as a remedy, is the joy of
bringing joy (such as doing good, making gifts, easing,
helping, condoling, consoling, praising, distinguishing).
The ascetic priest, by prescribing love for the neigh-
bour, prescribes at bottom a stimulation of the strong-
est, most " life-asserting" instinct, though in a cau-
tiously weighed out dose — of the will to power. The
happiness of the " smallest superiority," as afforded by
all benefiting, serving, helping, distinguishing, is the
most liberal consolatory means the physiologically-
depressed are in custom of using, provided they are
well advised. If not, they will harass one another, —
in obedience, of course, to the same fundamental in-
stinct. If we seek for the beginnings of Christianity
in the Roman world, we find societies for mutual help,
as societies for the aid of the poor, the sick, burial-
societies, grown up from the lowest bottom of the
society of that time, consciously practising that prin-
cipal means against depression, small joy, the joy
of mutual benefit. Perhaps, this was something new
in those days, quite an invention ? In a thus created
"will to mutuality," to herd-formation, to "congrega-
tion,^" to the "ccenaculum" now in turn that will to
power which has, though on a small scale, been thus
provoked, must rise to a new and much fuller outburst.THIRD ESSAY

189

In the struggle against depression, the formation of
herds is a decided advance and victory. The growth
of community confirms in the individual a new interest
which often enough will raise him above the most
personal feeling of malcontent, the aversion from self
( " despectio sui" of Geulinx). Prompted by a desire of
casting off the sullen depression and impotence, the
sick, the sickly, will instinctively strive for gregarious
organisation. The ascetic priest makes out and furthers
this instinct. Wherever there are herds, it is the in-
stinct of impotence which willed, and the policy of the
priest which organised herds. For let us not overlook
this: it is law universal for the strong to strive away
from one another, as for the weak to strive towards one
another. Whenever the former enter into alliance with
one another they do so (with much resistance on the
part of each individual conscience) solely for the pur-
pose of joint action and aggression and with the pros-
pect of an aggressive joint-action and a joint-indulgence
of their will to power. The weak, on the other hand,
will gather together just taking delight in the gathering.
In so doing their instinct is appeased, to the same
degree as the instinct of the born " masters " {i.e., the
solitary beast-of-prey species of man) is by organisation
provoked and alarmed from the bottom. Beneath every
oligarchy — all history teaches this — the tyrannic
lusting is always hidden. All oligarchies constantly
tremble from the strain which each individual memberI90	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

requires to check this lusting. (Thus, for instance,
was it with the Greek. Plato tells us so in a hundred
passages,—Plato, who knew his like — and himself. . . .)

19

The means of the ascetic priest with which hitherto
we have become acquainted — the quenching of all
vitality, machinal activity, minute joy, above all, the
joy of "love for the neighbour," herd-organisation, the
arousing of the communal feeling of power, thanks
to which the self-dissatisfaction of the individual is
stunned by the delight which he takes in the flourish-
ing of the community — these are, judged after modern
measure, his innocent means in the struggle with " de-
pression." Let us now pass to the more interesting,
the "guilty" means. In all of them the point is to
effect an extravagance of feeling,— which is made to
serve as the most effective narcotic against dull, par-
alysing persistent suffering. For this reason, priestly
inventiveness has been inexhaustible in the excogitation
of this one question: By what can an extravagance
of feeling be effected ? . . . This sounds harsh; it
is plain it would sound more agreeable and would find
more willing ears if I were to speak in some such
manner as this: " The ascetic priest at all times
availed himself of the enthusiasm contained in all
strong emotions." But why flatter the dainty earsTHIRD ESSAY

I9I

of our modern tenderlings ? Why should we for our
part make any concessions, however slight, to their
tartuffism of words ? Thereby we psychologists would
be guilty of a tartuffism of deed; apart from the fact
that it would beget nausea in us. The good taste —
others may say "the honesty" — of a psychologist
consists now-a-days if in anything in his opposing the
shamefully-permoralised language by which as by a
phlegm all modern judging on man and things is
covered. Let there be no deception in this point:
what constitutes the most pertinent characteristic of
modern souls and modern books is not " falsehood,"
but the incarnate innocence in moralistic mendacious-
ness. To be obliged to re-discover everywhere this
" innocence," this constitutes, perhaps, the most repul-
sive part of our work, of all the rather doubtful work
assigned to the modern psychologist for his task. It
is a part of our great danger, it is a way which may
lead just us to the great surfeit. I have no doubt as
to the only use which posterity will make of modern
books, of all modern things (taking for granted that
the books will remain, which, it is true, need hardly
be feared, and taking for granted, also, the existence
— some day — of a posterity with sterner, severer,
healthier taste). It can only be the use as emetics
and this because of their moral dulcification and false-
ness, their inmost femininism which delights in call-
ing itself idealism and, at any rate, believes itself to192

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

be so. Our educated classes of to-day, our " good
ones" do not lie, — I admit; but it is not to their
credit! The proper lie, the genuine, resolute, "hon-
est" lie (on the value of which Plato may be consulted)
would be far too rigorous, far too strong for them; to
ask it of them would be asking what one dare never ask
of them: to open their eyes upon themselves, to know
how to distinguish between "true" and "false" with
respect to their own persons. Them the dishonest lie
alone befits. All those who to-day feel themselves
as "good men," are perfectly incapable of looking
at a subject in any other fashion than the fashion of
dishonestly lying, profoundly lying, and yet innocently
lying, nai'vely lying, blue-eyedly lying, virtuously lying.
These "good men," — they are now-a-days, each and
every one, wholly and hopelessly permoralised and,
with respect to honesty, spoiled and bungled for aye
and evermore. Who among them could yet stand to
hear a truth " about man!".... Or more tangibly
expressed: who of them could stand a true biography!
.... A few symptoms: Lord Byron wrote some
most personal things about himself, but Thomas
Moore was "too good" for that: he burned the papers
of his friend. The same is said to have been done
by Dr. Gwinner, the executor of Schopenhauer's
will. For Schopenhauer also left a few observa-
tions on himself and probably also against himself
("ek eavrov"). The worthy American biographer o(THIRD ESSAY

193

Beethoven, Mr. Thayer, came to a sudden halt in
his work: having arrived at a certain point of this
most venerable and naive life, he could stand it no
longer. Moral: what sensible man to-day would write
an honest word about himself? — unless, perchance,
he happened to be a member of the order of Saint
Foolhardise. We are promised an autobiography of
Richard Wagner; — who doubts that it will be a smart
autobiography? .... Let us but recall the comical
excitement created in Germany by the Roman Catho-
lic priest Janssen, by the extremely "square" and
harmless picture which he drew of the movement of
the Reformation in Germany. Imagine what would
happen if some one were to give us a different
account of the Reformation, if a true pyschologist
were to paint for us a true Luther, — no longer with
the moralistic simplicity of a country-parson, no longer
with the honey-mouthed and regardful modesty of
protestant historians, but peradventure, with the in-
trepidy of Taine, out of strength of soul and not
prompted by any prudent indulgence to strength ?
. . . . (The Germans, by the bye, have succeeded
most admirably in producing the classical type of this in-
dulgence ; (they may well claim him, claim him to their
advantage): their Leopold Ranke, to wit, this born
classical advocatus of every causa fortior% this cleverest

of all clever " matter-of-fact" men.)

o194

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

20

But I hdpe, I am understood by this time. Reason
enough, — is it not so ? — why we psychologists nowa-
days should fail to rid ourselves of a certain feeling of
mistrust of ourselves / ... . Probably we also are
still "too good" for our handicraft; probably we also
are the victims of, the prey of, the sick of this per-
moralised taste of our age, much though we do feel
ourselves to be the detesters of it; — probably we also
will be infected by it. What was it that that diplo-
matist warned of, when speaking to his fellows ?
" Messieurs," he said, " above all let us mistrust our
first emotions ! They are nearly always good." ....
In like manner every modern psychologist should speak
to his fellows .... And this brings us back to our
problem, which does really require some severity on
our part, especially some mistrust of "first emotions."
The ascetic ideal in the service of an extravagance of
feelings — he who remembers the preceding essay will
anticipate jn the main the summary of the contents of
that which we have now to consider, and which is
pressed into these eleven words. To loose for once
the human soul from all its joints; to plunge it into
terrors, chills, ardours, ecstasies, so as to rid it — as if
by some stroke of lightning—from whatever is petty
and trivial in depression, dulness and ill-humour,—
what ways lead to this goal ? and which of them mostTHIRD ESSAY

195

unfailingly ? . . . . At last all great emotions capable
of reaching it, provided that they discharge themselves
suddenly, — anger, fear, lustfulness, revenge, hope, tri-
umph, despair, cruelty; and the ascetic priest has actu-
ally without hesitation taken into his service the whole
pack of savage dogs in man and let loose now one
and now another; always with the like intention of
awakening man from his slow dreariness, of putting
to flight, for times at least, his dull pain, his linger-
ing misery; and this always with a religious interpre-
tation and " vindication." Every such extravagance of
feeling will, as is self-evident, afterwards make itself
paid (it will make the sick one still sicker); and hence
this kind of treatment is, judged by modern standards,
a " guilty " kind. And yet, in behalf of equity, it must
the more be insisted upon that this cure has been
applied with good conscience; that the ascetic priest
has presented it in the deepest faith in its utility, nay
indispensability; that he even, often enough, almost
broke down in presence of the misery which he
created; and likewise, that the violent physiological
detrimental consequences of such excesses, perhaps
even mental derangements, are at bottom by no means
adverse to this kind of medication; which, as we have
already shown, was not directed towards the curing of
diseases, but towards the counteracting, the mitigating,
the narcotising of the feeling of depression. The end
in view was attained all the same. The principal ex-196

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

pedient which the ascetic priest resorted to, in order
to make the chords of the human soul resound with
every kind of lacerating and ecstatic music, was — as
everybody know£ — simply this, that he took advantage
of the feeling of guilt in man. The origin of this
feeling was indicated in the preceding essay, as a bit
of animal psychology, as no more. There we met
with the feeling of guilt, as it were, as raw material.
It was only in the hands of the priest, this real artist
in feelings of guilt, that it took form — and Oh, what
form! " Sin " — for this name is the priestly re-inter-
pretation of the animal "bad conscience" (of cruelty
turned inward)—was the greatest event so far in the
history of the sick soul. It is the most dangerous and
most fatal artist-feat of religious interpretation. Man,
suffering from self, in some way or other, most likely
physiologically; peradventure like some animal shut
into a cage; confused as to the why, the wherefore;
eager for reasons (reasons lighten burdens), eager also
for medicines and narcoses; at last consults some one
who " seeth also in secret" — and behold! he receives
a hint; he receives from his magician, the ascetic
priest, a first hint as to the cause of his suffering: he
is to seek for it within himself \ in a guilt, in a bit of
his past; he is told to regard his suffering as a state of
punishment .... He has heard, he has understood,
the unhappy one. And now he walks off like the
pullet about which a line has been drawn. He doesTHIRD ESSAY

197

not find his way out of this circle of lines: the sick
one has been transformed into "the sinner" . . . .
And now the aspect of this new patient, " the sinner,"
cannot be got rid of for some few thousands of years.
Will it ever be got rid of ? Wherever we turn our eye,
we are met by the hypnotic gaze of the sinner ever
moving in one direction only (in the direction of
" guilt," as being the only cause of suffering); by bad
conscience, this horrible animal, in the words of
Luther; by a rumination of the past, a mal-interpreta-
tion of the deed, the "evil eye" for all doing; by the
will to misunderstand suffering, made the contents of
life; by the re-interpretation of suffering into feelings
of guilt, fear and punishment; by the scourge, the
penitential garb, the starving body, contrition; by the
self-racking of the sinner in the cruel machinery of a
restless, sickly-voluptuous conscience; by the silent
pain, the extremest fear, the agony of a tortured heart,
the convulsions of an unknown happiness, the cry for
"salvation." And truly, by means of this system of
processes, former depression, heaviness and weariness
were completely conquered; life .once more became
very interesting. Waking, for ever waking, over-
watched, glowing, charred, pining and yet not tired —
thus looked the man, the "sinner," who now had be-
come initiated in these mysteries. The ascetic priest,
this grand old magician, in the battle against uneasi-
ness— he had most certainly conquered, his kingdomI98	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

had come. Now men no longer railed against pain,
no, they panted for pain. "More pain! more pain!"
thus for centuries- cried the longing of his disciples
and initiated ones. Every extravagance of feeling
which begot pain, everything which prostrated, cast
down, crushed, removed, transfigured, the secret of the
torture chambers, the inventiveness of hell itself — all
was now unravelled, found out, utilised; all was at the
service of the magician; all served henceforth to the
victory of his ideal, the ascetic ideal. " My kingdom is
not of this world" — he kept saying now as ever.
Had he really still the right to say so ? . . . . Goethe
maintained that there are but thirty-six tragic situa-
tions. We might tell from this, if we did not know it
otherwise, that Goethe was not an ascetic priest. Such
a one knows more ....

21

In reference to this entire kind of priestly medi-
cation, the "guilty" kind, every word of criticism is
superfluous. That such an extravagance of feeling as
the ascetic priest is wont to prescribe his patients in
this case (calling it, of course, by the holiest names
and being himself thoroughly convinced of the holiness
of his purpose) did really benefit a sick one, who
would like to maintain an assertion of this sort ? At
least, people should understand each other about theTHIRD ESSAY

199

word "benefit." If it is intended to convey that such
a system of treatment has improved man, I do not
contradict; but I add what I call "improved" — viz
much the same as " tamed," "weakened," "dispirited,"
" refined," " effeminate," " unmanned " (which is almost
equivalent to injured	But when it is princi-

pally the case of sick, ill-humoured, depressed persons,
such a system, granting even that it did make the
patient "better," at any rate made him sicker. Let
people but consult a physician of a lunatic asylum, as
to the result of every methodical application of peni-
tential tortures, of contritions, fits of salvation and the
like. History, also, may be consulted. Wherever the
ascetic priest succeeded in enforcing this treatment of
the sick, the diseasedness with most alarming rapidity
spread in intensity and extent. And what was always
the "result?" A shattered nervous system, in addi-
tion to what was sick already; and this holds true on
the largest scale as on the smallest, for individuals as
for masses. In the suite of penitential and salvational
training we find enormous epileptic epidemics, — the
largest that history records —, such as those of the
"St. Vitus-and St. John-dancers" in the middle ages.
We find (and this is another variety of its conse-
quence) frightful paralyses and chronic depressions
with which under given circumstances the tempera-
ment of a people or a city (Geneva, Bale) for ever
turns into its contrary. Here also belongs the witch200

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

hysteria, something akin to somnambulism (there were
eight great epidemic outbreaks of this disease merely
between 1564 and 1605). So also we find in the suite
of this training those death-lusting deliria of whole
masses whose awful cry " evviva la morte " was heard
throughout the whole of Europe, interrupted now with
voluptuous, now with destruction-craving idiosyncrasies.
The same emotional change with the same intermit-
tences and alterations is noticed even now wherever
and whenever the ascetic dogma of sinfulness gains
once more some great success. (Religious neurosis
appears as a form of epilepsy; no doubt whatever.
What it is ? Quceritur.) On the whole, the ascetic
ideal and its sublimely-moral cult (that most ingenious,
most unscrupulous and most dangerous systematisation
of all means for bringing about an extravagance of
feeling under the protection of holy ends) has im-
printed itself in terrible and unforgettable manner on
man's whole history; and, unfortunately, not on his
history only. I know of scarcely anything which to
the same extent as this idea has affected destructively
the health and race-vitality especially of Europeans.
It may, without any exaggeration, be called the true
fate in the sanitary history of European man. At the
most, the specifically Germanic influence might possi-
bly be placed on a par with its influence. I mean the
alcoholic poisoning of Europe, which has so far strictly
kept pace with the political and racial predominanceTHIRD ESSAY

20I

of the Germanics. (Wherever they inoculated their
blood, they inoculated also their vice.) Third in the
series syphilis might be mentioned, — magno sed prox-
imo, intervallo.

22

The ascetic priest, wherever he attained to mastery,
corrupted mental health; consequently, he corrupted
also the taste in artibus et Uteris; he does so still.
" Consequently ?" — I hope, I am forthwith conceded
this "consequently; " at least, I shall not do so much as
prove it. Here but one hint: it refers to the funda-
mental book of Christian literature, its specific model,
its "book in itself." While yet in the middle of
Graeco-Roman magnificence, which was also a book-
magnificence ; in the presence of an antique world of
letters which had not yet been crippled and crushed;
in a time when it was still possible to read some books
for the possession of which now half literatures would
be given in exchange — the folly and vanity of Christian
agitators — they are called church fathers — dared to
decree: " We too have our classical literature, we
need not that of the Greeks." And so saying they
pointed with pride to the books of ecclesiastical
legends, apostolic letters and apologetical tractlets;
somewhat in the manner that the English " Salvation-
Army " in our days wages war, by means of a kindred
literature, against Shakespeare and other "heathens."202

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

I do not love the "New Testament," as my readers
will have made out already. I am almost alarmed at
being so isolated in my taste, as regards this most
highly estimated and over-estimated work of literature
(the taste of two thousand years is against me): but
what boots it! Here stand I, I can no other. — I
have the courage for my bad taste. The Old Testa-
ment — how very different! My highest respect to the
Old Testament! In it I find great men, an heroic
landscape, and a touch of that rarest thing on earth,
the incomparable naiveti of strong heart. Still more,
I find a people. But in the New Testament nothing
but petty sectarian affairs, nothing but rococo of the
soul, everything adorned, cornered, whimsical, nothing
but conventicle-air and (which is not to be forgotten)
an occasional tinge of bucolic sweetishness which
belongs to that epoch (and the Roman province) and
which is not so much a Jewish as a Hellenistic trait.
Humility and consequentialness side by side; a talk-
ativeness of feelings, which is almost benumbing;
passionateness, not passion; painful demeanour; ob-
viously, in this case every education in manners has
been wanting. How can one make so much fuss about
one's petty faults, as these pious little people do ! No-
body cares a straw for them; God least of all. Finally,
they strive even for " the crown of life everlasting," —
all these little people of the province. Wherefore ?
As reward for what? This is pushing immodesty toTHIRD ESSAY

203

its utmost! An "immortal" Peter — who could stand
him ! They have an ambition which makes one laugh.
They ruminate their most personal affairs, their stu-
pidities, sadnesses, and common-place cares, as if the In-
itself of things were obliged to look after their affairs;
they never grow tired of twisting God himself into
the smallest trouble in which they happen to be. And
this persistent intimacy of God, betraying the worst
taste! This Jewish, and not merely Jewish, forward-
ness towards God, with mouth and clutch ! . . . . There
are small despised "heathen-peoples" in the East of
Asia from which these first Christians might have
learnt an important lesson, — some reverential tact.
These peoples, as is witnessed by Christian missionaries,
do not allow themselves even so much as to pronounce
the name of their God. This seems to me rather deli-
cate. Certain it is that not merely for " first" Christians
it is too delicate. — In order to be aware of the contrast,
let people call to mind Luther, that " most eloquent"
and most immodest of all peasants whom Germany has
ever had, the Lutheran manner of expression which
just he appreciated best in his communings with God.
Luther's opposition to the mediating Saints of the
Church (especially, to " the Pope, the devil's hog ") was,
no doubt whatever, at veriest bottom the opposition of
a boor who felt disturbed at the finished etiquette of the
Church, — that etiquette of reverence peculiar to hie-
ratic taste, which grants entrance into the sanctuary204	A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

only to the more hallowed and more taciturn spirits,
shutting out all boors. Boors must, once for all, be
denied the right to speak here, — but Luther, the
peasant, wished to change this at any price; as it was,
he did not think it German enough. He wished, above
all, to speak directly, to speak in person, to speak with-
out ceremony, with his God .... Well, he did so. —
The ascetic ideal (I think the reader has made out this)
was never and nowhere a school for good taste, still
less for good manners; it was, at best, a school for
hieratic manners. The reason is, it contains in itself
something mortally inimical to all good manners, — lack
of measure, aversion from measure; it is itself a " ne
plus ultra!1

23

The ascetic ideal has corrupted not only health and
taste, but also a something third, fourth, fifth, sixth.
I shall take good care not to state them all (I fear I
should never come to an end!). Not the effects of this
ideal it is in this place my purpose to set forth; — but
solely the meaning of it; what it points to ; what lies
behind it, under it, in it; that of which it is the expres-
sion, provisional, indistinct and overloaded with inter-
rogation marks and misunderstandings. And with a
view to this purpose, I was not allowed to spare my
readers a glance upon the enormity of its effects, its
fatal effects included; viz., in order to prepare themTHIRD ESSAY

205

for the final and most terrible aspect which the ques-
tion as to the meaning of this ideal has for me. What
means the power of that ideal, the enormity of its
power ? How comes it that people have yielded to it
to this extent ? Why has it not been better resisted ?
The ascetic ideal expresses a will. Where is the an-
tagonistic will expressing an antagonistic ideal? The
ascetic ideal has a goal which is universal enough to
let all other interests of man's existence, compared
with it, appear petty and narrow. It inexorably inter-
prets times, peoples, and men with a view to this one
end. It recognises no other interpretation, no other
goal; it rejects, be-nays, be-yeas, confirms things exclu-
sively to suit its own interpretation. And was there
ever a more completely spun-out system of interpre-
tation ? It submits to no power, but rather believes
in its prerogative over every power, in its uncondi-
tional rank-distance, as regards every power. It be-
lieves that there is on earth nothing of power, which
does not owe its meaning, its right to existence, its
value to it; it considers everything to be a tool for
its work, a way and means to its goal, to one goal . . .
Where is the counterpart to this corporate system of
will, goal and interpretation ? Why is a counterpart
wanting? .... Where is the other "one goal?"
.... But I am told, it is not wanting; it has not
only waged a long and successful war against that
ideal, but even vanquished it in all essential points.20 6

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

All our modern science is said to testify to this fact, —
this modern science, which, being a specific philoso-
phy of reality, to all appearance believes in itself only,
to all appearance has the courage and will to itself
and has so far managed to get along perfectly well
without a God, another world, and be-naying virtues.
But such noise, such agitator-gossip goes for nought
with me. These trumpeters of reality are poor musi-
cians. As is audible enough, their voices do not rise
from the depth; out of them does not speak the abyss
of scientific conscience (for to-day scientific conscience
is an abyss); the word "science" in such trumpeter-
mouths being mere ribaldry, misuse and impudence.
The very opposite from that which is maintained by
them is true: science to-day has absolutely no faith in
itself, not to speak of an ideal above itself, — and
where it is still passion, love, glow, suffering, there it
is not the antithesis, but rather the latest and noblest
form of the ascetic ideal. Does this sound strange to
you ? . . . There are, I admit, plenty of worthy and
modest labourers even among the scientists of to-day,
who like their little nook, and who, because they like
it, at times give utterance a little immodestly to the
demand that everybody should feel contented, espe-
cially in science, — where, as they say, so much useful
work remains to be accomplished. I do not contra-
dict ; and least of all should I like to make their
handicraft unpleasant to these honest labourers; forTHIRD ESSAY

207

I rejoice in their labour. But to say that much work
is accomplished at present in science, and that there
are contented labourers, is as yet far from proving
that science, as a whole, has a goal, a will, an ideal,
a passion of a great faith. The reverse, as I said, is
true: where science is not the latest manifestation of
the ascetic ideal, — (which is so in too rare, too noble,
too choice cases to nullify the corporate judgment)
science is a subterfuge for every kind of discontent,
unbelief, mental gnaw-worm, despectio sui, bad con-
science, — it is the unrest of ideallessness itself, the
suffering from the absence of great love, the feeling
of dissatisfaction arising from an involuntary content-
edness. Oh, how much is to-day hidden by science !
Oh, how much it is expected to hide! The capacity
of our best scholars, their inconsiderate industry, their
head reeking, fuming, day and night, their handicraft-
mastery : — how often all this finds its ultimate sense
in the fact that they wish to hide something from
themselves! Science as a means of self-narcosis —
ye know of that ? They are occasionally wounded to
the heart (as every one knows who comes into con-
tact with scholars) by some careless word; the wrath
of one's learned friends will be brought down upon
one in the very moment that one thinks to honour
them; they are disconcerted merely by one being too
" heavy " to see whom one has before one, — sufferers,
who do not like to confess to themselves what they208

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

are, men narcotised and senseless who fear but one
thing: to recover consciousness ....

24

And now behold, on the other hand, those rarer cases
of which I spoke; the last idealists among modern
philosophers and scholars: they are peradventure the
wished-for opponents, the counter-idealists of the ascetic
ideal ? And in very deed, they believe themselves
such, these "infidels" (for infidels they are, each and
every one). And judging from the amount of earnest-
ness evinced, from their passionateness as manifested
in speech and gesture, it seems to be their last rest
of belief that they are opponents of this ideal. But
does it follow from this that what they believe is
true? .... We "perceivers" eye, by this time, with
mistrust every kind of believer; our mistrust has
gradually taught us to reason reversely from what
was reasoned in former times: viz.r wherever the
power of some belief rises into prominence to con-
clude, as to a certain faintness of demonstrableness,
as to an improbability of that which is believed. Nor
do we deny that faith "saves." For this very reason
we deny that faith proves anything. A strong faith
that saves, renders suspect what it believes; it does
not establish truth, but rather a certain probability of
illusion. How does the case stand, then ? Those
who to-day be-nay and stand aside; these minds abso-THIRD ESSAY

209

lute in one thing, in their claim to intellectual clean-
liness ; these hard, stern, continent, heroic spirits which
constitute the honour of our age; all these pallid
atheists, antichrists, immoralists, nihilists; these scep-
tics, ephectics, hectics of the spirit (for hectics they are,
each and every one in some sense or other); these last
idealists of perception in whom alone to-day the intel-
lectual conscience stays and has become incarnate; —
they do actually believe themselves emancipated as
much as possible from the ascetic ideal, — these " free,
very free spirits." And yet — let me tell them, what
they themselves cannot see (" for they stand too near
to themselves") —: even this ideal is also their ideal;
they themselves represent it to-day, and possibly they
alone; they themselves are its most spiritual offspring,
its skirmishes and outposts, its most captious, tender-
est, most incomprehensible form of seduction. If in
any respect I can read riddles, I wish to do so in
this sentence! These spirits are yet far from being
free spirits. For they still believe in truth .... When
the Christian crusaders in the orient lighted upon
that invincible Order of Assassins, that order of free
spirits par excellence, the lowest grades of which lived
in such strict obedience as no order of monks ever
attained, they received in some way or other among
other things a hint as to that symbol and tally-word
which was reserved for the highest grades only, as

theirsecretum: "Nought is true, all is permitted". . . .
p2IO

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

Good, this was freedom of spirit; this was renouncing
faith to truth itself .... Has ever any European, any
Christian free spirit, become involved in this sentence
and its labyrinthine consequences ? Does he know from
experience the Minotaur of this cave ? . . . I doubt
it; nay, I know it to be otherwise. Nothing is farther
from these souls absolute in one thing, these so-called
" free spirits," than freedom and emancipation in that
sense; in no respect are they more firmly bound; in
the belief in truth they are, more so than any other,
firm and absolute. Perhaps I know all this from all
too immediate experience. That venerable philoso-
phers' continence to which such faith obliges; that
Stoicism of intellect which finally forbids itself as
strictly to pronounce a Nay as a Yea; that will to
stand still before everything real, — the factum bru-
turn ; that fatalism of "petits faits " (ce petit faitalisme,
as I call it), in which French science now tries to
reach a kind of moral priority as compared with Ger-
man science; that desisting from interpretation in
general (which is violation, accommodation, shortening,
omitting, stuffing, supplementing by fancy, forging and
whatsoever belongs to the essence of interpreting) —
all this implies, on the whole, an asceticism of virtue,
no less so than any negation of sensuality. (It is
at bottom only a mode of this negation.) What,
however, enforces this asceticism — that absolute will
to truth —, is the faith in the ascetic ideal itself \ thoughTHIRD ESSAY

211

appearing as the unconscious imperative of this ideal
(let there be no illusion about this point); is the belief
in a metaphysical value of truth, a value in itself of
truth, such as is guaranteed and chartered by this ideal
only. (It stands and falls with it.) There is, strictly
judging, no such thing as an "unconditioned" science;
the very thought of such a thing is unthinkable, para-
logical. A philosophy, a " creed," must always exist, in
order that from it science may receive a direction, a mean-
ing, a limit, a method, a right to existence. (He who
holds the opposite view, who undertakes, for instance,
to place philosophy " on a strictly scientific basis,"
requires to turn, not only philosophy but truth herself,
upside down — the worst offence against decency which
can exist, towards two matrons so venerable ! ) Indeed
there is no doubt — and here my Joyful Science may
do the speaking (cf. book v, aph. 344): "He who is
veritable in that daring and ultimate sense, as is pre-
supposed by the belief in science, in so believing be-
yeas another world than the world of life, nature and
history; " and in so far as he be-yeas this " other world "
— what ? must he not even thereby be-nay its counter-
part, this world, our world ? It is still a metaphysical
belief which underlies our belief in science. We too,
we knowing ones of to-day, we ungodly ones and
anti-metaphysicians, we too still take our fire from that
conflagration which has been kindled by a two-thou-
sand-years old faith; that Christian faith which was212

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

also the faith of Plato; the faith that God is the truth,
that truth is divine .... How now, if even this belief
should grow ever more improbable; how, if nothing
should prove divine, unless it be "error," blindness
and falsehood; how, if God himself should prove to
be our longest lie ?—Here we do well to pause and
bethink ourselves a long while. Science itself now
stands in need of vindication (which does not mean so
much as that a vindication for it exists). Let people,
as regards this question, look at the most ancient as
well as the most recent philosophies. All of them lack
the consciousness how far the will to truth itself stands
in need of vindication. Here is a gap in every phi-
losophy— how comes this ? Because the ascetic ideal so
far lorded it over all philosophy; because truth itself was
posited as the being, as God, as highest instance; because
truth was not permitted to be looked at as a problem.
Is this "permitted" understood? — From the moment
that the faith in the God of the ascetic ideal is denied,
a new problem exists, the problem of the value of truth.
The will to truth stands in need of a criticism (let us
herewith define our own task); the value of truth must,
by way of experiment, be put in question .... (If
some one should find this too short a statement, we ad-
vise him to read for information that section of Joyful
Science which bears the title: "How far we also are
still pious," aph. 344; better still, the entire fifth book of
said work, as also the Preface to Dawn of the Day.)THIRD ESSAY

213

25

No! Keep away with science, when I ask for the
natural antagonist of the ascetic ideal, when I ask:
4 * Where is the antagonistic will which represents an
ideal antagonistic to it ?" To be such a will, science
is not by far independent enough; in every respect
she needs some ideal of value, some power which
creates values, in the service of which she is allowed
to believe in herself. She herself never creates values.
Her relation to the ascetic ideal is in itself as yet
far from being antagonistic. She rather represents
in the main the propulsive factor in the inner develop-
ment of this ideal. Her opposition and fighting are,
on closer examination, directed, not against the ideal
itself, but only against the outer fortifications, the
garb and masquerade, the occasional incrustation, pet-
rifaction, dogmatisation of this ideal. Science and
the ascetic ideal — science frees life in it by denying
what is exoteric in it. For both — science and the as-
cetic ideal — root in one common soil, as I already
intimated, namely, in the common over-estimation of
truth (more exactly: in the common belief in the un-
criticisableness and zVzestimableness of truth). Even
for this reason they are, of necessity, allies — so that,
in case they are combated, they cannot be combated
or put in question but together. An estimation of
the value of the ascetic ideal will inevitably involve214

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

an estimation also of the value of science: open your
eyes betimes to this fact, ay, and prick your ears! —
Art, as I may say in advance, — for I shall at some
time revert to this subject at length — art, in which
just falsehood is sanctified, the will to illusion, has
good conscience on its part, is much more than science
fundamentally opposed to the ascetic ideal. This is
what the instinct of Plato prompted to him — Plato,
this greatest enemy to art whom Europe has ever pro-
duced. Plato against Homer — this is the entire, true
antagonism. On the one hand, the man of "another
world" with entire will, the great slanderer of life;
on the other, the involuntary deifier of life, the repre-
sentative of golden nature. Hence the serving of an
artist in the service of the ascetic ideal is the thor-
oughest of all artist-corruptions possible; unfortunately
also one of the most frequent (for nothing is more
corruptible than an artist). Also physiologically re-
considered, science and the ascetic ideal root in one
common soil. A certain impoverishment of life is the
condition for each. The emotions cooled down; the
step retarded; instinct replaced by dialectics; earnest
impressed on countenances and demeanours (earnest,
this most unmistakable sign of an impeded metabo-
lism, of a struggling and wrestling life). Witness the
times in the life of a people, when the scholar rises
into prominence ! They are times of languor, of sunset,
of decline, — the teeming fulness of power, the confi-THIRD ESSAY

dence in life, the confidence in a future being gone.
The predominance of the mandarin never means any-
thing good; no more so than the rising of democracy,
of peace-arbitraments in place of war, of the equality
of woman with man, of the religion of sympathy and
all the other symptoms of declining life. (Science
taken as- a problem: What is the meaning of science ?
—compare, for this topic, the Preface of the Birth of
Tragedy.) — No! this "modern science" — open your
eyes widely to this fact! — is at present the best ally
of the ascetic ideal, and even for the reason that she
is the most unconscious, the most involuntary, the
most secret, the most subterranean! They have acted
in concert so far, — the " poor in spirit" and the scien-
tific adversaries of that ideal (let people guard them-
selves, by the bye, against supposing that these
scientists are the counterpart of these poor ones,
that they are the rich in spirit. This they are not;
I have called them hectics of the spirit). These cele-
brated victories of the latter: no doubt, they are vic-
tories. But victories over what? The ascetic ideal
was not at all conquered by them; on the contrary, it
became even stronger, i.e., more incomprehensible,
more spiritual, more captious, by ever again a wall,
a bulwark which had been reared about the ascetic
ideal and had roughened its aspect, being ruthlessly
removed and broken down by science. Is it actually
thought that the defeat of theological astronomy im-216

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

plies a defeat of that ideal? Has here, peradventure,
become less requisite to man some another-world-solu-
tion of his riddle of existence because of the fact that
since that time existence has looked still more fortui-
tous, still more commonplace, still more dispensable-
with in the visible order of things ? Is not just the
self-diminution of man, is not his will to self-diminution
ever since Copernicus making irresistible progress ?
Alas, the belief in his dignity, his uniqueness, his
irreplaceability in the rank-sequence of beings is gone;
he has become an animal, an animal without likeness,
allowance, and reserve, — he, who in his former belief
was almost a God (" Child of God," " God-man ") . . . .
It seems as though man, since Copernicus, had slid
upon an inclined plane, — he ever more rapidly rolls
away from the centre. Whither? Into the Nothing?
into the "piercing feeling of his nothingness ?"....
Good! This were just the straight road into the old
ideal ? . . . . All science (and not merely astronomy,
on the humiliating and prostrating effects of which
Kant has left a memorable confession: "She anni-
hilates my significance	all science, natural as
well as unnatural—thus I call the self-criticism of
perception — tries to talk man out of his former self-
esteem, as though it had been no more than a bizarre
self-conceit. Indeed, one might go so far as to say
that this constitutes her proper pride, her own, grim
form of Stoical arapagia, to maintain this laboriouslyTHIRD ESSAY

217

acquired self -contempt of man as his last and most
earnest claim to self-esteem (and with good reason
indeed, for he who despises is one who has not yet
"unlearnt to esteem". . . .). Is this, then, a counter-
action against the ascetic ideal? Is it actually still
seriously believed, that (as theologians for a while
imagined) Kant's victory over the theological dog-
matism of concepts such as "God," "soul," "freedom,"
"immortality" did injure that ideal? In asking which,
we shall, in the meantime, have nothing to do with
the question whether Kant ever intended any such
thing. Certain it is that every variety of transcen-
dentalist since Kant once more plays a winning game.
They are emancipated from the theologians: what
happiness! He has betrayed to them that by-way
on which they may now (on their own behalf and
with the best scientific grace) follow out the " inclina-
tions of their hearts." And again: who would now
dare to blame the agnostics, — reverers, as they are,
of the Unknown and the Mysterious in itself, if they
now will worship the interrogation-mark itself as God ?
(Xavier Doudan, somewhere speaks of the ravages
which were occasioned by " Vhabitude dy admirer
1'inintelligible au lieu de rester tout simplement dans
Vinconnu; the ancients, he thinks, managed to get
along without that). Supposing that all that man
" perceives " will not satisfy his wishes but runs coun-
ter to them and fills him with awe, what a godlike218

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

expedient to be allowed to blame not "the wishing"
but "the perceiving" itself! .... "There is no per-
ception ; therefore there is a God:" what a new ele-
gantia syllogismi! what a triumph of the ascetic ideal!

26

Or did, peradventure, all modern historiography
present a demeanour more certain of life, more certain
of its ideals? Its noblest ambition now is to be a
mirror; it disowns all teleology; it no longer under-
takes to "prove" anything; it disdains to play the
judge and finds therein its own good taste; it neither
be-nays nor be-yeas; it only determines; it only de-
scribes . . . All tnis is ascetic in a high degree; but
it is also in a still higher degree nihilistic. On this
point let no-one deceive himself! We see a dreary,
cold, but determined look — an eye, which looketh out-
wards like an isolated north-pole traveller (perhaps, in
order not to be obliged to look inwards? or back-
wards? ....). Here lies snow, here life is silent; the
last crows, whose voice is heard, are called "Where-
fore?" "In vain," " Nada!" — here no longer grows
or thrives anything except peradventure St. Petersburg
metapolitics or Tolstoian "sympathy." But again, as
regards that other kind of historians, perchance a still
"more modern" kind, a libidinous, lustful kind, which
ogles with life no less than with the ascetic ideal;THIRD ESSAY

219

which uses the word "artist" as a glove, and to-day-
holds a monopoly, as it were, of praising contempla-
tion— oh, what thirst these sweet souls full of esprit
create even for ascetics and winter-scenes! No! to
the devil with these contemplative people! Oh, how
much I should prefer to walk in the company of those
historical nihilists through the dreariest, gray, cold
mists! — indeed, suppose that I must choose, I shall
not refrain from listening even to somebody altogether
unhistorical, antihistorical (such as that Diihring by
whose melodies a yet somewhat bashful, somewhat un-
confessed species of "beautiful souls" is intoxicated,
the species anarchistica among the educated proleta-
riat). A hundred times worse are the " contempla-
tive/' I know of nothing more apt to beget nausea
than such an "objective" easy-chair, such a dainty
relisher in the presence of history, half priest, half
satyr, parfum Renan, the shrill falsetto of whose
applause sufficiently betrays wherein he is deficient,
where in this case the Parca applied, alas! all too chi-
rurgically, her cruel shears. This goes against my
taste, also against my patience. In the presence of
such spectacles, let him who is not the worse for it,
preserve his patience. — I am exasperated by such a
sight; I am provoked against the play by such spec-
tators, nay, even more than by the play (history it-
self, ye understand ?). All of a sudden Anacreontic
humours come over me. That nature which gave to220

A GENEALOGY Of MORALS

the bull his horn, to the lion his %a<rv oSovtcov, to what
end has she given me my foot?1 .... To kick, by
Saint Anacreon, and not merely to run away; to kick
over those worm-eaten easy-chairs, that cowardly con-
templativeness, that libidinous Eunuchism towards his-
tory, that dalliance with ascetic ideals, that tartuffism
of righteousness practised by impotence! My highest
respect to the ascetic ideal, in so far as it is honest!
so long as it believes in itself and cuts no capers for
us! But I do not like the coquette bed-bugs whose
ambition is insatiate in the desire — to smell of the
infinite, till at last the infinite smells of bed-bugs; I
do not like the whited sepulchres which mimic life; I
do not like the weary and worn-out who wrap them-
selves in wisdom and view things "objectively;" I do
not like the agitators dressed up as heroes and wear-
ing a halo of idealism about the straw-wisp of their
heads; I do not like the ambitious artists who would
fain represent ascetics and priests, and who are at
bottom tragic clowns only; I do not like them either
— the latest speculators in idealism, the anti-Semites,
who to-day distort their eyes in Christian-Aryan-good-
man fashion, and who, by an abuse (such as will ex-
haust all patience) of the cheapest means of agitation,
moral attitude, endeavour to work up all the block-

1 An allusion to the little song Ei's yvvaiKas ascribed to Anacreon:

<1K^para ratipois

&rAas 5' eduicev i7riroLS etc.THIRD ESSAY

221

head elements of the people. (The fact that every
kind of spiritual humbug thrives well in Germany at
present, is connected with the now-a-days undeniable
and by this time palpable desolation of German spirit,
the cause of which I seek in the all too exclusive nour-
ishment by newspapers, politics, beer and Wagnerian
music, together with that which forms the prime con-
dition for such diet: first, the national confinement and
vanity, the strong, but narrow principle, " Germany,
Germany over everything," and secondly, the paralysis
agitans of "modern ideas.") Europe to-day is, if in
anything, rich and inventive in means of excitation;
indeed, nothing seems to be so indispensable to it as
stimulants and distilled waters. Hence, among other
things, the enormous forgery in ideals, these best dis-
tilled waters of the spirit; hence, also, the nauseous,
ill-smelling, false, pseudo-alcoholic air everywhere. I
should like to know how many shiploads of spurious
idealism, of heroic costumes and tinkle-tankling of
gallant words; how many tons of sugared, spirituous
sympathy (firm: la religion de la sonffranee); how
many stilts of "noble indignation" for the benefit of
the spiritually flat-footed; how many comedians of the
Christian-moral ideal would have to be exported from
Europe to-day, so that its air once more might smell
cleaner .... Obviously, this overproduction suggests
the possibility of a new trade; obviously new "prof-
its" can be made with small ideal-idols and corre-222

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

sponding "idealists" — let this broad hint not be
overheard! Who has courage enough for such an
undertaking ? We hold in our hands the possibility
to "idealise" the entire globe! .... But what say I
of courage? Here but one thing is necessary — even
this hand, an unembarrassed, very much unembar-
rassed hand ....

2 7

Enough! enough! Let us leave these curiosities
and complexities of the most modern spirit, which are,
in equal degree, calculated to excite laughter and vexa-
tion. Just our problem, the problem of the meaning
of the ascetic ideal, can dispense with them. What
has it to do with yesterday or to-day! These matters
shall be handled by myself more thoroughly and more
severely in another connection (under the head of " A
contribution to the history of European Nihilism; " for
which I refer to a work, which I am now preparing:
THE WILL TO POWER. An Essay Towards a
Transvaluation of all Values). The only point I wish
to emphasise in this place is this: the ascetic ideal
has, as in others also in the most spiritual sphere of
thought, at present only one kind of real enemies and
injurers. These are the comedians of this ideal; for
they arouse mistrust. Wherever else the spirit is at
work earnestly, powerfully and without counterfeiting,
it lacks in any ideals whatsoever — the popular wordTHIRD ESSAY

223

for this abstinence is "Atheism"—minus its will to
truth. But this will, this remnant of an ideal, is, if you
will believe me, this ideal itself in its strictest, most
spiritual formulation, altogether esoteric, freed from
every attire. Thus it is, not so much the remnant, but
the kernel of this ideal. The absolute candid atheism
(and it is its air we breathe, we more spiritual men
of this age!) is, therefore, by no means opposed to
the ascetic ideal, as it would seem. It is, on the con-
trary, but one of the latest phases of development of
it; one of the final forms and logical results of it; it
is the awe-inspiring catastrophe of a training for truth
which lasted two thousand years, and at last forbids
itself the falsehood in the belief in God. (The same
trend of development has taken place in India, in per-
fect independence, and therefore proving the case; the
same ideal forcing to the same conclusion; the deci-
sive point being reached with Buddha, five centuries
before the Christian era, or more exactly: already with
the Sankhyam-philosophy, which Buddha popularised
and transformed into a religion.) What, to put the
question in its strictest form, has triumphed over the
Christian God ? The answer will be found in my
Joyful Sciencey aph. 357): "Christian morality itself,
the ever more rigorously conceived notion of truth-
fulness, the father-confessor finesse of the Christian
conscience, translated and sublimated into scientific
conscience, into intellectual cleanliness at any price.224

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

To regard nature as if she were a proof of the good-
ness and the fatherhood of a God ; to interpret history
in honour of some divine intelligence, as a perpetual
testimony of a moral regulation of the world and of
moral end-purposes; to interpret one's own experi-
ences in the manner that pious people were for a
long time wont to do, as if all were Providence, as if
all were a divine reminder, as if all had been devised
and decreed for the benefit of the soul's salvation —
this is now past, this has conscience against it, this is
by every finer conscience considered to be indecent,
dishonest, trickery, femininism, weakness, cowardice.
With this rigour, if in any one respect, we are good
Europeans and the heirs of Europe's longest and
bravest self-vanquishment" .... All great things
perish through themselves, through an act of self-
effacement. Such is the law of life, the law of nec-
essary " self-surmounting" in the essence of life.
Always in the end the summons is addressed to the
law-giver: "Patere legem, quam ipse tulisti." In this
wise Christianity as a dogma perished from its own
morality. In this wise, also, Christianity as a moral
code must now perish. We stand at the threshold of
this event. Christian truthfulness, after having drawn
inference upon inference, will finally draw its strongest
inference, the inference against itself. And this will
happen when it will put the question: " What does all
will to truth mean ?" .... And herewith, my un-THIRD ESSAY

225

known friends (for as yet I know of no friend), I touch
once more upon my problem, upon our problem: what
sense would our entire existence have, if not this that
in ourselves this will to truth has become conscious
of itself as a problem? .... Of this becoming-con-
scious-of-itself of the will to truth — no doubt what-
ever — morality will die. That grand drama in a
hundred acts, which is reserved for the next two cen-
turies of Europe — the most terrible, most questionable
and perhaps also the most hopeful of all dramas ....

28

The ascetic ideal apart, man, animal man so far
had no significance. His existence on earth implied
no goal. " Wherefore should man be at all ?— this
was a question without an answer. The will for man
and earth was lacking. Every great human career
was followed by the refrain of a still greater "in
vain !" Precisely this is meant by the ascetic ideal:
that something was lacking, that an immense gap
yawned round man. He was unable to justify, ex-
plain, be-yea himself, he suffered from the problem of
his significance. He suffered also in other respects;
he was in the main a sickly animal. Not suffering
itself, however, constituted his problem, but the lack
of the answer to the cry of the question: " Wherefore
suffer ?" Man, the animal bravest and best accus-
Q226

A GENEALOGY OF MORALS

tomed to pain, does not be-nay suffering in itself: he
wills to suffer; he even seeks for suffering, provided
that he is shown a significance, a therefore of suffer-
ing. The senselessness of suffering, not suffering
itself, was the curse which so far lay upon mankind.
And the ascetic ideal offered to mankind a significance.
It was so far the only significance; any significance
is better than no significance at all. The ascetic ideal
was in every respect the faute de mieux par excellence
which so far existed. In it suffering was interpreted;
the immense void seemed to be filled out; the door
closed to all suicidal nihilism. The interpretation —
no doubt whatever — brought with it new suffering,
deeper, more internal, more poisonous, more life-under-
mining suffering; it brought all suffering into the per-
spective of guilt .... But, nevertheless, man was
saved thereby; he had a significance; he was hence-
forth no longer like a leaf in the wind; sport of non-
sense, of " no-sense;" he could now will something;
no matter for the present whither or wherefore or
wherewith he willed: will itself was saved. One can-
not possibly hide from one's self what is ultimately
expressed by all that willing, which has received its
direction from the ascetic ideal. This hatred of what
is human; still more, of what is animal; still more, of
what is material; this horror of the senses, of reason
itself; this fear of happiness and beauty; this long-
ing away from all appearance, change, becoming,THIRD ESSAY

227

death, desire, longing itself — all this implies (let us
dare to comprehend it!) a will to the Nothing, a horror
of life, an insurrection against the most fundamental
presuppositions of life; nevertheless, it is and remains
a will! .... And to say once more at the end
what I have said at the outset: rather would man
will the Nothing, than not will ....POEMS

(TRANSLATED BY JOHN GRAY)POEMS 1871-1877I

TO MELANCHOLY

Set it not down to malice or to folly
That I, to do thee honour, prime my pen,

Head bowed upon my knees, O Melancholy!

Sit on a stump apart from other men.

Thus even yesterday thou saw'st me dally,
In morning air the hot sun beamed athwart:
The greedy vulture screams along the valley,
Dreams of dead carrion in a dead resort.

Foul bird, thou wast mistaken in my seeming
So mummy like upon my settle! Lo,

Thou didst not mark the eye, for rapture beaming,
Proud and high-spirited roll to and fro.

If it climb not to heights of thy attaining,

Dead though it be to yon far waves of cloud,
Deeper it pierces, Being's self explaining,

Lighting the depths and rending every shroud.

In the deep wilderness I often cowered,

Ugly, like savages who sacrifice,

Thy votary, and with thy graces dowered,

O Melancholy! having paid the price!

233234

POEMS

So I delight me with the vulture's passage,
The thundering of the reeling avalanche,

Incapable of guile, to me thy message
Was all sincere; thy visage dread and staunch.

Thou, bitter Goddess of the wild rock-places,
To show thyself anear to me dost joy,

Threatening thou showest me the vulture's traces,
The avalanche's yearning to destroy.

The lust of murder which may not be baffled!
The fangs are ever sharpened far and nigh!
The sweet enchantress of the steep rock scaffold,
The flow'ret longs towards the butterfly.

I am all these — I sympathise, abhorrent —
The enchanted butterfly, the lonely flower,
The vulture and the sudden glacier torrent,

Trump of the storm—-All is thy pomp and power,
Thou dreadful Goddess to whose praise I falter,
Low bending, head to knee, my fluttering song,

Only to thy renown, — I dare not palter —

For life, for life, for life I long!

Treacherous Godhood, mete me not derision
Who crown thee round with rhymes in pretty bands.
He shudders who comes near thee, Terror-vision,
He quakes to whom thou stretchest wicked hands.POEMS 1871-1877

235

Song upon song my stammering, halt tongue stutters,
Shudders in shapes the rhythmic forms afford:
The ink flows over and the penpoint splutters —
Now Goddess, Goddess, let me — let me lord!

2

AFTER A NIGHT-STORM

Round my window didst thou hang in veils,
Wreathen mist, sad Goddess! through the day.
Gruesomely the world of pale wisps trails,
Gruesomely the swoll'n brook rolls away.

Ah! thou hast of sudden lightning-gleam,

Of the thunder's brawling, savage stress,

Of dank poison of the valley's steam,

Brewed the drink of death, thou Sorceress!

Shuddering heard I through the mid midnight
Wailing of thy voice of weal and pain;

Saw the blinking eye; thy awful right
Brandishing the thunder-bolt amain.

Cam'st my vacant pillow to disturb,

Fully mailed and weapon-glistering,

Struck'st my window with a metal curb,

Spak'st: " What am I ? Thou shalt hear the thing!236

POEMS

"Am the eternal, mighty Amazon,

Never womanly, dove-like, forlorn,

Conqueress and tigress knit in one,
Woman-warrior with man's hate and scorn!

"Treading death tread I whereso I tread,
Whirring torches from my grim eyes hail,
Poison is my thought — now kneel! Entreat,
Worm, or crumble! Will-o-wisp, or fail!"

3

THE WANDERER

There goes a wanderer through the night
With lusty gait;

The crooked valley and the height

Upon him wait.

Blithe is the night —

He stands not still, he strides abroad,

He seeketh out his unknown road.

There sings a bird thorough the night;
" Ah, bird, thou hast me in despite!
Why dost thou hold my thought, my feet,
Pourest heart's languishing so sweet
Into my ear, so that I need
Listen and heed —

Why dost thou tempt me, dost thou greet?"POEMS 1871-1877

237

The gentle bird was dumb and said:

"Nay, wanderer, nay! Be comforted;

My voice is rife

To tempt anear a little wife —

What is't to thee?

Alone is night not fair to me.

What is't to thee ? So were it best

Thou go, and never, never rest!

Why stay'st thou yet?

How should my mellow music stir

Thee, wanderer ?"

The gentle bird was dumb and thought:
How should my flute-song tell him aught?
He does not stir? —

The piteous, piteous wanderer!

4

TO THE GLACIER

At height of day, when first

The Summer clambers to the mount,

The stripling with the weary, burning eyes;

He speaketh too,

Yet may we only see his speech.

And his breath floweth as floweth a sick man's breath

Of a fever night.238

POEMS

The glacier and the pine and fountain give

Him answer back,

Yet is the answer only seen.

Then swifter springeth from the rock

The torrent, as to greet;

And stands, in white and quivering stems,

For yearning still.

And darker yet and truer peeps the pine-tree,

As at all times;

Betwixt the ice and the dead granite stone

Breaks sudden lightning forth--

Such lightning saw I once: significant.—

Even a dead man's eye

May yet Once More be light,

If his afflicted child

Embraceth, kisseth him:

Yet Once More may flow back again

The spark of light, and glowing speak

The dead man's eye: " My child!

Ah child, thou know'st how I love thee!" —

And, glowing, all things here hold speech — the pine,

Glacier and brook —

In glances here the self-same words:

"We dote on thee!

Ah child, thou know'st, thou know'st, we dote on thee!"
And he,

The stripling with the weary, burning eyes,POEMS 1871-1877

239

Kisses them, sorrowful,

Passionately,

And would not go;

Only, like veils he blows his word

From out his mouth,

His cruel word:

"My greeting is departing,

My coming is return,

And I die young."

Then all is hushed,

Doth fear to breathe;

No bird doth sing.

Then shuddering
A shimmering
Runs over all the rock.

Then all in thought
Is dumb--

Twas height of day;

At height of day, when first

The Summer clambers to the mount,

The stripling with the weary, burning eyes.

5

AUTUMN

This is the Autumn: which — doth break thy heart!
Fly out! fly out!240

POEMS

The sun a-mountain creeps,

And climbs and climbs,

And rests at every step.

How doth the world wax worn!

On slackly tensioned strings the wind
Plays out his song.

The hope is fled
To which he wails.

This is the Autumn: which — doth break thy heart!

Fly out! fly out!

Fruit of the tree,

Thou falterest, fall'st?

Reveal, what secret hath the night

Taught thee,

That icy pallor should adorn,

Adorn thy purple cheek? —

Thou'rt dumb, thou answerest not?

Who speaketh yet?--

This is the Autumn: which — doth break thy heart!

Fly out! fly out!

"I am not fair,

— So speaks the flower-star —

Yet men I love

And men console —

Now shalt thou look on flowers indeed,POEMS 1871-1877

241

And bend above me,

Ah! and break me —

In their eye doth sparkle then
A memory,

Memory of a fairer thing than I: —

— I see, I see — and thus I die!" —

This is the Autumn: which — doth break thy heart!
Fly out! fly out!

6

SONGS AND EPIGRAMS

Start in time, and rhyme precisely,

And for soul set melody:

Such divine performance we
Call a song. Or more concisely,

Song is: " Words for melody."

Epigram — new lands belong
To it: it can mock, joy, tumble,

Epigram can only mumble,

Epigram is: " Sense sans song."

If I bring both, will you grumble?

RMAXIMS 1882-7

WARNING: POISON

Who cannot laugh finds nothing here to please him!
Then let him laugh, or let the Old One seize him!

8

THE NEW TESTAMENT

Here the holiest book of prayers,

Weal and sorrow, see?

At its portal stands and stares
God's adultery!

9

AT SIGHT OF A DRESSING-GOWN

When, in spite of gown in tatters,

German comes to study matters,

Woe, how that will alter it!

Stoutly clad and buttoned tightly,

To his tailor leaves he lightly,

To his — Bismarck, all the wit!

245246

POEMS

10

A ROMAN SIGH
" Deutsch" will the Germans have it, "teutsch" debarred;
Then "Babst" for "Pope"?—No, there they still are hard.1

11

THE " REAL GERMAN "

O peuple des meilleurs Tartuffes,

True to thee, sure, my heart is!

— Swore, and by the swiftest ship
Steamed to far Cosmopolis.

12

Every hunchback's hump grows steeper,
Christians money-lenders scatter,

Daily grow the Frenchmen deeper,

And the Germans daily — flatter!

13

TO SPINOZA
Loving, unto the "One in All" turned round,
Amove Dei, blessing doth redound
From intellect — Shoes off! thrice holy ground! —

1 The form teutsch which lacks any historical justification and has,
probably, arisen by confusing the word thiudisk (deutsch), which
means popular, with the name of the Teutons, has been used by ex-
treme nationalists since the middle of last century, and has therefore
something of jingoism about it. "Babst" is the older Middle German
spelling for Papst, Pope, the latter form (with the hard p) now alone
surviving.MAXIMS 1882-1885

247

— Yet underneath this love there gnawed,
A secret brand of vengeance glowed,

Jewish hate gnawed the Jewish God . . .
Ah hermit, have I found thee out?

14

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER

What he taught returned again,

What he lived will ever remain:

Only look upon

One who was subject unto none!

15

TO RICHARD WAGNER

Thou, unto whom all bonds are qualm,

Unrestful spirit, bound and tied,

Laden with triumph, fetter-anguished,

Flayed, and more sick and sick hast languished,
Hast only poison drunk from every balm;

Till, woe! to the cross thou also sankest, calm,
Thou also, also thou art vanquished!

Before this spectacle I stare,

Breathing confinement; wrath and grief and gloom,
Between the incense-clouds, the church perfume,
Strange to me, full of dread and fear.

Tossing my fool's-cap gaily, I went dancing home
Through the bright air!248

POEMS

16

TO THE DISCIPLES OF DARWIN
You accept the mediocre
Reason of this English joker,
For "philosophy?" And thus
Set him next to Goethe! Lese-
Majesty such purpose is —

Majesty of genius !

17

THE HERMIT SPEAKS
To father thoughts ? Good ! then will I your master be.
To make thoughts for one's self — I unlearn willingly!
Such thoughts command, — their maker may not swerve.
And I—will now and never serve.

18

Whose word will one day rise and crash
Within him much doth shroud.

And who will be the lightning flash
Must long — remain a cloud.

19

RULES OF LIFE
Wilt thou thy life should grace thee
Above it shalt thou throne!

Learn therefore to upraise thee!

And therefore learn — look down!MAXIMS 1882-18S5

M9

Let not the sweetest virtue be
From sweetening exempt;

To every pound of charity, see
Thou add a grain of self-contempt!

20

The loveliest body — but a veil
In which, ashamed, — a lovelier hides.

21

RIDDLE

Rede me the riddle the word conceals:

Woman invents what man reveals.

22

The world stands not still;

To night bright day is dear;

Though it likes well "I will,"

"I like" delights the ear.

23

With wits wit well may trickle;

The tickler is not hard to tickle.

24

'Twas here gold rolled, 'twas here I played with gold;
In truth gold played with me, 'twas I that rolled!250

POEMS

25

FROM DIOGENES HIS TUB:

Need's cheap, you don't find bliss i' th' lump:
Instead of gold I sit upon my rump.

26

TIMON SAYS:

Be not too liberal; it doth belong

To dogs alone to .... the whole day long.

27

FOR FALSE FRIENDS

Thou hast stolen, and thine eye's unclean —

Only one thought thou stolest — one!

Who ever hath so modest been?

Here, take this handful, and be gone —

Take all my mine —

And guzzle thyself clean, thou swine!

28

THE WORD

The living Word I do respect:
It springeth forth so gaily decked,
Greeteth with nod so blithe and free,
Sweet even in adversity,

Hath blood inside it, snorteth clear,
Creepeth in e'er so deaf an ear,MAXIMS 1882-1885

And hangeth limp and curleth tight,
Do what it may — it doth delight.

Yet is the Word a tender creature,
Of delicate and changing feature.

If thou wilt spare the little bubble,

Hold it with care and caution double,
Nor roughly crush nor coarsely moil it,
A wicked look may serve to spoil it —
So shapeless then the Word behold,
Without a soul, so poor and cold,
Its morsel of a corpse all changed,
By death and dying disarranged.

A dead Word is a hateful thing,
The driest, leanest Kling-kling-kling.
Out on the hateful traffic — Fy! —
By which the Word and Wordling die!

29

When next thy thought,

Friend Yorick, comes to spoil thy peace,

As now, for naught,

Call it not: " God ! " A poor pretence,

'Tis not the less thy very child)

Thy flesh and blood,

So vexes thee and spoils thy peace,

Thy little scamp and good-for-naught!

— Look to't thou spare him not the rod!POEMS

And brief, my friend, try something crisper
Than dark philosophy — allow
Me name a simple medicine,
A house-receipt i' th' lug o' thee whisper
— My remedy against the whim —:
"Who loveth his 'God' doth chasten him."

30

DECISION

I will be wise, my own to nurse,
And not another's mood.

Praise God who made the universe
As stupid as he could.

And if, as crooked as I can,

I take my selfish trend —

'Twas ever thus the wise began,
And thus fools ever end.

31

All eternal founts of meaning
Are, and have ever been.

God's self — had he aye beginning?
God's self — doth he e'er begin?

32

CONCLUDING STANZA

Laughter is an earnest art:

Must I needs with better zestMAXIMS 1882-1885

Laugh to-morrow, I must know:
Came the sparkle from the heart?
Little serves the head to jest,

If the heart denies the glow.

33

Dance of the thoughts, behold
One of the Graces leads!

How thou rejoicest the spirit of me
Woe! What behold I? Fall
Mask and the veil of the leader,
Foremost in the dance
Hurrieth pallid Necessity.POEMS 1882-188534

THE HONEY-OFFERING

Bring honey, ice-cool honey of the comb!

With honey will I sacrifice to all

That gives, that grants, is good. Lift up your hearts!

35

ZEAL AND GENIUS

I envy the zealous man his zeal:

Gold-bright and even flows his even day,
Gold-bright and even back
Down into the dark sea . . .

And round his couch there blooms
Oblivion, loosening of the limbs.

36

TO THE IDEAL

Whom have I loved like thee, beloved shadow!

I drew thee to me, into me, and since

I have come nigh to shadow, thou to body.

Save that mine eye is all untractable,

Used to behold those things outside its being:

To it thou art ever still the " Out-of-me."

Ah, how that eye bears me beside myself!
s	257POEMS

37

TO FRIENDSHIP

Hail thou, Friendship!

Earliest red of morning
Of my highest longing!

Endless often

Seemed the path, the night, to me

And all life

Hateful, without aim!

Now will I live doubly,

That in thine eyes I have beheld

Victory and dawn

Thou dearest Goddess!

38

" Pia, caritatevole, amor0sissima!^

(In the Campo Santo)

O maidenkind, that tendest
The lambkin's tender need,

From either eye thou sendest
True light, and flame indeed;

Thou thing of mirth and wildness,
Thou joyous darling, ah!

So pious, heart of mildness,
Amorosissima !POEMS 1882-1885

259

What snapped so soon the tether ?
Who made thy heart to smart?

Thou lovest — 'tis not whether
He gave thee all his heart ?

Thou'rt dumb — yet tears are thronging
To thy mild eyelids, ah! —

Wert dumb — didst die of longing,
Amorosissima /

39

THE LITTLE BRIG CALLED " ANGELINE"

Angeline — they call me so —

Now a ship, one time a maid,

Ah, and evermore a maid!

Love the steersman to and fro
Turns the wheel so finely made.

Angeline — they call me so —

Dizened with a hundred flags,

And the little captain brags
Beautiful upon my prow,

Thinks himself the flag of flags.

Angeline — they call me so —

Out and far, a little flame
Glows for me, I skip a lamb
On my way ecstatic, oh:

I was ever like a lamb.POEMS

Angeline — they call me so —

Think you, like a little hound
I can bark, and from my sound
Mouth such fire and pother blow?
Am not all angelic found!

Angeline—they call me so —

Spake a wicked little word
Once, which my beloved heard,
And was stricken and laid low:
Ay, he died of that same word!

Angeline — they call me so —
Scarcely heard but leaped from cliff,
Broke a rib, small wonder if
Little soul made haste to go:
Ay, for falling off a cliff!

Angeline — they call me so —

Soul, as 'twere a little cat,

Once, twice, thrice, went pit-a-pat,
Tenanted this shipkin so —

Ay, it hastened to do that.

Angeline — they call me so —

Now a ship, one time a maid,
Ah, and evermore a maid!

Love the steersman to and fro
Turns the wheel so finely made.POEMS 1882-1885

40

MAIDEN SONG

Maiden, I, whom thou beholdest,
Yesterday was young and wise;
Now am like the grimmest, oldest
Gaffer — Not to the hair precise!

Yesterday a thought came to me —
Thought? A mockery and shame!
Did you ever have a gloomy
Thought? A little feeling came!

Women dare to think but rarely;
Doth not ancient wisdom rede:
" Let her follow, fair and squarely;
If she think, she wants to lead."

Credit what she says? I? Never!
Like a flea it skips and stings!
"Woman never think; however,
If they do, they're worthless things!"

This is old and far-fetched wisdom,
Beautiful and perfect presence!

Hear my own, my newest wisdom,
All the wisdoms held in essence!

Yesterday (I speak in duty)

Spake to me a speech that ran:
" Woman is a thing of beauty,

Thing of interest is — Man!"262

POEMS

41

DESPERATE

Fearful seem indeed to me

All these spitting fellows!

Run ? where can I ? how be free ?

Plunge into the billows?

See, the lips are ready cocked,

Throat is jerked to clear it,

Soon the floor is thickly pocked —

Curse the Spittle-spirit!

Rather place me on the eaves
With the dunghill scratchers;

Rather make me free of thieves,

Perjurers and lechers!

Curse on culture, if it spit!

Curse the chaste and little!

Purest sanctity — why it
Hasn't golden spittle.

42

HUMAN, ALL-TOO-HUMAN

Since this book has grown up, sore shame and long-
ing afflict me,

Till later blow for thee richer and lovelier blooms.
Now I taste of the sweet: I follow after the greater,
While he enjoyeth the gold fruit of his harvest himself. •POEMS 1882-1885

263

43

THE WANDERER AND HIS SHADOW

Never advance, nor more go back?

Even for a chamois not a track?

So here I bide and stoutly clasp
What eye and hand have left to grasp!

Five foot of earth, and dawn; beneath
My feet — the world, mankind and death!

44

JOYFUL SCIENCE

This is no book; what profit books?
Grave-clothes and crypts and coffin-nooks?
The past is books' accustomed prey:

Herein there lives eternal day!

45

JOYFUL SCIENCE

This is no book: what profit books ?
Grave-clothes and crypts and coffin-nooks?
This is a will, this is an undertaking,

This is an ultimate4 bridge-breaking,

This is a sea-wind, an anchor-lifting,
A puddle foaming, a rudder-shifting;

Bellow cannons, white heat for the on-stir,
The sea is laughing too, the monster!POEMS

46

THE NEW COLUMBUS

Woman — said Columbus — never
Trust a Genoese again!

Staring in the blue for ever —

Ever for the farthest fain!

Strangest now to me is dearest!

Genoa . . . sank, is now of yore —

Heart, be cold! Firm hand, thou steerest!
Sea beyond — but shore ? — but shore ? —

Stand we fast and face existence!

There is no return from this!

See: awaiting in the distance
Us One death, One fame, One bliss!

47

LEFT ALONE

Scream of the crow,

And creaking flight towards the town:

Soon will it snow —

Well who hath shelter to lie down!

Numb stand'st thou now,

Look'st back, ah! long the road hath been!

Fool, why hast thou

Fled out as winter doth begin?POEMS 1882-1885

Taken the gate

To a thousand deserts, mute and hoar?
Who loses that

Which thou hast lost, halts never more.

Now stand'st thou pale,

Condemned to winter-wandering,

As smoke doth trail
And aye to colder heavens swing.

Fly, fowl; croak wide

Thy song, in fowl-o'-the-desert-wise! —

Go, fool, and hide

Thy bleeding heart in scorn and ice!

Scream of the crow,

And creaking flight towards the town:

Soon will it snow —

Woe who lacks shelter to lie down!

48

ANSWER

Have pity, God!

He means, I turn me to my warm
German abode,

Close German shelter from the storm!
My friend, ift be

Which hems and holds me, just thy Reason ?
Pity for thee !

Pity for German Perfect-Reason!POEMS

49

VENICE

On the bridge I stood

Lately, in gloomy night.

Came a distant song:

In golden drops it rolled

Over the glittering rim away.

Music, gondolas, lights —

Drunk, swam far forth in the gloom . . .

A stringed instrument, my soul,

Sang, imperceptibly moved,

A gondola song by stealth,

Gleaming for gaudy blessedness.
— Listened any thereto ? . . .

50

Said a dame to me in the morning ray,
All in her shyness shrunk:

"Sobriety makes thy heart so gay,
How gay must it be wert thou drunk?"

51

TO HAFIZ

(Drinking-saw: the inquiry of a water-drinker)

The tavern, Hafiz, thou hast built,

Is far too big, too wide;POEMS 1882-1885

Swill all the world, can ne'er be swilled
The drinks thou brew'st inside.

The fowl called phoenix once (that rare)
Dwells evermore with thee;

The mouse who heaved and strangely bare
A mount — thou'rt almost she!

Art all and nothing, wine and inn,
Art phoenix, mount and mouse;

Thyself upon thyself pours in,

For ever it ebbs and flows.

Depth of all summits, art thou not ?
All depth dost seem to be,

Art drunkenness for every sot,

Then wherefore wine for — thee ?

52

TREE IN AUTUMN

What am I, lumpish dunces, to be shaken,
Who, blind and happy, stood alone:

With such a gruesome terror was I taken;
My dream, my golden dream, is gone!

Rhinoceroses with trunks of elephants,

Knock not, as courtesy dictates;

For fear, I threw enough for all your wants
Of gold-ripe fruits — upon your pates.POEMS

53

THE TREE SPEAKS:

Too lonely have I grown, too high —
I wait: and yet for what wait I ?

Of the clouds, too near, I bear the yoke;
I wait upon the lightning stroke.

54

AMONG ENEMIES

(From a Gipsy proverb)

There the gallows, rope and hooks;
And the hangman's beard is red;

People round and poisoned looks —
Nothing new and nothing dread!

Know it well, from fifty sources,
Laughing in your face I cry:

Would ye hang me ? Save your forces!
Why kill me who cannot die!

Beggars ye! who hate the tougher
Man who holds the envied lot;

True I suffer, true I suffer —

As to you — ye rot, ye rot!

I am breath, dew, all resources,

After fifty hangings ; why!

Would ye hang me? Save your forces!
Why kill me who cannot die!DIONYSOS-DITHYRAMBS 188855

OF THE POORNESS OF THE RICHEST

Ten years out there —

No moisture hath reached me,

No wet i' th' wind, no dew of love,

—	A rainless, rainless land . . .

Entreat I now of my Wisdom,

Be not avaricious amid this dryness:

Of itself flow over, of itself drip dew,

Itself be rain upon the tawny desert!

One time I commanded

The clouds to leave my mountain,—

Once spake I: " More light, ye dark ones!"

Now entice them again to come near me:

Make darkness about me of your udders!

—	And I will milk you,

Ye cows of the summit!

Milkwarm my Wisdom, sweetest dew of love,
Squander I over the land.

Out, out, ye Verities,

Ye of sombre look!

I will not have on my mountain

Bitter and impatient Verities seen.

271272

POEMS

Made golden with laughter
Truth to-day cometh to me.

Made sweet by the sun and by love made brown,—
One ripest fruit will I break from the tree alone.

To-day I stretch out my hand

Towards the locks of Chance,

Clever enough, Chance

Like a child to lead, to outwit.

To-day will I be hospitable

Towards the unwelcome,

Even to Fate itself will I not be bristly.

— Zarathustra is no hedgehog.

Soul of me

All unsated her restless tongue is,

Hath already licked at all good things and bad,

Hath plunged herself into all depths.

But ever like a cork

Ever floats again to the top;

She tumbles like oil upon tawny billows:

For the sake of her they call me the Happy One.

Who are my father and mother?

Is not my father Prince Prodigal,

My mother a furtive titter?

Doth not the bond of such a pair denote

Me riddle-beast,

Monster of light,

Spendthrift of all the wisdom, Zarathustra ?DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

273

Sick to-day for tenderness,

A dew-wind,

Sits Zarathustra waiting, waiting upon his mountain, —

In his own sap

Saturated and grown sweet,

Underneath his summit,

Underneath his ice,

Weary and happy,

Creator he upon his seventh day.

Hush !

A Truth is creeping over me
Like a swollen cloud,—

Met me with lightnings invisible.

With mighty, leisurely paces
Strode her bliss to me:

Come, come, beloved Truth!

Hush!

It is my Truth! —

From faltering eyes,

From velvety tremors,

Her glance met mine,

Lovely, false, a maiden-glance . . .

She hath guessed the source of my bliss,

She hath guessed me — ah! what doth she think ? —

Purple lurketh a dragon

In the abyss of her maiden-glance.

— Hush, for she speaks, my Truth! —

T274

POEMS

Woe to thee, Zarathustra!

Thou seemest like one

That hath swallowed gold;

Then is there need to rip up thy belly! . . .

Too rich thou art,

Thou spoiler of many!

Too many mak'st thou envious,

Too many mak'st thou poor . . .

To me myself thy light flings shade,—

I shiver for it; out, thou wealthy,

Out, Zarathustra, out of thy sunlight! . . .

Would'st like to dower, to give thy superfluous good,
But thyself art the most superfluous!

Be spry, thou wealthy!

Distribute first thyself \ O Zarathustra !

Ten years out there —

And no moisture hath reached thee?

No wet i' th' wind, no dew of love?

But rather tell me who should love thee,

Thou overwealthy ?

Thy bliss throws thirst round thee,

And dearth of love,

A rainless, rainless land . . .

No one thanks thee more;

Thy thanks are to any
That takes of thee;DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

Therein I recognise thee,

Thou overwealthy,

Thou poorest of the wealthy!

Offerest thyself, thy wealth torments thee,—
Giv'st thyself up,

Spar'st not thyself, lov'st not thyself;
The torment doth wring thee all the time,
Torment of bursting garners, of a bursting heart
And no one thanks thee more . . .

Thou must grow poorer

Thou wise unwise!

Would'st thou be loved.

One loves only sufferers,

One only gives love to the hungry:

Distribute first thyself \ O Zarathustra!

— I am thy Truth . . .56

AMONG BIRDS OF PREY

Here, who will go down,
How swift

The deeps ingulf him!
— Whilst thou, Zarathustra,
Still lovest the abyss,

Lov'st it like the Pine-tree? —

Which strikes its roots, where
The rock's self shuddering
Peeps to the deep,—

Which wavers on abysses
Where everything
Must soon descend;

In midst impetuous,

Frantic rolling torrents,
Patiently bearing, hard, silent,
Alone ...

Alone !

Who dareth then,

Be here a guest,

Thy guest to be? . . .

276DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

A bird of prey perhaps;

That well may hang
To the steadfast endurer,

Malicious to its hair,

With peals of wild laughter,

With bird-of-prey laughter . . .

Wherefore so steadfast?

— Gruesome he mocketh:

He needeth have pinions who loveth the abyss .
One must not hang suspended,

Like thee, thou hanged one! —

O Zarathustra,

Gruesomest Nimrod!

Late hunter before God,

The snare of all the virtues,

Bolt of the wicked! —

Now--

Of thyself pursued,

Of thyself art the booty,

Thyself by thyself pierced through . . .

Now —

Lonely with self,

Twofold in thine own knowledge,

Among a hundred mirrors
In thyself seen false,

Among a hundred memories
Uncertain,POEMS

And tired at every wound,

And cold at every frost,

Strangled in thine own toils,
Selfknower!

Self-hangman !

Why bind'st thou thyself
With the toils of thy wisdom ?

Enticest thyself

To the garden of the ancient serpent?
Why slink'st thou into
Thy self—thy selff . . .

A sick man now

Who art sick with snake poison,

A prisoner now

Who hast drawn the hardest lot:

In thine own mine,

Bent double, toiling,

Hollowed out within thyself,

Digging into thyself,

And clumsily,

Stiff,

A corpse —,

By hundred burdens overpowered,
Overloaded by thyself,

A knowing one,

A self revealed! . . .

The doctor Zarathustra! . . .DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

279

Thou soughtest the heaviest load;

Hast found thyself\

Hast not laid thyself aside . . .

Lowering,

Cowering,

One who already stands no more erect!
Thou and thy grave alike grow mine,
Thou spirit ill-grown! . . .

And lately so proud,

On all the stilts of pride like thine!
Lately the hermit without a God,
The lone hermit with the Devil,
The scarlet Prince of all audacity! . . .

Now--

Between two nothings

Huddled up,

Interrogation,

A weary riddle,

A riddle for birds-of-prey —

— Thee will they soon unriddle,

They hunger now for thy undoing,

They flutter round thee now, their riddle,

Round thee, thou Hanged One! . . .

O Zarathustra!

Self-knower! . . .

Self-hangman ! . . .57

THE SUN SINKS
i

No long while thirstest thou now,

Consuming heart!

A promise is in the air,

From unaccustomed lips it blows to me;
— The great refreshing comes . . .

Hot my sun stood above me at hottest midday:
Greeting to you, that ye come,

Ye hurrying breezes,

Cool spirits of the afternoon!

The air flows strange and clean.

Squints not with slanting

Seductive eye
The night to me ? . . .

Stand strong, my dauntless heart!

Ask not: wherefore?--

280DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

2

Day of my life!

The sun doth sink.

Now lies the polished

Flood all gilded.

Warm breatheth the rock.

Did Happiness sleep

On his breast, perchance, his midday sleep ?

In shimmering green
Sports Happiness along the brown abyss.

Day of my life!

To eve it goes!

Thine eye already

Gleams half smothered,

Now streams from thy dew

Gushing of tears,

Runs silent over silver seas
Purple of thy love,

Thy ultimate, hesitating blessedness . . .

3

Joyfulness, goldenness, come!

Thou most secret,

Thou the most sweet foretaste of death!
— Ran I too swiftly my road ?

Now first, when the foot became tired,
Thy glance doth come to fetch me,
Thy happiness to fetch me.POEMS

All round only waves, mirth.

What aye was sore
Sank in a blue forgetfulness,

Idle my boat lies now.

Storm and Course — how it unlearnt that!
Hope and longing were drowned,
Smooth lie the soul and the sea.

Sabbath of loneliness!

Never felt I
Nearer me sweet security,

Warmer the glance o' th' sun.

— Gloweth not even my icy peak?

Silver, light, a fish,

My skiff floats out and away.58

LAST COMMAND

To die,

As once I saw him die—,

The friend, who lightnings and glances

Into my darksome youth divinely flung:

—	Wilful and deep,

In the strife a dancer, —

Among warriors the gayest,

Among victors the heaviest,

On his own fate another fate assuming,

Hard, reflective, prospective: —

Shuddering because he conquered,

Exulting for it, that he conquered dying: —

Commanding, as he died,

—	That one destroy was his commanding . . .

To die,

As once I saw him die:

Conquering, destroying . . .

28359

THE BEACON

Here, where between the seas the island grew,

An altar stone towered sheer from earth,

Here Zarathustra, under blackened heavens,

Ignited to himself a beacon fire,—

Signal of fire for battered sailors,

Signal of question for such as answer questions . . .

The flame with white-grey belly thrusteth far
— Into the cold its tongue of strong desire,

To ever clearer heights it writhes its neck —
A snake for its impatience stiffly reared:

Such the sign I posted to mark my place.

But my soul itself is this very flame:

Insatiable towards new distances,

Burning upwards, upwards with her steady gleam.
Why fled Zarathustra from beast and mortal?
Why eschewed he clear all continents?

284DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

285

Six lonelinesses knew he well, —

Till the sea's self for him was all too peopled,
The island gave him foothold, he grew flame upon

the mountain.

Towards the Sabbath of loneliness
Casts he querulous the line over his head.

The battered sailors! Dust of ancient stars!

Ye seas of the future! Unexpounded heavens!

To all the lonely ones cast I now the angle:

Make answer to th* impatience of the flame,

Catch for me, fisher upon the mountains,

My ultimate Sabbath of loneliness!--6o

FAME AND ETERNITY

i

How long already sitt'st thou

Upon thy mischance?

Take heed, lest thou shoukTst hatch me
An egg,

A cockatrice's egg
From out thy long complaint.

Why creeps Zarathustra along the mountain?

Mistrustful, suspicious, gloomy,

A sullen lurker —

But sudden, a flash,

Bright, frightful, a stroke
'Gainst heaven out of the abyss:
— The mountain itself convulseth
Its very entrails . . .

Where hate and lightning
Grew one, a curse,—

On the mountain now dwells Zarathustra's scorn,
A thunder-cloud he creepeth his own road.

286DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

287

Conceal himself, he who but one last blanket hath!
In bed with you, ye tenderlings!

Now bellow thunders over vaulted places,
Now tremble all the joists and buttresses,

Now start the lightnings, the brimstone-coloured Veri-
ties—

Zarathustra bans . . .

2

This same money, with which
All the world acquits,

Fame,—

With gloved hands I seize this minted money, I
With loathing cast and tread it under me.

Who would be paid then?

The venal would . . .

Who is cheap, grabs

With his fat hands

Towards the all-the-world metal-clink fame!

Would*st thou buy them?

They are all to be bought.

But bid thou much!

Jingle a well-filled pocket!

— Thou strength'nest else,

Thou strength'nest else their virtue . . .288

POEMS

They are all so virtuous.

Fame and virtue — rhyme together.

As long as the world lives,

It pays, virtuous tattling,

With fame rattling, —

The world thrives upon this din . . .

In presence of the virtuous
Will I guilty be,

Guilty called with every greatest wrong!
In presence of fame's trumpet-blowers
My ambition becomes a worm,—

Amid such people I only wish
Lowest of all to be . . .

This same money, with which
All the world acquits,

Fame% —

With gloved hands I seize this minted money, I
With loathing cast and tread it under me.

3

Hush! —

Of greatest things — I see the greatest! —

Should one be either

Dumb, or talk mighty;

Talk mighty, my delighted Wisdom!DIONYSOS—DITHYRAMBS 1888

I see there aloft
Roll seas of brightness,

—	O night, O silence, O death-silent sound!
I see where a beacon,—

From furthest distance

Sinks slowly sparkling a star figure to me .

Highest star of being!

Table of the eternal image!

Thou com'st to me? —

Which none hath beholden,

Thy unspeakable beauty,—

What? it fleeth not before my look? —

Shield of Necessity!

Table of the eternal image!

—	But thou knowest it:

What all men hate,

What / alone love:

—That thou'rt eternal!

That thou'rt necessary /

My love ignites itself
Eternal only at Necessity.

Shield of Necessity!

Highest star of being!

—	That no wish attains,

That no nay hath stained,

Eternal yea of being,

Ever am I thy yea:

Because I love thee, O Eternity /THE WORKS OF

FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH

and edited by

ALEXANDER TILLE, Ph.D.

Lecturer in German Language and Literature at the University of Glasgow,
Author of " Von Darwin bis Nietzsche" etc.

This, the only authorized edition for England and America, will be issued in
eleven volumes published under the supervision of the " Nietzsche Archiv " at
Leipzig.

Cloth, Crown 8vo.

ORDER OF PUBLICATION.

Vol. XI. — The Case of Wagner; Twilight of the Idols; Nietzsche contra
Wagner; The Antichrist. Translated by Thomas Common.
Now Ready. Price $2.00.

Vol. VIII. — Thus Spake Zarathustra. Translated by Alexander Tille,

Ph.D. Now Ready. Price $2.50.

Vol. X. —A Genealogy of Morals. Translated by William A. Hauss-

mann, Ph.D. Now Ready.

VOL. IX. —Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by Helen Zimmern.
Vol. VI.—-Dawn of the Day. Translated by Johanna Volz.

To be followed by six more volumes.

Friedrich Nietzsche, Ph.D., is one of the most prominent representatives
of that movement of contemporary opinion to which Huxley gave the name of
the New Reformation. Within the last ten years he has acquired an influence
over modern Continental culture equalled by no philosopher since Hegel. His
works have created an independent school of thought; and in Germany,
Austria, Holland, France, and Scandinavia a whole literature has sprung into
existence bearing directly upon his work.

The questions he has raised are the problems of our time imperiously
demanding solution. It is no longer possible to neglect and avoid them; it
is preferable to look them straight in the face, and to accept as the foundation
of all our operations those new factors which, as Nietzsche shows, have now
become inevitable. Perhaps the wide outlook into the future of mankind
which he has opened up may help to lead the race to its final goal.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.THE LAW OF CIVILIZATION
AND DECAY

AN ESSAY ON HISTORY
By BROOKS ADAMS

8vo. Cloth. Price $2.00

" A work of great dignity and erudition, showing rare famili-
arity with the data of history, theology, and economics."

— Philadelphia Evening Bulletin.

"The argument is interesting and stimulating. . . . The
book is well written and worth reading, and those who have
any interest whatever in historical subjects should not overlook
it."—Providence Journal.

u The author has a simple and strong manner of stating facts
and drawing conclusions, and his fascinating style makes the
book not only readable, but very entertaining.1'

— Home Journal.

"It is particularly brilliant in its generalization concerning
the modern employments of the race energy that once made
war a profession and a necessity."—Lincoln Evening News,

"The book is very suggestive; it presents a theory of his-
tory which must be reckoned with; and is remarkable for the
skill with which the facts are selected."

— American Historical Review.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK;HEREDITY AND CHRISTIAN
PROBLEMS.

BY THE

REV. AMORY H. BRADFORD, D.D.

i2mo. Cloth. $2.50.

" We think this the best study of heredity from the Christian standpoint
that has been issued." — Ziort's Herald.

" There is many a chapter for reflection in ' Heredity and Christian Prob-
lems/ by Amory H. Bradford. ... Its style is clear, its arguments often
brilliant, and his deductions worthy of respect."—Boston Traveler.

" In this field Dr. Bradford has been a student for many years, and has
found it fruitful for his work as a Christian, pastor, and teacher. What he has
gathered he has here given to parents, educators, reformers, as a help in the
grave problems of the home, the school, the common life of men."—The
Outlook.

" The really fine and characteristic feature in all these chapters and in the
scheme of reform presented by Dr. Bradford is his faith in Christianity as a
divine and spiritual power in the world, set to operate along the lines of certain
intelligent methods. Repeatedly in this volume we are warned off the ground
of exclusive reliance on any one method of reform, and called back to the
broader principles of divine Christianity." — Independent,

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.THE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD
IN FOLK THOUGHT.

(THE CHILD IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE.)

BY

ALEXANDER FRANCIS CHAMBERLAIN, M.A., PH.D.

Lecturer on Anthropology in Clark University; Sometime Fellow in Modern
Languages in University College, Toronto; Fellow of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science, etc,

8vo. Cloth. $3.00.

" One of the most valuable books of the year. It is a perfect treasure house
of knowledge ; one can dip into it at any place, and for that matter, any num-
ber of times, and always bring up something quaint, instructive, interesting, or
valuable, concerning the child of to-day or of primitive culture. A monumental
task, monumentally achieved. It is invaluable for the scientific investigator,
but every lover of children should own it too." — The Clevelander.

" The book is one of the most remarkable of the present season, and must
attract not only the attention of folklore students, but of the general public as
well." — Boston Daily Advertiser,

MI hardly recall a volume which has been more suggestive or which has
given me more pleasure."—N. Y. Herald.

" It is a work that is highly creditable to American scholarship, for one
hardly knows which to praise most, — the extended erudition compressed within
its pages, or the exceptionally intelligent and systematic manner in which thii
rich store of learning has been placed before the reader," —Boston Beacon.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK."A Remarkable Book."

SOCIAL EVOLUTION.

BY

BENJAMIN KIDD.

ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED, WITH A NEW PREFACE.

8vo. Cloth. $1.50.

"The name of Mr. Benjamin Kidd, author of a very striking work on
• Social Evolution,' is, so far as we know, new to the literary world; but it is
not often that a new and unknown writer makes his first appearance with a
work so novel in conception, so fertile in suggestion, and on the whole so
powerful in exposition as * Social Evolution' appears to us to be, ... a book
which no serious thinker should neglect, and no reader can study without
recognizing it as the work of a singularly penetrating and original mind." —
The Times (London).

" It is a study of the whole development of humanity in a new light, and it is
sustained and strong and fresh throughout. ... It is a profound work which
invites the attention of our ablest minds, and which will reward those who give
it their careful and best thought. It marks out new lines of study, and is
written in that calm and resolute tone which secures the confidence of the
reader. It is undoubtedly the ablest book on social development that has
been published for a long time." — Boston Herald.

"Those who wish to follow the Bishop of Durham's advice to his clergy—
•to think over the questions of socialism, to discuss them with one another
reverently and patiently, but not to improvise hasty judgments' — will find a
most admirable introduction in Mr. Kidd's book on social evolution. It is
this because it not merely contains a comprehensive view of the very wide
field of human progress, but is packed with suggestive thoughts for interpret-
ing it aright. . . . We hope that the same' clear and well-balanced judgment
that has given us this helpful essay will not st&7 here, but give us further guid
ance as to the principles which ought to govern rfght thinking on this, the ques-
tion of the day. We heartily commend this really valuable study to every
student of the perplexing problems of socialism." — The Churchman,

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.ESTHETIC PRINCIPLES.

BY

HENRY RUTGERS MARSHALL,

Author of " Pain, Pleasure, and Esthetics."

x2mo. Cloth. $1.25.

" The work is valuable for its contents and attractive because of its direct
and lucid style." — Philadelphia Evening Bulletin.

"A book that may be studied with great intellectual profit." — Boston Home
Journal.

" An important contribution to the literature of the vexed subject of aesthet-
ics."—Public Opinion.

PAIN, PLEASURE, AND ESTHETICS.

BY

HENRY RUTGERS MARSHALL.
8vo. Cloth. $3.00.

** Mr. Marshall has long been known as an original thinker in the field
which he has chosen for interpretation; so that this volume which he now
presents, and which has been looked for for some time, deserves the best
attention, not alone of Simon-pure psychologists, but of physicians, and especi-
ally neurologists." — Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.

" There can be no question as to the acuteness, the research, and the philo-
sophical grasp of this writer. No subsequent worker in this field can afford
to disregard what has been brought out in this book; and even if some of the
author's views shall be shown to require modification, his treatise will remain
an admirable example of what a scientific work should be." — The Independent.

" It may well be said that Mr Marshall's essay is the most successful of all
ye* published attempts to conce*ve our pleasures and displeasures under some-
thing like a single point of vie* /. . . . Acquaintance with Mr. Marshall's work
will be irfcr ispensable to evci'y future student of the subject. The book is almost
' epoch-making' in the present situation of science." — The Nation,

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.SCHOPENHAUER'S ESSAYS.

edited by

T. BAILEY SAUNDERS, M.A.

Uniformly Bound in Cloth, each go cents. 5 vols., in box, $4.50.

1.	THE WISDOM OF LIFE : Being the First Part of Arthur Scho-

penhauer's Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit. Translated, with a
Preface, by T. Bailey Saunders, M.A. Second Edition.

" Schopenhauer is not simply a moralist writing in his study and applying
abstract principles to the conduct of thought and action, but is also in a
large measure a man of the world, with a firm grasp of the actual. The
essentially practical character of his ' Wisdom of Life' is evidenced by his
frequent recourse to illustrations, and his singularly apt use of them. . . . Mr.
Bailey Saunders' introductory essay adds much to the value and interest of a
singularly suggestive volume." — Manchester Examiner.

2.	COUNSELS AND MAXIMS: Being the Second Part of Arthur

Schopenhauer's Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit. Translated by
T. Bailey Saunders, M.A. Second Edition.

" Let your view of Schopenhauer be what it may, you cannot help enjoying
and admiring the wealth of observation, reflection, and wisdom in ' Counsels
and Maxims.' " — Truth.

3.	RELIGION: A Dialogue, and other Essays. By Arthur Schopen.

hauer. Selected and Translated by T. Bailey Saunders, M.A.
Third and Enlarged Edition.

" In this modest volume we have a selection of very readable essays from
the writings of the famous pessimistic philosopher, clothed in good, intelligible
English." — Literary World.

4.	THE ART OF LITERATURE: A Series of Essays. By Arthur

Schopenhauer. Selected and Translated, with a Preface, by T.
Bailey Saunders, M.A.

5.	STUDIES IN PESSIMISM: A Series of Essays. By Arthur

Schopenhauer. Selected and Translated by T. Bailey Saunders,
M.A.

" We have once more to thank Mr. Saunders for a series of extracts from
the' Parerga.' Like the former translations, this one is extremely well done,
and the volume should be popular." — Glasgow Herald.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.WORKS ON PHILOSOPHY.

DONISTHORPE.—Individualism. A System of Politics. By Words-
worth Donisthorpe, author of " Plutolo^ ' etc. New and Cheaper
Edition. 8vo. $2.50.

HAKE and WESSLAU.—The Coming Indi i t LyA. Egmont
Hake and O. E. Wesslau. 8vo. Cloth.

HILL. — Genetic Philosophy. By David Jayne Hill, President of the
University of Rochester. i2mo. $1.75.

" A most instructive and interesting volume which attracted wide attention on the
part of students of philosophy, for its virility, originality, and marked suggestiveness." —
Boston Daily Advertiser.

ORR. — A Theory of Development and Heredity. By Henry B. Orr,
Ph.D. (Jena), Professor of Biology at the Tulane University of
Louisiana. i2mo. Cloth. $1.50.

" A work of extended research and profound reasoning of exceeding interest and
value. ... It is with pleasure that we commend this scholarly work to our readers."—■
The Medical World.

" Professor Orr's theory is fresh and novel in its application, and in its association 01
facts somewhat widely distinct and hitherto separate. His discussion is full of sugges-
tions, and will undoubtedly repay thorough reading and careful thought on the part of
any student of nature." — Science.

WATSON. — Hedonistic Theories. From Aristippus to Spencer. By
John Watson, LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Queen's College, Kingston, Canada. Crown 8vo. $1.75.

WINDELBAND.—History of Philosophy. With Especial Reference to
the Development of its Problems and Concepts. By Dr. W. Windel-
band, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Strassburg. Au-
thorized translation by J. A. Tufts, University of Chicago. 8vo. $5.00.

" The book has been but recently written, and is rapidly becoming widely and favora-
bly known. Its great superiority over other works of the same kind lies in the fact that it
keeps philosophy, not biography, in the foreground. The threads of thought are care-
fully traced out in their development from the earliest times down to the present." —
Kansas Christian Advocate.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.THE LIBRARY OF PHILOSOPHY.

edited by

J. H. MUIRHEAD, M.A.
Large 8vo.

A History of Philosophy. By Johann Eduard Erdmann, edited by
Willston S. Hough, Ph.M., Assistant Professor of Philosophy in
the University of Minnesota. 3 vols. $10.50.

" A splendid monument of patient labor, critical acumen, and admirable methodical
treatment. ... It is not too much to predict that, for the library of the savant, for the
academical student, whose business it is to be primed in the wisdom of the ages, and for
the literary dilettante, who is nothing if not well up in i things that everybody ought to
know,' these volumes will at once become a necessity for purposes, at least, of reference,
if not of actual study. ... We possess nothing that can bear any comparison with it in
point of completeness." —Pall Mall Gazette.

History of iEsthetic. By Bernard Bosanquet, M.A., LL.D. $2.75.

" In clearness, precision, and in power to interest and stir his hearers, Mr. Bosanquet
proved as effective a teacher as England has ever sent across the sea. His ability as a
thinker has been familiar to American students through his work on Logic, which takes
high rank as an authority."— Science.

Development of Theology in Germany since Kant, and Great Britain
since 1825. By Otto Pfleiderer, D.D. $2.75.

" We do not know where to turn for a statement of their contributions to religious
thought which is more scholarly, and which shows a larger insight into the relations of
speculative thought." — Boston Herald.

Philosophy and Political Economy in Some of their Historical Relations.
By James Bonar, M.A., LL.D. $2.75.

"His work is much to be commended; it is full of instructive detail; the style is
sober and careful; and the index is all that an index should be."— The Critical Review.

Appearance and Reality. A Metaphysical Essay. By F. H. Bradley,
LL.D. $2.75.

" The author is a distinguished logician and thinker, and it can be assumed that his
book is worthy the attention of those interested in mental science." — Boston Transcript.

The Principles of Psychology. By G. F. Stout, M.A. [In the press.

Riddles of the Sphinx. A Study in the Philosophy of Evolution. By
F. C. S. Schiller, M.A. (Oxon.), Instructor in Logic and Meta-
physics at Cornell University. Second Edition. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50.

Natural Rights. A Criticism of Some Political and Ethical Conceptions.
By David G. Ritchie, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in
the University of St. Andrews. 8vo. Cloth. $2.75.

u In his criticisms of the natural rights theory he is acute and satisfying." —Nation.

Logic. By Dr. Christoph Sigwart, Professor of Philosophy at the
University of Tubingen. Translated by Helen Dendy. Second
Edition, revised and enlarged. Vol. I. The Judgment, Concept and
Inference. Vol. II. Logical Methods. 2 vols. 8vo. Cloth. $5.50,

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.This book is a preservation facsimile produced for
the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
It is made in compliance with copyright law
and produced on acid-free archival

60# book weight paper
which meets the requirements of
ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper).

Preservation facsimile printing and binding
by

Northern Micrographics
Brookhaven Bindery
La Crosse, Wisconsin
2015