ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF 1LUNQ1S AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign library Brittle Books Project, 2014.COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION In Public Domain. Published prior to 1923. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2014THE: . DEVELOPMENT AND PRESENT STATUS of ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. . •; -- - . BY— ■. ■ v JAMES M. WHITE, Associate Professor of Architecture, University of Illinois, With Discussion, Reprinted from the PROCEEDINGS 6? rT*ljE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENGINEERING EDUCATldNy; Kead .fit the Meeting in Columbia TTnifer^ity, July 2-3,1900.UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY Class Book Volume 72 f 1 t a ^ S a) 0 o a a © 03 C5 © ¥ 03 CO © d © o.2j fl M 3d as aj & £ d'S H o* 13 71 s © en CC 73 "T CO © 05 £co TJrH o t-L 2% be ft O 8 '3 H o Q «t-« O a> PH <1T~t Mass. Inst, of Tech........ 1869 4 years A 97 120* 65 B. S. $200.00 Cornell........................ 1871 2 and 4 A 43 67 B. of Arch. 125.00 University of Illinois..... 1871 4 years A 54 68 44 B S. Free Syracuse...................... 1873 2 and 4 B 26 B. of Arch. 120.00 Columbia..................... 1881 4 years A 76 100 B. S. 200.00 Tulane.................. ..... 1884 4 years B 5 4 B. of Eng. 105.00 Case School of Science.... 1888 4 years A 2 B.S. 100.00 Pennsylvania............... 1890 2 and 4 A 56 70 B. S. 150 00 Chicago School of Arch... 1893 2 and 4 A 27 36 B. S. 75.00 Harvard................. ..... 1894 4 years A 39 B. S. 150.00 Eose Polytechnic Inst..... 4 years B 5 B. S. 75.00t Missouri...................... 1899 4 years B 13 B. S. Free Columbian University... 1899 4 years B. S. 100.00 Total number of Arch, students, 1899-1900, 414, exclusive of M. I. T. freshmen. * Number in last years. Freshmen are not divided into courses. The total would be about one-third more than given. t Free to residents of the county.architectural education. 260 Architectural Schools of Germany. Table III. is very incomplete but it serves two pur- poses ; first, it gives a complete list of the technical high schools in which German is the language of in- struction, with the number of students in attendance; and second, it shows the proportion of architectural students in six of these schools to vary from eight to eighteen per cent., while according to table II. in Professor Baker's paper, only four per cent, of the Table III. Technical High Schools in which Ger- man is the language of instruction. Founded. i Present organiza- j tion dates from. ! 1 | Total uumber of j students. Number of Arch, students. Per cent, of Arch, students. Annual expenditures. 1899 -1900 Aachen, Germany 1870 1870 542 67 12 1898-1899 Berlin, <( | 1879 3440 620 18 1897-1898 Brunswick << > 1745 1862 368 48 13 1897 -1898 1897-1898 Darmstadt, » 1836 1869 1178 98 8 M. 440,000 1896 -1897 1896-1897 Dresden, u 1828 1890 903 M. 460,920 1898 -1899 1897-1898 Hanover, a 1831 1880 1393 258 18 M. 443,500 1897-1898 1897-1898 Karlsruhe, «< 1825 1865 866 M. 310,722 1899 -1900 1897-1898 Munich, u 1827 1868 2302 361 16 M. 448,000 1899 -1900 Stuttgart, u 1829 1862 991 -M. 350,000 1896-1897 Zurich, Switzerland 1855 1330 M. 943,000 Briinn, Austria 1850 1873 287 1897 Graz, << 1814 1872 272 Fl. 116,529 Prague, u 1806 1868 321 Fl. 104,000 Vienna, (( 1815 1872 1235 Fl. 317,000 Riga, Russia 261 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. technical students in the United States are architec- tural students, or, in other words, with five-sevenths the population, Germany has in her technical schools over four times the number of architectural students that are in the architectural schools of the United States. I believe the schools listed all give instruction in architecture with the exception of Briinn. As a basis of comparison between these schools and our own, the following information concerning their administration is valuable: The technical high schools and universities of Ger- many are all supported by the several States and not by the Empire. This accounts for the differences in their administration, and at the same time is very beneficial, firstly in preventing too great uniformity, and secondly because of the rivalry which it engen- ders. The Germans are the most powerful mental factor in Europe to-day. Statistics prove that the scientific publications in German outnumber those in any other language, even the English. It is, therefore, not sur- prising to find in the German Empire, with its 54,- 000,000 of inhabitants, the most magnificent techni- cal schools in the world, with beautiful buildings, elaborate equipment and numerous students. There were in the technical school at Berlin the past semester, 3,804 students—more than one-third as many as there are in all our technical schools and al- most 50 per cent, more architectural students than there are registered in the architectural departments of all our colleges and universities.ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 262 The authorities upon whom the several schools de- pend are: For Berlin, Hanover and Aachen, the Prussian Minister of Instruction ; for Brunswick, the State ministry; for Darmstadt, the Hessian Minister of the Interior; for Dresden, the Saxon Minister of Public Education; for Karlsruhe, the Minister of Just- ice and Education; for Stuttgart, the Minister of Church and School Affairs; for Munich, the Bavarian Minister of Education. The "director" of the Berlin Technical High School is appointed for one year by the heads of the depart- ments of the school, subject to the confirmation of the King; in Hanover and Aachen he is appointed by the Minister for three years; in Brunswick he is elec- ted by the heads of the Departments for three years, but subject to the confirmation of the Regent; in Darmstadt he is appointed for one year by the Grand Duke; in Dresden, by the King for one year, upon nomination of the professors; and the same holds true of Karlsruhe, where the Grand Duke confirms the choice of the professors, and of Stuttgart, where the confirmation rests with the King. In Munich the "director" is appointed by the King for "a certain period of time," not limited by law. There are four kinds of teachers : professors who are State officials, with a right to pensions, professors who are not State officials, private lecturers, and as- sistants. Those of the first class • are appointed in Prussia by the King, the second by the Minister. The professor is given part of the lecture money, but this has been true only since 1892. In Bavaria all professors are appointed by the King. Three-fourths263 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. of the lecture money is given to them and one-fourth is laid aside for fellowships. In Saxony, the first grade of professors is appointed by the King, and the second by the Minister. Those of the first grade receive one-half of the lecture money, and the other half goes to the State. In Wiirtemberg, where the regular professors are all appointed by the King, the lecture money is likewise given to the State, with the only exception of the private lecturers (privat docen- ten), who are always given their full lecture money. An " ordentlicher" professor's salary, in Munich, is, for the first five years, 4,560 marks a year. It is thereafter increased at the end of each five years by 360 marks up to the twentieth year of service, and thereafter by 180 marks at the end of each period of five years. The salary of an " auserordentlicher " pro- fessor is 3,180 marks, increased as above. So-called " honorar professoren" receive no salary. At Han- over, the professors are appointed for life by His Majesty the King of Prussia. The average salary is 5,500 marks, with an addition of 660 marks for resi- dence, and one-fourth of the lecture fees. The students are classed as regular students, " zu- horer," and " hospitanten " (guests). As a rule the matriculation is valid for four years, but " zuhorer " and " hospitanten " are generally registered for one semester only. The students are not limited in the choice of lectures and there is no coercion to visit lectures, except that Karlsruhe and Munich have regulations making it a duty for the student to attend, and at Darmstadt the students must receive a certifi- cate at the end of each term, in which the professorARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 264 gives them a confirmation of their attendance upon his lectures and demonstrations. In Darmstadt and Karlsruhe, a general tuition fee has to be paid; in the other schools the fees depend on the number of courses, and laboratory work has to be paid for at a higher rate than lectures. There are special fees for the lectures of the " privat docenten," which are de- termined within certain limits by the latter them- selves. All the technical high schools, with the exception of Munich, and I think Stuttgart, now confer the title of Doctor of Engineering. Formerly there were examinations on the basis of which diplomas were awarded, though in Berlin there was no such exami- nation for architects. The diplomas gave no title nor any special privileges, but were often the ground of awarding prizes and fellowships. There are State ex- aminations for persons desiring to enter the service of the State, which, however, have nothing to do with the diploma examinations (with the exception of Munich, where the diploma examination is equal to a State examination for the departments of architecture and engineering). Foreigners are not eligible for this examination, and in Darmstadt there are special ex- amination regulations for them. Students who have completed courses at a "gymna- sium" or a "realschule " (a high school without clas- sical language), or an industrial school, with a course of nine years and including two foreign languages are admitted without examination. This variation in en- trance preparation is offset by the length of time re- quired for the completion of the course, which varies265 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. from seven to ten semesters. (See Table IV.) For- eigners may be matriculated upon presentation of tes- timonials showing their preparation to be equal to that required of German students. The Swiss Polytechnical School at Zurich is sup- ported by the entire Swiss Federation and is controlled by a Board of Trustees, nominated by the Federal Council (the name given to the Swiss Ministry at Berne). The "direktor" of the school is appointed by the Trustees for a term of two years and he is not eligible for more than three terms. There are four classes of teachers: professors, assist- ant teachers, private lecturers, and assistants. The pro- fessors are appointed for life and are pensioned when they cease active service. The professors and assistant teachers are given one franc of the lecture fee for each semester lecture, but the private lecturers receive the entire fee. There are two classes of students, "schuler" and " zuhorer," who are received after reaching a certain age, upon passing the required examinations. They are required to attend lectures under penalty of having their registration canceled, in which case they must ap- ply for reinstatement. Besides the lecture fee depen- dent on the number of lectures, there is a general in- struction fee and fixed fees for library and laboratories. At the end of each year there are examinations in all required subjects which the student must pass before beginning the work of the following year. The Austrian technical high schools are under the direction of the University of Education at Vienna, but the management of each school is entrusted to theARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 266 faculty, which include all " ordentliche " and "aus- serordentliche" professors and two representative members of the private lecturers, elected for one year. This body elects the "rector " for a period of one year, subject to the approval of the minister, and is respon- sible for all matters pertaining to instruction, disci- pline and finance. The professors are appointed by the Emperor, the private lecturers by the Minister and the assistants by the faculty. The entrance requirements are about the same as in Germany, but the course of study for engineers and architects is five years. Matriculated students pay a tuition, and those unmatriculated pay a fee depending upon the number of lectures elected. There are three kinds of examinations : The abso- lutorium, diploma-examination, and the State-exam- ination. The first is the basis for granting a certificate showing that the student has prosecuted his studies with success. The diploma-examination is passed be- fore an examining commission consisting of the dean of the department, professors, lecturers or other ex- perts. The State-examination is before a special com- mission appointed by the Minister of Education. There are a few technical high schools in Austria in which the language of instruction is not German, but they are less important. Russia supports a German technical high school at Riga, which is under the management of the Ministry at St. Petersburg. There are two classes of teachers, professors and lecturers who are entitled to pensions, and lecturers and assistants who are not. Neither class participates in the lecture fees. The professors have the rank of State officials.267 architectural, education. Annual examinations are held and a diploma-ex- amination also, which is oral and requires a thesis. Architectural Schools of England. In England an architectural education is not ob- tained by pursuing a systematic college course. Class instruction is considered supplementary to the in- struction which the pupils receive from the architec- tural practitioners, to whom they are articled, and for which privilege they pay a premium. Brief descriptions of the following institutes and colleges, which are really the only ones in England interesting themselves in the teaching of architecture, will explain their method. The Royal Institute of British Architects stand in the same relation to the architectural fraternity in Eng- land that the American engineering societies do to their several professions in the United States. But the English society, through a desire to obtain for all those entering the profession a systematic course of education, affiliates with itself those who are begin- ning their technical education and tests them by pro- gressive examinations, the passing of which forms the primary qualification for admission to its class of as- Royal Institute of British Architects. Architectural Association. London. University College. Royal Academy. King's College. University College. London. London. London. Liverpool.ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 268 sociates. Each person desirous of qualifying for can- didature as Associate R.I.B.A. must pass or have passed the examination or examinations required by the Royal Institute under the provisions of the char- ter and by-laws and according to a standard fixed, and regulations made, from time to time, by the Council. The examination qualifying for candida- ture as associate is divided into three stages : prelimi- nary, intermediate and final—qualifying for the grade of probationer, student and associate respec- tively. The preliminary examination is to test the general knowledge of aspirants in ordinary subjects of school education, and in such subjects of a technical char- acter as elementary mechanics and physics, geo- metrical drawing, perspective and freehand drawing from the round. Exemption from attending this ex- amination is granted to applicants who submit satis- factory drawings and certificates from well-known ed- ucational bodies. A youth who is thus officially exempted or who passes the preliminary examination is registered as a probationer. The intermediate examination is to test the proba- tioner's progress in art and science, while engaged as pupil, improver, or assistant in an office, and those passing successfully are registered as students. The final examination is to test the student's further progress. The programme is framed on the same principle as that of the Intermediate. The work to be done by the student and submitted by him before entering, necessitates good draughtsmanship and an acquaintance with ancient edifices or other well-269 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. known executed works, to be gained by actual meas- urement of them. It requires a knowledge of design and of the. practical details of construction. The "Testimonies of Study," with the concurrent work of preparation for this examination, which is written, graphic and oral, occupy the student not less than three years, and no one can be admitted to it under the age of twenty-one years, although in most cases it will be found desirable that he should have attained the age of at least twenty-two before presenting him- self. If the student pass, he becomes qualified for candidature as associate. Architects in practice, not less than twenty-five years of age, and chief assistants over thirty years of age, who desire to be admitted as associates can be exempted by special resolution of the Council from passing the preliminary and inter- mediate examinations, and from sending in " Testi- monies of Study." They are then admitted on sub- mission of satisfactory probationary work applicable to their professional position, to a qualifying examina- tion, namely the final above mentioned, which is con- ducted with especial regard to the requirements of such architects, their works and position being duly taken into account by the Board of Examiners. Can- didates as fellows, in addition to having passed the above examinations shall have attained the age of thirty years, and have been engaged as principals for at least seven successive years in the practice of archi- tecture. The Royal Institute of British Architects was founded before systematic technical education was general, and to no other end could they have moreARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 270 profitably devoted their energies. The act.ual work of instruction, however, devolves upon other organiz- ations, which have planned their courses with the R.I.B.A. examinations in view, and the only degree sought is the associateship in the Institute. The Architectural Association, carried on under the authority of the Literary and Scientific Institutions Act of 18-54, is really the chief training-school for young architects. It is a society unique in its char- acter and without a parallel, 1 believe, in any other country or profession. The objects of the association are: To promote and afford facilities for the study of architecture, and to serve as a medium of friendly communication be- tween the members and others interested in the prog- ress of architecture. These objects are, so far as prac- ticable, carried out by means of papers and discussions, a library, lectures and classes, a studio, prizes and scholarships, visits to works and buildings, periodical publications and by such other methods as the com- mittee may determine from time to time. The preparatory courses are arranged so that stu- dents can prepare in two years for the R.I.B.A. in- termediate or final examinations. The complete cur- riculum is arranged in two divisions with some extra subjects, and extends over four years, and in each di- vision there are two parallel but distinct courses, viz., a course of lectures and classes, and a course in the studio. There is also a school of design conducted by specially chosen and eminent visitors, which may be taken advantage of by members in connection with, or apart from, the studio, according to the fee paid.271 architectural education. For more advanced work there is a school of design and handicraft with monthly meetings, a discussion section meeting twice a month, and a sketching and measuring class, meeting each alternate Saturday af- ternoon. The instructor or leader in each case is a voluntary visitor, who is a recognized expert in the subject. The instruction continues through about eight months of the year, and the hours of attendance in the studio are from 6: 30 to 9: 30 p. m., and in classes and lectures, in most cases, from 6: 30 to 8: 30 p. m. On the class and lecture side, the time on each even- ing is divided between two meetings of about an hour each. On some occasions the two meetings are de- voted to two different subjects. The scope of the in- struction can be very accurately judged from the fol- lowing list of lectures, which covers the four years' course. A period is two hours, unless stated other- wise. Mensuration, land surveying and leveling—8 even- ing periods, 8 afternoon. Elementary water color class—6 periods of 3 hours each. Hygiene (drainage and water supply)—6 periods. Hygiene (materials and construction, ventilation, lighting and heating)—6 periods. Professional practice, specifications and estimates— 6 periods. Elementary construction and materials—16 periods. English architecture to A. 1)., 1500—12 periods. Outlines of medieval and renaissance architecture in Europe—12 periods.architectural education. 272 Construction—10 periods. Color decoration—5 periods. Plane and solid geometry—8 periods. Quantity surveying including the preparation of estimates—6 periods. Modeling—12 periods of 3 hours each. Elementary physics, formulae and calculations, stresses and strains—14 periods. Materials, their nature and application—10 periods. Orders of Greek and Roman architecture — 8 periods. Water color class—3 indoor lessons, 6 afternoons outdoors. Perspective—5 periods. The tuition for the entire course as above outlined is about $108.00, and the attendance during the last year has for most of the courses been between twenty and thirty-five students. University College, London, was founded in 1826 and is supported partly by endowment and partly by fees. Classes for architecture and construction, for architec- tural and structural drawing, and for estimating are conducted. The session, which commences early in October and closes at the end of June, is divided into three terms. Two courses, A and B, each of forty lec- tures, are given, all fully illustrated by diagrams, pho- tographs, etc. Course A, given every Monday evening at 6 p. m., is on architecture as a fine art, treated historically, and a knowledge of "The Orders" is required for admis- sion. The first term, ancient and classic architecture is treated ; the second term, Christian and oriental;273 architectural education. and the third term, the renaissance and modern styles. Course B, given every Wednesday evening at 6 p. m., is on construction and assumes a knowledge, on the part of the students, of the materials used in construction. The first term lectures are on brick work, and subjects connected therewith; the second term, masonry and carpentry and iron work; the third term, timber framing and joiner's work. Both courses will be found adapted to the requirements of students preparing for the institute examinations. Evening drawing classes, established by the Carpen- ter's Company, and at very moderate fees, are held on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday evenings, and classes for quantity surveying are held every Friday evening. It is not obligatory upon students to do even- ing work, but they are strongly urged to do so. The Royal Academy School of Architecture, London, dates from the founding of the Royal Academy in 1769 and as it was the first architectural school to be estab- lished in England, its history is of special interest. In the early days, as in the present day, the ar- chitectural students were, as a rule, educated in archi- tect's offices. They left school at the age of fourteen, and were articled for seven years. This period has gradually been diminished, so that about twenty to twenty-five years ago, four years was the average and seventeen the age at which the}7 were articled. Now, three years is the rule, and those who pursue a uni- versity career do not enter an office until twenty-one or twenty-two years old. During the first century of its existence, the students, after submitting probation-ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 274 ary drawings, were required to make, within one fort- night, an original design in one of the exhibition rooms, which admitted them to the studentship. Courses of lectures on painting, sculpture and archi- tecture were given in the evening—six lectures in each course, and at a later period, about 1825, a course of lectures in perspective was added. At a later period, six lectures and six demonstrations in anatomy were given, and in or about 1870—six lectures in chemistry. Beyond attendance at these, the only opportunities for study were those afforded by competitions for, first, the gold medal for an original design; second, the silver medal for measured drawings of some building ; third, in 1852, medals for perspective and sciography; fourth, every six years a traveling studentship of £200 for two years' travel. The traveling studentship ro- tated between the painters, sculptors and architects, and only gold medalists could compete. In 1863, the two years' traveling studentship was confined to painters and sculptors, and an annual traveling stu- dentship of the value of £100 was offered to architects. This prize was offered till 1882, when a change was made in the awards. In 1870 R. Phene Spiers F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A., was requested by the Academy to draw up a scheme of architectural education for evening classes to meet three times a week. Mr. Spiers had spent three years in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and had during his term as traveling student, made a special study of the schools of architecture throughout Germany. His report was adopted and he was appointed master of the school, which position he still holds. In 1877,275 architectural education. Mr. Street, R.A., offered to undertake duties as visitor, together with other academicians and associates, in the same way as painters and sculptors had always done in the other schools, and this system "obtains to the present day with great advantages to the students. Four architectural visitors are appointed for each year, each for a period of about eleven weeks and attending once a week. The hours of the school being from 6 to 8 p. m., only about sixty-six hours can be given to any subject, and on the average the student is only able to attend for forty to sixty evenings. The sub- ject to be treated, therefore, must be a small one and the principal difference between it and those which are given to the Ecole des Beaux Arts, is that it shall be of more practical character. Such subjects as " A Casino in a Park " or " A Governor's Palace in Al- geria," would be too vast, and being purely ideal sub- jects, would not appeal to the students. As a rule, the subjects selected are those on which the visitor is recognized as an expert, and the sectional drawings are worked out to show the proper construction, which, to a student who has spent two or three years in an office preparing working drawings, is not diffi- cult. It is in this respect that the designs prepared are of more real practical value as regards their pos- sible execution, than the purely ideal treatment of the French atelier. The alterations made in the rewards in 1883 were as follows: In alternate years the gold medal was coupled with a foreign traveling studentship of £200 for one year and an English traveling studentship of £60. Premiums of £25 and £10 were given for theARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 276 best designs in the upper and lower school, and only students in the upper school could compete for the traveling studentships. Two medals, as before, were given for the measured drawing—£10 premium for the plan of a building, a silver medal for perspective and sciography, and about ten years ago, a silver medal for an original composition in clay was added. Up to about 1880, the student was admitted for two years, and, besides the designs, he had to make studies from the cast. Two complete designs and one cast and a certificate of attendance at the lectures were re- quired before entering the upper school. About five or six years later the course was extended to three years, with two years more after passing into the upper school, and the latest age limit at which students could enter was fixed at twenty-three. This was afterwards increased to twenty-five years for sculptors and architects. The drawings required for admission to the upper school were two complete designs, one cast drawing from the round, an outline of a Corin- thian capital, 18" high, and a geometrical drawing from memory done during the day-time in six hours, 10-4, of some building in London, the subject of which was given out one month in advance. Attendance at the lectures on painting, sculpture, architecture and per- spective was also required. On admission to the upper school, two complete designs had to be made before the student could compete for the traveling student- ships, and one of the designs had to be sent in for the £25 premium. During the century from 1769-1870, 740 students entered the school, and about the same number have277 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. entered during the last thirty years. Owing to the work of the school being done only in the evening (the competition drawings for the traveling student- ships, the measured drawing and the perspective are all done at home), a very small proportion of the architectural students in London become students,, and during the past ten years the friendly rivalry of the Architectural Association with its numerous classes every evening, chiefly preparing students for the architectural examinations of the institute, has lessened the number of students in the academy, as they are unable to attend the classes at both institu- tions. The attractions of the academy are the valu- able rewards given (for the gold medal and traveling studentship are looked upon as the highest honor of the young English architect), and the advice given by the visitors who are leading members of the profession. The Kings College, London, department of architec- ture was established in 1828 and provides for both day and evening classes. The studio is open from 10 to 6 except Saturday, and students may attend at any time when free from lectures and workshop. The day courses extend over three years and require about six hours a day. They provide instruction in the theory and practice of architecture, and allied subjects as in- dicated below, and are also specially arranged to enable architects' pupils, assistants, and others to prepare for the institute examinations, the surveyor's institution^ the examination for those seeking appointments as dis- trict surveyor and building surveyor, and for H. M. office of works, the royal engineers (civil staff), etc. The study list is now under revision, but the presentarchitectural education. 278 course is given below. The first two years of the day course is attended by students of both engineering and architecture, and the number averages 40; the third- year course for architects only is taken up by few ma- triculated students, and by but 10 to 12 non-matricu- lated, exclusive of evening students, numbering about 70. Day Classes. First year's course: Building construction, chemis- try, mathematics, mechanics, physics, mineralogy and geology. Second year's course : Chemistry, mathematics, me- chanics, and physics in a more advanced form, includ- ing practical demonstrations in the chemical and phys- ical laboratories. The lectures on construction include sanitary science, ventilation and heating, mechanics of earthworks, etc. In the architectural studio, con- structive drawing is taught. Third year's course: Architectural history, construc- tion, architectural day studio, including design of mod- ern buildings, sciography, perspective, etc., hygiene in relation to architecture, modelling and wood carving, color decoration, specifications, quantities, professional practice, practical instruction in plumbing, bricklay- ing, masonry, carpentry and smithing, visits to works in progress, outdoor sketching and measuring. Non-matriculated students may join any or all of the classes, and if necessary take the three courses in one year. It is desirable however, when time per- mits, that they should go steadily through the courses, and take the three years to do so. A special course is279 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. arranged for students who wish to prepare for the In- stitute examinations in one vear. Evening Classes: Under the auspices of the Car- penter's Company, evening lectures are given on architecture (Wednesdays, 7 to 8), and building con- struction (Mondays, 7 to 8), quantities (Fridays, 6:30 to 7:30), and in wood carving. The session, divided into three terms, lasts from the beginning of October to the beginning of July. The School of Architecture of the City of Liverpool has been established for six years and offers a complete course of preliminary training, extending over two years, for students to pass through before entering an architect's office, and evening classes for students al- ready engaged in architect's offices. It is not intended to supersede pupilage but to prevent the undoubted waste of time, which too often occurs, when a student enters an architect's office without possessing any previous knowledge of drawing. The plan has met the approval and cooperation of the practicing archi- tects in Liverpool, who have agreed to shorten the term of pupilage, and to reduce the ordinary premium for students thus qualified. This seems to be the entering wedge which will probably change the trend of architectural education in England and result in a more thorough and com- plete technical training. The tuition fee is £25 a year for those taking the full course, and special students pay fees depending on the work elected. There are about twenty students in the regular course and thirty specials now enrolled. The instructors are practicing architects, but almostARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 280 all their time is required for teaching. The average maximum salary paid is £375 and two-thirds of the fees. Architectural Schools of France. France has a national school of architecture, which establishes a precedent for all other instruction in the country, which means as little mathematics as an architect can get along with, and a great deal of draw- ing and design. The departmental schools are not strong because the competent men will not leave Paris, or else choose to devote all their time to practice, and it is difficult to get good professors for these schools. The Paris school was founded in 1671 and opened to all without distinction of nationality, and the in- struction is entirely gratuitous, with the exception of an incidental feet paid at the atelier. Admission may be obtained only through examina- tions, which are held twice a year, and there is a limit to the number admitted, so they have the pick of the students to begin with. A student to graduate must obtain certain pre- scribed credits, but above a very low minimum he may elect whatever amount of work he pleases, so that the Frenchman often manages to hold his regis- tration until nearly thirty years of age, while the course may be completed in four to five years. The Grand Prize of Rome, giving the winner five years of residence in Rome and government patron- age on his return, which is open to all native students under thirty years of age, is the incentive to this pro- longed studentship. The time not devoted to school281 architectural education. work is spent in the employ of the architects of Paris, so that a long-term graduate has very much higher professional training than is possible for our gradu- ates. The entire method is different from ours. The lect- ures are given, problems assigned and credits awarded at the school, but the problems and designs are worked out away from the school in ateliers, under the patron- age or supervision of a "patron," who is a Prix de Rome man and a practicing architect, and not a pro- fessor in the school, as we understand the term. His visits to the atelier are weekly or semi-weekly, and for criticism and assistance the beginners must rely chiefly on the older students. For full information concerning the organization of the school see "The Paris School of Fine Arts, Past and Present," by H. O. Avery, American Archi- tecture, Volume 20, pages 228-230. Comparison of Courses. Table Number IV. gives a comparison of several courses required for graduation in architecture. Ber- lin is an exception, as the catalogue gives a complete list of offerings, from which the student is to make a selection, under advice of the dean of the department. The table is based on the requirements of the regular architectural courses, and, as it is compiled from cata- logue information, doubtless contains some errors due to misinterpretation, but the dissimilarity in the courses of the representative institutions of our own country, which are working with the same object in view, is too great to be accounted for on this ground,ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 282 and shows the need of concerted action among archi- tectural educators to determine, if possible, what con- stitutes a well-balanced course. I regret not having been able to reduce the work of the Ecole des Beaux Arts to a comparative stand- ard, but if it had been possible it would have ap- proximated to that of Columbia, except in mathe- matics, in which the requirements for graduation are lower than for any of the schools scheduled. The table is divided into four main columns. All the figures represent semester hours, and one semester hour means one lecture hour per week, with two hours of preparation, for half a year. Three hours' draw- ing or laboratory work is considered to equal one semester hour. Column I.—Contains those studies that may be classed under general culture. These include lan- guage, history, science, political economy, etc. Column II.—Includes all mathematical work, in- cluding surveying, theoretical mechanics and the lect- ure part of descriptive geometry. The figures in this column are misleading, unless taken in connection with the entrance requirements as given in Table VI. A further explanation will be given below. Column III.—Gives the technical work; Ilia gives the lecture work, III6 the drawing work and IIIc the total amount of technical work. Column IV.—Contains the total amount required for graduation in semester hours, with the exception of the case of Berlin. No account is taken in this of physical and military training.283 architectural education. Table IV. General Culture.—Language, history, science, polit- ical economy, chemistry, physics, etc. Mathematics.—Includes surveying, theoretical me- chanics and lectures on descriptive geometry. Technical.—Explains itself. I. Gen. Cult. II. Math. T a Lect. III. 'echnica 6 Draw. i. c Total IV. Total Sem. hours 3 hours drawing per week are counted equ'v. to 1 semester hour. Illinois. 26 21 38 41 79 126 Harvard. 22 15 77 55 132 169 5 years recom- mended for course. Mass. Inst. Tech. 44 18 23 46 69 131 Columbia. 12 12 77 73 150 174 Pennsylvania. 40 14 33 70 103 157 Cornell. 14 11 40 85 125 150 Hanover. 17 34 91 66 157 208 Berlin. 12 48 161 139 300 360 This gives total offerings. Students are advised to make out course under direction of Dean. 13 15 65 64 129 157 Course for grads. Stuttgart. of Realgymnasium covers 7 semesters. Course for grads. 25 43 68 74 142 207 of gymnasium,cov- ers 9 semesters. Course Realgym- 23 28 65 64 129 180 nasium, etc. Course Gymna- Munich. 23 36 73 67 140 199 sium 5 years. Course Bayer. 23 32 65 64 129 184 Realgymnasium. 4 hours mathe- matics are lacking in entrance as com- pared with Real- gymnasium. Arch. Asso., 3J n 8f London. To more clearly show the great dissimilarity in these courses, the following Table V. gives the institu-architectural education. 284 tions in their order, with reference to the general cul- ture and technical studies. The figures give the per cent, of the total amount of work under each heading. Table V. General Culture. Technical. Columbia......... 6.9 Mass. Inst. Tech............53 ■ Hanover.......... 8.1 Illinois............................62 Cornell........... 9.3 Pennsylvania..................65 Stuttgart.......... 8.3-12 Stuttgart........................68—82 Munich........... 12.5 Munich............................71 Harvard.......... 13 Hanover........................75 Illinois........... 20 Harvard..........................77 Pennsylvania...... 25.4 Cornell............................83 Mass. Inst. Tech. .. 33.6 Columbia........................86 In partial explanation of Columbia's small percent- age of general culture studies, it is but fair to mention that all the subjects in the course are taught by in- structors in the architectural faculty, and that they aim to teach some of the technical subjects, so that they shall give a training equivalent to the general culture subjects, usually found in technical courses. This is partially possible, but no architectural in- structor is as competent to give criticisms on subjects outside of his profession as is the professor who makes it a specialty. Table VI. In the following table is given the detailed work in mathematics reduced to semester hours. R means "re- quired for entrance." The institutions are arranged in the order of amount285 ARCHITECTUKAL EDUCATION. of mathematics taught in the course, beginning with the lowest. Coll. Alg. Trig. Ana- lytics. Cal- culus. Me- chanics Survey- ing. Theory of Equa. Total. Cornell............... R R 2 4 2f 8| Harvard .............. 3 3i 3 Hf Colombia............ R R 4 4 6 2 opt 12 Illinois............... 3 2 5 4 3 17 Pennsylvania ...... 4 4 6 3 17 Mass. I. T............ 2 2 4 6 2 I 16f f a.......... R R 7 7 7 6 13 Munich ^ b........... 4 4 7 7 7 6 21 lc........... 4 R 7 7 7 6 17 Stuttgart -j ^ R 4 R 3 R 3J R 4f 9! 9§ 6 6 15§ 30| Hanover.............. R R 2f 12 n 3 25J From this table the following facts appear: First, that there is considerable variation in the entrance re- quirements in mathematics, and secondly, that the German schools have the highest requirements in mathematics and lay stress on the mechanics and sur- veying. They all require calculus for graduation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology is the only one of the American schools listed which gives the same mathematical training to architects and engineers, and at Columbia the quantity is reduced to what is con- sidered to be absolutely essential. A comparison of the work of these different schools shows that practical experience is an adjunct of the training, in England only; that only in the United States are there any special sequence requirements, or any restrictions as to the amount of work permitted a student; that degrees, except the doctorate in Ger- many, are granted in architecture, only in the United States, that in all countries except the United States,ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 286 the professors are practicing architects, which is true to a very limited extent here, and in Germany they are state officials and pensioned after retirement from ser- vice ; that in Germany, usually during the Easter vaca- tion, the students are taken on excursions by the pro- fessors in their own country and even into Italy and Holland for the purpose of studying, sketching and measuring monuments; that in England the coopera- tion of practicing architects, in connection with night classes has achieved excellent results, but falls short of our idea of an architectural education though all England's best architects have been educated that way. England, France and Germany educate their own architects, while Ave are dependent on all of them for assistance. It must not be expected that a graduate from a well- balanced four year course in architecture will be imme- diately successful from an artistic standpoint, and as we never can surround our schools with the art atmos- phere of the great cities of Europe, it is proper to en- courage postgraduate work abroad. If this is not possible, a schooling in the office of an architect, where time is taken to properly study a design, is the next best thing. Artistic training can be acquired in four years, only at the expense of general culture and construction. In bygone ages the architect Avas the man of science, and I believe that our first duty, now, is to teach him to build and to be broadly cultured. The successful French architects have usually de- voted four years to their school Avork and then begun Avork in an office, but at the same time keeping up287 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. their interest and work in the school. This feature is highly commendable and explains the great facility of the French designers. Fellowships. To give American students opportunity for such postgraduate study, the following fellowships have been established : Rotch traveling fellowship ; established in 1883 by a bequest of Benjamin S. Rotch of Boston. The an- nual value is $'2,000.00, and it maintains two traveling students abroad. The award is made annually and for a period of two years. The fellowship is only open to students or draughtsmen who have spent two years in some architect's office, in the State of Massachusetts. Columbia fellowship; established in 1889, was the third endowed course of study in Europe available to architectural students. It was founded as a compli- ment to Mr. F. A. Schermerhorn, to whom Columbia University owes its department of architecture, which was established and endowed at his instance and ex- pense. The fellowship is awarded in the spring of every even-numbered year, and has a value of $1,300. Only graduates of the Department of Archi- tecture of Columbia University, under thirty years of age are eligible, and the income must be expended in foreign study and travel in accordance with approved plans. McKim fellowships; these two of $1,000 each are awarded under the same conditions and with the same object as the Columbia fellowship, and upon alternate years.ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. 288 Perkins fellowship: a travelling fellowship of the value of $1,000, from a bequest of the late Willard B. Perkins, will be awarded in the spring of every fourth year, beginning with the year 1902. The con- ditions governing the holders of this fellowship are the same as the Columbia fellowship. The Cornell College of Architecture possesses a Travelling Fellowship and a Resident Fellowship. The Travelling Fellowship of the value of $2,000 is awarded in alternate years to the winner in an archi- tectural competition. The first competition was held in October, 1898, and the second will occur during this summer or fall. Candidates must be under the age of thirty and must be either graduates of the Col- lege of Architecture, or have satisfactorily completed the two-year special course. A Resident Fellowship, of the annual value of $500 is open to all graduates of schools of architec- ture of approved standing in the world. The award is made in June for the following year, and each can- didate must submit drawings and other credentials, and file a formal application with the Registrar of the University, on or before April 15. Austin Travelling Fellowship; a fellowship, of the annual value of $1,000, open to Bachelors of Science in Architecture, from Harvard University, who have taken the degree with distinction. The John Stewardson Memorial Travelling Scholar- ship; this scholarship is under the control of the Department of Architecture of the University of Pennsylvania, and is open to architectural draughts- men in the State of Pennsylvania, over twenty-one years of age.289 ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION. The Perkins Graduate Scholarship; founded at Massachusetts Institute of Technology by bequest of Willard B. Perkins, of the class of '72. The income of $6,000 is available in every fourth year for a travel- ling scholarship in architecture. Architectural Club Fellowships; the Boston Ar- chitectural Club and the T-square Club of Philadel- phia have established travelling fellowships to be competed for by their own members, which have proven a great stimulus to club work. No other country offers such advantages to her archi- tectural students. It is true that in France the Prize of Rome opens to the fortunate winner a reputation and assurance of future employment, which the American fellowships do not, but to offset this, the possessors of the American fellowships are less ham- pered in the matter of the course of study to be pur- sued. Practically they may follow their own inclina- tions, and being generally men who have had a certain amount of practical experience, they know what they want, and go about getting it in a most business-like way. The American School of Architecture at Rome is established in the Villa Ludovici, on Quirinal Hill, and holders of fellowships have the advantage, while there, of the assistance of a resident advisor. CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS. In considering the present status of architectural education, we cannot ignore the work of the cor- respondence schools, which now have enrolled more than ten thousand students in architecture. The ed- (19)architectural education. 290 ucation given is not scholastic in character and a graduate is not a fully educated man, but it is possible, by this method of instruction, for a persevering stu- dent to obtain a specialized education in the principles and practical applications of the various divisions of architectural work. These schools are not rivals of the colleges, nor can they ever be preparatory to college courses. They reach a class which cannot avail themselves of a higher education, and they must be given due recognition for their work. I have presented here various methods of architec- tural instruction. There is merit in all, but the ideal plan is yet to be evolved. Discussion. Professor Ayres hoped that Professor White would say a little more on a phase of architectural education which interested him, and that is, to what extent the colleges which are looking at architecture in a serious way should yield to the traditions of the artist. He thought that the reason there are so few architectural students is because the tendency to make the course artistic rather than engineering has been steadily re- sisted. The speaker believed that the architect, while having the artistic temperament, should, first and fore- most, be an engineer. That it is not sufficient that he should make a pretty picture of a house, but that he should be able to make a good house-, and, with the growing complexities of building construction, calling for an increasing amount of engineering knowl- edge, it had seemed to him that the man should be291 architectural education. given a sound engineering training. He knew that in the University of Illinois a distinction is made be- tween the architectural engineering and the architect- ural courses. It seemed to him that, unquestionably, there is need for architectural training in this country, and that the movement which had been carried out successfully, apparently, in Illinois, resulting in a law regulating the practice of architecture, is quite an im- portant advance. One difficulty which Tulane Uni- versity had found in trying to develop an architectural course was that the architects themselves have been against the plan. They preferred to have the young man who wishes to study architecture as a profession enter as a draughtman in their offices at a very small salary, while the University wants this young man to come to college; and the fact that the architects are thus opposed has kept away a considerable number of serious-minded young men, who would otherwise be willing to submit themselves to the training of a real engineering course. Their professor of architect- ure, however, had always urged the speaker to allow the young men to come in with less mathematics, and to allow them to put in more time on pure art sub- jects. He wished to hear something more from Pro- fessor White as to how much that point has been yielded at other institutions. Professor Woodward responded to the query just raised. At Columbia, he thought their professor of architecture took the ground that an architect should be, first and foremost, an artist. They draw no sharp line, but a distinction is coming to be recognized be- tween the architect and the architectural engineer, andarchitectural education. 292 stress is laid upon the artistic side of the instruction of architects. As soon as a student in that course enters the Columbia School of Architecture, he is differenti- ated from the engineer. He begins special work and the work in mathematics and mechanics given to the student is special, and given by the professor of archi- tecture. Personally, the speaker had been opposed to this method. He thought that the instruction in me- chanics should be given by the department of mechan- ics, just as the instruction in physics should be given by the department of physics, and not by one con- nected with the school of architecture. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the plan thus far fol- lowed, or the plan that is now in operation, seems to work pretty well. He thought their school of archi- tecture was turning out good men. The speaker mentioned another point, which seemed obscure in the paper just read, where something was said about the mathematics at Columbia being less than that of any other institution. It is quite possible that the catalogue statements would not enable one to understand clearly what is done. A good deal of work is done in mathematics with the students in architec- ture, but it is work which the professors of architecture think is specially directed and adapted to the needs of the student in the work of architecture. Much more attention is given to culture subjects in the course in architecture than in any of our schools of engineering, such as reading works on architecture in foreign lan- guages, for instance. Dean Alderson : The course in the Chicago School of Architecture is given jointly by the Armour Insti-293 architectural education. tute of Technology and the Art Institute of Chicago. The mechanics, science, and mathematics, are given by the same instructors who teach these subjects to the engineering students ; but the emphasis is laid upon the artistic side. The Art Institute authorities have the most influence in all considerations with regard to the course in architecture, and so different are the conditions there from those mentioned by one speaker, that there is a committee of practicing architects in Chicago who regularly visit the Art Institute and give it every assistance in their power, by criticism and suggestion. In conclusion, it may be added that perhaps Chicago, more than other places, needs special artistic training. Professor Fletcher remarked that, doubtless, many engineers have become aware of the fact that, among architects, altogether too little attention has been paid to constructive details, and that probably many members of this society have seen the grossest designs, so-called, for roof trusses and other important structures, that violate every principle of mechanics; for instance, heavy roofs, exerting a great thrust at the foot of the rafters, without any adequate tying together; and the speaker has quite a collection of these curiosities and atrocities of design. Undoubt- edly the construction of the tall building has brought the architect and the engineer closer together, and it seemed to him that the art side has been given alto- gether too much attention, especially as the architect assumes responsibility for the structure, and frequently leaves work behind him which is grossly inadequate and faulty.architectural education. 294 Professor Allen said that similar thoughts had occurred to him, in relation to the artistic work of the architect. The work sometimes suffers from the fact that he has not proper ideas of construction. His artistic design is often incorrect in structural prin- ciples, and it is to that extent a bad design. It is quite necessary for the architect to go far enough into engineering, or have some one in his employ to check his designs sufficiently, so that what appear to be structural defects shall not mar the design, even though some hidden features do, in fact, make the structure safe.This book is a preservation facsimile produced for the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper). Preservation facsimile printing and binding by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2014