ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign library Brittle Books Project, 2014.COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION In Public Domain. Published prior to 1923. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2014 ;^-.r s. Vxtv,*,. LI B HAR.Y OF THE U N I VLRSITY Of ILLINOIS '0V.A GRAMMAR of the LATIN LANGUAGE FROM PLAUTUS TO SUETONIUS BY ' HENRY JOHN ROBY, M.A. late FELLOW OF ST JOHN'S COLL. CAMBRIDGE. Part I. containing:— BOOK I. SOUNDS. BOQjril. INFLEXIONS. B(3(6K III. WORD-FORMATION. APPENDICES. Honlwn: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1876 [All Rights reserved.]Camfmfcge: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.5" i y > Table of Contents,| Preface. General Observations. Compass of the book : (1) A grammar, p. xvii. (2) of Latin, p. xviii. (3) of the classical period, p. xix. Treatment of the matter of Book I. p. xxii. Observations on Book I.; particularly on Pronun* On 7 consonant) p. xxxiii. On f, p. xlvi. On c before se, e, i, &c., p, xlvii. On g before se, e and 1, p. lv. On dentals: especially ti before a vowel, p. lvi. On bs, x, bt, &c., p. lvii. On n before gutturals, gn, p. lvii. On s, p. lviii. Origin of ss, p. lxii. On the vowels, especially 0 and e, p. lxix. On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ui, p. lxxv. On a supposed sound like ii, p. lxxvi. Miscellaneous: chiefly on vowel pronunciation, p. lxxvi ii. Division of words into syllables, p. lxxxiii. Summary of Roman pronunciation, p. lxxxvii. Book II. ph xxiv. Book III. p. xxvi. ciation, p. xxx. a 2iv Table of Contents. Book I. Observations on Book II. On noun-stems ending in e, p. xci. On noun-stems ending in i, and in a consonant, p. xciii. On verbs with vowel stems, p. xcvi. Concluding Remarks. Acknowledgment of obligations, p. c. Editions used, p. cii. Conclusion, p. ciii. Preface to Second Edition, p. civ. Book I. Sounds. Chap. I. Elements of Speech; and particularly Con- sonants, p. 3. II. Combination of Consonants, p. 6. III. Vowels and Combinations of Vowels, p. 8. IV. Laws of Phonetic change, p. 11. Sudden phonetic change, p. 11. Gradual phonetic change, p. 16. V. Latin Alphabet in general, p. 21. VI. Latin Alphabet in detail: Labials and Labiodentals, p. 24. P, p. 24; B, p. 26; M, p. 27; V as consonant, p. 29; F, p. 32. VII. Gutturals and Palatals, p. 34. K, C, p. 34 ; X, p. 36 j Q, p. 37 ; G, p. 38 ; H, p. 40; J, p. 42, VIII. Dentals and Linguals, p. 44. T, p. 44; D, p. 47; N, p. 50; I», p. 52 ; R, p. 54; S, p. 57 5 2, p. 61. IX. Vowels, p. 62. A, p. 62; 0, p. 65 ; U, p. 69 ; E, p. 72 ; I, p. 77.Table of Contents. Book II. v X. Diphthongs, p. 81. AU, p. 81; OU, p. 81; EU, p. 82 ; AX, p. 82; AE, p. 82; 01, OE, p. 83 ; EI, p. 84. XI. Of Latin Words and Syllables, p. 86. §§ 269—271. Of the commencement and ending of Latin words, p. 86. §§ 272—274. Of the division of syllables in Latin words, p. 87. XII. Quantity of Syllables, p. 89. i. Quantity of vowels not in last syllable, p. 90. ii. Quantity of vowels in last syllable, p. 90. iii. Quantity of syllables by position in the same word, p. 93. iv. Effect of initial sounds on preceding final s lables, p. 94. v. Peculiarities in early dramatic verse, p. XIII. Accentuation, p. 98. Book II. Inflexions. ;hap. I. Of inflexions in general, p. 103. ^ \ ; II. Of noun inflexions, and particularly^o^Ge 1^." der, p. 104. III. Of noun inflexions of Number, p. raj. IV. Of Case inflexions in general, p. 112/y^ V. Nouns of Class I., p. 113. I. Gender, p. 113. II. Inflexions of Case, p. 115. 1. Declension of stems in -a and -e, p. 115. 2. Ordinary declension of -0 stems, p. 116. 3. Declension of stems in -ro, p. 117. 4. Prae-Augustan declension of stems in -uo, p. 118. 5. Augustan and prae-Augustan declension of stems in-io, p. 119.vi Table of Contents. Book II. VI. Old and exceptional forms of cases (Glass I.), p. 120. 1. Singular Number, p. 120. 2. Plural Number, p. 123. 4 § 369. Defective or redundant words (Class I.), p. 125. VII. Peculiar declension qf certain Pronouns and Adjec- tives (Class I.), p. 126. 1. unus, ullus, nullus, solus, totus, alter, uter, &c., ipse, p. 126. 3. ille, iste, alius, p. 1275 istic> P* 3. hie, p. 128. 4. is, p. 129; idem, p. 130. 5. qui, p. 130; quis, p. 131; compounds of qui, quis, p. 131. VIII. Personal Pronouns, p. 132. IX. Nouns of Class II., p. 133. i. Declension of -u stems, p. 133. (Use of genitive in -i, p. 135.) X. ii. Declension of -i stems, p. 136. x. Stems with labial before i, p. 138. 2. Stems with guttural before i, p. 140. 3. Stems with dental before i, p. 142. 4. Stems in -ni, p. 145; -li, p. 145 5 -ri, P- *47\ -si, p. 148. XI. iii. Declension of consonant stems, p. 149. 1. Stems ending in mutes and -m, p. 150. (a) Labial stems, p. 150; (b) Guttural stems, p. 151; (c) Dental stems, p. 152. 2. Stems ending in -n, p. 154. 3. Stems ending in -1, -r, -s, p. 156. XII. Old or exceptional forms of Cases (Class II), p. 160. Singular number, p. 160. Plural number, p. 162.Table of Contents. Book II. vii XIII.' Greek Nouns, Class I., p. 162. i. Stems in -a, p. 163. ii. Stems in -0, p. 164. XIV. Greek Nouns, Class II., p. 166. 1. Stems in -0, -eu, -y, p. 166. 2. Stems in -e and -i, p. 167. 3. Consonant stems, p. 168. (a) Labial stems, p. 169; (b) Guttural stems, p. 169 ; (c) Dental stems, p. 169 ; (d) Stems in -n, p. 171; (e) Stems in -s or -r, p. 172. XV. Adverbs and Conjunctions, p. 173. Ending in -a, p. 173; in -se, p. 173; in -0, p. 173 ; in -u, p. 175; in -e, p. 175; in -i, p. 176; in -b, p. 177; in -m, p. 177; in -t, -d, p. 179; in -n, p. 179; in -1, p. 180; in -r, p. 180; in -s, p. 181, XVI. Inflexions of Verb. Introduction, p. 182. Purpose of inflexions, p. 182. English equivalents, p. 183. XVII. Inflexions of Person and Number, p. 185. First Person, p. 186. Second Person, p. 187. Third Person, p. 188. XVIII. Inflexions of Mood, p. 189. 1. Indicative Mood, p. 189. 2. Imperative Mood, p. 189. 3. Subjunctive Mood, p. 191. XIX. Classification of inflexions of Tense, p. 192. XX. Tenses formed from the Present Stem. Present, p. 194; Futiire, p. 194; Imperfect in- dicative, p. 195; Imperfect subjunctive, p. 195; Present Infinitive active, p. 196; Infinitive passive, p. 196; Gerund and gerundive, p. 197. Old Futures in -so, -sim, p. 197.viii Table o,f Contents. Book II. XXI. Of Verb Stems; especially the Present Stem, p. 200. i. Consonant verbs, p. 300. (Inchoative forms, p. 301.) ii. Vowel verbs 1. with stems in -a, p. 203; 2. with stems in -0, p. 204; 3. with stems in -u, p. 204; 4. with stems in -e, p. 204; 5. with stems in -i, p. 205. XXII. Tenses formed from the Perfect Stem, p. 206. XXIII. Of the Perfect Stem, p. 209. Perfect Stems formed 1. by reduplication, p. 209; 2. by lengthening the stem vowel, p. 310; 3. by suffixing -s, p. 210; 4. by suffixing -u, p. 212; -v, p. 213; 5. Perfect stem same as present stem, p. 214. Verbs (non-derivative) which have no perfect active, p. 215^ XXIV. Of the Supine Stem, p. 216. i. Verbs with a vowel preceding supine suffix, p. 216. ii. Verbs with a consonant preceding supine suffix, 1. Verbs which retain t, p. 218; 2. Verbs which soften t to s, p. 220. Nature of supines, p. 221. Forms derived from supine stem, p. 222. XXV. Of the Traditional Classification of Verbs, p. 223. XXVI. Examples of the Complete Inflexions of Verbs, p. 225. Present stem. Consonant conjugation, p. 226. Principal vowel conjugation, p. 227. Other vowel conjugations, p. 228. Perfect stem, p. 230. Supine stem, p. 231:Table of Contents. Book III. ix XXVII; XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. Chap. I, II III, Inflexions of the Verb sum, and compounds, p. 232. (possum, p. 233.) Inflexions of some Irregular Verbs, do; volo, nolo, malo; eo; fio; edo; fero, feror, pp. 234, 23s I 3«- vii.-ni, p. 311; -6n (In), p. 312. -g-6n (-gin), -ag-8n, -Il-ag-ftn, -ilg-5n, -Ig-6n, p. 31a. -d-dn, -ad-5n, -t-M-6*i,-5d-5n, -id-5n, pp. 31 a, 313. -€n, p. 313; -6n (-In), -m-6n, p. 314. -5n, p. 315; -i-5n, p. 316 ; -ci-5n, -ti-5n, p. 317. VII. Lingual Noun-stems; ending in i. -lo, -6-I0, p. 319; -ti-lo, p. 320; -pii-lo, -bii-lo, P- 3*3-■ -cii-lo (-clo), p. 323; -un-o&-lo, p. 325; -us-cii-lo, p. 326. -e-dti-lo, p. 326. -ul-lti-Io, -el-m-lo, p. 326; -il-lii-lo, p. 327 ; -I-lo, p. 3*7- -al-lo, -aul-lo, -ol-lo, -ul-lo, -el-lo, p. 327; il-lo, p. 3^9- -a-lo, -au-lo, -5-lo, -il-lo, -se-lo, -e-lo (-ello), -I-lo, p. 330. ii. -li, -1, pp. 330, 331; -siil, p. 331. -I-li, -bi-li, p. 331; -sl-bl-li, p. 33a. -tl-li (-slli), -a-tl-li, pp. 33a, 333. p. 333; -H-li, -e-U, -i-li, P- 335- VIII. Lingual Noun-stems (continued); ending in iii. -ro, -8,-ro, -6-ro, -ti-ro, pp. 336, 337. -8-ro, -bS-ro(-bro), p. 337 ; -cS-ro (-cro), p. 338. -tS-ro (-tro), p. 338; -as-te-ro (-astro), p. 339; -d-ro, -I-ro, p. 339. -a-ro, -au-ro, p. 339; -5-ro, -tl-ro, -tft-ro (-sHro), p. 34o. -e-ro, -I-ro, p. 341. iv. -ru, -rl, p. 341; -r, -Sx, -6r, -fir, p. 342. -6-ri, -6r, -bS-ri (-bri), p. 342; P- 343- -cS-rl (-cri), -tru, -t6-ri (-tri), -es-tfi-ri (-estri), p. 343; -t&r (-tr), -In-8r, p. 343.xii Table of Contents. Book III. -a-ri, p. 343; -or, -t-or (-s5r), p. 345; -tl-ri, p. 348. v. -6s (-6r), -n-6s (-n6r), -iis (6r), -n-iis (-ngr), p. 343. -6s (-6r), -Is (-Sr), p. 348. -6s (-or), -i-5s (-16r), p. 349; -Us (-ur), p. 350. IX. Vowel Noun-stems; ending in (-uo, see p. a78.) i. -e-o, p. 350; -a-ce-o, -d-ce-o, -te-o, p. 351. -ne-o, -g-ne-o, p. 351; -a-ne-o, -ta-ne-o, -5-ne-o, -le-o, p. 35a. ii. -i-o, p. 35a; -ci-o, -I-ci-o, p. 356; -I-ci-o, -tl-ci-o (-slcio), p. 35 7. -ti-o, p. 357; -en-ti-o, p. 358; -11-di-o, p. 359. -ni-o, -m-ni-o, -mo-ni-o, -ci-ni-o, p. 359. -li-o, -a-li-o, -g-li-o, -il-li-o (-Ilio), p. 359. -ri-o, -b-ri-o, -a-ri-o, p. 360; -to-ri-o (-s5rio), p. 36a. -eio, p. 363. iii. Proper names ending in -pi-ro, -bi-o, -mi-o, -yi-o, p. 363; -fi-o, p. 364. -ci-o, -gi-o, -ti-o, -di-o, p. 364. -ni-o, p. 364; -li-o, -ri-o, -si-o, p. 365. -ai-o, -ei-o, p. 365. X. Verb-stems, p. 367. i. Verbs with stems ending in a (1) from substantives with -a stems, p. 367; (2) from substantives with -e stems, p. 368; (3) from nouns with -0 stems, p. 368; (4) from substantives with -u stems, p. 370 ; (5) from nouns with -i stems, p. 370; (6) from nouns with consonant stems, p. 370. Verbs ending in -Ic-a, -t-ig-a, p. 371. -t-a (-sa), p. 371; -It-a, p. 37*; -t-it-a (-slta), P- 373-Table of Contents. Book III. xiii -cln-a, p. 37 3. -6i-a, -tu-a, -11-a, -n-ia, p. 373. Verbs formed from, or parallel to, other verbs, P. 374. Miscellaneous, p. 374. ii. Verbs with -u stems, p. 375. iii. Verbs with -e stems, p. 375. iv. Verbs with -i stems, p. 375. -Uti, p. 376. -tiri, p. 377. -firi, p. 377. v. Inchoative verbs, p. 377. Verbs with stems ending in -ss, -ssl (see p. 199). XI. Composition, p. 378. i. Spurious compounds, p. 379. ii. Compounds of prepositions used absolutely, or of inseparable particles, p. 380. 1. Verbs, p. 380. 2. Nouns, (a) containing a verbal stem, p. 381 ; (J?) containing a nominal stem, p. 3 82. iii. Compounds of words in regular syntactical re- lation to one another, p. 385 ; A. Attribute 4- substantive: (a) numeral + substantive, p. 385, (b) ordinary adjective + substantive,p.387. B. Preposition + substantive, p. 388. G. Nouns collateral to one another, p. 390. D. Object + verb, p. 390. E. Oblique predicate + verb, p. 394. F. Subject+verb, p. 395. G. Oblique case or adjective used adverbially + verb, p. 395. Adverb + Participle, p. 396. XII. Interjections: 1. Imitations of sounds, p. 396. 2. Abbreviated sentences or mutilated words, p. 398.xiv Table of Contents. Appendices. Appendices. App. A. Quotations from M. Bell, A. J. Ellis, &c., p. 401. i. Introduction, p. 401. ii—iv. On Nasals, p. 401. v. On held or sustained Consonants, p. 402. vi. On the length of Consonants, p. 403. vii. On sharp and flat Consonants, p. 403. viii.—x. On the imperfect vocality of Consonants, p., 404. xi., xii. On diphthongs, p. 405. xiii.—xvii. On English r, p. 407. xviii. Connexion of u, w, v, I), qu, &c., p. 409. xix. Roman preference of vo to vu, p. 411. xx.—xxii. On Labialisation, p. 411. xxiii. On k, c, q, p. 412. xxiv. Close affinity of i and j,"p. 413. xxv. On Palatalisation, p. 413. xxvi., xxvii. On the change of t to s, p. 413. xxviii. On the change of s to r, p. 414. xxix. Omission of t before 1 and n, p. 414. xxx. Interchange of 1 and r, p. 415. xxxi. Correspondence of Latin f to Greek 6, p. 415. App. B. Selection of Republican Inscriptions, arrang- ed chronologically, p. 416. i.—v. Before end of 5th century, U.C., p. 416. vi. Cir. 500 u.c. On L. Scipio, son of Barbatus, p. 417. vii. Of C. Placentius, p. 418. viii. 520 U.c. On L. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, p. 418. ix. 565 u.c. Decree of L. iEmilius, p. 419. x. 568 u.c. S. C. de Bacanalibus, p. 419. xi. End of 6th cent. On son of P. Afr. Scipio major, p. 422. xii. Before 620 U.c. At Sora, p. 422. xiii. Beginning of 7th cent. u.c. On L. Corn. Scipio,p. 423. xiv. ib. On Cn. Corn. Scipio, p. 423.Table of Contents. Appendices. xv xv. 608—620 u.c. Of Mummius, p. 424, xvi. After 620 u.c. At Aletrium, p. 424., xvii. 622 U.c. Popillius' milestone, p. 425. xviii., xix. 622—625 u.c. Boundary stones of the Gracchi, p. 426. xx. S. C. de Tiburtibus, p. 426. xxi. 646 u.c. At Capua, p. 427. xxii. Cir. 664 u.c. At jEclanum, p. 438. xxiii. 674 u. c. Part of ' Lex Cornelia de xv. Quasstoribus,' p. 428. xxiv. On M. Caecilius, p. 429. xxv. End of republic. Imprecation on Rhodine, p. 429. xxvi. 709 u.c. Part of ' Lex Julia municipalise p. 430. xxvii. End of republic. On Eucharis, p. 431. App. C. Degrees of Nouns Adjective, p. 432. i., ii. Formation of comparative and superlative, p. 432. iii. Irregular or Defective adjectives, p. 434. iv. Adjectives used only in the positive, p. 435. v. Participles which have comparatives and superla- tives, p. 437. App. D. Numerals, Measures, Weights, &c. i. List of Numerals, p. 438. ii. Signs for Numerals, p. 441. iii. Inflexions of Numerals, p. 442. iv. Order in compounding Numerals, p. 442. v. Use of classes of Numerals, p. 443. vi. Expression of Fractions, p. 444. vii. Money coinage, p. 444. viii. Expression of sums of money, p. Mb. ^ Division and multiples of the as,^£>« 447. Expression of 'odd pence' (ses excurrsns), pp. 448, 449- ix. Expression of Interest of Money, p. 450. x. Measures of Weight, p. 451. xi. Measures of Length, p. 451. j xii. Measures of Surface, p. 452. 5 '//'xvi Table of Contents. Appendices. . xiii. Measures of Capacity, p. 452. xiv. Division of Time, p. 453. xv. Expression of the Date, p. 453. App. E. Names of Family Relations. i. Relations by blood, p. 456. ii. Relations by marriage, p. 457. iii. Remarks. App. F. Tabular arrangement of certain Pronouns. i. Correlative (pronominal) adjectives, p. 458; ii. Correlative (pronominal) adverbs, p. 459; iii. Chief (pronominal) adverbs of place, p. 459; iv. Chief (pronominal) adverbs of time, p. 460. App. G. Abbreviations, p. 461. Select Index, p. 465.Preface. General Observations. As the present work differs in many respects from other grammars in use, it may be desirable that I should briefly note some of the more important changes which I have made, and in some cases discuss the grounds of the change. In the work itself I have refrained from dissertation, and aimed at giving the facts of the language in as few words as possible. If facts are stated with their real limitations, they either explain themselves, or at least afford a sound basis for theory to work on. If they are grouped according to their natural affinities and arranged on natural prin- ciples, the briefest statement is the most illustrative. I have called the book, A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius. Now first, by Grammar, I mean an orderly arrangement of the facts which concern the form of a language, as a Lexicon gives those which concern its matter. The ordinary divi- sion into four parts seems to me right and convenient. The first three Books on Sounds, Inflexions, and Word-formation, are often comprehended under the general term Formenlehre. The fourth Book, on Syntax, contains the use of the inflexions and of the several classes of words. I have given much greater extension than is usual to the treatment of Sounds and Word-formation, and on the other hand, have cut away from the 2nd and 4th Books several matters which do not properly belong to them. For instance, numerals and pronouns are often included in Book II. in a way which conceals the fact, that it is only so far as their inflexions are peculiar, that they demand specific notice. Again, the use of pre- positions and conjunctions is often discussed in the Syntax; whereas, so far as the use depends not on the class to which a word belongs, but on the meaning of the individual, the discussion belongs to lexi- cography. The error lies in thinking, that because certain words bxviii Preface: General Observations. are more general than others in their application, they are therefore formal. However, there is no doubt a convenience in including some of these matters in a Grammar, and accordingly I have put them, or some of them, in the Appendices to this or the second volume. Further, I have not attempted to twist the natural arrange- ment of the facts so as to make it suitable for persons who are first learning the language and cannot be trusted to find their own way. There are plenty of other books for that purpose. Secondly, it is a Grammar of the Latin language. It is not a Universal Grammar illustrated from Latin, nor the Latin section of a Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European languages, nor a Grammar of the group of Italian dialects, of which Latin is one. I have not therefore cared to examine whether the definitions or arrangement which I have given are suited to other languages of a different character. A language in which, like Latin, the Verb is a complete sentence, or in which e. g. magnus can be made to de- note great men by a change in the final syllable, may obviously require very different treatment from one in which, like English, the verb requires the subject to be separately expressed, or the adjective great requires, in order to gain the same meaning as magni, the prefix of the definite article, or the addition of the word men. I have confined myself, with rare exceptions, strictly to Latin, and this for two reasons. First, Latin is the only language which I have studied with sufficient care to enable me to speak with any confidence about its Grammar, and I have learnt in the process how little trustworthy are the results of an incom- plete examination. Greek I have referred to in Books I. and III. because of its close connexion with Latin, and I could rely, for the purposes for which I have used it, on Curtius' Griechische Etymologie. The Italian dialects, other than Latin, I have studied but little. Such results, as can be drawn from the scanty remains which we have, will probably be found in Corssen's pages, but I hesitate to regard them as sufficiently solid to allow one to rest any theories of Latin Grammar upon them. My second reason for declining frequent reference to other languages, is the belief that such reference is in- compatible with a natural treatment of my own proper subject. Each language has its own individuality, and this is distorted or disguised by being subjected to a set of general categories, even thoughCompass of the book. xix guarantied by Comparative Philology. It is no doubt true that pro- gress in the knowledge of language is to be attained only, as in other sciences, by the constant action and reaction of theory and observa- tion ; of the comparison of phenomena in different languages with the special investigation of each for itself. I have chosen the latter part of the work, without supposing that all the secrets of Latin etymo- logy could be discovered by so limited a view. But it is true all the same, that if one's eyes are but armed or practised (and some study of Comparative Philology alone can arm them), a closer and longer gaze detects something which might otherwise be overlooked. Lastly, this is a Grammar of Latin from Plautus to Suetonius. That is to say, I have confined my statements of facts and lists of words or forms (except with distinct mention) to the period from the commencement of Latin literature to the end of the silver age, i.e., roughly speaking, to the three centuries from cir. 200 b.c. to cir. 120 a.d. There are but few inscriptions before 200 b.c. What there are I have of course taken into account. On the other hand, the imperial inscriptions which come within this period are not yet con- veniently accessible in trustworthy texts. The silver age I take to end at latest with Tacitus and Suetonius1, and I am convinced that this is as real a division with the line drawn at the right place, as literature admits of. It is quite remarkable how many forms and words are wholly confined to later writers or are used in common with only one or two rare instances in Pliny the elder, Suetonius, &c. Nor can any subsequent writer be fairly regarded as within the pale. The literature of the second century p. Chr. is but small. Aulus Gellius and Fronto are near in time, being indeed contemporaries of Suetonius' later life, but their claims are vitiated by so much of their language being conscious antiquarianism. The lawyers Javolenus, Julianus, Pomponius, Gaius, &c. have perhaps the strongest claim, for they naturally, as lawyers, use a somewhat older style than their age would imply. Their inclusion however would not notice- ably affect the statements. But it is intolerable to find frequently given in modern Grammars, without a word of warning, forms and words which owe their existence to Apuleius or Tertullian— imaginative antiquarian Africans, far removed indeed from insig- 1 Suetonius' Lives of the Ccesars date about 120 a.d., though he lived to cir. 160 a.d. Teuffel, Gesch. Rom. Lit. § 324. b 2XX Preface: General Observations. nificance, and not at all wanting in interest, but certainly not representative of the ordinary or normal language of the Romans. Some other writers, e.g. Justin, Florus, &c. are of too uncertain an age, and too unimportant, to be worth considering. Writers of the third and fourth century, however good, are quite inadmissible. Nor am I at all disposed to attach weight to a mention of a word or form in Priscian or other Grammarians, unless accompanied by a clearly intelligible quotation from an author before 120 a.D., or thereabouts. I do not mean that distinct proof can or need be alleged e. g. for every person of every tense of an ordinary verb; but any typical form not shewn to have been used in the period here taken, ought to be excluded from a Grammar of Classical Latin, or mentioned only with the authority affixed. E. g. indultum is usually given as the supine of indulgere, but neither it nor its kin (indultor, &c.) are found before Tertullian; and this fact is seen to be important when it is observed that they deviate from the regular analogy of stems in -lg (§ 191, 3), and that their occurrence is in fact contemporaneous with the use of indulgeri as a personal passive. Again, I have said in § 395 that quercus has no dative singular or dat. abl. plural. But Servius uses (and the form seems right enough) quercubus (Neue, i. p. 376). It should be understood therefore that a statement in the following pages that a form or word is not found, does not necessarily mean more than that it is not found within the classical period. A form or word first found in subsequent writers may be legitimate enough, and the absence of authority for it may be only accidental, but in such cases the subsequent use does not appear to me to add anything to the evidence for its legitimacy; i.e. it does not make it more probable that Cicero or Livy, or Horace, or Quintilian, or even Plautus might have used it. The character of the formation and the probability that, if no objections had been felt to lie against it, it would have been used by some now extant author, who wrote before 120 A.D., form the real turning-points of such a discussion. And to gain a firm basis for the discussion we must have the facts of the normal Latin usage clear from later and inferential accretions. Corssen has made his wonderful col- lection of facts much less useful than it might have been, by not distinguishing always between later and earlier forms. Of course an exclusion of the later forms from a book like his is not at allCompass of the book. xxi to be desired; but it is thoroughly misleading to put together words first found in the 4th century of the Christian Era, along with well-known words belonging to the ordinary language of the Ro- mans. To take one instance—(hundreds might be given); he adduces (Beitr. p. 107; Ausspr. i. § 77) nine substantives in -edin (eddn, as I call it), which he says are from verbs with -e stems, and stand beside six adjectives in -Ido, from six of the same verbs. Now the six adjectives are all well accredited. But of the nine sub- stantives, two only (torpedo, gravedo) are well accredited; one more (pingvedo) occurs once in Pliny the elder, and then not again till the 4th century: one other (frigedo) is quoted by Nonius from Varro; three others are first found in Apuleius, two more not until the 4th century p. Chr. Now these last five words are pro- bably mere creations of a later age in conscious imitation of the earlier words, and, it may be, imitating them, because they were rare. But as soon as we get to conscious imitation by literary speculators, the value of the words as evidence of the proper de- velopment of the language is gone. [Another instance may be taken. Gustav Meyer, in an in- teresting essay on Composition hi Greek and Latin in Curtius Studien V. 1. p. 42, quotes from Corssen II2. 318, as proofs "that the weakening of a, 0, u to i in compounds was not always the rule" (nicht von je her tiberwiegend tiblich), the examples sacro- sanctus, Sacrovir, Aiienobarbus, piimogenitus, mulomedicus, albo- galerus, albogilvus, merobiba, sociofraudus, vicomagister, and says that "these justify the supposition that originally the o-stems entered unaltered into composition." I take these words in order. Sacrosanctus is not an ordinary compound, but its precise compo- nents are not clear. I have suggested (§998) that it is possibly a spu- rious compound. For in Pliny 7. § 143 we have resistendi sacroque sanctum repellendi jus non esset. Probably sacro is an ablative, by a sacrifice; or victim; or curse. Sacrovir is only known as the name of a Haeduan in Tacitus. The origin of the name is obscure. Is it Roman at all ? The first Ahenobarbus of whom we have any his- torical account held office about 200 years B.C., though the family traditions carried the origin of the name to the battle of Lake Regillus. Primogenitus appears to be first found in Palladius: (in Pliny 11. § 234, I find (in Detlefsen and Jan's editions) onlyxxii Preface: General Observations. primis genitis). Mulomedicus is in Vegetius; albogalerus in the extracts of Paulus from Festus. Merobiba and sociofraudus are each found once only in Plautus. They are evidently compounds framed on the spur of the moment and not part of the ordinary stock of the language. Moreover sociofraudus must retain the o after i. Vicomagister appears to be found only in the barbarous Curiosum urbis Romas regimen, which is referred to the end of the 4th century p. Chr. Of the whole number of ten words, one only (Ahenobarbus) can be taken as an instance of some weight for the matter in question.] My authorities then are the writers of the classical period as above defined; and I have not knowingly admitted, without distinct mention, any word which they have not used, or made any state- ment which their writings critically examined do not justify. But Donat and Priscian have so long reigned over Latin Grammar, and Latin Grammar has so impregnated literary speculation, that it is next to impossible, if it were desirable, to emancipate oneself from their influence. Still it is important to decline to recognize them as authorities for the grammatical usage of classical Latin, except where they may be taken to be witnesses to facts. They no doubt had access to some writings which are now lost, and they often transmit the theories of older grammarians; but they no doubt also sometimes misunderstood them, they avowedly regarded Greeks as their supreme authorities, they lived when Latin had long ceased to be pure, and they probably would have regarded a state- ment by Caesar or Pliny of what ought to be said, as of more im- portance than the actual fact of what Caesar or Pliny did say. But it is to the usage, not to the grammatical theories, of good writers that we should look for our standard of right. And for my part, if canons of grammar are to be laid down, I prefer Madvig to any xxii Roman whatever, and believe Ritschl and Mommsen know a great deal more about the Duellian inscription (§ 467) than Quintilian did. The arrangement adopted requires a few words. In Book I. I have thought it important to give a sketch, how- ever slight, of the analysis of vocal sound and of the laws of phonetic change. The special Latin phenomena are treated at some length; but I have been desirous rather that the instances givenTreatment of the matter of Book I xxiii should be tolerably certain, than that all possible instances should be included. In most grammars these phenomena are collected and arranged under the heads of Omission, Contraction, &c. If any one desires such an arrangement, he can make it for himself, by simply turning to those heads under each letter. But as the primary divi- sion of the matter it seems to me much more natural and fruitful to make each particular letter the centre of discussion. Whether it be changed or inserted or absorbed must ultimately depend on the sound it represents and on the relations of this sound to others. The ordinary procedure is the same as if a treatise on chemistry arranged all the phenomena of chemical action under such heads as Explosion, Solution, Combination, &c. Schweizer-Sidler's arrange- ment by the affections of groups of letters is rational enough, but not, I think, very convenient. I have distinguished with some care between instances of corre- spondence and representation (see note on p. 24). The distinction of these two classes of phenomena is ignored in many of the earlier grammars, and is still not unfrequently forgotten. Yet the distinc- tion is of great moment. In questions of pronunciation representa- tion gives very important evidence, while correspondence witnesses at most to the pronunciation of primaeval or at least prae-historical times. On the other hand, in discussing the affinities of language, correspondence bears the whole weight of the argument, and repre- sentation can only mislead. The arrangement of the letters has been adopted as the one which best brings into connexion allied sounds. Gutturals have a tendency to pass into dentals, and dentals into linguals; and these classes should therefore come in this order. Labials form a class somewhat apart from the rest, and I have therefore put them first, out of the way. The relations of the nasals are on the whole more with the labials, gutturals, and dentals respectively than with xxiii one another. The order of the vowels is that given by Ritschl, and is the same to a great extent as that given by Corssen. It is without doubt, so far at least as it is common to these two authors, the order of development in the history of the language. Any one re- ferring to Bell's Visible Speech (p. 73), will see that the order has a physiological side also, in so far that the vocal cavity of the mouth is progressively diminished from a in this order to i.xxiv Preface: General Observations. I have not followed Schleicher and others in the treatment of Latin vocalization according to what for brevity I may call Sanskrit principles. This method applied to Latin seems to me to fail both in basis and result. Corssen's elaborate treatment of vowel-intensifica- tion in the first volume of his new edition is not more satisfactory; and on this point I can refer to Curtius (Studien, I. z, p. 294) who, commenting on Corssen's sanguine view of the result of his medley collection of long vowels in root-syllables, suffixes and endings, points out that vowel-intensification is " after all only a name for the fact that we often meet with a long vowel, when we expect a short one." The parts of my Grammar which deal with contrac- tion, hiatus, change of 'vowel quantity, &c., are far from being what I should like; but there is a great difficulty in arriving at any satis- factory conclusions, owing to our ignorance of the precise quality and quantity of the vowels, which were, or may be regarded as having been, the components of the long vowel or diphthong, at the time when the long vowel or diphthong first arose. Our knowledge of the language begins at a later period, when this process was already over, and we have therefore not facts enough for the histori- cal method. I have little right to speak on such a matter, but I venture to think that the greatest light upon this branch of philology is now to be expected from strengthening the theoretical side of this investigation, but strengthening it not so much by the study of litera- ture and grammar as in Sanskrit, but by a more accurate study of the physiological conditions, and by a closer contact with nature as exhibited in groups of dialects of living tongues. But the appli- cation to Latii^must in any case be difficult. In Book II. I have regarded the main division as twofold only, Nouns and Verbs. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, have place xxiv here only as being originally parts of nouns or verbs. Numerals, as I have said before, have no right to a separate place at all: they are either adjectives or substantives or adverbs, and should be classed accordingly. (For convenience they are also given, in the ordinary arrangement, in Appendix D.) Pronouns are similarly referable to the other classes. Understanding by a declension a mode of forming the cases byTreatment of the matter of Book II. xxy a separate set of inflexions, 1 have made two declensions only instead of five. The distinction of the stem is subordinate to this. At the same time it did not appear worth while to separate such forms as filiabus from the more usual forms, and put them under the head of the second class, to which they strictly belong. Pronouns are in their main features clearly words of the first class; but, as the genitive singular is differently formed throughout, they are here kept together in a separate chapter. Qvis of course belongs to the second class, but here again convenience seemed to forbid its separation from qvi. The ordinary separation of substantives from adjectives, and the gradually growing tendency to confine the term noun to substantives, seem to me, in Latin at any rate, thoroughly wrong and misleading. The difference between substantives and adjectives is almost entirely syntactical, and, even as such, not so great as is generally assumed. What slight inflexional differences there are, will be found noted (cf. §§ 352j 403). The modification of adjectives to express degree in a comparison has clearly as little right to be put in Book II., instead of Book III., as the formation of diminutives, or any other common derivatives, which the language allowed to be formed very much at pleasure from any stem, because it retained a consci- ousness of the meaning of the suffix. (In Appendix G I have for convenience sake treated the matter more in the ordinary way.) The formation of participles, &c. ought no doubt to be put in Book III.; but they have so much bearing on the inquiry into the nature of the verbal stem, that I have preferred to leave them as usual in Book II. The formation of the several parts of verbs has been treated under the appropriate heads. The endeavour to form the verbs into classes by combined consideration of their present and perfect and supine stems, as is done in Vani9ek's Grammar, after the analogy of Curtius' Greek Grammar, seems to me to lead to inconvenience without much compensatory advantage. Chapter xxv xxx. contains a list of so-called irregular verbs in alphabetical order, as being that which is far the most useful for ordinary reference. I have followed the Public Schools Primer in putting generally the future instead of the imperfect next to the present tense. It is very common, perhaps invariable, to prefix to Book II. a classification of the Parts of Speech. So far as this bears onxxvi Preface: General Observations. Book II. I have briefly touched it. But in the main it is of a syn- tactical nature, and in Book IV. it will therefore be found. It may surprise some readers to see so imperfect an explanation of the meaning and origin of the inflexions of nouns and verbs. Where I have seen my way tolerably clearly, I have briefly stated the view which appeared most probable, but in many cases I have preferred merely to mention views entertained by others; in some cases I have stopped short at the facts, and left the origin un- touched. This indeed seems to me, at any rate at present, the proper position of a Latin grammarian. What can be deduced from the facts of the historical language comes fairly within his province, but more than this can only be done by the light derived from other languages. And greater agreement among philologers is necessary before any theory of the precise origin and meaning of these in- flexions can claim more than a very subordinate place in a grammar of historical Latin. In Book III. will be found fuller lists of Latin words, arranged under their endings, than I have seen in any other grammar, except Leo Meyers (which has too the advantage of containing lists of Greek words as well as of Latin). My lists are distinguished from his in two ways. His embrace a great many words, often without notice, which are only found in writers after the silver age; and the arrangement is more subjective and consequently less convenient than that which I have adopted. There is no doubt that almost any arrangement made on some principle brings together words which have a claim for common consideration and thereby may give rise to useful result. The ordinary arrangement, when-of an etymological character, has been to class compound endings under xxvi the first part of the suffix, not the last1. This seems to me wrong both as matter of convenience and theory. A word is not so easy to find, because the analysis is more uncertain: and the practice contradicts the essential character of a (Latin) suffix, that 1 Key's Grammar is an exception. See his tables in pp. 26, 28, 8, 39-Treatment of the matter of Book III. xxvii it is applied at the end of a word. Of course if we were quite cer- tain what is suffix, what is root, either arrangement (i. e. by the first part of the suffix or by the last) would be in some sort natural. But when to the uncertainty, which in many words there is on this point, is added the fact, that though some compound suffixes are apparently used as if they were simple, and are appended at once to a root or simple stem, yet in the majority of cases the last part only of the suffix is to be regarded as truly suffixal in the feeling and apprehension of the people, the safest plan seems to be that followed in the present volume; viz. giving all the words of any importance and certainty, and arranging them under the final suffix, or that final part which, if anything, would be the suffix, or which is at least parallel to what is suffixed in other stems. There are other principles of division which are followed in some grammars either with or without the above. One is the separation of substantives from adjectives and enumeration of the suffixes under these supreme heads. Besides the general objection to, such a division, which I have spoken of before, the lists will shew, that in far the majority of instances the suffixes or endings belong to both classes, and the separation of them is- cumbrous and misleading. Another division is according to the part of speech from which the derivatives are formed. This again is liable to the same ob- jections. Many substantives 'are not so different from adjectives as to render it desirable to establish any sharp distinction between their respective progenies. And though some suffixes are parti- cularly or exclusively applied in derivatives from verbs, others in derivatives from nouns, or, subordinately, from substantives or adjectives, many have no such particular or exclusive attachment. To treat the 1 derivation of adverbs' as coordinate to the deriva- tion of nouns and verbs, is the same as it would be to treat so the derivation of the several persons of a verb or cases of a noun. So xxvii far as an adverb is formed with derivative suffixes See., of the same kind as adjectives, they may belong here, but most adverbs are merely cases of nouns. Many words formed, so far as we know, directly from a root are, as I have implied (see also § 748), included in these lists. Where any tolerably certain indication of the meaning of these roots wasxxviii Preface: General Observations. known to nie, it has been given; but to add either Sanskrit homo- nyms or investigations into doubtful etymologies would have been unsuited to my plan. I have also added to the lists a considerable number of proper names, chiefly of persons. No attempt has been made to be ex- haustive in this matter, those only as a rule being given, which are either clearly intelligible and therefore instructive derivatives, or which are names of well-known or at least not merely private persons. There is however probably somewhat more vacillation in the extent to which this enumeration has been carried, than there is in the case of appellatives. The list of derivative verbs is fuller than I have hitherto seen, though in no way exhaustive as regards stems in a. Still here as in nouns it brings into strong light the comparative prevalence of different classes. And this is a matter which is commonly left with little notice. The Chapter on Composition deviates considerably from ordi- nary treatment. In the first place, the lists are tolerably complete, except in the case (i) of very common classes, ei g. words com- pounded with numerals or with -ffcro, and the like; and (2) of some momentary formations found in Plautus or Petronius or the like. The result is to shew that, except with prepositions, there was no great development of Composition in Latin,—certainly nothing approaching the Greek. Secondly, I have ventured to lay down (§ 979) more broadly than is usual, at least in Latin Grammars, the principle that Composition is simply welding together in one word two words conceived as standing in ordinary syntactical relation with each other. The welding however is a welding of stems, and the changes of letters are simply in accordance with the xxviii general habits of the language and require no separate treatment. Thirdly, the form of the compound word is given by the necessity which produced it. If an adjective was wanted, an adjective was formed; if a verb, a verb; and a suitable derivative or stem suffix was appended, which might or might not be like that possessed by the simple words. No doubt much of this view is identical with the ordinary division into composita determinate a, constructa, pos-Treatment of the matter of Book III xxix sessi'va1; but it seems in the ordinary treatment to be regarded rather as a special and adventitious characteristic of some particular classes than as the natural result of the determining cause of all Composition. The compounds with prepositions used absolutely may however, at least with our present notions of prepositions, be a separate class. Many will doubtless think the lists of words, derivative or compound, needlessly full. But I do not fear the charge from those who desire to study as a whole the formation of Latin words, or to ascertain the meaning or use of particular suffixes, or the laws of combination and change of the several vowels and con- sonants, or the etymology of particular words. I have indeed found these lists of much use in testing various etymological and phonetic theories which I have seen in other writers or which have occurred to myself. I have especially borne the possibility of this use in mind when the multitude of instances forced me to make a selection only. Indeed many of the instances inserted have been in. fact the answers I have found to various doubts which occurred to me respecting the possibility or the behaviour of certain groups of sounds or of certain elements of composition. Nonconformists have a special right to a place in such a representative assembly. The interjections I have tried to identify with inarticulate sounds of emotion. But a greater knowledge of phonetics and more acquaintance with the habits of peoples of southern Europe than I possess is required to do this clearly and fully. 1 I worked the matter out for myself with the hint given by this division. But L. Tobler's book (iiber die Wortzusammensetziuig, Berlin, 1868) is well worth reading.Observations1 on Book I.; particularly on Pronunciation. The account which I have given of the several letters took its origin in the desire of finding a tolerably firm basis for forming a judgment of the real sound of each. But any inquiry of this kind presupposes some acquaintance with at least the leading divisions of articulate sound, so far as they are actually heard from the lips of Europeans and Western Asiatics. For this reason I have prefixed to the discussion of Latin sounds, a brief account of articulate sound in general, omitting, however, many of the finer distinctions, and many of the sounds (chiefly Asiatic and Slavonic) which there seems little room for sup- posing were known to, or at least represented by, Greeks or Romans. Etymology becomes a science only when its physiological conditions are understood and applied, and I believe no greater service could be rendered to Comparative Grammar, than the pub- lication of a brief and clear Grammar of Phonetic, with illustrations (a) from misformations of sounds, such as are now heard from in- dividuals ; (£) from varieties of sound in living languages and dia- lects; and (c) from well-ascertained facts in the history of words. To write such a book would require, besides knowledge and caution, an acute and trained ear, as well as sensitive and flexible organs. Few possess these qualifications. I cannot pretend to any of them. At present, the only book which can be named as combining these different parts of the discussion in relation to the ancient languages is Max Muller's Lectures, Vol. II. But it is not nearly full enough. 1 A few copies of these Observations and of Book I. were privately distributed in April 1871. Some verbal corrections, and one addition (p. xli.), have been since made.On Pronunciation. xxxi Some other books which I have used are named in the note to xxx p. i K But to these must be added Alex. J. Ellis' elaborate work (not yet finished) on Early English Pronunciation—a work with which I did not become acquainted till after Book I. was stereotyped, and of which I have consequently made hardly any use in that book (except in the list of vowels). When I see the admirable mode in which English pronunciation is there dis- cussed, I feel how very imperfect, nay almost perfunctory, by the side of it is any inquiry into Latin pronunciation, which has yet been made. And yet Mr Ellis' inquiry is into the pronunciation of a language, still living, and familiar, and only five or six centuries old. Ail inquiry into classical Latin is into a pronunciation which has not been uttered by any accredited representative within the last seventeen hundred years. Still, I persuade myself, that the pronun- ciation which I have given, may be taken to be one which would at least have been intelligible to Cicero or Caesar, and which would not have differed from his own, more than the pronunciation of educated men in one part of. England would differ from that heard in other parts. I have assigned little weight to the accounts of pronunciation given by Roman grammarians, except so far as they imply the non-existence, at the time, of sounds which the letters might on some other grounds be supposed to have had. Some isolated state- ments made by Cicero and Quintilian are worth careful notice; but to describe sounds properly requires a large acquaintance with possible and actual sounds, and who in the ancient world had that ? It is absurd to see loose statements of writers of uncertain age, but probably between a.d. 200 and 600, and often nearer the latter than the former, taken as authenticated evidence of the pro- nunciation of Cicero and Caesar, and conclusions deduced from them by writers who have themselves a loose knowledge of sounds, and that derived only from books, not from close study of the human voice itself. Assuming that the Roman spelling was in the main phonetic, i.e. that it varied with the sound, (though doubtless the change in the spelling lagged behind the change of sound,) I am 1 On the pronunciation of Greek a pamphlet by Friedrich Blass, uber die Aussprache des Griechischen (1870), has lately come to me. It will be found well worth reading.xxxii Preface: Observations on Book I. *xxi sure that the only safe guide is the actual history of the letters, aided by a knowledge of their possible and likely sounds. I have thought it would be convenient if I put together here some of the facts and arguments upon which my view of the Roman pronunciation is based, instead of leaving them to be col- lected from the accounts of the several letters in Book I. Some points I have treated at greater length than others, because there is not that general agreement which would permit of my using more dogmatic brevity. Prof. Max Miiller has recently (Academy, 15 Feb. 1871) thrown doubt on what he fairly states to be the conclusion almost all scholars have come to with respect to the Latin c. [He has since (Academy, 15 Dec. 1871) explained that his arguments were only intended to shew that the evidence for ce = ke, &c. was weaker than that for ca = ka, See., and that he himself is in favour of pronouncing c always as k.] Prof. Munro has in a privately cir- culated pamphlet1 replied to his arguments on this question, besides expressing his own opinion on most other points of Latin pronun- ciation. My own argument was written before I saw Mr Munro's remarks, but I have since taken one or two hints from them. I am glad to find my views on the pronunciation of Latin generally accord closely with those of one whose fine taste and many-sided scholarship need no commendation from me. I have mentioned candidly my difference on some points, though I am well aware how probable it is that I am wrong. The question, What was the Roman pronunciation? is quite distinct from the question, Shall we adopt it ? Prof. Muller's argument has a tendency to confuse them. I quite admit that a change in our pronunciation of Latin is inconvenient, but the in- convenience is greater in imagination than in reality, and will be soon overcome, whilst the benefit to any student of philology will be very great. With our English pronunciation of the vowels, of j, v, c, g, r and others, the development of the language becomes an inextricable riddle, and the student naturally get? into the fatal habit of dissociating letters from sounds. Nor can it be said that we 1 The reply to Prof. Muller's arguments is now reprinted in Aca- demy, March 15, 1871. [Mr Munro has since (Oct. 1871) published this pamphlet under the title A few remarks on the pronunciation of Latin, and added a Postscript.]On v Consonant. xxxiii shall not be approaching to the pronunciation of continental nations. We shall approach them considerably at once, and if, as seems to me probable, they change their pronunciation eventually, we shall be coincident with them in proportion as we and they respectively have succeeded in ascertaining the truth. Nothing short of that can or ought to be the common goal and place of meeting. Argu- ment from some supposed superiority of one sound, as sound, to xxxii another, seems to me worthless: the question is one of historical fact, not of assthetical selection1; and we shall do better in speaking Latin as the Romans spoke it, if we can but discover how, than in either indulging fancy or being swayed by associations, which are none the less delusive because they are habitual. I assume throughout, until the contrary .be proved, that a letter has but one sound, except so far as it is necessarily altered by its position as initial or medial or final. The phenomenon pre- sented by most letters in English of sound and sign having but a fortuitous connexion is, I believe, nearly unique. On v consonant. The following are the reasons for the pronunciation of v Con- sonant as Eng. w, or perhaps sometimes as French ou (in oui), and not as the labio-dental v. i. The same letter was used without any distinction for the vowel and the consonant sound. There is no doubt that the vowel sound was English oo. 4 By a slight appulse of the lips the vowel oo becomes the consonant w1 (Bell, p. 151). 'W is often considered to be a vowel, but is not so' (Ellis, p. 580). At the same time the Romans were quite alive to the distinction. The emperor Claudius proposed a new letter, and Quintilian thought it would have been desirable to have one. For (he says) neither uo, as his teachers wrote, nor uu, as was written in his own time, expressed the sound actually heard; which he compares to the digamma (1. 27. 26; xii. 10. 29, quoted in Book 1. p. 29). 1 If the matter were really one of taste, I should not be afraid of putting the questions: Is a sibilant or buzz a finer sound than a mute or semivowel? Are seas and cheese pleasanter sounds than keys, sin and chin than kin \ or veal and vain more expressive than weal and wane$ Cxxxiv Preface:. Observations on Book I. The later grammarians, e.g. Terentianus Maurus, dwell at greater length on this difference. This makes it probable that the sound was rather w than French ou. Comp. Gell. xix. 14 with id. x. 4. 2. A sound practically identical with w is generally consi- dered to be the sound of u when following q. It is probable, indeed, as Mr Ellis says, that qu in Latin represents only a xxxiii labialised guttural, not a clearly pronounced kw, for it never lengthened the preceding syllable: but then the nearest approach to such a labialised k is kw, certainly not kv. (Comp. Quint, xn. 10, § 39.) ^3. The vowel 0, when following v (consonant or vowel), was retained till the Augustan age and later, though after other letters it had usually changed to u; e.g. servos, later servus; quom, later (in 4th century) quum. Compare this fact with Bell's statement: ' When w is before 00, the combination is rather difficult from the ' little scope the organs have for their articulative (i.e. consonantal) 1 action: the w is in consequence often omitted by careless speak- 'ers, wool being pronounced ocl, woman, ooman, &c.' (Bell, p. 171). It is worth notice, that in English the pure Italian a was retained after w in several words (water, &c.), and in the 17th or 18th century gave way to its present usual sound of aw (Ellis, 187-8). 4. u and v were frequently passing into one another: compare toiiluus and milvus, relicuum and reliqvum; genua sounded as genva, pituita as pitvita, tenuia as tenvia (§92). Again v is vocalised in soluo for solvo, acuso (Lucr.) for aquse, fciluse for silvse, &c. (§ 94. 2). So solvo has soliLtus, volvo, vol&tus, just as acuo has acdtus. 5. v between two vowels constantly falls away, not sapped by •a slow decay, but as it were melted before the eye and ear of the people. Compare amaveram, amaram; audiveram, audieram; cavitum, cautum; sevitas, eetas; jnvenior, junior; reversum, rur- teum; providens, prudens, &c. (§ 94). This phenomenon, repeat- edly occurring, seems h&rdly explicable, except on the assumption of the t being a vowel, or the closest approach to a vowel. 6. V in Latin never (except in nivis, and the compounds foi- viuin, tri-vitim, 8tc%) follows short U Now there is no difficultyOn v Consonant. xxxv in pronouncing Engl, iv, but iw is very far from easy. Indeed v after any short vowel is not common in Latin. I have only noticed the following instances: avis, avus, Bavius, bovis, brevis, cavus, exuviae, induvise, favus, fluvius, gravis, Jovis, juvenis, levis, ne-vis (§728), novem. novus, ovem, ovis, pluvia, pover ( = puer), sim- puvium; and the verbs caveo, faveo, juvo, lavo (also luo), moveo, paveo. (The syllable preceding v is in all accented.) The cause of this rarity is the great tendency to fusion of two vowels when xxxiv only separated by a v. (See preceding paragraph, and comp. Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, p. 159, ed. 2.) 7. Consonantal v is never found before a consonant (Prise. I. 23) or final; but always before a vowel. This is quite as it would be if v be equal to w; for w scarcely gains any consonantal power, if indeed it be not absolutely unpronounceable1, except before a vowel; but v is as pronounceable after as before a vowel. Thus sive (older seive), neve when they drop the final e become seu, neu, not siv, nev2. Compare this with Italian, where (the labio-dental) v is fre- quent before a consonant in the middle of a word; e.g. crura (habebo), covrire (cooperire), See. 8. The English name of the labio-dental voiced fricative is vee. This name is derived from van, the term applied to the digamma, with which the Latin f, on account of its symbol f, and* the Latin consonantal u, on account of its sound, were identified (cf. Quint. xii. 10. § 29). But in classical times, at any rate, v consonant and v vowel (like i consonant and i vowel) were not distinguished either in symbol or name. Nor were they by Terentianus Maurus. Priscian (1.20) speaks of the name vau being given it from its resem- blance to the digamma. But had the sound of English v belonged to it, at the time when the other letters received their name, it would have been called ev. For it is the law of Roman nomencla- ture3 to denote vowels by their sounds, mute consonants by sound- 1 [Mr Ellis says {Acad. 15 Jan. 1872), that w after a vowel, and without a vowel following it, can be pronounced after some practice.] 2 Marius Victorinus (p. 2465) stands alone, I believe, in thinking that obverto, obvius should be ovverto, owius. 3 The names of all the letters are given in Pompei. Comm. ad Donat. Vol. v. p. ici, Keil. Cf. also Serg. iv. p. 478. I cannot bring myself to believe that Mr C. B. Cayiey, Philol. Soc. Trans, for 1870, C 2xxxvi • Preface: Observations on Book I. ing a vowel after them, "be, ce, de, ge, &c.; continuous consonants by a vowel before them (e.g. ef, el,.em, en, er, es), probably because in this way each consonant gets its fullest and most charac- teristic sound' (Prise. i. 8) ; the explosives being chiefly distin- guishable when they precede a vowel (§ 274), the continuous consonants having when final an opportunity of being prolonged at pleasure. Varro is said to have given va as the name and sound xxxv of the digamma. If the Romans had named their consonantal use of u, they would have denoted it similarly by va or ve (pronounced wa, we), as w like h. only obtains its full sound before a vowel. 9. The labio-dental f differs from the labio-dental v only as p from b, t from d, s from z, th. (in thin) from th (in then), &c.; i.e. the former is whispered, the latter is voiced. The Saxons and (formerly at least) Welshmen do not make this difference, or rather they sound the voiced consonants nearly as the voiceless (e. g. pet for bed); we give to each of the symbols, s and th, both the sounds. With so great similarity between f and v is it likely that the Romans, if their v was a labio-dental, would not have confused them or noticed the resemblance? Yet (a) no inscription substitutes F for v (Corssen, Ausspr. I. p. 136); and (b) the Roman writers (at any rate before the 4th century1) seem not to have noticed this close resemblance, although (as was said before) the symbol F was the ordinary symbol of f, and was borrowed from the digamma to which the Roman v corresponded. Quintilian's description (xn. IO> § 29) °f the Roman f indicates strongly its dental and voiceless character. I am inclined to think that no more is meant by his words than 'blown out between the intervals of the teeth with no sound of the voic£2.' In the next sentence he speaks of the 'iEolic letter which we utter in senium, ceruum,' but seems in no way pp. 5—(the only paper which I have ever seen on the question of the names of the letters), is right in thinking that the Latin names have not been assigned on phonetic principles. Comp. App. A. xxiii. 1 Marius Victorinus (p. 2464) speaks of the ' cognate letters "b, f, m, p, u,' which is of course in some sort correct on any supposition. 2 Some think that a still harsher articulation than the ordinary Eng- lish t is here meant, and no doubt this is possible enough, but, con- sidering that Quintilian regards it as quite peculiar, some emphasis of expression is not unnatural. Even in English f and v are different enough from any other consonants.On v Consonant. xxxvii conscious- of any close similarity of it to f. Terentianus Mau- rus (y. %%i) describes f quite correctly as uttered 4 with a gentle breathing while the under lip is pressed against the upper teeth,' and speaks of v consonant at considerable length, but never suggests any resemblance to f. 10. The ordinary and regular mode of expressing the Latin v in Greek is by ou1, and no distinction is made whether it be a vowel or consonant. On the other hand, Latin v is never used in the xxxvi transcription of a Greek word, except as a vowel, usually for o or ov (cf. § 90. ii.). But Latin v consonant is sometimes expressed in Greek by o, and sometimes by /3. Now o was an occasional descendant from a digamma (cf. § 91, and Curt. Gr. Etym. II. 145 =500, ed. a), and is certainly, next to ov, the nearest vowel sound to the Latin u. This use of o therefore tends to confirm the inference which may be drawn from the use of ov, viz. that Latin v consonant was the consonantal sound nearest to the vowel u; and that is Engl. w. The expression of the Latin v consonant by (3 is one of the main arguments upon which the theory, which makes Latin v— English v, rests. The argument proceeds, as I understand, thus: 4 Greek either had the sound of Engl, v, or, if not, it had a 4 sound, say b, nearer to v than to w. And it is probable that Greek 4 /3 had the sound of Engl, v, for it has this sound in modem 4 Greek. [As Greek j3 is constantly used to represent Latin v, it is 4 probable therefore that Latin v had the sound of English v].' Now the extent to which /3 was used to represent Latin v is commonly taken to have been much greater than it really was. Nothing but an undoubting acquiescence in an accredited belief could have caused so vigilant and industrious a philologer as Corssen to treat the question in the superficial way which he has done (Aus- iprache, I. 311, ed. 2). He gives no authority for the instances in which y in proper names is represented by /3, and he quotes, as in- stances of the same in words which are not proper names, two only from inscriptions (date not specified: they are from Lycia), three 1 The sign 8 (originally a T put with its foot in the middle of the 0) is not found in inscriptions or coins till the end of the second century p. Chr. (Franz, Elem. Epigraph. Gr; e. g. Calvus to Calbus, &c. Again, the MSS. of the New Testament, are, I believe, the earliest MSS. existing (except some papyri and the Herculaneum rolls), and the following facts may therefore be of use. The name Silvanus occurs fou-r times (2 Cor. i. 19; 1 Thess. i. 1; 2 Thess. i. 1; 1 Pet. v. 12). In St Peter Vat. alone (against Sinait. Alex.) has 2iX/3ai/oy. In St Paul Vat. like the rest (and Ephr. in 2 Cor., being lost in 1, 2 Thess.) has 2tXovavos: two bilingual MSS. Clar. Boern. (cent. 6 and 9) with the transcripts Sang. Aug. and (once) the second hand of No. 67, are the only MSS. late or early, as Mr Hort informs me, which are known to spell the word with /3. The xl Latin version of Clar. (though not of Boern.) has Silbanus. The solitary instance of 2i\fiavos in the Vatican is probably (as Mr Hort suggests) only one of several indications of the Vatican scribe being familiar with Latin; the confusion of v and b being common in early as well as late Latin biblical MSS.; e.g. the Codex Vercel- lensis of the Gospels (middle of 4th cent,; i.e. same date as the Vatican). [Dittenberger, who has written two interesting papers on the representations of Roman names in Greek inscriptions, says on this point (Hermes vi. 303) lov is older' than /3 as a representative of v 4 and in republican times is found almost exclusively, whereas /3 4 comes most into use later, without however ever getting completely 4 the upper hand; for even in Constantine's time there are inscriptions 'in which Latin v is represented by ovThe only instances of ft which he mentions are BaXepios (Attic. 2nd cent. B.C.); Btpia for Vibia (at Delphi); &ov\(3ios (Naples, 71 B.C.) once, against two in- stances of initial and three of medial ov in the same inscription; AaifiiWos (Ephesus, not before Hadrian's time) with Oveipiov and Ovapov in same inscriptions. The name of Varus, he adds, is com- monly Ovrjpos, much less frequently Brjpos* On the other hand, in Italian inscriptions not uncommonly, but in those only, occurs Seouaoros for Se/Sao-ros-.J What then was the value of /3 ? Not, I think, that of the labio- dental v. For the only argument that is brought for this value is that it has this value in modern Greek. I do not doubt that somexlii Preface: Observations on Book I. Greek speakers give it this sound, but I am not disposed to admit that all those who think they hear this sound are right. The truth is there is a labial f and v, as well as a labio-dental f and v, and by those who are not familiar with the labial the sound is often taken for that of the labio-dental. Mr Ellis (p. 518) says of an eminent modern Greek, 4 The letters 0, seem to be naturally pronounced 4 by Prof. Valetta as a labial v and f, but when he became particularly 4 emphatic he made them the labio-dental v and f.' Mr Geldart (Journ. of Philology for 1869, ii. p. 159) says, 4/3 is pronounced in 4 Greece not like our v but like the German w, only much more 4 strongly and explosively, if one may use the word. It is not 4 sounded by bringing together the lower lip and the upper teeth, 4 but by compressing the two lips together. So too <£, and the con- 4 sonantal sound of v, are pure lip-letters, and very different in 4 point of formation from f or v.' (See also Appendix A. xviii.) It is obvious that a sound like this stands in at least as close a rela- tion to the English w as to the English v. Here then we meet with a solution of the difficulties presented by the confusion of Latin v with to, by the occasional representation of Latin v by (3, and by the historical substitution of the labio- dental v in the Romance languages for the Latin v. The phonetic pedigree of the Romance v might be at once stated as: 1. u vowel; %. French ou, pronounced as in oui; 3. English w; 4. Labial v; 5. Labio-dental v. But I do not assert that this represents an historical succession in a single line. It is very probable that the labial v existed dialectically in Italy (and probably in Greece) in classical times, and that this accounts for such instances of the tran- xli scription of Latin v by /3, as may be really the writing of Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and others1 (e.g. Beafitov o-pos for Vesuvius2), and such vacillation in names of places as may be really due to the ancient authors (e. g. Labici, Cic. Agr. 2.35 ; so also Greek writers generally; but Lavici, Liv. 2, 3,9; 3, ; 4> 45)« In an<* after 1 Some few instances in inscriptions between the battle of Actium and the en(i of the 4th century p. Chr. are mentioned by Franz (Elem. Epigraph. Grcec. p. 248). I have not the means now for further inquiry. [See above, p. xli.] 2 [The Neapolitan dialect of modern Italian is characterised among other things by ' its extremely frequent interchange of I) and v.' (Diez, Gram. 1. 83.)]On v Consonant xliii the 3rd century this sound encroached upon the domain of the w [and b], and rendered e.g. verba indistinguishable from berba. But because the Greek /3 may very possibly have had this sound, and may have been used for Latin v, it does not follow that Latin v had this sound, but only that in the want of an exact representative /3 came near enough to be used. I see no reason whatever for supposing that in classical times educated persons pronounced the letter v (u) (except in certain positions) otherwise than as the vowel 00, either with a pause after it, or running on to a succeeding vowel, (as in French oui,) or as English w. The first of these modes was the usual sound of v when called a vowel, the third when called a con- sonant. After q it may have been a mere sign of the labialisation of the guttural, an effect which most people would not distinguish from vr. And possibly the same may be its purport sometimes after g, 1, r, s. (See §§ 89 ; 94, 3, and Append. A. xx.—xxii.) With a short i following, qv made a sound wfyich the Greeks represented by kv, i.e. k followed by the 12th vowel (see below). The rise of b out of v in a few cases is noted in § 76, and this was probably negotiated by a labial v, which perished in the transaction. Gorssen appears to think such a sound as the Engl, w to be too weak for v generally, and points to its having expelled the preceding consonant in some words. But the words in which this took place, leaving'evidence in historical Latin behind it, are very few1, viginti from duo (§ 76), nivis from nigv-is, shown by ninguit and nix, vixi compared with vivo (§ 129), possibly reduvia with ungvis. Others are evidenced only by comparison with Greek or Sanskrit stems. That these changes may have been produced by the mediation of a labial v is likely enough, but they seem to me to be part or rem- xlii nants of the changes which constituted the separation of the Latin language from its common stock, and to prove nothing for the pronunciation of v in the days of Cicero and Quintilian, unless indeed guard (once, I suppose, pronounced gqvard) compared with ward, &c. shews that w is in English pronounced as v. That Cors- sen should also consider (Aussprache, I. 315) the omission of v in such words as sos for suos, savium compared with svavium, &c., 1 Corssen does not mention such words as sevoco, seviri; and they are only instances of the usual habit of sed, sex; see §§ 93, 2; 113.xliv Preface: Observations on Book I. or the absorption of v in fautor for favitor, nuper for novum per, as proofs that v had not a ' weak vowel sound like the English w,' but a consonantal tone like the Germ, w1, is to me very surprising. I draw the precisely opposite inference. (See above, 5, p. xxxiv.) [Mr A. J. Ellis has written in the Academy for 15 Jan. 187a2 a very interesting paper on the letter v, to which I am desirous of directing my readers' attention, as containing a great deal of authentic information and the results of an almost unrivalled power of phonetic discrimination in reference to this subject. He points out that, whereas, when 00 is followed by another vowel, English speakers naturally pronounce a w, other nations do not; Italian uomo, uopo, and French ouais, ouate, ouest, out being distinguishable by an attentive hearer from English . And thus amavi would not be for ama-ful, but it may contain a suffix from the same root as fui. On G before se, e, i, &c. That c before e or i was in Latin not pronounced as either Engl, ch, i.e. tsh (so in Italian), nor as s (so in French and English), nor as ts (so in German), nor in fact noticeably different from k, may be inferred from the following arguments. 1. Closely connected forms exhibit perpetual alterations of the letter following e, without any sign of a variance in the sound of c when followed by e or i. Can Vergil in writing replictus, instead of the usual replicitus, have made so great a change as hardening s or sh or ch into k ? If a final -e be omitted, could the effect have been to harden these dentals or palatals into k? Yet die, due, sic, hunc stand for dice, diice, sice, hunce. Hosce is common, but is never abbreviated into hose: that is to say, c is frequently added when it would, if a sibilant, be indistinguishable, it is not added, when its pre- sence would have been audible! Can decern have been pronounced dechem or detsem or desem, and yet its derivative ordinal have been sounded dekumus, and then, at the same time with that, decMmus, &c. ? Kailius became Cselius: did the c change its sound when the diphthong ai was changed into the diphthong ae ? or did it wait until the diphthong ae gave place to the single vowel e (§ 2162)? Compare audacter (Quint. I. 6, § 17) with audaciter; difficulter and difficultas with difficile; capio, recipio, cepi, captum, receptum; cano, cecini; acer, acris; locus, loci, loco, loculus, loeellus; lacus with its genitives laei and lacus, and dat. pi. lacubus and lacibus; piscis, pisciculus, piscosus; qverqvetum with qvercetum; prseqvo- quis contracted into prascox, and prsecox with its genitive prsecocis ; fax with its old nom. faces; &c. I am aware that the substitution of a guttural for a palatal (die — dik, for dice = diche) may be paralleled xliv from Sanskrit as now pronounced, but the change of sound is marked by a change of letter, and the palatal letters are not dependent for their sound on one vowel rather than another. But in classical Latin the change supposed is not justified, so far as I know, by anyxlviii Preface: Observations on Book I. analogy. Changes of consonantal sounds are frequent, but they are rarely caused by any change of the subsequent vowel: and the change of sound is frequently shewn by a change of the spelling, e.g. in veh-ere, vec-tum, which is the nearest analogy that I know. a. The letter c was use4 in early times in words which were afterwards spelt, some with c, others with g; and some instances of this use remain in early inscriptions (see §§ 56, 104). Whether these words were at the time pronounced with the flat guttural, or whether the sharp and flat guttural were not clearly distinguished (cf. App. A. vii.), it is not easy to say. But k was also in use, and is found in a few inscriptions, generally before a, but also before 0, and (in one inscription regarded on this account by Mommsen as Graecising) before e; e.g. kalendas, korano, dekembres ; and it was the regular abbreviation for the praenomen Kseso and for kalendas (§103). It is not likely that, if c before e and i was pronounced otherwise than before a, 0, and u, no attempt should have been made to retain k for the guttural. Yet such an idea does not appear to have occurred to any of the reformers of Latin orthography—neither to Accius nor to Lucilius nor to Claudius Caesar, in the name of each of whom (see however § 946 n.) c occurs before one of these supposed influential vowels. Quintilian (1. 7, § 10) speaks of the desire on the part of some grammarians to write k before a, (not before 0 and u also,) but his remark on this seems clearly to imply that c had but one sound, "k quidem in nullis verbis utendiim puto, nisi quae significat, etiam ut sola ponatur. Hoc eo non omisi, quod quidam earn, quotiens a sequatur, necessariam credunt, cum sit c littera quae ad omnes vocales vim suam proferat." ' k should not in my opinion be used in any word except in those for which it can stand by itself as an abbreviation. I mention this because of the opinion of some persons that k must be used if the vowel a follow it, though c is a letter the sound of which is heard before all vowels.' 3. But with these facts must be considered, in order that xlv their full force may be seen, the fact that there is no hint in any ancient writer whatever of c having more than one sound, since the early times mentioned in the last paragraph (Schneider, Lat. Gr. i. 244, 247; Corssen, Aussprache, i. 48). And this is the more ' remarkable, because there are many parts of their writings in whichOn C before 39, e, i, &c. xlix such a variety of sound could hardly help being noticed, if it had existed. For instance Quintilian (i. 4, §§ 7—9) first refers to the discussion of the grammarians whether the Romans lacked some necessary letters, and then to the counter question whether some were superfluous, and speaks of k and q. In 7 § 28 he is speaking expressly of what is written one way and pronounced another, and instances this very letter c as used to denote Gnseus (cf. infr. § 104). Terentianus Maurus (who is generally thought to have lived at end of 3rd century p. Chr.), referring to the fact that the names of the three letters c, k, q contained each a different vowel (ce, ka, qu; comp. App. A. xxiii.), says expressly, as I understand him, that k and q are alike in sound and are both superfluous, because it matters not whether c, k, or q be used, whichever of the vowels follow (vv. 204—209)*. See also Diomed. pp. 423, 424, ed. Keil; Priscian Inst. I. 14. 17; pp. 12, 13, ed. Hertz; Servius, p. 422, ed. Keil; Pompeius, 'v. no, ed. Keil; Max. Vict. p. 1945, Putsche; and others quoted in Schneider, Lat. Gr. I. p. 292 sqq. 4. c is invariably represented in Greek transliteration by k, be the vowel that follows what it may; and k is invariably represented by Latin c2. Now Greek k has never been, and is not either 1 The lines stand thus in Lachmann's edition, but the whole pas- sage, beginning at v. 85, should be read: ^ * k perspicuum est littera quod vacare possit; et q similis, namque eadem vis in utraque est; quia qui locus est primitus unde exoritur C, qnascunque deinceps lib£at jugare voces, mutare necesse est sonitum quidem supremum, refert nihilum, k prior an q siet an c. i. e. Whatever vowels you please to titter after forming the guttural contact for C, you must change accordingly the last part of the sound {i.e. the vowel part of the syllable ca, cu, ce <2rv.), but it matters not whether the former part (i. e. the consonant) be la or q or c. [Marius Vic- torinus in the passage (i. 6) quoted by Prof. M. Miiller (Acad. 15 Dec. 1871) had this passage of Terentianus before him. Both, I think, in the words 'supremum sonitum (sonum)' are referring, not to the opening of the organs as distinguished from the closing of them in the pronun- ciation of mutes, but to the names of the letters, which were symbols of the pronunciation. (See § 57). In Marius 'distento rictu' refers to the vowel a (in ka), 'producto rictu' to the vowel u (in qu).] 2 Except possibly in a few early words, the spelling of which may be accounted for from c being once the common sign of both the sharp and flat guttural. d1 Preface; Observations on Book I. xivi palatalised or assibilated before any vowel, but is the sharp guttural mute1. Against this argument it may be urged that as the Latin c coincided in sound with * before a, o, u, it was only natural for the Greeks to use * for c before e and i, unless the sound before e or i was clearly different from the sound of k and was readily ex- pressible by some other Greek letter2. Now the actual sounds given to c before e or i in words derived from Latin are (i) Engl, ch (=tsh) by the Italians and Wallachians. (2) Engl, th (sharp) by the Spaniards. (3) s (sharp) by the other Romance peoples (and the English). (4) The Germans pronounce it in Latin words as ts. Further it may be argued on physiological grounds that it may have been sounded as ky, or Germ, ch, or sli; these being possible mediating sounds between the sharp guttural mute and the various existing sounds of Latin c. (See v. Raumer, Gesam. Schriften, pp. 40—43? 90—95; Schuchardt, X. 164; Ellis, p. 204, quoted in App. A.xxv.; Max Mtiller in Academy for Feb. 15, 1871.) Could these sounds have been represented in Greek? The sound of s could easily and accurately have been expressed by Greek o*. sh could be expressed by either ajji,co(r(ra (famossa), i^Kovaa-aros (excusatus), c^kovct- 4 ), and is perhaps a secondary derivative from census, which would in that case be the participle of a lost consonant verb. Hausurus is quite anomalous. I find it only in Verg. A. iv. 383, and an imitation in Stat. A. I. 667, twice in Silius, and possibly once in Seneca (see p. 247). Hausturus (Gic.) and haustus show the regular supine stem. Hsereo is, I suspect, an r stem (comp. aipeco, though h in Latin does not usually correspond to an aspirate in, Greek), and owes its supine stem (lisesurus, hsesito) to the long penult (comp. curro, verro). [Mr Nettleship (.Academy 1 March 187a) brings, against my theory and in favour of a progressive assimilation of st into ss, the words jussus (for justus) from jus ; assus, assura apparently par- ticipial formations (as-tus, as-tura) from a stem as- which in arere, aridus follows the ordinary law; pustula with another form pusula (or pussula?) which had it been formed from stem pus + ulo would have been purula. Now jussus is from a stem jou-, as I believe, §§ 76. 2; 705, though why it has jussus and not jutus I cannot explain. Possibly the desire to avoid comparison with the participle of juvare may have had something to do with it: (see also p. lxiv). Assus, assura I take from a root ar- and parallel them to hser-, liaBsum. Pustula, in texts accessible to me, I find only in Cels. 2. 1; 3, 22, ed. Daremberg; Sen. Ep. 72. § 75, ed. Haase; Mart. 8. 51. 6; 11, 98, 4. ed. Schneidewin; Vitruv. 7, 2. § 9 ed. Rose. Also pusta- latum Suet. Ner. 44, ed. Roth.; Mart. 7, 86. On the other hand I find pusula in Cels. v. 26. §31, 2$. §§ 6, 10, 15 (eleven times), 16, 17; Sen. Ir. 3. 43; Pliny (ed. Detlefsen) xx. § 44; and at least eleven other places, besides xxxvu. §§ 77, 98, ed. Jan.; in Martial. 14, 167; Colum. vii. 5. § 15 ; Paul. ap. Fest. p. 99, s.v. Hetta, ed. Miiller; and pussula in Tibull. 2. 3. 10, ed. L. Miiller c. v. p. xxii.; also pusulatum Dig. 19. 2. 31; pusulosum Cels. 5. 26. 31; Colum. 7. 5. 17. I believe pusula to be the earlier form of the two, and to be from the Greek cf)vo-a, cfrvo-aXkts- Pustula, if not due to copyists, is probably formed from the Latin pus.] The theory which I oppose to Corssen'sis, taking the dental stems as instances, that tt, dt became first ts, ds, and then ss or s. This theory fulfils the really necessary conditions of truth as completely as Corssen's fails. For the first step is equally applicable to all stems, inasmuch as it supposes the suffix only to be primarily CIxvi Preface: Observations on Book I. affected: the second step is inevitable if the first be admitted. Ts, ds are utterly unstable (in Latin), and must become entirely sibilant. The only objection which I can see to this theory is that the phonetic cause of the change of dt, tt, lgt, bt, &c. into ds, ts, lgs, ps, &c. is not apparent. But neither is the phonetic cause of the change of dt to st. Possibly a good phonetician, like MrM. Bell or Mr Ellis, may find a reason for the change where others cannot. I content myself with referring to the fact that in Greek r before i frequently changed to s (e.g. <£770-1, Dor. <£ari)> do-Ls by the side of (fnxtls'i c'Uoo-i, Dor. c'lkotl] avaiarOrjcrla from avalo-Q^ros (Schleicher, Vergl. Gr. § 148; Curtius, Gr. Gr. § 60); and some- times before v; e. g. Dor. Lat. tu (but also 0-0O, 2 never ixvi became so completely u as 77 became i (Schuchardt, 11. p. 146), though the Germans and English, it may be added, give to their long 0 a sound nearer to u, and to their short 0 a sound nearer to a. i It is not easy to draw with much confidence any argument from this to the pronunciation of the Romans in the classical period. For (1) Italian is (as has been already remarked) not the child of classical Latin, but of one or more unsubdued dialects, [or, if the child of cultivated Latin, has grown up under foreign influences; (see above, p. lxx)]. (2) The inference from misspellings is by no 1 In reading Schuchardt it is well to remember that his distinction of 'clear' and 'dull' corresponds with 'open' and 'close' in the 0 sounds, with ' close' and ' open' in the e sounds. His use of accents in Italian words is different from Diez's (see 11. p. 146 n., but also ill. 213). 2 Mr Ellis says (p. 523), that Prof. Valetta (Greek) pronounced Greek (0 and co) and English with a clear 7th vowel (Ital. open 0), and did not seem to be aware of the 8th vowel at all.Ixxii Preface: Observations on Book I. means clear in the case of o, and is not very weighty in the case of e. For S3 is frequently miswritten for long e, and i for short e; and many instances of sa for short e are probably due to mistaken ety- mology (e.g. prseces, secundum, qusestus for questus). (3) The grammarians quoted (Schuchardt, 111. 151, 212) are none of them earlier than the 4th century1; and three centuries are a long interval, when delicate distinctions of sound have to be caught. (4) The analogy of other languages is proof only of what was possible, not of what was. actual, still less of what was actual at a particular time. And long e and long 0, even if they changed at all, may yet very well have been open e and open o in the mouths of Cicero and Quintilian. Mr Ellis's investigations into English pronunciation show a similar direction and at least as great an extent of change within the period from the 16th to the 19th century. The whole section of Mr Ellis's book (chap. iii. § 6) is highly illustrative of the question, but some of his words describing the change may be quoted. 4 The long vowels have altered more than the short vowels. The 4 voice being sustained, there was more time for the vowel-sound to 4 be considered, and hence the fancy of the speaker may have come 4 more into play. This has generally given rise to a refining process, 4 consisting in diminishing the lingual or the labial aperture. The 4 lingual aperture is materially diminished in the passage from a long 4 Italian a (and vowel) successively to Somersetshire a (13th vowel), lxvii 4to open e (15th vowel), to close e (16th vowel); and again in the ' passage from open e to Ital. i. The change of long open 0 (7th 4 vowel) to long Ital. u (10th vowel) was a similar refinement, con- sisting first in the elevation of the tongue, and corresponding 4 narrowing of the labial passage, producing long 9th vowel, and 4 secondly in the narrowing of the pharynx. The change from open 4 0 to close 0 consisted simply in narrowing the pharyngeal cavity.' (Ellis, p. 232.) This'tendency of long vowels is a tendency working through long periods of time, and is not at all inconsistent with Mr Bell's assertion, 4 that the tendency of all vowels is to open in prolonga- tion' (Principles, p. 34, comp. 122). This latter physiological tend- 1 Terentianus, quoted by Pompeius (Keil. v. p. 102), does not bear out the quotation, at least if the poem of Terentianus Maurus is meant.On the vowels, especially o and e. lxxiii ency accofds with the following line of argument, which seems to me to furnish us with some evidence as to the quality of o and e in Latin. It has two premises; (i) the representation of Latin vowels in Greek, and of Greek vowels in Latin; (2) the compo- nents which under crasis, contraction, &c., gave rise to <*> and 77 or a. The details of the representation1 will be found under that head in Book I. Chap. 9 (viz. 0 in §§ 208, 218, 219; e in §§ 229, 5139). The facts of Greek contraction, &c., may be found in Greek Grammars (e.g. Ktihner's Ausfuhrliche Gram, ed. 2, §§ 50, 51. Curtius, Gr. §§ 36—38. Comp. also ib. § 42). Now the very introduction of the new symbols a> and 77 proba- bly implied a sound different in quality as well as in quantity from o and e respectively. And this is confirmed by the fact that the name of o was ov, not g>, and of e was not 77; in other words that, as the voice dwelt on the sound of o, it naturally uttered ov, and as it dwelt on e, it uttered et. In the same way, when the vowels c and o were lengthened in compensation, as it is called (see below, § 273. 4), for an omitted consonant, they become ei and ov. But when ao and oa are contracted, we get a> in Attic: when ae is contracted, we get a; from ea, usually 77 in Attic. From these facts I infer that 00 and 77 differed in quality from o and e by being nearer a, and not by being nearer the u and i sounds; i. e. co and rj were opener, not closer than o and e. But 77 was perhaps nearer to lxviii e than g> was to o. But Latin 5 represents Greek <0, and © represents Latin o. Both Latin 6 and Latin iX represent Greek o; Greek o represents Latin 0; and both o and ov represent Latin u (as well as Latin v, cf. §§ 90, 91). This seems to imply that Greek o was between Latin 6 and Latin u. Again Latin e represents Greek 77, an$ 77 re- presents Latin e. Latin 6 represents Greek e, and Greek e re- presents both Latin 6 and often Latin I. This seems to imply that e was between Latin 6 and Latin I; but perhaps, considering the sphere of 1, e was nearer to Latin S, than o was to Latin 0. [U is 1 Correspondence, i.e. Etymological representation (seep. 24, n.) is not here concerned. And to this head belong the suffixes 0/ inflexion, e. g. Hecuba,' E/cd/3?7.Ixxiv Preface: Observations on Book I. possible that the Greek e, when used apparently to represent Latin i, is really a representative of the older vowel e (cf. §§234, 239) which older vowel may have remained dialectically for a long time]. In the stricter Doric 00 gives ©, ao and oa give a1; ee, ae and ea give 77. This is probably to be accounted for by supposing o and e to have been opener in Doric than in Attic or Ionic, and perhaps a to have inclined more to the o sound than it did in Attic. But the language with which we compare Latin is the language of Polybius, Dionysius, Diodorus, &c., and this is an Attic dialect, though a late one. Now, without professing to be able to assign any absolute quality to the ancient vowels, I may, if this argument be sound, express their relative qualities by a tabular arrangement. I take a, aw, Fr. au, u to represent four regions of labial vowel sound, and a, 6, 6, i to represent four regions of lingual vowel sound. Then we.may arrange Attic, Doric, Latin somewhat as follows: Labial a aw Fr. au u Attic a a) o,ov Doric a o>, o ov? v? Latin a 06 u Lingual a 6 e i Attic a 77 €l 1 Doric a V e 1 Latin a e 6 i It should always be borne in mind, in comparing the transcrip- tion of a word in different languages, that each can supply only lxix what it possesses, and therefore if the sounds are not the same (and the whole range never is the same), the representation of them can be but approximate. Hence the Latin u and the Greek o may sometimes be representative of one another. But generally Gr. o and 0 go together, and ov represents Latin u. That ov should in the Roman period represent u even exactly, is no obstacle to its having earlier represented the long sound of the Greek o. This 1 The Doric substitution of a for w is reproduced in the Cumberland quarter, and Somersetshire cord with 2nd vowel instead of 6th; the Ionic substitution of 77 for a by the Somersetshire Bath with the 13th vowel instead of the 2nd. (Cf. Ellis, p. 67.)On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ui. lxxv change is analogous to that which has befallen 77, which is now identical with long i. And both are but instances of the same law as that which we find to have prevailed in English. So ei (at least before consonants, § 229) was in the Roman period a long i, but earlier a long €. Whether both « and ov had, at first, the slight diphthongal termination which we hear in our ordinary Southern English long a ( = ei), and o( = ov), is not easy to say positively, but it looks probable enough on the mere face of it. On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ui. The Latin se, the ordinary representative of the Greek at, be- came eventually hardly, if at all, distinguishable from e, just as ) Two other consonants, called Lingual consonants or liquids (or trills), are r, 1. r is caused by the breath passing over the tip of the tongue, which is more or less vibrated: 1 is'caused by the breath passing over the sides of the back of the tongue, which is then removed from its position to complete the sound. For an r f common in France), caused by vibration of the uvula, see A pp. A. 4. If the uvula be lowered so as to obstruct the passage of the e air through the mouth, but allow it to vibrate in the cavities of the nose, a nasal sound is produced. If the organs are otherwise in the positions required for b, d, g, but the air passes into the nose, the nasal consonants m, n, ng (a single sound as in sing) are respec- tively produced. (The palatal n has much the same sound as a dental n.) The nasals resemble the explosive consonants in requiring a vowel before and after to give the full effect; they resemble the continuous consonants in the possibility of continuing the sound, which is however that of the first half only of the consonant. 5. The semivowels w and 7 will be best described after the 7 vowels (§ 23). Another letter has yet to be noticed, viz. h (spiritus asper). This is a mere expulsion of breath through the perfectly open glottis, i.e. with the vocal chords apart, not approximated and vibrating, li stands to the vowels, as p to b, k to g, &c. (If h is breathed immediately after an explosive consonant we get sounds, represented in Greek, viz. <£=p + h, ^=k + h, 0 — t + h, and in Sanscrit (g-f h &c.). A strong articulation of consonants e.g. by Scotchmen or Irishmen gives a similar sound.) There is also a very slight sound heard before any initial vowel, and best caught when two vowels come together, but are pro- nounced separately, as in go over. This is rarely expressed by any letter. It is the spiritus lenis of the Greeks. The principal sounds in European languages may be tabulated s as follows, the letters being supposed to be sounded as in English, except where it is otherwise stated.6 Sounds. [Book I. Explosive. Sharp. Flat. Nasal. Usually flat. Sharp. Fricative. Flat. Labial. Labiodental. Guttural. Palatal. Lingual. k g hard ng labial v ordinary v g in Germ. tage ( wh1 (labial f ordinary t fch in Scotch loch (Germ, ch after a or o) f h in huge y 1 (nearly Germ, ch nearly g in I after i or e) Germ. ^vrarosi m appears to be earlier than n; e.g. Sanscrit damam, (Lat. do- mum), Gr. ftofiov] rem, Fr. rien, &c. s changes to later r in Latin; and to the rough breathing in Greek; e.g. arbosem, arborem; Sansc. saptan, Lat. septem, Gr. €7rra, &C. 1 See Curtius, Gr. Etym. p. 385, ed. 2. 2Sounds. [Book 1. H in Latin becomes in French almost always inaudible: 1 is often omitted or sounded as y; final s is not sounded; and the nasals merely give a twang to the vowels. (d) In the case of the vowels a appears to have been earlier 47 than o and e, and changes through them respectively to u and i. Thus Sanscrit frequently has a, where Greek and Latin have the more forward vowels. In Latin the order of priority is a, 0, u, e, i, riot the reverse. (See § 196.) xiii. By a similar laxness of pronunciation parasitical sounds 48 often arise, the organs assuming a position for one sound in the effort to reach or leave the position required for another sound. Thus from Latin vastare comes Ital. guastare; from vadium, guage; from vespa, French guepe; See. The same was perhaps the case with vivo compared with vic-si, as if from vigvo; (see § 129 c). So in English a parasitical d becomes attached to n in the vulgar pronunciation of gown as gownd; drowned as drownded1. Y is by some speakers inserted before i ( = ai) in guide pro- nounced gyide; kind, kyind; sky, skyi; &c.: and before u, e.g. duty, usually pronounced dyooty; music, use, &c., always pronounced myoosic,yoos; &c. But see App. A. xx, xxv. After a broad a = all or er, a slight raising of the tip of the tongue suggests to some speakers a vibration, and an r is the result; e.g. Emma Ann becoming Emma ran, &c. xiv. The^difficulty of uttering a particular sound varies with 49 different individuals, sometimes from want of practice, sometimes from organic defect; and where there is no absolute incapacity or even difficulty, there is often a greater tendency for the organs to assume one position, and consequently to pronounce one sound, rather than another. Thus in English we have persons pronouncing rake for lake; lake for rake (cf. Aristoph. Vesp. 45); thin for sin; dound for round; wun,gween, for run, green; hat for at, and at for hat; wine for vine, and vine for wine; See. Foreigners often pronounce tree and dat for three and that xv. As with individuals, so with tribes and nations. Certain so sounds and certain classes of sounds are preferred or avoided, are frequently or never pronounced. In this way the same word may, when tribes separate from a common stock, assume gradually a 1 Prof. Key considers this tendency to have been widely operative in language. Essays, p. 204 foil.Chap. IV] Laws of Phonetic Change. 19 somewhat different shape (even apart from inflexions) in one tribe from what they bear in another, each tribe fixing differently an ambiguous or intermediate sound, or developing it in a different way. A few illustrations only can be given, (1) of the absence or presence of certain sounds in nations1; (2) of the different shapes the same root assumes in different languages. 1. (a) The dentals appear to be the easiest sounds, for they are 51 usually the first uttered by children and they are the most universal. But it is said the voiced dental d does not occur in Chinese, or in the Mexican and other American languages. (J?) Several of the Polynesian languages have no gutturals; and several of the North American have no labials. In the language of the Sandwich Islands the gutturals and dentals are indistinguish- able. u It takes months of patient labour to teach a Hawaian youth the difference between k and t, g and d, 1 and r." Steel is pronounced nearly as kila; Cook as tute; See. (c) Again the sharp and flat sounds are not distinguished in any Polynesian dialect. So the Welsh often pronounce sharp for flat; e. g. pet for bed: and the inhabitants of Saxony are said not to know the distinction. Cf. App. A. vii. (d) The Sanscrit has aspirated flat mutes (b + h, g + h, d + h); the ancient Greek had aspirated sharp mutes p + h, k +h, t+ h; the Romans had neither. (e) The labio-dentals denoted in English by F and V are absent, from Hottentot and Australian languages, and probably from an- cient Greek. F is absent also from Finnish, Lithuanian, Tamil, Burmese, &c. (/) R is absent altogether from some American and Polynesian dialects: L is absent from Zend, Japanese, and several American and African tongues. The Chinese substitute 1 for r, saying, e.g. Eu- lofa for Europa, and (avoiding the pronunciation of two consonants together), Ki-li-sse-tu for Christ. (g) The Arabic and cognate languages have peculiar guttural and gutturo-dental consonants. The Indian languages have a pecu- liar palatal class. The Hottentots accompany the pronunciation of other letters with peculiar clicks. 2. The variation of the same root in languages of the same 52 stock is best illustrated by the law which Grimm (following in task's track) showed to prevail between the Sanscrit, Greek and 1 These statements are chiefly from Max Mtiller, Lectures, Second Series, p. 167, &c. 2—220 Sounds. [Book /. ! Latin together, compared with the Gothic and low German dialects, on the one hand, and the old High German and its stock on the other, the one having an aspirated mute or fricative, where the second has a flat mute, and the third a sharp, and so on. Initial mutes exhibit the law most clearly, being freest from the influence of neighbouring consonants, and dentals most regularly. The Eng- lish is here taken as the representative of Gothic, and the modern German as representative of high German. ( Greek 6 6vyarr]p, Orjp, Svpa, fJLedv. \ Latin f fera, .fores. English d daughter, deer, door, mead. German t, or th = t tochter, thier, thor, meth. ( Greek 8 obovs, dapav, 8vo, vda)p. \ Latin d dens, domare, duo, Sdere, unda. English t tooth, tame, tyoor) is said to be from an attempt to imitate the French u. As errors caused by what has been called Popular Etymology may be quoted Jerusalem artichoke for Girasol which comes from gyrus and sol: walnut, which is from Angl. Sax. CE II P F I1 C G K V AWA N Ooo P 9 K. P i"r N X cir. So B.C. (Ritschl. tab. lxix.) A B C D E F G H I L M N O P a K s T V X Modern signs. A a B b C c D d E e F f Gg Hh I i K k LI M m N n O o Pp Qji Rr S s T t Uu Vv X x Name. a be ce de e ef ge ha ka el em en pe qu er es te u ix Pronun- ciation. Greek letter for same sound. ah b k d Utal. open A B k A H for e (E as ltd. I c' close e) f (cf. § 98) g(give) T h (hat) tee (feet) T \y(jes) I m i n i ng K A M N r Ital.open «for^ j (O as Engl. omit) n K p 2 T OY: Fjlater OY P k r (trilled) s (sharp) t Engl. 00: Engl, iv (or Fr. 011 in out) Y y (Ypsilon) u Fr. Y Z z (Zeta) (cf. § 195) z Modern. Pronunciation. Greek. AI ai ay (=yes) earlier AI AE ae (cf. § 258) later AI EI ei Engl, (fate) EI All au Germ, au (haus) AY OU ou Engl. 0 (note) OY Modern. Pronunciation. Greek. EU eu Ital. eu EY 01 oi nearly oi (boil) earlier 01 OE oe (cf. § 263) later oi UI ui as Fr. out (cf.§aaa)24 Sounds. [Book I. The Greek v was Fr. u. (It did not correspond to Latin u, which Greek expressed by ov). The Greek eo was probably the sound of English aw. It must be remembered that the contraction of oo in Greek gives ov, not ©; of ee gives ei, not rj. Moreover the name of o was ov; of e was ei. On the English o and a being really diphthongs, see § a*. CHAPTER VI. LATIN ALPHABET IN DETAIL. LABIALS AND LABIODENTALSl. P. Character: in the oldest inscriptions P (but not after cir.620 6a u.c.), then P, last P. Sound: always the sharp labial mute; English p. Never aspi- 63 rated, except in Greek words; e.g. splisera, pkilosophus. Position : never final, except in volup (for volupe). It can 64 stand immediately in same syllable 1. before 1 or r; e.g. plaudo, prandeo, &c. 2. after s; e. g. spatium, splendor, sprevi, &c. Representation: (i) of Greek 1.7r (ps for ^): e.g. 7rv€vp.a- 65 tlkos, pneumaticus; nroXejiaios, Ptolemsaus; ^dXXco, psallo; &c. 2. rarely (3; e.g. &plafi(3os, triumpus (later triumplius). 3. frequently <£; e.g. wopcfrvpa, purpiira; AtyiXos, IIa/x0tXo?, QCkoveUns, Dipiilus, Pampilus, Pildnlces; Qapvaicys, Parnaces; &c. almost always in inscriptions before cir. 660 u.c. (see § 13 a). 1 In the following account of each letter, the term Representation has been confined to the way in which one language transcribes the words borrowed from another : Correspondence to the etymological correspon- dence, i.e. the shape which the same stem, though forming perhaps a verb in one and a noun in another language, assumes in sister languages. The instances of correspondence are almost all selected from Curtius, Gtiech. Etym. 2nd ed. Influence is used for the way in which a letter affects others, weakness for the way in which it is affected by others. The sound is inferred from the facts here collected. Throughout, great help has been obtained from Corssen's Ausspracke, &c., and in some parts from Luc. Muller's Zte re 7netrica.Chap. VI.\ Labials and Labiodentals. P. 25 (ii) in Greek by 7r; e.g. Paplrius, naTre/ptos- (also IlaTrtpios); capitolium, KcnriTOdXiov] Spurius, 27ropto?; Appius, "Attttios \ &c. Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European p. 66 a. to Greek 7r; e.g. r&pio, ap7r-a(co; septem, eVra; pac-iscor, pang-o, pig-nus, Trijy-vvfxi, aor. eiray-r^v] pater, Trarrjp; imple-o, ple- nus, 7TL-fi-7r\r}-fjLi, 7pannus, Trrjvos] pullus, ttSXos, palma, 7raXafir]; nSpos, neptis, aveyj/ios:, pisum, ttXctos 5 pilleus, nTKos ] pluo, 7rXe. 5. rarely to Greek So probably liipus, \vkos] spdllum, (tkv\ov', ssepes, prsesepis, 0-77*0?. Possibly these Latin words may have been borrowed from the Umbrian or Oscan, in which p often corresponds to an original k. Substitution: p is often a substitute for b; e.g. sup-porto 67 for sub-porto; op-timus for ob-timus; scrip-si, scrip-tus from scrib-o; op-sides (in early inscriptions) for ob-sides; &c. Influence: i. before p the prepositions sub, ob, ad become 68 sup, op, ap in pronunciation, though not always in writing; e. g. sup- porto, op-portunus, ap-pello; See. Possibly this was the original form of sub, ob (compare super, iiri). 2. requires a preceding nasal to be m, not n; e.g. impar, com-porto; &c. ru-m-po compared with fu-n-do. Weakness: i. changed (cir. 650 u.c.) to b before 1 in the 69 word publicus, for poplicus, from populicus (old form pouplicos). So Publius is llo7rXios in Polybius and Dion. H.). 1. becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. som-nus compared with sdp-or, s5p-io. And comp. trSpidus with trgmo. Insertion: i. P is naturally pronounced in passing from 7° m to t or s or 1; e.g. sum-p-tus, sum-p-si; em-p-tus, em-p-si; tem- p-to for the (etymologically better) form ten-to; hiem-p-s for Mems; exem-p-lum, from exim-6re; tem-p-lum, comp. re^cvos. In amp- sancti, am-p-lus, the p may be for b in amb-. 2. In late imperial language we have dain-p-num, calum-p- niare, &c.2 6 Sounds. \Book /. B. Character: similar to modern B. 71 Sound: the flat labial mute; English b. 72 In later Latin inscriptions, not frequently before the 4th cen- tury a.d., words were written with v for b, chiefly between vowels (e.g. devitum, sivi, Lesvia, verva), and b for v (e.g. bolo, berba, bixit; hence Danubius for the earlier and correct Danuvius), one or both having then perhaps the sound of labial v. The confu- sion is also found in the MS. of Gaius, and in the Florentine MS. of the Digest. Flabio, Jubentius are rare instances from the 2nd century after Christ. Besbius (cf. § 90. 3) for Vesuvius in Pompeian inscriptions. Position: Final only in ab, sub, ob. 73 It can stand immediately in same syllable before 1 or r; e.g. blandus, brSvis, britma, &c. Representation (i) in Greek by £; e. g. Aboriginum, 74 \aftopiylvcQv, Umbrici, 'O/ifipLKoli Bovillani, Boi'/V/Woi'; See. (ii) of Greek: 1. ordinarily /3; fiacris, basis; Boiaroi, Bceoti; &c, 2. For 0 and tt Ennius always used b, at least in the words Burrus for Uvppos, and Bruges for Qpvyts (Cic. Or. 48, § 160). Probably Ennius was following the etymological, correspondence (see next section). Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European b or bb, 75 or, in the middle of a word, to an original dh. 2. to Greek /3; e.g. brevis, fipaxvs; bulbus, j3o\(3os\ balare, 3. to Greek tt; e.g. ab, diro'-, buxus, 7rvgos] carbasus, Kapira- cos; lambo, labium, Xa7rrco, Xacfyvcraco. 4. medial b to Greek cf> (frequently); e.g. amb-, dpi; ambo, afjL(f>co\ labor, d\; umbo, umbilicus, 6/jL(j)aX6s'i nflb-es, ve-os\ orb-us, 6pcf)-avosl sorb-eo, po; glilbo, yXvcpcoi scrlbo, ypacfxo, So probably the derivative suffix -ber (comp. fero) to -(f>6pos (<£//)g>); e.g. salii-ber, candela-brum. 5. medial b to Old Italian f; e.g. trlbus, Umbr. trefu; sta- bulum, Umbr. stafu; tibi, Umbr. tefe; sibi, Oscan sifei. Substitution : 1. It is in several words a substitute for an 7$ earlier dv. Thus bis, bellum, Bellona, Belliils, bdnus are for dvis, dvellum, Dvellona (so in S. C. de Bacchan. 568 A.u.c.), Dvellius, dvonus (dvonoro i.e. bonorum in epitaph on Scipio, son of Barbatus,Qhcip. VI.] Labials and Labiodentals. M. 27 cir. A.u.c. 500). C. Duelliusthe consul of 494 A.u.c. is said to have been the first of the family called Bellius1 (Cic. Or. 45, § 153). 2. In a few words, it stands for medial v in order to avoid the combination uu. Thus bublle, bubulcus from bovlle, bobulcus, when 0 was giving place to u (§213); deferbui from deferveo; jtibeo from a root jou- (comp. old perf. jousi, jtlro). Influence : It requires the preceding nasal to be m; e.g. com- 77 buro compared with conduco; im-buo with in-duo; im-berbis, com- bibo, &c. Weakness: i. Before a sharp (s or t),b is sometimes changed 7^ top; e.g. scrip-si, serip-tus from scrib-o; op-sequi for ob-sequi; op- tineo for ob-tineo, See. In compounds with sub, ob, the inscriptions before cir. 650 u.c. have p; later inscriptions and MSS. oscillate. So occasionally urps, pleps for urbs, plebs. But in os-tentum, sus- cipere, sustuli, asporto, &c. b in obs, subs, abs is omitted. 2. Before c, g, p, f, sub and ob are assimilated; e.g. suc-curro, oc-cumbo, suggero, suppono, suffero, &c, 3. Before f, ab takes the form au; e.g. aufugio, aufero (but abs-tuli, ab-latum); or b is dropped; e.g. afui, af6re. (On af see § 97 n.) 4. In dmitto, dperio, oportunus (if they are compounds) the b is omitted. [Some consider the dat. abl. in -is to have arisen from an omission of b (or bh), filiis being for filiabus.] 5. b becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. sum-mus for sub- mus (for sup-inxus); scam-num compared with scab-ellum; sam- ilium (?) 2avvLTis Polyb.) with Sabini. So perhaps glomus is for gldb-mus. M. Character: In a few of the oldest inscriptions before 500u.c. 79 the modern shape with the middle strokes not reaching to the bottom is found, but not afterwards. The usual form has the four strokes of equal length and all inclined, not vertical. Verrius Flaccus (in Augustus' time) wished to use only half the ordinary letter as its sign at the end of words before an initial vowel, on account of its faint sound. Sound : the labial nasal; English m. go At the end of words it appears to have been scarcely audible. Position : very frequently final: viz. 1. in accusative and 81 neuter nominative singular, and in genitive plural of nouns: 2. in 1 In Polybius, 1. 22, 23, we read B/Xios; (but the MSS. have At/Scos or 'ArlXtos AIfiios). Diodorus (xi. 68) has AoiAAios.28 Sounds. [Book /. ist person singular of verbs; 3. in some adverbs; e.g. turn, quam, nam, clam, autem, enim, partim, &c. Never before or after another consonant as the commencement of a syllable. Representation: (i) in Greek by /xj e.g. Marciusby mdpiuos, g2 Viminalis by ovifiivaXios; &c. (ii) of Greek /*; e.g. MapaOSv, Marathon; irpayiiariKos, prag- maticus; &c. Correspondence: i. to Indo-European m. 83 a. to Greek /x; e.g. slmul, slmilis, a/xa, 6fio7os, SfiaXus; v6mo, ifi-eco (Fe/x); mol-lis, /xaXa^os; me, /xe, e'/xe; magnus, m&gis, lieyas, fi€jLXa/3o?, 3>Xaj3tos, also QXaomos (Dion. H.); Vesuvius, Bio-fiios (Dio C. App.), but Ovecrovovios (Diod.); Beneventum, Bevefiei/rov (Appian), but Beveovei/rov (Appian, Strabo), Beneventana, Ovevoav- ravrf (Polyb.). Nerva and Severus in contemporary inscriptions are Nepoua, Nep/3a; Seovrjpos, Sefifjpos. In and after the sixth century after Christ (3 appears frequently for v. Compare § 72. (ii) of Greek. V as consonant is never found in transferring a Greek name into Latin, the digamma, which alone had the same sound, not being in use in the time of the Roman writers. Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European V: sometimes 91 (e.g. in first four instances given infr. 3) to G (where Greek has /3). 2. to Greek f, which often fell away without altering the word, sometimes was replaced by o or v; e.g. sevum, alFes, ae/; ovis, oFis'i avis, ot(ov6s (oAwj/os); ovum, odFov, silva, vXij (for vXFcl), svavis (for svad-vis), svadus, rjftvs (for o-Frjhvs); vallus, FfjXos; vel- lus, villus, Ftpiov, clpos; v6here, fo^os; .venum, ven-eo, ver, Feap, r/p; verbum, Fepeco, prjpa: vesper, AWepos; vestis, Ftv-vyiii, €(r6^s'i vStus, Feros (a year); videre, Fibelvy (Lac. /3i§eii>) oiSa; vlginti, FeUocri, Boeot. Flkoti., (Lacon. /Sei/cart); viola, Flov; vitu- lus, FitclXos ; vltex, vl-men, Area; vomere, Fep-eb] volvo, feXvo), elXv o). vah, vse, oa, oval; vinum, olvos; vicus, oiko?. The noise of frogs is represented by *oa|, which Ovid imitates by 'sub aqua sub aqua maledicere tempt ant.' {Met. vi. 376.) Arvum, apoco, apovpa; nervus, vevpov; vSreor, ovpos, a watcher (fop-). 3. to Greek /3; e.g. vgn-io (beto, perblto, Osc. benust = venerit), 3atV(o; vivo /Sioy, &i6cd] v6ro, SifSpcoo-Ka), (3opa; ervum, opofios] severus, &f(3a.s, (reftofim ; volo, fiovXopai •Chap. VJ,\ Labials and Labiodentals. V. 3r Substitution : In verse the vowel u is sometimes hardened into 92 the consonant v. Thus in Plautus, tvos, svos, tvi, svi; &c., fvit, pver, pvella, dvoruni, (comp. above § 76 dvonoro, dvello); in dactylic poets, svo (Lucr. twice); genva (Verg., Stat.); pitvlta (Hor.), patrvi (Stat.), slnvatis, sinvatur (Sil.). Also larva, larvatis (Hor.), for larua, laruatis (Plaut.); milvus and reliqvus after the 8th cent. u.c. for the earlier milMs, rellcuus. In tenvis, tenvia, tenvior, the consonantal v seems to be the regular pronunciation: Statiuss use is peculiar. See § 142. Influence: i. The vowel 6 when following v (consonant 93 or vowel) was retained till the Augustan age and later, though after other letters it had usually changed to u; e.g. servos, nom. sing., aeqvom, &c. Vorto and derivatives are said by Quintilian (1.7.25), to have been changed to verto, &c. by Scipio Africanus (i.e. minor), but the forms with e are not usually found in republican in- scriptions. 2. medial v causes omission of preceding consonant; e.g. se- v6co for sed-voco; seviri for sexviri; pavi from pasco (for pas-sco). 3. The consonantal character of v is shown by its use in metre (a) in not causing elision, e. g. dicerg verba: (b) in lengthening with another consonant a preceding short vowel. Comp. volvo, vdlutus. But it' has not this effect when fol- lowing q; e.g. &qva. Weakness: i. v between two vowels usually fell away, or 94. resumed its vowel power and formed a diphthong or long vowel with the preceding vowel: the succeeding vowel was absorbed in either case. (a) in perfect suffix; e.g. amaram for amavgram; fltram for fl§veram; noram for novSram; plui for pluvi; audieram for audlvS- ram; amasse, for amavisse; petiit, petit for pStivit; fovi for f6v-vi; &c. (b) nauta for navlta; auceps for &viceps; cautor for cavitor; cauneas for cave ne eas (Gic. Div. 11. 40); Gnaeus for Cnaivos; praBdes for prsevides; setas for aevitas; prseco for prsevico (voc-are), liorsum for ho-vorsum; liornus for ho-ver-nus; cunctus for co(m)- vinctus; prQdens for providens; Juppiter for Jdvipater; jilcundus for jdvicundus; junior for juvgnior; iLpilio for ovipilio (cf. fiovrro- \os); ntlper for ndvumper; oblltus for oblivltus; rursum for re- versum; brflma for brgvima; nolo for 11SV6I0; neu, seu for neve, sive (neve, seve old). So in Plautus, Jovem, 6vis, b6ves, brgvi, and (after Greek model) navem are monosyllables, and avonculus, obilvisci trisyllables. ; 2. v, after any other consonant than q, g, s, 1, or r, was vocalised: e. g. vacuus for (old form) vdcivos. (Plautus wrote always vacivos or vocivos.) Compare conspicuus, arduus, annuus, noctua, with longinqvus, curvus, fulvus. (But also suus, irriguus, patruus,)Sounds. [Book /. Poets, rarely after Augustan age, sometimes vocalised a (usually) consonantal v. Thus s&adeo, s&esco (Lucr.); stiSrunt (Cic.); Biietus (Lucr.,Hor.); consecue(Lucr.), adsecue, obsecuum (Plaut.); actiai, acuse (for aqvae) Lucr. So also sdliio, diss&liio, &c. (Lucr., Cat., and elegiac poets); v61uo (elegiac); siltisa (Hor.). decuria, centuria, cilria are by some supposed to be for dec- vir-ia, cent-vir-ia, co-vir-ia. 3. v fell out in some few words; e.g. savium for svavium; tibi, te for tvibi, tve; ungo, tingo, urgeo for ungvo, tingvo, urgveo. (In slave names, e. g. Publipor, Marcipor, por is for puer, probably the e being extruded). So also qum, qur is sometimes written for quom, quor, or cum, cur. 4. Apparently an initial y has fallen off in some words begin- ning with r and 1; e.g. r6sa, podov, iEol. (3po8ov\ rigare, fip€x*w\ radix, pL£a, Lesb. fipio-da; l&cer, panos, ^Eol. (3paKos; ltipus, Germ. (which was 7r followed by an aspirate, not English ph or f); e. g. fa-ri, fa-ma, (f>duai, (pr/firj; filr, cj)cop; fero, cj)€pa>; fluo, (jAvco (bubble); frater, (ppdrrjp {clansman); fu-i, cf)vco; folium, cjivWov; farcio, c/jpao-crco; f&ga, vyq; frlgo, pvya>; fagus (beech), cfrrjyos (oak)] fallo, cr^aXXo); fungus, vcfioyyos] funda, acfaei'dovr). 3. to Greek /3 (rare); e.g. frSmo, (3pe/jLco; fasclno, fiacrKalvGa; f6d-io, {366-pos. 4. to Greek ^ (which was k followed by an aspirate1); e.g. f!rio, xptcw'i fel5 Xo^i fa-mes, f&-tisco, xvtos9 Xo-tICq); frenum, %aX«/os; fdnis, arxoivos. 5. to Greek digamma, later an aspirate; e.g. frango, Fprjyvvfii, prjyvvfiL; frlgeo, frlgus, plyea), piyos. 6. to Greek initial (9 (which was r followed by an aspirate, not English th); e.g. fe-mina, @rj-\vsm, -fen-do, Qeivco; f&ra, JloI. cfrjjp- fdris, 0vpa; fii-mus, sub-fi-o, 6vp.os, Svco, dveXkaj fingo, fig-ura, Oiyyavco, Oiypa. Also to medial 6 in rilfus, ipvO-pos. Substitution: i. for d in preposition ad; e.g. before a£-100 fero, af-fatim, &c. 2. In ef-f§ro, ef-fatus for older ecfero, ecfatus, the first f may perhaps be only a mark of a long syllable for efero, efatus. Influence: i. requires a preceding nasal to be n; e.g. In- *oi fero, con-fero, &c. an-fractus for amb-fractus. a. nf lengthens a preceding vowel; See under N (§ 167. a). Weakness : Parts of the stem fu- are supposed to have been 102 modified and used as a verbal suffix, viz. ama-vi to stand for ama- ful • ama-bam for ama-fuam, ama-bo for ama-fuio. But see Preface. 1 In English we substitute f (in speaking) for the guttural gh in laugh, cough, trough. 334 Sounds. [Book I CHAPTER VII. GUTTURALS AND PALATALS. K, C. Character : as above, except that c was in early inscriptions 103 sometimes angular k went out of use at an early period, probably before the decemviral laws, almost entirely, except in a few old abbreviations; e.g. in republican inscriptions, K. for Kseso; k. k. for kalumniaa causa; XVIR. SL. IVDIK. for Decemvir stlitibus (litibus) judicandis ; K. or KAL. for Calendse; INTERKAL. for intercalares; MERK. for Mercatus; and in later times K for caput, cardo, castra, carus, and KAR. for Carthago. In early inscriptions the words Kastorus (Cas- toris), Korano (Coranorum ?) ; KsbI. for Caelius; Dekem. for Decem- bres also occur. There was a tendency with some grammarians in Quintilian's time (1. 7, 10) to use k always before a. Sound : K always as the sharp guttural mute: i. e. English k. xo4 C was used indiscriminately for both the sharp and flat guttural mute, till the beginning of the sixth century u. c., when a modified form (G) was introduced for the flat sound. A few instances, pro- bably accidental, are found in later inscriptions. For Gaius and Gnseus the abbreviations always followed the old form, viz. C. Cn. C had not the sound of s (as in English). Nor does ci before a vowel appear to have been pronounced as sh, except provincially, before the 6th or 7th century after Christ (see § no. 4). Position: never final, except in a few words from which a 105 short 6 has fallen off: die, due, fac, ac, sic, hie, illic, See. for dice, duce, &c. Also usually lac for lacte (nom. sing.). It can stand in the commencement of a syllable (1) before 1, r ; e.g. clamo, crimen, &c.: (2) afters; e.g. scindo, scrlbo, &c. Representation: (i) in Greek by k always; e.g. Campani, 106 'Kafnravoi; Lucius Csecilius, Acvkios Kaucikios; centurio, Kevrvpicov) C.urxusr Kopios; Cornelius, KopvrjXios (all in Polybius): pontifices, 7rovTL$)iKes; Numicius, No/xZ/cios1; Cicero, KiKepcov; Compitalia, Ko/x- 7TtraXta; &c.Chap. VII.] Gutturals and Palatals. K. C. 35, (ii) of Greek 1. k; e.g. Xv-yicos, lyricis; KlXitj, Cilix; Kv- Cyclops; HepdiKKas, Perdiccas; Kt/xcoz/, Cimon; Kad/zos-, Cad- mus; &c. a. also in early times ^; e. g. Bacas, (i. e. Baccas) for Ba^as in the (so-called) S. C. de Bacanalibus, a.u.c. 568; and in later inscriptions Cilo for XlXcov ; Antiocus for 'AvtLoxos ; &c. But the li was usually written in Cicero's time (Or. 48. § 160). Correspondence : 1. to an original Indo-European &, 107 1. to Greeks; e.g. arx, arceo, apKios, dpKeo; decern, deica; dlco, maledic-us, beiKwpi, dUij; dgcet, doicel; centum, eKarov (i. e. Zv-kot-ov one kund-red); socer, eicvpos; cadus, kados; c&lare, ca- lendse,nomenclator,kclKcZv,KX^-rcop; cerebrum, Kapa\ caput, k€ the preceding vowel being lengthened to compensate; e. g. M-na, lu-men, com- pared with ltlc-eo; de-ni (for dgcini) from d8c-em; qulni (for quincini) from quinque; lana, lanugo compared with \ax~vr); ara- nea with apayyrj ; llmus, slant, with licinus, crumpled, obllq-uus, Xexpts, \tK-pi(f)Lspl-nus for pic-nus (pic-, nom. pix), va-nus compared with vac-uus; au-tumnus from aug-eo; dOmeta for dumec-ta; setius for sectius; nltor for gnic-tor, comp. nixus, geniculum. 3. c is often omitted when preceded by 1, r, n, and followed by a consonant; e. g. ar-tus for arc-tus; far-tus for farc-tus; ful-tus for fulc-tus; ul-tus for ulc-tus; quin-tus (usually) for quinc-tus; nac-tus as well as nanc-tus; nasturtium for nas-torc- tium; fulmentum from fulc-ire; mul-si, mulsum from mulc-ere, See. 3. Initial c is sometimes omitted before 1, r, n; e. g. lamentum compared with clamare; Isena with ; alapa with KoXacftos (a Syracusan word ?); raudus, radus with criidus; nidor with Kv\cra. 4. ci (before a vowel) is often confused with ti in the spelling of derivative suffixes, partly from doubts as to the etymology of a word, partly from the palatilisation of both ci and ti ( = sh) in times when the MSS. were written, ci for ti does not appear, till an African inscription in 3rd century after Christ; and not numer- ously before Gallic inscriptions and documents of the 7th century after Christ, ti for ci is not certainly found before end of 4th century after Christ. In certain proper names (e.g. Marcius, Martius) both forms appear to have existed as separate names with different origin, and then to have been confused. The following appears according to inscriptions to be the correct spelling of certain disputed words: dicio, condlcio, solacium, patri- cius, tribunicius; contio, nuntius (and derivatives), fetiaiis, indutise, 6tium, neg5- tlum, setius. Both suspicio and suspitio, convicium and convitium are found in good MSS.; neither in inscriptions. X. This character is a mere abbreviation for cs. It is first found in m a single sexto, referred to times before the second Punic war, and afterwards not until S.C. de Bacc. 186 B.C. (The inscriptions before this date are but few.) In inscriptions at all times (perhaps from regarding x as a mere guttural like Greek ^) xs is often found instead of x; e.g. exstrad,Chap. VII] Gutturals and Palatals. X. Q. 37 (ill S. a de Bacc.), taxsat, lexs, proxsumus, exsigito, deixserit, by- side of exigatur, exterarum,. taxet, &c. in laws of Gracchus' time. So in Greek 2ifyrros and S^ros*. In the Augustan age and sub- sequently, the simple x is the more frequent. Influence: Words beginning with s, if compounded with ex, "2 usually dropped the s, but the retention is not unfrequent; e.g. exilium, also exsilium; expecto, also exspecto; &c. Weakness: Before semivowels, liquids, nasals, and flat mutes, 113 sex and ex in composition usually dropped x; e. g. seviri, sejftgis, semestris, sedecim, seni, educo, escendo (but exsto or exto); evado, ejuro, emergo, elicio, enormis. So also e for ex out of com- position, after (rarely in inscriptions before) Augustan age. Before c, sex became ses; e. g. sescenti. Before f, ex sometimes became (or reverted to) ec; e.g. ecfari, ecficio. Before 1 and m a medial x was sometimes omitted; e. g. tela for texula; subtemen for subteximen; subtllis for subtexilis; mSla for maxula • paulus for pauxilliis; ala for axula; See. Q. Character : In one or two very old inscriptions Q is like u4 the Greek Koppa with a short vertical stroke: its normal form in the best period was with a horizontal stroke to the right. Sound: the same as k, the sharp guttural mute. It is always II5 followed by the consonantal u, except in some old inscriptions where it is immediately followed by the vowel u (§ 119). Qu was probably sounded as it is in English, i.e. as kw, and was regarded in prosody as a single sound. But see App. A. xx. Position : never final, or followed immediately (with or with- n6 out the consonantal u) by any consonant: nor preceded immedi- ately in the same syllable by any consonant except s; e.g. squama. Representation: (i) q. in Greek by *: qu by kov, kv, or ko, n7 see § 90. - (ii) of Greek. Q is not used in writing any Greek woia. Correspondence: i. qv to original Indo-European kv (so tls Lepsius, Donaldson, Grassmann,L. Meyer); or to k, to which a parasitic y very early fastened itself (Curtius, Corssen). Some languages exhibit the labial, some the guttural.Sounds. \Book I, 2. to Greek 7r, Oscan p; e.g. quo-d? quo? qua-ntus? qva-lis? 7?o-0i) 7rov, 7To-cros, iro-los, Ionic k66i,' kov, koctos, ko7os j qyinque, 7reVre, iEol. 7r//x7r€ (cf. 7r//x7r-ros>), Osc. pomptis; c&qvo (also written qvOqvo), c6qvlna, 7reVo), (Oscan?) pdplna; linqvo, re-liqv-us, XeiVa); sSqv-or, eVr-oo; §qvus, ^Wos*; torqv-eo, rpenax. Probably also in- qvllinus, cQlonus, cdlere, 7reXa>, TroXevw, 7roXos. 3. to Greek t, Osc. Umbr- p; e.g. quis,. ins, Osc. Umbr. pis; quisquis, Osc. pit-pit; -que, re; quattuor, recraapes, iEol. iricrvpesy Umbr. petur. 4. to Greek k ; e.g. qui-squil-i», Ko-o-icvX-fidria; quiesco (cu-bo, cQusb), /ceijitat, koltt) ; oc-cul-o (oquoltod for occulto 6*. C. Bacc.^ clam, celare, KaXvirrco^ Kpv7TTco. Substitution : Q is found before u in inscriptions (rarely be- i fore A,u»c» 620), in words which commonly have c; e.g. pequnia (frequently), pequlatus, qura, mirqurios (for mercurlus). Quer- quetum also was found for quercetum. Influence: i. changes a preceding d to c; e.g. ac-quiro for 120 adquiro; quicquam, quicque, quicquid for quidquam, &c. 2. changes a preceding m to 31; e.g. con-queror, con-quiro, con-quiesco; an-quiro; tan-quam, nunquam. Before -que, and usually in compounds, as quiquomque or quicumque, utrumque, utrimque, quotiescumque, the m is generally written* Weakness : 1. When 6 was changed to u, qu passed into c; 12l e.g. 6cus for Sqvos; cScus for qvdqvos; cum, cur for qvom, qvor; see under C § 108. 4. So perhaps stercus for sterqvos, camp, ster- qvflinium; csenum, ciinire for quenum, comp. inqvinare. But sometimes q is found without v; e.g. qum* qurr See. See above § 119- 2. Before a consonant qu changed to c; e.g. coctum, coxi (=coc-si) from coqu-o; relic-tus from relinquo. 3. Q fell away in certain forms of the pronoun qui (stem quo-), and, as the short 6 past into ft, the semiconsonantal u then fell away also. Hence ftfoi, ftti, ftter, unde, for qu&bi, qudti, quoter, quonde. So vapor for quapor, comp. kclttvos. 4. -qve and -pe appear to have been collateral forms. Cf. § 517, and above, § 118. 3. G. Character : a slightly modified C. The earliest inscription; in which it is found is that on Scipio Barbatus, inscribed probably soon after 500 u.c. Plutarch ascribes its invention to a SpuriusChap. VII] Gutturals and Palatals. G, 39 Carvilius, who, if the freedman of Sp. Carvilius Ruga is meant, kept a school probably twenty or thirty years later. See under C (§ 104). Sound: the flat guttural mute—English hard G. There ap--"* pears to be little, if any, evidence of its ever having the soft sound (g in gentle) at least before the sixth century after Christ. Position : never final. As initial it stands before vowels and 124 the liquids 1, and r, and in a few words before n; e.g. glans, grus, gnarus, &c. (See below § 129. 3.) Representation: (i) in Greek, by y; e.g. Verginius, Ovep- *25 ylvios; Sergius, 2epyios] Gaius, Tatos; Gnssus, Vvalos; Gabii, rdfiioi; Gellius, TeXXios; See. (ii) of Greek y; e.g. Tpalicus, Graecus; Qpyyes, Phryges; 'Ava- gayopas, Anaxagoras; &c. Correspondence : 1. to original Indo-European g, and me- 126 dial gh. 1. to Greek y; e.g. ago, ay©; &ger, dypos] arg-entum, arg- illa, apyvposj apyiXos] gaudeo, yav-pos, yr)-6eco, ya-vvpat) gigno, gfinus, yiyvofiai, yevos; gus-tare, yev-ofiai; gnosco, yiyvcDO-Kco] genu, yovv ; urg-eo, eipyco (pepy-) ; rego, opeyco ; fulg-eo, (jikeyca ; vig-eo, vyi-rjs] mulg-eo, dfieXyco; garrio, garrulus, yrjpvs, yrjpvcD; &c. 3. g medial, or before r, to Greek e.g. ango, ayx®; rigo, fipexco; anguis, anguilla, c'xls, eyx-eAv?; lingo, ; grando, ^a- Xafa; gratus, gratia, x unguis, oVvg (owx*); &c. 4. to Greek k; e.g. viginti (but vicies), ec/coon, Boeot. FLKart; gubernator, K.v^€pprjrr]s; milgio, pvKaouai 5 Gnossus, Kj/gxtctos'; gum- mi, /co/i/xt; Saguntum, ZaKavOa (Polyb.). 5. • to old Umbrian k; e.g. Iguvini, Umbr. Ikuvini; tergean- tur, Umbr. terkantur. (The old Umbrian like old Latin had no separate character for g as distinguished from k.) Substitution: for c in the word nec; e.g. neg-o, neg-otium, 127 neg-lego. So probably gloria, from cluere. Influence: i. turns to g the final consonant of sub, ob, and 128 ad; e. g. suggero, suggredior; oggannio; agger, aggredior, aggravo, agglomero, agnoscor (for ag-gnoscor), &c. Ex in composition before g appears as e (perhaps for eg- from ee-); as e-gelidus, egero, egredior, &c.40 Sounds. [Book /; a. always gives a guttural clang (as English ng) to a pre- ceding nasal; e.g. con-gero, in-gredior, &c. were sounded as cong- gero, ing-gredlor, &c. Weakness: i. Medial g before a sharp consonant (t or s) is changed to c; e.g. punc-tum, punxi (= puncsi) from pung-o; auc-tum, auxi from aug-eo; mulctrum from mulg-eo; &c. a. Medial g drops away in several cases, viz. (a) after 1 or r and before s; e.g. mul-si, mulsum from mulgeo; mer-si, mersum from mergeo; spar-si, sparsum from sparg-o; &c. (b) after u; e.g. flu-o compared with fluc-tus; struo with struc-tus; fruor with fruc-tus, friiges; sti-men from sug-o; jft- mentum from jungo (jug-); H-mor compared with vy-pos. (c) before v; e.g. vivo (for gvigvo) compared with vic-tus, vixi (cf. Engl. "the quick and dead"); nivis with nix, ninguit (it snows); conivere with conixi, nixus, nic-to; forgvis (for foreg- vis) with fipaxvs, 18vis with iXaxvs; malo from mag-vdlo. before m in a few words; e. g. conta-minare, comp. contag-es; fla-men, a priest, comp. flag-rare, fulg-ere, flamma; examen for exagmen; sii-men for sUg-men; u-mor for ug-mor (cf. vy-pos), sti- mulus for stig-mulus (comp. in-stlg-are). (But augmen, coagmen- tum, fragmen, sagmen, tegmen, &c. preserve the g.) (d) before i in derivatives with stem mag-; e.g. major, ma- Jestas for m&g-ior, mag-iestas; and perhaps in ajo for ag-io, comp. ad-ag-ium. 3. Initial g before n was rarely retained in classical times; e.g. nascor, natus for gnascor (i.e. gen-a-scor), gnatus (which is found in Vergil and in compounds cognatus, prognatus, &c.); nosco for gnosco (which is found in S. C. de Bacc. and also in compounds cognosco, ignotus, ignominia); narus (G. Or. 47) for gnSxus (so often written: also in comp. ignarus); navus for gnavus; nixus for gnixus (from genu, the knee); norma compared with yvcop-ipos, (Comp. English pronunciation of gnaw, gnat, gnarl, knee.) In the proper name Gnaaus (which abbreviated is written Cn.) the g remained. Also before 1; e.g. lact-is compared with yaXaKr-os. H. Character as above. Sound : the rough breathing, as in English. 1 Ph, eh, th, were not sounded either as in English or as in German; but as p + h, k + k, t + h; i.e. a rough breathing imme- diately after an ordinary p, 3s, t.Chap. VII.] Gutturals and Palatals. H. 4i Position : never final, either of a word (except a few interjec- tions) or syllable; and never before a consonant. After the consonants p, c, t, r it is found chiefly in Greek words. Inscriptions of the 7th century u.c. give it, though rarely until cir. 660 iac. After cir. 700 u.c. they give it regularly; e.g. philosophus, Achilles, Thyrsis, &c. Cicero (Or. 48, § 160) says that at one time he spoke as the old Romans did, pulcros, Cetegos, Kar- taginem, triumpos: afterwards he conformed to the ordinary prac- tice1, and said Phryges, Pyrrhus (not Bruges, Burrus, as Ennius wrote); but still sepulcra, coronas, lacrimas, Otones, Matones, Csepiones. Catullus wrote an .epigram (lxxxiv) ridiculing the pronunciation of chommoda for commoda, hinsidias for insidias. See Gell. 11. 3, xiii. 6, where Nigidius is quoted: "Rusticus fit sermo, si aspires perperam." According to Quintil. i. 5, 30, some inscriptions had choronse, chenturiones, prsechones. Representation: (i) In Greek, by the sign of the rough breathing; e.g. Horatius, cOpanos', Hernici, r/EpviKes] Hostilius, *0O-TLXlos] See. (ii) Of Greek rough breathing; e.g. *Hpotioros, Herodotus; tjpeos, heros; 'PoSottt?, Rhodope; ILvppos, Pyrrhus; &c. ph, cli, th respectively for x> e-S- ,A/x^i'7roXts>, Amphipolis; Xioy, Chios; Oeo-craXol, Thessali; GaXafios, thalamus; &c. Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European gh. 2. Initial h to Greek e.g. pre-hendo, xav^vc0'1 xXo-77, ^Xoi-po?; h6ri, hes-ternus, x&*s (where the 6 is parasitical); hiemps, hib-ernus, xL(^vi x€tlJLC*v> x€LlJL€PLV°s 'i (°^ word used by Lucilius for hollow of hand), x€iP'i hirando, %eXiSo>i>; hira, hilla, hani-spex (but see § 136. 4), x°^lL x°P-^V i hisco> xa'LVa)> X"~ o-kco] hortus, cors (for cohors), x°PT°si Medial h to Greek x in veh-o, vec-tus, o^eo). 3. to a Sabine f1; e.g. haedus, Sab. fsedus; hariolus, Sab. fariolus; harena, Sab. fasena; hordeum, Sab. fordeum; hircus, Sab. fircus; hostis, Sab. fostis. Quintilian attributes fordeum, fcedos (fsedos, Halm) to the old Romans (1. 4. 14). So forctus and horctus are said to have both been used with the meaning of bonus; and horda to have been an old form for forda, pregnant. Perhaps horreum is connected with far. Influence: none. 1 So Spanish has h for Latin f; e. g. hijo for filius.42 Sounds. [Book I. Weakness: i. changes (or reverts?), after a vowel, to c (before 136 t or s); e.g. v8h.-o, vectus, vexi (=vec-si); trah-o, tractus, traxl. 2. li was not a consonant, so as to affect the quantity of a preceding syllable or prevent the elision of a preceding final vowel; e.g. InMbet; tollit humo; tollite Immo. 3. H between two vowels dropped out, and the vowels if like one another coalesced. Thus Plautus uses dehibeo, prsehibeo, for which afterwards debeo, praebeo. So comprehendo, compreado; cdliors, cors; ahenus, ae-nus; vehSmens (always two syllables only in verse), vemens; nihil, nil; mihi (and not very frequently), mi, existed side by side. Dehinc as monosyllable sometimes in Augus- tan verse. Mehereules as trisyllable (mercules) in Phaedrus. IncQho is an older form for which inchoo is found as early as the second century after Christ at least. 4. In several words the pronunciation appears to have been uncertain, and the spelling varied accordingly; e. g. harundo, Mrena, heres, hdlus, hordeum; aruspex, Sdera, ei (interjection), 8rus, erciscundaB, umgrus, tlmor (the preferable spelling is here given). Gellius (11. 3) speaks of li being formerly found in hallucinor, heluor, honera, honustum. Late inscriptions insert and omit h almost at random; e.g. haditus, hii, hauctoritas; 6mini, afoltat, inospita. In modern Italian h is not sounded. In foreign proper names both spellings often occur $ e.g. Hiberus, Iberus; Hirpini, Irpini; Hannibal, Annibal; &c. J i.e. I as consonant. Character: same as the vowel I. In the middle of words i37 Cicero is said to have written the i twice; e.g. Aiiax, Maiia. In- scriptions of the imperial time, rarely any of earlier date, use a tall I for the consonantal i between two vowels. The form j is modern. Sound: As English y. In the middle between two vowels it 138 probably gave a sound to the preceding vowel, as if forming a diphthong with it, besides its own sound of y. Thus Aiiax or Ajax would be sounded as (English) Ay-yax; Pompeiius or Pompejus as (English) Pompa-yus; quo jus as Engl, quoy-yus; cujus as Engl, cwee-yus. For j after consonants in verse see below, § 14a. a. Position: never final. I is consonantal (1) when it stands 139 as initial, before any of the vowels a, e, 0, u, in Latin words (except iens from ire, to go); e. g. jacio, jeci, Jovis, jugum, &c. (2) when it stands between two vowels, in Latin and some Greek words, viz.:Chap. V/T.] Gutturals and Palatals. J. 43 aj-; Gajus (but in Martial, nom. Gaiiis; voc. Gal), Trajanus, Baj89, Cajeta, bajulus, major, ajo; Achaja, Maja, Ajax, Grajus. ej-; Aquileja, Veji, pulejum, legulejus, plebejus, jejunus, pejor, ejus, ejulo, mejo, pejero; and proper names, as Pompejus (voc. Pompei as trisyllable in Ovid; as disyllable in Hor.). oj-; cLuojus, Troja, Bojos (acc. pi.). uj-; cujus, hujus. In tenuia, tenuior, assiduior, i is a vowel, u consonantal. For compounds of jacio see below. Representation: (i) in Greek by t; e.g. Junius, *lovvios\ *4° Julius, 'iouXto?; Vejos (acc.), Ovrjiovs', Gajus, Taios] Pompejus, ILoinrrjios, Appulejus, 'KTnrovXrjios ; See. (ii) of Greek t, which sometimes forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel; e.g. Klas, Ajax, or (Gic.) Aiiax; Tpoia, Troja; &c. Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European j. %. to Greek £ (perhaps Engl, dy); e.g. jugum, £vyov\ Jjjypgfter, Jovis, Zevs (i.e. Ajeus); jus, broth, fco-fios- 3. to Greek §; e.g. ja-m, brj. f , 4. to Greek rough breathing; e.g. jgcur, fjirap; jti/ej&s, rj^rj. Substitution: i. for dl, gi (the i first becommg ftapji £hen *43 pushing out the preceding consonant); e.g. major foifittaSLoryJa^us for Dianus. j| £2 3. In verse the vowel i becomes sometimes harderspd^o j/^JTJius in Piautus in scjo, djes (scio, dies); filjo, otjum: in the dactylic poets, arjetat, arjetibus (Verg^Stat. Sil.), abjete, parjete, parjetibus (Verg. Sil.), fliijorum (or flvuiorum), steljo, omnja, precantja (Verg.); vindemjator, Nasldjeni, and (in alcaics) consiljum, prlftctgftflh (Hor.); abjegnse (Prop.), antjum, promuntorjum (Ovid, but see §940); ludjum (Juv.). So also in words compounded of semi- (e.g. semjanimus, semjesus), unless the i be really elided (e.g. sem- animis, semesus). In Statius tentija, tSnujore (or tenvia, t&nviore ?) appear to occur; for tenvja, &c. seem impossible. In conubium probably the u is short in the numerous cases, in which the metre has been supposed to require conubjum. (See Luc. Miiller, p. 358, and Munro on Lucret. iii. 776.) Influence: i. caused the omission of a preceding conso- 143 nant; e.g. pejor for pSd-ior, lower (compare pes-simus, pessum); pejSro for perjero (in good MSS.), later per-jHro; di-judico, tra-mitto, &c. for disjudico, transmitto (ct. 168. 3); rejectus, rejecto, for red- jectus, red-jecto; sejtigis for sexjugis; Janus for Djanus (for Dianus); see § 160. %44 Sounds. [Book 1. The effect attributed to j by the old grammarians that it lengthens a preceding vowel is usually explicable either by the ab- sorption of a consonant, or by the vowel being long independently; but the pronunciation (§ 138) may have had some effect; e.g. in koius, quoius (Iriijus, cHjus). 2, At a late period of the language it caused, (when followed by a vowel,) the assibilation of a preceding c, g, t, d; viz. ci, ti = chi, or shi; gi, di=ji (either with French or English pronunciation of j). This assibilation is not proved for any period of Latin proper before the 3rd or 4th century after Christ. Instances of it are found in old Umbrian and Oscan. Weakness: i. j was vocalised (rarely), when occurring be- 144 tween two vowels, and absorbed the succeeding vowel; e. g. foiga for bi-juga. a. Before another i in the compounds of jacio, it was omitted; e.g. adicio, conicio, proicio, deicio: but the preposition remained usually long, though, in and after Ovid, sometimes short; e.g. adici. Sometimes the vowels were contracted; e.g. reice (Verg.), eicit (Lucr.): and in the Augustan and prae-Augustan period jacio in composition was sometimes written jecio (e.g. rejficit, adjficit) in- stead of icio. Dis-jacio became dissicio; porjacio, ponicio. So ajo, Sis, ait. In the same way the I of capio, fugio, &c. dropped away before -is, -it; e.g. capls, eapit (for capiis, &c.). 3. In late imperial inscriptions z is sometimes written for j; e.g. Zesus, Zanuari for Jesus, Januari: or Gi; e.g. Gianuaria, Giove for Januaria, Jove. CHAPTER VIII. DENTALS AND LINGUA LS. T. Character : as above, but with the top stroke sometimes 145 slanting, and sometimes mainly or entirely to the right or left of the vertical stroke. Sound : the sharp dental mute: English t. 146 Position ; frequently final, being so used in verbal inflexions 147 of the third person. Also in some conjunctions.Chap. VIII.] Dentals and Unguals. T. 45 As initial it can stand immediately before r, and in the oldest language also (rarely) before 1; e. g. tlatum, stlis. In Greek words before 1 or m; e. g. Tlepolemus, Tmessus. It can also stand imme- diately after an initial s; e.g. sto, stravi: and in Greek words after p; e. g. Ptolemaeus. On its aspiration see under H (§ 13a). Representation: (i) in Greek by t\ e.g. Titus, Tiros; Pala- 14s tium, Uakariov j See. (ii) (a) of Greek r; e.g. AlrcoXol, JEtoli; Mikriabrjs, Miltiades; aarpovj astrum; &c. (J?) of ®reek 0, in early period (see § 13a); e.g. Kopivdos, Co- rintus; Searpov, teatrum; BLaa-os, tlasus; See. (c) of Greek 8, only in two or three of the oldest inscriptions; e.g. 'AXegavdpov, Alixentrom; KaacravSpa, Gasenter. (Comp. Quin- til. 1. 4, 16.) Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European t. i49 2. to Greek r; e.g. ten-do, ten-eo, relvco; taurus, ravpos; tu, tuus, TV Dor. {(TV Att.), reos; tuli, tollo, tolerare, roX-paa), rXfj-vai; terminus, rep pa; tero, ter-es, trua, retpco, rpt/3co, rpvpa] torr-eo, repcropai; sto, sisto, crrao-is, tcrrrjfxi] di-sting-uo, a-rly-fia, (rrl£a>; sterno, stra-tus, tdrus, arrop-hvvpi, o-rpco-pvrj; Stella (for ster-ula), acrrrjp (acrrep-)] t8g0, crreycoj ©t, peto, prsepes, Treropcu, 7TL~7rrcoJ pateo, iTtr-awvpi; 8cc. 3. st sometimes to Greek ; densus, cWu's; dSmus, Se/xco, hofios, dexter, Sextos; dare, dator, borr)pt didcofii] ddlus, doXos'-, duo, dis-, dubius, dvo, Sis, dicr- cros; 6do, es-ca, eSco, cV-tfuo; dens, obovs (oSoz/r-); op-pidum, pe(d)s, 7redov, irod-, (7rous); scindo, crxi^to, o-^i'Sa£; unda, vdcop. Sec. (b) to Greek medial 0; e.g. fido, fides, 7rei0co, 7tl(ttls] gau- dere, yrjOeiv, va(d)s, vad-imonium, 'ae6-\ov. Substitution: i. for tv before r in words derived from i5s quattuor; e.g. quadraginta, quadra, quadrupes, quadriduum (not quatriduum), &c. 2. once (in a very old vase inscription) for final t: fecid for fecit. (The Oscan had sometimes the 3rd pers. sing, in d.) So in the Mon. Ancyr. adque, aliquod, for atque, aliquot. In late imperial inscriptions occasionally capud for caput; reliquid for reliquit; See. Influence: i. requires a preceding consonant to be flat; e.g. is9 sub-duco, ab-do, &c. 2. changes preceding m to n; e.g. con-do (for com-do), See. 3. changes a following t to s, and then is assimilated or omitted; e.g. divi-sum for divid-tum; scan-sum for scand-tum; fossa from fdd-io ; &c. (For d before tr see below.) In the prae- Ciceronian language cette for c8dite is found. Weakness: i. Initial d before v dropped off, the v be-^ coming b; e.g. duonus becomes bonus. See § 76. 1. Initial d before j dropped off; e.g. JO vis for (old) DiOvis; Janus for Dianus; jiivenis, JiLnius from stem diu-; jacio compared with Sigokco, diaKTcop; See. 3. Before the initial tr of a suffix, d changed to s. (The t was retained because sr was unpronounceable.) e.g. tonstrix for tond-trix; claus-trum for claud-trum; ras-trum for rad-trum; ros- trum for rod-trum; f!rus-tra for fraud-tra; &c. 4. Before the initial m, 1, n of a suffix, d fell off or was assi- milated ; e. g. cse-mentum from csedSre; ra-mentum from rad-ere; ra-mus compared with radix; Sec. sca-la (for scand-la) from scand-6re; nitela or nitella for nite- dula. fi-nis (for fld-nis) from findo; mercennarius for mercednarius. 5. Before s, d is assimilated or falls away; e.g. ces-si for ced-si; ten-si for tend-si; &c. See also § 159. 3. At the end of a word, the d being assimilated, one s only re- mains, and the preceding vowel, if short, remains so; e.g. incite for inctLds; kSres for hSreds; lapis for lapids; compgs for compeds; [pes, v&s (from stems pfcd-, v&d-), are long as being mono- syllables].Chap. VIII.] Denials and Unguals. D. 49 6. Final d fell off at an early period from the ablative case of which it appears to have been the characteristic. It is not found in any inscription later than the S. C. de Bacc. 186 B.C. and is not found constantly even in the earliest inscriptions. The Oscan shows this d: the Umbrian and other Italian dialects (Vol- scian, Sabellan) do not, though some inscriptions are much older than the Latin. Plautus probably used it or not as he chose. This ablatival d has dropped off also from the adverbs supra, infra (suprad, infrad), &c., and probably from interea, postea, &c.; also from the particle red, and the prepositions, sed, prod, antid, postid, except sometimes in composition; e.g. sed-itio, red-eo, prod- est, antidhac (for antehac); &c. So also facilumed (S.C. de Bacc.), for later facillime. The pronouns me, te, se (both accusative and ablative) were in early times med, ted, sed. Of the final d of the imperative (also retained in Oscan), one example remains in Latin; estod (Fest. p. 230): perhaps also faeitud for facito. 7. In the particle red in composition, the d was frequently either assimilated, or fell off, the vowel being lengthened to com- pensate. Thus reddo, recido, or reccido, rejectus always: redduco or reduco in early poets including Lucretius; reliquiae, religio, relicuus in Lucr.; (reliquiae, See. in iambic &c. (Plaut. Ter. Phaedr. Sen.); rSlicus in Persius and later poets;) receptus, relictus (Lucil.); rellatus and rSlatus (Lucr.). The perfect stem has always a long first syllable in repperi, reppuli, rettuli, rettudi, probably as a, joint effect of the original red and the loss of the reduplication. In other words the d is lost without compensation. 8. The preposition prod always drops the d in composition except before a vowel; e. g. prodeo, prodest, but prosum, produco. But the 0 is always lengthened, except in a few words, viz. prft- cella, prfinepos, proneptis, prdtervus, and before f (except profero, proficio, profligo, prSflo); usually pr6pago (noun and verb), prd- curo, and, rarely, pr6pello, Proserpina. (In Greek words prd is always short, except prologus and sometimes propino.) 9. D in the preposition ad is usually assimilated to a follow- ing p, c, g, t, 1, r, n; e. g. apparet, accipio, aggero, attinet, alloquor, arripio, annuo (but adnepos). It is usually omitted before gn, sp, sc, st; e.g. agnosco, aspicio, ascisco, asto. It always remains be- fore b, j, v,m;e.g. adbibo, adjuvo, advena, admiror; and in inscrip- tions before q, f, s1; e.g. adquiro, adfero, adsigno. 1 The retention of the d is not a proof of the pronunciation, as we see from the pun in Plaut. Pan. i. 1. 67. MI. Adsum apud te eccum, AC. Ego elixus sis volo. The pronunciation was assum. 450 Sounds. {Book 1. For the more usual atque, ad-que is found in the Mon. Ancyr and frequently in other inscriptions. 10. Final d in old Latin sometimes changed to r. Thus in ad in composition, chiefly before v and f; e.g. arvocatos, arvorsum, arveho, arvena; arfines, arfari, arfuisse. Hence arbiter from ad- beto, arcesso for ad-cesso. So also meridies for medi-dies (according to the Romans); X.adinuxn on old coins for Larinum; apor (in Festus) for apud, Gomp. aud-io, aur-is ear. 11. In quicquid, quicquam, cette (for cgdite), d is assimilated. In quo-circa (for quod-circa, comp. idcirco), hoc (for hodce), d is omitted. For the more usual haud, are found haut, and in early Latin (and in mss. of Livy and Tacitus) before consonants hau. (For aput, set, &c. see § 150, and for the practical omission of d in apud in the comic poets, see § 295. 4.) N. Character: as above. l6l Sound: both (1) dental, and (a) guttural, nasal. zc2 1. as dental nasal usually, like English n. 2. as guttural nasal ("n adulterinum") before a guttural (c, q, g, x); sounded like English ng, (or n in inky, finger). Varro (aj>. Prise. I. 39) said the oldest Roman writers followed the Greek in writing g for n before c and g; e.g. aggulus for angulus (comp. Greek dyKvXos); agguilla (comp. tyx^vs); agcora (comp. ayKvpa)] agceps >for anceps; aggens for angens; iggerunt for ingerunt. Position: final, only 1. in nom. acc. sing, of neuter nouns in 163 -men, and a few others; e.g. gluten (n), &c.; tibicen, cornicen, tubicen, fidicen (for tibicinus), &c. 2. in some adverbs; e. g. in, an, sin (for si-ne), quin (for qui-ne), tamen; also viden, audin, See. (for vides-ne, audis-ne). 3. in Greek words; e.g. splen, sindon, &c. Never after another consonant in an initial combination (§ 11), except in a few words which in the older language began with gn (see § 129.3). Never initial before another consonant. Frequent before t and s at end of a word (§ 271). Representation: (i) in Greek by v, or, before gutturals, by 164 y\ e.g. Faunus, <5>avisos; Numitor, N€fZ€Tcop] Cincius, K/y/«oy; uncia, ovyKia or ovyyla 5 Longus, Aoyyos J &c.Chap. VIIJ."] Dentals and Unguals. N. (ii) of Greek y, or, before gutturals, y; e.g. yiHOfxccv, gnomon; Hav, Pan; ^eip-qv, Siren; JAyv/crr/f, AncMses; cnroyyia, spongia; Coruncanius, Kopoynavios (Polyb.) ; &c. Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European n. 165 2. to Greek v, or, before gutturals, y; e.g. animus, anima, avefios', g8na, yews; an-lielo, avd ; in, eV, els (for eVr); maneo, me-min-i, mens, &c., /jlcvoo, fxi-fxova^ fiev-os, See.; NSro (a Sabine word), avrjp (avtp-); ndvus, veos (veFos); anas (anat-s), vrjcrcra; nix, niv-is, nin-guit, viceroy, ; nun-c, vvv 5 unguis, ovv£; nuo, co- niveo, v€vvara£a), &c. Substitution: i. For m before all but labial consonants; e.g. t66 con-cors, con-gero, conjux, &c. (see under m, § 86. 4). 2. nn for nd. There is some evidence for forms distennite, dispennite for distendite, dispendite (PL Mil. 1407); and tennitur for tenditur (Ter. Ph. 330). Influence : 1. causes c, s, t, d, m to fall out before it; e.g. ze7 lii-na for luc-na; pono for posno; vicenus for vicentnus; fi-nis for fid-nis (iindo); septenus for septem-nus; novenus for novem-nus, &c. 2. ns, nf lengthened the preceding vowel. See Cic. Or. 48, §1^9: 44 4 Indoctus' dicimus brevi prima littera, 4 insanus' producta, 4 inhumanus' brevi, 4 infelix' longa; et ne multis, quibus in verbis eae primae litteras sunt, quae in sapiente atque felice, producte dicitur, in ceteris omnibus breviter." So Consus, Consualia, consules (acc.), consilia, Considius, are written Kooycro?, Komrovakia, KcovaovXas, Kcovo-ikia, KcdvctlSios (Dionys. Hal.); Consentia, Kovo-evrla (Appian), KcQ&evTla (Strab.); Constantinus, Kcova-ravrivos (Dio Cass.); cen- sus, accensus, Krjvcrosi aKKr^voros (Inscr.); Censorinus, KrjvcrcopLvo? (Mon. Ancyr. App.); Ramnenses, Titienses, 'PafjLvijvcrrjs, TtTiqwijs (Plut.). [Compare with Centenius, Kevryvios (Polyb., App.); Cen- turiones, Kevrvplodves (Polyb.).] Weakness: i. changes to m before a labial (p, b, m), though ^8 the change is not always marked in writing; e. g. imperator, impe- rium (sometimes inperium); compleo (conpleo), imbuo, commuto, immortalis (often inmortalis) ; &c. 2. in drops its n in composition before gn; e.g. i-gnavus, i- gnarus, i-gnosco, i-gnominia. (Compare § 86. 4.) 3. Before s it frequently falls away, sometimes is assimilated: (a) in adjectival suffixes; e.g. formosus for formonsus (Verg.); verrucossus, imperiossus (Augustan inscript.); Maluginesis (ib.); 4—25* Sounds. [Book /. Tliermeses (also Thermenses, Termenses, in some inscr. A.u.c. 683); Pisaureses (very old inscr.). Cicero is said to have writ- ten Megalesia, Foresia, Hortesia. So fOprrjcrios for Hortensius. In late inscriptions also in pres. part.; e.g. doles, lacrimas for dolens, lacrimans, &c. (£) numeral suffixes; e.g. quoties, vicies, millies, &c., vicesinras, millesimus, &c. are post-Augustan forms for quotiens, viciens, vicensumus (or vieensimus), &c. (c) in stems; e.g. cesor, in prae-Aug. inscriptions for censor; mostellaria from monstrum (mostrum, Verg.); tosillse (C. N. D. 1. 54) for tonsills8; trimestris for trimenstris; tdsus, passus, fressus, also tunsus, pansus, frensus. So elephas for elephans; trastjrura (Verg.) for transtrum. 4. n final (or ns?) falls away always in nom. case of stems 111 -on; e.g. homo, cardo (homdn-, card6n-), sermo, oblivio (sermon-, oblivion-), See. So~ ceteroqui, alioqui, for prae-Augustan csetero- quin, &c. Insertion: i. Athamans, Indigens in Augustan inscriptions 169 for Athamas, Indiges, &c. Also thensaurus (tensaurus?) in Plautus for 07](ravp6s. 2. in verbal forms; e.g. tango (see Book II). So also con- junx, conjugis from jug-, jungo. L. Character: always as above, after 570 01*580 A.u.c. Before 170 that the earlier form (with the bottom stroke not horizontal but forming an acute angle with the other), once exclusively used, was still in use. Sound: as in English. X7> Position: final only in a few nouns in nom. and neuter acc. 17- eases sing. It can stand immediately before a mute at the end of a syllable; e. g. sculptus, calx, &c.; and immediately after p, b, c, g at beginning of a syllable; e.g. pluma, blandus, clamo, glans, &c. Representation: i. in Greek by X always; e.g. Publius Lenlulus, no7rXios Aevrov\os (Polyb.), Hov7rXios AevrXos (Appian); Popillius, no7rtXXtos; Latini, Aarlvoi; See. 1. of Greek X; e.g. ^Xa/xvs, chlamys; $i/XXis, Phyllis; 'EXew;, Helena; See. Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European 1 or t. i74 [Some (e.g. Schleicher) consider 1 to arise always from a weakening of an original r].Chap. VIII.] Dentals and Linguals, L. 53 а. to Greek X; e.g. alius, aXKos; dulcis, yXvfcus; volvo, Arco (feX-); oleum, eXcuoy; calx, Xa£ (for *Xa£); lana, Xa^^; l^go, Xeya>; leo, X/y, \ecov] luo, Xv©; lavo, ad-luo, Xovg>; tiliilo, oXoXu£<»; fallo, cr(f)aW<»; pdlex, yJ/vWaj ulna, <0X077; volo, /3ovXo/zai; &c. 3. to Greek p (rarely); e.g. vellus, villus, epos (ionic), epioi/; balbus, (Hapfiapos, lilium, \elpiov. 4. to Greek S; e.g. lacruma, ddicpvov] levir, daijp] 61eo, 5dor, o£g> (perf. od-coS-a), oS/xry. Substitution: for m, d, n or r before 1. See next section. In 17s composition cam- generally became con-, sometimes col-; e. g. colle- gium; &c. In inscriptions conlegium, conlega till about end of Augustus' reign; then collegium, &c. (Momms. Ephem. i. p. 79.) In usually remained. Ad generally became al; e. g. alloquor, &c. Influence : 1. Assimilates to itself or omits a preceding i7g c, d, n, r, s, x, an intervening short vowel being omitted; e.g. paullus for pauculus; lapillus for lapid-ulus; sella for sedula; corolla for coron-tUa; Catullus for Caton-ulus; Hispallus for His- panulus; Asellus for Asin-ulus; prelum for pren-lum (from pre- mo); agellus for ager-lus; qualus for quas-lus (comp. quasillus); ala for ax-la (or axilla); velum for vex-lum (or vexillum). 2. 1 preferred 6 or u before it; e. g. salto, insulto, compared with tracto, detrecto; poculum with pulc6r (old polcer); &c\ (§ 204. 2, e.) 11 preferred e; e. g. vello compared with vulsus; fiscella with fiscina; &c. (§ 213. 5.) 3. caused the omission of a preceding initial tor guttural; e.g. latus for tlatus (tollo); lis for stlis; locus for stl6cus; lamentum compared with clamo; lac (lact-) with yakaKr-; or the insertion (or transposition) of a short vowel between; e.g. scalpo, sculpo compared with ykacfxc, yXvqfxa; dulcis with jXvkvs (for SXvkvs). 4. caused the omission of a preceding short vowel after c or p; e.g. vinclum, saeclum, periclum, hercle, disciplina, maniplus, for vinculum, &c.; puMicus for populicus. 5. threw off a following s; e.g. consul for consuls, sol for sols, &c. vigil for vigilis. In velle a succeeding r is assimilated (wOlgse becoming volere, voire, velle). б. lg, 11, changed a following suffixed t into s; e.g. mulg-, mulsus; veil-, vulsus. 7. changed a subsequent .1, in suffix -ali, into r; e. g. famularis, palmaris, vulgaris compared with talis, animalis. frugalis, auguralis, ediilis, &c.54 Sounds. [Book L So also a preceding 1 is changed into r; e.g. caruleus from cselum; Parilia from Pales. Weakness : In some words the spelling varied between a single i77 and double 1, viz.: 1. if i (not being a case-inflexion) followed 1, the grammarians held that single 1 should be written; e. g. mille, mllia (Mon. Ancyr. has millia); Messalla, Messalina; villa, vllicus; but stillicidium (not stilicidium) usually. So inscriptions give both Amulius and Amullius; Petilia, Petillius; Popilius, Popillius; &c., but -ilius is much more frequent than -illius in most words; Pollio however is more frequent than Polio. 2. the suffix -ela is in good MSS. written -ella after a short syllable; e. g. ldquella, quSrella, mgdella; suadela, tiitela, corruptela. R. Character: usually as above, but in early inscriptions the 178 right hand lower limb is very short. Sound: the sound made by vibration of the point of the 179 tongue: rather the Italian or German r, than the English. Position: frequently final; viz. in nom. and neut. acc. sin- 180 gular of nouns, and in 1st and 3rd persons singular and plural of passive verbs. It can stand immediately before any final conso- nant ; e. g. ars, arx; and immediately after an initial mute. Representation: i. in Greek, by p* e.g. Roma, 'Pcu^; i8r Trebia, Tpe/3ia; Tiberius, Tifiepios] Hernici, "Epw/ce?; Brutus, Bpov- ros; See. 2. of Greek p; e.g. Kparrjp, crater; p^rtap, rhetor; Ilapt?, Paris; &c. 3. of Greek A; e.g. KavBrjkios, canterius. (Correspondence: t. to an original Indo-European r.. 182 2. to Greek p; e.g. ar-ma, ar-mus, ar-tus, ars, ap-, apaptWo, apSpov, apnos; &ro, arvum, dpoco, apovpa; ratis, re-mus, epeWa), eperrjs, iperfxos; ardea, epcodios; 6rior, opw/ii; rapa, paws, pa are said to have occurred.) So the Etruscan Mezentius was iu the older language Messentius. Correspondence : 1. to an original Indo-European s. J5o 2. to Greek ?; e.g. sum (for es-um), el/il (for eV/u).; vestis, ia-Qrjs, evvvjju; sanus, (Taos, (rcos ; stis, orvs-, vs; vesper, eenrepos; scutum, (tkvtos ; scipio, aKrjTrrpov; sporta, crirvpis; &c. 3. to Greek rough breathing; e.g. sal, aXs; salio, aWo/iai; sex, eg; septem, eVra; sedeo, sedes, ego/icu, e'8os; se, suus, e, o-<£e (for ; simplex, dirXoos'-, silva, v\r]] sisto, HarTrjfjLi; s61us (old sollus), oXos; sopor, somnus, vttvos\ sdcer, Uvpos\ sub, vtto; super, uWp; &c. Substitution: i. st for tt or dt, if the last t was to be pre- igx served; e. g. daustrum from olaudo; tonstrix from tond-eo; eques- tris, equester from eques (6qu6t-); &c. Cf. § 151. a.Sounds. [Book I 2. ss (or s) for ts or ds; e.g. clau-si for claud-si; mi-si for mit-si; equSs for equ6t-s; es-se for ed-se (i. e. Sdere to eat); frons for front-s and for frond-s; &c. So also n (sometimes) and r (rarely) are assimilated to a follow- ing s, and, it may be, subsequently omitted; e.g. formSsus for for- mon-sus (Verg., Ov.); imperiosus or -ossus for imperion-sus; vicies for viciens; vicesumus for vicensumus; trigesumus for trigensumus (see below 4); mensas (and other acc. plurals) for mexisams (mensans); dispessus for dispan-sus; mostrum from monstrum (see next §). Prosa for proversa (prorsa); prosus for prorsus; rdsus (or rus- bus) for rursus. But mer-sus, ver-sus, &c. (see next §) remain (§ 42). 3. s for t after lg, rg, 11, rr; e. g. mul-sum for mulg-tum; mer- sum for merg-tum; cur-sum for curr-tum; pul-sum for pell-turn, &c. (Quintilian, 1. 4. 14, speaks of mertare, pultare, as being the old forms for mersare, pulsare.) Rarely after single mutes; e. g. lap-sum for lab-tum; &c. (see § 705 and Preface). 4. ss (or s) for dt or tt; (i. e. dt, tt, become ds, ts as in pre- ceding paragraph, and then by assimilation ds, ts became ss, of which one s was after Cicero's time omitted1; e.g. cessum for ced-tum; casum (cassum Cic.) for cad-tum; mis-sum for mitt-tum; sen-sum for sent-tum; divisum (divissum Cic.) for divid-tum; &c. yicen- siimus for vicent-ttimus; trigensumus for trigent-tiimus (see above 2); &c. 5. -iss for ios (cf. § 242) in adjectives of the superlative degree; e.g. durissimus for duriosimus; doctis-simus for doctios-imus, &c. See also the next paragraph and the Preface. 6. ss in prohibessit, levassit, &c. appears to be only indicative of the length of the preceding vowel. Possibly there may have been some confusion with such forms as complessent, recesset, levasse, &c. which contain the perfect suffix -is. Moreover an s left single would have formed an exception to the general law of Roman pronunciation which changed such an s to r (§ 183). For the etymology of arcesso, capesso, &c. see § 625. Influence: i. Changed a preceding flat consonant to sharp; 192 e. g. scrip-si from scrih-o; rexi (i. e. rec-si) from reg-o. So (in 1 Quintilian's words (1. 7. 20) deserve quoting; "Quid quod Cicero- nis temporibus paulumque infra, fere quotiens s littera media uocalium longarum uel subjecta longis esset, geminabatur ? ut 'caussae,' 'cassus,' i diuissiones:' quomodo et ipsum et Vergilium quoque scripsisse manus eorum docent. atqui paulum superiores etiam illud, quod nos gemina dicimus 4 jussi,' una dixerunt."Chap. VIII.~\ Dentals and Linguals. s. 59 pronunciation at least) op-sequor, sup-signo, though to in sub (subs) sometimes fell away; e.g. suspicio (§ 78). %, changed a preceding mton; e.g. con-scribo, consul, &c.; or required insertion of p; e. g. hiemps for hiems; sump-si for sum-si; &c. (but pres-si (for pren-si) from prem-o). 3. Completely assimilated, or threw out, a preceding d or t (always), n or r (sometimes); e. g. ces-sum for ced-sum, for ced-tum; &c. See § 191, 2. But mons for monts; ars for arts. See § 4a. 4. ns lengthens a preceding vowel: see § 167. 2. Weakness: i. Initial s has fallen off before a consonant in 193 some words; e.g. fallo compared with o-^aXXoo; fungus with \ &c., but in most stems the Greek and Latin agree in^ this matter, and the omission is discernible only by comparison with other languages; e. g. nix, vifai compared with snow; taurus, ravpos with steer; limus with slime; &c. 2. Medial s falls away before nasals, liquids, and other flat consonants. (a) before m; e.g. dihnus for dus-mus (comp. Bao-vs); Camena for Casmena; pomerium for posmoerium; triremis compared with triresmos (Duillian inscript.); dlmota for dismota; tra- mitto for transmitto; &c. (b) before n; e.g. pono for posno (comp. pos-ui and § 185); vidSn for vides-ne; in (Ter. Eun. 651) for is-ne, art going?-, satin for satis-ne; ae-num for aes-num (ses-). (r) before d; e.g. jfl-dex for jus-dex; Idem for is-dem; tre-decim for tres-decim; diduco for dis-duco. (cl) before 1, r; e.g. dflabor, dlripio for dis-labor, &c. 3. S between two vowels almost always changed to r in early times, see § 183. Consequently no Latin words exhibit s between two vowels, Except (a) where s is not original, but due to a substitution (often indeed standing for ss); e.g. prosa, hse-sum, esiiries, ausim, causa (caussa, Cic.), formosus, &c. where it stands for d or t. (3) compounds of.words where s was initial; e.g. de-silio, po- situra, prse-sentia, bi-sextus, &c. (r) the following words (some of which may perhaps fall under the foregoing classes), viz. asinus, basium, caasaries, csesius, casa, caseus, cisium, fdsus, laser, miser, nasus, pdsillus, qua-6o Sounds. [Book I. silluni, quaes© (also qusero), rosa (comp. p68ov), vasa; and some proper names; e. g. Caesar, Kseso, Lausus, Pisa, Pisaurum, Sisenna, Sosia (gsesum is a Keltic word). 4. Final s became r; (a) in the nom. sing, of stems in s (in compliance with the change in the other cases?); e.g. arbor from ar- b6s-; honor from konos-: robur from robos-; melior from melios-; &c. (b) where a vowel originally followed; e.g. puer for puerus, originally puesus. The characteristic r of the passive voice is generally held to be for se. 5. Final s after a vowel at an early period of the language was frequently not pronounced, and thus frequently omitted in writing also. (In the 4th century after Christ the same tendency recurred and remains in Italian, &c.) Instances are (a) nom. sing, of -a stems; e.g. nauta, scriba, &c. compared with pavrrjs, &c.; luxuria, spurcitia, &c. with luxuries, spur- cities, &c. See Book II. (b) nom. sing, of -0 stems; e.g. ille, ipse for illus, ipsus. So perhaps the vocatives domine, fili ( = filie), &c. which however most philologers take for the stem itself weakened. So, frequently in early inscriptions, Cornelio, Fourio, Herenio, &c. for Cornelios, Fourios, Herenios (nom. sing.), the forms with s (both -os and -us) occurring likewise at the same time. In later, chiefly imperial, inscriptions occur, e.g. Philarguru, Secundu, &c. s with the preceding vowel (6 at that time) fell off in puer for puerus, tibicenfor tlbicenus, &c. Inscriptions (e.g. S. C. Bacc.) give Claudi, Valeri, &c. for Claudios, Valerios (nom. sing.), which some refer to a shortened form Claudis, Valeris, as alis for alius; some take to be a mere abbreviation. (f) pote (all genders) for potis; mage for magis (adv.). After 1 and r we have vigil, pugil for vigilis, pugilis (nom. s. masc. fem.); acer, equester, saluber (m. nom.), &c. for equesteris, saluberis; &c. (d) The nom. pi. of -0 stems of all kinds in early inscriptions had frequently s final, which the ordinary language dropped; e.g. Minncieis, Vituries, Italiceis, vireis, publiceis, conscriptes, heisce, liisce, &c. See Book II. (e) The ordinary genitive sing, of -a, -e, and -0 stems, e. g. familiae or familial, diei or die, domini, is' either formed by omission of a final s as in old genitives, familias (for familiaes); dies, rabies, illius (for illo-ius); or is a locative form in -i (so Bopp, Mad- vig, and others). Only in late inscriptions occur integritati, Isidi, 6cc. for mtegritatis, Isidis, 8cc,Chap. VI//.] Dentals and Linguals. z. 6 r (/) In verbs (2nd pers. sing, of passive voice) amabare, loquerere, conabere, &c. for amabaris (old amabares), &c. So the impe- rative present (unless taken as the bare stem, cf. 5. b) is formed from the indicative present; e. g. ama, amate for amas, amatis, &c. The old imperative forms praefamino, progredimino, &c. are for prsefaminos, progrediminos, having same suffix as Tvirr-otxevos, and therefore belong to (b). (g) In the early poets, so also frequently in Lucretius and once in Catullus, the final s before an initial consonant was treated as omitted; e. g. at end of some hexameters, quoted for this pur- pose by Cicero (Or. 48, § 161), Qui est omnibu' princeps; Vita ilia dignu' locoque. Compare Vergil, JEn. xii. 115, Solis equi lucemque elatis naribus efflant, copied, with a transposi- tion on this ground, from Ennius (p. 85, Vahlen), funduntque elatis naribus lucem. Z. This letter was common in Umbrian and Oscan. It is found for instance in the Latin transcription of an Oscan law of the time of the Gracchi (Corp. Inscr. Lat. No. 197). It is also found in an extract from the song of the Salii given by Varro (L.L. vn. 26). In Latin it appears first (unless the above be an exception) in Cicero's time, merely to write Greek words, which were before written with s or ss. The introduction of z into Plautus must therefore probably be due to a later recension. In the writers of the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ 2 is used for di in the words 2aconus, 2abulus, 2eta, See. for dia &c- S° 7refo? for 7recW, &c.). ^ It seems probable that and, if so, then Latin 2, was (at least sometimes) sounded like English j (which sound soon rises out of dy) or French j; but Curtius, Corssen, and others (not Key or Donaldson) assign it the sound of English z, as in modern Greek.02 Sounds. [Book I CHAPTER IX. VOWELS. The Latin vowels will here be treated in the order which ap- i06 pears to have been followed in the development of the language; viz. a, o, u, e, i. That is to say, where one vowel has given place to another, it has been in the direction of a to i, not i to a. Thus a was capable of changing to o, or u, or e, or i; o to u, or e, or i; u to e or i; e to i. Changes which prima facie seem to be made in the reverse direction are the result of our regarding, as the standard form, what is really a later development1: e.g. mare, from the stem (as we now call it) mari-; effectus from efficio, &c. (See Ritschl, Rhein. Mus. (1859) XIV* P* 4°6« Opusc. 11. 622, n.) But sre § 234. 5- and 244. ^ And the priority of e to i in the -i stems rests on but little positive evidence. A. Character: usually as above, but all positions of the middle 197 stroke are found; e.g. bisecting the angle, or bisecting either side and parallel to, or touching the bottom of, the other. Sound: as Continental a; viz. long 5 as in psalm; short as the 198 broader pronunciation of pastime. Position: frequently final lg9 1. in nouns; as nom. (&) and abl. (a) singular, of.a- stems, and nom. acc. neuter plural (a) of all stems; 2. in verbs; only and pers. sing. pres. imperative (a) of a- verbs. Representation: (i) in Greek by a; e.g. Marcus, MapKos; 200 Fabius, $a/3ioy; Putalicola, UoTrXiKoXas; Alba longa, "AX/3a Xoyya (Dionys. H.); &c. (ii) of Greek «; e.g. 'AXk/xtJi/i;, Alcumena (Plaut.); 'Aya/ze/xzw, Agamemno; (jjdXay^ phalanx; Tvapairrfyyia^ parapegma; &c, of Greek ai; e. g. KpanraXrj, crapula. 1 Corssen contests this, arguing for the priority in some cases of e to ll, and of i to e. Krit. Beitr. p. 546 foil. So also Schleicher, Vergl. Gram. § 49, ed. 2. See also Corssen, Aussprache, ii. 226, ed. 2,Chap. IX. J Vowels, a. 63 Correspondence1: i. To an original Indo-European a. ^ а. a to Greek « (usually)^ e.g. ago, aya>; angor, ayXoixai; alius, aXXos; a7ro; Sxgentum, apyvpos; daps, hanavq; latere, XaOtlv; pater, rraTijp] caiare, KaXeco; sal, s&lum, a As-, craXos; &c. 3. & to Greek e; e.g. angustus, eyyv?; caput, K€(f>aXrj; magnus, fieyas; salix, cXi'/c^; pateo, Tr^ravvvp-i; quattuor, rea-crapes] maneo, fievcoi malus peXas ; &c- 4. & to Greek o (rare); e.g. salvus, 0X00?, comp. 6Xoopw, hSxu-spex, xoXas; to o; e.g. capulum, K&>7r?7; am-arus, w/zos. 5. a to Greek d, Doric and, after p or a vowel, Attic; other- wise Attic e.g. suavis, aSus, rjdvs; clavis (/cXaf-), /cXdt'ff, /cX^ts-; malum, apple, fiaXov, jirjXov] mater, fiar-qp, ^rrjp; plaga, 7rXdya, 7rkr)yr); frater, (ppar-qp ; fa-ri, cf>a/u, (prj/jLL] ajo, ijjxi; farcio, (fipao-cra); stare, torra/xi, tcrr/y/xt; raacero, fiaa-croo; pannus, Travoi, 1rfji/os- б. a to Greek ©; e.g. labes, \a>pr), acer, ocior, cokv?. 7. In suffixes, to Greek a or 9; e.g. ama-, amabo, Tip,deos; c6q.vo, 7recr(ra); torqveo, rpeVco. 5. 5 to Greek v; e.g. nox, m61a, 6. 0 to Greek co; e.g. gnosco, yiyv(6orK(o; nos, */<»; vos, o-<£«; ovum, g)o^; ambo, apLpou] ocior, 7. in suffixes: o to Greek o; viz. -or- to -op-; e.g. oratoris, prjTopos; but also -^p-; e.g. datoris (gen.), dorrjpos; auditSrium, aKpoaTijpiov'i See. -i5r- to -101/-; e.g. majoris, ficl£ovos) See. Substitution: i. o for au; e.g. Clodius for Claudius; olla for aula; plostrum for plaustrum; &c. So after a prefix; e.g. plaudo, explodo; fauces, suf-foco; &c. (See § 249.) a. for a in derivatives; e.g. portio from pars, sedbis from sc&bere. 3. for 6 (?) in derivatives; e.g. tdga from t6go; pondus from pendgre; &c. (§ 234.5)- Contraction, Hiatus, &c.: i. o + a and o + e remained without contraction; e.g. co-egi, co-actus (but this may be due to the m in com). 2. o + i (probably 1) occurs in cases of 0 stems; viz. gen. sing, e.g. domino-i, dominl; dat. e.g. domino-i domino; nom. pi. e.g. dominoes, dominois, domini. Quoi, prom are monosyllabic, though it^e vowels remain.Chap. IX.] Vowels. 0. 67 3. 0 + 0, org, or 1 becomes 0; e.g. copia for co-opia, cSperio for cooperio (but coortus remains uncontracted); coventio, contio; retro-vorsus, retrorsus; cohors, cors; co-igo, cogo; movisse, mos&s; mdvitor, motor; See.] probeat for prohibeat; comptus for coemp- tus; prosa for proversa. Sometimes where a v has stood between the vowels, the resulting contraction becomes ii; e.g. novendinae (noundinse old), nundinaa; mdvlto, miito; bilbus (rarely bobus) for b6vibus; See. Change of Quantity: i. in stems; e.g. molestus, moles 212 (? cf. § 789) ; vdcare, vocem (from vox); s6nus, sSnare, persona; sdpor, soplre; ndta, notus (but agnitus), ndmen. 2. lengthened in compensation for an extruded consonant; e.g. pono for pos-no; glomus for gldb-mus; conubium for com-nubium; lioc for liodce; &c. In formosus for formonsus; dominos for dominoms; See. the length of the o is probably due to ns. Cf. § 167. 2. 3. A final o is sometimes shortened (see § 281); (a) in the nom. sing, of proper names; e.g. Scipid, &c. So also mentid. (b) in the 1st pers. sing, active present indicative; e.g. vetd, put6; rarely in other parts of the verb; e. g. dabo, cseditd, oder6; &c. (c) in a few other words; e.g. egd, citd; and sometimes in porro, intro, modo. 4. in final syllables of Latin words o followed by a consonant is regularly shortened; (a) in nom. sing, of stems in -or; e.g. liondr, sordr, oratdr, majdr; (b) in 1st pers. sing, of passive voice; e.g. amdr, amabdr, audior; &c. (c) in and and 3rd pers. sing. fut. imper. pass.; e. g. amatdr, See. Change of Quality. The general change of 0 to u took 213 place about the same time as that of 6 to I, see § 234. But it was retained after v till later (§93) and always in suffix -61us after i or e (infr. ib). Thus 1. 0 to u (usually) before two consonants (mn, nc, nd, nt, It, st); e.g. (a) in 3rd pers. plural of verbs; e.g. dederont, dedro (old), dederunt; cosentiont, consentiunt; legunt compared with \eyovTL (Att. \iyovai). So vivont, vivunt; loquontur, loquntur, later loquuntur; comfluont, confluunt; See. (b) in final syllable of stem; e.g. colomna (old form: comp. TVTn-ofievos), columna; tiron-, tirunculus; qusestion-, qusestiuncula; bom6n-, homunculus; arbos, arbustum; minor (for minos), minus- cuius; nocturnus compared with vvkto>p\ See. 5—268 Sounds. [Book I. (r) sometimes in root vowel; e.g. fcxrac, hunc; poplicus, puplicus; Poplius, Publius; Polcer, Pulcer; moltaticod, multatico; oquoltod (»S. C. de Bacc.), occulto; volt, vult; adolesco, adultus; conctos, cunctos; sesconcia, sescuncia; nontiata, nuntiata; nondinum, nundinum; &c. 2. 6 to (a) before a final consonant; e.g. donom, donum; locom, locum; duonoro, bonorum; filios, filius; Cornelio, Cornelius; equos, ecus, later equus; quom, cum; mortuos, mortuus; femor-, femur; corpos-, corpus; cosol, consul; majos, majus (neut.); illo-, mud; &c. But o remained in sequor, marmor. (In uxor, honor, moneor, major, &c. the o is properly long, and hence is not changed.) (b) in a suffix before 1 unless followed by i (infr.5); e.g. popSlus, poptilus; parvolus, parvulus; singolis, singulis; tabdla, tabula; semdl, simiil; conciliabdleis (a.u.c. 632), conciliaMlis; Herc&les, Hercules; Sec. (The i in singulis &c. is only inflexional.) But after e, i, 01* v, the 0 was often preserved; e. g. aureolus, filiolus, Scaevdla; See. 3. The root vowel is changed in adiilescens from addle-, ttili for older tdli, I bore. (But stultiloquus, concolor, benivolus, inndcens, dissdnus, See.; arrogo, evomo, Sec. retain 0). 4. 0 to e, (a) (sometimes) before two consonants (st, nt, nd); e.g. honos-, honestas; majos-, majestas; tempds-, tempestas; funds-, funestus. So in present participle and gerundive ferenti- compared with (fiepovrfaciendus (and faciundus), with presumed common original faciondus; (cf. § 618) &c. (k) as final vowel; e. g. censuerS (in S. C. de Bacc.) for censueront (censuerunt); ipsg, ist8, illS, for ipsus (old ipsos); &c. So the vocatives; e.g. taure for tauros or taurd-; and adverbs; e.g. bfcnS for bonod; certe and certo; anxiefor anxiod; Sec. (In other words where 0 is final a loss has already taken place (cf. § 42); e.g. cardo, for cardons; rSgo for rggom; &c.) (c) After v the republican language (but see § 93) showed 0 in some words, where later e was usual; e.g. voster, vorto and its derivatives, vorro, v&to; later vester, verto, &c., verro, veto. 5. 6 to 5: (a) before 11; e.g. velle for vol&re; vello, pello, -cello, compared with pSpul-i, vul-sum, (volsella, pincers), -culsum; ocellus (for 6col61us) from oculus. (But lapillus from lapid-, Sec.; ille for ollus; tollo compared with tuli. In corolla, olla, Pollio or Polio, Marullus for maronulus, Sec. the 0 is long.) (Z>) before r followed by a vowel; e.g. foederis compared with fcedus; funeris with funus; vulnero with vulnus; Sec. (0 is pre- sumed as the common original; cf. yeVo?.)Chap, IX.] Voivcls. U. 69 (c) before a single consonant and after i; e. g. socio-, sociStas; pio-, piStas; See. 6. 6 to (usually) I; in final stem syllable, before a single consonant followed by a vowel, except 1 not followed by i, and except before r; e. g. leglmus compared with Xeyo/xev and volftmus; carddn-, cardinis; hom6n-, hominis; cselo-, cselitus; alto-, altitudo; bono-, bonitas (compared with 10-07-77?, &c.); amico-, amicitia; uno-, unicus; armo-, armipotens;. fato-, fatidicus; fago-, faginus; stereos-, sterquilinium; incola, inqullinus; humo-, humilis; simol (later simul), similis; ficto-, fictilis (compared with crusto-, crus- tulum, &c.); &c. So also senatuos, senatuis; Castoris compared with Kao-ropos, old Lat. Kastorus. Omission: apparently 0 in victrix, compared with victor-; 2l4 tonstrina with tonsSr-, cf. § 209. 7; neptis with nepSt- (nepos). U. Character: In inscriptions always as English V: the rounded 215 form is found in MSS., the earliest extant being the papyrus from Herculaneum. Sound: as Italian u; i.e. ft as English u in brute (or 00 in pool, 216 foot); ft same sound shortened. An owl's cry is written tutu in Plaut. Men. 91. Position: ft never final, except in inscriptions, chiefly post- 217 Augustan, in which a final s or in has been omitted, ft is final only in some cases of nouns with stems in u; and the adverbs diu, noctu, slmitu. It is frequent in suffixes before 1, unless 1 is followed by i (see Book III). Representation: (i) in Greek; 1. usually by ov whether the 218 Latin vowel be short or long; e.g. Regulus, 'P^yovXo?; Venusia, Ovevovo-ia; Postumius, noo-rov/uos', Superbus, 2ou7rep/3os; Vibula- nus, Ovi(3ov\civoS) Vitulum, OvlrovXov\ Belluti, BeXXourov (Dion. Hal.); NovumComum, No^ov/xkg^uoiyx; Mantua, Maurova (Strabo); Appftleius, *ATnrovXrjios (Mori. Ancyr.); See. For ft in suffixes, see § 220. For v after s and g, see § 90. 2. ft by o, chiefly before X, p or a vowel (see § 213* 2. b); e.g. Amulius, 'A/zoXXior (Appian), 'ApovXios (Plut., Polysen.); Lftcullus, AevKoWos and AovkovWos; Cluentius, Kkoevnos (Appian); Cftrius, Kopios (Polyb.), Kovpios (Plut., App.); Fulvius, QoXovio? (also ^ouXoinos-, &ov\ovio$, &o{\[3ios); Coruncanius, KopoyKcivios (Polyb.), KopovyKavio? (Appian); Saturninus, 2aropvivos and SaTovppivos; Mummius, Mo/x/xto? (Plut.), MovfifiLos (App.): See. IIottXios (Polyb.) really represents the early form Poplius, not Publius (noL7rXioy). According to Dittenberger (Hermes, vi. 282) inscriptions before Christ always give o, not ov.7o Sounds, [Book I. 3. by v; e.g. Turnus, Tvpvos', Tullius, TvWios (Dion. H.); Capuam, Kanvrjv (Polyb., Diod., &c.); Romulus, 'Pm/jlvKos (Dio C.); &c., but also Tovpvos, TovXXlos (Dio Cass.); Lutatius, Avra- nos (Polyb.; others have Aovr-). Sulla is always 2v\\a?. 4. by e; only in some non-Roman names, e. g Brundusium, Bpei>reVioi>; Bruttii, Bpernoi (but App. also Bpvrrioi)j NftmSrius, Nefxepios (Inscr., Novfiepios, Dio, Plut.); Numitor, Ne/xe'reap (No/x?)- ro>p, Plut., Nov/uVeop, Strab.). 5. sometimes omitted; e.g. Lentftlus, AevrXos (Appian, Plut.); Catulus, KarXos (Appian, Plut.); Tuscftlum, TovokXov (Strabo, Plut.); Figulus, &iy\os] &c., cf. infr. § 225. 6. ft (sometimes) by ev; e. g. Lucius, Acvklos (Mori. Ancyr., Plut.); Lucullus, Aeu/coXXos (Appian); Lucani, AevKavoi (always); &c. (ii) 1. of Greek v before Cicero's time (see § 56); e.g. nvppos, 219 Burrus; ®pvy€s, Bruges (Ennius); rXvKepa, Glucera; 'Hcrvxiov, He- sucMum; Avklovs, Lucios; ®i\apyvpos, Pilargurus, Philargurus; 2ijpos, Surus; all in Republican inscriptions. So trutma for Tpvravq. Similarly Plautus must have written sucopanta for crvKofpavrrjs; muropolso for fxvpoTrwkai, sumbolum for avpj3o\ov; &c. Compare Baccb. 362, " Nomen mutabit mihi, facietque extemplo Crucisalum me ex Crusalo (xpvo-aXos-)." 2. ft of Greek a in suffixes before 1; e.g. KpamaXr], crapftla; cTKvraXrscutula (later scytale). 3. ii of Greek o; e.g. Koflopvos, cothurnus; dpopyr7, amurca; rrop^vpa, purpura; eVio-roXr7, epistftla; koXcos (Ep. KouXeos), culleus. 4. ft of Greek ov; e.g. AvKovpyos, Lycurgus; neo-o-ii/oSs-, Pessinus; 2t7roC?, Sipus (Lucan: but Sipontum, Cic.). Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European u; and 220 to a. 2. to Greek v; e.g. mftcus, mungo, -/xtWw, fxvKrrjp; Iftpus, Xvkos'i ftv-idus, ftmor, vypos; cubare, kvttto3 ; glftbo, yXi/<£a); fftmus, $uo), Ovfios'i ecffttio, futtilis, •; cluo, inclfttus, kXi>g>, kxvtos; cucftlus, kokkv£ (kokkvy-); lftceo, lux, a/x^t-Xv^, Xv^z/os-; jftgum, (vyov, lftgere, Xvypos; fui, ; sus, mus, /x£?; rftfus, rftber, ipvOpos; &c. 3. to Greek o; e.g. bulbus, /3oX/3o?; upftpa, eVo^; nummus, vofios; umbilicus, 6fiXu/o? (videsupr.); Albinus, *A\(3ivos; Scipio, 2ki7tlcdv (Diod. S., Appian, Strabo); Tibur, Tt- fiovpa; Tarracinam, Tappaicivav (Strabo). By rj] e. g. Scipio, ^Kiyn-tav (Plut.). (ii) 1. of Greek t; e.g. KaXXiKXfjs, Callicles; Haiyvlov, Paeg- nium; Tpaire^LTrjSt trapessita; 'AfiBrjpiTrjs, Abderites; Qens;, Thetis. 2. I of Greek a in suffixes; e.g. fiaxava (Dor.), machina; rpv- ravrjj trutina; Karaurj, Catina; &c. 3. 1 of Greek et; e.g. neiparijsj pirata; NeiXo?, Nilus; dXiijrrrjSi alipta; 'Ai'Tiox^a, Antiochia; &c. 4. I inserted in early Latin (cf. § 220. 7) between kp, xv> e.g. UpoKvrj, Procine; kvkvos, cucinus; tecina, rexviy; mina, pva. Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European t; and to a. 240 2. to Greek r, e.g. die- in-dico, causidic-us, dico, dUrj, BeLKw/jiL; yiginti, c'lkoo-l ; cio, kioo, idvdco; cli-vus, recli-nare, Kklvr], kXltvs ; cri-brum, cer-no, Kpiva> ; hiemps, ; frio, frico, ^p/a); stinguo, stimulus, or/yca, crrty/z?); tri- (e.g. tria), rpetj, rpiros; dxvus, dies, ev-5/a; video, vldi; 2S-, ctdoi/; scindo, cr^tS-, ; pilous, ttiXos; frigus, ptyos; quls, Ws; vis, (ti/-); vitex, vitis, tVus; viola, 'lov; &c. 3. to Greek e; e.g. in, indo (old, endo), intus, eV, ivrof; rigo, (jpe^cD ; strigilis, (rrXeyyis; tinguo, reyya). 4. to Greek 01; e.g. fldo, fides, 7ra#a); quies, KeZ^iat, *011-77 | pingo, pic-tura, ttoikIXos ; linquo, reliquus, XeiV, 26c cu6r)p; lasvus, Xatos; scsevus, ovcaio?; sevum, cucdj/, cue's (Att. aet). Substitution: for ai, which however lingered beside 00. iE is 261 found first in the S. C. de JBacc. in aedem, where in all other words (aiquom, Duelonai, haice, tabelai, datai) ai is retained. JE is very rare in inscriptions before the time of the Gracchi, but after that time is almost exclusively used in all the longer and more important inscriptions; e.g. the laws, the Mon. Ancyr. &c. 88, for e and 6, is rare in inscriptions before (at least) the 2nd cent, after Christ. It is frequent in MSS. Change of Quality: 1. to e both in root and final syllable. 262 A few instances occur in very old inscriptions; e. g. Victorie, For- tune, Diane: so also occasionally in rustic language noted by Varro, edus for haedus, Mesius for Maesius; Cecilius pretor, ridiculed by Lucilius. But instances in inscriptions (except the Pompeian wall inscriptions) are not numerous till in and after third century after Christ; e. g. prefectus, presenti, aque, patrie, &c. 1. to i in root syllables after a prefix, e.g. caedo, concido; laedo, illldo; quaero, require; aestumo, existumo; ssquus, inlquus; &c. 01, OE. Sound: oi nearly as in English; e.g. 'voice, &c.: oe was also 263 probably sounded as a diphthong. Change of Quality : Words with ft in the root syllable 264 were in the older language written with oi or ce; and words with oe in the root syllable were also earlier written with oi. In inscriptions oi is rarely found so late as the first century before Christ: oe (though probably as old as Plautus) is little found in 6—284 Sounds. [.Book I. inscriptions before the first century B.C.: u is found in their place in and after the time of the Gracchi. 1. oi, 00 to u; e.g. oino, cenus, unus; oinvorsei, universi; ploirume, ploera, plurimi, plura; comoinem, moinicipieis, mcenia, moeniundse, inmcenes for communem, municipiis, munia, muniundse, immunes; moiro, mcerum, murum; oitile, cetantur, cetier for utile, utantur, uti; coira, coiravit, ccera, cceravit, cura, curavit; loidos, lcedos, ludos; &c. 2. oi to 03; e.g. foidere, foideratei, fcedere, fo&derati; coipint, ccepint, Coilius, Ccelius. 3. some other changes are, noenum afterwards non; lcebertas, Ilbertas; obcedio from audio. 4. In final syllables, hoice, hoic, quoi (also quoiei), quoique are early forms of huic, cui, cuique: pilumnce poplce, for pilumni populi (gen. sing.?), pike-armed tribe; Feseennince for fesceimini (nom. pi.); ab oloes for ab illis. EI. 1. This diphthong is found in inscriptions older than the aes Gracchi in the following forms, in which 1 occurs later. (The S. C. de Bacc. has rarely I, frequently ei.) (a) a few root syllables; e.g. leiber, deivus, deicere, ceivis. (J?) dative singular of consonant nouns; e.g. Apolenei, Junonei, virtutei, Jovei. Frequently also in inscriptions later than the Gracchi, in which 1 also is found. The dative in e is also found, and more frequently in the earlier than in the later inscriptions. (1c) nominative plural of 0 stems; e.g. foideratei, iei. After the time of the Gracchi both i and ei are frequent. Earlier forms were es, e, and oe (see Book ii). (d) dative and ablative plural of 0 stems; e.g. eeis (S. C. de Bacc.), also vobeis. .-eis is frequently found in this case after the time of the Gracchi. Both -is and -eis occur also from -a stems since that period, but apparently before that period no instance of those cases occurs. (e) also in the datives and adverbs sibei, tibei, ubei, ibei, sei, nei, utei; in which e was probably a still older form. 2. In prse-Augustan inscriptions later than the Gracchi it is 266 found instead of and beside an earlier 1, or e in the classes num- bered below (#), (/&).Chap. X.] Diphthongs. EL (a) in some root syllables; e.g. deicere, deixerit also (dicere, &c.); promeiserit, eire, adeitur, conscreiptum, veita, leitis, leiteras, meilites, feilia, Teiburtis, eis, eisdem (nom. plur.). (b) in suffixes; e.g. Serveilius, genteiles, ameieorum, disci- pleina, peregreinus, fugiteivus, peteita (for petita), mareitus, &c. (c) occasionally, but not frequently, as the characteristic vowel of the fourth conjugation; e.g. audeire, veneire, &c. (d) in infin. pass, not commonly till Cicero's time; e.g. darei, solve!, possiderei, agei, &c. (e) in perfect (for an older i or sometimes e); e.g. obeit, fecei, pcseivei, dedeit, &c. (/) other verbal forms; e.g. nolei, faxseis, seit, &c. (g) also rarely in the ablative from consonant and i nouns; e.g. virtutei, fontei, &c. ([h) nom. and acc. plur. of i stems; e. g. omneis, turreis, &c. (t) genitive singular of o stems; e. g. colonel, damnatei (one or two instances occur a little before the Gracchi). 3. Ei is but occasionally found in post-Augustan inscriptions. In the Fast. Triumph. Capit. (C. I. R. I. 453 sqq.) cir. 720 U.C. the ablative plur. is almost always in -eis; e.g. Etrusceis, Galleis, &c. Corssen's conclusion is, that in the root syllable of the words 2(S7 deiva, leiber, deicere, ceivis, in the dat. abl. plur. of -0 stems and probably of -a stems, and in the locative forms, as sei, utei, &c., ei was a real diphthong; in all other cases it expressed the transition vowel between 1 and e (.Ausspr. i. 719. 788. ed. a). As a diphthong its sound would be nearly that of the English a; e.g. fate. Ritschl's view of the relations of e, ei and 1 is as follows (Opusc. 268 II. 626): " First period (5th century u.c. to and into the 6th). Predominance of e in place of the later i, and, in fact, both of e for I and of 6 for I. Second period (6th century). Transition of e to i (so far as e was changed at all), 6 changing to I absolutely, but e to 1 with this modification, that where in the case of e the pronunciation noticeably inclined to i, the habit was gradually adopted of writing ei. Third period (1st decad of the 7th century). Accius extends this mode of writing to every 1 without exception, m order to obtain a thorough distinction of 1 from i, in connexion with his theory of doubling a, e, u to denote the long vowel. Short I remains unaltered. Fourth period. Lucilius, recognising the arbitrary and irrational character of this generalisation, confines the writing ei to the cases where 1 inclines to e. Short i remains un- affected by this also."86 Sounds. [Book /. CHAPTER XI. OF LATIN WORDS and SYLLABLES. A Latin word may commence with any vowel or diphthong, 269 semivowel, or single consonant. But of combinations of consonants the following only are in Latin found as initial; viz. 1. an explosive or f followed by a liquid; i.e. pi, pr; bl, for; cl, cr; gl, gr; tr; fl, fir. but not tl, dl, dr; e.g. plaudo, precor; blandus, brevis; clamo, crudus; globus, gravis; traho; fluo, frendo. (Drusus is possibly an exception (cf. § 155); other words in dr are Greek or foreign; e. g. drachma, draco, Druidse.) 2. s before a sharp explosive, with or without a following liquid; viz. sp, spl, spr; sc, scr; st, str; e.g. sperno, splendeo, sprevi; scio, scribo; sto, struo. Also stlis, afterwards lis. No instance of scl is found. 3. gn was found in Gnseus and in some other words; e.g. gna- rus, gnavus, gnosco, gnascor, but the forms with g are almost con- fined to the early language (§ 129. 3). 4. The semi-consonant v is also found after an initial q or s; e.g. qvos, svavis (§ 89): and in Plautus scio, dies are pronounced scjo, djes (§ 142), A Latin word may end with any vowel or diphthong, but with 270 only a few single consonants; viz. the liquids 1, r, the nasals m, n, the sibilant s, one explosive, t. A few words end with b, c, d. Of these, b occurs only in three prepositions, ab, ob, sub. c only where a subsequent letter has fallen away; e.g. die, due, fac, lac, ac, nec, nunc, tunc, and the pronouns hie, illic, istic (for dice, duce, face, lacte, at que, neque, nunce, tunce, hice, illice, istice). d only in haud, ad, apud, sed; and the neuters of certain pro- nouns; e.g. illud, istud, quod, quid. In the earliest language it appears to have been the characteristic of the ablative singular; e.g. bonod patred, &c. (§ 160. 6).Chap. XI] Of Latin Words and Syllables. 87 The following combinations of consonants are found to end 271 Latin words. With few exceptions they are either in nominatives singular of nouns, or the third person of verbs. 1. s preceded (a) by certain explosives; i.e. ps, mps, rps; bs, rbs; cs(=x), nx, lx, rx; e.g. adeps, hiemps, stirps; cselebs, urbs; edax, lanx, calx, arx; &c. Also the words siremps, abs, ex, mox, sex, vix. (b) by a nasal or liquid; i.e. ns, Is, rs; e.g. amans, frons, puis, ars. Each of these combinations is unstable (e. g. homo for homons, consul for consuls, arbor for arbors); but is here preserved owing to one consonant having been already sacrificed; viz. amans for amants; frons for fronts or fronds; puis for pults; ars for arts. In trans, quotiens, the combination is not more stable: comp. tramitto, quoties. 1. t preceded by n, or rarely by 1, r, s; i.e. nt, It, rt, st; e.g. amant> amaverint, &c. The only instances of the other combinations are vult, fert, est, ast, post. 3. c preceded by n, i.e. nc. Only in the following, nunc, tunc, bine, illinc, istinc; hunc, banc; illunc, illanc; &c. The division of a word into syllables appears to have been in 272 accordance with the general principles (see § 15)1; that is to say, 1. the division was made in the middle of a consonant. %. the tendency was to pronounce with a vowel as many of the following consonants as were so pronounceable. 3. the admissibility of a particular combination of consonants in the middle of a word depends on the laws of phonetics, not on the particular causes, partly etymological, partly accentual (the last syllable, where there is more than one, being in Latin always unaccented, § 296), which controlled the occurrence of consonants at the end of a word. But the laws of phonetics in this matter depend on the Roman mode of pronunciation, not on our mode; e. g. ts, ds were not stable; &c. That such was the mode in which the Romans actually pro-273 nounced is shewn by the following facts: 1. Vowels are affected by the consonants following them; viz. 6 before r is retained instead of being changed to i (§ 234, 204. 184); 6 or -a before 11 is changed to e (§ 213. 4, also § 2104); the short 1 See some discussion of this matter in the Preface.83 Sounds. [Book L vowel before 1 is 6 or % not I or 8, as before n &c. (§ 176. a). So € remains before two consonants (§ 234. 3. b). 3. Consonants are affected by the consonants following; e.g. scribtus is changed to scriptus, the pronunciation being script-tus, not scrib-tus or scri-Mus. (Even in the few cases where a conso- nant is affected by the preceding consonant, the combination of the two (or more consonants) in the same syllable is presumed; e. g. dividtum could not have been divid-tum or it would not have become divissum or divlsum). 3. A syllable with a short vowel is treated as long, if two consonants follow the vowel. This means that though the vowel is short, the aggregation of consonants occupies as much time in pro- nouncing, as if the vowel were long. The exception to this rule of prosody, which a mute and liquid form, is in accordance with the principle of division of syllables; e. g. patris cannot be divided into patr-ris but into pat-tris (where the double t represents not twice t but the two halves of one t, §§ 9. 15). 4. A vowel is often lengthened to compensate for the extrusion of a consonant following (§35). The consonant must therefore belong to the preceding vowel, or that vowel could not be entitled to the compensation. The so-called compensation is in truth a natural phonetic effect of the effort to pronounce a difficult combination of letters. The division of syllables in writing, which is found in inscrip- 274 tions of the eighth and ninth centuries u.c. and the MSS. of the fourth or fifth century after Christ1 or earlier (if any), is (though not quite invariably) as follows: 1. Where a single consonant is between two vowels the division is before it; e.g. dede | rit, protu | lerint, publi | ce, ma | num, &c. 1. Where two consonants come together the division is between them; e.g. op | tima, res | ponsum, ig J nota, prses | to, trail | sisse, &c. 3. Where three consonants come together the division is after the first two, unless the second and third be a mute and liquid, in which case the division is before both; e. g. Vols | ci, abs | cedimus, cons | pexisset, obs | tinati, Quinc | tius, cunc | ta; ins | tructo, cas | tris, pos | tremo. 4. The letter x is treated as a single consonant; e. g. eni | xa, di | xit, pro | xumus. 1 See Mommsen, Livi Cod. Veron. p. 163—166. Mon, Ancyr. p. 145. Stadtrecht d, Salpensa, &c. p. 505.Chap. XII~\ Quantity of Syllables. 89 (It is obvious that if the division in pronunciation takes place in the middle of a consonant, the writing cannot mark this accurately. That the preference was given to the second half of the consonant is no doubt due to tne fact, that in the case of p, k, t the distinctive power of the sound consists entirely, and in b, g, d considerably, in the slight puff or explosion which follows the separation of the organs (cf. § 57). When three consonants occur together, the writing conforms better to what is above shewn to have been the pronuncia- tion.) The early inscriptions avoided division of a word altogether. Augustus (Suet. Aug. 87) wrote the superabundant letters over or under the word. MSS. in the sixth century (e.g. the Florentine MS. of the Digest) began to follow Priscian's rules, which were borrowed from the Greeks; e.g. perfe [ ctus, i | gnominia, &c. CHAPTER XII. QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES1. That part of grammar which treats of the Quantity of Sylla- 275 bles is often called Prosody, a term which the ancients applied prin- cipally to accentuation. If the voice dwells upon a syllable in pronouncing it, it is called a long syllable: if it passes rapidly over it, it is called a short syllable. Long syllables are marked in grammars by a straight line over the vowel: thus, aUdl. Short syllables are marked by a curved line over the vowel: thus, rSgS. Two short syllables are considered to occupy the same time as one long syllable. A syllable is long or short, either because it contains a rick-ed; we have the same noun or verb differently inflected. That part of a word, which is essentially the same under such 305 different uses, is called the stem. In the above words mulier, ama, and pug are the stems. The suffix, which forms the inflexion, often affects or is affected by the neighbouring letters of the stem, so that the two melt as it were into one another. A stem is in Latin rarely used without having, or at least having had, some inflexions; e.g. consul is both stem and nominative case; but this is probably because the nominative suffix is incompatible with 1 (see § 176, 5). 1 Throughout this book great and constant use has been made of F. Neue's Formenlehre Th. i. (1866); Th. ii. (1861). The authorities, on which the statements in the text are based, will usually be found there. Frequent reference has also been made to Ruddimann's (ed. Stallbaum 1823), Schneider's (1819), G. T. Kriiger's (1842), Madvig's (3rd ed. 1857), and Key's (2nded. 1858) Grammars. Also to Biicheler's Grundriss der latein. Declination (1866); besides Corssen, Ritschl, &c.io 4 Inflexions. [Book II, Different nouns and verbs and other words have frequently a 306 common part: such common part is called a root. Thus the root sta- is common to sta-re, sta-tio, sta-tuo, sta-men, sta-tilra, sta- tim, See., to stand, standing, stablish, standing-thread, standing- height, instantly, &c. A root may be used as a stem, or the stem* may contain the root with alterations or additions. The additions made to form a stem from a root are discussed in Book III. The inflexions of nouns and pronouns are in the main the same, and will be treated of together. The inflexions of verbs are quite distinct, but the formation of certain verbal nouns, though properly belonging to Book III., is generally treated in connexion with the inflexions of the verbs. CHAPTER II. OF NOUN INFLEXIONS, AND PARTICULARLY OF GENDER. The inflexions of nouns are always additions to, or alterations in, 307 the end of the stem. They serve to mark the gender, the number, and the case, of the word. As regards gender a two-fold distinction was made; (1) accord- 308 ing as sex could be attributed or not;"(2) according as the sex attributed was male or female. Names of things, to which sex was not attributed, are said to be of the neuter gender: but the Romans, yielding to their imaginations, attributed sex to many things, which really had it not, and thus living creatures are but a small number of the objects, which have names of the masculine and feminine genders. The distinction of gender is not marked throughout all the 309 cases. In the nouns put together as the first class, the feminine was perhaps originally different from the masculine and neuter through- out, and it still is so in most cases. The masculine and neuter differ only in the nominative singular, and nominative and accusative plural. In the second class, the masculine and feminine are alike through- out: the neuter differs from both in the accusative, and usually in the nominative.Chap. II] Inflexions of Gender. The neuter form is always the same in the nominative and accusative cases. In the singular of the first class this form is the same as that of the accusative masculine: in the second class it is the bare stem, unprotected by a suffix, and therefore sometimes withered: in the plural of both declensions it always ends in -a. The real significance of the inflexions is best seen in adjectives, 310 because they have the same stem modified, if of the first class, to represent all three genders; if of the second class, usually only to represent the masculine and feminine genders as distinguished from the neuter; i.e. sex as distinguished from no sex; e.g. bonus (m.), bona (f.), bonum (n.); tristis (m. f.), triste (n.); amans (m. f. n.), but accusative amantem (m. f.), amans (n.). Substantives differ from adjectives as regards their inflexions. 3« chiefly in being fixed to one gender only. But 1. Some substantival stems have a masculine and feminine form ; e.g. Julius (m.); Julia (f.); equus (m.); equa (f.). %. A few substantives of the first class are feminine, though with stems in -0; others masculine, though with stems in -a. 3. A substantive of the second class may be masculine, or feminine, or both, the form being indeterminate. 4. Some suffixes of derivation are exclusively used for substan- tives, and not for adjectives: some again are confined to themasculine gender, others to the feminine. E.g. no adjective is formed with the suffix -i5n: again all abstract substantives, if formed by the suffix -i5n, or -tat are feminine; if formed by the suffix -5r are masculine. It follows from the above, that the gender is not always known 3** by the form. The test of a substantive's being of a particular gender is the use of an adjective of that particular gender as an attribute to it; e.g. humus is known to be feminine, because dura humus, not durus humus is used. An adjective, where the form is not determinately significant, is commonly said to be in the same gender, as that of the substantive to which it is used as an attribute. But though the sex attributed to the person or thing is not 3*3 always expressed by the form, the gender was never assigned in defiance of the true sex in persons, nor in animals, if the sex was of importance. Many animals are denoted by a substantive of only one form and only one gender, the masculine or feminine havingxo6 Inflexions. [Book IT. been originally selected, according as the male or female was most frequently thought of. Animals of the kind generally would be spoken of, without distinction, by this noun, whether it were masculine or feminine; e.g. ol5res (m.) swans in general; an&tes ducks, including drakes. If a distinction is important, the word mas or femina, as the case may be, is added; e.g. olor femina, the female swan; anas mas, the male duck. Such nouns are called epicoena (Quint, i. i. 24). In the same way a feminine, e.g. JEtna, can be spoken of as masculine, if mons be added; a river can be neuter, if fLumen be added: and the appropriate change of gender takes place some- times without the explanatory word being expressed; e. g. Eunuclms acta est, i. e. the play Eunuchus; Centauro invehitur magna, i. e. on the ship Centauros. So occasionally Lerfca or litera is understood. The genders assigned to names of persons, animals, or vegetables, 314 and of some other classes of natural objects were as follows: 1. Names of persons: Names of males are masculine, of females feminine. - Thus proper names of females, derived from the Greek, though retaining the neuter suffix corresponding to their neuter gender in Greek, are in Latin feminine; e.g. in Plautus, and Terence, Planesium, GlycSrium, Phronesium, Stepkanium, Del- phium. For Appellatives, especially those derived from age or relation- 313 ship, there are separate forms, sometimes from different roots, for the males and females; e.g. mas, femina; p&ter, mater; &vus, avia; pro&vus, proavia, &c.; filius, filia; puer, puella; nSpos, neptis, &c.; vir, mulier; m&rltus, uxor; vitrlcus, nbverca; prlvignus, pri- vigna; sdcer, socrus; gSner, nttrus; frater, sOror; p&truus, amita; avunctttus, matertfira; verna (m.), ancilla (f.); antistes, antistlta; hospes, hospita; cliens, clienta; tiblcen, tibicina; fidicen, fidiclna. So also many (derived from verbs) with -or for masculine, and -rix for feminine; e.g. tonsor, tonstrix. Homo, animans (of a rational creature) are masculine; virgo and matrona, feminine. Others (all of and class of nouns) are common: viz. conjnnx, parens, affinis, patruSlis, s^nex, jilv6nis, &dtllescens, infans. In Ennius and Nssvius puer, ngpos, and socsrus are common. So are ranked hospes (in the poets) and antistes. In none of these, except puer (when used as f.) and verna is the form opposed to the sex. Other personal appellatives are usually or exclusively masculine, 3^ because the offices, occupations, &c., denoted were filled by men, or at least by men as much as by women.Chap. //] Inflexions of Gender. The following are sometimes feminine; clvis, miinlceps, con- tubernalis, hostis, exul, vfttes, s^cerdos, augur (once or twice), dux, cBmes, satelles, custos, interpres, miles, vindex, index, jUdex, testis, prases, hSres, artifex, auctor. Others are used of females, but without a feminine adjective; e.g. ftpifex, carnlfex, auspex, sponsor, viator, defensor, tutor, auceps, manceps. So also some with -a stems (see § 335); aurlga, advgna, &c. Others are nowhere found applied to females; e.g. cornlcen, tiblcen, tiiblcen; latro, fullo, mango, nSbiilo, Some words which are only metaphorically applied to men or 317 women retain their original gender; e.g. manclplum (n.) a chattel, acro£ma (n.) a musical performer, scortum (n.), prostibtilum (n.); vigllise (f.), exciibiae (f.), tipgrse (f.), dSlicia (f.); auxilia (n.). 2. Names of Animals. For some quadrupeds, with which the 318 Romans had much to do, separate forms are found for the male and female. The stems in -o are masc., those in -a fem. Agnus, agna; &per, apra; aries (m.), vervex (m.), Ovis (f.); &sinus, asina; asellus, asella; hircus, caper, capra; catus (m.), fgles (f.); c^tillus, catula; cervus, cerva; cdlumbus, columba; ^quus, equa; gallus, gallina; hsedus, cipella; hinnus, hinna; jfi- vencus, juvenca; leo (m.), lea, or (Greek) lesena; liipus, lupa; mlilus, mula; porcus, porca; simius, simia(alsoof apes in general); taurus, vacca; verres, scrOfa; vitiilus, vitula; ursus, ursa. (Of these ovis is said to have been also used as masc. in old sacrificial language. Varro had the expression lupus femina: Cato had porcus femina; an old law (ap. Gell. 4. 3. 3) agnus femina.) For most other animals there was only one form; e.g.— Quadrupeds (besides above); bldens (f. sc. ovis); bos (m. f.); 3i9 cSLmglus (m. f.); c&nis (m. f.); damma (m. f.); eiephans, elephantus (m. rarely f.); fiber (m.); glis (m.); hystrix (f.); 16pus (m. rarely f.); lynx (f. rarely m.); mus (m.); mustella (f.); nitella (f.); pantbera (r.); pardus (m.); quadriipes (m. f. n.); sorex (m.); sus (m. f.); talpa (f. rarely m.); tigris (f. rarely m.); ves- pertilio (m.); vulpes (f.). Birds: e. g. accipiter (m. rarely f.); §les (m. f.); anas (f.); anser 320 (m. rarely f.); aqulla (f.); avis (f.); btlbo (m. rarely f.); clconia (f.); ciris (f.); cornix (f.); cOtttrnix (f.); cygnus (m.), 61or (m.); fiillca and fulix (f.); gractilus (m.); grus (f. rarely m.); Mrundo (f.); Sbis (f.); luscinius (m.), lusclnia (f. also of nightingales in general); mSriila (f.); miluus, milvus (m.); noctua (f.); oscenio8 Inflexions. [Book If. (m. f.); tfaiumbes (m. f.), palumbus (m.); passer (m.); pavo (m.); perdix (m. f.); pica (f.); stilrnus (m.); strath6ctoSlus (m. f.); turdus (rarely f.); turtur (m. f.); vultur (m.). Reptiles: e. g. anguis (m. f.); btlfo (m.); chamseleon (m.); 321 cSliiber (m.), colubra (f. also of snakes generally) ; cr6c6dflus (m.) ; dr^co (m.); lacertus (m.), lacerta (f. also of lizards generally); rana (f.); serpens (m. f.); steUo (m.); testtido (f.). Fishes: acipenser (m.); miigil (m.); mursena (f.); mullus (m.); piscis (m.); rhombus (m.); saiar (m.); scarus (m.); sdlea (f.). Invertebrates: apis (f.); cicada (f.); araneus (m.), aranea (f. also of spiders generally); clmex (m.); ciilex (m.); formica (f.); Mrildo (f.); lendes (pi. f.); Umax (f. rarely m.); mtlrex (m.); musca (f.); papllio (m.); pgdis (m. f.); piilex (m.); sepia (f.); vermis (m.); vespa (f.). 3. Almost all trees and shrubs are feminine. Some of them 322 have -0 stems (§ 336), but these are mostly from the Greek. Of plants and flowers, some are masculine, the rest chiefly feminine. Names of fruits and woods are often neuter, with stems in -0, and some trees are also neuter, probably because the name was first applied to the product. The principal masculine names are: acanthus, &m&r&cus (alsof.), asparagus, bOletus, caiamus, carduus, cr&cus, c^tlsus (also f.), dit- mus, flcus (also f.), fungus, helleborus (often -um n.), inttibus (also intiibum n.), juncus, lotus (usually f.), maius (but as an apple tree f.), muscus, ftleaster, pamplnus (also f.), raphanus, rhamnus, rtibus, riimex (also f.), scirpus. The principal neuter names are apium, acer, balsamum, laser, papaver (also m.), piper, robur, slier, slser (but in plural siseres), ttlber (truffle): and the fruits or woods arbtitum, buxum, &c. (but castanea, 61ea, baianus, are also used as fruits, and retain their rem. gen. So buxus and buxum for a flute). 4. Names of jewels are mainly feminine and Greek. $23 Masculine are adamas, beryllus, carbunculus, chrysSlItlms (also f.), 6nyx (as a marble, or a cup), Opaius, sard&nyx (also f.), sm&- ragdus, &c. 5. Names of towns, countries, &c. have, if of Latin origin, their 324 gender marked by their termination; e.g. masculine; Veji, Pute51i, properly the Veians, &c.: feminine; e. g. Africa (sc. terra), Italia, R5ma: neuter; Tarentum, BSnSventum, Reate, Frseneste, Anxur (n. also m. of the mountain), Tibur (n.).Chap. III.'] Nonn Inflexions of Number. 109 Of Greek nouns many retain their Greek gender (though often with stems in -0), others, owing sometimes to their termination being misunderstood, have other genders: e4 g. Argos usually neut., but Statius has frequently patrios Argos, afflictos Argos, &c.; Livy occasionally Argi, as nom. pi. The Spanish towns are sometimes feminine in -is, e. g. Illiturgis; sometimes neuter in -i, e. g. Illiturgi. Some neuter plurals are found; e.g. Leuctr&, Artaxata, Tigrano- cert&. 6. Names of mountains are all masculine, except those with 325 marked feminine terminations (stems in -a or Greek -e); e.g. -Etna, Ida, Rh5d6p6, &c.; or neuter terminations (nom. in -urn, Greek in -e); e. g. Pelion, Soracte. Alpes (pi.) is feminine. 7. Names of rivers are masculine, even those with -a stems, except Allia, Duria, Sagra, Lethe, Styx, which are feminine. But sometimes rivers are made neuter by prefixing flumen and giving a termination in -urn; e. g. flumen Rhenum (Hor.); flumen Granicum (Plin.); &c. 8. Names of winds are masculine; e.g. &qu!lo, Vultnrnus, &c. So also EtesisB (pi.). All indeclinable words are neuter: e.g. fas, nefas, instar (except 326 barbaric names, e. g. Abraham); and to this class belong infinitives (e.g. non dolere istud, totum hoc philosophari); words used as names of themselves (e.g. istuc 'taceo,' hoc ipsum 'honesti; and often the letters of the alphabet (as 'c in g commutato'); but these last are sometimes feminine, litera being expressed or understood. CHAPTER III. OF NOUN INFLEXIONS OF NUMBER. In Latin the only distinction in point of number which is 327 marked by inflexions is between one (singular number), and more than one (plural number). The particular inflexions ot number will be best treated in connexion with the case inflexions. Some nouns, in consequence of their meaning, have no plural, others have no singula^.no Inflexions. \ Book II. i. The following have ordinarily no plural: (a) Proper names of persons and places; e.g. Metellus, Roma, &c.; 328 but Metelli of several members of the family; Camilll of persons with qualities like Camillus: Gallise, of the two divisions of Gaul, Gallia Cisalpina and Transalpina; Volcani of gods with different at- tributes, or bearing the name of Vulcan, or of statues of Vulcan, &c. (b) Single natural objects; e.g. sol, the sun; tellus, the earthy but soles is used in discussions as to whether there are more suns than one, or as equivalent to days, & c. (r) Continua; i.e. natural objects which are measured or weighed, not numbered, e.g. cruor, blood; ros, dew; as, bronze; frumentum, corn; f&ba, beans, as a class; fumus, smoke. But these are used in the plural, when several kinds, or distinct pieces or drops, are meant; e. g. vlna, different wines; nlves, flakes of snow; f&bse, individual beans; sera, bronze works of art; carnes, pieces of flesh ; fumi, wreaths of smoke. In poetry the plural is sometimes used without such a distinction. (d) Abstract nouns; e. g. justitia, yW/Vf; but not uncommonly the plural is used even in these in order to express the occurrence of the event or exhibition of the quality at several times or in several forms, e. g. virtutes, virtues ; cupiditates, desires; odia, cases of hatred; conscientise, several persons' consciousness (of guilt) ; mortes, deaths (of several persons); otia, periods of rest; adventus, arrivals; maturitates, culminations; vicinitates, position of people as neighbours; lapsus, slips; calores, frigora, times of heat, of cold; similitudines, resemblances; &c. 3. The following are found only or ordinarily in the plural; 339 though some of them correspond to what in other languages are denoted by singulars. (a) Names of certain towns or places, &c.: Thebss, Tigra- nocerta, Leuctra, Veji (originally the Veians), Cannae (i.e. Reeds); Gades, Cumse. So Pergama, the towers of Troy, Tartara. (b) Groups of islands and mountains, &c.; e.g. Cycl&des, Alpes, Esquillse, Tempe (properly glens). (r) Bodies of persons: e.g. decemviri, a commission of ten (though we have decemvir also used of a commissioner) &c.; majSres, ancestors; pr6c6res, primores, leading men; Hb6ri,children; infSri, the spirits below ; supgri, the Gods above; cselltes, the heavenly ones; penates, the hearth gods; manes, the ghosts; gratise, the Graces; Furise, the Furies; Dirse, Curses (conceived as goddesses) ; &c.Chap. ///.] Noun Inflexions of Number. hi (/) Parts of the body; e.g. artus, the joints; cervices (before Hortensius), the neck {neckbones ?); exta, intestina, viscSra, the internal organs; fauces, the throat; lactes, the lacteal 'vessels; pantlces, bowels; rSnes, kidneys; tdri, the muscles; prsecordia, mid- riff; ilia, loins. (e) Names of feasts or days; e.g. Calendae, N8nae, Idus; feriae, 330 the feast-day; nundinae, market-day; Baccanalia,,/^^ of Bacchus; &c. (/) Other collections of things, actions, &c.; altaria, an altar; ambages, evasion (but § 415); angustiae, straits (sing, rare); argtl- tise, subtlety; antes, rowj, e.g. of vines; arma, tools, esp.weapons, armour; armamenta, ship's- tackling; balneae, the baths, i.e. bath' house.; bigae, a carriage and pair (sing, not till Sen.); cancelli, rail- ings; casses, a hunting net (properly meshes, cf. § 432); castra, a camp (properly huts, tents ? castrum is found only as part of proper names, e.g. Castrum Novum); clathri, a grating; claustra, bars (sing, in Sen. Curt, rarely); clitellae, a pack saddle (panniers?); compgdes, fetters (but § 446); crepundia, child's rattle, &c.; cHna3, cilnabula, inctlnabula, cradle; delicise, delight; divitise, riches; ex- ciibiae, the watch; Spiilse, a dinner; exsgquiae, funeral procession; exit viae, things stripped off spoils; facetiae, jokes (sing, rare"); false, scaffolding; fasti, the Calendar; f6ri, benches; fr&ces, oil dregs; grates, thanks (% 418); indutise, a truce; ineptiae, silliness (sing, in Plaut. Ter.); infgrise, offerings to the shades below; infltias, denial (cf. § 369); insidiae, ambush; inimicitiae, hostility (rarely sing.); lapi- cldinse, stone quarries; ldcfili, compartments, and so box, bag, &c.; lustra, a den; manubiae, booty; minae, threats; mcenia, town walls; nilgae, trifles; nuptise, marriage; obices, bolts (but § 439); p&rietinae, ruins; phalgrae, horse trappings; praestigise, juggling tricks; prices, -prayers (but § 438); primitise, first fruits; pugill&res, writing tablets ; quadrigae, a carriage and four (sing, not till Propert.); quisquiliae, refuse; reliquiae, the remains; rSpagula, bolts, &c.; salinae, saltpits; s&ta, the crops; sc5Ise, stairs; scopse, a broom; sentes, thornbush; serta, a wreath; sordes,///£ (sing, rare §421); suppStias, supply (cf. §369); t6n6brse, the darkness; thermae, the warm baths (cf. balneae); tesqua, wastes; valvse, folding-doors; vepres, thorns (but cf. §43°) 5 vindiciae, claims; virgulta, bushes; fLtensilia, necessaries. Some of these words are used in one or two cases of the singular. See the references. 3. The following words are used in the plural with a special 33, meaning, besides their use (in most instances) as an ordinary plural: aedes sing, a temple, plur. a house (properly, hearths, chambers ?); &qua, water; aquae, a watering-place: auxilium, assistance; auxilia, means of assistance, auxiliary troops: bdnum, a good; bdna, goods,ir 2 Inflexions. [Book If. i.e. one's property: carcer, a prison; carc&res, the harriers (in horse races): codlcillus, a small piece of wood; codicilli, writing tablets: copia, plenty; copise, supplies, troops: cdmltium, the place of tribes- assembly at Rome; cdmitia, the assembly: fides sing, a harpstring, plur. a stringed instrument: fortHna, fortune; fortunse, one's posses- sions: gratia, thankfulness; gratise, grates, thanks: hortus, a garden; horti, pleasure-gardens, a country house: imp&dlmentum, a hindrance; impedimenta, baggage: littera, a letter (of the alphabet); litterse, a letter, i.e. epistle: lMus, a game; IMi, Public Games: natalis, a birthday; natales, one's descent: dpSra, work; operse, workmen: Ops, a goddess; opem, help; 6pes, wealth, resources: pars, apart; partes, a part on the stage: rostrum, a beak; rostra, the tribune or pulpit at Rome: tabftla, a plank; tabulae, account books. CHAPTER IV. OF CASE INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL. In Latin the distinctions of case are in the singular five, the cases being named nominat'vve, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative. In some nouns with stems in -o, besides others derived from the Greek, a sixth form, (not properly a case, cf. § 1007), generally- called the vocative is also found. In the plural there are only four; viz. nominative, accusative, genitive, and a common form for the dative and ablative. Another case, distinguished in some other languages, called the ' locative, is in Latin always the same in form, as either the genitive, dative, or ablative. A similar confusion of forms is found between some of the other cases in some classes of nouns. Originally perhaps there was a different form for each case in each number. Nouns and pronouns, whether substantival or adjectival, may be conveniently divided according to their case inflexions (called collectively their declension) into two great classes, containing respectively— I. Nouns with stems ending in -a, -e, or -0. II. Nouns with stems ending in -u, -i, or a consonant.Chap. IV] Case Inflexions. All the pronouns, except personal pronouns, belong to the first class, though a few have kindred forms belonging to the second class. The personal pronouns belong strictly to neither class. They will be treated of as an appendix to the first class. The chief constant differences between the inflexions of the two classes are these:— Nouns of the first class have the genitive singular (except in the pronouns), the locative singular, and the nominative plural (except in a few -e stems) alike, and ending in a long vowel or diphthong; the genitive plural in -rum preceded by a long vowel; the dative and ablative plural (except in two -e stems) in -Is. Nouns of the second class have the genitive singular and nomi- native plural ending in -s, the locative usually the same as the ablative, the genitive plural in -urn, the dat. abl. plural in -"bus (usually -lbfts). Some of these differences were not found in the older language. See Chapters vi. and xn. 9 [The ordinary division of nouns substantive was into five 334 declensions. Of these the 1st contained -a stems (§ 339); the and, -0 stems (§ 344 sqq.); the 3rd, consonant (Chap, xi.) and -i stems (Chap, x.); the 4th, -u stems (Chap, ix.); and the 5th, -e stems (§ 340). Adjectives were divided into those of three terminations, -us, -a, um (§§339, 344); those of two terminations, -is, -e (Chap, x.), and -or, -us (§ 460); and those of one termination, e.g. felix (Chaps, x. xi.)]. Examples of the regular declensions of the different subordinate classes will be given in the next chapter. Any peculiar forms of inflexion which existed will be found in Chapters vi. and xn., or appended to the mention of the particular word to which they relate. CHAPTER V. NOUNS OF CLASS I. I. Gender. As regards the gender of nouns of this class, with comparatively 33s few exceptions, (1) all masculine and neuter nouns have stems in -0; (a) all feminine nouns have stems in -a, orH4 Inflexions. [Book II. The exceptions are as follows: i. Some stems in -a are masculine; e.g. appellative substan- tives expressing occupations in which men are exclusively or pri- marily thought of, viz. accdla, agricbla, inedla; assecla, advgna, convSna; auriga, collega, conviva, gumia, lanista, lixa, matriclda, parriclda, profuga, transftiga, p6pa, rabula, scriba, scurra, verna. And the same termination was given to Greek words in -77s, e.g. nauta, poeta, Persa, Scytha (see § 475). Dammais also sometimes masc.: talpa larely so (§ 319). So also almost all rivers (§ 325) : e.g. Sequana, TrSbia, &c, and Hadria (the Hadriatic sea). A considerable number of proper names, e.g. Numa, L&mia, AMla, Pansa, Sulla, Galba, Natta, Tucca, Naslca, Perpenna, Cinna, Mela, Messalla, PoplicSla. So also some feminine appellatives were used as family names of men, e.g. RUga, Scapiila, Siira, Fimbria, Merula, Pica, Musca, Murena, Doiabella, Fenestella, Hemlna, Trabea. 2-. Some words with -0 stems are feminine. These are 33& chiefly either names of trees or f&reek words, especially names of jewels and towns. (a) alvus (in old language m.); carbasus, cOlus (sometimes m.), Mmus, vannus. For ddmus see § 394. (J?) Names of trees: sesculus, alnus, arbiitus, buxus, cedrus, cSrasus, citrus, cornus, cdrfilus, cupressus, cytisus (also m.), 6bgnus, fagus, f&selus, flcus (rarely m.), firaxlnus, jOnipSrus, laurus, lotus (rarely m.), malus (apple-tree), morus, myTtus, nardus, ornus, p&p^Tus, plnus, pirus, pl&t&nus, p5mus, populus, prUnus, quercus, saMcus, sorbus, splnus, ulmus. Also balanus, acorn. (r) Jewels: e.g. amethystus, crystallus, sappMrus, topazus, melichrysos. (d) Towns, &c.; Abydus, .ffigyptus, Aspendus, Carystus, ChersonSsus, Cyprus, Epidamnus, Epidaurus, Eplrus, PS15ponnesus, Rhddus, &c.; but Canopus (m.), Isthmus (m.), Orch6m6nus (m.), Pontus (m.). So also Delos, Lemnos, &c. are feminine. (e) For Greek appellatives, e.g. atdmus, mStliddus, &c., see § 478. 3. Of nouns in -es only dies and mSrldies are masculine. 337 Dies however is in the singular number often feminine, especially as an appointed day, and almost exclusively fem. when it means time, period of time. All neuters (except some pronouns, § 370) have nom. acc. sing. 338 in -um: except virus, vulgus (in acc. often vulgum), and the Greek pel&gus, plur. pelage. (Virus and vulgus have no plural. The authority for vulgus as masc. seems insufficient.)Chap. V] Noun Stems ending in -a and -e. II. Inflexions of Case. The suffixes for the different cases are usually combined with 339 the final vowel of the stem, so as not always to be readily distinguishable. 1. Declension of stems in -a and -e. 1. The substantive stems in -a (chiefly feminine), and the feminine form of those adjectives which have stems in -0, are declined alike; e.g. mensa (f.), a table; scriba (m.), a clerk; b&na (adj. f.), good; tSnera (adj. f.), tender. There are no neuters of this declen- sion. %. Stems in -e of this class (comp. § 407) are air substantives 340 and all feminine: one (dies) is also masculine. All but a few have stems in -ie with a short antepenultimate, and most are words of more than three syllables. They are as follows: dies, fames (also famis), fides, plebes (also plebs), res, spes, and (in ablative sing, only) scabre, squale; &cies, alluvies (with other derivatives of lavo), barbaries, csesa- ries, caries, congeries, effigies, esuries, facies, glacies, inglftvies, luxuries, macgries, macies, m&tSries, miiries (only nom. s.), paupg- ries, pernicies (? permities, Munro, ad Lucr. 1.451), progenies, rabies, rgqvies (also with stem in -et, § 445), s&nies, scabies, series, species, superficies, tempgries, and its compound intempSries; and abstract substantives in -ities, viz. S-marities, &mlcities, avarities, calvities, canities, diirities, lentities, mollities, mundities, neq.vities, nigrities, notities, pigrities, planities, pullities, segnities, spurcities, tristities, vastities. Only two of these words, viz. res and dies, are inflected through- 341 out all cases of both numbers. None (besides dies and res) have any plural, except acies, facies, effigies, species, spes, series, which are found in the nominative and accusative plural; glacies in accus. (Verg.), eluvies in nom. (Curt.). But old forms of spes, viz. speres, nom. acc. plur., speribus, dat. abl. plur., are mentioned as used by Ennius and Varro respectively1. Facierum is quoted from Cato. Specierum, speciebus occur in the Digest, 8cc 1 The stem appears to have been spes-: compare sper-o. So also perhaps dies-; comp. diur-nus. See also § 405. 8—2Inflexions. [Book Ih The genitive and dative singular are rare1, except from dies, 342 res, spes, fides, and plebes. These cases appear to have ended regularly in -ei in and after the second century after Christ at latest (Gell. ix. 14), but whether ei was usually one syllable or two is uncertain. Probably it was a diphthong. Before that time ei is proved to be sometimes di- syllabic, but in the words die!, Mel and fidel, rel and r6I only. See §§ 357, 360. Luxuries, materies, barbaries, intemp&ries, effigies, and almost all the words in -ities, have collateral stems in -a (cf. § 932), and these supply the forms generally used in the genitive and dative singular. Examples: mensa, a table; bona (adj.), good; luxuria, luxury; 343 res, a thing; acies, a point. All feminine. Stems in Stems in -a. -a and -e. Stems in -e. Singular. Subst. Adj. Subst. Subst. Subst. Nom. mensa t>8n& luxuria or luxurie-s re-s acie-s Acc. mensa-m bona-m luxuria-m or luxurie-m re-m &cie-m Gen. } &cii or acie Loc. > Dat. j mensa bona luxurise re-i Abl. mensa bona luxuria or luxurie re &cie Plural. Nom. mensse bons3 ) (Plural re-s acie-s Acc. mensa-s bona-s j not used) Gen. mensa-rum bona-rum re-rum (none) Loc. ) Dat. } mensl-s boni-s re-bus (none) Abl. ) Stems in Stems in -a. -a and -e. Stems in -e. 2. Ordinary declension of -0 stems. The following is the regular declension of substantives with 34* stems ending in -0, and of adjectives, with the like stems, in the masculine and neuter gender. e. g. &nimus (m.), a soul; bellum (n.), S. of Varro and Cicero. 3. Declension of stems in -ro. Of stems in -6ro, (a) most drop the final -us of the nominative 34g singular, and -e of the vocative; and ('b) many omit the e before r in all the cases except the nom. voc. masculine singular. (a) The following only exhibit -us in the nominative singular : niimSrus, trnigrus (or humerus), uterus, and (the single fem. stem in -Sro), jtLnipgrus, and the adjectives prfipSrus, praepr6p6rus, prasposterus, monggrus, trlquetrus, and usually prospSrus. The nominative masculine singular of the adjectives cetdrum, postSrum, liidicrum, crSpgrum is not found. (Adjectives with long e in penultimate (e.g. severus), and some Greek forms, e.g. Evandrus, Petrus, exhibit -us. But Iberi and Celtiberi have for singular Iber and Celtiber, but only once each.) Vir, a man, and its compounds, e.g. triumvir, semivir (adj.), and the adjective satur (satura, saturum), also drop -us. Lucretius once uses famiil for famulus. Puere is frequently found in Plautus as the vocative of puer. 347 ([h) The following only retain e before r; viz.— (1) All those which retain -us in the nominative singulai , Masculine Neuter Singular. Subst. Nom. ammu-s animg animu-m animi anlmo Plural animi animo-s animo-rum : animi-s Adj. b5nu-s b6n-6 b6nu-m bdnl bdno 1 I 5-s j b5ni b5no-i bono-rum boni-s Subst. bellu-m belli bellS belia bello-rum belll-sITS Inflexions. [Book IL (2) Adulter, s6cer, ggner, Liber (the god Bacchus), puer, vesper (evening star), jugerum (which last in plural belongs to and Glass); (3) The adjectives asper (aspris, abl. plur. once in Vergil), lacer, liber, miser, t§ner, gibber, alter; and oeterum, posterum, creperum (above named). Also exter (Papin.), infer (Gato), super (Gato), chiefly used in plural; Dexter has both forms; e. g. dexteram, dextram. (The compa- rative of dexter is always dexterior. So also deterior.) (4) Compounds of more than two syllables ending in -fer or -ger 5 e.g. mortifer, aliger, See. The following are the principal substantives which omit e; &ger, 34s aper, arbiter, auster, cancer, caper, cfiliiber, culter, faber, liber (book), m&gister, minister. The neuters are chiefly in -brum, -trum, -crum, see in Book III. The adjectives omitting e are: aeger, ater, creber, (dexter ,§347,) glaber, macer, niger, piger, implger, integer, lMIcrum,pulcIier, riiber, sacer, scaber, sinister (in comparative always sinisterior), tseter, vafer: also Afer, Calaber. Examples: puer (m.), a boy; vir (m.), a man; faber (m.), 349 a workman ; membrum (n.), a limb. Singular. Masculine Neuter Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. ) Loc. \ Dat. Voc. "Plural. Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. puSr puSru-m puSri pu8ro pu6rl puSr6-s puero-rum pueri-s vir viru-m viri vir5 viri viro-s viro-rum fabSr fabru-m fabri fabro fabri fabro-s J fabro-rum membru-m membri membr5 membra membr5-rum (and viru-m) (and fabru-m) viri-s fabrl-s membri-s Qn -um in the genitive plural of vir and faber see § 365. 4. Pras-Augustan declension of stems in -uo (i. e. either -uo, -vo, or -qvo). The older language, as shown especially by inscriptions not 350 later than cir. 520 b.c., retained the final -0 of the stem in the nominative and accusative cases singular; e.g. fflids, primes,Chap, V] Noun Stems ending in -o. 119 Lttclom, donom. Though this -0 was changed to -u generally (§ 213), yet the stems in which it was preceded by y or u or qu retained it until the Augustan age and later (Quintil. i. 7. 26). The change was however made in these stems also in the course of the 1st century after Christ. In words like gqvtis the concurrence of u with u was also avoided by writing Sqiis, or gctis. e.g. 6qv5s or Sciis (m.), a horse; sevom (n.), an age; ardu5s (adj.), lofty. :er Adj. arduo-m ardul arduS ardu& ardu5-rum ardul-s Abl. ) 5. Augustan and Prae-Augustan declension of stems in -io. In the Augustan and prse-Augustan period substantives with 35* stems ending in -io formed the genitive singular in -i single. So always in the scenic poets, in Lucretius, Vergil, Horace; also in Persius and Manilius. The genitive of trisyllabic words with a short antepenultimate (e.g. gladius, fblium), appears to have been generally avoided by these poets; but prSti, viti (from pretium and vltium) occur. Propertius, Ovid, Lucan, and the later poets, used the full form in -ii; e.g. MercHrii, exsilii, vltii; but in proper names the contracted form continued to be most common; e.g. Antoni, Capitoli, Terenti, Livi. In inscriptions -ii appears from the end of Augustus1 reign, and with increasing frequency after Nero's reign, though -i is also found to the end of the 3rd century after Christ and probably longer (Ritschl. Opusc. 11. 779). The vocative sing. masc. of these stems also ended in -i (not -ie), 352 e. g. Publi. But the vocative is found only in proper names and in the words ggnius, filius, vultttrius (cf. Gell. 14. 5). The nomina- tive plural rarely had ii contracted into i. The dative ablative plural had sometimes, especially in neuters, -is for -iis. (See § 367.) Masculine Singular. Subst. Nom.) 8qv6-s or 8cii-s SqvS Sqvo-m or §cii-m Voc. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl, Plural, Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. :! Sqvl 6clvo gcivl gqvo-s Sqvo-runi Sqvl-s Adj. arduo-s \ ardu§ i arduo-m) ardul arduo ardul arduo-s j arduo-rum ardux-s Neut Subst. sevi sevo sev3, sevo-rum sevi-s120 Inflexions. [Book II Adjectives always had -ii in genitive. Only those derived from Greek proper names had a distinct form for vocative; e. g. Cyntlne, Delie. In stems ending in -aio, -eio the i both formed a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and also was pronounced as English y before a following vowel. (For some exceptions see § 139.) Hence Cicero wrote the i double, -aiio, -eiio; but this spelling is not now found in the MSS. or in republican inscriptions. Adjectives. 35? masc. egrSgius egrSgium egrggil egregio egrSgia egregiorum egrSgils OLD AND EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF CASES. (CLASS I.) 1 Singular Number. Nominative: Stems in -0. On the faint sound ot final s and m 354 which led to their omission even in the older language, see §§ 193, 5. 86. Old inscriptions give such forms as Acilio, Fourio, Fabrecio, pocolo (for Acilius, Furius, Fabricius, poculum). The nominative sing, of proper names with stems in -io are frequently written in old inscriptions without the final syllable; e. g. Claudi, Valeri, Minuci (for Claudius, See). This may be merely an abbreviation, due as Ritschl supposes, to a once collateral nominative in -is; e.g. Cornelia, Compare alis, alius § 373. Substantives. Singular, masc. Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. fi !:! Plural. Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. Claudius Claudi Claudium Claudi Claudio Claudil Claudios masc. Pompejus Pompei and Pompei I Pompejum J Pompei Pompejo Pompei Pompejos ,i. j Claudio-rum Pompejorum Claudiis Pompeis neut. consilium ^ consill consllio consilia consiliorum consiliis or consilis CHAPTER VI.Chap. VI] Old Forms of Cases. (Nouns of Class /.) 121 AccusAtive: For the omission of the final m, see § 86. 355 Stems in -e. Quintilian (ix. 4. 39) speaks of diee hanc (if text be right) being found in Gato the censor's writings, "m litera In -e mollita ". Genitive : 1. Stems in -a. Instances of the ordinary genitive 356 in -ae are very rare in inscriptions before the time of the Gracchi. Three old forms of the genitive singular are found, viz. -aes, -ai and -as. (a) The ending -aes occurs frequently in inscriptions after Sulla's time, but chiefly on tombs of freedwomen and slaves, and rarely in other than proper names; e.g. Juliaes, Dianaes, Anniaes, Faustinaes, dominaes, vernaes. Some hold it to be intended for the Greek genitive in -rjs. Ritschl (comparing a single Prosepnais from the 6th century u.c.) holds it to be a genuine old Latin form, and possibly used by Plautus (Neue Plaut. Exc. 1. p. 115). (J?) Of the ending -as examples are given from Livius Andro- nicus, escas, monetas, Latonas; from Naevius. terras, fortunas; and from Ennius, vias. Some so take molas in Plaut. Pseud, 1100. This form is preserved in one word at all periods, viz. familia, when combined with pater, mater, filius, filia; e.g. paterfamilias (Gato, Cic.), a father of a household. Pater, &c. familise (Cic., Liv.) is also used. In the plural we find both patres, &c. -familise (Varr., Cass., Liv.), -familias (Varr., Cic.), -familiarum (Cic., Sail.), fathers See. of households. (c) The ending -ai (originally the locative according to Madvig) is more common and earlier, and in Plautus and hex- ameter verse (retaining probably the old pronunciation) is treated as a spondee (-ai). It is frequent in Lucretius, and is also used by Cicero in his poetry, and by Vergil in four words, aquai, aulai, aurai, pictai. Republican inscriptions give, e.g. Duelonai (i.e. Bellonse), Glabrai, ejus rei quaerundai et faciundai causa, calcis restinctai, &c. 2. Stems in -e. Four forms of the genitive-ending are found, 357 viz. §s; ei; e; I. (See Gell. 9.14). (a) -es; viz. Dies, Enn.^. 401, Verg. G. i. 208 (die, Ribbeck), Cic. Sest. 12. § '28; rabies, Lucr. iv. 1083 ; facies, Claud. Quadrig. (in Sulla's time); fides, see below b; pernicies, said to have been written by Cicero. (b) -ei; viz. diei, frequent in prose; die!, Lucr. (often), Verg. A. iv. 156, Hor. S. 1. 8. 35, Phsedr. 11. 8.10, Ter. Haut. 168, 212, Plaut.; diei, Ter. Eun. 801; rei, always in Republican inscriptions; rei, Plaut. Mil. G. 103, magna! rei publicai gratia; Lucr. 11. 112,122 Inflexions. [Book II 548; r6i, Plaut., Ter.,Hor.; rei, Plaut., Ter., Lucil., Lucr.; fidei, fre- quent in prose; fidei, Enn. Ann. 342, Plaut. AuL 121, 575, Lucr* v. 102; fidei, Manil. n. 605, 627, Sil. (four times); fidei (fides Wagner), Plaut. AuL 609; spei, frequent in prose; spei, Ter. always; plebei (especially in phrases tribunus plebei, plebeiscitum, See.) frequent: aciei, Bell. Afr. 59 and 60. Mundiciei, Inscr. 136, A.Dj. (cf. Corssen. Aussp. 1. 54, ed. 2). (c) -e; viz. die, in several places (in some mss.) of Cses., Sail., Liv., also Plaut. Pseud. 1158; Sen. Cons. Marc. 18. a; compare also postridie, &c.; re, Gaes., Liv. in some mss. ; fide, Poet. ap. C. Off. 3. 26; Plane, ap. Cic. Fam. 10. 17 ; Hor. C. 3. 7. 4; Ovid. Met. ill. 341, vi. 506, vn. 728, 737, &c.; acie, Sail.; facie, Lucil., Plaut. Mil. G. 1173; requie, Sail.; scabie, Lucil. " G. Caesar in libro de analogia secundo hujus die et hujus specie dicendum putat," Gell. 9.14. (d) -i; viz. dii, Verg. A. 1.636; plebi, frequent in phrases above quoted; acii, Cn. Matius; pernicii, Cic. Rose. Am. 45, Sisenna; specii, Cn. Matius; progenii, Pacuvius; luxurii, C. Gracchus; fami, Lucil., Cato; fidi, Augustan legal inscription (Corp. I. L. 11. 5°43). 3. Stems in -0. The oldest form was perhaps -oe; e.g. poploe. 358 But the inscriptions to the time of the third Punic war give only I; e.g. Barbati, urbani; after that time, till Augustus, -ei is also fre- quently found; e.g. populei, cogendei, suei, ostiei, pagei, Marcei, Vergilei; but not so frequently in laws as -1. In Augustus' time -ei went out of use (§§ 265—268). Lucilius wished to establish the distinction of-rfor the gen. sing.; -ei for nom. plur. The locative has the same form as the genitive and was not improbably identical with it. Dative: i. Stems in -a. Early republican and other inscrip- 359 tions have not unfrequently -ai. The disyllabic a! is not found in the dative in any poet. Forms like Fortune, Diane in very old inscriptions are probably imitations of Greek. 2. Stems in -e. Three forms of the dative are found; -ei, e 360 and I. (a) -ei; viz. diei, often; rei, Lucr. 1. 688, II. 236; rei, Corp. T. L. 201, also (at beginning of verse) Ter. Ad. 95; r6i, Hor. C. 3. 24. 64 ; rei, Enn. Trag. 361; Plaut.,Ter., Lucil.; fidei, often in prose; fidei, Enn. Ann. 111 (fide, Vahlen); Ter. And. 296, Eun. 886, 898 (ed. Umpfenbach); comp. Plaut. Tr'm. 117, 128; fidei, Manil. 3.107, Sil. 2. 561; plebei, Plin.. H. N. 19. 4. i9> § 54, 18. 3. 4; aciei, Cass. Civ. ill. 89, ib. 93; perniciei, Nep. 12. 4-Chap. VI] Old Forms of Cases. (Nouns of Class /.) 123 (b) -e; viz. die, Plaut.; re, Plaut. Trin. 635, 657; fide, Corp. I. R. i. 170, Plaut. Aul. 659, Arnph. 391, -FVrj. 193; comp. Trzw. 117,128,14a, Hor. S. 1. 3. 95; pernicie, Liv. 5. 13, §5; facie, Lucil. "In casu dandi qui purissime locuti sunt, non ' faciei' uti nunc dicitur sed ' facie' dixerunt," Gell. 9. 14. (c) -i; viz. pernicii, Nep. 8. 2; fami, Plaut. Stich. 158; facii (cf. Gell. 9. 14); Mi, Fast. Coll. Arval. ad Kal. Oct. 3. Stems in -0. The oldest form was -oi; e.g. hole, quoi, 3^i populoi. Perhaps also oe in pilumnoe, poploe, Fest. p. 205. Ablative. In early times the ablative ended in -d; e.g. oquol- 36a tod (occulto); Benventod (Benevento), praidad (prseda), sententiad (sententia). The latest inscription containing such ablatives is the S.C. de Bacc. b.c. 186. Plautus probably used it or not as he chose. See § 160 and Ritschl, Neue Plaut. Exc. i. 106. Plural Number. Nominative: Stems in -a. The ending -as is quoted from 363 Pomponius, 4 Quot laetitias insperatas modo mi inrepsere in sinuiu.' (See Ritschl, N. P. Exc. i. 117.) Stems in -0. The earliest forms of ending in inscriptions are -es (not beyond cir. 90 b.c.) and very rarely -e or -oe; e.g. Atilies, xnagistres, ploirume, Fescenninoe: from 200 b.c. or earlier to about the birth of Christ, more frequently -ei, and from about the Gracchi till cir. 90 b.c. -eis, or sometimes -is; e.g. Italicei, oinvorsei (imi- versi), Q. M. Minucieis, Q. F. Rufeis (i.e. Q. (et) M. Minucii, Quinti filii, Hufi), gnateis, heisce. So in Plautus hisce, illisce. The ordinary form in -1 appears since the Gracchi, and becomes exclusively used in the Augustan age. The only instances of dual forms (compare the Greek) are duo and ambo, which are the forms used in the masc. and neut. (duss feminine as in plur). Accusative : Duo, ambo, masc. and neut.; duos, ambos, also masc. (duas, ambas, fem.). Genitive: Future participles except futurus are very rarely 364 found in the genitive plural, probably on account of the unpleasant- ness of repeated r (§ 185). 1. Stems in -a. The ending -urn for -arum (comp. Oscan -azum; Umbr. -arum or -aru; old Greek -acoz/) is found; (a) in some names derived from the Greek; viz.: amphorum, (e.g. trium amphorum), drachiraim.124 Inflexions. [Book II (b) in proper names, especially patronymics, but almost ex- clusively in dactylic verse (esp. Vergil); e.g. Lapitlium, Dardanidum, iEneadmn. (c) The only strictly Latin words in which it occurs are (mas- culine) compounds of gigno and colo, and these are so used in dactylic verses only; e.g. Grajugenum, terrigenum, cselicolum. The forms in -arum are also used. 2. Stems in -o. The ending -um (apparently similar to the 365 Umbrian and Oscan forms, and the Greek ~6ju) was perhaps the. original Italian form, except in the pronouns, and was gradually superseded in Latin by -orum, which is common in inscriptions of the second century b.c. and later. In and after Cicero's time (see Cic. Or. 46) the genitive in -um for ordinary language was found only in certain words. Thus it is found: {a) in names of weights and measures (chiefly Greek) in combi- nation with numerals. Thus nummum (e.g. tria millia nummum; but nummorum accessionem), sestertium, denarium, talentum, me- dimnum, stadium. (b) in deum, divum, the compounds of virum e.g. quinquevi- rum, duum virum, &c. (but in Liv. decern virorum is frequent), and in poetry virum itself; liberum {children), fabrum (in phrases as prsafectus fabrum, collegium fabrum), socium (in prose rarely ex- cept of the Italian allies, or with prsefectus), equum (often written e^um). (c) in names of peoples (in poetry); e.g. AcMvum, Argivum, Teu- crum, Celtiberum (sometimes in prose), Rutulum, Italum, &c. Other words, e. g. fluvium, famulum, juvencum, are found occasionally. (d) But few instances of neuters are found; e.g. somnium, armum, &c., oppidum (Sulpicius ap. Cic. Fam. 4. 5. §' 4). (e) In adjectives instances are few, e.g. centum doctum liominum consilia, celatum indagator, &c. (Plaut.); motus superum atque iuferum, meum factum pudet (Ennius); prodigium horriferum portentum pavor (Pacuv.); amicum, iniquom, sequom (Ter. Haut. 24, 27); &c., and the old phrase liberum sibi qusesendum (or quse- rendum) gratia, &c. So in Vergil magnanimum generator equorum. (f) Duum (frequently), ducentum, quingentum, sescentum, &c. So usually distributives; e.g. binum, quaternum (never binorum, quaternorum with milium), senum, ducenum, quadragenum, &c. (§•) For nostrum, vestrum, &c., see § 388. Dative, Ablative, i. Stems in -a and -0. 1. The oldest form, s66 of which any instances are found, was -oes; e.g. oloes for illis. But the form most used in pras-Augustan inscriptions is -eis. The ending -is is found since the Gracchi, and, almost exclusively, in and after the Augustan time.Chap. VI.] Old Forms of Cases. (Nouns of Class I) 125 2. Stems in -ia, -io are found sometimes with -is instead of -iis 367 in inscriptions; e. g. suffragis, prsedis, provincis. So in Gic. Rep. socis, prsesidis, pecunis, &c. Plautus has gaudis, fills (from Alius); Vergil has tsenis; Seneca supplicis; Martial denaris. In Mori. Ancyr. both forms occur not unfrequently; e.g. municipiis, municipis. Gratiis (Plaut., Ter.), gratis (Gic., Mart.). 3. An ending in -"bus, as in the second class of nouns, is found 368 in a few words: viz. (a) Ambo, duo, always make ambSbus, ambabus; duobus, duabus. (b) DIbus is found in inscriptions for DIs. (So also Ibus, hlbus, from is and hie.) (c) In prose, chiefly in inscriptions and legal expressions, -abus for -is is found in a few substantives; viz. deabus (chiefly in phrases, dis deabusque), filiabus, libertabus in opposition to the (usually) masculine filiis, libertis; rarely, conservabus, natabus. In late writers also animabus, equabus, mulabus, and (sometimes in in- scriptions) nymphabus. A few adjectives occur with this form in Rhenish inscriptions; e.g. matronis Gabiabus, Junonibus Silvanabus, &c. The following words of this class are defective or redundant in 369 certain cases. (All words of this sort which in any way belong to the 2nd class have their peculiarities mentioned, where they occur in the enumeration of that class.) See also § 330. sevom (n.), also used as acc. m.; balneum (n.), also plur. balneae, of the bath house; balteus (m.), also balteum (n.), esp. in plur.; buxus (f.), also buxum(n.); caelum (11.), no plur. except cselos once in Lucret., where the meaning compels it; callus (m.), also callum (n.); carbasus (m.), plur. carbasa; caseus (m.), also caseum (n.); c§,yum (n.), a hollow, also cavus, m. (sc. locus); clipeus (m.), also clipeum (n.); collum (n.), also in old language collus (m.); crdcus (m.), in sing, also crdcum (n.); cytisus (m. f.), in sing, also cytlsum (n.); dellcium (n.) or delicia (f.), plur. delicise, sing, not frequent; dica, dicam, dicas, dlcis, lac. 127 In the same way are declined s51us, alone, fLnus, one, ullus (i. e. flniilus), any at all, nullus, none. Also alter (the other), altera, alterum, gen. alterius, dat. alter!. titer, utra, utrum, whether, i.e. which of two, gen. utrius, dat.ut.ri. altSrtiter, alterutra, or altera utra, alterutrum, or alterum utrum; gen. alterius utrius (post-Aug. alterutrius), dat. altero utri or alterutro. iiterque, utraque, utrumque, each; iitercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, which so ever (of two). titervxs, utravls, utrumvis, which (of two) you please; ttterllbet; utr&libet, utrumllbet, which (of two) you like. neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither. ipse (in early writers frequently ipsus), ipsa,, ipsum, he himself The genitive has usually, a long penultimate1; but all (except 372 solius, utrius, and neutrius) are frequent in poetry with -ius: so utriusque always: solius once in Terence. soli is found as gen. masc. (Cato); toti as gen. fern. (Afran.); nulli is once or twice used for the masc. and neut. genitive; and nullo for the dative; ulli once (Plaut.) for gen. masc.; neutri is used in the gen. neut. in the sense of neuter gender. The feminine datives un», nullse, solaa, totse, alterse, are (rarely) found in early writers to. the time of, and including, Cicero and Nepos. Toto for dat. masc. is used once by Propertius. The genitive nullius and abl. nullo are rarely used substan- tively of things, but frequently of persons; neminis being only found in prae-Ciceronian writers, and nemine being only used by Tacitus and Suetonius, except once in Plautus. 2. ille, that; iste, that near you (declined like ille); aliiis, 373 another. Singular. m. f. n. m. "Worn <1124 n. m. Singular. f. n. Gen. illius in all genders m illam ctxiua ctJLJLCI» / - ftllum alium [ ^ aliiis in all genders (rare) | ill! in all genders Abl. U15 ilia ill5 &lii in all genders Slid &1& alio The plural is regular in both. 1 In the comic poets -Ius and -ius are both found. Cicero (Or. 3. 47. 183) implies that illius was in his time pronounced illius; Quintiliau128 Inflexions. [Book If. Old forms of ille found in Ennius, Lucretius, and Vergil, are olli for dat. sing, and nom. pi. masc.; ollis, dat. and abl. plural; and in Lucretius ollas, olla, acc. plural. Ab oloes for ab illis is men- tioned by Festus; ollus and olla (nom. sing.) by Varro. Istus for iste is found once in Plautus. In the prse-Ciceronian phrases alii modi, illi„modi, isti modi, we have genitives (or possibly locatives); as also in alii dei, alii generis in Varro, alii rei in Caslius. Illse, istse, alias are found in early writers rarely for dat. fern, sing.; alise as genitive in Cicero, Livy, and Lucretius (once each). Collateral forms, viz. alis, masc. nom. (Catull.), alid, neut. nom. acc. (Lucretius), ali, dat. sing. (Cat., Lucr.) are also found. The adverb alibi appears to be an old locative. The demonstrative particle c$ was sometimes appended to the 374 cases of ille and iste which end in -s, and frequently in an abridged form to the others (except genitive plural), especially in Plautus and the early writers; e. g. Singular. Plural. Nom. illlc illssc ) uiic lUsec ) Acc. illunc illane j lUosca illasce ) Gen. illiusce in all genders Dat. | mic *n Senc^ers 1 misce in all genders Abl. illoc iliac illoc J So also istic. In nom. sing, illace, istace for fem., and illoc, istoc for neut. are also found. The initial i of iste, istic appears to have been sometimes omit- 375 ted; e.g. At stuc periculum (Ter. Andr. 566); quse sti rhetores (Cic.Or. I. 19); quid me sta res (Gic. Fam. 4. 3. a); jam stinc (Verg. A. 6. 389); modo sto (Hor. Epist. II. a. 163), &c. See Lachm. ad Lucr. p. 197. 3. Hie (stem ho-), this near me, is declined as follows, the forms 376 in brackets being older forms used by Plautus, &c. (hosce, hasce, hujusce also in Cicero; lisec for nom. fem. plur. is found in Varro, Lucretius, and twice or oftener in Vergil. Haice neut. pi. only in 5. C. de Bacc.) (1. 5. 18) that unins was in his time units s. Probably these words . lllius, unius) are taken as instances only. (Ritschl, Opusc. 11. 696.)Chap. VII.] Declension of Pronouns adjective, &>c. 12 9 Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl, Singular. m. f. n. Mc (Mce) h»c ) . _ v hunc hanc (hance) \ ^ ' hiijiis or hujusce (hoiusce) in all genders hie (adverb) huic (hoice) in all genders 1l5c Mc (hace) h5c Plural. m. f. Ill (hisce) hsB (haec) ) hos (hosce) has (hasce) j" h5rum (horunce, harum (harunce, horunc) harunc) his (hTbus) in all genders n. hsec (haice) hdrum Is, that (stem i- and eo-), is thus declined. 37; Nom. Acc. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. id Singular. m. f. is §& ) eum earn ( §jus (in all genders) ibi (adverb) ei or ei (in all genders) e5 ea eo Plural. m. f. ei or ii ess ) eos eas ) eorum earum 61s, eis or iis n. e& eSrum Em or im for eum is quoted from the xii. Tables; esa for dat. fem. in Gato; eiei, iei for dat. sing, in post-Gracchan and prae- Augustan inscriptions; eis once for nom. s. masc.; iei, eis, eeis oriels for nom. plur. masc. and eieis, eeis, and ieis for dat. and abl. plural in prae-Augustan inscriptions; ibus sometimes in comic poets and Lucretius1; §afcus in Cato for abl. plur. fem.; i and is in Plautus. ii and iis were common in post-Augustan inscriptions. Of poets only the prae-Augustan used any of the cases, except that Horace has the genitive and accusative in his non-lyrical writings. Ennius is said to have written sometimes sum, sam for eum, earn, and sas for eas. (Or perhaps for suas.) The dat. sing, ei has rarely a short penultimate (6i): as 51 it is frequent in Plautus and Terence and (in the last foot of the hexa- meter) in Lucretius. As a monosyllable it is also common. 1 Where ifcus appears to be long, hlbus is probably the right reading. 9T 3P Inflexions. [Book II. The suffix -pse is sometimes found in Plautus appended; e.g. 378 eapse, eumpse, eampse, eSpse, eapse; and in Cicero often in the phrase reapse (for re e&pse). In ipse (see above) the suffix is made the vehicle of the case endings. Idem, Sadem, Idem, acc. eundem, eandem, Idem (compound of is-dem) is declined like it, the forms iidem, iisdem however not being found, and SIdem, SIsdem not frequently. For the nom. masc. sing, and plur. eidem, eisdem are found in prse-Augustan inscriptions. Comp. § 265, 363. Isdem also appears to have been in use. For neut. s. eidem is found once in a prae- Aug. inscr. 5. qui (stem qu6-), which, what? any, an (adjective) relative, 379 interrogative, and indefinite pronoun is thus declined. Older forms found in Plautus, &c. are added in brackets. Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. n. Nom. qui qua ) qui quse ) Acc. quem quam ( quos quas \ Gen. ciijus (quoius) in all genders quorum quarum quorum S3: As an indefinite pronoun qua is more common than quae in fem. nom. sing, and neut. plur. Ciijus was treated (in prae-Augustan writers and once in Vergil) as a declinable genitive, i.e. an adjective with -0 stem (e.g. is cuja res, cujum periculum est. Cujum pecus? (See the suffix -io in Book III.) The following forms are found so used: nom. s. cuja (f.), cujum (n.); acc. cujum (m.n.); cujam (f.); abl. cuja (f.); plur. nom. cujse (f.). (Never used instead of quorum or quarum.) In Plautus cuius is often a monosyllable. Qui is used (1) as an ablative (of all genders, and, occasionally in early writers, of the plural) with the preposition cum appended (quicum); (2) as a substantive relative and interrogative (e. g. liabeo qui utar); (3) as an adverbial interrogative, how? and (4) oc- casionally as indefinite, e.g. neuqui, siqui (Plaut.). As a locative ubi (for qudfci) is used. The ablat. plur. quls is found often in Varro, Sallust, and Tacitus, rarely in Cicero. Qui like any other adjective can be used substantively, but 380 (owing to the use of quis, quid) it is actually so used in the nom. singular and neuter acc. sing., as an interrogative rarely, and chiefly in dependent questions: as an indefinite pronoun, whether substantively or adjectively, only after si, nisi, ne, num.Chap. VII.] Declension of Pronouns adiective, &°c- 13 t In the cases named, an allied form quis, neut, quid takes its place. Quis (1) as an interrogative is generally a substantive (and as such is in early writers predicated of males or females), but sometimes a masculine adjective: (3) as an indefinite pronoun, it is used both as substantive and as masculine and feminine adjective. . Quid and its compounds are always substantives. The compounds of qui, quis are mainly declined like them, but 3s 1 all have -quid (not -quod), when used as substantives. Other peculiarities are here named. Aliqui} aliqua, ailquod, some. Aliquis is a subst. and masc. adj.; and is more common than aliqui. Aliquse as nom. fem. sing, occurs in Lucretius once, and not at all as neut. plur. Abl. aliqui is some- times used in Plautus. Ecqui, ecqua, or ecquse, ecquod, any f Ecquis is subst. and masc. adj. The only cases besides the nom. in use are dat. eccui; acc. ecquem, ecquam; abl. m. and n. ecquo. The plural is rare, but the forms ecqui, ecquos, ecquas, are found. Qulnam, qusenam, quodnam, any ? Quisnam is also used. Quldam, qusedam, quoddam, certain. Quicunque, qusecunque, quodcunque, whatsoever. The -cunque is sometimes separated from qui, &c.; e.g. qua re cunque possum: Quilibet, qusellbet, quodlibet, which you like: Qulvls, qusevls, quod vis, which you will. Sometimes with cunque attached; e. g. quiviscunque, whatsoever. The following have quis instead of qui for the nom. sing. masc. 382 Quisquis, whosoever or whatsoever; quidquid or quicquid, whatever, also a substantive. Quiqui (nom. sing.) only in Plautus once. Quisquis as adjective is not applied to females. Of the other cases we have only the locative quiqui in Plaut. and possibly in cui- cuimodi: the abl. masc. and neut. quoquo; acc. in comic poets quemquem; quiqui nom. plur. masc.; in Livy quibusquibus (dat. pi. perhaps in quotation from ancient document), and quaqua, in Tacitus as abl. fem. sing.; elsewhere only as adverb. Quisquam, n. quicquam, any at all. Generally used as substan- tive, but quisquam is also used adjectively of females (as well as of males). Quiquam as ablative in Plautus. The plural and the femi- nine singular are not used. Quodquam also not used. Quispiam, qusepiam, quodpiam, some. Plaut. has an abl. quipiam. Quisque, quseque, quodque, each. Quicque or quidque is liubst. quisque used of a woman in Plautus. 9—2132 Inflexions. [Book II. Its compound unusquisque is similarly declined. Quis appears to have stem qui-, and to belong to the -i stems (see 38? Chap. x). Probably the forms (now partly assumed by quo-) were, Nom. quis, neut. quid (so also is, id) ; Gen. quis; Acc. quem (the proper accus. of quo- being quom now used as conjunction), neut. quid; Abl. qui (hence possibly quid, wherefore; but comp. ri). Plural nom. and acc. ques (old form used by Gato and Pacuvius, § 363), neut. quia (used as conjunction); Gen. cuium (found in Plautus); Dat. Abl. quibus. CHAPTER VIII. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The substantives, called personal pronouns, are very peculiar in 384 their inflexions, nor are all the cases formed from the same stem. 1st Person. Singular. Nom. 6go Acc. me Gen. (see below) Dat. mihi or mi Abl. me Plural. Nom. Acc. nos Gen. nostrum Dat. Abl. nobis %nd Person. tu te tibi te 3rd Person. sing, and plur. no nom. se sibi se vos vestrum (vostrum) vobis Singular. Accusative. The forms med and sed occur as 385 accusatives in some early inscriptions, and med and ted both as accusatives and ablatives in Plautus; probably sed also {Mil. Glor. 1275). The d is probably the ablatival d, incorrectly transferred to the accusative as well1. Quintilian also mentions an old form mehe. Tete was rarely written for te: sese frequently for se. Genitive. The old genitive of the 1st and 2nd persons was mis, 386 tis; the latter is found in Plautus. This was replaced as possessive by the adjectives meus, tuus; and as objective by the gen. sing. neut. mei (of my being), tui. So suus (adj.), sui for the genitive (both singular and plural) of the reflexive pronouns. 1 Ritschl, Neue Plant. Excurs. (1869), p. 11,Chap. VJII] Declension of Personal Pronouns. 133 Dative, mi is used both by Cicero and the poets. 387 For sibi old forms are siba, sibei (cf. § 265). Ablative. See above under accusative. Plural. Accusative. For nos we have enos in the Carmen Arvale. Genitive. As possessive genitives the adjectives noster and vester 3SS were used; as objective nostri, vestri, and rarely nostrum, vestrum; as partitive nostrum, vestrum, and in the comic poets sometimes nostrorum, nostrarum, vestrorum, vestrarum. To all cases (except tu nom.) of these substantive pronouns the 389 particle -met is sometimes added. For tu, tuts or tutimet are found. The adjectives have in the ablative case -met or -pte often ap- pended; e.g. meopte, suamet; rarely in the gen. sing., e.g. tuipte; and acc. plur., e.g. suosmet, su&met. CHAPTER IX. NOUNS OF CLASS II. The second main class of nouns contains stems ending in the semiconsonantal vowels u and i, or in a consonant. i. Declension of -u Stems. The case suffixes, as seen in consonantal stems, are preserved 39o entire only in three or four nouns. They usually combine with the final vowel of the stem. The terminations thus become sing, nom. -us; acc. -um (for -u-em); gen. -its (for -u-is); dat. -ui, often -u; abl. -iL (for -ue); plural nom. acc. -its (for -u-es) ; gen. -uum; dat. abl. -ubus, generally -ibus. Some have collateral stems in -0, which are at least as early as the -u stems (see below). The few neuter nouns differ only in the nom. acc. sing., 39X which exhibits the bare stem, and the nom. acc. plural which has the vowel a added (-ua). The contracted form of the dat. sing, is alone found now. (The neuters are cornu, genu, pecu, veru; also artua and ossua pi.)*34 Inflexions. [Book IL No adjectives have stems in -u; except perhaps compounds of manus; but these are found only in nom. and acc. sing., except angvimanHs acc. pi. twice in Lucr. (a) The words which retain the suffixes entire are 3g2 griis (usually f., dat. abl. pi. gruibus); sits (m. f., dat. abl. pi. suibus and subus; also siibus: a gen. sing, sueris is also mentioned); bos, stem b&v- (m. f., gen. pi. boum, and bovom or bovum; dat. abl. biibus rarely bobus); J6v- nom. s. Jup-piter (acc. Jdv-em, so the other cases.: an old gen. pi. Joum is mentioned). (£) The remaining words are here arranged according to the 393 letter preceding the final u. (But few however of the numerous verbals in -tu are here given.) All are masculine, except c&lus, d&mus, idus (pi.), manus, portions, quinquatrus (pi.), tribus; and names of women and trees. A few are fem. or neut. as well as masc. The dat. pi. is in -lbus, unless otherwise stated. -bu tribus (f. dat. abl. pi. tribubus). -mu domus (f.) voc. domus, gen. domus (domi only in Plaut.), 394 loc. domui, usually (as from -0 stem) domi; dat. domui, rarely domo; abl. domo, sometimes domu. Plur. nom. domus, acc. domos, sometimes domus; gen. domorum (Lucr. Verg.), domuum (Sen. Plin. Tac.), dat. abl. Abl. \ su-bus and su-Ibiis artu-Ms gr&d-ib&s corn-Ibtis Examples of declension of stems in -u. CHAPTER X. ii. DECLENSION OF -i STEMS. Nouns with stems ending in -i exhibit the following case end- 4°* ings, composed partly of the final stem vowel, partly of case suffixes. Singular. The nominative has one, sometimes more than one, of four forms. It ends (a) in -es. These are almost all feminine. (b) in -Is, masc. and fem.: neuter in -e. (r) in -s, after dropping the final vowel; a preceding t or d is then also dropped as in consonant stems (§ 436). The same form is used in adjectives for all genders. No neuter substantives have -s. (d) in -r or -1; viz. some stems end in -er for masc.; others, neuter in -ar or -al. A few adjectives have -sir, or -6r for all gen- ders. The r or 1 is the final consonant of the stem.Chap. X] Declension of -i Stems. 137 Accus. -em is found for masc. and fem. in all adjectives, and always or usually in most substantives. A few substantives have also -im; very few have -im always, and of these last only vis and sitis are found often in the accusative at all. (The neuter accusa- tive is like the nominative.) Gen. in -Is, Dat. -I, Loc. Abl. in -6 or -I. Adjectives with nom. sing. in -Is have -I always, other adjectives, except participles, used as such (see § 419)* have -I usually. Most substantives, substantively used adjectives, and participles have -6. Neuters with -S, -1, or -r in the nom. sing, have -1 in the abl. Plural. Nom. -§s, rarely -Is; Acc. -§s or -Is indifferently (on -eis see § 265, 266). Neuters have in both cases -ia, that is, -8, suf- fixed to the stem. Gen. -ium in prose. In verse the i is sometimes omitted for metre's sake in stems ending in -nti, and in a few other words. Dat. Loc. Abl. -Ibus. Some older forms of the cases will be found in Chap, xn., but the early inscriptions, i.e. before the seventh century u.c., contain: very few instances of -i stems. (N.B. In the list given below, the occurrence of an accus. in -im, or of an abl. in -e from an adjective, or in -i from a substantive, will be mentioned. The instances of the nom. plur. in -Is, being probably not peculiar to particular words, will not be mentioned.) The origin of the -i stems1 and of their case-endings2 is ob- scure. Very few of these stems appear to correspond with -i stems in Sanskrit or Greek (e. g. ignis, Sanskr. agni-; poti-, Sanskr. p&ti-, Greek 7rocrt-; angui-, Sanskr. alii-, Gr. turris, rvpa-is; ovis, Sanskr. avis, Gr. 61?); many correspond to stems with a, or (Greek) o or v as final vowels. Some are clearly weakened forms of -0 stems (e.g. exanimis, inermis, sublimis, &c., and comp. humilis with xQafiakos, imber- (imbri-) with ofi{3pos, nocti- with noctu, sitis with situs, perhaps also ponti- with pontufex, fusti- with fustuarium, &c.): others have lost a consonant3 (e. g. vi- for viri-, cucumi- for cucumis-, tigri- for tigrid-, and compare clavis with kAcTS-; apis with ip,nls, efin 18-; epiv acc. from e'ptS-4). It is probable therefore that the -i of these stems is, at least in most cases, the representative of an earlier vowel, and, according to the 1 See L. Meyer, Vergl. Gr. I. 126, II. 117 sqq., 162 sqq.; Schleicher, Vergl. Gr. p. 384, 432, 452, ed. 2. 2 See Corssen, Aussprache, I. 727, 734, 738 sqq. ed. 2; Bucheler, Lat. Dec. 8 Key considers -i to stand for -ic; Essays, 215, 236, &c.; Lat. Gr, p. 441, &c. ed. 2. 4 But see Curtius, Gr. Etym. p. 563, ed. 2.Inflexions. [Book II general law of Latin vowel-changes, may therefore often have been immediately preceded by e (long or short). (In the very early inscriptions we have aidiles beside aedilis n. sing., and marte, martei for marti, dat. s., militare for militaris, nom. s.)This con- clusion is confirmed by the fact that in numerous stems a nom. sing, is found in -es, as well as in -is; and it would account for the pre- dominance of -e in the ordinary case-endings. It may be noted that none even of the words quoted above, as having the best claim to an original -i, have -im in the accusative sing. (But see § 196.) The weakness of the -i is shewn by its frequent omission before 406 the nominative suffix s, whenever the effect of an adjoining s on the preceding consonants would not be dangerous to the identity of the stem. Thus loquax, stirps, mens, ars, mus for loquacis, stirpis, mentis, artis, muris (cf. § 192); but sublimis not sublimps; avis not aus; ungvis not unx (comp. ningvis, nivi-, nix); vates or vatis not vas; vestis not ves; &c. In the words canis, juvSnis, mensis the i as well as the s is suffixal, and it is not unlikely that some other words (e. g. indoles, vates, &c.) may belong properly to the class of nouns with consonant stems. (See the Preface.) The origin of the long vowel in the nominatives in -es is not 407 clear. Some stems (e.g. plebes, also plebs; fames, also famis) have cases like the first class of nouns (§ 340). A large proportion of the -i stems have only one syllable besides 408 the -i, or are compounds with no further derivative suffix. Again, a very large proportion have the syllable preceding -i long. And in many of these, two consonants immediately precede the -i, as if the addition of the -i had either forced together the other syllables, or were itself a means, at least in the gen. plur., of giving play to a too heavy mass. (Comp. § 435-) The chief derivative suffixes are -aci, -enti, -Hi, -ali, -art The following is a tolerably complete list of words of this 409 class, except that some little-used compounds are omitted, and specimens only given of the principal classes of derivatives. In some words there is little or no positive evidence of the stem having -i, and they are placed here or among consonant stems in accord- ance with such analogies as may be found, 1. Stems with labial before -i. 410 All retain i or e in nom. sing, except stirps, trabs, plebs, urbs, nix. (a) Stems in -pi. -&pi apis (f. gen. pi. sometimes apum); gaus&pe (f. abl. sing, also has acc. pi. A neuter stem in -0 is more usual).Chap. X] Declension of -i Stems. 139 -5pi cSpem (adj. no nom. sing.). -iipi rUpes (f.). -uppi puppis (f. acc. regularly -im; abl. often in -i; puppe, though frequent, being later; not before Ovid). -sepi caepe (n. only used in nom. acc. sing.; usually stem in -a); v ssepes (f. also sseps rarely). -epi prsesepe (n. also has acc. pi. prsesepes (f.); abl. s. prse- sepio; abl. pi. prassepiis; and perhaps acc. s. prassepim). -Ipi Alpes (f. pi.); volpes (f. also volpis once Petron.). -rpi stirps (f., sometimes as tree stem m.; nom. s. stirpis twice, and stirpes once in Liv.); turpis (adj.). (/3) Stems in -bi. 4" -&bi trabs (f. trabes Enn.). -6bi scdbis (f.); scrfibis (m. f. also nom. s, scrobs Colum.). -abi l&bes (f.); tabes (f. only in singular, and that is rare; abl. tabfi, tabo usually, tabe once in Lucr.). -iibi niibes (f. also nubs Liv. And.); ptlbes (f. dat. pube Plaut. once); imptlbis (adj.). -ebl plebs (f. sometimes written pleps; also has nom. s. plebes and (Liv.) plebis; see §§ 340, 357; no plural), -mbi delumbis (adj. Plin. once); palumbes (m. f. also pSlum- Ms, besides gen. and acc. sing, and nom. acc. and abl. pi. from a stem in -0; palumbibus is not found). -rbi corbis (m. f. abl. in -i twice in Cato); imberbis (adj. older stem in -0); orbis (m. abl. sometimes in -i); urbs (f. sometimes written urps). (-y) Stems in -mi. 413 -ami famis (f. rare except in gen. s.; other cases from fames, § 34o). -iimi ciiciimis (m. acc. in -im, abl. in -i; also with stem cuCumis-); incolumis (adj.). -imt ex&nimis, semianimis, unanimis (adj. also earlier -0 stems, which alone are used in plur.). -ami infamis (adj.; acc. infamam once LuciL). -omi c5mis (adj.). -ami impliimis (adj.); rumis (f.? old word; only acc. in -im; abl. in -i).140 Inflexions. [Book II. -5mi birSmis, trirSmis, &c. (adj. often as subst. f.; abl. rarely in -e). -imi subllmis (adj. also an early -o stem). -rmi abnormis, enormia (adj.); biforalis, informis, &c. (adj.); inermis (adj. also an earlier form in -o); vermis (m.). (8) Stems in -vi. (For -qvi see § 414; for -ffvi §415-) 413 -ui lues (f. also has acc. and rarely abl. s. no plur.); strues (f. 110 gen. or nom. acc. plur.). For gitLs, sits, see § 39*- -S,vi §,vis (f. abl. sometimes in -i); gravis (adj.), -6vi 6vis (f. but in ancient formula m.). -6vi brgvis (adj.); lSvis (adj.). -Ivi nix (f. gen. pi. only in Lamprid. See below ningvis). -avi clavis (f. acc. sometimes in -im); conclave (n.); navis (f. acc. often in -im; abl. often m -i); ravis (f. acc. in -im; abl. in -i); svavis (adj.). -Ivi civis (m. f. abl. often in -i); acclivis, decllvis, proclivis (adj. also with -0 stems). -H7i tenvis (adj.), see § 92. -Ivi pelvis (f. acc. sometimes in -im; abl. usually in -i). -rvi enervis (adj.). 2. Stems with a guttuial before -i. 414 (a) Stems in -ci, -qvi. All drop -i in nom. sing, except those ending in -sci and -qvi. -qvi quis (pronoun. See § 383. Comp. also Is § 377). -6ci prsecox (adj. for older praecoquis; also rarely a stem in -0). -6ci (-Ici) simplex (adj.); duplex, &c. (For supplex see § 439.) -aci fornax (f.); pax (f.)', and numerous verbal adjectives; e.g. audax, dicax, ffirax, ldquax, vlvax, &c. -auci fauces (f. pi., also fauce abl. sing.). -oci atrox (adj.); c61ox (f., but in Liv. m.); fSrox (adj.); solox (adj., old word); velox (adj.). -ilcl lux (f. abl. sometimes in -i); Pollux (m. old nom. s. Polltlces). fsex (f. no gen. pi.).Chap. X] Declension of -1 Stems. -Ici bfficem (adj. acc. s.); fSlix (adj.); pernix (adj.); and* the verbal forms chiefly feminine, but in plural used also as neuter adjectives; e.g. victrix, ultrix, corruptrix, fau- trix, &c. -nci deunx (m.); quincunx (m.), &c.; lanx (f. no gen. pi.). -Ici calx (f. sometimes m., no gen. pi.); dulcis (adj.). -rci arx (f.); merx (f., also old nom. s. merces, mers). -rqvi torqvis (m. rarely f. nom. cing. rarely in -es). -sci fascis (m.); piscis (m.). (/3) Stems in -gi, -gvi, -hi. 4 All retain i or e in nom. sing. -agi ambages (f. pi. also abl. s., ambage; the gen. pi. only in Ovid once, ambagum); compages (f.); contages (f. only in Lucr. abl. once cont&ge); propages (f. once in Pacuv.); strages (f.). -agi Jiigis (adj.). -ngvi angvis (m. f. abl. rarely in -i); bilingvis (adj.); exsan- gvis (adj.); ninguis (f. once in Lucr. same as nix); pingvis (adj.); ungvis (m. abl. sometimes in -i). -8hi v6hes (f. also veMs Colum., gen. pi. velmm in Cod. Theod.). Examples of declensions of stems before -i. Compare § 447. Singular. • igni-bus simili-Ms Abl.)Chap. X.] Declension of -i Stems. 147 (y) Stems in -ri. Stems ending in -ri preceded by 6 usually drop the i in the nom. sing. masc. and drop the 6 before r in all other cases; those ending in -ari usually drop e or i in the nom. acc. sing, neuter. ari Arar (m. acc. in -im; abl. in -i or -e); hilaris (adj. also with stem in -0, Plaut. Ter. Cic.); mare (n. abl. some- times in -e in poetry; pi. only nom. acc. except marum Naev., maribus Cass, once); blmaris (adj.); par (adj. cf. § 454)7 impar, dispar (adj.). -ori fdris (f.); bifdris (adj.); mSmor (adj. gen. pi. only once used, viz. memorum in Verg., no neut. nom. acc.); im- mSmor (immemoris nom. Caecil.); indgcoris (adj. no gen. or neut. pi.). -Cri cSler (cSleris m. in Cato); Liger (m. acc. in -im; abl. in 4 -i or -e); TibSris or Thybris (m.); VSsgris (m.). (-pri) vepres (pi. in sing, only veprem, vepre; usually m. Pro- bably had n. sing, in -es, comp. veprecula). (-bri) bilibris (adj.); bimembris (adj.); c$16ber (adj. cS16bris as m. sometimes); December (adj.); febris (f. acc. often in -im; abl. usually in -i); fenebris (adj.); fiingbris (adj.); imber (m. abl. in -i frequently); lugubris (adj.); mulie- bris (adj.); November, October (adj.); saluber (adj. often salubris m.). (-cri) acer (adj. in Nasv. and Enn. also as f.; acris is rarely m.); alacer (adj. alacris as m. rarely); m&diocris (adj.); volucer (adj., rarely volucris as masc. adj. cf. § 456). (-gri) tigris (usually f., also with stem tigrid-). (-tri) linter (or lunter f. rarely m.); puter (adj. usually putris); venter (m.); titer (m.). Also tres (pi.). (-stri) aplustre (n. also rare pi. aplustra); bilustris, illustris, sublustris (adj.); bimestris (adj. abl. rarely in -e Ovid); campester (adj. also campestris as m.); equester (adj. equestris as m. once); paluster (adj. also palustris); pgdester (adj.); sequester (m.; an acc. and dat. abl. s. and nom. pi. from a stem in -0 occur rarely); silvester (adj. usually silvestris); terrester (adj. usually terrestris). -ari Numerous adjectives, with contemporaneous or subse- 431 quent stems in -io. The neuter when used as substantive often drops e in nom. sing. articularis, auxiliaris, popularis, See. (see Book III.). 10 — 2Inflexions. [Book II. mdlaris (m. sc. dens, abl. in -i); naris (f.); pugillares (m. sc. codicilli). Neuters: altaria (pi.), alveare, calcar, cochleare, exem- plar (exemplare Lucr.), lacflnar, laquear, lupanar, pul- vin&r, talaria (pi.), torcttlar. -auri auris (f.). -ori discOlor, verslcdlor (adj.). -orri torris (m.); extorris (adj.). -ilri biiris (m. acc. in -im; no abl. found; also with -a stem); sSctlris (f. acc. often in -im; abl. always in -i). -urri turris (f. acc. usually in -im; abl. often in -i). -erri verres (m. also verris Varr.). (S) Stems in -si. All retain -i in the nom. sing., except as, mas, mus, glis. -asi (-ari) mas (m.). -assi as (m. rarely assis). So also its compound semis: but bessis, decussis, centussis, &c. (probably adjectives) are parisyllabic. Casses (m. pi. also casse abl. s.); classis (f. abl. often in -i). -tsi (--Qri) mtls (m.); pliis (n. abl. s. plure rare, no dat. s.; in plural nom. piares (m. f.), pliira (n.); gen. pliirium; dat. abl. pliiribus; so also compltLres (plur.), but compluria once Ter. and so in other old writers (Gell. v. zi). amussim (m. only acc. s.); tussis (f. acc. in -im; abl. in -i). messis, (f. acc. sometimes in -im); nScesse (indec., used only as secondary predicate, 1 a matter of necessity? The form necessum is found in pras-Ciceronian writers and Lucr.; necessus as nom. in Ter.; as genitive (according to Lachm. ad Lucr. 6. 815) in S. C. de Bacc.). glis (m.); vis (f. acc. vim, abl. vi, gen. and dat. rare: in plural acc. vis is found once or twice in Lucr., but the regular pi. is vires). ensis (m.). Also numerous derivative adjectives; e.g. Oastrensis, Narbonensis, &c. So atriensis (m. sc. servus abl. rarely in -e); circenses (m. pi. sc. ludi); Maluginensis (as proper name with abl. in -e); bimensis (adj.). For mensis see § 460. axis (m. also written assis; abl. rarely in -i). -ussi -e33i isi (-iri) -nsi -siChap. XI.] Declension of Consonant Stems. 149 Examples of declensions of stems in -ri, and declension of vis. 433 Comp. § 461. m. f. n. Seer (m.) acri-s(f.) ) a(jre Singular. Nom. imbSr Acc. imbre-m Gen. imbrl-s Dat. imbri Loc. ) imbri or J Abl. ] imbre ] Plural. Nom. imbre-s Acc. imbri-s or imbre-s Gen. imbri-um Dat. | Loc. [-imbri-bus Abl. J acre-m acri-s acre-s acri-s or acre-s acri-a acri-um acri-biis vis vim vis (rare) vi (rare) vi vlre-s viri-s or vire-s viri-um virl-bus CHAPTER XI. iii. DECLENSION OF CONSONANT STEMS. The suffixes for masc. and fem. nouns with stems ending in a 434 consonant are: Singular Nom. -s (which however has fallen off or was intolerable in stems ending in -n, -1, -r) : Acc. -em; Gen. -is ; Dat. -I; Abl. -6. Plural Nom. Acc. -es. Gen. -um. Dat. Abl. -lbus. For the older forms see Chap. xn. The locative was usually the same as the ablative, but in some words what was probably its original form remains, the same as the dat. (e. g. CarthaginS or Carthagini; tempori (written tempSri), ruri). These suffixes are appended without alteration of the stem except for nom. sing. The suffixes of neuter nouns differ from the above only in having the bare stem, sometimes with the vowel modified, for nom. acc. sing.; and (instead of -es) suffixed for nom. acc. plural. A large proportion of the consonant stems have two syllables, 435 the second syllable being a derivative suffix. The final stem con-Inflexions. [Book IL sonant is always preceded by a vowel (except in cor, from stem cord-,.mensis, volucris), and this preceding vowel generally short1. (Comp. § 408.) The principal exceptions to this short quantity are the numerous stems in -tat, -on, -or and a few in -xc. The following enumeration is tolerably complete, except that specimens only are given of such classes of derivatives as contain very numerous instances. 1. Stems ending in mutes (and m). Stems ending in mutes form the nominative singular by adding s, but the dentals (t, d) being assimilated to it fall away. A short 8 preceding the final stem consonant is usually changed to 1 in other cases than the nom. sing. (§ 234. 3 £). e.g. princep- nom. princeps, acc. princip-em; jfldfic- nom. jildex, acc. jfldic-em; radio nom. radix, acc. radlc-em; SquSt- itiom. gquSs, acc. Squit-em; pSd- nom. pes, acc. pSd-em. Only three substantives are neuter, viz. alee (also alex f.), caput (with its derivatives occiput, sinciput) and cor. The ad- jectives have no neut. nom. acc. plural. (a) Labial Stems. -ap daps (f. nom. s. rare; no gen. pi.). -6p ops (f. nom. s. only as name of goddess); inops (adj.). -Sp (-up) auceps (m.); manceps (m. mancip- is more usual than the older mancup-). -Sp (-ip) forceps (m. f.); municeps (m. f.); princeps (adj. abl. s. always in -S)2; particeps (adj. abl. s. always in -6);- adeps (m. f. sometimes written adips: no gen. pi.). -ip stip-em (f. no certain nom. s. or gen. pi.). -eb (-ib) cselebs (adj.). -m hiemps (f. sometimes written hiems; cf. § 70). 1 Consequently, the accentuation of the syllables is not altered, as it would have been, if the gen. pi. had ended in -ium, or neut. nom. acc. pi. in -ia; e.g. princeps, principum, but principium, principia. 2 The genitives, municipium once or twice in inscriptions, princi- pium often in MSS. of Livy, forcipium in extract from Lucilius, are probably only mistakes of scribes. So hospitium in good MSS. of Cic. and Liv., obsidium in Liv. and Cass., judicium, artificium, &c.Chap. XI.] Declension of Consonant Stems. (J?) Guttural Stems. 43? (a) Stems in -c: , -ac fax (f. no gen. pi.; old nom. s. faces); fraces (f. plur. no gen.). -uc crux (f. no gen. pi.); nux (f.); dux (m. f.); tradux (m. rarely f.); rSdux (adj. abl. in -i except as oblique predi- cate); trux (adj. no gen. pi.). -6c foenisex (m.); nex (f.); pr&c-em (f. no nom. s.); rSsex (m.); semmgc-em (adj. no nom. s.). -6c (-Ic) Chiefly masculine, apex (m.); carex (f.); caudex or 439 codex (m.); clmex (m.); cortex (m. sometimes f.); culex (m.); forfex (m. f.); frutex (m.); Ilex (f.); illex (m.); imbrex (m. f.); latex (m.); mdrex (m.); oblce (only in plur. and abl. sing. f. sometimes m.); pselex or pelex (f. probably 7raXXa£); p5dex (m.); pollex (m.); ptllex (m.); ptlmex (m.); ramex (m.); rumex (m. f.); silex (m.f.); sorex(m.); vortex or vertex (m.); vitex(f.). Semi-adjectival compounds; e.g. index (m. f.); jUdex (m. f.); vindex (m. f.); artlfex (m. f.; abl. sing, as adjective in -i); carnifex (m. f.); oplfex (m. f.); pontiffcx (m. f.); auspex (m. f.); extispex (m. f.). Adjectives: supplex (abl. i in prose; 6 frequently in metre); bivertex, 8cc. ibic-em (m. acc. s.); pantices (m. pi.); urpicem (m. acc. sing.; irpices nom. pi.) are not found in nom. sing. -Ic Chiefly feminine, appendix (f.); calix (m., kv\l£ f.); 440 dicis (gen. s. only in phrase dicis causa or gratia); f Ilix (f.); fornix (m.); fulix (f. usually fullest); larix (m. f.); pix (f. no gen. pi.); salix (f.); v£rix (m. f.); vlc-em (£; no nom. sing, or gen. pi.). -ac llmax (usually f.). For adjectives see § 414. -oc vox (f.). -tic lux (f. abl. sometimes in -i; no gen. pi.). -ec aiex or hallex (f. also a neuter form alec or halec); vervex (m.). -Ic All fem. cicatrix; cervix; cornix; cSturnix; coxendix; 44» lodix; matrix; m6r6trix (the adjective has -i stem); natrix; ntltrix; radix; struix; vibic-em (no nom. s.). (Of152 Inflexions. [Book II cicatrix; cervix, meretrix, instances of an acc. pi. in -is are found). (0) Stems in -g: 442 -tig conjunx, often written conjux (m. f.); bijiigem, quadriju- gem, &c. (adj. no nom. s., stems in -0 more usual). -6g grex (m.); segr6g-em (adj. acc. s.); aqullex (m.). -ig strix (f. gen. pi. strigium in Vitruv.); remex (m.). -ilg frflgem (f. no nom. sing.; frux and fruges quoted as early forms of nom. s.). -eg rex (m.); lex (f.); exlex (adj. only nom. and exlegem, acc. s., in use). (c) Dental Stems. (a) Stems in -t: 443 -at §,nas (f.), (gen. anitum, C. N. D. 2. 48). -fit compfis (adj.); impfis (adj.). -lit intercus (adj. not found in abl. s. or nom. acc. or gen. pi.). -tit (-It) caput (n. abl. in -i, Catull.); occiput (n.); sinciput (n.). -6t Nom. sing, in -es; abies (f.); aries (m.); paries (m). Nom. sing, in -6s; interpres (m. f.); indlges (m., rare in sing.); perpes (adj. abl. sometimes in -i); prsepes (adj. abl. sometimes in -i); sSges (f.); t6ges (f.); imp$t6 (abl. s. also rarely impStis gen- sing.). -6t (-It) Nom. sing, in -6s; Substantives: ames (m.?); csespes(m.); ffimes (m.); 444 gurges (m.); limes (m.); merges (f.?); Palmes (m.); poples (m.); stipes (m.); termes (m.); trames (m.). Semi-adjectival: antistes (m. f., also antistita f.); cseles (m., also in Ovid cselitibus regnis); codes (m.); cfimes (m. f.); 6ques (m.); hospes (m., sometimes in poetry f.; also hospita, as f. sing, and neut. pi.); miles (m. f.); p6des (m. f.); prsestes (m. f.); satelles (m. f.); veles (m.). Adjectives: ales (mostly as subst. m. f.; gen. pi. usually, because in dactylic verse, alituum); Cser6s of Care (from which Vergil has abl. Cserete, and gen.Chap. XI.] Declension of Consonant Stems. 153 Cseritis); dives; sospes (also sospita, old form seispita, as epithet of Juno); siiperstes. -at A very numerous class of (chiefly abstract) substan- 445 tives (all feminine) in -tat, e. g. civitas, sestas. calamitas, simultas, hereditas, tempestas, voluptas, cupiditas. The genitive plural is occasionally formed in -ium, especially from civitas and the three nOuns next following, but from others than civitas rarely before the Augustan age. s&tias (f. usual only in nom. s.; acc. and abl. also in Lucret.). damnas (adj.; in formula damnas esto, sunto both for nom. sing, and plur.). -ot n6pos(m.); sacerdos (m. f.). -at jiiventiis (f.); sgnecttis (f.); servlttts (f.); virtiis (f.); s&lils (f. only sing.). -et qui§s (f.); inquies (f. also in nom. sing, as adj.); requies (f. no dative, or plural; also as an -e stem, § 340). (/3) Stems in -d: 446 -&d vas (m. f. no gen. pi.), bail. -tld pgcus (f.), a head of cattle. -Sd pes (m.); tripes, cornipes (adj.), &c.; compgdes (f. pi. also abl. s., compede, gen. pi. once compedium Plaut.); quadriipes (f. usually, also m. n.; abl. sometimes in -i: nom. pi. quadrupSdia once in Colum.). -Sd (-id) obsSs (m. f.; prsesgs (m. f.); des6s (adj.); rSsgs (adj.). -id capis (f.); cassis (f.), a helmet; cuspls (f.); hence tri- cuspide (abl. sing.); l§,pls (m. rarely f.); promulsis (f.). -rd cor (n. no gen. pi.). Compounds of cor have stems in -i (§ 447)- -sed praes (m. no gen. pi., ancient form of plur. prsevides). -od custSs (m. f.). -aud laus (f., gen. pi. rarely in -ium). -ud pSIfls (f.); incils (f.); subscus (f.). -ed herSs (m. f.); exberes (adj.); merces (f.).*54 Inflexions. [Book II Examples of declensions of mute stems. Compare §§416, 422. Singular. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Loc.) Abl.) Plural. Nom.) Acc. \ Gen. Dat. | Loc.}- Abl. J (adj. m. f. n.) m. or f. f. m. princep-s jiidex seta-s pes (princlp-em (m. f.) (princeps (n.) judic-em setat-em p6d-em princlp-ls judic-is setat-is ped-is princip-I judic-I setat-I ped-I princip-S judic-§ setat-S ped-S Examples of declensions of mute stems. Compare §§416, 422. princip-es (no neut.) princip-um princip-ibus judic-es judicum setat-es setat-um (sometimes setat-ium) ped-es ped-um judic-ibus setat-Ibtis ped-Ibus 2. Stems ending in -n. Stems ending in -n form the nominative singular in one of two 448 ways: Either the nom. sing, is formed by dropping the final n; thus stems in -on, -ddn, -g6n, and a few others which are all masc. or fem.: e.g. sermon-, sermo (m.); l§gion-, legio (f.); grand6n-, grando (f.); orlgon-, orlgo (f.). In the oblique cases -6n becomes -in. Or the stem becomes the nom. sing, without alteration or addi- tion. Thus stems in -mSn, which, except one, are all neuter, and a few others which are mainly masculine: e.g. agm6n (n.), gen. agminis; tiblcSn (m.), gen. tibicinis. Three words, can-is, juv6n- is, s6n-ex, are exceptional. -an canis (m. f., old form canes (Plaut.). The derivative canlcula seems to imply an -i stem). -6n (-in) nom. s. in -0. All except some here named, are femi- 449 nine, homo (m. also in old language with stems homon-, kemon-); nemo (m. f. gen. and abl. sing, rare; cf. § 37a); turbo (m. turben, Tib.); ^aro (f. no gen. pi. The stem is earn- for caron-).Chap. XI.] Declension of Consonant Stems. *55 margo (m. rarely f.); drlgo (f.); abSrlgmes (m. pi.); aspergo (f.) ; compago (f.); ambagine (f. abl. s. only); indaginem (f., also in gen. and abl. sing.); and other feminine substantives in -g&n. cardo (m.); ordo (m.); grando (f.); harundo (f.); MrMo (f.); testMo (f.); alcedo (f.) ; gravedo (f.); Hredo (f.); c'upldo (f. sometimes m.); solitMo (f.), &c.; and some other abstract feminine substantives in -Id6n, -tMdn, See. -gn (-in) flamen (m.), a priest; fidicen (m.); oscen (m., some- times f.); tibicen (m.); tubicen (m.); pecten (m.), glflten (n.) ; sangven (n.), and more frequently sangvis (m.); pollin-em (m. also gen. and abl. s.). For stem fgmen-, nom. f§mur (n.), see § 454. And the numerous verbal neuters; e. g. agmen, lenimen, putamen, vdlftmen, nomen, &c.; flamen (n. is little used except in abl. s. and pi. and nom. acc. pi.); binominis (adj. gen. s. no other case); cognominem (adj. also abl. sing, and nom. pi.). -Sn sSn-ex (m. sometimes in poetry f.): the other cases do not contain -ec- (which is seen in senec-tus, senecio, &c.); juvgn-is (m. f.). -cn All masculine, except abstract substantives in -ion, which 45o are all feminine, even when used with concrete meaning. &gaso (m.); aquilo (m.); baro (m.); bubo (m. once fem.); biifo (m.); caupo (m.) ; cento (m.); eddon-e (m. only in the abl. case); leo (m.); llgo (m.); mango (m); macro (m.); opilio or upilio (m.); papilio (m.); prssdo (m.); pugio (m.); sermo (m.); stellio (m.) ; vesper- tilio (m.); titio (m.); and others. C&pito (m.); and other descriptive names of persons. ternio (m.); senio (m.); and other names of numbers. Anio (also stem in -en with nom. Anien). commilnio (f.); perduellio (f.); r6gio (f.); lggio (f.) ; dpinio (f.); diclon-em (f. acc. also in gen. and abl. sing.); and other derivatives from adjectives and present stem of verbs. lectio (f.); oratio (f.); cenatio (f.); sorbitio (f.); natio (f.); and many other derivatives from supine stem of verbs.156 Inflexions. [Book II Examples of declension of nouns 'With -n stems. 451 Compare § 428. f. lSgio legion-em legion-is legion-I legion-S legion-es legion-um Loc. r tibicin-ibtis agmin-Ibus homin-ibiis legion-Ibiis Abi.J 3. Stems ending in -1, -r, -s. Stems ending in -1, -r, -s are used as the nominative singular 452 without addition or change, except that some neuters change 6s into us, and others change or into ur, 6s into us. (a) Stems in -1. 453 -al sal (m. sometimes in sing, n., no gen. pi.); Hannibal; Adherbal; &c. -ul consul (m.); exul (m. f.); prsssul (m. f.). -11 vigil (m. sometimes f.); pervigil (adj.); pftgil (adj.); mtigil (m. also mdgilis). The ablat. sing, when it occurs (as in vigil and pervigil) is in -i (cf. § 424). sfipellectil- (nom. s. supellex, f., no plural; abl. s. in i frequently); sil (n.). -51 sol (m. no gen. pi.). -ell f81 (n.); m61 (n.). Both drop the second 1 in the nom. sing., and in plural have only nom. acc. (/3) Stems in -r. (Some are properly in -s: cf. § 183.) 454 Lar (m.); baccar (n.); jubar (n.); instar (n. only in nom. acc. sing.); par (m. f.); compar (m. f., as adjectives the last two have -i stems). -6r sequor (n.); marmor (n.). Singular. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Loc.) Abl. J Plural. Nom.) Acc. ) Gen. m. tlbicSn ) tibicm-em ( tibicin-ls tibicin-i tibicin-6 tibicin-es tibicin-um n. agm§n agmin-is agmin-i agmin-6 agmin-a agmin-um m. h6mo homm-em homin-Is Jiomin-I homin-5 homin-es homin-umChap. XI.] Declension of Consonant Stems. 157 Four neuters change -or- to -ur- for nominative and ac- cusative cases; fibur (n.); femur (n., in other cases stems femOr- and femSn-, § 449, are alike used); jficur (n., in other cases stems jScdr-, jdclngr-, are alike used, and more rarely jflcindr-); robur (n., probably once had stem in-s; comp. robus-tus; and Gato probably wrote in one place robus). -ur augur (m. f., once had stem in -s; cf. augus-tus); furfur (m.); L&nures (m. pi.); turtur (m. f.); vultur (m.); cicur (adj.). fulgur (n.); guttur (n. rarely m.); murmur (n.); sulfur (n.). So Anxur (n. m. § 334), Tibur (n.). -er aclpenser (m.); agger (m.); anser (m. rarely f.); asser 455 (in.); carcer (m.); CSlSres (m. pi.); later (m.); layer (f.); Mulciber (m. also Mulciberi in gen. s.); mulier (t.); Oplter (m.); passer (m.); prdcSres (m. pi., sing, rare); tuber (also with stem in -ur), a kind of fruit-tree (f.?); the fruit (m.); vesp6r-e (m. abl.; otherwise with -0 stem); vomer (m. sometimes in nom. vomis). degSner (adj. abl. always in -i); pauper (adj.); fiber (adj. abl. almost always in -1), fruitful. acfir (n.); cadaver (n.); clcer (n.); gibber (Plin. n.?); Iter (n. rare except in nom. acc. sing.); ltiner (n. rare in nom. acc. sing.); jtiggra (n. pi.; in sing, has stem in -0); papaver (n. also in Plaut. m.); piper (n.); slier (n.); siser (n.); silber (n.); tliber (n.), (1) a hump, (2) a moril; tlber (n.), a teat; verbSra (n. pi. also abl. sing, verbgre, and rarely gen. s. verb8ris). -§r (-r) pater (m.); mater (f.); frater (m.); acclplter (m.); all 6mit e before r in all cases except nom. sing. -arr far (n., in plur. only nom. acc.). -or All, except three, masculine. 456 61or (m.); sdror (f.); uxor (f.); £dor (n. also quoted with stem in -6r); prlmor-em (acc. m., nom. sing, not found). ardor (m.); dOlor (m.); amor (m.); cruor (m.); ful- gor (m.); and other verbals from present stem. actor (m.); auctor (m. f.); amator (m.); auditor (m.); censor (m.); and other verbals from supine stems. For adjectives m comparative degree see § 460. Slave names; e.g. Marcipor, i.e. Marcus1 slave (por = puer, old pover), Lucipor, Publipor, Quintipor, &c. were disused in Quintilian's time.158 Inflexions. [Book II •tlr • filr (m.). -er ver (n.). -cr vdlucris (f. Cf. § 430). (y) Stems in -s. 457 All except vas, os (a bone), mensis, change s into r before a vowel; i. e. in all cases except nom. sing. -os (-6r) All neuter, except 16pus and arbos. 45g corpus (n.); d6cus (n.); ded6cus (n.); Acinus (n., also stem facinSr-); fenus (ri.); frigus (n.); litus (n.); n6mus (n.); pectus (n.); p6cus (n. See also § 395); p6nus (n., more usually f. with stem in -u; see § 398); pignus (n., also stem pign6r-); stercus (n.); tempus (n., but tempgri is the best attested spelling for the locative); tergus (n.). 16pus (m.); arbos (f. also arbor). tSnus (indecl.), stretch ? used as adverb. -fis (-6r) nom. sing, -us; other cases, -6r. Originally-6s, § 313. 5. acus (n.); fcedus (n.); funus (n.); ggnus (n.); gldmus (n.); jilgerum (n. gen. pi. and jugeribus dat. abl. pi.; the other cases from an -0 stem); latus (n.); milnus (n. in nom. acc. pi. both munera and munia); holus (n.); 6nus (n.); opus (n.); pondus (n.); raudus (n.); rddus (n.); sScus (n. only nom. acc. sing.); sc61us (n.); sldus (n.); vellus (n.); viscus (n.); ulcus (n.); vulnus (n.). Venus (f.); v6tus (adj.). -6s (-6r) nom. s. -es (gen. -6ris). 45Q Ceres (f.); ptlbes (adj.); impubes (adj., oftener impil- bis, neut. impilbe). -is (-6r) cinis (m. rarely f.); cucumis (m., also with stem cucumi- § 412): pulvis (m. rarely f., also pulvis). In oblique cases -is becomes -er; e.g. pulvis, pulv6rem (§ 184. 3). -as vas (n., plural vasa, vasdrum, vasis, from stem in -0, of which the singular is found in early writers), a vessel; fas (n.), nefas (n., both only in nom. acc. sing.). -oss os (11. See also § 398), a bone; ex6s (adj. once in Lucr.). -os (-or) All masculine except os, a mouth. 46o 16pos (m.); honos (also hondr); labos (more frequently lab6r; once in Verg. labor); c61os (also c61or); pavosChap. X/.] Declension of Consonant Stems. 159 (usually pavOr); 6dos (also 6d6r); riimdr (cf. rumus- culus); flos (m.); mos (m.); ros (m.); os (n., no gen. pi., dat. and abl. rare). Adjectives of the comparative degree; e.g. mglidr (m. f.), meii&s (n.); diiridr (m. f.), dtlrius (n.); &c. have ablat. sing, rarely in -i. Instances of the neuter also in -or are found in writers of the seventh century u.c.; e.g. prior, posterior bellum in Valerius Ant., Claudius Quad. &c. -us (-iir) tellds (f.). criis (n.); jiis (n., gen. dat. abl. pi. very rare); pUs (n.); rils (n.); tils (n.): (the last three have in plural only nom. and acc.). -as (-ser) ses (n.; the gen. dat. abl. plural are very rare). -ens mensis (m.); mensium and mensuum genitive pi. are sometimes found in MSS. but mensum usually. Examples of declension of stems in -1, -r, and -s. Compare § 433. 461 Singular. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Loc. ) Abl. J Plural. Nom. j Acc. i Gen. Dat. Loc, Abl, m. m. adj. m. consul p§,t6r mdlidr (m. f.) honos melius (n.) or honSr consul-em patr-em mslior-em (m. f.) honor-em melius (n.) consul-is patr-is melior-is honor-is consul-I patr-i melior-I honor-I consul-3 patr-6 melior-S honor-6 Examples of declension of stems in -1, -r, and -s. Compare § 433. (rarely meliorl) consul-es i} patr-es (rarely meliorl) melior-es (m.f.) hon5r-es melior-a (n.) consul-um patr-um melior-um honor-um consul-it)us patr-ibus melior-ibus honor-ibusi6o Inflexions. [Book If* Singular. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Loc. Abl. Plural. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Loc. Abl. a. t. c. ) ►1. 1 al. II. i) •l. J n. n. n. n. cadaver roMr 6pus tempus cadavSr-is rofc&r-Is opSr-is temp&r-is cadaver-I robor-I oper-I tempor-I cadaver-S ro"bor-§ oper-S tempor-6 (cf. § 434; cadaver-a cadaver-um robor-3. ro"bor-um oper-5, oper-um cadaver-ibus robor-iMs oper-ibus tempor-a tempor-um tempor-Ibus CHAPTER XII. OLD OR EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF CASES (Class II.). Singular Number. Accusative. On the omission of the final m see § 86. Its 462 omission in writing was gradually given up during the 6th century u. c. Genitive. On the omission of the final s see § 193. c. Cicero, in his poems, and Lucretius appear to be the last who made use of this omission. 1. Stems in -u. Four endings, besides the regular -Us, are 463 mentioned, viz.: (a) -uos, e. g. Senatuos four times in the S. C. de Baccanalibus. Augustus is said to have written domos. Ritschl conjectures domuos. (b) -uis, the uncontracted ending is mentioned as used by seve- ral writers; e.g. senatuis (Sisenna); anuis (Ter. Varr.); partuis, fructuis, domuis, victuis, graduis, rituis (Varr.). Gellius (4, 16) believed that Varro and Nigidius Figulus wrote so always.Chap. XII.] Oldforms of Cases (Nouns of Class II). 161 (c) -mis as found in MSS. (e.g. of Pliny the elder) was pro- bably merely so written to denote the length of the fL It is found also in the nom, acc. plur. (d) -i, see § 399. 2. Stems in -i. Partus is found on the Bantine bronze a.u.c. 464 621—636. 3. Consonant stems. An ending in -us is found in some in- scriptions, but rarely later than 100 B.C.; e.g. Castorus, Venerus, Cererus, Honorus, CaBsarus, patrus, nominus, hominus, prsevari- cationus. An ending -es is found in Salutes, Apolones (before the and Punic war), and Ceres. Dative. Consonant and -i stems. -e is found in inscriptions 465 chiefly before the end of the sixth century u.c.; (a) e.g. Junone, matre, salute, Diove; also in one -i stem marte. It appears to have been retained in some phrases; e.g. solvendo sere alieno; jure dicundo, even in Livy and Suetonius. ('b) -ei in prse-Augustan inscriptions; e.g. Apolenel, legei, here- dei, Diovei, Hercolei, &C. The only instances from -i stems seem to be fraudei, martei, urbei. Both -ei and -e appear in the oldest inscriptions ; i not till the time of the Gracchi. Gorssen with others holds -ei to be the original dative suffix, -i the locative. ABLATIVE, i. Stems in -u and stems in -i. The ablative 466 probably ended in -M and -id (older -ed). But no certain instances occur in inscriptions except navaled, marid in the Duillian in- scription. In one or two instances we have uu to denote long u; e.g. pequlatuu, arbitratuu. From -i stems we have, in prae-Augustan inscriptions, both -ei and -i; e.g. partei, parti; fontei, omnei, sorti. %. Consonant stems. In these it ended in early times in -e and 467 -id. Thus in very old inscriptions we have airid and aire; patre, nominid. In the Duillian inscr. also -ed; e.g. dictatored. (But the copy which we have is post-Augustan, and, as Ritschl "thinks, not "feven a faithful copy of the original.) In the S. C. de Bacc. is coventionid. (No later examples.) Hence the ablative occa- sionally appears with i, the d having fallen off; e. g. deditioni, por- 11162 Inflexions. [Book II. tioni (prap-August, inscrip.); carni, v6n6ri, oneri (Plaut.),; rationi, mucronl (Lucr. in elision), &c. But since the time of the Gracchi the ablative in -8 is much the most common even in inscriptions. Plural Number. Nominative and Accusative, i. vuus sometimes in in-468 scriptions and MSS. for -lis (see Detlefsen's edition of Pliny, H.N.). 2. Consonant stems. A few instances are found in MSS. of the ending -is. Genitive, i. Stems in -u. The contraction of -uum is rare; 469 but currum (Verg.), passum (Lucil. Mart.) are found; exercitum in Mon. Ancyr., inagistratum (Liv. Cod. Feron.). 2. Consonant stems. Varro speaks of old forms boverum, Jc- verum for boum, Jovum; and Charisius speaks of the annalist Caelius having used nucerum, and Gellius, the historian, regerum, lapiderum, (from mix, rex, lapis). Possibly such forms are due to a collateral stem in -is (-Sr); as in cucumis, §§405, 459; sus gen. sing., suer-is (Plaut.). But they may arise from the simple addition of -um to the gen. sing.; e.g. nucis-um would become nucerum. Compare familias sing., familiarum plural. Dative and Ablative. The final s was omitted or not 470 pronounced in early poetry before a word beginning with a con- sonant. The early form was in -ebus; e.g. tempestatebus. CHAPTER XIII. GREEK NOUNS. CLASS I. Greek nouns in the pras-Augustan period generally received 471 slight changes, especially of vowels, to adjust them to the Latin usage. These forms were generally retained by the prose writers, but the Augustan poets, especially Propertius, Ovid and (later)Chap. XII/.] Greek Nouns. Class I. 163 Statius, often introduced the Greek forms instead; and many words not in common use are found in the Greek form only1. i. Stems in -a. The Greek nouns corresponding to the Latin -a stems, ended in 47^ the nom. sing, as follows: masc. -d? (-as), fem. -d (-a), after a vowel or r: otherwise, masc. -rjs (-es), fem. -rj (-e). If Latinized all become simply In oblique cases the Greek declension has (usually) -&, -e in the 473 vocative, -an, -en in the accusative singular. But the Latin voca- tive in -a and acc. in -am (or -em, from Greek gentile names) are often found even when the nominative retains the Greek form. Stems in -tes had vocative (Greek, as well as Latin) -t£, e. g. Thy- esta; also -te, e. g. Boote. Patronymics in -des had vocative -de, e. g. Tydide, .ffi&cide, Alclde; sometimes -da, e. g. .ffi&clda, Cecr6pld3, (Ovid), Anchlsi&da (Verg.); accusative always -den, e.g. Laertia- den, Peliden. So also feminine nouns with nom. s. in -§; e.g. Cir- cen, Prienen. The genitive, dative, and locative almost always take the Latin form -se. But Propertius, Ovid and later poets usually make the genitive in -es from nominatives in -e. So also Quintilian in names like musicS. A dative in -e is rarely found except in some (not early) inscriptions, e. g. Baebise Phoebe; Julise Stratonice, &c. The ablative of stems in -es and -e is usually -e. The plural is almost always in the Latin form. (Names of 474 . peoples &c. often have -urn for -arum. See § 364.) The following examples will serve to show the variety in the 475 nominative case singular. 1. Greek nouns in -as (-as), or -77? (-es). Masculine. (a) Appellatives. Sycdphanta, pdeta, nauta, pirata always. Similarly athleta, bibliopola, propola, citharista, and in Plaut. trapesslta (Tpcme&Tijs); danista (8av€io-TT]s). In Cicero, anagnostes, geometres, sophistes. Later dynastes, choraules, allptes, comet es, pyctes, tetrarches, pyrites, &c. So satr§,pes (acc. usually satr&pam). 1 "Nunc recentiores instituerant, grsecis nominibus grsecas declina- tiones potius dare, quod tamen ipsum non semper fieri potest. Mihi autem placet rationem latinam sequi, quousque patitur decor." Quintilian (i. 5. 63). 11—2164 Inflexions. [Book II (/>) Gentile names. Persa (Plaut.), Perses (Cic.); Scythes (Gic. Hor.), Scytha (Lucan). In Cicero Abderltes, Crotoniates, Eplrotes, Stagirltes. (c) Names of men. Hermia (Cic.), Mida (Ter.), Marsya (Hor. Ov.), Pausania (Cic.), Phsedria (Ter.), Perdicca (Curt.), .ffieta (Ov.), Prusia (Cic. Liv.). On the other hand Archias, Amyntas (Cic.); Prusias (Liv.); .ffineas, &c. Anchlses, Achates, Thyestes. Patronymics rarely have -a. Thus Heraclldes, Alcldes, AsclepiMes, Pelides. But Atrida is found (Hor. Ov.). Lucretius has two patronymics from Latin names: Memmia- d39 (dat. sing.), son of Memmius; Sclpi&das (nom. s.;. Scipiadam acc. s. Hor.; Scipiad® gen. s., Prop., Hor.; Scipiadas acc. pi., Verg.), son of Sclpio. 2. Greek nouns in -d (-a) or -rj (-e). Feminine. 476 (a) Appellatives. Apdtheca, aula, bibliotheca, tragoedia, comce- dia, prora, machsera, purpura (ttopcpvpd), ancora (ajKvpd), nausea (vavcrla), epistftla (eVtCT-roX?;), scsena (aKtjvrj), always. In Cicero, grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica, miisica: in Quintilian gram- matice, &c. (J?) Names of places. .ffitn&, Creta, Libya, Sparta, Ida, Ithaca, &cM but in Ovid usually iEtne, Crete, &c. Thessaionlca (Cic.); Thessalonice (Liv. Plin.). Always Cyrene, Meroe. (c) Names of women. For 'AXk/atJw; Alcumena (Plaut.), Alc- mena (Cic.), Alcmene (Ovid). In Cicero, Varro, &c., Andrdmacha, Antidpa, Europa, HScata, Hdlgna, SSmela, See. In poets usually Andromache, &c. But nympha (Cat. Verg. Ov.), nymphe (Ov.). Always BSrSnlce, Hebe, Daphne, Persephone, Phoebe, Rhfiddpe, Th-Qle, Tislphdne, &c. ii. Stems in -0. 477 The -0 stems in Greek had -oy (-6s) in nom., -ov (-6n) in accus. (and neuter nominative) singular. The Latin form (-um) for the accus. is often found, even when a Latinized nominative (-lis, sometimes -er for -6rus) is not found. The other cases rarely re- ceived any other than a Latin form. The following are instances of the usage: Singular, i. Appellatives (Feminine), e.g. meth5dus, peri6- 478 dus, at6mus, antid6tus, dialectus, always. So trimetrus or trime- ter; tetramStrus, or tetrameter; on the other hand diamStros (also diamStrus), perimStros, barbitos (m. and f.); phaselos, a boat, faselus, a boat, a bean.Chap. XIII.\ Greek Nouns. Class L 2. Names of plants, &c., e.g. acanthus (m.), asp&r&gus (m.), asphodglus (m.), hyacinthus (m.), hellgfofirus (m. more frequently hell6t)6rum, n.), papyrus (f.), &c. But lotfis (f.), aspal&thds, &c. Precious stones (mostly feminine), amethystus (f.), zmaragdus (m.), electrum (n.), topazos (f.), &c. Animals, arctos (f.); scorpios or scorpius (m.), camelus (m. f.), &c. 3. Names of towns and islands (feminine), e.g. Abydus, Cor- inthus, Lampsacus, Paphus, Cyprus, Rh6dus, TSngdus, Eplrus, &c. The forms in -os (-ov) in the poets chiefly. Always .ffigyptus, but (nom.) Imbros, Lemnos, Delos, SUmos, Sestos, Tyros, &c. Names of rinjers and mountains (masculine), Peneus, Caystrus, Mseander, Parnassus, &c. Also Peneos, &c. Usually Pelion (n.) and nom. Olympus (m.), Caucasus (m.), acc. Olympum, Caucasum. 4. Names of men. Usually Latinized, especially those in -pos (-rus), preceded by a consonant; e.g. Teucer, MSleager, rarely Me- leagros, Antipater, Alexander, Menander, sometimes Menandros, Evander, sometimes Evandrus. So we have as accusatives Daid&lon, Slay-phum, See. The genitive is sometimes in -u; e.g. Menandru, Apollodoru. Pantluis, voc. Panthu is a contracted form (ndvdoos, IldvOot). Greek words in -ecos (-eos), are either completely Latinized; e. g. Tyndareus, Pen616us, or sometimes have nom. -os, acc. -on or -0, e.g. Andrdgeos (gen. Andr6geo, and Androgei in Vergil). So also a few names of places, viz.: Athos, Ceos, acc. Athdn (Cat. Ov. Verg.), Atho (Liv. Plin.), Ceo (Cic.). Coos (Mela), Cdfts (Liv.) for Koujj, KcG^ has acc. Coum (Plin. Tac.), abl. Coo (Cic. Plin.). For some stems in ev- (en-) see § 482. Plural. The Nominative rarely in -ce; e.g. Adelphoe (Ter.), 479 canephdrce, arctce, cosmce (Cic.), Soloe, lotce (Plin.). The Greek genitive in -a>v (-on) is found sometimes with liber as the name of a book; "e.g. Vergil's BUcolicon, Georgicon; Manilius' Astrondmlcon; rarely otherwise; e.g. Colonia Therseon, for Therseorum (Sail.), On the genitive in -um, e.g. Pelasgum, Grajum, see § 365.166 Inflexions. [Book II. CHAPTER XIV. GREEK NOUNS. CLASS II. Greek nouns of this class, as of the first class, frequently retain 4s0 such of their Greek inflexions as are not very dissimilar to the Latin inflexions. Plautus, Terence and Cicero for the most part Latinize the inflexions. Propertius, Ovid and the post-Augustan poets very frequently retain the Greek vowels and -11 (for -m) of the acc. sing, and short pronunciation of the final syllables/ Intermediate between these two parties stand Vergil and Horace, who with Corn. Nepos, Pliny and other post-Augustan prose writers share the same ten- dency as Ovid, but use many of the Latin forms. The Greek forms in all writers are much more frequent in proper names than in appellatives. 1. Stems in -0, -eu, -y. 481 -0 (a) Masculine, nom. in -5s; acc. -5em or (poet.) -58,; gen. -Ms; dat. -61. Plural nom. -66s; acc. -6&s; gen. -6um; dat. abl. -oibus ? (-5lsin once in Ovid). e.g. heros, Minos. (J?) Feminine. All cases in -0, except gen. -tls. Ovid occasionally has accusative in -on. The early poets (En- nius, Pacuvius, Accius, and once Plautus), treated them as having stems in -on (e.g. Didonem, &c.). So also the late writers, e. g. Servius, Macrobius. e.g. Allecto, Argo, Callisto, C&lypso, Dido, Echo, Hero, Io, Ino, Manto. Theano, Sappho. -en Masculine. Nom. -eiis; voc. -eTL; acc. -eum or (poet.) 482 6a1; gen. -ei or (poet.) -eds; dat. abl. -eo. The poets (e.g. Verg. Ov. Prop.), often treat -ei, -eo as one syllable (see § 232). . 1 Cicero in a letter to Atticus (6. 9. § 1) had used the expression "In Pirseea cum exissem," and, Atticus having commented on it, Cicero replies (7. 3. §10), "Venio ad 'Pirseea,' in quo magis reprehendendus sum, quod homo Romanus * Pirseea' scripserim, non 'Piraeum,' sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt, quam quod 4 in' addiderim."Chap. XIV] Greek Nouns. Class II. 167 e. g. Atreus, Cepheus, Erechtheus, MnSstheus, Nereus, Orpheus, Peleus, Perseus, Prdmetheus, PIrseeus, PrCteus, Tereus, ThSseus, Typhceeus, Tynd&reus, &c. For metre's sake we have in acc. Iddmgnea, llidnea (Verg.), capanea (Stat.). The plural is rarely found; e. g. accus. Megareos (Quintil.), Phineas or Phineas (Mart.). The name of the Macedonian king Perseus had an e- stem used in Cicero, and an -eu stem used in Livy. Other writers generally follow Livy. Thus in Cicero, nom. Perses; acc. Persen, rarely Persem; gen. dat. Persae; abl. Persa. In Livy, nom. Perseus; acc. Perseum and Persea; gen. Persei; dat. abl. Perseo. In Horace are found Achilla, UlixSI. The Greek dfi^opevs (m.), is in Lat. always amphfira (f.). -y Nom. -ys Voc. -y (in poets); acc. -yn or -ym; gen. -yis 483 ✓ or -yos; dat. -yi; abl. -ye. e.g. chSlys (f.), Cotys (m.), Erlnys (f), Saiys (m.), Phorcys (f.), Teth^s (f. dat. Tethjtt once Catul.). a. Stems in -e and -i. 4*4 -e (a) Masculine. Nom. s. -es1. Acc. -em or more fre- quently (especially in post-Augustan writers), in -en. Gen. usually in -i2, sometimes -Is. Abl. in -§, rarely -e. In plural these stems are often treated as if they ended in -a3. -ce e.g. Pharn&ces. -che e.g. Laches. -te e. g. Acestes, Achates, B55tes, Euphrates, Hippocrates, Iphl- cr&tes, Is6crates, Mithridates, Orestes, Phraetes, Pfiljfcrates, Socrates, Thyestes, Tirldates, TimOcrates, XSnttcrates, See. A genitive in -se is occasionally found in the poets; e. g. AntIphat3B, Bootae, Orestse, Thyestse. 1 These stems properly end in -os, or -es; e.g. XuKpares, yhos. The final s, which is changed to r in Latin (§ 183 b)} is omitted in Greek. ^ f 2 In Greek inscriptions such forms as 2WKparov, "KaWiKparov, KaX- \ina (n.). (2) Neuter. Nom. s. in -&s; e.g. artdcreae, bflcfiras, Srjrsipglas. -it Nom. s. in Is; e.g. Charis (f.). 4g3 Neuter. Nom. s. in -I; e.g. ox^mSli, hydrdmSli. -5t Nom. s. in -5s; e.g. JEgdc&ros (m.), rhin6c6ros (m.), 49i Eros (m.). -6t Nom. s. in -es; e.g. 16bes (m.), magnes (m.); Ores,D&res, Tholes, Chromes, PhI161ache&, &c. The last three have170 Inflexions. [Book IL also forms as from -i stems; e.g. TMlem, TMli, TMle (§484. It has vowel, not dental, stem in Herodotus and Attic Greek). -eth Nom. s. in -Ss; e.g. Parnes. -ant Nom. s. in -as, rarely in -ans; acc. in -anta, often in 495 poets; vocative sometimes in -a; e.g. CalcM, Palia. e.g. &d&mas (m.), gigas (m.), SlSphas (m. the other cases most frequently formed as from a stem in -anto); Atlas (m.), Calchas (m.), Cdrybantes (m. plur.), Pallas (m.), Thoas (m.). For the Greek forms Acragas (m.), T&ras (m.) in prose we have regular -0 stems; e.g. Agrigentum, T&rentum. -ont Nom. s. in -on. All masculine. 496 e.g. h&rlzon, scazon, Anacreon, AutCmSdon, CMron, Phaethon, dr&co, cli&maeleon, Creon, Antlphon, Xfin&pbon. The last three words, and others ending in -phont, have in Plautus and Terence and sometimes in Cicero stems in -phon, nom. -pho, only; e.g. Cteslpho, acc. CtesiphSnem, See. -unt Nom. s. in -us. 497 e.g. Pessinus (m.), SSLInus (f.), Tr&pezus (f.). For Sinovs Cicero has Sipontum; Lucan and Silius Sipfts (m.); so in Livy and Pliny, Hydruntum ('Yfipour). Acheruns (Plaut., Lucr.), Acheron (Cic. &c.). -ent Nom. s. in -is; e.g. SImoIs. -ynth Nom. s. in -ns; e.g. TIryns (/3) Stems in -d. In nom. sing, -d gives place to -s. -ad Nom. s. in -&s. All feminine; e.g. hebddmas, lampas (acc. s. generally lamp&da); Pallas (dat. s. PalladI once); Areas, cyclas, Dryas, H&m&dryas, Hjras, Ilias, Msenas, Ndmas, OrSas, Pleias, Thyas. A few instances of gen. pi. in -5n occur; e.g. hebd6- madon, Arc&don (Varr.); and of dat. pi. in -&sin; e.g. Hamadry&sin, &c. (Prop.) ; Tro&sin, Lemni&sin (Ovid), -6d Nom. s. in -as; e. g. trlptts (m.), d&s^pus; Melampus, 499 m. (voc. Melampu, once in Stat.). From (Edlpus (m.) the following forms are found, chiefly in Seneca (Trag.) and Statius: nom. -Us, -6des; voc. -6; acc. -um (Cic.), -6da? -6dem, -dden; gen. -6dis (Cic., Stat.), -6dse (Sen., Stat.); dat. -6d»; abl. -6de (Cic.), -6da.Chap. XIV] Greek Nouns. Class II 17 c -?& Nbm. s. in -ys; voc. in -y in poets; e.g. chl&mys (f.), pfilamys (f.), Iapys. -Id Nom. s. in -Is; voc. in poets (not Plaut. or Ter.), fre- 500 quently in -I. Other Greek forms are frequent; dat. sing, in I occurs once, viz. MInoIdl (Catul.). As regards the acc. s. these stems fall into two classes: (1) Acc. s. in -Idem in prose and prae-Augustan poets; in -Ida in post-Augustan poets. All feminine. Appellatives: e.g. segis, aspis, cantharis, endr&mis, gphSmgris, herois, pgriscglis, proboscis, pyr&mis, pyxis, tyrannis (acc. s. in -ida once in Cicero). Names of persons: e.g. Amaryllis, Bacchis, Chrysis, Doris, Lais, Lycoris, Phyllis, Thais. Patronymics, &c.: e. g. Briseis, Cadmeis, Colchis, GnSsis, Hindis, Priameis, Salmdnis, Titanis. Names of countries: e.g. Aulis, Chalcis, Locris, Persis, PhScis. (a) Acc. s. in -im or$ sometimes, esp. in Augustan 501 and post-Augustan poets, -in. So all masculines and some feminines. An abl. or dat. s. in -1 is found in some; e.g. Eupdli, Oslri, Phalari, Thgti, semlr&mi. Appellatives: e.g. Ibis (f., also in plur. ibes, ibium), Iris (f.), tigris (both river and animal, also declined as if with stem in -i. Dat. abl. plur. only tigribus). Names of persons. Masculine; e.g. Alexis, Ad5nis (in Plautus once acc. Adoneum), Daphnis, Eup&lis, Nabis, Paris (the last three have acc. also in -Idem), Moeris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis, Anvlbis, Buslris, Osiris, Ser^pis. Feminine; e.g. Isis, S6mIrS,mis, Procris, Thetis. Names of countries: e.g. Phasis (f.), Phthiotis (f.) have also acc. in -idem or -IdH. -Id Nom. s. in -Is; e.g. apsis (f.), crenis (f.). (From Kprj7nb- 502 we have only an -a stem, crSpIda.) (d) Stems in -n. 503 These generally retain -n in nominative (except some in -5n); acc. s. frequently in -S,; plur. in -&s. -On Nom. s. usually in -6n; gen. s. sometimes in -nds; e.g. canon (m.), daemon (m.), gnomon (m.), sindon (f.), Anon (m.), Gorgon (f.), Memnon (m.), Ixlon (m.).172 Inflexions. [Book II Some have also nom. s. in -o; e.g. Agamemno (m.), Amphlo (m.), LacSdsemo (f.), MacSdo (m.), Strymo (m.). Iasdnl dat. sing, in Statius. -fin e.g. Phlldpoemen. -an Masculine; e.g. paean, Alcman, Acarnan, Titan (rarely 504 declined as with -0 stem), Pan (acc. s. always Pana). -5n Mostly masculine. Names of persons and things. Nom. s. usually in -0; 505 e.g. arrMbo (sometimes f.), mydparo, sipho, Apollo (also e.g. Apollinem), Laco, Amphitruo, Drdmo, Phormio, Simo, < Tranio, Dio, HiSro, Milo, Parmenio, Plato, Pyrrlio, Zeno. So also stems in -phon, see § 496. But Triton, TSlamon, Chiron. Names of places. Nom. s. usually in -on; e.g. C615phon (m.), Marathon (f.), Sicyon (f.), Babylon (f.), Galydon (f.), Helicon (m.), Cithseron (m.), (R&fcico (m.), is not a Greek word). For Ancon, Crdto (m.), we have often -a stem, viz. AncSna, Crdtona. -en e.g. att&gen (m. Also a stem in -a, attagena); Siren (f.), 506 splen (m.), Trcezen (f.). -In e.g. delphin (m. usual nom. delphlnus); Eleusln (f.), Trachin (f.). Rarely nom. s. in -s; e.g. S&l&mis (f.). (e) Stems in -s or - r: exhibit simple stem in nominative. 507 e.g. nectar (n.). -6r all masculine, e.g. rhetor (m.), Amyntor, Antenor, Castor, Hector, Mentor, Nestor. -lis (iir) Nom. s. in -us; e.g. Ligus. -6r Nom. s. in -er; e.g. aer; (m. acc. s. usually aSr&, but aerem in Gato and Gelsus); aether (m. acc. always sethSra). -§r e.g. character (m.), crater (m.)acc. cratera (Cic.). Also with stem in -a; nom. s. cratera and creterra. For pan- ther, stater, we have always panthera, statera.Chap. XV] Adverbs and Conjunctions. *73 CHAPTER XV. ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. Adverbs and Conjunctions kre indeclinable words, some of 508 them cases of existing words, others cases of lost words, others words with case-suffixes, different from those in common use in Latin, others mutilated remnants of fuller expressions. They are here arranged according to the final letter of the ending, which sometimes is a suffix, sometimes part of the stem or some modification thereof. -a Abl. sing. fem. from -0 or rather -a stems. (Cf. § nao.) 509 ea, in that direction; kac, iliac, and (Plaut., Ter.) ilia; alia; qua, quaque, quanam, qualibet; nequaquam, by no means; usquequaque, everywhere; utralibet, in whichever direction you please. These ablatives are often used with tenus; e.g. eatenus, thus far, hactenus, qua- tenus, quadamtenus, aliquatenus. So circa, about; juxta, close; erga, towards. Supra (supera Lucr. often), above; infra, below; extra, outside; intra, within; ultra, beyond; citra, on this side; contra, against. (See § 160. 6.) So frustra (in Plaut. sometimes frustra; ne frustra sis, not to deceive you)) in vain. So with prepositions, which in the ordinary language take* an accusative; e.g. an tea (antidea old), antehac (antidhac old), before; postea (postidea old), postkac, afterwards; interea, meanwhile; prseterea, prseterliac, besides; propterea, therefore; quapropter, wherefore. These expressions may be compared with paucis post diebus, &c. Apparently accusatives plur. neut. 5*° Ita, thus (comp. iti-dem); quia, whereas; aliuta (in old law), otherwise: it stands to aliud, aliut in same relation as ita to id. -se prse, in front (old locative?). -5 Adverbs chiefly of manner (e.g. certo for certod; comp. Sn OVTCDS, OVTQ>). (1) from substantives.174 ' Inflexions. [Book II ergo, on account of, therefore (epyco); extemplo, at once (extempulo, diminutive of extempore); Ilico, on the spot, instantly (in loco); mddo, only, just now (lit. in measured terms); numero (prae-Ciceron.), just (PL Amph. 180), quickly (Varr. R.R. 3. 16. 7), usually too soon (lit. by number?); oppldo (prae-August.), very (lit. on the plain, cf. eVi^e'Scos); postmodo, afterwards (cf. § 528); prsesto, at hand; prSfecto, really (for pro facto ?); propemodo (PL Ps. 276), almost (c.f. § 528). (2) From noun adjectives and participles. arcano (Plant.), secretly; assiduo (Plaut.), constantly; certo, for a certainty; clto, quickly; continuo, straight- way; crebro, frequently; denuo, afresh (de novo); directo, directly, straight; falso, falsely; fortuito, by chance; gra- tuito, gratuitously; liquldo, clearly; manifesto, palpably; merito, deservedly; mutuo, mutually; necessario, necessa- rily; omnino, entirely (as if from an adj. omninus); per- petuo, perpetually; precario, on sufferance; raro, seldom; secreto, secretly; sediilo, actively; serio, seriously; sero, late; sublto, suddenly; supervacuo (post-Aug.), super- fluously; tfito, safely; vero, indeed, no doubt. bipertlto, tripertito, quadripertito, divided into two, three, four; improviso, unforeseen; inaugurato, without ^ taking auspices; inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly; &c. (3) Ablatives of order. - primo, in the first place; secundo, tertio, &c.; postremo ultimo, in the last place; immo (imo, at the bottom}) at the least, nay rather. (4) Direction towards a place. eo, thither; eodem, to the same place; eousque, adeo, jo far; quo-ad, as long as; hue (for hoc), hither; adhuc, hitherto; illo, illuc (illoc Plaut.), thither; isto, istuc (istoc Plaut.); alio, elsewhither; quo, whither; quonam, quo- vis, quocumque, quoquo, quousque; aliquo, somewhither; citro, to this side; ultro, further; intro, inwards; retro, backwards; utro (rare), to which of the two sides; utro- que. in either direction; neutro, in neither direction. porro, further (poppa) \ quocirca, cf. § 160. it. -o-vorsus or 0 -vorsum, lit. turned towards; but vorsus and vorsum 512 were used indifferently and not inflected. horsum, hitherwards (ho-vorsum); quorsus, quorsum, whitherwards f istorsum, illorsum (Cato ap. Fest.), aliorsum, aliquovorsum, utroquevorsum, altrovorsum (Plaut., &c,), qvoqvoversus (Cic.), qvoqveversum (Caes.).Chap. XV] Adverbs and Conjunctions. 175 controversus (adj.), in dispute (turned against); in- trorsus, introrsum; retrorsum, dextrorsum, sinistrorsum. deorsum, downwards; seorsum, separately (se-vorsum, turned to itself, or turned aside) ; sursum, upwards; pror- sum, prorsus, forwards; rursum, rursus, backwards again. (Susum, prosum, rusum (russum), are forms also found in Plaut., Lucret., &c.) -do quando, when (quam-do); ali quando, sometimes; quando- 5*3 que, whenever, some time or other; quandoeumque, when- soever; endo, also indu, old forms of in; (comp. indupe- rator for imperator, Enn., Lucr.; indlgeo, indlpiscor, &c.). -ii diu, for long; interdiu (interdius Gato, Plaut., cf. sh § 828), in the daytime; noctu, by night; simltu (also, in an Augustan inscription, simitur), at the same time; du- dum, a long time (for diu-dum). -e Apparently old forms of ablative. (Comp. facilumed in 5*5 S. C. de Bacc.) From adjectives with -0 stems both posi- tive and superlative. * e.g. segre, hardly (segro-); blande, soothingly (blando-); certe, surely (eerto-); considerate, with consideration # (considerato-); docte, skilfully (docto-); plane, quite (piano-); ornate, in ornate manner (ornato-); promisee (Liv. 5. 48); recte, rightly (recto-); sane, of course (sano-); valde, very (valido-); vere, truly, actually (vero-); &c. ardentissime, most eagerly; audacissime, most boldly; creberrime, very frequently; doctissime, very skilfully; maxime, especially; minime, least of all; psenissume (Plaut.), very nearly; See. apprime (pne-Ciceronian), exceedingly (ad-primo); fgre, ferme (superlative of fere?), almost. -§ (1) From -0 stems; bSnS, well (bone-); male, badly 5/5 (malo-); inferne, below (inferno-); superne, above (su- perno-). Perhaps here belong tSmfcre, rashly; mactS, blest. (Some take macte for a vocative; but it appears to be invariable in form, though used with a plural (cf. however, Plin. H. N. 11. 12), or as an oblique predicate.) (2) From other stems; abunde, abundantly; ante (for antid), before; forte, by chance (abl. of fors); facllS, easily (facili-; comp. dulce ridens, &c.); impiine, with impunity (as if from adj. impunis); magS (cf. m&gls, §545), more; paene, almost; rSpente, suddenly (repenti-); rite, duly; ssspe, often; sponte, of its own accord (abl. of a nom. spons); sublime, aloft (subiimi-); vdlupe (or better vclup), with pleasure (almost always with est).176 Inflexions. [Book II. So the ablatives mane, in the morning; lflce, by day- light; nocte, by night; magnopere, greatly (magno opere liercle, 'pon honour (for hercules. See Syntax). -pg A form of que (compare quispiam, quisquam); nem-pe, 517 indeed (nam-pe, camp. namque); quippe, indeed (for qui per comp. utique) ; prdpe, near (comp. proximus,§ 754,*). -vg Perhaps for vel. Sive (old seve, hence seu), or if; neve 518 (neu), or not. -c§ ceu, as (for ceve, ce being of pronominal origin ?). 5i9 Mc, illlc, &c., see §524. 3; ecce, behold (for ence); sic, thus (cf. § 524). -qvd Appended to pronouns (a kind of reduplication); e.g. 520 quisque, each; quandoque, whenever; quicumque (qui- quomque), whosoever; ubique, everywhere; undique, from all sides; utique, anyhow; usque, ever; uterque, each. Also absqve, without (abs); atque (ac), and also (for ad-que, cf. p. 50); ngque (nec), not; namque, ybr. -ptg e.g. suopte; see § 389. For p6te? comp. utpote, as. 521 -de i.e. the preposition de shortened by losing the accent?; 522 e.g. inde, thence (im-de); indidem, from the same place; deinde, exinde, thereupon; proinde, perinde, just so; sub- inde, immediately afterwards, repeatedly; unde, whence < (quom- or cum-de); undique, from ail sides; undgcum- que, whencesoever; quamde (Enn., Lucr.), than. -ne sine, without; pone, behind (for pos-ne comp. § 535, and for -ng comp. superng from supernus). n§, not, lest; ne (wrongly written nae), verily (comp. 523 vol, vr})', ng interrogative particle, perhaps the same as ne. Comp. ng-fas, ng-quis, ng-vis, § 728. -I (rarely i) (1) Ablative cases of manner. qui, (interrogative and relative like ut), how, in which case; quin, why not? but (qui-ne); alioqui, alioquin, ce- teroqui, ceteroquin, in other respects (the final n is of obscure origin); nequiquam, by no means; atqui, but; perhaps also quippe; si, if (abl. or loc. of pronoun, irt which case); nisi, unless (for ne si); quidem, indeed; si- quidem, if indeed, since; quasi, as tf (quam si); sic, thus (si-ce, in which or this way); ni, not (for ne, nei), also used as=nisi; quidni, why notf utl (ut), how (for quo-ti); utique, any how; utinam, O that! ne utiquam (nutiquam), by no means. (For itidem see §§ 510, 531.) (2) prsefiscini (also prsefiscine), without offence (prse fascino-, for i.e. to avert bewitchments); procllvi (or pro- clivg), downward (proclivi-, old stem proclivo-); brevi, in few words (brgyi-).Chap. XV.\ Adverbs and Conjunctions. 177 (3) Locative cases; illi, isti (Plaut., Ter.); illic, istic, there (illo-, isto-); hie, here (ho-); prldem, some time ago; and perhaps h§ri (in Quintilian's time her§), yester- day; peregri, more commonly peregre, abroad, from abroad; temperi, in good time (tempos-); and others; see in Syntax. -bi Ibi, there (is); inibi, therein; postibi (Plaut.), thereupon; 525 interibi (Plaut.), in the meantime; ibidem, in the same -place; llbl, where (for quobi, cubi); ublque, everywhere; ublcumque, wheresoever; si-ciibi, if anywhere; ali-cubi, somewhere; alibi, elsewhere (ali—); utr&bi, at which of two places (utro-); utrubique, at both places. -b ab (abs), from; 6b (obs), opposite to; sub (subs), under. -am jam, now; etiam, also (et jam); qu&niam, since (quom 526 jam); nunciam (Plaut.), now (nunc jam); nam, for, (? now); quam, how, as; quamquam, however, although; &llquan-do, sometimes; aliquamdiu, for some time; nuti- quam (§ 534), not at all; uspiam, usquam, any where; nusquam, no where; prsequam, compared with; tam, so; tamquam, as if; tandem, at length. coram, face to face (com, os-); clam, secretly (comp. oc-cul-o, conceal); obviam, opposite (obvio-; or ob viam, comp. obiter); palam, prdpalam, openly (pad-? pand&re); v " perpfiram, badly (per-per-am? thoroughly ?); promiscam f (Plaut.), promiscuously; protlnam (Plaut.), immediately. ^ So the compounds with fariam; e. g. bifariam, divided £ >7 in two (bi-); trifariam, quadrifariam; multifariam, in pr , man^places; plurifariam, in several places. quondam, at one time. (Comp. quidam, a certain one.) 527 -^o^(t^m) Probably accusative cases. "y* " !' diojiicum (Plaut., donique Lucr., donee commonly), 528 . until § dum, while; dii-dum, a long time (diu dum); inter- * . dum,ybr <3 time; quidum, how so? primumdum, first of all; ^ appended to imperatives, e.g. agedum, come now; mane- dum, stop pray; &c.; nmn (in questions), now? nunc K (i.e. num-ce), now; etiamnum, evennow; quom, cum, * when (quo-); quom (sometimes in prae-Augustan inscr.), com (in composition), cum (prep.), with (comp. £w/); quon-dam, at one time (quom-dam); quandocumque, whensoever; turn, tunc, then; umquam, ever (um for quom; cf. § 121. 3); numquam, never (ne umquam); nonnunquam, at times. actfitum, instantly {on the move? actu-); circum, round (circo-); clanculum, secretly (clam, cf. § 862. c); com- mddum, suitably, just now (commodo-); demum, at length;178 Inflexions. LBook II extremum, for the utmost (i.e. last) time (extremo-); in- cassum, to no purpose (in cassum); minimum, in phrase quam minimum, as little as possible (minimo-); nimium, too much; ncenum (generally contracted to non), not (ne CLnum); parum, little; parumper, for a little while; ple- rumque, for the most part (plero-, que); postmodum (Liv.), afterwards (cf. § 511. 1); postremum, for the hindmost (i. e. last) time (postremo-); potissimum, espe- cially (potissimo-); primum, for the first time (prlmo-); propemodum, al/nost (cf. § 511. 1); ItSrum (§ 888), for the second time; tertium, quartum, See.; ultimum, for the furthest (i.e. last) time; secundum, prep .following, along (sequondo-). For rursum, adversum, &c. see § 513. Impraesentiarum, at the present time (for in prsesentia 529 rerum? cf. § %8. 1). -em propSdiem, 'very shortly (for prope die, on a near day ?) -tern autem, however; Item, likewise (comp. ita, itidem); S3o saltern, at least. -dem quldem, equidem (for et quidem?), indeed; prldem, some- 531 time ago; tandem, at length (tamdem); tdtldem, just so many; Itidem, likewise (ita); ldentidem, repeatedly (for Idem Itidem? or Idem et Idem?). (Comp. Idem, the same, for is-dem; tantusdem.) -im denotes at or from a place; hin-c, hence (him ce); illim, 532 istim, illinc, istinc, thence; im in inde (§ 522), thereupon; exim, exin, exinde, therefrom; dein, deinde, thereupon; inter-im, meanwhile; 61im, in those times, i. e. formerly or hereafter (olio = illo); 6nim, for (i.e. in im?); utrinque, on both sides (utro-). altrinsecus (for altrimsecus; Plaut.), on the other side; extrinsecus, from outside; intrinsecus, from within; fo- rinsecus (Col., Plin ,),from out of doors (comp. foris). t-im(sim) Formed from or similarly to past participles; e.g. csesim, 533 edgewise (cssdere); carptim, by pieces, separately (lit. plucking at it, carpere); cautim, cautiously (cavere); con- fertim, compactly (conferclre); confestim, immediately (confgrlre? cf. § 704); conjunctim, unitedly (conjun- gere); contemptim, scornfully (contemnere); cursim, swiftly (currere); dispersim, dispersedly (dispergere); elflictim, desperately (effilgere, to kill, hence efflictim amare, to love to death); exsultim, friskingly (exslllre); furtim, by stealth (fur, a thief fura-ri); inclsim. in short clauses (incldere); juxtim, close at hand (comp. juxta); mixtim, mingling (miscere); partim, partly (parti-); passim, here and there {in a scattered way, pandere); pSdStentim,Chap. XV] Adverbs and Conjunctions. 179 feeling the way (pede tend&re); prsesertim, especially (put- ting in front, prses6r6re); punctim, pointwise (punggre); raptim, hurriedly (rapSre); sensim, gradually (lit. per- ceptibly, sentlre); statim, immediately (lit. as you stand, sta-, stare); strictim, slightly (lit. grazing, stringere); tractim, in a long-drawn way (trabSre); vlcissim, in turns (vlci-); tibertim, plentifully (uber-), &c. -at-im (1) From verbs with -a stems; e.g. acervatim, in heaps, 534 summarily (acerva-re); centuriatim, by centuries (centu- ria-re); certatim, 'vying with one another (certa-re); cltatim, at full speed (citare); datatim (datatim ludere, to play at ball), giving and regiving (data-re frequenta- tive of dare); gravatim, with difficulty (gravari); mmii- tatim, by bits (as if from minutare); nomlnatim, by name (nominare); privatim, individually (privare); prdpSra- tim, hurriedly (properare), &c. (2) From nouns (compare barbatus, &c.); e.g. cater- vatim, in troops (caterva-); gSnSratim, taking classes (genus); gradatim, step by step (gradu-); grSgatim, in flocks, herding together (grig-); membratim, limb by limb (membro-); ostiatim, from house to house (ostio-); paullatim, little by little (paullo-); pectinatim, combwise (pecten-); regionatim, region by region (region-); singillatim one by one (comp. singulo-); summatim, slightly, summa- rily (taking the tops, summo-); turmatim, by squadrons (turma-); vlcatim, street by street (vico-); See. Plautus used also tuatim, after your fashion (tuo-); Sisenna had nostratim, and meatim is mentioned by the grammarians. -ut-im mindtim, in small pieces (minuSre); toldtim, full trot (raising the feet, tollgre); tribfitim, tribe by tribe (tribu-). -It-im viritim, man by man (viro-). -t ast, but; at (for ad?), but (also atque, atqui); aut, or 535 (comp. avre); 6t, and (comp. en); "lit (for uti), as (prout, prseut, sicut, velut); post, after (also pos, poste, postidea; comp. ante, antidea). Sat is shortened for satis. For -met see § 389. -d Old ablative suffix ? cf. § 160. 6; ad (cf. § 160. 10), to; 536 apiid, at; baud (or hau), not; sed, but (properly by itself f). Quod, because, is neut. acc. (comp. on), but in quod si, quod quia, quod utinam is by some taken to be an old ablative (see Ritschl, N. Plaut. Exc. p. 57). ►n quln, why notf (qui ne); sin, but if (si ne, if not?): 537 (comp. yiden, audin, &c.); an, whether; forsan, forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; t&m&n, yet; en, lo! in (cf. § 513), in.i8o Inflexions. [Book II. -1 prdcul, off, older semol (for simile), together; s6- 538 m§l, once; vSl, or (probably imperative of volo, hence choose). -ur igitur, therefore; quor or c&r, wherefore (for qua re). 539 For simitur see § 514. •&r Suffix of comparative degree: sfiper, above (higher; sub, up); desuper, insuper. Per, through; ter (for tris, cf. §429), thrice; qu&ter, four times. -p§r nflper, lately (novumper); parumper, for but little time 54^ (parum); paullisper, for a little while (paullo-); quan- tisper (Pompon.), for how long (quanto-); tantisper, for so long (tanto-); semper, always (sim-, whole 1 comp. simplex, simul). -ter (1) Prom adjectives with -0 stems: duriter (also dure), 541 hardly (dftro-); firmiter (also firme), firmly (firmo-); Mmaniter, inhumaniter (also humane, inhumane), polite- ly, impolitely (humano-); larglter (also large), lavishly (largo-); longiter (Lucr.),far (longo-); naviter, ignavi- ter (also nave, ignave), skilfully, unskilfully (gnavo-); luculenter (also luculente), brilliantly (for lttciilentiter from luculento-); pM-ter (Catull., but commonly pure), purely (puro-); turbulenter (also turbulent©), confusedly (for turbulentiter from turbulento-); violen-ter, violently (violento-; the-i stem is not till Augustan time). Also from pras-Ciceronian writers are quoted: sequiter, aml- citer, ampliter, aspgriter, avariter, avlditer, blanditer, iracunditer, msBstiter, misgriter, munditer, parciter, prze- clariter, primiter, prognariter, propSriter, proterviter, sseviter, severiter, superbiter, torviter, and a few others. Also in Varro, cadilciter, prdbiter. (2) From adjectives with -i stems, and one (supplex) with consonant stem: acri-ter, eagerly (acri-); all-ter, otherwise (ali-, § 373); aman-ter, lovingly (for amanti- ter); atroei-ter, audac-ter, brSvi-ter, celSrl-ter, clemen- ter (for clementi-ter), concordi-ter, constan-ter (for constanti-ter), cupien-ter (Plaut., Enn.), decen-ter, demen-ter, diligen-ter, elSgan-ter, felici-ter, ferven-ter (Casl. ap. Cic.), frequen-ter, gravi-ter, indulgen-ter, laten-ter, leni-ter, 16vi-ter, mediocri-ter, memori-ter, with good memory, misericordi-ter, pari-ter, salUbri-ter, scien-ter, simili-ter, simplici-ter, sollemni-ter, soller-ter (for sollerti-ter), supplici-ter, tenvi-ter, vernlli-ter, vigi- lan-ter, utili-ter, and others from stems in -nti, of which -ti is dropped before the suffix. (3) From other words: circi-ter, about (circo-); in- ter, between (in); prater, beside (prse); prop-ter, near (prdpe); sub-ter, beneath (sub).Chap. XV.~\ Adverbs and Conjunctions. 1S1 nequl-ter, badly (nequam). Obiter (not ante-Augustan), on the way, is apparently ob iter (comp. obviam). -s abs (ab, a), from; bis, twice (cf. § 76); cis, on this side 542 (comp. ci-timus); ex, out (ec in compounds, cf. § 113 and e); mox,presently; obs (ob), on, opposite; subs (sub), under (in subs-traho, &c.); trans, beyond; uls, beyond (comp. ul-timus); us-quam, us-piam, anywhere; vix, scarcely, Dainceps, next, is like particeps, but indeclinable. siremps (old), alike, according to Ritschl, for si ( =.sic) re ipsa, m being inserted as in rumpo, cumbo. -is alias, at other times; eras, to-morrow; fdras, (to) out of doors (cf. § 1110). -U3 mordi-c-us, with the teeth (mordS-, mordere); s8c-us, other. 543 wise; t§nus, as far as (subst. acc. s. extent f cf. § 1086); protSnus, immediately. Eminus, from a distance; commmus, band to hand, are probably compounds of manus, hand. -tus from; same as Greek -6ev (comp. ypd^ofiev, scribimwj). 544 antiqtul-tus, from of old (antiquo-); divlnl-tus, from the Gods (divino-); fundi-tus, from the bottom (fundo-) ; hiimani-tus, after the manner of men (humano-); in-tus, from within (in); pSm-tus, from the interior (p6no-); primi-tus, at first (primo-); publicl-tus (Plaut., Ter. &c.), on the public account (publico-); radlci-tus, from the root (radici-); stirpl-tus, from the stock (stirpi-); sub-tus, underneath (sub). From pras-Ciceronian writers also are quoted, medulll-tus, from the marrow (medulla); immortall-tus, 6ciili-tus, pugni-tus, and from Varro communl-tus. -Ss pfines, in the possession of (comp. pSnitus). -is for -10s, the stem or neuter acc. of the comparative 545 suffix; e. g. nimis, too much (for nimios-); magis (magg, sometimes), more (for magios-); satis (also sat), enough. Fortassis (fortassS), perhaps. Perhaps the same is the origin of -is in paulis-per, tantis-per, quantis-per, § 540. Fdris, out of doors; imprimis, in the first place; ingra- 546 tis, thanklessly (gratiis); multimodls, many wise; quotan- nis, yearly, are locatives or ablatives. -iens post-Augustan -ies; the regular suffix for numeral ad- 547 verbs: tdtiens, so often (tot); quStiens, how often (quot); aliquotiens, sometimes; pliiriens, often (pliis-); quinquiens, fi've times (quinque); sexiens, six times (sex); septiens, seven times (septem); dSciens, ten times (decern); vlciens, twenty times (for vicintiens, cf. § 28; from viginti); duo- detriciens, twenty-eight times; quinquagiens (in Plaut. Men. 1161, quinquagensiens), fifty times (quinquaginta); centiens, a hundred times (centum); quadringentiens, four hundred times (quadringenti), and others. See App. D.182 Inflexions. [Book IT. CHAPTER XVI. INFLEXIONS OF VERB. INTRODUCTION. Latin verbs have inflexions to denote differences of voice, 548 person, number, mood, and tense. 1. There are two voices, the Active and the Passive (sometimes called Reflexive or Middle). Some verbs have both voices, some have only the active, except in the third person; others, called deponents, have only the passive, but with the signification (apparently) of the active. (Cf. § 1215.) 2. Two numbers, the Singular arid Plural. In a few verbs no plural is found. 3. There are three persons (First, Second, Third) in each number. In the imperative mood there is no form for first person singular. A few verbs are used only in the third person. 4. Three moods, Indicative, Subjunctive (often called Con- 549 junctive), Imperative. 5. (a) Six tenses, in the Indicative mood, active voice: (a) Three, denoting incomplete action; the Present, Fu- ture, and Imperfect (sometimes called respectively, present imperfect, future imperfect, past imperfect). (b) Three, denoting completed action; the Perfect, Completed Future, and Pluperfect (sometimes called re- spectively, present perfect, future perfect, and past perfect). (J?) In the Subjunctive mood there are only four distinct tense forms, called Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. In the Imperative there are only the present and future. Some verbs in the active and all verbs in the passive have in the 550 Indicative only three simple tense-forms, those of incomplete action, and in the Subjunctive only the present and imperfect. The de- ficiency of the tenses of complete action in the Passive voice is supplied by participles in combination with certain tenses of the verb of being. Certain verbal nouns are from their mode of formation and i51 use usually treated in connexion with the verb. These areChap. XVI.] Inflexions of Verb. (a) Two indeclinable substantives, called Infinitives (or the Infinitive Mood). They are the Present infinitive, denoting incomplete action, and the Perfect, denoting com- pleted action. (J?) Three verbal adjectives, called Participles, the Pre- sent and Future belonging to the active voice; the Past participle belonging to the passive voice. (c) A verbal substantive and adjective, called the Gerund and Gerundive, usually classed, the first with the active, the second with the passive voice. (d) Two supines, i.e. the accusative and ablative (or dative) of a verbal noun. The forms of the verb proper are often called collectively the Finite Verb; the verbal nouns above named are sometimes called the Infinite Verb. The following are the usual English equivalents of the several 552 tenses and verbal substantives connected with the verb: (See Book iv. Ch. xviii. xx.) Finite Verb. Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. Future. Sing. 1. 3- Imperfect. Sing. 1. Perfect. Sing. 1. Comp. Future. Sing. 1. Sing. 3. Pluperfect. Sing. !♦ Active. Deponent. Passive. amo prgcor amor I am loving I am praying I am being loved or I love or 1 pray or I am loved amabo prgcabor amabor I shall love I shall pray I shall be loved amafoit prec&bitur amabitur He will love He quill pray He will be loved amabam precabar amabar I was loving I was praying I was being loved or I loved or I prayed or I was loved &mavi prScatus sum amatus sum I loved or I have I prayed or I I was loved or loved have prayed I am loved amavSro prScatus gro jimatus Sro I shall have I shall have I shall have loved prayed been loved amavSrit prScatus grit amatus Srit He (will have He will have He will have loved prayed been loved amavSram prficatus Sram Amatus gram I had loved I had prayed I had been loved Finite Verb. Indicative. Present. Sing. 1. Future. Sing. 1. 3- Imperfect. Sing. 1. Perfect. Sing. 1. Comp. Future. Sing. 1. Sing. 3.184 Inflexions. [Book II Subjunctive. Present. Sing. 1. Imperfect. Perfect. Pluperfect. amera I be loving or I love amarem Iwere loving or I loved &mavSrim I have loved amavissem I had loved Imperative. Present. Sing. %. Future. Sing. a. Infinitive. Present. Perfect. Participles. Present. Future. Past. Gerund. Gerundive. &ma love amato Thou shalt love pr5c6r I be praying or I pray pr6carer I were praying or I prayed precatus sim I have prayed prScatus essem I had prayed prgcare pray prScator Thou shalt pray Verbal Nouns. &marS to love amavissS to have loved &mans loving amatfirus going to love amandum laving amandus to love or to be loved prgcari to pray pr6c£tus esse to have prayed prgcans praying prScaturas going to pray prScatus having prayed prgcandum praying pr£candus to pray or to be prayed amgr I be loved amarer I were being loved or I were loved &matus sim I were loved or I am loved jimatus essem I had been loved or I were loved dmare be loved amator Thou shalt be loved amari to be loved amatus esse to have been or to be loved &m5.tus having been or being loved Every single word in the Latin (finite) verb is a complete sen- 554 tence, the verbal stem being used, not by itself, but in combination with abbreviated forms of pronouns of the first, second, and third persons.Chap. XVII.j Inflexions of Person and Number. 185 The principles, on which all verbs are inflected, are the same. The differences in detail which are found are due, some to the nature or ending of the stem of the particular verb, some to the unequal preservation of parts of an originally fuller system of inflexions. The inflexions for tense, mood, person, number, and voice are 555 attached to the stem in the order now given. The forms of the present tense, indicative mood, singular number, active voice, are the simplest, and arise from the union of the stem and personal pronouns. All other parts of the verb contain modifications for tense, mood, number, and voice; and of these the modifications for tense and mood are made between the stem and personal pronoun, and the inflexions for number and voice appended after them. Thus r6g-6r-e-m-us is the 1st pers. plur. active, imperfect sub- junctive of a verbal stem meaning rule. R§g is the stem, er denotes past time, e the mood of thought (instead of fact), m the speaker himself, us the action of others with the speaker. And, if for -us we have -ur, the speaker and others are passive instead of active. These inflexions will be discussed in regular order, beginning, at the end of the word, with the most 'characteristic and universal inflexions. CHAPTER XVII. INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER The suffixes, which denote person and number in the active 556 voice, are the same in all tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, except in some persons of the perfect, and in the first person singular of the present and completed future of the indicative mood. In the passive voice the inflexions for this purpose are the same in all tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, which are ex- pressed by simple forms. (The tenses denoting completed action • are expressed by compound forms.)i86 Inflexions. [Book II These suffixes are as follows, the initial vowel being given in 557 the oldest form (cf. § 196) in which, apart from early inscriptions, it appears in any verbs. For earlier forms, see § 234, and compare §§570, 581. Singular. Plural. 1st person 2nd „ 3rd „ ISt „ 2nd „ 3rd „ Active, -om -is -it -um-us -It-Is -ont Passive. -or -6r-is -It-ur -Im-ur -imlnl -ont-iir Perfect Active. -w -(is)ta -It -Im-its -(is)t-Is -(er)unt The short initial vowel of the suffix (6, ti, 6, I) is absorbed 558 by an immediately preceding a, e, or I; except (1) in the 1st pers. sing., if the m is not retained; (2) in the 3rd pers. pi. present, if -unt follow -i. In a few other verbs (sum, do, fero, volo, edo) some of these suffixes drop the initial vowel in the present tense. First Person. The -m in the 1st person singular and plural is the same as is ^59 seen in the oblique cases of the pronoun me. Singular, -m is dropped (see § 86) in the singular of the pre- 560 sent indicative of all verbs (e.g. reg-o) except two; viz. sum (for Ss-om), I am, and inqua-m, quoth I; also in the completed future of all verbs, and in the future indicative of all verbs with stems ending in -a or -e, and of some with stems ending in -i; e.g. S-mabo, m5nebo, Ibo. In a- verbs the final a is contracted with the initial of the suf- 561 fix; e.g. am-o for ama-om; do for da-om. Other vowel verbs retain their characteristic vowel; e.g. trib-u-o, mdn-e-o, aud-i-o, c&p-i-o. But three i verbs change i to e; viz. 60 (stem i-), queo (stem qui-), and its compound nSqueo. Inquam has apparently a stem in a, which except in 1st sing. pres. passes into I. In the perfect indicative the personal suffix has dropped off al- 562 together. The final i has another origin. (See § 658.) In the passive voice the only change from the active is the 563 addition of r, if the m has dropped away, or the substitution of it for m if the m has been retained in the active. This r is generally considered to be a substitute for s, the proper passive inflexion being, as is supposed, the reflexive pronoun1 se. 1 A passive formed by a reflexive pronoun is seen in Germ. Das versteht sick vo7i selbst; French Le corps se trouva; Ital. Si leda Vuomo modesto ('The modest man is praised'); Span. Las aguas se secaron ('The waters were dried up'). Key, Lat, Gr. § 379.Chap. XV//.] Inflexions of Person and Number. 187 Plural. The vowel before m is weakened (see § 241) to I in 564 all verbs with stems ending in u, or in I, or in a consonant, except in the present indicatives of three verbs; viz. sumus, qjue are, v61- iimus, and their compounds, and the old form qusesiimus (stem quaes-), s of a- and e- verbs with a added, i. e. -Ib-a-. The form -eba-, seen in consonant and most i- verbs, is difficult to explain. It is gene- rally supposed to have been erroneously borrowed from the e- stems. Imperfect subjunctive. This tense had the suffix -8r (for 6s). 6og which with the modal suffix e made -6re. The first vowel coalesced with a preceding a, e, orl; e.g. reg-6r-emus, tribu-$r-emus, am- ar-emus, mon-er-em-us, aud-ir-emus, and caused the omission of a preceding I; e.g. capl-, capfcrem. In sum, Sdo, vdlo, f&ro, and their compounds, the vowel 8 was dropped out; e.g. 1st pers. plur. es-sem-us (for es-es-emus, or gd- 6s-emus); vel-lem-us (for vol-gr-am-us); fer-rem-us (for fer-6r- em-us). Do has d&r§mus. 13—2196 Inflexions. [Book II The suffix -Sr (6s; is probably from sum. So that reg- with the 610 imperfect of sum, is reg-eram; hence reg-era-i-m, regerem. The imperative tense suffixes have been already discussed (§§581-586). The present infinitive active has the suffix -6r§ (for -Ss6, §§ 183, 611 193. 3), in which the first e coalesces with a preceding a, e, or 1; e.g. reg-Sre, tribu-Sre; amare, mon-ere, aud-Ire. Capgre as c£p- Srem, § 609. In sum, 8do, v61o, f8ro, and their compounds, the first vowel e 612 was dropped out, as in the imperfect subj. Hence the infinitives are esse (for edese), velle (for volere), ferre (for ferere). The in- finitive is generally considered to be the dative or locative case of a verbal noun with stem ending in s- or si-; e. g. dicer-e for daikas-ai, viver-e compared with Sanskrit jivas-ai. The final e (=ai) would be originally long. The present infinitive passive has the suffix i appended to the 613 stem in verbs, whose stem ends in a consonant or in 1 or in u; e. g. reg-I, tribu-I, cap-I (but fieri from stem fi-; ferri from fSr-). In other vowel verbs 1 takes the place of the final e of the active in- finitive; e.g. aud-Ir-i, mon-er-I, am-ar-I. So also da-rl from do. A further suffix-gr is found appended to these forms (e.g. figier, 6x4 amarier, &c.), in old legal inscriptions (not after the S. C. de •repetundis, 631 u.c.); and frequently in Plautus, Terence, Lucre- tius, Cicero (in poetry), and not uncommonly in Vergil and Horace, only occasionally in later poets. But the shorter form is more .common even in the first named poets. In inscriptions it occurs first in the 5. C. de repetundis (darei, beside abducier, avocarier). The forms in -ier (-arier, -erier, -Irier) are probably the original 615 forms, and arose by the addition of the ordinary passive suffix r in the form -6r to the active infinitive, whose final e took the form ol 1. before er. The final r was then dropped on account of its ill sound after another r (§ 185), and ie contracted to I. Thus amare-er, amari-er, amari. If the same course had been followed in consonant, and in -i verbs, then owing to the penultiniate vowel of the active infinitive being short (e.g. ducSre), the syllable Sr would have recurred (e.g. ducerier). The Romans therefore preferred to omit the first (§ 28); i.e. to append -ier immediately to the final consonant of the stem; (e.g. duc-ier, capier). The only instance of the reten- tion of at least some part of the first er is in fer-rier for fererier. Analogy afterwards reduced ducier, &c. to duci.Chap. XX.] Tenses formed from the Present Stem. 1Q7 Present Participle. The suffix is -enti, nom. sing, -ens; e.g. 616 reg-ens, tribu-ens, audi-ens. But in the verb eo and its compounds, an older form of the suffix, viz. -unti, is retained; but the nom. sing, is usually -iens. The form neqLueuntes (from nequeo) occurs once. In -a and -e verbs the suffix coalesces with the final stem vowel; e.g. amans, monens. Gerund and Gerundive. The suffix is -endo-, which as a sub- c^7 stantive is called a gerund, as an adjective, gerundive; e.g. reg- endum, tribuendum, audiendum; amandum, monendum. An older form in -undo (probably for an earlier -ondo), is com- 618 mon in inscriptions to the end of the 7th century, u.c.; in Plautus, Terence, and Sallust; and, after i, and in the words gerundus and lerundus, frequently in the MSS. of Caesar, Cicero, and Livy. Some law phrases always (or at least usually), retained the form; e.g. rerum repatundarum; families erciscundse, finibus regundis, de jure dicundo. But after u or v the suffix is found only in the form ■ -endo (cf. § 213. 4. a. c). Old Futures in -so, -sim1. In the older language, of Plautus and ancient laws and formu- 619 laries, a future indicative in -so (-sso), subjunctive in -sim (-ssim), infinitive in -s6re (-ss6re), and pass, indie, in -sltur (-ssltur) is found. Instances of the indicative and subjunctive active of this formation are very frequent. (In some instances it is not clear to which mood the word belongs.) 1. From verbs with -a stems: amasso (ind.), amassis, amas- sint (subj.), appellassis (subj.), celassis (subj.), ccenassit (ind.), occceptassit (ind.), reconciliasso (ind.), creassit (subj.), curassis, curassint (subj.), accurassis (ind.), decollassit (ind.), indicasso (ind.), indicassis (subj.), invitassltis (ind.), exoculassltis (ind.), fortunassint (subj.), irritassis (ind.), locassim (subj.), locassint (ind.), mactassint (subj.), mulcassitis (ind.), servassit, servassint (subj.), peccasso, peccassis.; peccassit (ind.), and many others. Passive: turbassitur (ap. Gic.), mercassitur (Lex. Thor.). Infin. Act.: averruncassere (Pacuv.), reconciliassere, impstrassere (four times), oppugnassere (Plaut.), depoculassere (or depeculassere), deargentassere, depeculassere (or despeculassere) (Lucil.). 1 The fullest discussions of these forms are by Madvig (Opusc. 11, p. 64 foil.), Liibbert (Gram. Stud. Breslau, 1867), and Neue (ii« +21 sqq.).Inflexions. [Book II 2. From verbs with -e stems, preserving the vowel: habessit (subj.), prohibessis, prohibessit (subj.), prohibessit, prohibessint (ind.), coMbessit (subj., Lucr. 3. 444), licessit (subj.). 3. From verbs with -I stems: ambissit, ambissint (PI. Amph. 69. 71. ex conj.). 4. In verbs with consonant or -i stems, and some with -e 620 stems, the -so, -sim is attached immediately to the final stem con- sonant : (a) -e stems: ausim (subj.), noxit (subj.), sponsis (subj.), auxitis (subj.), jusso, jussis, jussit (ind.), jussim (subj.). Also passive jussitur (Cat.). (b) -I stems: faxo (ind.), faxis, faxit (ind. subj.), faxim, faxl- mus (subj.), faxitis (ind. subj.) frequently, faxint (subj.), effexis, defexis (ind.), capsis (ind.), capsit (subj.), capslmus (ind.); ac- cepso, occepso, recepso (ind.); incepsit, occepsit; injexit (ind.), objexim, objexis (subj.); adspexit (subj.), respexis (ind.); rapsit (ind.), surrepsit (subj.); excussit (subj.). Passive: faxitur (ap. Liv.); and perhaps nanxitur (Fest.). (e) Consonant stems: axim, adaxint (subj.), transaxim, axit; incensit; excessi3 (subj.); clepsit (ind.); occisit (ind.); dixis (subj.), iaduxis, adduxit (subj.); comessis (subj.); afflixint (subj.); amissis (ind. subj.); empsim (subj.), adempsit (ind.), surrempsit; parsi3 (subj.); rupsit (ind.); serpsit; exstinxit (subj.); taxis (subj.); adusBit (ind.). Of all these forms faxo, faxis, ausim, ausis, almost alone are 621 found after the time of Terence, who himself has only excessis, appellassis besides. But the following other instances occur: cohi- Tiessit (Lucr.); the phrase, di faxint (Cic.); recepso (Catull.); a few infinitives in Lucil.; jusso (Verg., Sil.); and one or two in- stances in the antiquarians Varro and Fronto. The style of the laws, &c. in Livy and Cicero does not of course belong to the age of their (real or feigned) recorders. These forms are apparently to be explained as a future indica- 622 tive, subjunctive, and infinitive, formed by the suffix s as in the Greek future to the stem, a short I or sometimes e of the stem being omitted; e.g. leva-, levaso; prohibe-, prohibeso; sponde-, spond-so, sponso; faci, fac-so; die-, dixo. The double s in the forms from a- and (a few) e- verbs is either a mode of marking the place of the accent, or due to a mistaken etymology, as if the form were analogous to amasse from amavisse, &c. Possibly both causes may have combined. Moreover a single s between two vowels was in the prae-Augustan language rare (cf. § 191, 193).Chap. XX.] Tenses formedfrom the Present Stem. 199 The subjunctive is formed by the regular suffix I; the infinitive by -Sre, as in the present infinitive. The use of these forms is analogous to that of the forms in 623 -ero, -erim, but is confined to those classes of sentences in which those forms differ least from a future indicative, or present subjunc- tive; viz. (1) the indicative in the protasis (not the apodosis) of a sentence; (except faxo, which might be either a simple or com- pleted future): (2) the subjunctive in modest affirmations, wishes, prohibitions, purpose, and in dependent sentences for the future, never for the perfect indicative (as the form in -erim frequently is). In all these classes the English language ordinarily uses an incomplete tense (present or future). The infinitives in -sere might be taken as either simple or completed futures. (The ordinary explanation of these forms, viz. that e. g. levasso 624 is for leva-v-eso (=levavero) has much in its favour; but it meets with great difficulties1 in such forms as cap-so, rap-so, proMbesso, &c.; and it does not really account for the double s. For levaveso would become leva-eso, levaso, levaro; or if it became levav-so, as is assumed, it would be contracted into levauso or levuso (le- vauro, levuro) not levasso. Comp. § 94.) The verbs arcesso, capesso, fiacesso, lacesso, are probably (Key, 625 Lat. Gr. p. 88) similar formations from arcio (i.e. adcio), capio, facio, lacio, and have been treated as verb stems, and thus received new inflexions of tense and mood. Incesso is probably from in- cedo; petesso from peto (pet- or petl-) is also found. 1 Not removed, I think, either by G. Hermann (Dissertatio de Mad- vigii interpretations, Lips. 1844), or Curtius {de verbi latini fut, exact., Dresden, 1844); or Key {Lat. Gr. § 566, 1209 f.); or Schleicher (Vergl. Gr. p. 830, ed. 2); or Lubbert (ubi supr.). My view agrees partly with Madvig's (p. 64, 65), and partly with Corssen's (Ausspr. 11. 37 sq. ed. 1. See also 1. 319, ed. 2). A somewhat different view is given by Merguet (Die Entwickelung der Lat. Formenbildung, 1870, p. 224). Pott deci- dedly rejects the view that these forms are from the perfect, not the present, stem (.Etym. Forsch. 11. Th. 4 (1870), pp. -269, 272). [Gossrau {Lat. Gr. § 174, Antn. i) derives these forms from a perfect in -si. Nettleship (Academy, 15 July, 1871) has taken (independently) a similar view to mine].200 * Inflexions. [Book II. CHAPTER XXL OF VERB STEMS, ESPECIALLY THE PRESENT STEM. A verb often exhibits a different stem in the present tense from 626 that which appears to be presumed in the perfect or in the supine. The changes, which belong strictly to the formation of the perfect or supine themselves, or follow from that formation according to the laws of Roman pronunciation, will be found in Chapters xxiii. xxiv. Verbs may be divided into consonant verbs and vowel verbs according as the present stem ends in a consonant or in a vowel. (In the following enumeration the different instances will be classified according to the last letter of the verb stem; and some- times the perfect and supine added in illustration.) i. Consonant verbs. 1. Most consonant verbs exhibit in the present stem no altera- 627 tion of the regular stem of the verb; e.g. reg-, reg-o; csed-, csed-o, & c. 2. Other consonant verbs exhibit such alteration; (a) The stem is reduplicated to form the present tense; e.g. 628 gSn- (ggno old form), gigno for gi-gSno (gSn-ui, gSn-itum); st&-, sisto (st§ti, statum); s&-, sSro for sSso (sevi, s&tum). (l>) The radical vowel is lengthened; e.g. 629 diic-, dflco; die-, (cf. die-are, causidic-us), dlco; fid-, fldo; nub- (cf. pronttbus), nttbo. (Probably Key is right in supposing the radical vowel to be always short, and a long vowel (e. g. scribo, lMo, See.) to be due to the formation of the present stem). (c) n is suffixed to the stem of the verb; e. g, to stems end- 630 ing in M. tem-, tem-no. R. cer-, cer-no; sper-, sper-no; star-, ster-no. In these verbs the perfect and supine have the r transposed; ere-, spre-, stra-.Chap, XXI.] Of the Present Stem. 20T A. d£-, da-no (old form of do). I. II-, li-no; qui-, nequi-nont (old form for nequeunt); I-, 63i dbinunt (old form for dbeunt); si-, si-no; and its compound pono for pdsino (old perf. pdsivi, sup. pdsitum). So apparently flrilniscor from frugv-, fruor. Conquin-isco (con- quexi) may be for conquic-n-isc-o, or may have vowel stem conqui- n-ise-o and belong here; see § 635. Festus speaks also of ferinunt, solinunt for ferunt, solent. (d) A nasal is inserted before the final stem consonant; e. g. to £32 stems ending in P or B. cub-, cumbo (also cuba-): rup-, rumpo. C or QV. liqv-, linqvo; vie-, vinco; n&c-, nanc-isc-or (nactus or nanctus). G. frag-, frango; pag-, pango (old pago); pug-, pungo (in the compounds the stem contains n in all tenses); rig-, ringor; tag-, tango (old tago). In some verbs the nasal is retained in the per- fect and dropped only in the supine stem: fig-, lingo (finxi, fictum); mig-, mingo (minxi, mictum, also minctum); pig-, pingo (pinxi, pictum); strig-, gtringo (strinxi, strictum). In other verbs the nasal is constant in the verb stem; e.g. jungo, junxi, junctum (from jug-, comp. jiigum). So ninguit from nigv- (nix). D. fid-, findo (fidi, flssum); fud-, fundo (fildi, fusum); scld-, scindo (scidi, scissum); tud-, tundo (tutudi, tusum, or tunsum). Perhaps also frendo (frendi, fresum) may have fred- for stem (but cf. § 168. 3). In metior, mensus (properly a vowel verb) the n appears to 633 have been dropped in the present stem. In plso, a collateral form of pinso, the n is dropped in present and supine stems. (e) sc- (isc) is suffixed to verbal stems, especially to vowel stems 634 in -e, and gives often the special meaning of beginning or becoming. This inchoative form sometimes exists alone, sometimes is used be- sides the ordinary stem, sometimes is found in a compound, but not in the simple verb. The perfect and supine, if any, are the same as those of the ordinary stem (real or assumed). A very few stems carry the*suffix -sc- throughout all the tenses. To Consonant stems: al- (&18re), &l-esc-ere; die-, di-sc-fere (for 635 dic-sc-Sre), didici; frun-, frun-isc-i (frftnitum); g&n- (gemSre), ingem-isc-6re (inggmui); here- (or ere-), lierc-isc-gre (herctum) ; m3,n- (perf. mfimini), commin-isc-i (commentum); pac-, pac-isc-i (pactum); p&s-, pasc-gre (for pas-sc-ere, comp. ^Tar-eojxaL); tr6m- (tremgre), contrSm-isc-Sre (contrgmui); perg- (perggre), experg-202 Inflexions. [Book II isc-i (experrectum); vSd- (comp. gdgre), ve-sc-i (for ved-sc-i); vigv- (vivgre), revlv-isc-gre (revixi); ulc-, ulc-isc-i (ultum). For escit, see § 72a. Poscgre (pdposci); compesc-ere (compescui; comp. pasco) re- tain sc throughout; miscere (for mig-sc-ere; comp. fxiy-wfxi) appears to contain the same suffix, but with an -e stem. So perhaps conquiniscere, conquexi (see § 672). To Vowel stems: A. Ira-, ira-sc-i (iratum); iab5,-, laba-sc-ere 636 (also lattare); na-, na-sc-i (natum); vespgra-, vespera-sc-gre (ves- peraverat, Gell.); v£t£ra- (inveterHre, tran.), vetera-sc-gre, also invetera-sc-gre (intrans., inveterav-, tran. and intran.). 0. nos no-sc-gre (novi). E. &c8- (acere), ace-sc-gre (acui), and many others from -e 637 stems, with perfect in -ui; see §§ 677—680. segre- (segrere, rare), segre-sc-gre; albg- (albere, rare), albescSre; arde- (ardere), exarde-sc-gre (exarsi); auge- (augere), auge-sc-8re (intrans.); calve- (calvere rare), calve-sc-gre; cane- (canere), cane-sc-Sre; fronde- (frondere), fronde-sc-gre; refirlge-, refrigescgre (refrixi); flavg- (llavere), flave-sc-gre; haerg- (hajrSre), Inbsere-sc- 6re (inlisesi); hgbg- (kgbere), hgbe-sc-gre; htlme- (hftmgre), hume- sc-gre; lactg- (lactere), lacte-sc-ere; livg- (livere, rare), live-sc- gre(rare); Mce- (lucere), illuce-sc-gre (illuxit); mace- (macere, rare), mace-sc-gre; miicg- (mucere), muce-sc-gre; splendg- (splend- ere), splende-sc-gre; turgg- (turggre), turge-sc-gre. ere-, cre-sc-gre (crevi); qui§-, quie-sc-gre (quievi); Sug-, sue-sc-gre, mansuescere, &c. (suevi). 1. dorml- (dormire), obdormi-sc-gre (obdormivi); obllvi- (comp. 638 livere, intrans.), obllvi-sc-i; scl- (scire), scl-sc-gre (sclvi). apl-sc-i (aptum); cilpi- (cilpgre), concupi-sc-gre (concuplvi); fatl- (?), fati-sc-gre and fati-sc-i (fessum); facl- (facgre), proflci- sc-i (profectum); gli-, gli-sc-gre; hi- (comp. hi-are), hi-sc-gre; nanci- (nanciam, old fut.), nanci-sc-i (nactum); sapl- (sapgre), reslpi-sc-gre (reslpui and rgslplvi). For a number of inchoatives formed directly from noun stems see in Book III. (§978). C/* >I) The guttural is omitted in some stems which probably 639 ended in -gv; e. g. conlgv-, coniveo (conlvi or conixi); flugv-, flua (fluxi, adj. fluxus, subst. fluctus); frugv-, fruor (fructus); strugv-, struo (struxi, structum); vigv-, vivo (vixi, victum). Of these coniveo properly belongs to the vowel verbs. (/. 2) Other stems vary between -gv and -g; e.g. stingvo, stingo; 640 tingvo, tingo; ungvo, ungo; ningvit, ningit. Similarly urgveo, urgeo.Chap. XX/.] Of the Present Stem. 203 (tg-) In traho (traxi, tractum), vfiho (vexi, vectum), the h re- 641 presents a fricative guttural, which becomes partially assimilated in the perfect and supine, and is weakened in the present. ([h) s is changed, between vowels (according to the general 642 law, § 193. 3), to r; e.g. ges-, gSro (gessi, gestum); haus-, haurio (hausi, haustum); hses-, haereo (hsesi, hSBsum); quaes-, quaero (quaeslvl, quae si turn); qu6s-, quSror (questus); Us-, tiro (ussi, ustum). Of these haurio, haereo properly belong to the vowel verbs. (J) A few verbs have 11 in present stem, but not in perfect; 643 the supine appears however to show the effect of 11 (cf. § 705). c61-(?), percello (pereuli, perculsum); p61- (?), pello (pepiili, pulsum); t61-, tollo (tetiili); vello retains 11 in perfect (velli, vul- sum); sallo, salt, is a byform of salio (salsum). ii. Vowel verbs. 1. Verbs with stems ending in a: 644 (a) Most of these verbs have the stem ending in a-, and pre- serve it in all tenses; e.g. Fla-, flare, (flavi, flatum); fa-, fari, (fatus); in which a is radical. In na-, nare (navi, natum), the a is constant, but the derivative n&to shows that & is radical. In stra-, sternSre (stravi, stratum); tla-, tollfere (tetuli, latum for tlatum); the present-stem is consonantal. Derivative verbs with a- stems are very numerous; e. g. ama-, &mare; crea-, creare; nuntia-, nuntiare; leva-, levare, &c.; all have perfects in -avi, atum. (£) Verbs with stems ending in a-; e. g. 645 da-, dare, (dSdi, datum), but das has a. In all other verbs of this class, the final a- combines with the initial vowel of the suffixes in tenses formed from the present stem, so as to exhibit a; e.g. Sta-, stare (steti, statum, but sometimes statum) where a is radical. crSp&-, crepare; ctiba-, cubare; ddma-, domare; frlca-, fricare; mica-, micaxe; en6c&-, enecare, (but neca- usually in simple verb); -plica- and -plica- (cf. §§ 677, 688), plicare; seca-, secare; sdna-, sonare (also songre); tdna-, tonare; vfita-, vetare; all which have perfects in -ui, and most of them usually supines in -Itum.204 Inflexions. [Book II Also 1&V&-, lavare (and lavgre); jiivS,-, juvare; which vocalise and contract the radical V with -ui of the perfect; and contract or. omit it in the supine (cf. §§ 669, 688). (c) In some verbs derivative stems in a are found besides other 646 derivative stems in e or i; e. g. Art are, old artlre; "bullare, later bulllre; densiire, old densere; fulgurare, old fulgurire; impetrare, impetrlre, especially in sacrificial language; singultare, old singultlre; tintinnare, tintinmre. 2. Of •verbs with stems ending in 0, the only traces are n5-, 647 which has the inchoative suffix in the present tense, noscgre (n5vi,, notum), where the root has 6, comp. n6ta (subst.), ndtare, cogni^ turn, &c.; po- (pdtum), the frequentative pota-, potare being other- wise alone in use. 3. Verbs nvith stems ending in u: (a) Most have stems in "Q., which however becomes short 648 before the initial vowel of the suffixes; e.g. acfl-, actiere, aciiis, aciiisti, acuas, acuebam, acugrem, &c. The supine has it. (See list in § 690.) Plu- is apparently contracted for pltiv- (pldv-), (cf. § 684). And the same may be the case with all: comp. fluo, fluv-ius. ([b) ruo has ru- in supine of compounds (but rdta (n. pi.) according to Varro: see § 691). pit- is found only in adj. ptitus and frequentative piitaxe. (c) A few verbs have u vocal in supine, but consonantal usually 649 (see § 94. 2), in present and perfect. loqv-, ldqvi (loctttum); seqv-, sgqvi (secittum); solv-, solvere (solvi, sdlfctftm); volv-, volvgre (volvi, vdKLtum). 4. Verbs with stems ending in e: 650 (a) Few verbs have the stem ending in §, and these are mono- syllables, where e is radical; e. g. dele- (compound), delere; AS-, flSre; ne-f nere; -pie, -plere. All these have perfect and supine in -evi, -etum. Other verbs with e (-evi, -etum) have consonantal present stems; erg-, crescgre; also ere-, cerngre; -61e-, -olescgre (also aboleo, abolgvi, abolltum; and addlesco, adultum); qvie-, qviescgre; sve-, svescgre; spre-, sperngre. (£) In most verbs with stems in -e, the e is short, as may be 651 inferred from the perfect being in -ui (for -eui), and supine in -itumChap. XXZ.~\ Of the Present Stem. 205 (old -Stum, cf. § 234.1), which in some verbs was reduced to -turn. Contraction with the initial vowel of suffixes gives © in most forms of the present stem; e.g. monere, mones, monemus, monebam, monebo, monerem, monetur (mongt, as amat, audit). In the impera- tive (2nd pers. sing, act.) of verbs with short penult, it is in early Latin not uncommonly used as short; e.g. tSn6 (§ 233. 4); e.g. mflnS-, monere (monui, monitum), and many others; see §§ 677—681. cave-, c&vere (cavi for cavui, cavitum contracted to cautum), and others; see § 669. (c) Many verbs have e (probably 6) in present stem, but drop 652 it entirely and show consonantal stems in the other parts of the verb. (If the vowel had not been dropped, and a perfect in -si or supine in -sum had been formed, there would have been a tendency in the s to become r. Where -si, -sum follows a vowel now, a consonant has been omitted, § 193. 3). morde-, mordere (momordi, morsum), and others, in § 666. vide-, videre (vldi, visum); s8de-, sedere (sedi, sessum); prande-, prandere (prandi, pransum). arde-, ardere (arsi, arsum); and many others in §§ 67a—676. ([d) Some have a present stem in -e, besides another (older or 653 poetic) consonantal stem; e. g. fervere, fervSre; fulgere, fulggre; Olere, emit scent, SISre; scatere, scat6re; stridere, stridgre; tergere, terggre; tueri, -tui; ciere, -cire. (Among other forms the 1st persons fervo, fulgo, olo, scato, strido, tergo, fervimus, See. appear not to occur.) 5. Verbs with stems ending in i: 654 (a) Some verbs with radical i, and many derivatives have 1, and retain it through all the tenses; scl-, scire; cl-, -cire (also ciere); i-, Ire; qui-, quire. In these the i is radical. audi-, audire; dorml-, dormire; and many other derivatives. In all these the perfect is in -ivi, and, in the derivative verbs and scib, the supine is in -itum. For the others see § 696. (J?) Some verbs have i in present stem, but drop it and show 655 a consonantal stem in other parts; e. g. amici-, amicire (amicui, amictum); fare!-, farcire (farsi, far- turn) ; fulci-, fulcire (fulsi, fultum); liausi-, haurire (hausi, haus- tum); meti- (for menti-), metiri (mensum); ordi-, ordiri (orsum); -p€ri-, &perire (apgrui, &pertum); rSperire (rgpperi, r8pertum),2O6 Inflexions. {Book II. and other compounds (Chap, xxx.); ssepl-, sseplre (ssepsi, saeptum*); sancl-, sancire (sanxl, sanctum, rarely sancltum); sarcl-, sarclre (sarsi, sartum); sentl-, sentire (sensi, sensum); vSnl-, venire (veni, ventum); vine!-, yinclre (vinxi, vinctum). SepSli-, sepelire has perfect sepelivi, supine sepultum. (But see Pref. p. c.) dri-, Oriri (orsum); p5ti-, potiri show in some tenses a present stem either in I or consonantal. (See Chap, xxx.) (c) Some verbs have the stem ending in I, which fell away before I or fir; and as final in imperative, was changed to (or if e was the original, remained) 6 (§ 234. 2). The i is generally dropped in the supine stem. cap!-, cS-pgre (egpi, captum); ccepl-, ccepSre (ccepi, cceptum); fact-, f&cSre (fgci, factum); f6dl-, fodSre (f5di, fossum); filgi-, f&g- £re (fdgl, fut. part. fftgitfLrus); gradi-, inf. gradi (gressum); jacl- j&c6re (jeci, jactum); -lid-, -licSre (-lexi, -lectum); mdri-, inf mdri (also mfirirl, fut. m&riturus); pari-, parSre (pepSri, partum, old pres. part, parens); p&ti-, inf. pati (passum); quati-, qu&tere (-quassi, quassum); rap!-, rapgre (rapui, raptum); -spiel-, -spi- cSre (-spexi, spectum). Two have 1 in other tenses than those derived from the present; cupl-, cupSre (cuplvi, ciipltum; in Lucr. also cupiret); sapi-, s&pSre (saplvl, rgslpui and rgslplvi). (d) A few verbs have consonant stems in present, but 1 stems 657 in other parts; pSt-, pgtSre (pfetlvl, pStltum); rud-, riidSre (riidlvi); quaes-, qusergre (quseslvi, qusesltum); arcesso, capesso, facesso, lacesso, incesso, all have inf. -Sre, perf. -Ivi, sup. -Itum; tri-, t&r8re> (trlvi, tritum). So evSno is found for evSnio. CHAPTER XXII. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PERFECT STExM. The suffixes for the tenses formed from the perfect stem; i.e. 658 for the perfect, completed future, and pluperfect in indicative, and perfect and pluperfect in subjunctive, are the same in all verbs; viz. Comp. Future -fir-; Pluperf. Ind. -&r-a; Perf. subj. -Sr-I; Plu- perf. subj. -iss-6. The perfect indicative has a suffix -is whichChap. XXI I.\ Tenses from Perfect Stem. 207 however is not found in the 3rd pers. sing, and the first pers. plural; in which the same personal suffixes as in the present indicative are used. This suffix -is in the first pers. sing, loses its s; in the third pers. plural, being followed by a vowel, changes to -er. The perfect infinitive is formed by the suffix is-se. This is 659 apparently composed of the suffix is- just mentioned, and -se for -6se as in the present infinitive. (Comp. esse from sum, §§ 611, 612.) The great resemblance of these suffixes to the parts of the verb 660 anwt, wliiefl are used to form the same tenses in the passive voice,, suggests (and the suggestion has been generally adopted) that they are identical in origin. This theory would give a complete explanation of the pluper- fect and the completed future indicative, with the exception that the 3rd pers. plural of the latter has 6rint instead of grant, perhaps in order to avoid confusion with the the 3rd pers. plur. perfect indicative. The perfect subjunctive would be explained by assuming as the suffix an older form of sim; viz. -6sim, or with the usual change, -grim. The perfect indicative and infinitive and pluperfect subjunctive seem to require the assumption of a long 1 being suffixed to the perfect stem before the respective parts of the verb sum were added1. Thus audivissem, audivisse would stand for aud-Iv-I-essem, audiv- i-esse, rexissem, &c. for rex-I-ssem, &c. In the perfect indicative the 2nd pers. sing. e.g. audivisti would stand for aud-iv-I-esti (the personal suffix -ti being lost in the simple verb sum es), 2nd pers. plu. e.g. audivistis for aud-iv-I-estis; 3rd pers. plur. e.g. audiverunt for aud-iv-I-6sunt. The 3rd pers. sing, may have the simple personal suffixes, or may have been re- duced from a fuller form; e. g. au-divi-est, audivist, audivit. The -It is sometimes found long. The first person singular, e.g. audivi, may then be for aud-iv-I-esum, audivism, audivim. And the 1st person plural may have had a similar pedigree. It must however be observed that the resemblance to the parts of the stem es-, on which this theory rests, is in some degree decep- tive, for it consists largely in personal and modal suffixes, which even on another hypothesis might be expected to be the same. And the rest of the suffixes is, as has been seen, in some tenses but poorly eked out by the simple stem 6s. The perfect stem when formed by a suffixed v (§ 68i); is fre- 6S1 quently modified by the omission of the v in all tenses and persons 1 The same view is taken and certain Sanskrit forms compared by Corssen, Aussjpr. I. 614 sqq. ed. 2.Inflexions. [Book II and both numbers, except in the ist pers. sing, and plu., and 3rd pers. sing, of the perfect indicative. The vowels thus brought toge- ther are contracted, (excepting -ie, and sometimes -ii); e.g. ind. perf. amasti, amastis, amarunt; pluperf. amaram, &c.; comp. fut. amSro, &c.; subj. perf. amarim, &c.; Plup. amassem, &c.; infin. amasse: so flesti, fleram, See.; and (though here the v omitted is radical) mosti, commosti, &c. (from moveo), and derived tenses. But we have some instances of uncontracted forms; e. g. audie- ram, &c.; audiero, &c.; audiisti as well as audisti, &c. And such forms occur not unfrequently from peto, eo, and their compounds. Novero (ist pers. sing, ind.) always retains the v. (But cognoro, norim, noris, &c.) And so does the shortened form of the 3rd pers. plu. perf. ind. of verbs with a stems; e.g. amavere. The in- finitive being amare, the perfect, if contracted, would be liable to confusion with it. • In desino, peto, eo, and their compounds the omission of v, 662 usually, (in the compounds of eo almost always), takes place even in the excepted persons; viz. in the ist pers. sing, and plural, and third pers. sing, of the perf. indicative; e.g. desii, desiit, desiimus. In other verbs with -i stems, -iit is sometimes found; -ii hardly ever; -iimus never. The contracted forms are sometimes found from the above- mentioned three verbs; pSti (Sen., Stat.); petit (Verg., Ov., Lucan, Sen., &c.); desit (Sen., Mart.); desimus (Sen. Epist.); rSdi (Sen.); abi, inl (Stat.); it (Ter., Verg., Ov., &c.); &bit (Plaut, Ter., Sen.); perit (Lucr., Phaedr., Sen.); adit, obit, redlt, &c. Apparently irritat, disturbat, are used as contracted perfects in Lucretius. In the older poets, and occasionally in Vergil and Horace, in 663 tenses formed from perfect stems in -s, an i between two ss is omit- ted and the sibilant written once or twice, instead of thrice; e.g. promisse (Gat.) for promisisse ; despexe (Plaut.) for despexisse; sur- rexe (Hor.) for surrexisse: consumpsti (Prop.) for consumpsisti; dixti (Plaut., and twice or thrice in Cic.) for dixisti; erepsemus (Hor.) for erepsissemus; extinxem (Verg.) for extinxissem. Percepset for percepisset (Pacuv. ap. C. Off. 3. 26); faxem, PL Pseud. 499, are the only instances ofsuchaform from perfects not in -si. The latter passage is generally considered corrupt.Chap. XXIII] Of the Perfect Stem. 209 CHAPTER XXIII. OF THE PERFECT STEM. The perfect stem is formed in one of five different ways, sqme 6e>4 of which are peculiar to, or invariably found in particular classes of verbs. All are used without any distinction of meaning. Some verbs have two or even more forms of the perfect stem. The five ways are: (i) Reduplication; (ii) Lengthening the stem vowel; (iii) Suffixing -s; (iv) Suffixing either -u or -v; (v) Using the stem of the verb without change. In the following enumeration the present stem is added where it differs from the verbal stem. All the verbs, whether consonant or vowel stems, are arranged under the class to which their final consonant belongs: except monosyllabic vowel stems, and u stems, which are arranged separately. i. Perfect stem formed by reduplication. The first consonant of the stem is prefixed with a short vowel, 665 which is e, if the stem vowel is a or e, and, if not, is the same as the stem vowel. In the prae-Ciceronian language the vowel of the prefixed syllable appears to have been (always?) e, whatever the stem vowel might be. And Cicero and Caesar are said to have used memordi, spepondi, pepugi (Gell. 6 (7), 9),. If the stem vowel is a, it is changed to e before two consonants, to i before one; se is changed to I. Before single 1 S and d be- come u. If the stem begins with sp, sc, st, the second consonant is treated as the initial consonant, and the s prefixed to the reduplica- tion syllable. Gutturals. die-, (Pr. disc- for dic-sc-), di-dic-i; pare-, pS-perc-i; 6C6 pose-, p6-posc-i; pag-, (Pr. pang-; comp. pac-isci), p$-plg-i; pttg-, (Pr. pung-), pu-pug-i; tag-, (Pr. tang-), tg-tig-i. Dentals, c&d-, c8-cid-i; csed-, c§-cid-i; ped-, p8-p§d-i; pend- (also pend-e-, intran.), pS-pend-i; scid-, (Pr. scind-), scl-cid-i (old); tend-, te-tend-i; ttid-, (Pr. tund-), tu-tud-i (Ennius is said to have used contftdit). 142 f O Inflexions. [Book II. mord-6-, m5-mord-i; pend-6- (see above); spond-6-, sp6-pond-i; tond-8-, t6-tond-i. Nasals, can-, c6-cin-i (but compounds suffix -u, § 679, except 667 once, oc-cfi-clni); man-, mS-min-i; tSn-e-, te-tin-i, quoted from Pacuvius and Accius (usually tSn-ui). Liquids. fall-, fg-fell-i; p61-, (Pr. pell-), p6-piil-i; tol-, (Pr.toll-), t&-tiil-i (in prae-August. poets; tdli in some prae-Ciceronian inscrip- tions^ usually tftli-). curr-, cu-curr-i; pari-, pS-pSr-i. Vowels, da,-, d6-dl; sta- (Pr. sta-), st6- (Pr. si-st-), stl-ti. ii. Perfect stem formed by lengthening the stem vowel. 668 If the stem vowel be a, it is changed to e (except in sc&b&re). Labials, r&p-, (Pr. rump-), rtlp-i; scab-, scab-i; 6m-, em-I. capl-, cep-i. Gutturals, liqv-, (Pr. linqv-); liqv-i; vie- (Pr. vine-), vle-I; ag-, eg-i; frag-, (Pr. frang-), freg-i; lgg-, leg-i (but some com- pounds suffix s, §673); pag-, (Pr. pang-), peg-i. facl-, fec-i; jacl-, jec-i; f&gl-, fiLg-i. Dentals. gd-, ed-i; fud-, (Pr. fund-), fftd-i; 6d-, (Pres. obsolete; comp. ddium), od-i. s§d§-, sed-i; vldS-, vid-i; fddl-, f5d-i. Nasals. v8nl-, ven-I. Semivowels, juva-, juv-i; lava-, (lav- old), lav-i. 669 cav£-, cav-i; fav£-, fav-I; f6v5-, fov-i; m6v6-, m5v-i; pavS-. pav-i; v6v6-, vov-i. The lengthening of the vowel in the verbs, which have v for their final consonant, is probably due to the absorption of a suffixed v (§ 681); e.g. eavi for cav-vi or cavui. In a similar way vici, vldi, veni may have arisen from an absorption of a reduplication, for vfivlni, &c. iii. Perfect stem formed by suffixing s. If the present stem ends in a vowel, the vowel is dropped before 670 the suffixed s. None of the verbs whose present stem ends in a have their perfect formed by s suffixed.Chap. XXIII.] Of the Perfect Stem. 211 (This suffix is supposed to be (with the personal suffix) es-i, the ancient perfect of the stem gs, and is apparently identical with the suffix of the first aorist in Greek.) Labials. P. B. carp-, carp-s-i; clgp-, clep-s-i (old); nftb-, nup-s-i; rep-, rep-s-i; scalp-, scalp-s-i; scrlb-, scrip-s-i; sculp-, sculp-s-i; serp-, serp-s-i. jiibg-, ju-ss-i (jou-s-i old form: probably jubeo is for jdveo); ssepi-, ssep-s-i. M. A euphonic p is generally inserted before s; m is once 671 assimilated. com-, comp-s-i; so also dem-, prom-, s&m-; pr8m-, pres-s-i (for pren-s-i); tern- (Pr. temn-), temp-s-i. Gutturals, lc, rc, lg, rg throw away the guttural before s. 672 C. QV. coqv-, cox-i; die-, (Pr. die-), dix-i; due-, (Pr.dHc-),dux-i; pare-, par-sl (also pS-perc-i); so conqvinisco has conquex-i (for conquinx-i ? comp. mix-tum from misceo). lilcg-, lux-i; mulcS-, mul-s-i; torqvg-, tor-s-i. fare!-, far-s-i; fulci-, ful-s-i; sancl-, sanx-I; sarcl-, sar-s-i; yincl-, vinx-i. -lid-, -lex-i; -spiel-, -spex-i. G. GV. cing-, cinx-i; fig-, flx-i; flng-, (sup. fic-t-), flnx-i; -fllg-, 673 flix-i; flugv-, (Pr. flu-), flux-i; jung-, junx-i; -16g- (in compounds dneg-, intelleg-, negleg-), lex-i (rarely intel-leg-i, neg-leg-i); merg-, mer-s-i; ming-, minx-i; emung-, emunx-i; ningv-, ninx-it; pang- (or pag-), panx-i (usually pegi or pepigi); ping-, (supine pic-t-), pinx-i; plang-, planx-i; -pung-, -punx-i; reg-, rex-i; sparg-, spar-s-i; stingy-, stinx-i; string-, (sup. strict-), strinx-i; strugv-, (Pr. stru-), strux-i; siig-, sux-i; t6g-, tex-i; tingv-, tinx-i; vigy-, (Pr. viv-), vix-i; ungv-, unx-i. algg-, al-s-i; augg-, aux-i; frig§-, frix-i; fulgg-, ful-s-i; in- dulge-, indul-s-i; HigS-, lux-i; mulgg-, mul-s-i; conigvS-, (Pr. conive-), conix-i; tergg-, (terg- old), ter-s-i; turgg-, tur-s-i; urgg-, ur-s-i. H. tr&h-, trax-i; vSh-, vex-i. Dentals. The dental falls away or is assimilated before s, but 674 the preceding vowel is lengthened (cf. § 191. a, 4). T. fleet-, flex-i; mitt-, mi-s-i; neet-, nex-i; peet-, pex-i. sent!-, sen-s-i; qu&tl-, quas-s-i (e.g. concuti-, concus-s-i). D. ced-, ces-s-i; claud-, clau-s-i; divid-, dlvi-s-i; lsed-, lse-s-i; lUd-, lH-s-i; plaud-, plau-s-i; rad-, ra-s-i; rod-, ro-s-i; triid-, trtt-s-i; vlld-, va-s-i. 14—2212 Inflexions. [Book II; ardS-, ar-s-i; ridS-, rl-s-i; svadS-, sva-s-i. Nasals. m&n6-, man-s-i. 675 Liquids, See, veil-, vul-s-i (post-Augustan cf. §683); g8s-, (Pr. g6r-), ges-s-i; Us-, (Pr. iir-), us-s-i. hsesS- (?), (Pr. hsere-), h33-s-i; hausl- (Pr. hauri-), hau-s-i. (Gf. p. 247 an -spec-turn. G. GV. (For stems ending in -lg-, -rg, see § 706); &g-, ac- 7°* turn; cing-, cinc-tum; fig-, (Pr. and Perf. fing-), fic-tum; -fllg-, -flic-tum; flugv-, (Pr. flu-), fluc-tus subst., also fluxus adj.; frag-, (Pr. frang-), frac-tum; frig-, fric-tum; frugv-, (Pr. fru-), fruc- tum; fung-, func-tum; jung-, junc-tum; 16g-, lec-tum; ling-, lic- tum; mig-, (Pr. ming- and mej-), mic-tum and minc-tum; -mung-, -munc-tum; pag-, (Pr. pang-), pactum; pig-, (Pr. and Perf. ping-), pic-tum; plang-, planc-tum; pung-, punc-tum; rgg-, rec-tum; rig-, (Pr. ring-), ric-tus subst.; stingv-, stinc-tum; strlg-, (Pr. and Perf. string-), stric-tum; strugv-, (Pr. stru-), struc-tum; sflg-, suc- tum; tag-, (Pr. tang-), tac-tum; 16g-, tec-tum; tingv-, tinc-tum; ungy-, unc-tum; vigv-, (Pr. viv-), vic-tum. aug6-, auc-tum; lug6-, luc-tus subst. -lici-, -lec-tum (except elici-tum). • H. tr&h-, trac-tum; v6h-, vec-tum. Dentals. See §§ 707, 708. 702 tend-, ten-tum (also tensum; probably the supines of tendo and teneo are mixed); comSd-, comes-tum (rarely). Nasals, Liquids, <&c. 703 N. Can-, can-tus subst.; -m&n-, e. g. commln-isc-, commen-xum. tgng-, tentum; vSni-, ven-tum.220 Inflexions. rBook IT. L. &1-, al-tum; c61-, cul-tum; consul-, consul-tum; occul-, occul-tum; vol- (Pr. inf. velle), vriltus, subst. expression. addle (Pr. adolesc-), adul-tum (see Chap. xxx.). sail-, sal-tum; s8pSK-, sSpul-tum. R. cSr-, (Pr. cern-), cer-tus adj. (also ere-, cre-tus); sSr-# -ser- tum (also serta, n. pi. garlands'). 6ri-, or-tum (cf. § 696); &p£ri-, aper-tum; pari-, par-tum. S. deps-, deps-tum; fgs-, (Pr. fgri-1?), fes-tum (e.g. infes-tus, 704 manifes-tus) ; gSs-, (Pr. gfcr-), ges-tum; pas-, (Pr. pasc-), pas-tum; pis-, pis-tum; qu6s-, (Pr. quSr-), ques-tum; tex-, tex-tum; ds-, (Pr. ilr-), us-tum; tors-, (Pr. torre-), tos-tum. hausl-, (Pr. kauri-), haus-tum; p5sl-, (Pr. p5n-), pos-tum (some- times). 2. Verbs with t suffixed: but softened to s by the 705 influence usually either of a preceding dental, or of two consonants of which the first is a liquid. A vowel preceding -sum is always long. (Other cases are but few; and the sum may be partly due to the active perfect (if any) having -si, as it has in all these ex- ceptional cases, except censui, and there the s of the stem is perhaps a substitute for an earlier t.) Labials. lab-, lap-sum; jftbg-, jus-sum (for j6v5-, jousum?). prem-, pres-sum (for pren-sum). Gutturals. The guttural usually drops out. 706 C, QIT. pare-, par-sum. mulcS-, mul-sum. G. fig-, fixum (but fictum in Varr. Lucr.); fiugv-, (Pr. flu-), fluxus adj. (fluc-tus subst.); merg-, mer-sum; sparg-, spar-sum. mulgg-, mul-sum; tergS-, ter-sum. Dentals. The dental either drops out, the preceding vowel 707 being therefore lengthened, or is assimilated. N.B. All dental stems have -sum (see § 70a). 1 F&rlre seems a Suitable verb to which to refer infestus and mani- festos, confestim; (comp. also festinare); and festus itself is in meaning allied to ferise, which Festus (p. 85) derives a feriendis victimis; comp. foedus fSrlre, to strike a bargain. The differing quantities of e are how- ever noticeable in this last etymology. Fendere, to which these forms are often referred, both ought to make, and does make, fensus, not ffestus.Chap. XXIV.] Of the Supine Stem. 221 T. flectr, flexum; met-, mes-sum; mitt-, mis-sum; nect-, nexum; nict-, (Pr. nit-), nixum or ni-sum; pect-, pexum (in Columella, pectl- tum); -plect-, -plexum; vert-, ver-sum; At-, ft-sum. f&t8-, fas-sum. v sentl-, sen-sum; menti-, (Pr. met!-), mensum; senti-, sen-sum. fati-, (Pr. fatisc-), fes-sus adj.; pati-,pas-sum; quatl-, quas-sum. 7o8 D. c&d-, ca-sum; csed-, cae-sum; ced-, ces-sum; claud-, clau- sum; cUd-, cti-sum; divid-, divi-sum; 6d-, e-sum (rarely comes-tum, from comM-); -fend-, -fen-sum; fid-, fi-sum; fid-, fissum; frend-, fres-sum or fre-sum; fud-, (Pr. fund-), fCL-sum; lsed-, lsesum; lUd-, Id-sum; mand-, man-sum; 6d-, -osum (e. g. per-osus, exosus); pand-, pan-sum or pas-sum; pend-, pen-sum; plaud-, plau-sum; preiiend-, prehen-sum; rad-, ra-sum; rod-, ro-sum; scand-, scan-sum; scid-, (Pf. scind-), scis-sum; tend-, ten-sum (also ten-tum); trfld-, trQ- sum; tud- or tund-, tu-sum or tun-sum. arde-, ar-siirus; aud-e-, au-sum; gavld-e-, (Pr. gaude-), gavl- sum; morde-, mor-sum; pende-, pen-sum; prand-, pran-sum; ride-, ri-sum: sfide-, ses-sum; sponde-, spon-sum; suade-, sua-sum; tsed-e-, 183-sum; tonde-, ton-sum; vide-, vi-sum. ordi-, or-sum; f6di-, fos-sum; gr&dl-, gres-sum (ad-gre-tus is said to have been used by Ennius). Nasals, Liquids, &c. 709 N. mane-, man-sum. L. -cell-, -cul-sum; fall-, fal-sum; pell-, pul-sum; sail-, sal- sum; veil-, vul-sum. R. curr-, cur-sum; verr-, ver-sum. S. cense- (perhaps a derivative from census), cen-sum; hsese- (?) (Pr. hsere-), lise-sum. hausl- (Pr. kauri-), hau-stais (also haus-tum, see p. 247). Many verbs have no supine or other words of this formation in use. The supines are respectively the accusative and ablative (or in 710 some uses apparently the dative), of a verbal noun in -u. They are called respectively active supine, or supine in -um, and passive supine or supine in -u. ^222 Inflexions. [Book II From this so-called supine stem are formed, as has been said, the future participle active by suffixing -Uro-, sing. nom. -tirus (m.); -iira (f.), -tlrum (n.); and the past participle passive, by suffixing the ordinary case endings of the second class; e.g. sing. nom. -us (m.), -3, (f.), -urn (n.). These participles, in the appropriate gender and number, are used in the nominative case with the finite tenses of the verb sum, and in the accusative as well as the nominative with the infinitive of the same verb to supply the place of certain tenses for which there is no special form. The future participle thus supplies additional future tenses in the active voice especially in the subjunctive: the past participle supplies the perfect tenses of the passive voice, whe- ther the passive voice have a strictly passive meaning, or, as in deponents an active or reflexive meaning. A few instances are found in which the real formation of these 711 compound expressions appears to have been forgotten. Thus Gracchus is said to have used the expression "Credo ego inimicos meos hoc dicturum" (for dicturos); Valerius Antias to have written " Aruspices dixerunt omnia ex sententia processurum" (Gell. 1. 7-1°)- For the future infinitive passive is sometimes used a combination of the supine in -um and the passive infin. of eo, viz. iri. imper- sonally; but Plautus has (Rud. 1242), "Mi istatc videtur praeda praedatum irier;" and Quintil. ix. 2. 88, "Reus parricidii damna- tum iri videbatur." From Claudius Ouadrigarius is quoted "hostium copias iri occupatas futurum" (for occupatum iri). (Gell. 1. 7. 9.)Chap. XXV] Classification of Verbs. 223 CHAPTER XXV. OF THE TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. As the ordinary classification of verbs is often referred to, it 7" may be convenient here to give a brief account of it. It is as old as Charisius at least, who wrote probably in the fourth century after Christ. Verbs are generally divided according to their form into four classes, called Conjugations, The four conjugations are distinguished by the vowel which immediately precedes re in the infinitive mood; which in the 1st conjugation is a: in the second el: in the third 6, not usually be- longing to the stem: in the fourth 1. The distribution of the verbs among these conjugations is as follows. I. First conjugation contains all vowel verbs, whose stem ends in a; as am-o, I love, infin. ama-re. II. Second conjugation contains all vowel verbs whose stem ends in e; as mone-o, I advise, infin. mdne-re. III. Third conjugation contains all verbs whose stem ends in a consonant, or in u, or a variable i (called ^ above, § 656); as rgg-o, I rule, infin. r6g-Sre. tribu-o, I assign, infin. tribu-Sre. capi-o, 1 take, perf. cep-i, infin. c&pg-re. IV. Fourth conjugation contains all vowel verbs whose stem ends in I, as audl-o, I bear, infin. audl-re. 1 i. e. e according to the ordinary doctrine: but see §§ 650—652.224 Inflexions. [Book II The following are the regular forms of the perfect and supine 7*3 in the several conjugations according to the ordinary description. In the ist conjugation the regular perfect is formed by the addition of vi to the stem, the regular supine by the addition of turn, e.g. ama-vi, ama-tum. The exceptions are few: two verbs do, sto have a reduplicated perfect dSdi, st6ti: two others, jdvo, l&vo, lengthen the stem vowel e.g. (juvi, lavi): the others add ui to the stem, the final a being omitted; e.g. crgpa-, cr6p-ui. None form the perfect in si or i simple. None form the supine in sum. In the 2nd conjugation the regular perfect is formed by the addition of ui to the stem, the regular supine by the addition of ltum, the final stem vowel e being omitted, as mone-, mon-ui. The exceptions are numerous, and of all kinds: the larger number add- ing si. Many have the supine in sum. • In the 3rd conjugation all the forms are much used, some having even the long characteristic vowel of the other three conju- gations, e.g. sterno, stravi; sperno, sprevi; tero, trlvi. These are clearly instances of a vowel stem in the perfect and supine super- seding a consonant stem. Many have the supine in sum. In the 4th conjugation, the regular perfect is formed by the addition of vi and the regular supine by the addition of turn to the stem; e.g. audi-vi, audi-tum. The exceptions are few: one lengthens the stem vowel (vSni-o, veni): one simply adds the per- sonal inflexions (comperi-o, comp&r-i). Three have perfect in ui; viz. aperio, operio, and salio, nine have perfect in si. Two, viz. eo and cio, have short I in supine. None form the perfect by re- duplication, except perhaps repSri-o, reppSr-i. Several have supine in sum.Chap. XXVI] Complete Inflexions of Verbs. 225 CHAPTER XXYI. EXAMPLES OF THE COMPLETE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS. In this chapter are given specimens of the complete inflexions of verbs: first, of the tenses formed from the present stem; second- ly, of the tenses formed from the perfect stem; and lastly of the verbal nouns, which have the same base as the so-called supines, and assist in supplying defective tenses. For the present stem the different persons in each number are given in full, of one consonant verb (r6go), and of one verb (amo) belonging to the class of vowel verbs which is most numerous, and has inflexions most different from consonant verbs, viz. a stems. Specimens, less full, of four other classes of vowel stems, viz. in u, I, i and 6 are given on pp. 228, 229. The omitted forms can be easily supplied by comparison with the forms of rego and amo. The tenses formed from the perfect stem and the verbal nouns classed under the supine stem have the same inflexions generally, whatever be the verbal stem, except so far as regards the formation of the perfect and supine stems themselves. And the differences in the formation of these do but very partially coincide, as has been seen (ch. xxiii. xxiv.), with the classification of verbal stems. The specimens given on pp. 230, 231 are therefore only an arbitrary selection of the most striking sorts. *5226 Inflexions. [Book II. Present Stem. Consonant Conjugation. 7*4 Active Voice. Present. Passive Voice. Sing. 1. a. 3- Plur. 1. 2. 3- Sing. 1. 2. 3- Plur. 1. 2. 3- Sing. 1. 2. 3. Plur. 1. 2. 3- Indie. r6g-o reg-Is reg-it reg-Im-iis reg-It-Is reg-unt rgg-am reg-es reg-St reg-em-us reg-et-is reg-ent rSg-eb-am reg-eb-as reg-eb-&t Subjunc. rgg-am reg-as reg-at reg-aih-us reg-at-is reg-ant rSg-6r-em reg-er-es reg-er-6t Indie. rSg-dr reg-Sr-is reg-it-ur reg-im-tir reg-imln-I reg-unt-tir Future. rgg-ar reg-er-is reg-et-ur reg-em-ur reg-emm-i reg-ent-ur Imperfect. reg-eb-am-us reg-er-em-us reg-eb-at-Is reg-er-et-is reg-eb-ant reg-er-ent Subjunc. rSg-ar reg-ar-is reg-at-iir reg-am-ur reg-amin-i reg-ant-tir rSg-eb-ar reg-eb-ar-is reg-eb-at-ur reg-eb-am-ur reg-eb-amln-i reg-eb-ant-ur r6g-Sr-§r reg-er-er-Is reg-er-et-ur reg-er-em-ur reg-er-emln-i reg-er-ent-iir Imperative Mood. Active. Passive. Present. Sing. 2. rSg-S reg-6rS Plur. 2. reg-it-8 reg-imin-I Future. SmS-*j rgg-It-o r8g-It-0r Plur. 2. reg-It-5t-6 (none) 3. reg-unt-o reg-unt-dr Verbal Noun-Forms. Active. Passive. Infinitive (Present) r£g-8r-6 rgg-I Participle (Present), Nom. rSg-ens Nom ) Gerundive 1 Gerund . ' > r6g-end-um nom. masc. > rSg-end-us Acc* J &c. sing. J &c.Chap.XXVI.] Complete Inflexions of Verbs. 227 Present Stem. Principal Vowel Conjugation. Active Voice. In Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 1. am-ab-im-us Passive Voice. Present. Indicative, Subjunctive. Indicative. Subjunctive. 1. am-o am-em &m-6r am-er 2. am-as am-es am-ar-is am-er-is 3. am-at am-St am-at-ur am-et-ur 1. am-am-us am-em-us am-am-ur am-em-ur 2. am-at-Is am-et-is am-amin-I am-emin-i 3. am-ant am-ent am-ant-ur am-ent-ur Passive Voice. Present. r. am-ab-o 2. am-ab-is 3. am-ab-it am-ab-it-is am-ab-unt Sing. 1. &m-ab-am 2. am-ab-as 3. am-ab-at Plur. 1. am-ab-am-us 2. am-ab-at-is •?. am-ab-ant Future. am-ab-dr am-ab-Sr-is am-ab-it-ur am-ab-im-ur am-ab-imm-i am-ab-unt-ur Imperfect. am-ar-gm am-ab-ar am-ar-es am-ar-St am-ar-em-us am-ar-et-is am-ar-ent am-ab-ar-Is am-ab-at-ur am-ab-am-ur am-ab-amin-I am-ab-ant-ur am-ar-3r am-ar-er-is am-ar-et-ur am-ar-em-ur am-ar-emln-I am-ar-ent-ur Present. Future. Sing. 2, Plur. 2. Sing. 2 3. Plur. 2. 3 Imperative Mood. Active. am-a am-at-S S.m-at-0 am-at-ot-S am-ant-o Passive, am-ar-e am-amin-i am-at-6r (none) am-ant-6r Verbal Noun-Forms. Active. Passive. Infinitive Present. am-ar-S am-ar-I Participle Present Nom. &m-ans See. Nom ) Gerundive) Gerund. A' f am-and-um nom.masc.>£m-and-us Acc. &c. sing. ) &c.228 Inflexions. [Book II Present Stem. Other Voivel Conjugations, Active Voice. 716 Indicative Mood. Present. Sing. 1. trlb-u-o c&p-i-o aud-i-o m6n-e-o 2. trib-u-Is cap-is aud-is mon-es 3- trib-u-it cap-it aud-it mon-gt Plur. 1. trib-u-im-iis cap-im-us aud-im-us mon-em-tis 2. , trib-u-it-is cap-it-is aud-it-is mon-et-is 3- , trib-u-unt cap-i-unt aud-i-unt mon-ent Future. Sing. 1. trib-u-am cap-i-am aud-i-am mon-eb-o 2. trib-u-es cap-i-es aud-i-es mon-eb-is &c. 8cc. &c. & c. Imperfect. Sing. 1. trib-u-eb-am cap-i-eb-am aud-i-eb-am mon-eb-am 2. trib-u-eb-as cap-i-eb-as aud-i-eb-as mon-eb-as &c. &c. &c. 8c c. Subjunctive Mood. Present. Sing. 1. trib-u-am cap-i-am aud-i-am m6n-e-am 2. trib-u-as cap-i-as aud-i-as mon-e-as &c. &c. &c. &c. Imperfect. Sing. 1. trib-u-cr-em cap-6r-em aud-Ir-em m6n-er-em 2. trib-u-Sr-es cap-Sr-es aud-ir-es mon-er-es & c. & c. 8cc. 8cc. Sing.'2. trib-u-§ Plur. 2. trib-u-lt-g Sing. 2) Imperative Mood. Present. cap-g aud-i cap-it-g aud-It-S Future. trib-u-it-o Plur. 2. trib-u-it-ofc-e cap-It-o cap-it-ot-8 aud-it-o aud-it-ot-e mon-e mon-et-e mon-et-o mon-et-ot-6 3. trib-u-unt-o cap-i-unt-o aud-i-unt-o mon-ent-o Verbal Noun-Forms. Inf. Pr. trib-u-Sr-e cap-6r-e aud-Ir-e mSn-er^e Part. Pr. trib-u-ens cap-i-ens aud-i-ens mon-siis & c. &c. &c. &c. Gerund, trib-u-encl-Hzn c&p-i-end-urn aud-i-end-um m6n-end-um &c. &c. &c. &c.Chap.XXVI] Complete Inflexions of Verbs, 229 Present'Stem. Other Vowel Conjugations. Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. ' Present. Sing. 1. trib-u-or cap-i-6r aud-i-6r m6n-e-6r 2. trib-u-8r-is cap-Sr-is aud-ir-is mon-er-is 3- trib-u-it-ur cap-It-ur aud-It-ur mon-et-ur Plur. 1. trib-u-im-ur cap-im-ur aud-im-ur mon-em-ur 2. trib-u-imm-I cap-imin-I aud-Imin-i mon-emm-I 3- trib-u-unt-ur cap-i-unt-ur aud-i-unt-ur mon-ent ur F uture. Sing. 1. trib-u-ar cap-i-ar aud-i-&r mon-eb-6r 2. trib-u-er-is cap-i-er-is aud-i-er-Is mon-eb-gr-is 8c c. &c. 8c c. 8cc. Imperfect. Sing. 1. trib-u-eb-ar cap-i-eb-ar aud-i-eb-ar mon-eb-ar 2. trib-u-eb-ar-is cap-i-eb-ar-is aud-i-eb-ar-is mon-eb-ar-Is &c. &c. &c. 8cc. Subjunctive Mood. Present. • Sing. 1. trib-u-ar cap-i-ar aud-i-ar m6n-e-&r 2. trib-u-ar-is cap-i-ar-is aud-i-ar-is mon-e-ar-is 8c c. 8cc. 8cc, 8c c. Imperfect. Sing. 1. trib-u-gr-§r cap-6r-6r aud-ir-gr mon-er-gr 2. trib-u-gr-er-is cap-6r-er-is aud-ir-er-is mon-er-er-is & c. 8c c. &c. &c. Present'Stem. Other Vowel Conjugations. Passive Voice. Sing. 2. trib-u-6r-§ Plur. a. trib-u-imin-i Sing. 2) trib-u-it-or Plur.3. trib-u-unt-or Imperative Mood- Present. cap-6r-6 aud-Ir-e cap-imm-I aud-imm-I Future. cap-it-5r aud-It-or cap-i-unt-6r aud-i-unt-6r m&n-er-S mon-emm-i mon-et-6r mon-ent-6r Verbal Noun-Forms. Infin. Pres. trib-u-i cap-i aud-Ir-I mon-er-i Gerundive, trib-u-end-us cap-i-end-iis aud-i-end-us mon-end-u3 &c. & c. & c. 8c c.23° Inflexions. [Book II. Verb stem. Perfect stem. Perfect Stem. Present stem. I. Reduplication. 1. tang- tag- t6-tig- 2. pend-(or pend-8-) pS-pend- 3. mordrfi Active Voice. 717 mord- mB-mord- II. Lengthening of stem-vowel. 4. &g- eg- juv-a- jiiv- jtly- 6. vid-6- vld- vld- 7. cap-i- cap- cep- III. Addition of -s-. 8. carp- 9. com- 10. reg- it 1. mulg-6- 12. lsed- 13. quat-I- 14. 3iaur-I- mulg- haus- carp-s- com-p-s- re-x- mul-s- I29-S- quas-s- hau-s- IV. (a) Addition of -U-. 15. d6m-a- 16. mon-S- 17. tex- d9m- dom-u- m6n- mdn-u- tex-ix- (b) Addition of -V-. &ma-v- fle-v- sue- sue-v- audl-v- 18. &m-a- 19. fie- 20. sue-sc- 21. aud-I 22. P6t- 23. sin- si- p6tl-y- sl-v- V. Without change of stem. 24. trlfou- 25. solv- 26. vert- 27. find- fld- tribu- solv- vert- fid- Suffixes of tense, mood, person, appended to Perfect stem. Indicative. Subjunctive. Comp. Perfect, -i -is-ti -it Fut. -6r-o -6r-is -6r-it Perfect. -5r-im 1 Sing. -im-us -er-lm-iis 1 Plur. -is-tis -gr-It-is 2 -§r-unt -6r-int 3 Pluperfect. Indicative. Subjunctive. -6r-am -is-sem 1 Sing. -6r-as -is-ses 2 -6r-at -is-sSt 3 -gr-am-tis -is-sem-us 1 Plur. -gr-at-is -is-set-is 2 -gr-ant -is-sent 3 Perfect, -i -is-ti -it -6r-is -6r-it Infinitive Perfect. -is-se Infinitive Perfect. -is-seChap. XXV/.] Complete Inflexions of Verbs. 231 Supine Stem. Present stem. Verb stem. Supine stem. tac-t- pen-s- 1. tang- t&g- 2. pend- (or pend-g-) 3. mord-g- mord- mor-s- 4. ag- ac-t- 5. juv-a- jiiv- JtL-t- 6. vid-g- vid- vi-s- 7. cap-i- cap- cap-t- 8. carp- carp-t- 9. com- com-p-t- 10. rgg- rec-t- 11. mulg-g- mulg- mul-s- 12. lsed- lse-s- 13. qu&t-I- quat- quas-s- 14. haur-i- haus- liau-s- 15. d6m-a- d6m- dom-It- 16. mdn-g- m5n- m6n-it- 17. tex- tex-t- 18. &m-a- 19. fle- 20. sue-sc- 21. aud-I- 22. pgt- 23. sin- - &ma-t- fle-t- sue- (?)sue-t- audl-t- pgti-t- si- si-t- 24. tribu- 25. solv- 26. vert- 27. find- fid- triM-t- s61il-t- ver-s- fis-s- Noun suffixes appended to Supine stem. Active Voice. Future participle. -■ftr-"us(m.), -tlr-&(f.), -iir-um(n.).sing.nom. &c. &c. & c. Future infinitive. -Arils -am) j ^ Supines. -um, i.e. accusative case of verbal noun with u- stem. -■a, i.e. ablative, or sometimes dative, case of same. Passive Voice. Past participle. -■&s (m.), -a(f.), -um (n.). sing. nom. &c. & c. See. With this participle in the proper gender and number are used certain tenses of the verb sum, I am, in order to form the per- fect tenses of the passive verb, viz. Indicative. Subjunctive. Comp. Perf. Fut. Perf. -us (-a, -um) sum gro sim iSing. gs gris sis 2 est 6rit sit 3 -1 (-se, -a) siimus grimus simus 1 Plur. estis gritis sitis 2 sunt grunt sint 3 Pluperfect. Indie. Subjunc. -us (-a, -um) gram essem eras esses erat esset -I (-39, -a) eramus essemus gratis essetis erant essent 1 Sing. 2 3 1 Plur. % 3 Perf. pass. infinitive. -iis (-&, -um) esse232 Inflexions. [Book II CHAPTER XXVII. INFLEXIONS OF THE VERB sum, I am, AND COM- POUNDS. The tenses, &c. of the verb of being are partly from the root 7*9 es, whence es-um, Gr. elfil (for eoyu), and partly from the root fu- (whence fio), Gr. <£ua>. N.B. The parts of- tenses not here given are quite regular. Subjunctive. usual form, old forms. Indicative. Present Sing. i. s-um, I am 2. 8s, Thou art 3. es-t; He is Plur. 1. s-um-us, We are 2. es-t-is, Ye are 3. s-unt, They are Future Sing. 1. Sr-o, I shall be 2. er-is, Thou , only in compounds, as strengthened form of ciibo. accumbo, acciibui, acciibltum, accumbSre. ciipio, desire ciiplvi ciipltum cupSre ciip-i- cupiret once in Lucr. curro, run ciicurri cursum currfire curr- The compounds frequently retain the reduplication, e.g. accii- curri, decticurri, exciicurri; more usually (in Cicero and Livy) drop it, e. g. accurri. deleo. See lino. depso, knead depsui depstum depsgre deps- dlco, say dixL dictum dicSre die- disco, learn dldlci discfire dlc- Gompounds retain reduplication, e.g. edisco, learn by hearty edidlci. dispesco. See pasco. dlvido, divide dlvisi dlvlsum dlvidSre di-vld- do, give (see d6di datum dare d&- The half-compounds circumdo, surround, pessumdo, ruin, tisdo, satisfy, venumdo, expose to sale, follow do precisely, credo, entrust, believe, vendo, sell, reddo, give back, and the com- pounds with monosyllabic prepositions have consonant stems: e.g. credo, credldi, credltum, crSdSre. So also accredo, accredidi. The compound with prse exists only in praeditus, endued.244 Inflexions. [Book II. Pres. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. ddcM doctum ddcere d6c-6- dftlui (dfilitiirus) dftlere ddl-S- dOmui ddmltum d6mare d6m-a- duxi ductum dtic6re diic- edi esum 6dSre gd- The reduplication is retained in the compounds, except usually in afoscondo. For the passives of vendo, perdo (except past part, and gerundive) veneo and (usually) pereo are used. Present. ddceo, teach ddleo, be in pain ddmo, tame dilco, draw, lead, account §do, eat Supme sometimes essum. Comgdo has also (rarely) comestum. Smo, buy (orig. take) emi emptum 6m6re 6m- adimo, ademi, ademptum. So other compounds, except (i) co6mo (cSemi, coemptum), perSmo, intergmo, which re- tain e. (3) the earlier compounds como, demo, pr5mo, stimo, which make compsi, comptum, &c. ho, go (seeCh. xxviil.) Ivi itum Ire I- Compounds always omit v (e.g. &dii), in ist pers. perf., and usually in other persons of perfect and thence derived tenses, veneo, be for sale, is a compound of eo. It has no supine. exuo, strip off exui exiltum exugre exu- (clothes, &c.) facesso, cause, make facesslvi facessitum °f f&cio, make, do feci factum For the passive, in tenses formed from present stem, fio is used proflclo, make progress, profeci, profectum, proficSre. So the other compounds with prepositions. But calefacio being only half compound (§ 300) retains a. proflciscor, set out (on a journey), travel, prdfectum, prdflcisci. fallo, deceive, elude fSfelli falsum failure fall- refello, refute, refelli, refellSre. farcio, stuff farsi fartum farclre farc-I- rSfercio, rSfersi, rgfertum, rgferclre. So also differtus. fateor, acknowledge fassum fateri fat-6- confiteor, confessum, conflteri. So prdflteor. diffiteor has 110 part. perf. f&cessgre (facess- (facess-I- facgre fac-I-Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 24S Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. fatisco ) A A (fessus adj. (fatiscere - 0 fatisoor (old) ( 8"^ droop fat"1"7 defStiscor, defessum, defetisci. f&veo, be favourable favl fautum f&vere fav-8- -fendo, strike, only in compounds. fend- defendo, ward off,\ guard, defendi, defensum, defendgre. So also offendo, strike against. fgrio, strike (see ico) fgrlre f&r-i- (percussi, percussum are often used as perfect and supine.) ffcro (Ch. xxviii.), (tiili) (latum) ferre fer- bring Perfect and supine are borrowed from tollo. aff&ro, attiili, allatum, afferre; aufero, abs tiili, ablatum, auferre; diffgro, distuli, dllatum, differre; offgro, obtuli oblatum, offerre; rSfgro, rettuli, rglatum (or rSferre; rarely rellatum) refert, it is of importance (probably for rei fert) is used as impersonal. suffSro, (sustinui) • sufferre. sustuli as perf. of suffero is rare. !fervi ferbui fervere fery-6- A consonantal stem (e.g. fervit, fervere) frequent in prse-Aug. and Aug. poets. fldo, trust flsum fldSre fld- fisus sum is used for perf., I have trusted. fIgo,fx fixi fixum flgSre fig- fictus as past participle in Varro, R. R. and Lucr. fio, become (see Ch. XXVIII.), fi&ri fi- The compound infit, he begins, only in this one form (poetical). findo, cleave fingo, form, invent fleo, weep flecto, bend -fligo, strike, only in compounds. affilgo, strike against, knock down, afflixi, afflictum, affilg&re. fidi fissum findfire fid- flnxi fictum fingSre flg- flevi fletum Here fl§- flexi flexum flectgre flect- fio, become (see Ch. XXVIII.), fi&ri fi- The compound infit, he begins, only in this one form (poetical).Inflexions. {Book II So the other compounds, except profllgo, put to rout, profllgavi, profligatum, profllgare. Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem, fiuo,/fcrcu fluxi fluSre flugv- (fiuxus, adj. loose, fluctus, subst. a wave) fddio, dig fodi fossum f6d6re f6d-I- Inf. fodlri, effodiri are found in the older language. fatur, he speaks fatum fari fa- The following only found: pres. ind. fatur; fut. fabor, fabitur; perf. fatus est; pluperf. fatus eram, erat; imper. fare, inf. fari; part, fantem, &c. (no nominative, except in phrase fans atque infans, Plaut.), fatus, fandus, and fatu. In compounds we have also -famur, -famini; -fabar, -farer, &c., and in comp. imperat. ,&c., prsefato, prsefamino. f&veo, keep warm, fovi f6tum f6vere fdv-8- cherish frango, break in pieces fregi fractum frangere frag- Compounds as confringo, confregi, confractum, confringgre. frSmo, roar, snort frSmui frSmitum frSmSre f!rSm- frendo,^#.^ (with the teeth) jfrgsur^ frendgre frend- ftfco, rub frlcfil jfHc&tum fri°are frIc"^- frigeo, be cold frixi frigere frIg-8- fri&c) r°aje' <~COrn' friotum friggre frig- fruor, enjoy fructum frui frugv- fruitum once (Ulpian), fut. part, fruitiirus once (Cic.). An old form fruniscor, frunitum is quoted from early writers. f&gio, flee, fly from fdgi (fugitHrus) fiiggre fug-i- fulcio, prop fulsi fultum fulclre fulc-i- fulgeo, flash fulsi fulgere fulg-6- A consonantal stem e.g. fulgit, fulgSre is found in pras-Aug. poets; twice in Vergil. fundo,pour, rout fildi ffLsum fundSre f&d- (an enemy) fungor, get quit, dis- functum fungi fung- charge (an office, &c.) fuo, grow? see sum, Gh. xxvil. furis, thou ragest fiirgre fiir- Only furis, furit, furunt, furebas, furebat, furgre, furens are found.Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 247 Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. gaudeo, be glad gavlsum gaudgre gavId-6- gavisus sum, I rejoiced ggmo, sigh, groan gemui ggmltum ggmgre g6m- gSro, carry, perform gessi gestum ggrSre g6s- gigno, beget, produce gSnui gSnltum glgngre g6n- In old language (Lucr. Varr.), sometimes gSno is found. glisco, swell, kindle gliscgre ' gll- glilbo, peel gluptum gliibSre gliib- gr&dior, step gressum gr&di gr&d-I- Compounds, as aggrgdior, attack, aggressum, aggrgdi. Inf. ag- gredlri, progrediri, pres. aggredimur are found in Plaut. -gruo only in compounds. gru- congruo, agree, congrid, congrugre. So also ingruo, impend. h&beo, have h.S,bul babitum habere hab-S So the compounds debeo, owe, debui, debitum, debSre; prsebeo, afford, prsebui, prsebitum, prsebere (in Plautus dehibeo, prse- hibeo): probeo (Lucr.) for probibeo. bsereo, stick intr. haasi bsesum hsarSre hses-g- (or hser-g ?) baurio, drain, draw hausi baustum haurire baus-I- (water) In Varr. once haurierint. Fut. part, haustiirus (G. Fam. 6. 6. 9) and hausfLrus, Verg. A. iv. 383; Stat. Ach. 1. 667; Sil. vn. 584, XVI. 11; and perhaps Sen. Ep. 51. 6, exbausurus. bisco, gape, open the mouth, to speak hiscSre bi- j&ceo, lie j&cui (j&clturus) jacere j&c-g- j&cio, cast jeci jactum jac6re jac-I- ablcio, abjeci, abjectum, ablcSre. So the other compounds (see § 144). Disslcio for dis-jacio. porricio, offer {sacrifices'), &c, porrectum, porrlcere (without perf.). Ico (or Icio?), strike Ici ictum IcSre Ic- Of the present (rare), only icit, icitur, icimur occurs: (fgrio is generally used instead). The perfect is often in MSS. written iecit. imbuo, steep, imbue imbul imMtum ImbuSre imbil- !incfiss« incess-I- indulgeo; yield, intr. Indulsi indulgere indulg-g< (Indult-um &c. appears not to be used before the 3rd century or later.)248 Inflexions. [Book II. Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. induo, put on indui Inddtum lndugre indil- (clothes), &c. r moiva. iaquam, quoth inquU | Qr lnqvl_ The following forms only occur. Pres. ind. inquam, inquls, inquit, inquimus, inquiunt. Fut. inquies, inquiet. Imperf. inquiebat. Perf. inquii, inquisti, inquit. Imperat. and sing, inque, inquit0, plur. inquite. irascor, grow angry iratum Irasci Ira- iratus sum, I am angry: succensui, I was angry. jtibeo, bid jussi jussum jiibere jiib-6- jungo, yoke, join junxi June turn jungSre jung- j&vo, help, delight jftvi jfttum jtivare jtiv-a- fut. part, j&v&tiirus. Adjiivo has adjUtiirus. labor, slip, glide lapsum labi lab- (lacGss— lacesso, provoke l&cesslvi lacessltum l&cessSre Jlacessi -lacio, entice. Only in compounds. laci- alllcio, allexi, allectum, alllc&re. So illicio, pellicio. elicio, elicui, elicitum, ellcSre. Prollcio has no perfect or supine. lsedo, strike (rare), lsesi laesum lsedSre lsed- hurt collido, dash together, collisi, collisum, collIdSre. lambo, lick Iambi (once) lamb§re lamb- langveo, befaint langvi langvere langv-6- {lav&tum lautum l&vare lav-l- lotum A consonantal stem (e. g. lavit, lavfire, &c.) is frequent in prse- Augustan and Augustan poets. For compounds see luo. 18go, pick up, choose, legi lectum lggSre lSg- read colllgo, collect, collegi, collectum, colllgfcre. So compounds generally : Except that (1) allggo, choose besides, perlggo, read through, prselSgo, read to others, r€18go, read again, sublSgo, pick up, substitute, retain e.Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 249 (a) dilego (or diligp), /uw, intellggo, understand, neglggo, retain e and have perf. in -xi, e.g. neglexi. (Rarely intellegi, neglegi.) Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. libet, it pleases r (libitum est Only used in 3rd pers. Rarely in plural. Also participle libens, (The stem vowel was in early times u; e. g. lubet.) liceo, be on sale liceor, bid for licet, it is permitted Only used in 3rd pers. also found. licui llcltum licitus sum jllcuit (licitum est Rarely in plural. licere liceri licere lic-S- lic-8- lic-8- Liceto, licens, licitus, lingo, lick linctum linggre ling- lino, besmear l§vi lltum linere li- livi is also found. In post-Augustan writers, we have linio, linivi, linitum, linlre. deleo, blot out, delevi, deletum, delere, probably belong to this stem. linqvo, league liqvi linqvere liqv- The compound, relinqvo, r&Liqvi, rglictum, r61inqv6re, is more usual. liqveo, be clear, fluid liciii liqvor, melt, intr. 16qvor, speak lticeo, be light, beam luxi ltldo, sport liisi litgeo, mourn, trans, luxi luo, pay, expiate lui Compounds retain the original meaning, comPSrl> compertum, compSrire. rSpgrio, find, reppSri, rgpertum, rSpSrlre. pasc o, pasture, feed pavi pastum pascSre pas- The active is rarely used of the animals feeding except in pres. participle. Depasco follows pasco. Compesco (lit. pasture together ?), confine, compescui, compescgre (no supine). So dispesco (rare), separate.254 Inflexions. [Book II. Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem, p&tior, suffer passum p&ti p&t-I- perpgtior, perpessus sum, perpSti. p&veo, quake with p£vi paver© p&v-g- fear pecto, comb pexi (once) pexum pectgre pect- pedo pgpgdi pedgre ped- pello,^wj£, drive back pSpiili pulsum pellgre pell- appello (esp. of a ship, put in), apptili, appulsum, appellSre. So the other compounds. Rgpello always has reppuli or repHli. pendeo, hang, intr. pSpendi pensum pendere pend-S- pendo, weigh, pay, pgpendi pensum pendgre pend- value originally hang, trans. So suspendo, hang up. -pSrio only in compounds, except peritus, skilled. pgr-I- Comp. perlculum, 7r€ipaco. apSrio (ab perio?), uncover, open, &pgr&i, £pertum, &pgrlre. expSrior, try, expertum, expgrlri. gpSrio (ob perio?), cover, Cpgriii, dpertum, 6p6rire. opperior, wait for, oppertum and opperitum, oppgriri. pgto, seek, aim at | pgtii^ P&titum pgtgre j pet-I- plget, it vexes est pfe5re pis"e- Only used in 3rd pers. sing. The gerund and gerundive are also found. pin go, paint pinxi pictum pinggre jping- pinso,) , ( pinsui (pinsitum (pinsgre pins- plso, ) " I pinsi j pis turn jpisgre pls- Pinslbant once in Ennius. Hence pinsitus, often in Columella's prose, has perhaps 1. Pinsui, pisi occur once each. pl&ceo, be pleasing pl&cui pl&cltum placere plac-g- plango, beat (esp. the planxi planctum planggre plang- breast in grief) plaudo, clap (the plausi plausum plaudgre plaud- hands, &c.)Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 255 explodo (hiss off, i. e. drive away by hissing), explSsi, expl5sum, explSdgre. So the other compounds, applaudo does not change the vowel. Pres. Present. Perfect Supine. Infinitive. Stem. plecto, strike, punish (rare except in passive) plectgre plect- -plecto, twine plexum -plectfire plect- Only in perf. part, and compounds, which are always of depo- nent form, except in one or two instances of imperatives in prae-Ciceronian writers. amplector, twine oneself round, embrace, amplexum, amplectl. So complector. Of other compounds only participles, implexus, entwined, perplexus, entangled, are found. -pleo,fill, only in compounds pie- Compounds as compleo, complevi, completum, complere. plico, fold plicatum pllcare plIc-£- (rare except in compounds) appllco, apply, put (applicavi, appllcatum, in {to share) (appllcui, appllcltum, So the other compounds: the prae-Augustan writers used almost always -&vi, -atum. pluo, rain )Kt (frequent in Livy) pluSre »mv- pollUceo, offer in polluctum pollucere pollUc-S- sacrifce p5no, place pdsui pdsltum p5n§re pd-sl- Poslvi frequent in Plautus; also in Cato. Posit, poseit (3rd pers. sing.) are also found in prae-Augustan inscriptions. Postum (simple and compound) is frequently found in poetry. posco, demand pOposci posc&re posc- Compounds retain reduplication, as depdposci, expdposci. possldeo. See s6deo. posaum, be able pOtui (see Ch. xxviii.) pfitesse p6tss- pfitior, be master pOtitum pdtiri p6t-I- In pres. ind. almost always pOtltur, potimur; imp. subj. potgrer or potlrer. In Plaut. inf. once poti: also act. perf. potlvL poto, drink potavi p5tum pdtare p5t-a- P5tatum is rare; fut. part. p5taturus and p5turus. p5tus, that has drunk. prandeo, dine prandi pransum prandere prand-6- pransus, having dined.Inflexions. [Book II Pres. Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem. pr&hendo, lay hold of prShendi prghensum prghendSre prehend- Often contracted into prendo, See. prgmo, press pressi pressum pr6m6re prSm- comprimo, compressi, compressum, comprimSre. So the other compounds. pr6fIciscor. Seefacio. psallo, play on a psalli psallgre stringed instrument ptidet, it shames est pfidSre puditurum and gerund and gerundive are also found. adj. modest. pungo, prick piipiigi punctum punggre Compounds have for perfect -punxi. qvaero, seek, inquire qvssslvi qvaesltum qvaergre conqvlro, conqvisivi, conqvisitum, conqvlrgre. So the other compounds. In the ist pers. sing, and plur. there is an old colloquial form, qvseso, qvsBsumus, prythee. qvatio, shake, trans. qvassum qv&t8re qv&t-I- concutio, concussi, concussum, concutSre. So the other com- pounds. qveo, be able (Ch. qvlvl qvltum qvlre qvl- XXVIII.) qvSror, complain qvestum qvSri qvgr- qviesco, rest qvievi qvietum qviesc6re qvi-e- r&"bo, ra've (rare) rafcgre ra"b- rado, SGrape rasi rasum radSre rad- r&pio, snatch, hurry r&pui raptum rapSre rap-i- a. sido, settle, intr. sldi Pres. Infinitive. Stem. serpgre serp- sldgre sld- sedi and sessum from sgdeo are the usual perfect and supine, and so the compounds. In subj. perf. slrim, siris, slrit, sirint. DesinOj. desii in post-Augustan writers (desisti, desiit, pluperf. desigram, perf. subj. desi&rim), desltum, desingre. (Cicero and Coesar generally use destiti for perf.) Desitus sum used before a passive infin. I ceased. sisto, set, stay, trans, stiti (rare) statum sistgre st&- desisto, destiti, destitum, desistere. So the compounds, all in- transitive. The reduplication is retained. Sisto is rarely intrans. and then has perf. steti (from sto). So also circumstgti. soleo, be dye ^ tlnctum KSe tlngv" tollo, lift up, remove (sustuli) (sublatum) tollSre toll- tti.ll (in pras-August. poets tgttili, in some old inscriptions toll) and latum (for tlatum) are the proper perf. and supine: but as these are taken by fgro, tollo takes the perf. and supine of its compound sustollo. The compounds have no perf. or supine. tondeo, shear tdtondi tonsum tondere tond-6- tdno, thunder tdnui tdnltum tfinare tdn-£- intdno has part, intonatus (once Hor.). The other compounds follow t6no. torqveo, twist, whirl torsi tortum torqvere torqv-6- torreo, roast torrui tostum torrere tors-6-262 Inflexions. [Book II. tribtttum trftsum (tUtum (tultum Pres. Infinitive. Stem. trah&re trah- trSmSre trem- tribugre trlbti- trfldSre trtid- tueri tu-S- tribtttum trftsum (tUtum (tultum Present. Perfect. Supine. traho, drag traxi tractum trfimo, tremble tremui trlbuo, assign, grant trlbui trtldo, thrust trilsi tH6or, look at, protect tittus, adj. safe. Tfttatus sum (from tutor) is generally used as perfect; tatus or (post-Augustan) tuitus sum are rare. Contueor, intueor have (post-Augustan) contMtus, intuitus sum. A present with stem in -u (e.g. tulmur, contuor, &c.), is frequent in prae-August, poets and Seneca's tragedies. tundo, thump ttitfidi j^sSn tundSre tad- Contundo, contiidi, contilsum, contundSre. So pertundo. Ob- tundo, retundo have both -tunsum and -tflsum. Perfect of retundo always retundi. turgeo, swell tursi turgere turg-6- tursi is quoted from Ennius (once); obtursi from Lucilius (once). vado, go vadSre vad- Invado, invasi, invasum, inv&dgre. So other compounds. v&leo, be strong v&lui v£geo, stir up (old word) (vSlIttirus) valere val-S- (v$g€tus yggere vSg-$- adj.) vectum v6h6re v61i- v6ho, carry vex! Pres. part, and gerund also used intransitively, riding. vello, pull, pluck velli vulsum vellgre vell- Vulsi both in simple and compounds is sometimes found in post-Augustan writers. vendo, sell. See do. vSneo, be sold. See eo. vgnio, come veil! ventum v8nlre vfn-I- vgreor, be awed at v6rltum v6reri vSr-e- vergo, incline vergdre verg- verro, brush verri (rare) versum verr&re verr- verto, turn vert! versum vertdre vert- So the compounds generally, but dlvertor, put up (at an inn), divert! (perf.), diversum, divert! (inf.).Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 263 rgvertor,. return, perf. reverti, reversum, reverti (inf.), rever- sus, having returned. prsevertor, attend to first, is entirely deponent: praBverto, be beforehand with, is very rare. Present. Perfect, vascor, feed oneself v6to, forbid vStfti Pres. Infinitive. vesci vetare Stem, vesc- v8t-&- Supine. vfitltum Persius has a perfect vetavi. video, see vidi visum videre vid-6- videor, visum, vlderi, very common in sense of seem. vleo, plait (twigs, &c.) vietum viere vi-8- part. vietus (Ter. Lucr., but viStus, Hor.), shrivelled. vincio, bind vlnxi vlnctum vincire vinc-I- vinco, conquer vici victum vincSre vic- viso, visit visi visgre vis- vivo, live vixi victum viv6re vigv- ulciscor, avenge one- ultum ulcisci ulc- self on, avenge unxl return ungv- vdlo, will vdlui velle v61- So its compounds n51o, maio; see Ch. xxviu. volvo, roll volvi vdliitum volvSre volv- Sometimes volui in Augustan poets. v6mo, vomit vfiveo, ww urgeo, push, press uro, burn v6mui vovi ursi ussi vftmltum votum ustum v6m£re v6m- vdvSre v6v-S- urgere urg-6- •Qrgre iis- Combiiro, combussj, combustum, comMrgre, is a compound of com with an older form buro, seen in bustum, tomb. Other compounds (extlro, &c.) follow the usual formT Utor, avail oneself make use usum uti at-264 Inflexions. [Book II The following verbs also have no perfect or supine. ^ (1) e- verbs: segreo, be sick frondeo, be in leaf polleo, he powerful albeo, be white lifibeo, be blunt renideo, shine &veo, be greedy lacteo, be a sucklmg, scclteo, bubble forth have milk calveo, be bald liveo, be bluish pale spiendeo, be bright caneo, be hoary m&ceo, be lean squSIeo, be rough fl&veo, be yellow msereo, grieve t&beo, waste away fceteo, stink muceo. be mouldy tlmeo, be wet (2) i- verbs: csecutio, be blind prilrio, itch for dementiOj rave glocio, cluck singultio, sob ineptio, be silly desideratiues cenattirio, have an appetite empttirio, wish to buy partfirio, be in labourBOOK III. WORD-FORM A TION.BOOK III1. WORD-FORMA TION. CHAPTER I. ELEMENTS OF WORD-FORMATION. Words are formed either directly from roots or from other 740 words. The elements of formation are four: reduplication, internal change, addition of suffixes, combination of two or more words into one. Two or more of these modes of formation may be called into use in forming a word; and especially, almost all words, whatever other change the root may have undergone, exhibit some suffix or other. i. Reduplication is the repetition of the root syllable, either to 74I express repeated action or simply to give additional emphasis to the root. In Latin there appear but few instances of reduplication. The following are probably such: i. Reduplication of a closed syllable: bar-bar-us, foreign (from fiapfiapos); car-cer (n.), a prison, a barrier (for the vowel cf. § 204. 2); cin-cin-nus, a curl (comp. klklvvos) ; cur-ciil-io, a weevil (for the change of liquid cf. § 185. 2); far-fur (m.), bran; gur-gill-io, the (windpipe (cf. § 852); marmor (n.), marble; mur-mur (n.), a murmur (comp. floppy pew); quisquis, whosoever; tin-tin-n5xe, to tinkle (cf. § 646); tur-tur (m. f.), a dove; iil-iil-a, a screech-owl; iil-til-are, to howl, wail (comp. 0A.-0X- v^lv). Similarly per-per-am (adv.), badly (§ 5 26). a. Reduplication of an open syllable; or rather, of the initial consonant, with a vowel appended: bl-b8re, to drink; cl-cada, a grasshopper; ci-catrix (f.), a scar; cl-cer (n.), chickpease; ci-cSnia, a stork; cl ciir, tame; ci-ctlta, hemlock; cdcus (qvoqvus), a cook; cti-ctllus, a cuckoo (comp. k6kkv£) ; ctl-ctlmis (m.), a cucumber; cii-curbita, a gourd; je-jiinus, fasting; 1 In this book much use has been made of the lists in Leo Meyer's Vergleich. Gram. (1861—1865) especially the second volume. Cor- responding Greek words have been usually taken from Curtius (see above, p. 24 n.).26S Word-Formation. [Book TIL mamma, a breast; mS-mor, mindful; pa-paver (n.), a poppy; p&-pilla (diminutive of an assumed papa), a tettt; pi-plre, to chirp; pd-piilus, a people; qvi-sqvllise, refuse (comp. Ko-ovciA-fuma, and for the omission of s § 193); stt-surrus, a whisper (comp. o-upif6 tlllare, to tickle; tt-tiibare, to stumble. For the use of reduplication to form the present stem of verbs see § 638; and to form the perfect stem, § 665 sqq. ii. Internal change is frequently found accompanying the addi- 742 tion of suffixes, or composition, but is then due mainly to the consequent shifting of the accent, or to the influence of neighbour- ing consonants. The usual changes have been set forth in Book I. There appear to be but few instances in Latin, in which there is clear evidence of internal change being employed as the main element in the formation of a word. Compare however, e.g. tdga with t6g-Sre; sSd-es with s8d-ere; fides with fidSre; pr6c-us with prSc- ari (§§ 233. 1, 234. 5, &c.); dilc-ere with dtic- (dux); dlcere with malSdicus, &c.; v6c-, nom. vox, with vdcare. For the change of vowel in forming the perfect tense see § 668. But if, as is probable, the primary form of roots admits of short vowels only, then all instances of (apparent) roots with long vowels fall under this head (unless the long vowel is a compensation for omitted consonants); e. g. lux, pax, &c., scrlbere, lUdere, &c. iii. Suffixes are of three kinds: (1) Suffixes of inflexion, (2) stem- 743 suffixes (included under inflexions in Book II.), (3) derivative suffixes. (1) Suffixes of inflexion are those which are employed to form the several cases and numbers of nouns, and the persons, moods, tenses, voice, &c. of verbs. (2) Stem-suffixes are those which form the distinguishing marks of the several declensions of nouns, and the several conjugations (or classes) of verbs. In nouns of the first class they are a, e, 0; in nouns of the second class u, i or e; in verbs a, u, e, i. A large class of nouns, and the most primitive verbs, have no stem-suffix. The application of the stem-suffixes in Latin nouns coincides to a large extent with the distinction of gender: in verbs it coincides, at least as regards the a and e stems, to a noticeable degree with the distinction of transitive and intransitive action. The absence of a stem-suffix in many nouns is the result of the shifting of the accent, and consequent slurring of the end of the word, the conso- nant stem being thus reduced by one syllable from what was, or would otherwise have been, their full form (with a stem-suffix); e.g. praeceps for prseclplts, &c. In other nouns of the same class (consonant stems) there appears to be no clear ground for assuming the previous existence of a stem-suffix. (A similar loss or weaken-Chap. /.] Elements of Word-Formation. 269 ing of the stem-suffix is held by Corssen1 to have occurred in the consonant verbs, regis, regit, regere, See., being properly divided regi-s, regi-t, regg-re, &c. for earlier raga-sa, raga-ta, &c.) Many noun-stems and many verb-stems are apparently formed directly from the root by the addition of the3e stem-suffixes. In some a reduplication or an internal change, especially of the vowel, occurs also. The formation of one word, compound or simple, from another is often effected by the substitution of the stem-suffix appropriate to one part of speech for that appropriate to another. Words of simple form which contain no known derivative suffix are presumably formed in this way directly from the root. Instances may be collected from the lists given in this book. The following are examples of the formation of nouns from 744 roots or from other words by the addition or substitution of no other than a stem-suffix. The majority of verbs are so formed (see Chap. x.). A. advgna, a stranger (adveni-re); conviva, a guest (conviv-gre) ; funda, a sling (fund-Sre); m61a, a mill (m61-6re); scrlba, a clerk (scrib-Sre); t6ga, a cloak (tSg-fire); tr&ha, a sledge (tr&h-gre). 0. ahenobarbus, bronze-beard (barba-); condus, a store-keeper (cond-6re); cdqvus, a cook (c6qv-§re); fldus, trusty (fid-6re, flde-s); jtigum, a yoke (comp. ju/zgSre); mergust a diver (merg-fere); nescius, ignorant (nescl-re); prdf&gus, deserting (pr6fiigd-re); promus, a butler (prom-6rS); rSgus, a funeral pile (rSg-gre, comp. erig6re, to erect) \ sdnus, a sound (s6n-6re and sdnare). U. acus, a needle (&c-, comp. 5,c-u-6re); currus, a chariot (curr-6re); ddmus, a house (comp. defi-eip, to build, ddmaxe, to tame). I (or E). abnormis, abnormal (norma-); bilingvis, two-tongued (lingva); ntibes, a cloud (mib-Sre, to cover, comp. vecfr-os); riipes, a rock (rump-gre, to break); sedes, a seat (s6d-ere); yfches, a cartload (v6h-gre). [Without stem-suffix, dux, a leader (dUc- comp. dflc-6re); incus, an anvil (inciid-Sre); obex, a bolt (obicS-re); planipes, flatfooted (pSd-)•] (3) Derivative suffixes are those additions (not being recogni- sable roots) which are interposed between the root and the stem- suffix; or, when there is no stem-suffix, between the root and the suffix of inflexion. If they are themselves recognisable as roots, the formation of the word belongs to the sphere of (iv) Composition (which is treated of in Chapter xi.). Interjections, some of which are words, some mere natural sounds, will be enumerated in the last Chapter. 1 Aussprache, 11. 50, foil. ed. 2.270 Word-Formation. [Book III. CHAPTER II. DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES. Derivative suffixes may originally have been words, but are 745 now merely sounds or combinations of sounds which have no separate use or separate meaning, but modify the meaning of the word to which they are suffixed. The same suffix does not usually express precisely the same modifications, and different suffixes often seem to have the same effect: compare -tiiddn, -tia, -tat, &c. Fre- quently indeed the use of a suffix may have proceeded from a fan- cied or imperfectly apprehended analogy; and the ending of a word, which is partly composed of stem-consonants or stem-vowels, and partly of a suffix, has been apparently taken for an entire suffix, and as such applied to other stems. Compare montanus, § 830, mon- tuosus, § 814. Sometimes the sense of the suffix has been obscured, and a further suffix is added to realize what the former suffix once expressed; e.g. puella is diminutive of puera, but afterwards sup- planted puera as the ordinary term for a girl, and thus puellula was formed for a little or 'very young girl. A light vowel, 6, xi, S, more frequently I, is often found between 746 the last consonant of the stem and the suffix. Its origin is not clear. Sometimes it appears to be part of the suffix; e. g. -6c (-Ic) in s6nex, pilmex, &c.; more frequently it appears to be the stem- suffix weakened; e. g. candidus from cande- (see the words given in § 816), altxtiido from alto-; sometimes it appears to owe its birth to analogy with other words; sometimes to a desire to ease the pro- nunciation, or avoid the destructive effect of contiguous consonants; or even to render possible the use of the word in verse. It is indeed possible that it may be an expression of the slight sound occasioned by opening the organs, in order fully to articulate the final consonant (cf. § 9). It has most frequently been treated in the following lists as the weakened stem-suffix; but its occurrence in words formed from consonant stems is by no means unusual, and seems to conflict with this theory of its origin. If these consonant stems are the stunted remnants of forms which originally were vowel stems, this weak- ened vowel may be the relic of the fuller form. (So in French theChap. J I] Derivative Suffixes. 271 final t of the Latin 3rd pers. sing, is preserved only before a vowel; e. g. a-t-il, and its meaning lost to the popular consciousness). If otherwise, one of the other explanations must be resorted to. The long vowel, found not uncommonly in the same part of 747 a derivative, is sometimes part of the suffix; e.g. dum-etum for dum-ec-tum; sometimes due to contraction of the stem-suffix with a short initial vowel of the suffix; e. g. the suffix -ino appended to the stems Roma-, divo-, tribu-, mari-, Sge- gives Romanus, divinus, tribttnus, marlnus, egenus: the suffix -ill appended to anc&ra-, tribu-, fide-, civi- gives ancoralis, tribfllis, fidelis, civilis. Some- times it is due to following a false analogy; e.g. mont-anus, anser-I- nus, &c., virgin-alis, r6g-alis, See.1 In other respects the ordinary laws of consonant and vowel changes (given in Book I.) are observed. In the following lists many words, which so far as our know- 748 ledge goes are primitive, are given along with the derivatives, partly because of the difficulty and consequently arbitrary nature of an attempt to separate them, partly because, as was said above, the ending of a primitive word appears sometimes to have been sup- posed to be a suffix, and consequently to have been applied as a suffix in the formation of other words: The word-endings there- fore, under which the Latin words are here arranged, are not necessarily, though they are usually (except as regards a long initial vowel, cf. § 747), suffixes. These suffixes are sometimes simple, i. e. consisting of a single vowel, or a single consonant with a vowel; sometimes compound, i.e. consisting of two consonants with one or two vowels. Com- pound suffixes are usually the result of adding a suffix to a stem which is itself a derivative; but sometimes the suffix, though origi- nally compound, has come to be treated as if it were a simple suffix; e. g. -unciilo: sometimes it may be really a word which has ceased to be used separately, and only appears now to be suffixal; e.g. -ginta, § 794, and perhaps -gno, -monio, -clnio, &c. The primary arrangement of noun-endings is according to the 749 consonant or vowel which immediately precedes either the stem- suffix, or, in consonant nouns, the suffix of inflexions. Subordinately to this, first come all word-endings which have the stem-suffix of nouns of the first class (0 being used, for convenience sake, as inclusive of a); secondly, word-endings of the second class. The simplest endings, among which are those beginning with short vowels, are put first; then such compound endings as have a conso- 1 Key, Lat. Gr. §§ 227. 232.27 2 Word-Formation. [Book III. nant before the same short vowel; then simple endings with long Yowels; lastly, compound endings with the same long vowel. The order of the consonants and vowels is the same as in Books I. and II.: the order of the words is alphabetical. The lists are intended to be fairly complete, except in those classes of derivatives which contain too numerous instances to be conveniently or usefully given. Of these a full and typical selection is given. But the lists do not as a rule, though they do sometimes, contain, (1) Words found only in writers later than Suetonius. (2) Words only quoted by Nonius or Festus, or other gram- marians, and some others of early or rare use. (3) Words (especially technical or scientific words), found only and seldom in Gato, Varro, Vitruvius, Gelsus, Pliny the elder, Columella, Petronius. Many such are however given. (4) Compounds with prepositions, if the simple form is also found. (5) Words borrowed from the Greek. CHAPTER III. LABIAL NOUN-STEMS. i. Stems ending in -po, -pi, -p. -po 1. Adjectives: crispus, curling; lippus, blear-eyed; obstlpus, 75° bent. 2. Substantives: (a) Masculine: capus, a capon; cippus, a post or upright block; liipus, a wolf (comp. Xvkos, § 66); napus, a turnip; pflpus, a boy; rumpus (Varr.), a -vine branch; sc&pus, a stem (comp. scSpse, sclpio, tTKrj7T'Tpov)\ scirpus, a rush; scrflpus, a rough stone (scrttpulus more common); stloppus, a slap; struppus, a cord (from arpo^os ?); verpus, a circumcised man. p6pa, a sacrificing priest (i.e. cftqva, cf. § 118); Agrippa. (b) Feminine: al&pa, a slap; c5pa, a barmaid (comp. caupo, kuttt]Xos) ; culpa, a faulty cilpa, a tub; lappa, a bur; mappa (a Punic word according to Quint.), a napkin; n&pa, a scorpion (AfricanChap. III.'] Labial Noun-Stems: -po, -pi, -p ; -bo. 273 word?); pulpa, fleshy substance; pfipa, a girl; rlpa, a stream bank; scopse (pi.), twigs (see scapus); s&pa, must boiled down to a third (comp. ottos) ; stuppa, tow (comp. crrvinTciov); talpa (rarely m.), a mole; vappa, flat wine (comp. vap-or, v&p-Idus); vespa, a wasp (comp. (c) Neuter: gaus&pum, a frie%e cloth (cf. § 410); palpum, stroking (only found in acc. and abl.); rapum, a turnip. -pho lympha, water (comp. vvfx^rj). -pi apis (f.), a bee (comp. a gnat); csepe (n.), an onion; copis, plentiful (com, 6p-; comp. inops); puppis (f.), a ship1s stern; rilpes (f.), a rock (rump-fere); ssepes (f.), a hedge (comp. o-tjkos, § 66); stirps (f.), a stock; turpis, foul; volpes (f.), a fox (comp. a\<0ir-r}£). -p &deps (m. f.), fat (comp. aX«a, ointment, cf. § 174. 4); dapfe (f.), a banquet (comp. bairreiv to devour, hajravr), dciTTvov); ops (f.), help (comp. a(j)-€vos); stips, a small gift in coin. Compound stem-ending: only piilo, § 860. ii. Stems ending in -bo, -bi, -b. -bo 1. Adjectives: acer-bus, unripe, bitter (comp. ac^ri, &cies, 751 See.); albus, white; balbus, lisping; gibbus, humped (comp. kv7r-t€iv); orbus, bereft (comp. opefi-avos)', prft- bus, honest; siiper-bus, haughty (stiper). 2. Substantives: (a) Masculine: barbus, a barbel; bulbus, a bulb ((3o\ft6s); elbus, food; cdlumbus (also columba, f.), a pigeon; gldbus, a ball; ltmbus, 'a border or fringe; lumbus, a loin; mor-bus, disease (m6r-i); nimbus, a rain-cloud (comp. ve-o$, niibes); riibus, a bramble; tiibus, a pipe. Galba (see Suet. Galb. 3; some compare Germ, gelb, yellow); scrib-a, a clerk (scrib-fire, § 744). (b) Feminine: barba, a beard; f&ba, a bean ; glSba or glaaba, a sod; herba, grass (comp. ferre, dopj&J, -eros); pelvis (f.), a basin; ravis (f.), hoarseness (comp. rau-cus); sva-vis, sweet (comp. svad-us, r}8-vs); tSnvis, thin (comp. ten-d§re, t6n-er, ravaos). -ui grus (f.), a crane (comp. yepavos) ; lues (f.), pestilence (comp. Xoifjios); strues (f.), a heap (comp. stru-ere, ster- nSre); sus (m. f.), a pig (comp. vs). v. Stems ending in -fo. offa, a morsel; rilfus, red; scr5fa, a sow; tofus, tufa stone. 766 CHAPTER IV. GUTTURAL NOUN-STEMS, i. Stems ending1 in -co, -qvo; -cu, -ci, -qvi; -c, -qv. 1. Stems ending in -co, -qvo. -co 1. Adjectives: seqvus, level; averruncus, averting; csecus, blind; cascus, 767 old; cfiruscus, flashing; flaccus, flabby; fuscus, dark coloured; lus- cus, one-eyed; mancus, maimed; parcus, thrifty; paucus, few (comp. nav-pos); Plancus (piano-?); priscus, ancient (prius); raucus (for ravicus), hoarse (ravi-); rgclprdcus, backwards and forwards (rg- co, pr6-co, derivatives of re and pro; Key, Essays, p. 74 sq.); siccus, 1 On suffixes with -c see Key, Philol. Soc, Trans, for 1856.Chap. IF.] Guttural Noun-Stems: -co, -qvo, -Ico. 281 dry (for sltl-cus from sltis, thirst ?); spurcus, dirty; tnmcus, lopped; vescus, small. a. Substantives: (a) Masculine: abacus, a hoard (comp. a/3a£); arcus (arqvus), a bow (see § 395); circus, a ring (^pi/coy); cdcus (coqvus), « 6cus (eqvus), a horse (comp. lttttos, § 118); fiscus, a basket; floccus. a Jlock of wool; fdcus, a hearth; fiicus (1), seaweed (comp. ' gaping (hia-re; cf. § 204. 2 e); pStu-lcus, frolicsome (p6t-6re, cf. § 657, and comp. petul-ans). 2. Substantives: bubul-cus, an ox-tender, i.e. a ploughman (b6v- whence btibulus, cf. § 76. a); sub-ulcus, a swineherd (su- for s6v-? or perhaps the word is simply formed in imitation of bubulcus); remulcum (only in abl. s.), a towrope (probably from Greek; comp. pvpovXiceiv, Polyb.). vitricus, a stepfather; ndverca, a stepmother (ndvo-; comp. peos, peapos). Adjectives: ant-Iqvus, ancient (for antinqvus? from 772 ante, but cf. § 774); long-inqvus, distant (longo-); pr6p- inqvus, near (prdpe). (In obllqvus the q is radical; comp. llc-inus, Ae^-ptos-). m§r-acus, pure (of wine without water; mSro-); 6p-773 acus, shady; clo-aca, a sewer (cluere old =purgare: comp. kXv-^€iv). -rl-co ) -r-co ) -in-qvo) -Iqvo ) -acoChap. IV] Guttural Noun-Stems: -co, -qvo; -cu, -ci, -c. 283 -Hco ser-uca, 'verdigris (ses-); cad-ucus, falling (cad-Sre); car- ruca, a carriage; eruca, a caterpillar, cole wort; festuca, a stalky flstuca, a pile-driver; lact-uca, a lettuce (lacti-); man'd-ucus, a chequer (mand-Sre); mastruca (Sardinian), a sheepskin; sabucus (sambucus), f., elder-tree; verruca, a wart. -Ico The 1 seems to be at least in some cases the result of con- 77+ traction with a final vowel; e. g. = oi, ei, See. 1. Adjectives: am-icus, friendly (ama-re); ant-icus, in front (ante); apr-icus, sunny; mend-icus, of beggars; post-icus, behind (post, old poste) ; pud-icus, shamefast (pMere). 2. Substantives: formica, an ant; lect-ica, a sedan (lecto-); lor-ica, a breast-plate (of leathern thongs; loro-); lumbricus, a worm; Nas-ica (m.), (naso-); rubr-ica, red paint, red heading (rubro-); vesica, a bladder; umbil-icus, the navel (comp. 6ji(j)aX6s); urtica, a nettle (comp. ur-6re). See also in § 767. 2 b. i-aco -Sgypt-i-acus, of J^gypt (.ffigypto-); Cdrinthiacus, of Co- 775 rinth (Corintho-); Nll-i-acus, of the Nile (NIlo-). 2. Stems ending in -cu, -ci, -c. -cu See § 395. acus (m. f.), a needle (comp. &c-Sr, ck-co/cr/); 776 arcus (m.), a bow; ficus (f.), a figtree; lacus (m.), a pool (comp. lacflna, la-ma, Xa/c-o?, XaKKos-); P&cu (n.), a head of cattle; porticus (f.), a colonnade (comp. portu-); qvercus (f.), an oak; spScus (m.), a cave (comp. crneos). -ci arx (f.), a citadel (comp. arcere); calx (f.), (1) chalk, (2) a heel; dulcis, sweet (comp. ykvKvs); fascis (m.), ci bundle; fsex (f.), dregs; fauces (m. pi.), throat; lanx (f.), a dish; lux (f.), light; merx (f.), merchandise; piscis (m.), a fish; torqvis (m.), a collar (comp. torqvere, to twist). -c crux (f.), a cross; dux (m.), a leader; fax (f.), a link; fraces (m. pi.), oil-dregs; nex (f.), death; nux (t.), a nut; pix (f.), pitch (comp. irlo-cra and § 839 b); prex (not found in nom. s.) (f.), a prayer; trux, cruel; vie-em (m. f.), a change; vox (f.), a voice. -ec (-ic) This is a diminutival suffix, and forms substantives. 777 apex (m.), the top point; carex (f.), sedge; caudex, codex (m.), a tree-trunk, wooden tablets; cimex (m.), a bug; cort- ex (m. f.), bark of a tree; culex (m.), a gnat; forfex (m. f.), scissors; friitex (m.), a shrub; ilex (f.), an ilex; imbr-ex (m.), a tile (imbri-); l&tex (m.), water; mtirex (m.), the purple fish,284 Word-Formation. [Book III pal-ex, pel-ex (f.), a concubine (a transcription of 7raXXag); podex (m. ped-Sre); pollex (m.), a thumb; pillex (m.), a jlea (comp. ^uAAa); piimex (m.), a pumice stone; ramex (m.), a (branching) bloodvessel (r&mo-); riimex (m. f.), sorrel; s8n-ex (m.), an old man (comp. evos); silex (m. f.), flint; sorex(m.), a shrew mouse (comp. dpa£); vort-ex, vert-ex (m.), a whirl, the top of a thing (vert-Sre). (Ju-dex, arti-fex, au-spex, simplex, &c. are compounds; obices from oblcere; illex from illicere. See § 395.) -ic append-ix (f.), an appendage (append-6re); filix (f.), a 778 fern; forn-ix (in.), a vault (forno-, an oven)] larix, a larch; salix, a willow (comp. iXUrj); var-ix, a dilated vein (varo-); and a few others (see § 440). -aci 1. Adjectives; almost all from verb stems: 779 aud-ax, daring (audere); c&p-ax, capacious (c&pS-re); contiim-ax, obstinate (tumere); dic-ax, witty (die-, comp. maledlc-us); 6d-ax, eating away (6d-Sre); effic-ax, effectual (facS-re); Smax, fond of making purchases (Sm-Sre); fall-ax, deceptive (fall-6re); fgr-ax, fruitful (fSr-re); fUg-ax, runaway (ftigg-re); ftlr-ax, thievish (fura-ri); 16qv-ax, talkative (locivi); mend-ax, lying (comp. men- tl-ri); min-ax, threatening (mina-ri); mord-ax, biting (mor-dere); ntlg-ax, trifling (nuga-ri); pr6c-ax, forward in manner (pr&ca-re); pugn-ax, quarrelsome (pugna-re); rap-ax, rapacious (rap6-re); sSLg-ax, sagacious (comp. prse-sagl-re); sal-ax, lustful (salire); s6qv-ax, pursuing (seqvi); perspic-ax, clear-sighted (sp6c8-re); t&g- ax, light-fingered (tag-, tangere); tfcn-ax, tenacious (tfcnere); ver-ax, truthful (vero-) ; pervic-ax, stubborn (yi«c-6re) ; viv-ax, lifefull, long- lived (vlv-Sre); v6r-ax, voracious (v6ra-re); and some others little used. 2. Substantives: forn-ax (f.), a kiln (forno-); pax (f.), peace. Also (with suffix -ac): lim-ax (f.), a slug (limo-). -oci Adjectives: atr-ox, cruel (atro-, black); f6r-ox, high- 78o spirited (f6ro-, wild); solox, coarse (of wool, only in Festus); vel-ox, swift (vdla-re?). Substantive: cSl-ox (f.), a yacht (comp. c&l-er, KtXrjs)- -ec Slex (f.),fsh brine; verv-ex (m.), a wether. -ici 1. Adjectives: fel-ix, happy; pernix, active (nl-ti, cf. 781 §707). -Ic 2. Substantives; all feminine. cervix, a neck-bone (?), the neck; cor-n-ix, a crow (comn. cor-vus, Kop-cDv-r), Kop-ag); cdturnix, a quail; cox-end-ix (f.), the hip (coxa-); jUn-ix, a heifer (jttvfin-); lodix, aChap. IV.] Guttural Noun-Stems: -aci, &c., -trlci; -go. 2S5 blanket; rad-ix, a root (comp. pi£a, and perhaps pabwos, taper, ra-mus); stru-ix (f.), a heap (strui-, stru-Sre); vibix, a weal matr-ix (f.), a breeder (mater); nUtr-ix (f.), nurse (nutrlre), are formed as if analogous to the words in the next section. •t-r-Ic | Semi-adjectival feminine substantives corresponding to 78a (-t-r-ici)) nouns in .tor. The t is the suffix of supine, &c. When used as adjectives they have -i stems (e.g. victricia, § 414). accusa-trix (Plaut. twice), accuser (accusa-); adjCL-trix, helper (adjiiva-re); al-trix, nourisher (al-8re); ama-trix (Plaut., Mart.), a mistress (ama-re); bella-trix, a warrior (bella-re); cicatrix, a scar; conserva-trix (Gic. once), preserver (serva-re); contem-p-trix, despising (eontemn-Sre); crea-trix, a creator (crea-re); cul-trix, a cultivator (c61-6re); educa-trix, trainer (ediica-re); expul-trix, ex- peller (pell-Sre, pul-sum, § 152. 3); gSnS-trix, a mother (g&n-, gig- nSre); giibenia-trix, directress (guberna-re); impera-trix, commander (impera-re); ind&ga-trix, a tracker out (indaga-re); inven-trix, disco- verer (ygn-i-re); mgrg-trix, a courtesan (mSrere); m51I-trix (Suet.), a contriver (mdli-ri); na-trix, a water-snake (na-re); obstg-trix, a midwife (stare, cf. § 645); oratrix, a suppliant (orare); receptrix, a receiver (recipere); tex-trix (Mart.), webster, i.e. female weaver (tex-gre); tons-trlx, a barber (tondere, § 160. 3); vena-trix, hunt- ress (venari); vic-trix, conquering (viwcgre); ul-trix, avenging (ulc-isci, cf. § no. 2); and some others. In Plautus also cistellatrix, a casket-woman (cistella-); praesti- glatrix, a conjurer (prsestigia). Compound stem-endings: -c5so, -IciUSso, §814; -cundo, §820; -clno, -ci5n, §§ 840, 853; -ctilo, -unciilo, -usctQo, §§ 862—864; -c&ro, -c§ri, §§ 887, 902; -aceo, -ticeo, §§ 920, 921; -cio, -ticio, -clnio, §§ 930, 931, 936. ii. Stems ending in -go, -gvo; -gl, -g, -gvi. 783 In most of these words the g belongs to the stem. -go r. Adjectives: largus, bountiful; longus, long; sagus (usually saga, f.), foretelling (comp. sag-ax); vagus, wan- dering; valgus, bow-legged (comp. var-us). 2. Substantives: alga, seaweed; bulga, a bag (Gallic word); c&llga, a half-boot (comp. calc-eus); fagus (f.), a beech-tree (comp. (friyos, oak); fraga (pi.), strawberries; f&g-a, flight (comp. 4>vyrf); fuiigus, a mushroom (comp. o-cfroyyos) ; jtig-um, a yoke (comp. fi/yoi/, § 141); merg-us,286 Word-Formation. [Book III. a diuer-fowl (merg-Sre); mergse. (pi.), a two-prong fork; nilgse (pi.), trifles (comp. nauco-); pagus, a 'village; plaga, (i) a region, (2) a snare; plag-a, a blow (comp. pla«g-6re, TrXrjo-o-eiv, irkqyrj); rdgus, a funeral pile (rSg-ere); riiga, a wrinkle; sagum, a soldier's blanket, said by Polybius to be a Celtic word; but comp. o-ayrj, harness); strig-a, a swathe (comp. string-gre ); tergum, a back; tdg-a, a cloak (teg-Sre); virga, a switch (comp. vir-Sre?); volgus O- § $3$), folk. -jvo lingva, the tongue (lingSre, to lick). -gi ambages (f, pi.), goings round about (amfo, ag-§re); com- 784 pages (f.), a fastening. (comparag-gre); contages (f.), con- tagion (com, ta;zg-ere); jtlgis (adj.), fresh; propages (f.), offspring (comp. propaga-re); stra-ges (f.), destruction (comp. sternSre, stra-to-). -g conjunx, a consort (com, j&g-); friig-em (f. no nom. sing.), fruit, corh; grex (m.), a flock; lex (f.), a law (lSg-Sre, to choose ?); rex (m.), a king (rgg-gre); strix (f.), a screech-owl -gvi angvis (m.f.), a snake (comp. e^is); niwgvis (f. nix), snow (comp. vLcfi-eros); pingvis, fat (comp. 7ra^uf); ungvis (m.), a nail (comp. opv£). Compound stem-endings: -gno, § 826; -g6n, -agdn, -Ilagdn, -ug6n, -Ig6n, § 845; -gneo, § 922. iii. Stems ending in -ho, -hi. traha, a sledge; vghes, a cart load (vSh-Sre). 785 CHAPTER V. DENTAL NOUN-STEMS. i. Stems ending in -to (or -so when presumably arisen from a dental). -to Adjectives of quantity: qvan-tus, how great (quam); qvar-tus, fourth (for 786 qvatvortus from qvattvor); qvin-tus (or qvinctus),^^ (qvinqve); qud-tus, how great (a part), i.e. what number (qvo-, comp. qvot); sex-tus, sixth (sex); tan-tus, so great (tam); td-tus, so many-th; t6tus, whole. ' Gomp. is-tus (iste), that; ipsus (ipse), self.Chap. V] Dental Noun-Stems: -to (-so). 287 -to (-so) x. Adjectives: 7 7 (a) Participles, expressing completed action, done in the case of deponent verbs, and some others (§§ 734, 735); suffered in the case of verbs having also an active voice, and in many deponents (§ 734). See full list in §§ 689—709. Also §§ 734, 735- (b) Participles, or words of similar formation, used as adjec- tives of quality. (For -ato, &c. see below, § 796.) al-sus, cool (alg-ere); al-tus, high (al-Sre, to nourish); ap-tus, fit (api-sc-i); artus, narrow (arcere, to confine); assus, roast (comp. a£00); blaesus, lisping (comp. fiXaLo-os, bandy-legged); brtitus, brute; cassus, empty; castus, chaste (comp. Kadapos); coitus, sharp; cel-sus, high (cell-Sre, to strike?); cer-tus, sure (cer«-6re); crassus, thick; cunctus, all (covinc-ire); curtus, docked (comp. KtLpco); decrgpitus (that has cracked off I), worn out (crepare); densus, thick (comp. daa-vs); dierectus (Plaut.), crucified, usually dierecte; vocative? or adverb? (always trisyll. dis-eriggre?); diser-tus, fluent (dissgrSre? to discuss); elixus, boiled (comp. laxus, prolixus); fal-sus, false (failure); fastus (nefastus), lawful (fas); fessus, weary (f&ti-sc-i, to gape); fes-tus, festive (comp. fer-ise); fe-tus, pregnant (comp. fe-mina, fe-cundus, § 99. 6); fretus, relying (fer-re? cf. § 692); gmtus, tenacious, soft (§ 690); gratus, pleasing; hirtus, shaggy; in- fes-tus, set on (cf. § 704. n.); invltus, unwilling (for in-vic-tus? comp. f e/t-, €ku>v) ; ir-ri-tus, ineffectual (reri); Justus, just (jds-); l33tus, cheerful; lassus, tired; latus, broad (for tlatus, borne, cf. § 176. 3); laxus, loose; luxus, dislocated (comp. Xo£o?); lau-tus, splendid (lavare); lentus, pliant; mac-tus, made great (comp. mag- nus) ; msestus, sad (mserere); manifestus, hand-struck, i. e. palpable (§ 704. n.); multus, much; mustus, new; mfltus, dumb (comp. mussare; also jiveiv, to close the eyes); obesus (overeaten, i.e.), fat (6d-&re); psetus, blink-eyed; pSr-osus, hating (cf. p. 252); plautus, flat; putus, cleared, quite (comp. pu-tare, § 964); russus, red (comp. epvB-pos) ; sal-sus, salt (sallre); sanctus, holy,, good (sane-ire); sen- tus, squalid (comp. sentxna); si-tus, placed (sl/z-gre); spissus, crowded; stultus, foolish (camp. stdUdus); siibitus, sudden (subire); sublestus (Plaut.), weak; tacitus, silent (tacere); ter-sus, neat (terg- ere, to wipe); vastus, waste, huge; vegg-tus, active (§ 693). 2. Substantives: 7SS (a) Masculine: accensus, an apparitor (orig. supernumerary, Mommsen, accensere); cossus, a worm; also as proper name (from wrinkled skin); digitus, a finger (comp. da/cruXo?, beuciwcip, dlc&re, die-are, prodigium); ftisus, a spindle,; grossus, an unripe fig; guttus (gfltus), a bottle; hortus, a garden (cf. § 134); l&certus, (1) the muscle of the upper arm; (a) a lizard; lectus, a couch (comp. XeKrpov); liber-tus, a freedman (libfiro-); n&sus (nasum), a nose:v (comp. naris); ventus, wind; ursus, a bear (comp. apKTos). )288 Word-Formation. [Book III. lanista, a trainer of gladiators (comp. cltharista, KiOapio-Trjs): lixa, a camp-follower. Bassus; Cotta (for cocta?); Natta; Pansa, splay-foot ? (pand-Sre). (b) Feminine: buxus, box-tree; taxus,yew. &mlta, a father's sister; ansa, a handle; antistl-ta, a priestess (ante, stato-); arista, the heard of corn; ballista, a military engine (/3aAXeii/); beta, beet; blatta, a moth; capsa, a box (cap-6re?); ca- tasta, a platform; causa, a cause; cerussa, white lead (as if Krjpoecr- o-a?); ckarta, paper (xdprrjs); costa, a rib; coxa, the hip (comp. koxuvtj) ; creta, chalk; crista, a crest; crusta, rind, shell, &c.; cti- curbita, a gourd; culclta, a pillow; fossa, a ditch (fddS-re); gutta, a drop; hasta, a spear; kospita, a guest; impen-sa (sc. pecunia), expense (impend-6re); instita, a flounce or band; jiiven-ta, youth (jtivSn-); matta, a mat; mensa, a table; meta, a cone; multa, a fine; ndta, a mark (cf. § 647); noxa, hurt (ndc-ere); offen-sa, a striking against (offend-Sre); orblta, a wheel track (orbi-); pausa, a pause (jraveiv) ; planta, a sprout, the sole of the foot; porta, a gate; praetex-ta (sc. toga), a bordered robe (prsetex-Sre); prosa (sc. ora- tio), -prose (pro-vert-ere, cf. § 191. a); rgpul-sa, a repulse (repell- Sre); rixa, a quarrel (comp. epid-); rdsa, a rose (comp. pohov); rdta, a wheel; rilta, rue (comp. pvrrj)} sseta, a bristle; sagitta, an arrow; sec-ta, a party (sficare or sgqvi?); semita, a path; secespita, a knife; Sosplta (epithet of Juno), Preserver; sporta, a basket (comp. cnrvpld-) ; tensa, a sacred chariot; testa, a potsherd (for tors-ta, from torre-re?); ton-sa, an oar (tund-6re); Vesta, hearth-goddess (comp. ilr-ere, us-tum; 'Etrrta); vindicta, (1) rod nsed in the ceremony of manumission; (2) revenge (vindSc-); vita, life; vitta, a fillet (comp. viere); vdlil-ta, a scroll in architecture (volv-ere). (c) Neuter: arbtttnm, wild strawberry; bus-tum, a tomb (comp. com-bftr-8re); compitum, a crossroad (com-pSt-Sre?); cttbl-tum, the elbow (ctibare); defrtitum, must boiled down (defervere ?); die-turn, a saying (dic-Sre); dorsum, a back; exta (pi.), heart, liver, &c. (for ex-sec-ta?); fa-tum, destiny (fa-ri); frStum, a sea strait; frustum, a broken piece (comp. Opavciv, § 99. 6); furtum, a theft (fur-); letum, death; lti-tum, mud (comp. lav-are); lfltum, a yellow dye; mentum, the chin (comp. e-mln§re, to project); Omasum, bullock's tripe (a Gallic word); pas-sum, raisin wine (pand-Sre, to spread out to dry); pen-sum, a task (pend-Sre, to weigh); pessum (only acc.), ground (pSd-, foot); porten-tum, a portent (portend-6re); pratum, a meadow; prosecta (pi.), parts cut off,\ e.g. for sacrifice (prosgcare); pulpltum, a scaffold; punc-tum, a point (pung-Sre, to prick); ssep- tum, a fence (ssep-Ire); saxum, a rock; scortum, a whore (orig. a hide acc. to Varro; comp. cdr-ium); scrdta (pi.), trash; scutum, a leather-covered shield (comp. ovevroy); sugges-tum, a platform (sugg6r-ere); tec-turn, a house (t6g-6re); tes-tum, a pot-lid (torr- 6re); very actum, a fallow-field; virgultum, a thicket (virg-fcl-a-); v5-tum, a vow (v6v-ere).Chap. V\ Dental Noun-Stems: -to (-so),-mento. 289 -us-to i. e. -to appended to a suffix in -os, -us (-or, -ur). 789 angus-tus, narrow (angor-, ang-Sre; comp. ayyetv, to throttle); aug-us-tus, consecrated (aug-ur-); faus-tus, propitious (fa- vor-); dn-us-tus, laden (6ntis-); rSb-us-tus, strong (robdr-); v6n-us- tus, pretty (v6nus-); vStus-tus, ancient (vetiis-). -es-to i. e. -to appended to a suffix -os or -us. fUn-es-tus, deadly (filn-iis-); hdn-es-tus, honourable (I1611- o-s); intempes-tus, unseasonable (in temp&s-); mdd-es-tus, modest (modo-; comp. m6d-6r-a-ri); m61-es-tus, troublesome {exhausting, from mdl-Sre, to grind}); sc81-es-tus, wicked (scSlus-). -c-to i. e. -to appended to the suffix -8c, -Ic. 790 1. Adjectives: senectus (Plaut.), old (sen-ec-); hence senecta, sc. setas, old age; iimectus, moist (comp. dm-ere).- 2. Substantives: car-ec-tum, reed beds (car-6c-); d&m- ec-tum (Fest.), old for dumetum (§ 798. 2); frutec-tum (also in Col. frutetum; comp. fruticetum, § 798. 2), shrubbery (friitSc-); sal-ic-tum, a willow bed (s&lic-); vir-ec-tum, greenery (vir-ere). -en-to 1. Adjectives: cru-entus, bloody (comp. cru-or). 79* 2. Substantives : (a) feminine: pdlenta, pearl barley (poll&i-; comp. 7rakrj); placenta, a cake (probably from acc. of ir\aKovs)> (b) Neuter: arg-entum, silver (comp. dp-yos, white); carpen- tum, a covered two-wheeled carriage; flu-entum, a stream (flu-fere); pilentum, a covered four-wheeled carriage; t&lentum, a balance (rakavTov); ungven-tum, ointment (ungvfen-). So the names of towns: Agrigentum ('AKpayavr-, nom. 'AKpayas), Bux-entum, Boxgrove (fouxo-; Ilu^oei/r-, nom. Ilvgots;); Grttm-en- tum, Hill-town? (grumo-); Laur-entum, Laurel grove} (lauro-); Tarentum (Tapas); comp. Sipontum (2inovs). -m-en-to i.e. -to appended to the suffix -mSn (§ 850). 792 Substantives, (a) neuter; usually derived from verbs. Many are used chiefly in the plural. 511-mentum, nourishment (&1-Sre); amentum, a javelin thong, (for api-mentum, a fitting ? comp. ap-tus, anreLv)', argil-mentitm, a proof (argu-Sre); arma-menta (pi.)? tackle (arma-re); ar-mentum, a plough beast (arS-re); atramentum, ink (atro-); auct6r£~mentum, hire (auctora-ri); tolandl-mentum, soothing (blandl-re); cse-mentum, quarried stone (csed-Sre); calcea-mentum, a shoe (calceare); c&pilla- mentum, hair (capillo-); coag-mentum, a joining (coag-8re); cogno- mentum, a surname (cogno-sc-6re); comple-mentum (rare), a filling up (comple-re); dehdnesta-mentum, a disgrace (deh&nesta-re); de- tri-mentum, a loss by wear (det6r-6re; comp. detrl-tus); ddcfc-men- 19'2go Word-Formation. [Book III. turn, a lesson (dftcere); &l§-menta (pi.), first principles (means of growth! cornp. 61escere); em61ii-mentum, gain (.by grinding; emd- l-3re); expSrl-mentum, a test (expgrl-ri); fer-mentum, yeast (ferv- ere); ferra-mentum, an iron implement (comp. ferra-tus); fo-men- tum, poultice, &c. (fovere); frag-mentum, a fragment (fra/zg-6re) ; frfl-mentum, corn (comp. flriiges); funda-mentum, a groundwork (funda-re); incita-mentum, an incentive (incitare) *r incre-mentum, increase, germ (incre-sc-ere); instrii-mentum, stock of implements, a means (instru-Sre); intertrl-mentum, waste by rubbing (cf. detri- mentum); irrita-mentum, an incentive (irrlta-re); jft-mentum, a beast of draught (ju/zg-6re; comp. jftg-um); la-menta (pi.), lamen- tation (for clamamenta? cf. § no. 3); 13va-mentum, a relief (l$va-re); lo-meAtum, a wash (lav-are); machma^inentum, a ma- chine (macMna-re); mo-mentum, motion, impulse (mOvere); m6nu- mentum, a memorial (monere); natri-mentum, nourishment (ntltrl- re); d-mentum, a fat membrane; 6p§ri-mentum, a lid (6p£r!-re); ornk-mentum, an ornament (orna-re); p&lfldiinientum, a military cloak; paVi-mentum, pavement (p^Vi-re, to beat, ram); pSdamentum, a prop for vines, See. (pgda-re, to" put feet to)\ pig-mentum, a paint (pi/zg-ere); pul-mentum, pulpa-mentum, meat (pulpa-); purga- mentum, refuse (purga-re) -r ra-mentum, a scraping, chip (rad-Sre); rudi-mentum, a trial, beginning (foil-exercise? rMis, a foil?); ssepi- mentum, a hedge (saepi-re); sar-mentum, a vine pruning, i.e. a branch requiring to be' pruned off (sarp-6re, to prune); seg-mentum, a strip (sScare); sternft-mentum, sneering (sternu-fire); stra-men- tum, straw (ster«-6re, stra-tus); strig-mentum, a scraping (string- ere); suffi-mentum, incense (suffi-re); tSg-u-mentum (integumen- turn), a covering (t8g-8re); temp6r§.-mentum, mixture, moderation (tempera-re); testa-mentum, a will (testa-ri); to-mentum, stuffing (clippings ? comp. tondere); tor-mentum, a hurling engine (torqvere); vestl-mentum, a dress (vestl-re) ; and others. (b) Feminine: fulmenta, a prop; ramenta, a shaving; both old forms. See the neuters. ul-en-to Sometimes the older -dlento; sometimes the later -Ilento. 793 From real or assumed derivatives in -to, -ti. Adjectives: corpu-lentus, fleshy (for corpOr-ulentus); escu-lentus, eatable (esca-); fraudu-lentus, cheating (fraudi-); gracl- lentus, thin (comp. gracilis) ldcu-lentus, bright (lilci-); perhaps also gainful for lucru-lentus (lucro-) f lutu-lentus, muddy (l&to-); macl-lentus, wasted (macie-) ; opii-lentus, wealthy (6pi-); potu-len- tus, drinkable (poto-); pulvSr-ulentus, dusty (pulvls-); pilr-ulentiis, festering (pits-); sangvin-olentus, blood-stained (sangvfen-); tem- ulentuff, drunken (compi tem-etum); trticu-lentus, fierce (triici-); turfou-letttus, riotous (tttrba-)}. vino-lentus, drunken (vino-); vio- lentus, violent (vi- for vlsi-). ^ Indeclinable adjectives- of number, denoting multiples of 794, -gm 1 ) Un: ginti ^or _ta) = decsm-ti (or-ta).Chap. V] Dental Noun-Stems: -ginta, -ato. 291 Tf-ginti, twenty (dvi-dgcem-ti, two-ten-ty); trl-ginta,• thirty (tri-); quadr&ginta (quatvor-, § 158); qvinqv£ginta, fifty (qvinqve-); sexa- ginta, sixty (sex); septuaginta, seventy (septem, see below); oct6- ginta, eighty (octo); nonaginta, ninety (n6vem, see below). Compare centum, supposed to be for decem-decem-ta. The formation of the higher cardinal numbers is in some points very obscure. The final vowel—i in viginti, a in the others—is found also in Greek, but is there short; e.g. etxoo-t, Dor. eixari: rpMKovra, See. The a before the guttural in quadraginta, &c. is also found in Greek5. e.g. rasra-apaKoura, but the origin of none of these vowels is clear. The final i in viginti may be a dual form: the final a of triginta, 5cc. is* by some considered to be the same as the ordinary a of the neuter plural. Septuaginta, seventy, is abnormally formed instead' of septen- ginta, probably to avoid confusion with septingenti, seven hundred. (For the u comp. septuennisr.J NSnaginta is probably for ndvln^- aglnta, the m being assimilated to the initial n. (Schleicher derives it directly from the ordinal ndno-.) -centtj j Declfnable adjectives of number, denoting multiples of a 795 -gen 0 ) hundred only used in plural : gento- = centum. dticenti, two hundred (duo-centum)/; trScenti, three hundred (tri-); quadringenti, four hundred (qvatvor, see below); quingenti, Jive hundred (for qvinqvigenti); sexcenti, six hundred (sex); sep- tingenti, seven hundred (septem)*; octingenti, tight hundred (octo, see below); nongenti, nine hundred (n5n is for novem). The-in in quadringenti and octingenti has perhaps been sug- gested by septingenti (where it has its justification in septem ; for the i cf. § 204. 2. c) and qvingenti, where it is radical. It may have been adopted to increase the distinction of the hundreds from the tens. The difference of the vowel before nt in the hundreds compared with the tens, e. g. quadringenti, quadraginta, is probably due partly to the desire for distinction, partly to the fact that the e of a suffix (decern) more easily passes into i (quadraginta) than the e in centum (quadringenti), which is apparently, though perhaps not really (cf. § 794), radical. -ato 1. Participles from verbs with -a stems (§ 697); e.g. 796 &matus, &c. loved (ama-re); &c.: or adjectives formed as such: &ciile-atus, furnished with a sting or thorn (acu-leo-); &dip-atus, fattened (ad6p-); ser-atus, of bronze (ees-); alb-atus, clad in white (albo-); ans-atus, with handles (ansa-); arm-atus, armed (arma- 19—;292 Word-Formation. [Book III. re); aur-atus, gilded (auro-); barb-atus, bearded (barba-); bracca- tus, breeched (bracca-); cSLpill-atus, hairy (capillo-); capit-atus,«with a head (c&piit-); c&ten-atus, chained (catena-); centuri-atus, of the centuries (centiiria-); cetr-atus, armed with a short shield (cetra-); cincinnatus, curled (cincinno-); cdlumn-atus, furnished with columns (cdlumna-); cord-atus, having good sense (cord-); c6tburn-atus, buskined, i.e. tragic (cftthurno-); crgpld-atus, sandalled (crgplda-); cret-atus, chalked (creta-); crist-atus, crested (crista-); ciiri-atus, of the Curia (curia-); dellc-atus, charming, dainty (filtered, deliqvare ?); dent-atus, toothed (denti-); dimidi-atus, halved (dlmldio-); F&b-atus, beaned, chiefly as surname (faba-); faec-atus, made from lees (fseci-); falc-atus, sickle-shaped (falci-); ferr-atus, iron-covered (ferro-); gSnlctil- atus, with knees, i.e. jointed (g§nl-ciilo-) ; gutt-atus, speckled (gutta-); hast-atus, armed with spear (hasta-); littSr-atus, lettered, i.e. brand- ed or learned (littfcra-); ltip-atus, armed with jagged spikes like wolfs teeth (liipo-); m8r-atus, -mannered (mos-); numm-atus, supplied with money (numm-); dbser-atus, moneyed over, i.e. in debt (ses-); ocell-atus, with little eyes or spots (ficello-); 6cHl-atus, having eyes ((jciilo-); orblciil-atus, rounded (orbic&lo-); palli-atus, dressed in a Greek cloak (pallio-); PcLlCLd-atus, with the military cloak on (comp. paluda-mentum); palm-atus, worked with palm-branches (palma-) ; penn-atus, winged {penna-); pil-atus, armed with apike(pilo-); pllle- atus, bonneted (pllleo-); pinn-atus, feathered (pinna-); prsetext-atus, wearing the bordered robe (prsetexta-, § 790); torqv-atus, wearing a collar (torqvi-); tr&be-atus, wearing the state robe (tra-bea-); tiinl- catus, in a shirt (tiinlca-); visc-atus, limed (visco-); vitt-atust filleted (vitta-); ungvent-atus, anointed (ungvento-); and many others. 2. Substantives: arqv-atus, (1) the jaundice, (2) a jaundiced person (arquo-, the rainbow ?); palatum, the palate; viotori-atus (sc. nummus), a victory-coin (victoria-). -oto segr-otus, sick (segro-). See also § 689. 79, -tito 1. Participles from verbs with -u stems (§690); e.g. &cii-tus, sharpened (acu-6re); &c.; or adjectives formed as such, chiefly from substantives with -u stems: ast-utus, crafty (astu-); cinct-utus, girdle-wearing (cinctu-); corn-utus, horned (cornu-); delib-utus, smeared (comp. Ae//3eti/); hirs-dtus, shaggy (comp. Mrto-); nas-utus, with large, or, meta- phorically, sharp nose (naso-); vers-utus, adroit (versu-, a turning:; ygr-utus, javelin-armed (veru-). actfltum (adv.), instantly (actu-. See § 528). 2. Substantives: Sluta, leather; clcuta, hemlock; M&tuta, God- dess of dawn (comp. mine?); vgrutum, a javelin (veru-). See also § 788 b, c. -eto 1. Participles from verbs with stems in -e (§ 692V og e.g. defletus, lamented (deflere); &c.: also the adjective' f&c-etus, witty. 'Chap. V] Dental Noun-Stems: -tlto, -eto, -Ito; -tu. (-su). 293 2. Substantives: (a) masculine or feminine: b51etus (m.), a kind of mushroom (from /3a)Xir^??); Mfineta, a surname of Juno, in whose temple money was coined: hence mint; rftbeta, a toad (said to be from rubo-, bramble). See also § 788 b. {b) neuter: (1) acatum, vinegar (ace-sc-ere); ftletum (old word), dung (61ere?); tapetum (cf. § 418), a carpet; temetum, in- toxicating drink (comp. tem-ulentus, abs-tem-ius); trap-eturn (cf. § 418), an olive mill. (2) Names expressing a place where a plant, &c. grows: (But few of these words are used frequently): sesciil-etum (Hor.), an oak forest (sesciilo-); Srundln-etum, a reed bed (arunddn-); aspr-etum, rough place (aspSro-, § 347); bux- etum (Mart.), box plantation (buxo-); castan-etum (Col.), chestnut grove (castanea-); cupress-etum, a cypress grove (cupresso-); dtlm- etum, a thicket (ddmo-); fim-stum (Plin.), dunghill (limo-); frutic- etum, a shrubbery (frutSc-); myrt-etum, myrtle grove (myrto-); fillv-etum, an oliveyard (61iva-); pln-etum, pine grove (plno-); qverc-etum, oak grove (qverco-); r6s-etum, rose bed (r6sa-); sax- etiim (once Gic.), bed of rocks (saxo-); senti-c-etum (Plaut.), thorn bed (senti-: formed in analogy with fruticetum ?); sgpulcr-etum (Catull.), a graveyard (sSpulcro-); vSt6r-etum (Colum.), old fal- low land (vStus-); vin-etum,# vineyard (vino-); with others used very rarely. So Argiletum, marlbed (axgilla-), popularly misunder- stood by the Romans. -Ito 1. Participles from verbs with -i stems (§ 695); e.g. 799 aud-itus, heard (aud-ire); See.: and adjectives formed as such: siv-itus, of a grandfather (&vo-); aur-itus, with ears (auri-); Cerr-Itus (for Cereritus), frenzied by Ceres' influence (Cgr6s-); crin- itus, hairy (crini-); fortu-Itus (Hor., Phaedr.), fortultus, (Manil., Petr., Juv.), by chance (forti-, cf. § 405); gr&tu-Itus (Plaut.), gra- tu-Itus (Stat.), without pay (comp. gratia-); mir-itus, married', of marriage (masi-); mell-itus, honeyed (mell-); patr-itus, of a father (patr-); pell-itus, skin-clad (pelli-); pSr-itus, skilled (cf. p. 254); sci-tus, clever, knowing (sci-re); turr-itus, turreted (turri-). 2. Substantives: pltu-ita, phlegm (comp. TTTveiv, spu-Sre); scriblita, a cake. ii. Stems ending in -tu, -ti, -t (-su, -si, -s when presumably arisen from a dental). -tu (-su) Substantives derived mostly from verbs, and generally 800 denoting an act. (The accusative and ablative cases are tbe so-called supines.) See §§ 397—399 and Book II. Chap. xxiv.294 Word-Formation. [Book III adven-rtus, an arrival (advSn-ire); ses-tus, heat (comp. aldeiv, to set on fire); &mic-tus, a garment (&mic-ire); anfr actus, a circuit, a bend (am, fraw-g-ere); anbel-itus, panting (anhela-re); app&ra-tus, equipment (appara-re); appStl-tus, appetite (appetl-, appet-Sre); ar~ bitr-atus, judgment, choice (arbitra-ri); ar-tus, a joint (comp. apetv, to Jit)\ aspec-tus, sight (aspicfi-re); as-tus, cunning (§ 396); audi- tus, hearing (audl-re); bala-tus, a bleating (bala-re); cses-tus, a gauntlet (csed-Sre? hence a strip); can-tus, a song (c&n-8re); cap-tus, grasp, esp. mental (capS-re); ca-sus, an accident (c&d-Sre); cen-sus, a reckoning (censere); coitus, a connexion (co-ire); ccetus, an assem- bly (same as last); cdmlta-tus, a train (comlta-re); crdpl-tus, a rattling (crfipare); cr&cia-tus, torturing (criicia-re); decur-sus, a descent, a course (decurr-Sre); delec-tus, aselection, levy (delig-gre); even-tus, an occurrence (evSn-ire); exerci-tus, an army (exercere); exl-tus, departure (exlre); fastus, pride; fe-tus, bearing, offspring (comp. fe-cundus, fe-mina); fle-tus, weeping (fle-re); fluc-tus, a 'wave (flugv-, flu-Sre); fruc-tus, enjoyment, fruits (frugv-, fru-i); ges-tus, gesture (g6r-6re); gustus, taste (comp. yeveiv); habl-tus, habit in various senses (habe-re); halitus, breath (comp. hala-re); hia-tus, a gape (hia-re); ic-tus,/z blovj (Ic-£re); instinc-tus, instigation (instingv-fire); itus (Lucr., Cic.), a going (ire); lessus (old word; only in acc. s,), wailing; luc-tus, grief (lilgere); luxus, luxury; merca-tus, trading (merca-ri); mgtus, fear; mo-tus, motion (md- vere); mligi-tus, lowing (mtlgi-re); necessus (cf. § 432; probably from ne, ced-ere); nexus, a bond (nect-Sre); or-tus, a rising (dr-i- ri); par-tus, birth (par6-re); pas-sus, a step (pand-Sre, to stretch); plau-sus, a clapping (plaud-ere); portus, a harbour; po-tus, a drink- ing (comp. po-ta-re); progres-sus, an advance (progr8d-i); qusas- tus, gain (quser-Sre); qves-tus, complaint (qvgr-i); ric-tus, mouth- opening (ri>zg-i); ri-sus, laughter (ridere); ritus, a rite; sal-tus, a leaping (s&li-re); a mountain glen (comp. aX-oroy?); sex-us, sex (sSc-are ?); si-tus, situation (siw-gre); spir-itus, a breath (spira-re); strSp-i-tus, a din (strSp-6re); sum-p-tus, expense (sam-Sre); tac-tus, a touch (ta«g-8re); tinni-tus, a tinkling (tinni-re)j transl-tus, a pas- sage (transi-re); vesti-tus, dress (vesti-re); vic-tus, living, food (vigv-, vrv-6re) ; vi-sus, sight (vid-ere); vol-tus, expression of counte- nance1 looks, cf. Cic. Leg. I. 9 (velle, volo); ft-sus, use (tit-i); &c. frStus (m.), a strait; impetus (m.), an onset (in p$t§re); mStus (m.),fear; in which t is apparently radical. -ul-tu sing-ultus, sobbing; t&m-ultus, uproar (tum-ere). -atu From substantives, but formed as if from verbs with -a Sox stems (e.g. consulare, to be consul), denote (1) the holding office, (2) the office itself (3) the body of officers. cselib-atus (Sen. Suet.), celibacy (cselSb-); cib-atus (prae-Cic. and Plin.), food (cibo-); consM-atus, a being consul, the consulship (con-Chap. V.] Dental Noun-Stems: -atu; ti (-si). 295 ---1--- fiftl-) ; duc-atus (post-Aug.), leadership (diic-); Sqvit-atus, cavalry (6qv6t-); jUdic-atus (Gic. once), judgeship (jddgc-); m&gistr-atus, magistracy (magistro-); pSdlt-atus, infantry (pSdgt-); pontif Ic-atus, the pontificate (pontifSc-); prim-atus (Varr., Plin.), primacy (primo-)1; princip-atus, chieftainship (princSp-); dgcemvlr-atus (so triumvira- tus, &c.), membership of a commission often (decemvlro-); qvadrim- atus (Plin., Col.), age of four years old (qvadrlmo-); re-atus (see Quintil. 8. 3. 34), condition of an accused person (reo-) ; s§n-atus, a body of old men (s6n-, sSnex); summ-atus (Lucr.), sovereignty (summo-); trlbiln-atus. tribunate (trlbiino-). -ti(-si) 1. Adjectives: dis, rich (contracted from dives); fortis, 802 brave (fer-re; comp. (jbeprepor, See.)* mltis, mild' p6tis, able (comp. 7ro(m, a husband); sons, guilty; tristis, sad. C&mer-s, a man of Camerinum; Tifour-s, a man of Tibur. 2. Substantives: (a) masculine and feminine: amussis (m.), 803 a carpenter's rule; antes (m. pi.) ranks; ars (f.), art (comp. ar-tus, a joint, ap-ap-io-iceiv); assis, usually as (m.), a penny; axis or assis (m.), an axle-tree, a board; cassis (m. § 432), a mesh of a net; cautes (f.), a rock; classis (f.), a class, a fleet (for kXclctls Dor. from /caX-eiv?); cdhors or cors (f.), a yard, a company (com, hor-; comp. ^op-ros); cos (f.), a whetstone {comp. cautes) * cratis (f.), a hurdle of wicker; cutis (f.), skin (comp. scfttum, okvtos)'i dens (m.), a tooth (comp. odoir-, nom. odov?); ensis (m.), a sword; fatis (only in adfatim, to satiety), a yawn (comp. f&ti- scSre, f&tigare); fons (m.), a spring of water, &c.; fors (f.), chance; frons (f. § 419), the forehead; fustis (m.), a cudgel; gens (f.), a race (gSn-, gignSre); grates (f. pi.), thanks (comp. gra-tus, gratia); iiostis (m. f.), a stranger, an enemy; lens (f.), a lentil; lis (for stlis, f.), a strife, a suit; mens (f.), a mind (comp, r$-mln-isci) j^mensis (m.), a month (comp. ^^); mes-sis (f.)* harvest (m6t-6re, to mow)] mons (m.), a mountain; mors (f.), death (m6r-i); n&tis (f.) a buttock; neptis (f.), a granddaughter (comp. nfcp-ot-); nox (f.), night (comp. vvkt-, nom. pvg); pars (f.), apart (comp. 7rop-, erropou aor., p&r8-re); pestis (f.), destruction (comp. perd-$re, nepO-tiv); pons (m.), a bridge (comp. pondus); postis (m.), a doorpost; puis (f.), pulse; ratis (f.), a raft (comp. remus, an oar; ep-errjs, a rower); restis (f.), a rope; sementis (f.)t seedtime (semSn-); sentes (m. pi.), thorns; sitis (f.), thirst; sors (f.), a lot (sSr-Sre, to put in rows); sponte (abl. s. f.), with a will; testis (m.) (comp. re*-, tlktclv) ; (m. f.), a witness (comp. tck-^plov); tussis (f.), a cough (for tud-tis from tuwdSre?); vates (m.), a seer; vec-tis (m.), a roller or lever (vSli-ere); ves-tis (f.), a dress (comp. kv-vvvai, e); termes (m.), a cutting; trames (m.), a path (tra-ns). -en-ti 1. Participles present active of verbs: 807 ama-ns, loving (ama-); audi-ens, hearing (audi-); c&pi- ens, taking (capS-re); gign-ens, begetting (gi-gn-Sre); m6n-ens, advising (m6n-ere) ; obiivisc-ens, forgetting (oblivisci); rSg-ens, ruling (r8g-8re); tribu-ens, assigning (tribu-6re); anc^so from all verbs. 2. Adjectives, originally present participles, or formed as such: absens, absent (abes-se); &bundans, abundant (abunda-re, to overflow); arrdgans, arrogant (arrdga-re, to claim); Clemens, mer- ciful; congru-ens, suitable (congru-6re, to agree); contln-ens, con- tiguous (continere); dilig-ens, accurate (dilig-fire, to love); elggans, neat; el6qv-ens, eloquent (eloqvi-); evid-ens, evident (ex vld-ere); frgqvens, crowded; impud-ens, shameless (in pud-ere); inndc-ens, harmless (in n6c-ere); ins61-ens, excessive, haughty (in sdl-ere, to be wont); insons, guiltless (in sons); lib-ens, willing (lib-ere); lic-ens, presumptuous (llc-ere); pdt-ens, powerful (p6t-esse); prsegnans, preg- nant (lit. before bearing? prae, g§n-); prsesens, present (prsa esse); prsestans, excellent (prse-stclre); prfLd-ens, prudent (pro vldere, to foresee) ; rScens, fresh; rSpens, sudden; sap-iens, wise (s&pfi-re, to•Chap. V\ Dental Noun-Stems : -6t,-enti,-ati,-tat. 297 have taste); splend-ens, glittering (splendere); stellans, starry (stella-); valens, powerful (valere). 3. Substantives, originally participles, &c.: adulesc-ens (m.), a young man (adulesc-8re, to grow); &nlmans, an animal (anima-, breath); cli-ens (m. also ciienta f.), a client (clu-ere, to hear); consentls (m. pi.), epithet of the twelve chief deities, the Colleagues (com esse); dext-ans (m.), five-sixths (lit. a sixth off, de-sexto-); dodrans (m.), three-fourths, lit. a fourth off (de- qvadro-); infans, an infant (in, fa-ri); occid-ens (sc. sol), the west (occld-ere, to fall); driens, the east (drlri, to rise); parens (m. f.), a parent (parS-re); rtidens (m.), a cable; serpens (m. f.), a snake (serp- 6re, to crawl); sextans, a sixth (sexto-); torrens, a boiling mshing stream (torre-re, to burn); tri-ens (m.), a trithing, i.e. a third (tri-). 1-en-ti pestl-l-ens, pestilential (pesti-); pSt-iil-ans, saucy (comp. petul-cus from pfit-ere). -s-ti agre-stis, of the fields (agro-); csele-stis, heavenly (cselo-). 808 Comp. also d&m-esti-cus, § 769, silv-est-ris, § 904, 6g- est-as, p6t-est-as, § 811. -ati Adjectives expressing origin. 809 cftj-as, of what country (cujo-); infernas, of the lower country (inferno-) ; inf Im-atis, one of the lowest rank (infimo-); nostr- as, a countryman of ours (nostro-); optlm-as (§ 418), one of the best party (optimo-); p6n-ates (m. pi.), household gods (pgno-, store)-, summ-ates (m. pi.), men of the highest ranks (summo-); siipernas, of the upper country (superno-). Similarly from Italian towns: Antias, a man of Antium (Anti- um); Ardeas (Ardea); Arpinas (Arplnum); Atinas (Atina); Capenas (Capena); Caslnas (Casinum); FSrentlnas (Farentinum); Fidenas (Fldense but Rdena, Verg.); Fruslnas (Frtislno); Larinas (Lari- num); R&vennas (Ravenna); Sarsinas (Sarslna); Urbinas (Urbl- num). -at damnas (cf. § 445), condemned (damna-re); s&ti-as, a glut (satia-re). -t-at So usually, not tati-; cf. § 445. For the preceding short Sio vowel, e.g. Ifcas, see § 213. 6; IStas, § 213. 5.C and 42; for its omission § 245. Abstract substantives, derived chiefly from adjectives (from 500 to 600 in number, according to L. Meyer): all feminine. acerbl-tas, tartness (acerbo-); sedili-tas, adileship (sedili-); seqvaii-tas, equality (seqvali-); ssqvi-tas, fairness (seqvo-); aes-tas, summer (for sesti-tas, sestu-) ; se-tas, age (sevo-, § 94); seterni-tas, eternity (seterno-); affini-tas, relationship by marriage (afflni-);Word-Formation. [Book III &gili-tas, agility (agili-); amceni-tas, pleasantness (amceno-); antiqvi- tas, antiquity (antlqvo-); anxie-tas, anxiety (anxio-); Appie-tas (formed by Cic. Fam. 3. 7), Appius-ness (Appio-); asp6ri-tas, rough- ness (aspgro-); assldui-tas, constant attention, frequency (assiduo-); atroci-tas, cruelty (atroci-); auctor-i-tas, advice, .authority (auctor-); avidi-tas, greediness (avido-); b§nigm-tas, kindliness, bounty (bfcnigno-); cseci-tas, blindness (csbco-); calamitas (calamo-, a stalk ? comp. KoXafios and culmus), blight, disaster; cari-tas, dearness (caro-); cSlebri-tas, celebrity (celebri-); clvi-tas, citizenship (clvi-); dignl- tas, worthiness (digno-) ; ddclli-tas, aptness for being taught (doclll-); ebriS-tas, drunkenness (ebrio-); facili-tas, easiness; facul-tas, do- ableness, power (facili-); familiari-tas, intimacy (familiar!-); hered- itas, inheritance (hered-); hdnes-tas, honourableness (lidnos-); hti- mani-tas, fAlow-feeling, politeness (hftmano-); immilni-tas, freedom from public charges (immtlni-); jtiven-tas, youth (juven-); lfcvl-tas, lightness (l§vi-); liber-tas, freedom (llbSro-); majes-tas, dignity (majos-); morosi-tas, fretfulness (moroso-); n§cessi-tas, necessity (necesse); pauci-tas, fewness (pauco-); pauper-tas, poverty (pau- p6r-); pie-tas, dutifulness (pio-); post8ri-tas, posterity (postSro-); proprie-tas, proper quality, ownership (proprio-); qvali-tas, quality (qvali-); satie-tas, satiety (comp. s&tis, s&tiat-); seciiri-tas, security (secOro-); simplici-tas, simplicity (simplici-, nom. simplex); sdcie- tas, partnership (s&cio-); tempes-tas, a season, weather (tempfis-); v&rie-tas, variety (vario-); fiber-tas, fertility (tiber-); vSnus-tas, beauty (vSnus-); vernili-tas, slavishness, coarse jesting (vernili-); vgtus-tas, old age (vetus-); iini-tas, unity (fino-); Oniversi-tas, a whole, either of persons (i.e. a corporation) or of things (universo-); v61un-tas, will (for volenti-tas, § 28); vdlup-tas, pleasure (vdl&p, § 516); fttili-tas, usefulness (atili-); and many others. -es-t-at Sg-es-tas, want (6g-ere); pot-estas, power (p6ti-); pro- 8n bably formed as if from substantives in 0s- or 6s- (as honestas, tempes-tas)^ -oti dos (f.), a dowry (d&-). -ot nSpos (m.), a grandson (comp. a-v€%f/-i6s1 i. e. common grandson); sacerdos (m. f.), a priest (s&c£ro-, da-). -■Qt salUs (f.), safety (for salvo-t-). -ttit Substantives feminine.: juvsn-tus, youth (jftven-); s6nec-tus, old age (sgn-ec-); servl-tus, slavery (servo-); vir-tus, manliness (viro-). -§ti 16cftples, rich (perhaps compound of 16co- and ple-to; cf. 812 Cic. Rep. 2. 16). For tapete (n.), trapetes (m. pi.) see § 418 and -eto, § 798, 1 b.Chap. V.J Dental Noun-Stems: -ti, -t; -oso. 299 -Iti Qtilrls, a Roman citizen; Samnls, a Samnite (Samnio-). For dls, mltis, See. see under -ti (§ 802). Compound stem-endings: -tiimo, § 757; -tlvo, §764; -tico, -risi, §§ 769, 782; -tat, -estat, -tat, §§ 810, 811; -tM6n, § 847; -tino, -ter-no,-tino,-trlno, §§827, 829, 840, 842; -tion(-sion), § 854; -tibili (-sibili), § 877; -tili (-sili), § 878^ -tero, -astSro, -titro (-sfi.ro), §§838, 889, 893; -tru, -t8ri, -estfiri, -t§r, -tor (-s5r), §§ 903—905, 908; -ilcio, -itio, -ntio, -torio (-sorio), §§ 931—933, 943. iii. Stems ending in -so, -si (for -to, -ti). -so See under -to, §§ 787, 788. -5so For -onso (§ 191, 2), and this again perhaps for -onti-o; comp. yepovcrLa for yepovria. The -i probably caused or assisted the assibilation (§ 143). Adjectives (said to be 500 in number) expressing fitness: actu-osus. full of motion (actu-); sestu-osus, burning hot (sestu-): ambiti-osus, ambitious (ambitu-); anim-osus, spirited (Unimo-); ann-osus, full of years, aged (anno-); aqv-osus, watery (aqva-); c&l&mit-osus, disastrous (for calamitat-osus); call-osus, hard-skinned (callo-); capti-osus, ensnaring, captious (captu- or caption-); cari- osus, decayed (carie-); clamosus, screaming (for clamos-osus); copi- osus, rich (copia-); crlmin-osus, reproachful (crimen-); dol-osus, crafty (d51o-); ebri-osus, a drunkard (ebrio-); fam-osus, notorious for good or ill (fama-); form-osus, shapely (forma); fr&g-osus, broken (for fragoa-osus); fructu-osus, fruitful (fructu-); frutic-osus, full of shrubs (friitSc-); g&n&r-osus, shewing breed, well-born (gSnus-); grati-osus, influential (gratia-); herb-osus (poet.), grassy (herba-); ingSni-osus, clever (ingSnio-); invjdi-osus, exposed to odium (invidia-); jdc-osus, sportive (joco-); luxilri-osus, luxurious (luxftria-); mend- osus, faulty (men-da-); morb-osus, diseased (morbo-); mor-osus, wayward, cross (mos-, a whim); niv-osus, snowy (mvi-); nod-osus, knotty (nodo-); 6di-osus, troublesome (6dio-); offlci-osus, dutiful, obliging (officio-) ; dn&r-osus, burdensome (6nus-)_; .oti-osus, at leisure (otio-); pScdni-osus, moneyed (p&cHnia-); pSrieul-osus, dangerous (p&rlciilo-); pernici-osus, destructive (pernicie-)pisc-osus (rare, Ov., Verg.), full offish (pisci-); qusestu-osus, gainful (qvaestu-); rellgi-osus, scrupulous (for rellgion-osus); silv-osus, wooded (silva-) ; sqvam-osus, scaly (sqvama-); strig-osus, thin (? strlga-, a swathe); sttidi-osus, -zealous (studio-); susplci-osus, suspicious (for suspicion- osus); sumptu-osus, costly (sumptu-); vent-osus, windy (vento-); ventri-osus, potbellied (ventri-): verb-osus, wordy (verbo-); vermln- osus (Plin.), full of worms (vermSn-); vin-osus, wine loving (vino-); viti-osus. faulty (vitio-); and many others.300 Word-Formation. [Book IIL -c-oso belli-cosus, war-loving (bello-, comp. bellicus, adj.) ; 814 tSngbrl-cosus (Cic., also tenebrosus, Verg., Ov.), dark (tgnSbra-, but Cic. in poetic translation has tenebricus). ♦l-5so formId6-15sus, fearful (formid&n-, the n being either dropped or changed into 1). -Ic-ul-oso febr-iculosus (Catullfeverish (febri-, febricula-); m6t- iciilosus (Plaut.), in fear (m6tu-); sit-Iculosus (Hor.), parched (slti-); somn-Iculosus, drowsy (somno-). -u-080 Probably formed on a false analogy with qusestu-osus, &c.: monstr-uosus, prodigious (monstro-); montu-osus, moun- tainous (monti-, but cf. § 405); vdluptu-osus (Plin. Ep.), pleasurable (voluptat-). -i-oso Probably formed on a false analogy with odiosus, &c.: ciir-iosus, careful (ciira-) ;l&bor-iocus, laborious (libos-); lusc-It-i-osus (or lusc-iosus), purblind (lusco-). -en-si Adjectives (some used as substantives) formed from names 3t5 of places: 1. From appellatives: ainanu-ensis (m. Suet, twice), a secretary (a maim); atri-ensis (m. sc. servus), house steward (atrio-); castr- ensis, of the camp (castro-); circ-ensis, of the circus (circo-); fdr- ensis, of the forum (f6ro-); frStense (sc. mare), the straits of Sicily (frgto-); LatSr-ensis, properly of the bodyguard (latfts-); Portu-ensis (God. Theod.), of the Port, viz. Ostia (portu-) ; prat-ensis, of the meadows (prato-). 2. From proper names (which are given in brackets in the nom. case): Alli-ensis (Allia); Ambraci-ensis (Ambracia); Arlmlmenses (Ari- minum); Bononi-ensis (BonSnia); Cann-ensis (Cannse); Circei-ensis (Circeii); Corflni-ensis (Corfinium); Cur-ensis (Cures); Hereulan- ensis (Herculaneum); Hispal-ensis (Hisp&lis or Hispal); Hispani- ensis (Hisp&nia); Narbon-ensis (Narbo); Osc-ensis (Osca in Spain); Osti-ensis (Ostia); Sicili-ensis (Sicilia); Veli-ensis (Velia, (1) part of Palatine; (2) town in Lucania); Volsini-ensis (Volsinii); Utic-ensis (Utiea); and others. -i-en-si Probably from false analogy (with words in preceding section). They are rarely used. Atlien-iensis (Athense); Carthagln-iensis (Carthago): Corinth- ienses (Corinthus); CrotSn-iensis (Croto); Latin-iensis (Latinus?); Kh6d-iensis (Rbodus). Compound stem-ending: es-Imo, § 758. See also § 918.Chap. V.] Denial Noun-Stems: -8H3i; -do. iv. Stems ending in -do. -do i. Adjectives: 8*6 (a) From verbs with -e stems, the final e being changed to I. (The verb has been added in the following list only when not simple in form or evident in meaning.) acl-dus, sour; albi-dus, white; algi-dus, cold (rare, except as name of mountain near Rome); ari-dus, dry; &vi-dus, greedy; cili- dus or caldus (cf, Quint. I. 6. 19), hot; calli-dus, crafty; candi-dus, white; evani-dus, vanishing (evane-sc-gre); fervi-dus, glowing; fiacci-dus, flaccid; flori-dus, flowery; fceti-dus, stinking; frlgi-dus, cold; fulgi-dus, glistening; gravi-du3, heavy with child (gr&ve-sc-$re); horri-dus, bristling, fearful; langvi-dus, languid; liqvi-dus (§ 243), clear; llvi-dus, blue, envious; lilci-dus, bright; madi-dus, wet; marci-dus, fading; mflci-dus, mouldy; nlti-dus, shining; 61i-dus, stinking; palli-dus, pale; p&vi-dus, frightened; pl&ci-dus, pleased, calm (pl&cere, to be pleasing); pHti-dus, rotten; putrl-dus, rotten; ranci-dus, rancid (no verb, but present participle in Lucr.); rlgl-dus, stiff; rubi-dus (rdbidus, Plaut. twice), red; sordi-dus,^//^; sqvali- dus, squalid; stupi-dus,ama%ed; tabi-dus, decaying; tSpi-dus, warm; timi-dus, timid; torpi-dus, benumbed; torri-dus, burning; tiimi-dus, swelling; turgi-dus, inflated; v&li-dus, strong; timi-dus, damp; "iivi- dus or tidus, wet (five-sc-ere). (b) From verbs with -1 or consonant stems: cftpi-dus, desirous (cup8-re); fluidus (flivi-dus, Lucr.), liquid (flu-6re); r^idus, mad (rabfire, comp. rabies); r&pi-dus, hurried (r&p8-re) ; vividug, lively (viv-Sre). (c) From substantives or of obscure derivation: absur-dus, tuneless (ab, sur-, comp. su-sur-rus, originally gerundives: 818 frgm-gbundus, muttering (fr8m-Sre); fiir-Ibundus, raging (fur-6re); lasclv-ibundus (Plaut. Stich. 288),, playful (lasclvi-re); ldd-ibundus, sporting (ldd-Sre); m&r-Ibundug, dying (m&ri, mfirxri); piidl-bundus, bashful (pudere); qvSr-Ibundus, plaintive (qu6ri); ridi-bimdus, laugMng (rldere); tr6m-6bundus, trembling (tr6m-6re). -ab-undo From verbs with -a stems. Many of these forms are 819 found only in Livy and post-Augustan historians, comissa-bundus, revelling; contiona-bundus, haranguing; cunctS- bundus, hesitating; dellbgra-bundus, deliberating; depr8c&-bundus, deprecatingly; erra-bundus, wandering about; grat&la-bundus,Chap. V] Dental Noun-Stems: -undo; -di, -d. 303 making congratulations; haesita-bunclus (Plin. Ep. once), hesitating; indigna-bundus, indignant; lacrima-bundus, weeping; lurcMna-bun- dus (only in Cato; cf. Quint. 1. 6. 42), 'voracious; mfidlta-bundus (Just.), in meditation; mmlta-bundus, threatening; mira-bundus, in wonder; noctua-bundus (Cic. once), by nrght (noctu-; noctuare not found); oscula-bundus (Suet.), kissing; pSrSgrlna-bundus (Liv. once), travelling about; pl6r£-bundus, bewailing; pdpula-bundus, wasting; prssda-bundus, pillaging; specilla-buiidus, an the watch; tejita-buxidus, making a trial; tuburchlna-bundus (Cato, see above), gobbling; vSnSra-bundus, shewing reverence; Yersa-bundus, whirl- ing; vita-bundus, avoiding; vol^ta-bundus (Cic. fragm.), wal- lowing. . -c-undo Adjectives, probably gerundives from inchoative^terns: 820 all have the preceding syllable long (except rublcundus). fa-cundus, eloquent (fa-ri); fe-cundus, fruitful (comp. £3-mina«, fe-tus); ira-c-undus, angry (irasrr-i); jft-cundus, pleasant (jfty-Slrd); rubl-cundus, ruddy (riubere); v8re-cundus, bashful (v$reri); ' V. Stems in -du,-di, -d. See §397. ^ sedes (f.), a hearth} a chamber § 331 (comp. aes-tu-, a%0€iv); 821 c sedes (f.), slaughter; clades'(f.), disaster; fidis (f.), a harp- string; fraus (f.), cheating; frons (f.) a leaf; glans (f.), an acorn (comp. (3a\avos and § 765); grandis, large; juglans (f.), a: walnut* lendes (f. pi.), nits; pedis (m.f.), a louse; rUdis, (1) rude; (2)' f. a spoon, a foil; sedes (f.), a seat (s6dere)"f sordes (f. pi.), dirt; siidis (f. § 421), a stake; trades (ft- pi.), pikes (comp. trild&re?); virl-dis, green (vlrere). pgcus (f.), a head of cattle (comp. pgciu, p6c6r-). 822 capis (f.), a sacrificial bowl (capSre ?); cassis (f.), a hel- met; cuspis (f.), a spear-point; lapis (m.), a pebble; pro- mulsis (f.), a whet for the appetite (lit. preliminary draught ?) (pro-, znulso-)! custos (n.), a guardian. paTus (f.), a marsh. cruppes (only m nom. sing.), a glutton; heres (m.), an heir; merces (f.), wages (comp. merci-). cor (n.), a heart (comp. Kapd-la); laus (f.), praise; pes (m.), a foot (comp. 7ro5-, nom. 7rovs); pr»s (m.), a bail; vas (m. f.), a bail. -du -di -lid -$d (-id) -8d -fid -ed -d Compound stem-endings: -d5n, -fid6n, -tHd6n, -§d6n, -Id6n, §§ 846—848; -ediilo, § 865; -ndio, § 933.304 Word-Formation. [Book TTL CHAPTER VI. DENTAL NOUN-STEMS {continued). vi. Stems ending in -no. -noor-Ino (For all words (except numerals) with long vowel pre- 823 ceding -no see §§ 830—842.) 1. Adjectives: (a) "bdnus, good; concinnus, neat; dignus, worthy; hornus, of this year (ho-ver-, this spring); mag-nus, great (comp. m&g-is); n5nus, ninth (for ndvl-nus ? but see § 754): pl£-nus, level (comp, 7rXa£); p6rendl-nus, of a day hence (comp. Trepav, die-); ver-nus, of spring (ver-); finus, one. (h) Distributive numerals (rarely used in singular): tol-nus, too- fold, two each (bi-); ter-nus or tri-nus (ter, tri-); qv&ter-nus (qv&ter) and (Varr., Plin.) qvadrinus (qvatvor); qvl-nua (for qvinqvl-nus, qyinc-nus, qvinqve); se-nus (sex); septe-nus (for septem-nus, septen-nus); octo-nus (octo); ndve-nus (for ndvem- nus); denus (for dScimmus? dec-nus); vice-nus, twenty each (for vicent-nus, viginti); trice-nus, thirty each (triginta), &c.; cente-nus, a hundred each (for centum-mis, the vowel being assimilated to what is found in others); dfice-nus, two hundred each (for ducent- nus); trScenus, three hundred each (trScent-); qvadringe-nus, four hundred each (qvadringent-), See. See Appendix. (f) From names of trees and other materials: acer-nus, of maple (acer-); &d&mantl-nus, hard as diamond (ddafxavrii/os); Sjnaracl- nus, of marjoram (amar&co-); cSr&sI-nus (Petron.), cherry-coloured (cgraso-); cocci-nus, scarlet (cocco-); c&lur-nus, of hazel (for c6- riill-nus, c&rulo-); Sbur-nus, of ivory (Sb&r-); ferrHgln-us (Lucr. once), bluish-green (ferrHgdn-; ferrugineus is more usual); qver- nuc, oaken (for qverci-nus, qvercu-). See also salig-nus, &c., §826. 2. Substantives: 1 824 (a) Masculine: acinus, a berry; agnus, a lamb; annus, a year; Unus, a ring; aslnus, an ass; cachinnus, a laugh (comp. leakage iv); circi-nus, a pair of compasses (circo-); d&mlnus, a lord (ddmSxe); furnus, an oven; ginnus or hinnus, a mule1 the mother being an assChap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -no, -mino. 3°5 (comp. ytwos', Xvvos); mannus, a coach horse (Keltic?); pampinus, a vine-shoot; pannus, a piece of cloth (comp. rrrjvos); panus, (i) ibread on the bobbin, (2) a swelling (from 7rfjvos?); pugnus, a fist (comp. 7ru£, Trvyfir}); ricinus, a sheep tick; som-nus, sleep (comp. s6p-or); sdnus, a sound; sturnus, a starling; tafoanus, a gadfly; tornus, a lathe (torqvere, comp. ropvos)• verna, a house slave, (J?) Proper names (some are Etruscan): Cinjia; Perpenna or Perperna; Porsenna (Verg.), PorsSna (Hor., Mart., Sil.); Saserna; bisenna; Spurinna; Thalia; Vivenna. Cf. § 838 c. (r) Feminine: alnus, an alder; cornus, a cornel tree; fraxinus, an ash Tree; ornus, a mountain ash; vannus, a winnowing fan. acna, a plot 120 feet square; angina (L. Mlill.), quinsy (comp. ayx^vr)i angSre) ; antemna, a sailyard; fisci-na, a rush basket (fisco-); fusclna, a three-pronged spear (comp. furca); g*na, a cheek (comp. yeiws, a jaw); nundi-nse (pi.), market-day (nono-, die-); pagina, a leaf of a book, & c. (comp. pawgSre); pati-na, a dish (patere? comp. 7rardvr/, Sicil. fiaravr)); penna, a wing (in old Latin pesna or petna; comp. Trereo-Qai); perna, a ham; pinna, a feather; pugna, a battle (comp. pugnus); runcina (generally given as runclna), a planing instrument (comp. runcare, pvnavrf); sanna, a grimace (comp. (rawas); sarcina, a bundle (sarclre, to close); sqvatina, a skate-fish (comp. sqvalus, a fish)-, transenna, a net; ulna, an arm (comp. coXevr7); urna, a pitcher (comp. iirere, to burn). (d) Neuter: cornum (more frequently cornu), a horn (comp. Kepas); fascinum, a charm (comp. ftacricavos); lignum, firewood (lig-are?) ; pastinum, a two-pronged fork; penum (§ 398), a store of provisions, &c.; reg-num, a kingdom (r*g-ere); scamnum, a bench (comp. scab-ilium); sigmim, a seal; stagnum, a pool, pent up water ? (comp. crreydpo-); stannum, an alloy of silver and lead; tignum, a beam. -mno° i su^x m Greek forms participles middle and passive; 825 e.g. TVTTT-OfieVOSy TV\j/-d}JL€VOS, T€TVjJ,-/JL 827 of to-morrow (eras); diii-tinus, long continued (diu)5 horno-tinus, of this year (horno-); pris-tinus, of former times (prius; comp. magis for magius); sero-tinus (Plin., Col.), late (aero-)* -ur-no diur-nus, by day (dius-, dies-, § 341 n., comp. niidius; or 828 for diov-Srinus ?); diut-urnus (in Ovid always dititur- nus), for long (comp. ditlt-ius); laburnum, broad-leaved trefoil/ noctu-rnus, by night (noctu-); Sat-urnus (Saeturnus), god of pro- duce? (s&to-, s6-r£re); taciturnus, silent (tacito-); viburnum, the wayfaring tree. -er-no caverna, a cave (c&vo-); cistema, a reservoir (cista-) 5 fusterna, the knotty part of a fir-tree (fusti-, a club) ; gtiberna (pi.), rudders (comp. Kvftcpvav); Mb-ernus, in winter (hiSm-, cf. § 86. 5); hddiernus, of to-day (ho-, dius, or die-); infer- nus, below (infgro-); lacerna, a cloak; Laverna, goddess of gain; lticerna, a lamp (comp. Klci-, ltlcere); super-nus, above (supgro-); tab-erna, & booth (from tab-ula, a plank ?). See also § 823 c. -ter-no i.e. -no suffixed to stems in -t&ro or -tri, or to adverbs 829 in -ter. In some the t perhaps is radical. se-ternus, for ever (aevo-, comp. se-tat-); al-ter-nus, alternate, every other (al-tero-); ex-ternus, outside (ex-tero-); fraternus, of a brother (frater-, comp. (ppdrep-); hes-ternus, of yesterday (comp. h6ri, ; in-ter-nus, Inside (in-ter); lanterna (laterna), a lan- tern; mater-nus, of a mother (mater-); nassiterna, a watering pot (said to be from naso-> terno-, with three noses); paternus, of a father (pater-); semplternus, everlasting (comp; semp-er, §540); vSter-nus, lethargy (v6tils-).Chap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -glno, -rno, -ano. 307 -ano 1. Adjectives: 830 (a) with a as stem vowel: canus, hoary; sa-nus, sound (comp. crdos); va-nus, empty (comp. vac-uus). (b) from appellatives: api-anus, of bees; name of Muscatel grape (£pi^); arc-anus, secret (comp. area-, arcere); Camp-anus^ of the plain, a Campa- man (Gampo-) ; caBtell-anus, of a fortress (castello-); decumanus, of the tenth (e.g. a tithe farmer; a soldier or the tenth legion, &c.; dScftma-); font-anus, of the spring (fonti-); germanus, of the full blood; hUm-anus, vf man (3i5m5n-); insikl-anus (Cic. once), of an island (insula-); Later-anus, a family name (latSt-?); m6rSdi-anus, of midday, southern (meridie-); mont-anus, of the mountains (mon- ti-); mund-anus, of the universe (mundo-); non-antis (Tac.), of the ninth legion (nona-); oppid-anus, of the town (oppido-); pagt- anufy of a 'village (pago-); pridi-anus, of the day before (pridie-); prim-anus, of the first legion (prima-)^ public-anus, of the public revenue (publico-); pute-anus (Plin., Col.), of a membr-ana, skin (membro-); panus (see § 824); qvartana, sc. febris, a quartan ague (qvarta-); ra-na, a frog (comp. ra-vus, hoary); Silv- anus, the wood god (silva-); Volcanus, the fire god. -i-ano Adjectives in -anus, derived from stems, chiefly of proper 832 names, with suffix -io: Acci-anus, of Accius (Accio-); ^mill-anus, belonging to the JEmi- lian clan (iEmilia-); Asi-anus, of Asia (Asia-); Csesari-anus, belong- ing to Casals (Csesareus, of Carsar; e.g. Csesaris or Csesarea celeritas, Cesar's quickness; Csesariana celeritas, quickness, like Casar's); Cice- ron-ianus, of Cicero (CicSron-); Claudi-anus, of a Claudius (Claudio-); Fabi-anus, of a Fabian, or of the Fabian clan (Fabio-, Fabia-); Mari-anus, of Marius (Mario-); Mil5n-ianus, of Milo (i.q. Milonius); Orcini-anus (Mart.), of a dead man (Orcinus, a dweller with death, orco-); Pompei-anus, of Pompeius (Pompeio-); prastori-anus, of the praetor's camp (praetorio-); Sejanus (Seio-); Summoenianus, of a dweller in Under wall (summcenio-); TIbSri-anus, of Tiberius; Teren- ti-anus, of Terentius (Terentio-); Trajanus; and others. -xt-ano Probably from the Greek suffix -Irrjs, or in analogy 833 therewith. (Properly it denotes of the people of;) Antipolltanus, of Antipolis (Antipoli-); Gadltanus, of Gades, i. e. Cadi£ (Gadi-); Massllitanus, of Marseilles (Massilia-); Panormita- nus, of Panormus (Panormo-); Taur 6m£nlt anus, of Tauromenium (Tauromenio-); Tdmitanus, of Tomi (Torno-). -ono 1. Adjectives; pronus, headlong, with face forward (pro-). 834 2. Substantives: (a) Masc. and neut.: cdl-onus, a farmer (cOl-ere); donum, a gift (da-re); patr-onus, a patron (patr-). (b) Feminine: annona, the year's supply of corn (anno-); Bellona, the war goddess (belio-); caupona, a tavern (copa-, caup-on-); cSrona, a crown; Latona, a goddess (comp. AtJtgo) ; ma- trona, a married woman (matr-); persona, a mask (personage?); Pomona, Fruit goddess (porno-). For octonus, nonus (whence nonse, pi. the ninth day) see § 823 a. ••esno amcenus, pleasant; poena, a penalty (comp. piinlre). -ilno 1. Adjectives: importunus, unseasonable {without a port} 835 in, portu-); jejunus, fasting; opportunus, in front of the port, ready at hand (ob portum). 2. Substantives: ciinse (pi.), a cradle (for cublnse? cub-are); fortuna, fortune (forti-; comp. nocti-, noctu-); lacuna (or lacuna), a hole (l&cu-); Neptunus, the sea god (perhaps vnrroixevos, § 825);Chap. V/.] Dental Noun-Stems: -ono, -tlno, -eno, -ino. Portunus, god of harbours (portu-); prima, a live coal; prunum, a plum; trlbunus, a tribe's chief (tribu-); Vacuna, a Sabine goddess (comp. vacare, vacuus). -33110) i. Adjectives: aenus (or &henus), of bronze (for ses- 3.^6 -eno j nus, from s6si-: the Umbrian has ahesnes); aiienus, of another, alien (alio-); 6genus, needy (Sgere); obscenus, illboding; plenus, full (comp. plere); sSrenus, calm; terrenus, earthly (terra). Abydenus, of Abydos (Abydo); Cyzlcenus, of Cyzicos (Cyzlco). For vicenus and other numerals see § 823 b. 2. Substantives: (a) feminine: &vena, oats; camena (casmena acc. to Varro), a Muse (comp. car-men); catena, a chain; cena (cesna, Fest), supper; criimena, a purse; galena, lead ore; h&bena, a rein (habere); harena, sand; laena, a cloak (comp. %\aiva, §110. 3); laniena, a butchers stall (lanio-); lena, a bawd; strena, an omen, a new year's gift; vena, a vein; verbenas (pi.), boughs of myrtle, &c. used in religious acts. (o) Neuter: csenum, mud; fenum (foenum), hay; frenum, a rein; venenum, poison; venum (only in accus. § 369). -i-eno i.e. -eno suffixed to stems in -io. 837 Proper names: Aufidienus, Avldienus, Catienus, Labienus, Nasidienus, Vettienus, and others. 41-end cantilena, a tune (cantu-). -Ino (In some of the following words the length of the i is s38 not proved.) 1. Adjectives: (a) from appellatives: &dultSrimis, spurious (adult&ro-); agnlnus, of a lamb (agno); &n&tinus (Plaut., Petr.), of a duck (&nat-); angvlnus, of a snake (angvi-); ansSrinus (Plin., Col.), of a goose (ansSr-); &prinus, of a wild boar (apro-); ariStinus (Plin.), of a ram (&riet-); aus- trlnus, southern (austro-); c&ninus, of a dog (can-); c&prinus, of a goat (capro-); cervinus, of a deer (cervo-); collinus, of a hill (colli-); cdlumbinus, of a dove (cdlumbo-); cOqvinus, of a cook (cftqvo-); corvinus, of a raven (corvo-); dlvtnus, of a god (divo-); fiqvinus, of a horse (Sqvo-); femininus, of a woman (femina-); festinus, ■hasty (comp. con-fes-tim); fftrinus (Plaut. once), of a thief (Mr-); gSnuinus, of a jaw (comp. yews); native (gi-gn-Sre); hircinus, °f a goat (hirco-); InSpInus, unexpected (comp. opinari); leoninus, of a lion (le5n-); lSporinus, of a hare (ISpos-); lftpinus, of a wolf (ltipo-); marinus, of the sea (mari-); mascul-inus, of a male (mas- ciilo-); miluinus, of a kite (miluo-); pgrfigrinus, of abroad (pSrggre); porcinus, of a pig (porco-); soricinus' (Plaut. once), of a shrew310 ; Word-Formation. [Book III. mouse (sSrfcc-); silplnus, with face upward; taurinus, of a hull • ursinus, of a bear (urso-); verrinus, of a boar pig (verri-); vStSri- nus, of beasts of burden (comp. vghSre); vlcinus, of the street, neigh- bour (vlco-); vltulinus, of a calf (vltulo-); volpinus, of a fox (volpi-); and others. ([b) From proper names of places: Albinus, a cognomen of the Postumian clan (Alba?); Alpinus (Alpes, pi.); Arlcinus (Arlcia); capltolinus (Capitolium); Caudinus (Caudium); Collatinus (Colla- tia); Esqvllinus (Esqvilise); F6rentinus (perhaps for Ferentininus from Ferentinum); Laniivinus (Lanuvium); Latinus (Latium); M6- dullinus (Medullia); Palatinus, but in Martial Palatinus (Palatium); Prsenestinus (Prseneste); ^Reatinus (Reate); Rheginus (Rhegium); Tarentinus (Tarentum); YSnusinus (Venusia); and others. Aventinus, Qvirlnus, Sabinus, are of uncertain origin. (c) From proper names of persons; chiefly from such as were originally appellatives: They are used as substantives, being surnames: Albums (Albus); Antoninus (Antonius); Aqvllinus (Aqujla ?); Atratinus (Atratus ?); Aug^ri$us (Augur) ■ Augi^jtinus (Augustus); Csesoninus (Cseso); Calvinus (Calvus); Cicurinus (CIcur); Corvinus (Corvus); Crispinus (Crispus); Flamminus (Flaminius or fiam^n?); Frontinus (Fronto?); Justlnua (Justus); Lactilcinus (Lactuca); Ls3- vlnus (Lsevus); Longinus (Longus); Luscinus (Luscus); Mac6rinus and Macrinus (Macer); Mamercinus (Mamercus); Mancinus (Man- cus); Marcellinus (Marcellus); Messallinus (Mesaalla); Mgtellinus (MStellus); Psetinus (Psetus); Plautinus. (Plautus); Rilfinus (Rufus); Saturninus (Saturnus); Sextinus (Sextus or Sestus); Tricipitinus (triceps); and some others. Compare orcinus, of Orcus or death (Oreus); Plautinus, of Plautus (Plautus). 2. Substantives: 839, (a) Masculine: conciibiuus (concubijia), a concubine (com, ciib- ftre); inqvll-inus, a lodger (in cdl-ere); lupinua, a lupine; pulvinus, a cushion; sobrinus (sobrina f.), « second cousin, sister's child? (sdror-). Csecina (Csecus); Canina (canis ?); Porcina (porca ?). ([b) Feminine: carpinus (-inus?), the hornbeam,; pmus (cf, §398), a pine tree (for piv)\ c&pedo, a sacrificial bowl (c&p$re; comp. capld-); cuppedo (Lucr.), desire (comp. cuppedia, delicacies, ctip6-re); dulcedo, sweetness (dulci-); gravedo, a heavy cold (gravi-); intereapedo, an interval (inter, capfire); tferedo, a worm, or moth (ter-gre; comp. reprjdtov); torpedo, numbness (torpere); Hredo, blight (tlr-fere). -Id-dn (-Idin) All feminine: crgpldo, an edge (from Kprprib-?); ciipido (f. except as a god), desire (ctipg-re); formldo, dread (forma-, making shapes to ones elf?); libido, lust (libere). -fin jtlvgnis (m.), a youth; sdn-ex (the nom. sing, has a fur- 849 ther suffix), an old man.3*4 Word-Formation. . [Book III. -6n (-in) gluten (n.), glue (comp. glilto-, adj.); ingven (n.), the groin; pecten (m.), a comb (pect-gre); pollis (m. no nom. sinfine flour (comp. 7raX^); sangvis (m.) and sangven (n. § 449), blood; ungven (n.), ointment (ung-Sre). -mSn (-niin) All neuter substantives, chiefly derived from verbs. 850 Comp. the suffixes, -mino, § 825, -mento, §792. (a) From vowel-verbs with stems ending in -a, -H, or -i acii-men, a point (acu-6re); calcea-men (Plin.), a shoe (calcea- re); canta-men (Prop, once), a spell (canta-re); certa-men, a contest (certa-re); conamen (Lucr., Ov.), an effort (c5na-ri); curva-men (Ov.), a bend (curva-re); dura-men (Lucr.), hardening (diira-re); flamen, a blast (fla-re); also (m.) a priest; fid-men, a stream (flu- §re); f5ra-men, a hole (fdra-re, to bore); funda-men (Verg., Ov.), a foundation (fuirda-re); gesta-men, a wearing article, a conveyance (gesta-re); gl5mSra-men, a round ball (gl6mera-re); leni-men (Hor., Ov.), a solace (lenl-re); 18va-*men, an alleviation (18v£-re); moll-men, an effort (moli-ri); nil-men, a nod\ the divine will (nu- 6re); nutri-men (Ov. once), nourishment (nutri-re); pl&ca-men, a means of pacifying (placa-re); p^ta-men, a clipping, shell, 3cc. (piita-re); sola-men, a comfort (sola-ri); sta-men, the warp thread (stare); st&til-men, a stay, prop (statu-Sre); stra-men a straw (stra-, sternSre); sufli-men (Ov. once), incense (suffi-re); suffla- men, a drag (sufflare?); tenta-men (Ov.), an attempt (tenta-re); v6c£-men (Lucr.), a name (vdca-re); and others. (J?) From other verbs, or of uncertain derivation: abdomen, the belly; agmen, a train (ag-Sre); albumen (Plin.), the white of an egg (albo-); alumen, alum; augmen, a growth (aug-ere); bltilmen, bitumen; cacilmen, a summit; carmen, a song, a charm (comp. camena, § 836. 2); cdliimen, a top, support (comp. cel-sus); crl-men, p charge (comp. ere-, cerngre, Kpiveiv); culmen (contr. for columen; rare before Augustan age); discrimen, a dis- tinction (comp. discer/z-gre); d6cumen (Lucr. once), a lesson (ddc-Sre); examen, a swarm, the tongue of a balance (ex-2Lg-6re); ffimen-, a thigh; ferrflmen, solder (ferro-); fle-mina (pi.), bloody swellings (comp. pulse; llmen, a lintel, a threshold; ltl-men, a light (lUc-ere); m5-men (for md- vimen), movement (mdvere); n5men, a name, esp. of the clan; e.g. Cornelius; so also agnomen, an additional surname; e.g. Afri- canus; cognomen, the name of the family; e.g. Scipio; prssnomen, the individual name; e.g. Lucius (no-sc-ere); Omen, an omen; rSg- Imen, guidance (rSg~6re); rtimen (rare), the gullet (comp. rtl-mln- 5xe, to chew the cud); sagmen, a tuft of sacred herbs; sarmenChap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -6n,-m6n,-on. 315 (Plaut. once), brushwood (sarp-Sre); segmen (rare), a cutting (sScare); semen, seed (sS-rSre); specimen, a pattern (spScS-re); subte-men, the woof (subtex-ere); sii-men, an udder (siig-Sre); tSg-imen (teg-men), a covering (tSg-Sre); tor-mina (pi.), gripes (torqv-ere); vermina, gripes (for vermi-min-? vermi-, a worm); vl-men, a withe (viere). -5n All masculine (except Juno): many are personal names: (a) Appellatives: sero (Vitr., Plin.), a basket; &gaso, a groom; aleo (rare), a gamester (alea-); &qvilo, the northwind (comp. a,qvIlo-t, dark-coloured); balatro, a jester ; baro, a dolt; bubo, an owl (comp. fivas); bucoo, a babbler (bucca-, a cheek); btifo, a toad; buteo, a hawk; calcitro, a kicker (calci-); calo, a soldier's servant; c&plto, a big-headed man (caput-); capo, a capon (comp. capo-); carbo, a coal; caupo, a tavern-keeper (comp. Ka7T-rj\og); cento, a patchwork; cerdo, an artisan (from Kepfios?); cilo (Fest.), having a long narrow head; olniflo (Hor.), an assistant at the toilet (cf. §99?); combib-o (rare), a boon companion (com, blb-Sre); c6m6d-o (Lucil., Varr.), a glutton (com8d-Sre); commillt-o, a fellow-soldier (com, mllSt-); congerr-o (Plaut.), a playfellow (com, gerra-); crabro, a hornet; ctldo (abl. only; Sil.), a skin helmet; dolo, a staff with a sharp point; 8p1U-o, a feasier (SpiUa-); Sqviso (Varr.), a groom (Sqvo-); erro, a runaway (erra-re); fronto, with a large fore- head (fronti-); fullo, a fuller; ganeo, debauchee (ganea-); gerr-o, a tr'ifler (gerra-); b^luo, a glutton; l&beo, larflipped (labio-); latro, a mercenary spldier; hence a brigand (comp. Xarpcveiu); leno, a pander; leo, a lion (comp. Xecov, Acoit-); ligo, a hoe; lurco, a glutton; mango, a dealer; ment-o, \omg~cbinned (mento-); mir- millo, a gladiator, who wore a fish (fi6pfj.vpos?) on his helmet; milcro, a sharp point; milto (i.q. penis); nas-o, with a big nose .(naso-); nSbulo, a worthless fellow (nSbula-); pa^p-o, a flatterer (palpo-); pavo, a peacock; pero, a rawhide boot; p8t&so, a leg of pork; petro, a hardy rustic (jrerpa); ponto, a punt, pontoon (ponti-?); pdpin-rO, a frequenter of eating-houses (p5pina-); prseco, a crier (prse, vdc-are ?); prsed-o, a robber (prse^a-); pulmo, a lung (comp. 7T^evfjLcov); reno, a reindeer (Keltic); sabulQ. gravel (sabulo-); sermo, conversation (sSr-Sre, to join, ser-ies); s;lo, snub-nosed (silo-); sp&do, a eunuch; stdlo, a useless sucker; strabp, a squinter; subulo, a flute player (Etruscan); tfmo, a carriage pole; tiro, a recruit; trlco (Lucil.), a trickster (trica-); udo, a felt shoe; vespillo, a corpse- bearer at night (vespSra-); umbo, a boss (comp. umbilicus, ctpficov); vdlones (pi.), volunteer soldiers (vel-le?); unedo (Plin.), the arbutus* Jflno (fem.); comp. 3lso §§ 481, 505, (b) Many are used chiefly or exclusively as cognomina. (In this list the name of the clan is added) : JBucco, of thePompeian clan (vid.supr.); Buteo, Fabian (vid.supr.); Capito, Fonteian, &c. (vid. supr.); Carbo, Papirian (vid. supr.); C&to,316 Word-Formation. [Book III. Porcian (Cato-?); Cerco, Lutatian (tailed, KepKo-); Cicfiro, 'vetch man, Tullian (CIcgr-); CorMlo, basket man, Domitian (corbiila-); Culleo, bagman, Terentian (culleo-); Dorso, ' longbackl Fabian (dorso-); Fronto, a surname in several clans (vid. supr.); Kseso, Fabian, "a caeso matris utero dictus" (Plin. 7. 9. 7); L&beo, in several clans (vid. supr.); Latro, Porcian (rid. supr.); LIbo, Marian and Scribonian; Lurco, Auiidian (vid. supr.); Mento, Julian (vid. supr.); Naso, in several clans (naso-); Ngro, Claudian (Sabine for "fortis ac strenuus"); Pedo, splayfoot}, rare (p6d-); PIso, pease, Calpurnian (piso); SImo, flat nosed (simo-); Stdlo, Licinian (vid. supr.); Str&bo, in several clans (vid. supr.); Tappo, Villian; Tiibero, humpback ?, Caclian (tiibSr-, a boil, lump, &c.); Varro, bow legged, Terentian (varo-); VdlSro, Publilian; Vulso, 'with smooth facet, Manlian (vulso-, plucked?); and some others (besides those in -ion). -ion (1) Masculine: (a) appellatives: 852 ardSl-io, a trifler; binio, a deuce (blno-); centiirio, a cap- tain (centuria-); curculio, a weevil; ciirio, the head of a curia; decurio, a commander of ten (decuria-); dtiplio (old), the double; esiirio (Plaut. punning; Petr.), a hungry man (esttr-Ire); gurgtilio, the windpipe (comp. Engl, gargle); Mstrio, an actor (Etruscan); libell-io, a bookseller (Ilbello-); lild-io, a stage player (ltldo-); ma- tell-io, a pot (matella-); morio, a fool (ficopo-); mill-io, a muleteer (mulo-); Opilio, a shepherd (comp. 6vi-, and cf. § 94. i£); papllio, a butterfly; pellio, a currier (pelli-); pernio (Piin.), a chilblain (perna-?) ; pugio, a dagger (purcg-Sre); ptimilio, a dwarf (piimilo-) ; piisio, a little boy (pUso-, comp. pugro-); qulnio, a cinq (quino-) ; restio, a ropemaker (resti-); sannio, a grimacer (sanna-); sclpio, a staff (comp. o-KrjTTTpov); scopio, a grape stalk; s6nfic-io, an old man (comp. s6n-ec-) ; senio, a seize (sex, seno-); septentrio, the north (sepxem, trio, a star? M. M filler's Lectures, II. p. 365); stelio, a gecko, a kind of spotted lizard (stella-); Talassio, a cry addressed to a bride; tSnebrio (Varr.), a swindler (tSndbra-); vespertilio, a bat (as if from vespertllis, of the evening)', Unio, a pearl (dno-?). (b) Proper names: Csepio, Servilian (csepa-, onion); Ciirio, Scri- bonian (vid. supr.); Glabrio, Acilian (glabro-, smooth, hairless); Pollio, Asinian (paullo-); Sclpio, Cornelian (vid. supr.); S6n6cio, Claudian (vid. supr.). (2) Feminine: abstract substantives (a) derived from verbs: all&vio, inundation (ad lavare); capio, an acquisition; colli!vio (Liv.), sweepings (com, lav-are); condicio, terms of agreement (con- dlcere, comp. maledlc-us); contagio, contagion (com, tawgSre); dlcio (no nom. s.), rule (comp. die-, dlcfire ?); internecio, destruction (in- ter, n8c-are); 16gio, a body of soldiers (lSg-ere, to pick up); oblivio, forgetfulness (obllvi-sc-i); obsidio, a blockade (obsideri); occidio, massacre (occid-Sre); optio, a choice; hence (m.?), an adjutantChap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -ion, -eion, -tion. 317 (opt-are); 6'pinio, opinion (dpln&ri); rSgio, a district (r£g-Sre, to mark out boundaries); relligio, a scruple (reLggere); suspicio, suspicion (susplcS-re); usueapio, acquisition by enjoyment (usu, capd-re). (b) Derived from noun stems in -i: commUnio, sharing in common (commiini-); consortio, fellowship (consorti-); portio, a share (comp. parti-); perduellio, treason (perduelli-); rebellio, revolt (r6 belli-); talio, retaliation (tali-). -cion lidmun-cio, a mannikin (h6m6n-); comp. senScion- 853 (§ 352^). -tion Abstract feminine substantives formed from supine stems. 854 Some are used in concrete sense: (a) From supine stems of vowel verbs with long vowel pre- ceding the suffix (the verbs themselves are omitted as self-evident): accils-at-io, an accusation; adv5c-atio, legal assistance; sestim- atio, a valuation; agit-at-io, movement; alterc-at-io, dispute; &m- at-io (Plaut.), caressing; ambiil-at-io, a promenade; appell-at-io, an appeal, a name; aqv-at-io, water-supply; ar-at-io, ploughing; assent-at-io, flattery; attrib-flt-io, assignment; a ad-It-10, hearing, hearsay; capt-at-io, catching; cavill-at-io, raillery; cSlSfor-at-io, an assemblage; clarig-at-10, a solemn declaration of war; cogit-at-io, thought; cogn-at-io, relationship by blood (com, na-sci); coll-at-io, a contribution, comparison; compar-at-io, comparison; concert-at-io, dispute; concit-at-io, excitement; concurs-at-io, running together; C3nfarre-atio, religious marriage (com-, farreo-, i.e. eating together the bridal cake); constlt-tit-io, disposition; contempl-at-io, contempla- tion; contest-atio, joining issue, ccdling witnesses (com, testari); cre- tio, acceptance of an inheritance (cernere); cunct-atio, delay; ctir-atio, management; damn-atio, condemnation; declin-atio, turning aside; defln-it-io, marking off; deleg-atio, assignment of debt, &c.; demin- iit-io, decrease; denunti-atio, announcement; desper-atio, despair; discept-at-io, discussion; dissdl-Cltio, dissolution; domin-atio, lord- ship ; dublt-atio, doubt; educ-atio, bringing up; erud-itio, instruction; existlm-atio, judgement, reputation; exs£c-utio (post-Aug.), accom- plishment; festln-atio, hastening; frustr-atio, deceiving; grad-atio, gradation (as if from gradari); gratul-atio, congratulation; Imit- atio, imitation; incLuis-Itio, legal inquiry; larg-itio, bestowal, bribery; leg-atio, the office of an ambassador; lib&r-atio, a release; macMft- atio, contrivance; mult-atio, amercement; mdn-Itio, a fortification, mtlt-atio, change; na-tio,a breed (na-sci); ndt-atio, marking, noticing; no-tio, taking cognisance (no-sc-5re); obllg-atio, engagement; occtip-atio, seizing, business; or-atio, speech; part-itio, division; permilt-atio, an exchange; p&t-Itio, aiming, candidates hip, claim; postul-atio, demand; £0-tio, drinking (comp. poto-, p5-tare); prsest-atio (post-Aug.),3l8 Word-Formation. [Book III guaranty, payment; pr&b-atio, testing; prov6c-atio, a challenge, ap- peal; put-atio, pruning; rgcord-atio, remembrance; recHs-atio, refu- sal; rSnunti-atio, a public announcement of a result; reprsesent-atio, cash payment; resplr-atio, taking breath; restitutio, restoration; r6g-atio, a legislative proposal, a bill; saldt-atio, greeting; simill- atio, pretence; sdl-iitio, discharge of debt, &c.; sart-itio, lot-draw- mg; stlp-atio, crowd'mg; stiptil-atio, a bargain; supplic-atio,public prayer; tabul-atio (Cass.), a flooring (tabula-, a plank) 5 testatio (testiflc-atio, Cic.), giving evidence; tral-atio, transfer; vac-atio, exemption; vgn-atio, hunting; and many others. (b) From supine stems, with short vowel preceding suffix: ad-Itio, entry on an inheritance (adl~re); adm5n*itio, reminding (admdnere); amb-itio, canvassing (ambi-re); appar-itio, attendance (apparere) ; cognitio, knowledge, judicial inquiry (cogno-sc-ere); d&- tio, giving (da-re); editio, publishing (ed6-re) • exhib-itio (Ulp. &c.), maintenance; It-io, going (l-re); m6n~itio, warning (mdnere); p6s- itio, placing, posture (pon-Sre); ra-tio, account, reason (reri) \ sa-tio, sowing (sS-rg-re); sed-itio, a sedition (sed, ire) ; sorb-itio, a supping up, a draught (sorbere); sta-tio, a station, a post (stare); supersti-tio, superstition (standing over in awe* super-stare); vendi-tio» sale (vendSre); and others. (c) Either from consonant stems, or contracted: ac-tio, action (ag-&re); adjec-tio, addition (adjic-Sre); adop-tio^ adoption (comp. adopta-re); affec-tio, relation, disposition of mind (afficS-re); auc-tio, a sale (augere); aversio, turning away (vert- 6re); in law phrase, per aversionem gm&re, to buy as a whole (verr- ere); cap-tio, a trick, sophism (cap6-re); cau-tio, a caution, a legal security (cavere); cen-sio, an assessing (censere); circumscrip^tio, a contour, cheating (circumscrib-&re); commis-sio, a contest (commit- t-8re); comprghen-sio, laying hold of (comprShend-gre) $ conoep-tio, drafting of law formulae (concipe-re); conces-sio, grant (conced-gre); conclii-sio, shutting in, a peroration (concl€Ld-gre); consen-sio, agree- ment (consentire); construc-tio, construction (constru-gre); con-tio, an assembly, an address to such (convgn-ire) $ contrac-tio, draw- ing together (contrah-Sre); defec-tio, revolt, failure (defied-re); dev6»- tio, devotion (devovere); dic-tio, saying (dlc-ere); digres-sio, digres- sion (digrgd-i); distinc-tio, distinction (distingv-ere)^ emp-tio, purchase (gm-gre); llc-tio, fashioning, fiction (fi^g-Sre); flexio, a turn (fleet** gre); impres-sio, an impress, attack (imprim-ere); induc^tio, a bringing in, drawing one's pen through (induc-Sre); inven-tio, dis- covery (invSnlre); lfL-sio, playing (lfid-Sre); man-sio, staying, lodging- place (m&nere); mis-sio, a discharge (mitt-gre); mo-tio, moving (mdvere); offen-sio, stumbling, offence (offend-gre); pas-tio, pastur- ing (pasc-gre); pen-sio, payment (pend-gre); percep-tio, gatheringChap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -ti5n or -sion. 3T9 (perclpg-re); perpes-sio, endurance (perpSt-i); prsesump-tio, anticipa- tion (prsesiim-gre); quses-tio, an inquiry (quaer-Sre); rSfec-tio (post- Aug.), restoration, refreshment (rSfic8-re); scrip-tio, writing (scrib- Sre); sSces-sio, a withdrawal (seced-6re); sec-tio, cutting, sale of a bankrupt estate (sgcare); ses-sio, a sitting (s&dere); spon-sio, an agreement, a wager (spondere); tac-tio, touching (ta«g-§re); travec- tio, (i) carrying across; (2) riding pest (transv6h-6re); ul-tio, re- venge (ulc-Isci); vl-sio, sight (videre); and others. Compound stem-endings: -inqvo, § 772; -ento, -mento, -lento (-ginta, -gento), §§ 791—795; -enti, § 807; -ensi, -iensi, § 815; -undo, -bundo, -6undo, §§ 817—820; -In6r, § 905; -nds, -nus, §§ 911, 913; *neo, -gneo, -aneo, -5neo, §§ 922, 923; -entia, § 933; -nio, -maio, -m5nio> -clnlo, §§ 934—936. CHAPTER VII. Lingual noun stems, l. i. Stems ending in -lo. -lo cftlus (f.), a distaff; ddlus, craft; f&lse (pi.), a scaffold- 855 ing; gfilum, frost; mains (adj.), bad; m61a, a mill (m&l- 6re); plla, a ball; pllus, a hair; solium, the sea (comp. sal-, craXos-); s61um, the ground; vftla, hollow of hand or foot. (For some with diminutive suffix, e.g. templum, see under -ulo.) -6-I0 This older form of the vowel before 1 is retained only 856 after e, i, or v (cf. § 213. 2 b). The 6 is often the final stem vowel of the word to which the suffix is added: 1. Adjectives: aure6-lus, golden (aureo-); ebrio-lus (Plaut.), somewhat drunken (ebrio-); frlvdlus, trifling (for firiqvolus ? rubbed ©r brittle; comp. fric-are, fri-are); helv6-lus (helveolus), yellowish (helvo-); parVdlus, very small (parvo-). 2. Substantives (chiefly in Cicero), mostly diminutives of sub- stantives in -0:320 Word-Formation. [Book III. (a) Masculine: alveo-lus, a small trough; calceo-lus (rare), a small shoe; caseo-lus, a small cheese ; cftneo-lus, a small wedge; filio-lus, a little son; hario-lus, a soothsayer; librario-lus, a bit of a copyist; malleo-lus, a small hammer, a slip for planting; pasceolus, a leathern bag (for os); psenula, a cloak; papula, a pimple; pergula, a stall or booth; pilsula, a blister (from <££o-a, (frvcraXXls'i the rarer form pustula is probably from pUs); radula (Col.), a scraper (rad-Sre); rSgula, a rule (rSg-gre); scandula, a wooden shingle; scapulae (pi.), the shoulder-blades; spScula, a vjatchtower (spSce-re); stiptila, a stalk; tegula, a flat tile (tSg-Sre):Chap. VIII] lingual Noun-Siems:, -ulo, -pulo, -bulo, -ctflo. 323 tragula, a javelin, a net (comp. trahere?); iiliila, a screech-owl; ungiila, a hoof (ungvi-, m.). Neuter: cingtilum (also cingulus, cingula), a belt (cing-Sre); eoagulum, rennet (com, &g-Sre, to make to curdle) \ exemp-lum, a sample (exim-Sre; cf. § 70); jaculum, a dart (j&cSre); jugulum, the collar-bone (jiigo-, ju«g-6re); plpulum, chirping (pipare); r6pa- gula (pi,), bolts (pawg-Sre); spgcftlum, a mirror (sp6c6-re); tem- p-lum, a temple (for tem-ulum; comp. repcvos and § 70); torc-ulum, a , y\a(f>vp6s) *, liber, free (comp. lib-et); riiber, red; scaber, rough, scurvy (comp. scab-ies). 1. Substantives: (a) Masculine: cftliiber (also colubra, f.), a snake; f&ber, a smith; fiber, a beaver; Liber, a name of Bacchus; liber, the inner bark, a book (for fli-ber; comp. <£Aoioy, bar P. or comp. gl&ber, yXdfaiv). [For BJulciber, Vulcan, see §§ 455, 901.] 22338 Word-Formation. [Book III (b) Feminine: ddl&bra, a mattock (ddla-re); fibra, a Jibre (fiwd-Sjre ?); illScfcbra, an allurement (illlc6-re); latSbra, a hiding-place (latere); libra, a balance; palpebrse (pi., Celsus has sing, once), eyelids (palpa-re, palp-Ita-re); s&16bra, a jolting road (salire); sc&- tebra (Verg., Plin.), a gushing (scatlre); tSnfcbrse (pi.), darkness; tSrSbra, a borer (tSr-Sre); vert&bra, a joint (vert-Sre); umbra, a shadow (comp. imber, ofxftpas ?). (c) Neuter: candelabrum, a candlestick (candela-); cSrSbrum, the brain (comp. Kapa, head); cribrum, a sieve (ere-, cer-nSre, Kpiveiv); delilbrum, a shrine (de, lu-ere, to expiate?); fla-bra (pi.), blasts (fla-re); labrum, a basin (lavare); labrum, a lip (lawbere); membrum, a limb; pollubrum (Fest.), a thing to sprinkle with (por, l&v-); pr6brum, a disgrace; velabrum, a street in Rome; ventila- brum (Col.), a winnowing-fork (ventila-re); vdluta-brum, a wal- lowing-place (v&lilta-re). -c-8ro) T Adjectives: lac-er, torn (comp. Xcikls, a rent); ludl- 887 ~c"r0 ' cer, sportive (lfldo-); mac-er, thin (comp. mac-ies); pulcer, handsome; sac-er, devoted to the gods (comp. sawcire). 2. Substantives: (a) masculine: canc-er, a crab (comp. KapKi- vos); sde-er, a father-in-law (comp. tKvpls). (b) Feminine: arcSra (old), a covered carriage (area-). (c) Neuter: ambula-crum, a walk, i. e. place for walking (am- btiia-re); fulcrum, a post at foot of couch (fulcire); invdlucrum, a wrapper (involv-Sre); lucrum, gain (lu-gre, to pay); sSpulcrum, a tomb (sSpglire); simula-crum, a likeness (simula-re). 1. Adjectives: 883 alter, other (ali-); ater, black; cStSro- (§ 346), other; citer (rare in positive), on this side (cis); dexter, on the right-hand (comp. be £-16$); extSro-, outside (ex); neuter, neither (ne, utro-); noster, our (nos); poster0-, after (pos-te); sinister, on the left; tseter, foul; voster (vester), your (vos); uter, whether (quo-, § 121). Compare also contra, intra, ultra, frustra, § 509, and the ad- verbs in -ter, §5 41. Also It£rum, jor the second time. Substantives: (a) Masculine: admlnis-ter (also administra, f.), an attendant; Adulter (also adulter a, f.), an adulterer; arbiter (also arbitra, f.), a witness, judge (ad, § 160.10, blt-ere); auster, a south-wind (comp. aveipy dr-6re); citrus, (1) the citrus, (2) the citron; culter, a knife (comp. koXo?, docked\ Kelpeiv, curtus); hister, an actor (Etruscan); magis-ter (also magistra, f.), a master (magis); minis-ter (alsoChap. VIII.] lingual Noun-Stems: -cro, tro, -aro. 339 mlnistra, f.), a servant (minus); s§q.vester, a stakeholder, mediator (sScus); titerus, the womb. (b) Feminine: catra, a Spanish shield; c&lostra (also colo- strum), the first milk; exc6tra, a snake; fenestra, a window (comp. (pav-, aii/€Lv); littSra, a letter (a painted stroke ? from ll-n-6re, to smear); lutra, an otter; mater-tSra, a mother's sister (a second mother, mater-, comp. ItSrum, al-ter); mulc-tra (also mulct rum), a milking-pail (mulgere); patera, a broad dish (patere); scutra, a flat dish; and others in (a). (r) Neuter: ara-trum, a plough (ara-re); astrum, a star (for acrrpov); calamis-trum, a curling-iron (comp. calamo-, Kakapld a reed); canistrum (pi.), a reed basket (from Kaixurrpov); c&pis- trum, a halter (capS-re, comp. capid-); castra (pi.; also, as proper name, castrum), a camp (properly huts ? comp. casa, cas-tus); claus-trum (usually pi.), a fastening (claud-6re, § 160. 3); f&re- trum, a bier (fer-re, comp. c6p); Lar (m.), a household god; par (stem par-), equal, a mate (cf. § 454); ver (n.), spring (comp. lap). -&r Substantives: all neuter: baccar, a plant with an aroma- tic root (from fiaKKapis); jubar, bright light; instar, likeness. See also § 454. -5r Substantives: neuter (on these see § 454): aeqvOr, a level 898 surface (seqvo-); 6bur, ivory; fSmur, a thigh; jgcur, the liver (comp. rjirnp); marmor, marble; robur, heart of oak* Perhaps also mSmor (adj.), mindful, belongs here (§ 429). -tir 1. Adjective: cicur, tame. 899 7,. Substantives: (a) masculine: augur, a diviner (pro- bably compound for &vl-ger); furfur, bran (perhaps redupl. from same root as in frlcare, to rub)\ LSmures (pi.), ghosts; turtur, a turtle-dove; vultur, a vulture. (b) Neuter: fulgur, a flash of lightning (fulgere); guttur (rarely m.), the throat; murmur, a murmuring noise (redupl.); sulfur, sulphur. -Sri cSler, swift; pfttris (§ 430), rotten (pftt-ere); vepres 900 (m. pi.), thqrns. -gr 1. Adjectives: pauper,poor (pauco- and p&rg-re?). 2. Substantives (cf. § 455): (a) Masculine: &cipenser, a sturgeon; agger, a pile (ad, gSr-Sre); anser, a gander (comp. Germ. Gans); asser, a beam, post; carcer, a prison, barrier; CSllres (pi.), Knights; later,a brick; passer, a sparrow; pr6c6res (pi.), nobles; vesper, evening (cf. § 885. 2. b)\ vomer (stem originally vomis-), a ploughshare. (b) Feminine: laver, a water-plant; miilier, a woman. (c) Neuter: &cer, the maple; cadaver, a corpse; cicer, chickpea; Iter, a journey (I-, Ire, to go); papaver, a poppy; piper, pepper (comp. 7T€7repi); slier, brookwillow; slser, skirwort (comp; crlcrapov). (See § 430). 1. Adjectives: cSlgber, numerous^ thronged 901 ) ^ honour (comp. crebro-); December, tenth; fene-bris, of interest (fenos-); fdnebris, funereal (f&nus-); liigu-bris, mournful (lilgere; the second u being due to assimilation partly to the first u, and partly to b); miilie-bris, womanly (mtiligr-); Ndvem-ber, ninth; Octo-ber, eighth; salil-ber, healthy (saliit-); Sep- tember, seventh. (December, &c. are only used of the month.)Chap. VIII] Lingual Noun-Stems: -&r, -b&ri, -tSri. 343 2. Substantives: fe-bris (f.), a fever (for ferv-bris, ferv-ere); imber, a rain-sho esp. of stolen property (rgclpg-re); rec-tor, a ruler (r6g-6re); rgdemp-tor, a contractor (rgdim-gre); rgper-tor, a discoverer (rgpSnre); rup-tor, a breaker (ruwp-Sre); scrip-tor, a writer (scrib-ere); sculp-tor, an engraver (sculp-8re); sec-tor, a cutter, a purchaser of confiscated goods (sgcare); spon-sor, a surety (spondere); sva-sor, a recommender (svadSre); sil-tor, a shoemaker (su-gre); tex-tor, a weaver (tex-6re); ton-sor, a barber (tondere);348 Word-Formation. [Book III. tor-tor, a torturer (torqvere); til-tor, a guardian (tueri); vec-tor, (i) a carrier, (2) a passenger (v81i-8re); Vic-tor, a conqueror (viwc- 6re); ul-tor, an avenger (ulc-isc-i). -iiri sScttris (f.), an axe (properly for cutting? sgcare). 909 gnariiris (adj.), knowing, is found in PL Most. 100 (gna-ro-). Compound stem-endings: -rco, -trlci, §§771, 78a; -unio, -erno, -terno, §§ 828, 829; -trlno, § 842; -rio, -"brio, -ario, -torio (-sorio), §§ 940—943- iii. Stems ending in -s. -5s (-6r) Substantives: (a) arbos (f. also arbdr), a tree; lgpus (m.), 910 a hare. (J?) Neuter: corpus, a body; dScus, a distinction; dedScus, a dis- grace; frigus, cold (comp. plyos); litus, ashore; n6mus, a grove; pectus, a breast; pScus, cattle; stercus, dung; tempus, time. -n6s (-n6r) Neuter: facl-nus, a deed (facS-re); fenus (fsenus), intc- 9« rest of money (breeding, comp. fe-tus, fe-mina); pSnus, a store (cf. § 398); pig-nus, a pledge (pawg-ere). -iis (-6r) (1) Adjective: v6tus (v6t6r, Enn.), old. 9Ia (2) Substantives: neuter: acus, chaff; fcedus, a treaty; gldmus, a ball of thread (comp. gldbus); hdlus (61us), vegetable; l&tus, a side; dpus, a work; pondus, a weight; raudus, a piece of metal; rildus, rubble; sgcus (only n. acc. sing.), a race ox generation; scSlus, a crime; sldus, a constellation; vellus, a fleece; viscus, the internal organs of the body; ulcus, a sore (comp. ekKos). ~nus(-n6r) Neuter substantives: f&nus, a funeral; g8nus, a race or 9x3 kind (comp. gi-gn-Sre); mdnus, a gift; 6nus, a burden; vulnus, a wound. Also VSnus (f.), the goddess of beauty (comp. vgnus- tus). -8s (-6r) CSres (f.), goddess of corn, &c. (comp. Kpaiveiv, c6rus, 914 § 843); ptlbes (adj.), grown up (pflbi-). -Is (-8r) Substantives: clnis (m.), ashes; ciicumis (cf. §412), <2915 cucumber; pulvis (m. rarely f.), dust. For vomis, see § 900.Chap. VIII.'] Lingual Noun-Stems: -6s, -its, -5s, -ios. 349 -os (-or) 1., Adjectives: min-or (adj.), less (comp. mln-Imus). 916 %. Substantives: (a) masculine. clamos (cf. Quint. I. 4. 13, also clam6r), a shout (clama- re); c6Ios (also col6r), a colour; flos, a flower; h6n6s (also hdndr), an honour, an official post; labos (usually labdr), toil; ISpos, pleasant- ness, humour; m5s, a custom, a whim; 6dos (also 6d6r), a scent (comp. 61-ere, o£», oScoda); pavos (Nasv., usually p&vdr), dread (pavere); ros, dew; riimdr (comp. rumus-culus), a rumour. Compare also the substantives in § 907. (b) Neuter: os, a mouth. -ios (-ior) Adjectives in comparative degree. These are formed from 917 most noun adjectives and many participles. A list of the principal irregularities will be found in the Appendix. The original s of the suffix is seen only in the neuter singular nom. acc., and in,the superlative forms which are derived from it (§ 755> acr-ior, sharper (aori-); seqv-ior, fairer (seqvo-); alt-ior, higher (alto-); amant-ior, more loving (amanti-); antlqv-ior, more ancient (antiqvo-); asp6r-ior, rougher (aspSro-); audac-ior, bolder (audaci-); bSn&ficent-ior, more benevolent (with participial suffix, from bene- fico-); cit6r-ior, on this side (citra); concord-ior, more harmonious (concordi-); crebr-ior, more crowded (crebro-); dextSr-ior, on the right side (dextro-); detSr-ior, worse; dlt-ior, richer (dlti-); ddr-ior, harder (dtiro-); Sgent-ior, more needy (Sgenti-); extSr-ior, outside (extfiro-); fellc-ior, happier (felici-); fertil-ior, more fertile (fertlli-); frflgal-ior (for positive frugi indecl. is used); imbecill-ior, weaker (imbecillo-); industr-ior, more active (industrio-); infgr-ior, lower (inf&ro-); ingent-ior, huger (ingenti-); int6r-ior, inner (intra); jdn-ior, younger (juvSn-); magnific-ent-ior, more high minded (mag- nifico- with participial suffix); major, greater (for mag-ior, comp. mag-mis); m61-ior, better; mlsgr-ior, more wretched (mlsSro-); neqv-ior, naughtier (nequam); oc-ior, swifter (comp. cokvs) ; pejor, worse (for pSd-ior, comp. pessimus); pingv-ior, fatter (pingvi-); pltis (n.), more (for ploios, cf. § 754); p6pular-ior, more popular (p&piilari-); post&r-ior, later (post&ro-); prior, former (pro ? cf. § 754); prdp-ior, nearer (pr&pe); salfttar-ior, more healthful (salti- tari-); s<ibr-ior, more healthy (salubri-); sat&r-ior (Col.), fatter (satiiro-); sgn-ior, older (s§n-, 110m., sgnex-); slnistfir-ior, on the left hand (sinister©-); sup6r-ior, upper (siipgro-); tSnv-ior, thinner (tenvi-); v6tust-ior, older (vStusto-); ult6r-ior, further (ultra); and very many others.35° Word-Formation. [Book III. -its (-iir) Substantives: (a) feminine: telltts, the earth, (b) Neuter: crits, a leg; jfls, right (comp. jiib-ere and § 76. 3); broth (comp. pfts, diseased matter; rits, the country); tus, frankincense (from Compound stem-endings: -issumo, § 758; -usto, -esto, § 789; -sti, -estat, §§ 808, 811; -usculo, § 864. CHAPTER IX, VOWEL NOUN-STEMS. i. Stems ending in -eo. -eo 1. Adjectives: §,dor-eus, of spelt (ador-); sequdr-eus, watery (sequdr-); ser-eus, of bron%e (ses-); arbor-ens, of a tree (arbds-); arMt-eus of the arbutus (arbuto-); argent-eus, of silver (argento-); arundln-eus, of reeds (arunddn-); aur-eus, golden (auro-); cer-eus, waxen (cera-); consangvln-eus, of the same blood (com, sangven-); corneus, of the cornel tree (corno-); horny (cornu-); corp6r-eus, of or having a body (corp&s-); femin-eus, of a woman (fg-mina-); ferr-eus, of iron (ferro-); flamm-eus, flamy (flamma-); flor-eus, flowery (flos-); flftmln-eus, of a river (M-mgn-); fulmin-eus of thunder (ful-mSn-); fam-eus, smoky (fdmo-); gramin-eus, grassy (gra-mSn-); ign-eus, fiery (igni-); lact-eus, milky (lacti-); lan-eus, woolly (l&na-); lapld- eus, pebbly (lapid-); lut-eus, muddy (luto-); L&teus golden yellow (liito-); niv-eus, snowy (nivi-); oss-eus, bony (ossi-); plc-eus, pitchy (pic-); plumb-eus, leaden (plumbo-); pulver-eus, dusty (pulvis-); r6s-eus, rosy (rdsa-); sangvin-eus, bloody (sangvgn-); sax-eus, stony (saxo-); slder-eus, starry (sidus-); splc-eus, of ears of corn (spica-); trltic-eus, wheaten trltico-); vlper-eus of a viper (vlpSra-); virgin-eus, girlish (virgdn-); and others. 2. Substantives : (a) Masculine : alv-eus, a trough, hollow (alvo-); balt-eus (or -eum), a belt; calc-eus, a shoe (calci- heel); cas-eus, a cheese; cltip-Chap. IX.] Vo7vel Noun-Stems; -eo, -&ceo, -neo. eus, a shield; cull-eus, a bag (from Gr. koXcos: comp. ctUus); ctin-eus, a wedge, l&CLV-eus, a noose; mall-eus, a hammer; mull-eus, a red shoe (mullo- red mullet f); pilleus (also pilleum), a felt cap (comp. 7tl\.os, felt); pliit-eus, a board, shed, &c.; put-eus, a well; urc-eus, a pitcher. (b) Feminine: adGr-ea, renown (lit. corn-reward; ador-); £lea, a die; ardea, a heron (comp. epcodios); area, an open space; baxe& (pi.), shoes; bractea, a plate of metal; buccea (Aug. ap. Suet.), a mouthful (bucca-); capr-ea, a roedeer (capro-); fdvea, a pitfall; fr&mea, a spear (Tac. G. 6); galea, a helmet (comp. Kvverj)] ganea, a restaurant; glarea, gravel; gran-ea, a corn-mash (grano-); lancea, a light spear; laur-ea, a laurel tree or bay (lauro-); lin-ea, a flaxen thread (lino-); 6crea, a greave; olea, an olive (comp. ekala); psilea, straw (comp. Pales): platSa, a street (from nXarcia, broadway)] sdl-ea, a sandal (sdlo-, ground); talea, a rod; tinea (tinia, comp. taenia, ratz/ia), a bookworm; trabea, a state robe; vlnea, a vineyard, a shed. (c) Neuter: flammeum, a bridal veil (flamma-); hordeum, barley. -&c-eo i. Adjectives: cret-aceus, of chalk (creta-); Sdgr-Hceus, 920 of ivy (6dSra-); farr-aceus, of spelt (farr-); gallin-aceus (gailinacius), of hens (gallina-); herb-aceus, grass coloured (herba-); horde-aceus, of barley (hordeo-); ros-aceus, of roses (rdsa-); test-aceus, of pottery (testa-); vi61-aceus of violes (vi61a-). 2. Substantives: erin-aceus, a hedgehog (comp. §r, xVP Hesych.); must-aceus or must cake (musto-); vin-aceus, a raisin stone (vino-). -uceo caduceus, herald's staff (comp. Kr]pvKciov); pann-itceus 921 (pannucius), tattered, wrinkled (panno-). -teo lin-teus, of linen (lino-). -neo 1. Adjectives: abe-neus (seneus), of bronze (for ahes- 922 neus, from ses-); angvi-neus (rare), snaky (angvi-); Sbur-neus, of ivory (Sb&r-); popul-neus, of poplar (p5- pulo-); quer-neus, oaken (quercu- § 110). 2. Substantives: &ran-eus (in Plin. also as adj.), a spider (comp. dpaxvrjs); balineum or balneum (cf. also § 330), a bath (from ftaXaueiov). -gneo i. e. gin-eo, from root of gigngre; unless the g be softened for c in the first two words, and in the last be due to a false analogy. ili-gneus, of ilex (for ilic-gneus, from ilSc-); s&ligneus (Col.), of willow (salic-); viti-gineus vine-produced (viti-).Word-Formation. [Book Iff. -an-eo ( Adjectives: (a) consent-aneus, suited (consentire); dissentaneus, 923 unsuited (dissentire), extraneus, external (extra); foc-aneus (rustic ap. Col.), of the throat; applied to a choking sprout (fauci-); mis- cell-aneus (Juv.), miscellaneous (miscello-); pSd-aneus, an inferior judge (pSd-); prsecld-aneus (Gato), slaughtered before (prae-csed-Sre); prselig-aneus (Cato), picked before (prselig-6re); prsesent-aneus (Plin.), operating quickly (prsesenti-); suceed-aneus or succldaneus coming in place of another (succed-Sre or succIdSre); sicc-aneus (Col.), dry (sicco-). (b) Compounds formed immediately from the simple parts* bipSd-aneus (Col.), two feet in measure (bis p£d-); circumfdraneus, round the forum (circum f6ro-); collact-aneus, foster (com lacti-); m$diterr-aneus, inland (medio-, terra-); subterraneus, underground (sub terra-); supervac-aneus, superfluous (super vaca-re). t-an-eo i. e. aneo appended to stem of past participle: collec-taneus (Plin., Suet.), gathered together (collIg-Sre); 924 condi-taneus (Varr.), for preserving (condfire or condire); dpertaneus (Plin.), concealed (dp§rire); rejec-taneus (coined by Cic. Fin. 4. a6), belonging to the class of rejected (reic-Sre). -5neo Idon6us,yfr (ideo, Donaldson); straying (erron-). -leo 1. Adjectives: cseruleus (cssriilus), dark blue (cselo-, 925 cf. § 176, comp. also caesio-). 2. Substantives: (a diminutival suffix). acu-leus, sting, prickle (acu-); Sqvii-leus, a colt (gqvo-); hinnu-leus a fawn (Mnno-); m&nti~leus, a long sleeve (maim-); nuc-leus (niiculeus, Plaut.), a kernel (niic-); trochlea, a block of pulleys (from rpo^o?, comp. rpo^aXia). See also § 919. 2. ii. Stems ending in -io. (For stems in -i see Book II. Chap, x.) -io 1. Adjectives: chiefly from nouns: (a) abstem-ius, abstemious (abs, tern-; comp. tem-iilen- tus, tem-etum); a&rius, in the air (aer-); sethSr-ius, in the tether (sethSr-); al-ius, other; anx-ius, uneasy (ang-Sre ?); augiir-ius, of an augur (augur-); cses-ius, gray; diib-ius, doubtful (duo-; the b is perhaps parasitical, cf. § 76, or du-bi-us is for du-vi-us, two-wayed)Chap. IX.] Vowel Noun-Stems: -aneo, -leo; -io, -ia. 353 egrgg-ius, select (e, grgg-); exlm-ius, excepted, extraordinary (exim- ere); fid-ius, of good faith, epithet of Jupiter (fide-); industr-iun, active (indo, stru-ere); InjUr-ius, wrong (in, jfls-); Mart-ius, of War (Marti-); mSd-ius, middle (so dimldius, halved); nlm-ius, ex- cessive (nimis); nox-ius, hurtful (noxa-); p&tr-ius, of a father (patr-); pius, dutiful; pl&v-ius, rainy (plu-Sre); reg-ius, kingly (reg-); saucius, wounded; sdc-ius (mostly subst.), fellow (comp. sgqvi); sdror-ius, sisterly (sdror-); sublic-ius, of piles (sublica-)'; VSngr-ius, of Venus (V6ntis-); uxor-ius, of a wife (uxor-). (b) Names of Roman clans: see § iii. infr. p. 363. 2. Substantives: masculine: (a) Pragnomina: see § iii. infr. p. 363. (b) dupond-ius (sc. as), a two-pound coin (duo, pondo); fllius, a son; fluv-ius, a river (flu-6re); ggn-ius, native temper (gign-&re); gl&d-ius, a sword; lftd-ius, a player (lddo-); mdd-ius, a bushel (mddo-); nutric-ius (also adj.), a tutor (nutr-ici-); r&d-ius, a spoke; S&lii, Jumpers,certain priests (s&ll-re); simius (simia), an ape (simo-). 3. Substantives: feminine: (a) From verbs or verbal nouns: axungia (Plin.), wheel-grease (axi-, ung-€re); corTlgia, a shoe-tie (corrlg-Sre); colliqvise, gutters (com, llqvi, comp. Hqv5r-); dellc-ise (pi.), delight (delicS-re, allure); desld-ia, sloth (desidere) ; exctib- ise (pi.), patrol (exciiba-re); exSqv-i» (pi.), funeral (exseqvi); exiiv-ise (pi.), spoils (exu-6re); fsenlsicia (also neut.j, hay cutting (fsBiio-, s6care); f&r-i® (pi.), rage (f&r-6re); host-ia, a victim (hos- tlre, to strike); incdr-ia, carelessness (in, cura-); industr-ia, activity (indo, stru-ere); indftv-i38 (pi.), rare, robings (indu-Sre); ingd-ia, not eating (in, Sd-&re); infit-ise (pi.), non-confession (in, fateri); insid-i8B (pi.), plot (insidere); invld-ia, grudge (invidere); nox-ia, a wrong (noxa-); provinc-ia, a department (provinc-8re ?); redtiy-ia, misgrowth of nail (for red-ungv-ia, Corss., but comp. exuviae, indu- vise); reliqv-isB (pi.), remains (reliqvo-); succidia, a flitch (sub, csed-Sre?); suppgt-ise (pi.), help (sub, p6t6re); via (veha, Varr. R.R. 1. 2, §14), a road (veh-gre); vindem-ia, grape-plucking (vino-, dem-6re?); vindlc-ise (pL), claim (vindica-re). "With stems in -ie (-ies for ia-is ?): alluv-ies, overflow; collftvies, proliivies, &c. (lS,v-are); conger- ies, a heap (conggr-fcre); effig-ies, form (effl«g-6re); esttr-ies, hunger (estlri-re); f&c-ies, a face (f&cfc-re); m^c-ies, leanness (m&cere); pernic-ies (cf. § 340), destruction (pernfica-re); progfin-ies, offspring (prcg-zgn-Sre); r&b-ies, raving (rab-6re); rSqv-ies, rest (reqvi- ejrgre); sc&b-ies, scurf (sc&b-Sre); sgr-ies, a row (s&r-gre); sp6c-ies, a look (sp8c€-re); temp8r-ies, a mixture (temp8ra-re). 23354 Word-Formation. [Book III (b) From nouns, chiefly from adjectives: audac-ia, boldness (audaci-); a via, a grandmother (ftro-); bar- b&r-ia (barbaries), uric out hness (barbaro-); cdldn-ia, a farmer-settle* ment (cOlono-); cSp-ia, plenty (copi-); concord-ia, harmmy (con- cordi-); ctlr-ia, a body of men (co-vlro- ?); custod-ia, protection (custod-); divlt-iss (pi.), riches (dlvgt-); fallac-ia, deceit (faliaci-) ; fftmll-Ia, a body of slaves, a household (famtilo-) ; fasc-ia, a bandage, ribbon (fasci-); fSr6c-ia, high-spiritedness (fSrSci-); host-la, a 'victim (hostlre, to strike); ignav-ia, cowardice (ignavo-); ignomln-ia, dis- grace (in, ^nom6n~? cf. § 129); inert-ia, inactivity (inert!-); infam- ia, disgrace (infami-); infSr-i® (pi.), offerings to the nether Gods (infSro-); injilr-ia, a wrong (in, jUs-); indp-ia, scarcity (in6p-); insan-ia, madness (insano-); lasciv-ia, playfulness (lasclvo-); ma- tSr-ia (materiea), mother-stuff,\ i.e.. matter (mater-); m§mdr-ia, memory (mSm&ri-); mlllt-ia, service in war (milfit-); mls6r-ia, wretchedness (mis&ro-); pervicac-ia, inflexibility (pervic&ei-); slm-ia, an ape (slmo-, fat-nosed}) \ s6cord-ia, indolence (sOcordi-); sollert-ia, adroitness (sollerti-) \ siiperb-ia, haughtiness (superbo-); vement-ia, vehemence (vementi-); vlcln-ia, neighbourhood (vicino-); ylgil-ia, watching, watch (vigil-). Also with stems in -ie: &c-ies, an edge (acu-); paupSr-iesr poverty, damage (paupgr-). (c) Of uncertain origin: ascia, an axe; bestia, a beast; cicSnia, a stork; ferise (pi.), holy- days (cf. § 704. n); gavia, a seamew; nenia, a dirge; prsestlgise (pi.), jugglery; prosapia, stock, race; stlria, an icicle; tibia, a flute; tilia, a lime-tree; vSnia, indulgence; vlcia, a vetch. "With stems in -ie: caBS&ries, hair of the head; caries, rottenness; inglilvies, the gullet (in, gula-?); sanies, corrupted blood (eomp. sangvis). 4. Substantives: neuter: 929 (a) From verbs or verbal nouns: bSngfIc-ium, a kindness (benef&c8-re); collOqv-iiim, conversation (coll6qv-i); commerc-ium, ^r«^(commerca-ri); compendium, savings (com, pend-£re, to weigh with) • coniib-ium, marriage (com, nilb-8re) ; contag-iiun, contagion (com, ta»g-ere); deMv-ium (Plin.), falling off e.g.'of hair (de, flu-6re); d§sid6r-ium, longing, regret (desld«ra-re); dilttv-ium, a deluge (dllu-6re); discld-ium, divorce (disciwdere); dlvort-ium, divorce (divort-gre); efftig-ium, escape (eff&gg-re); ex- cldium, overthrow (exsclrzd-gre); fastid-ium, disgust (fastldl-re); ftagit-ium, a crying deed (flagita-re); gaud-ium, joy (gaudSre for gav-id-Sre; comp. Gaius, § 945); impSr-ium, command (impgra-re);Chap,IX.] Vowel Noun-Stems: -ia, -ie; -io, neuter. 355 impltlv-ium, a tank (implu-6re); incend-ium, conflagration (incend- 6re); ingen-ium, disposition (in§7gn-8re); inlt-ium, beginning (inlre); jurg-ium, a quarrel (jurga-re); labium, a lip (lawb-6re); litlg-iuin, lawsuit (litlg§.-re); obsSqv-ium, obedience (obs8qv-i); obsid-ium, a blockade (obsidere'); 6d-ium, hatred (Perf. odisse); offlc-ium, duty (dpiis-, fac6re, cf. opificina, § 839; or from offlcS-re, to do towards, but the verb is usually in bad sense); opprdbr-ium, reproach (oppro- bra-re); prsemium, a reward (afirst choice? prse, Sm-Sre); praesag- ium, a presage (prae-sagire); praesld-ium, defence (prsesldere); prand-ium, lunch (prandere); prolub-ium, inclination \pro, liibSre); rem8d-ium, a remedy (rgm6d-eri); repot-ia (pi.), renewal of drink- ing, i.e. the second dafs feast (repot-are); repttd-ium, divorce (re- pentance ? re, p&dere; or re, p6d-, comp. tripudium); stiid-ium, zeal (stiid-ere); suffrag-ium, a?iything broken off: hence a potsherd, used in voting, a *vote (sub frawg-fire)suspend-ium, hanging (suspend- Sre); susplr-ium, a siign (susplra-re); tsed-ium, weariness (taedere); yestlg-ium, a footstep, a trace (vestlga-re); and others. (Jr) From nouns-: ofteff from personal names: adult6r-ium, adultery (adultgro-); ftpi-xun, parsley (5,pl-? bee); arbltr-ium, a decision (arbltro-); artlfic-ium, manufacture, art (artlfgc-); auc&p-ium, bird-catching (auctip-); augtir-ium, an augury (augiir-); auspic-ium, auspice (auspgc-); bienni-um, a period of two years (bienni-); colleg-ium, a board (collega-); conjtig-ium, wedlock (conjiig-); consll-ium, advice (constil-); conviv-ium, a dinner-party (convlva-); cuppedia (pi.), delicacies (comp. cuppes); exil-ium, exile (extil-); gland-ium, a kernel in pork (glandi-); hered-ium, a plot of two jugera, an inheritance (hered-)hosplt-ium, hospitality (hospgt-) ; indlc-ium, information (indfic-); jejOn-ium, fasting (jejdno-); judic- ium, a trial (jM6c-) ; manclp-ium, a conveyance of land (mancgp-, a purchaser); m&gis-ter-ium, presidentship (magis-tero-); mendaci-um, a lie (mendaci-); minist&r-ium, service (minis-tero); occlplt-ium, the back-head (occiput-); pall-ium, a cloak (paUa-); partlcip-ium, a participle (partlcgp-); perjtlr-ium, false-swearing (perjtJ.ro-); prseclpltium (post-Aug.), a precipice, a fall (prseciplti-); prsed-ium, land (a thing given as security, prsed-); pHlejum, fleawort, penny royal (ptU-6c-); rSmlg-ium, rowing, a crew (remSg-); sacrll$g-ium, sacrilege (sacrilggo-); sSn-ium, old age (s6n-); somn-ium, a dream (somno-); savi-um, a kiss (svavl-); suppllc-ium (kneeling down) y punishment (supplfic-). (c) Compounds formed immediately from the simple parts, (See Chap, xi.) adverb-ium, an adverb (ad, verbo-); sequinoct-ium, the period when night is equal to day (ssqua-, nocti-); bipai-ium, a double mat- tock (bis, paia-); cont&bern-ium, companionship (com, taberna-); dlHtd-ium, interval between plays (dis, llido-); ddmicll-ium, home (d6mo-, cdl-Sre); diverb-ium, dialogue (dis, verbo-); h6mlcld-ium, 23—2356 Word-Formation. [Book III. manslaughter (hftmdn-, csed-fere); fordicidia (pi.), Feast of the slaughter of cow in-calf, April 15 (forda-, § 134, csed-fere); infor- tun-ium (prae-Cic.), a scrape (in, fortftna-); interldn-ium, time of new moon (inter, luna-); intemod-ium, space between knots (inter, nodo-); lectistern-ium, couch-covering, i.e. for a god's banquet (leeto-, sternfire; comp. sellisternia, pi.); naufr&g-ium, a shipwreck (nay-, £ra«g-Sre; comp. naufr&gus); parricid-ium, murder (par- ?, csed-6re); plenilttn-ium (Plin.), time of full moon (plena-, Itbia-); pomcer-ium, space behind the walls (post, milro-); postlimln-ium, return home (post, llmen*); prsecordia (pi.)? the diaphragm (prse, cordi-); prlmordia (pi. in Lucr. also ordia prima), first elements (primo-, ordi-ri); privlleg-ium, an enactment against an individual (privo-, leg-); proverb-ium, a proverb (that has become a word} pro, verbo-); puerpSr-ium, childbed (puero-, p&r§re; comp. puer- p6ra); regif&g-ium, the flight of the kings (reg-, f&g8-re); Septi- montium, Seven hills, as name of Rome and of a feast (septem, monti-); stilllcidium, dripping (stilla-, c&dfire); stipend-ium, pay (stlp-, pendgre); subsell-ium, a stool, bench (sub, sella-); suburbium, the suburbs (sub, urbi-); supercil-ium, eyebrow (siiper, cilio-, above eyelids); triptid-ium, thrice stamping (tri-, pSd-); ttibilustrium, trumpet-purification on Mar. 23, May 23 (tuba-, lustrare); veniflc- ium (§ 2%),poisoning (veneno-, f&cS-re). (d) Uncertain: allium, garlic; atrium, a hall (atro-, black, Mommsen); bUsium, a kiss; cilium, an eyelid, eyelash; clsium, a gig; convicium or con- vltium, abuse; c6rium, a hide; ddlium, a jar; elftgium, a pithy saying (for €iov, Curt.); fastigium, a gable top, a slope; grSmium, the tap; llcium, a leash, thread; lilium, a lily; ldlium, tares; milium, millet; minium, red lead; prddigium, a prodigy (comp. dig-itus, hfiKvvtiv); silicernium, a funeral feast; simptivium, a sacrificial bowl; sip&rium, a curtain; sdlium, a seat; spdlium, spoil (cf. §66). -Ic-ioj I- Adjectives, chiefly formed from other derivatives: 9 sedili-cius, of an atdile (sed-ili-); compltaii-cius, of the cross-road festival (compit-ali-); csem6nti-cius, of rubbish (caemento-V gentili-cius, of the clansmen (gent-Hi-); l&tfir-icius, of brick (l&t6r-); nataii-cius, of a birthday (nataii-); pastor-icius, of a shepherd (pas-tor-); patr-Icius, of the fathers (patr-); Saturnali-cius (Mart.), cf the Saturnalia (Saturn-£li-); sdd§li-cius, of companions (sddaii-); tribOnl-cius, of a tribune (trlb-ttno-); venail-cius, of things for sale, e.g. of slaves (ven-ali-). (See also § 926.) See for proper names in § 946.Chap. IX.] Vowel Noun-Stems: -io, -cio, -ticio, -tio. 357 2, Substantives (see also § 928) : conventicium, assembly-money — ro eKKkrjo-Lao-Tiicov (conventu-) ,• lftni-cium, *wool (l&na-); mundicies (§ 357b, but comp. § 932, p. 358), cleanliness; sSla-cium, comfort (s61-ari); fldflcia, confidence, a mort- gage (fldo-); un-eia, a unit of measure (flno-). Cf. § 928. Tic-io n&v-Icius, new (n6vo-). -t-ic-io | prom participles (ticio = -to-Icio?). They denote 93"* ^-s-ic- oj ^ qU(^iify derived from the past act. Few of these words are used frequently; and of the quantity of the i (when not marked here) there is no positive proof. advect-icius (Sail.), imported; advent-icius, imputed (as if from advento-); ascript-icius (Cic.), of the class of ascripti, enrolled; collect-icius, collected together; conduct-Icius, hired; commendat-ieius, commendatory; comment-icius, invented; congest-iclus, piled up; con- vent-icius, of an assembly; e.g. as neut. sub. the fee for attending$ dedit-icius, surrendered; demiss-Icius (Plaut. once), hanging down; edit-icius, nominated; emiss-Icius (Plaut. once), acting as scouts; empticius (Varr.), bought; fact-icius (Plin.), artificial; ficti-cius (Plin.), fictitious; foss-icius, dug; inslt-icius, ingrafted; miss-icius, discharged; multat-icius, of fined persons; perpessiclus (Sen.), patient; pignSratieius (Ulp. &c.), of a pledge or mortgage; recept-icius, of things received; subdlt-icius, suppositicious; supposit-Icius, suppositi- ciotis; surrupt-icius (Plaut.), stolen (surrupto-, i.e. sub, rapto); tralat-icius, transferred. -t-ia 1. Adjectives: pr6pi-tius, favourable (pr6p6) ; ter-tius, 932 third (ter-); vatius, bent inward (comp. varus). See proper names in § 947. 2. Substantives: (a) masculine: nun-tius, a messenger (nftvo-, vento-, as if participle of ven-Ire). (b) Feminine: (1) ia appended to past participles and similar adjectives; all with long syllable preceding -t: angus-tise, straits (angui-to-); argil-tise, fine touches (argu-8re); controver-sia, a dispute (controvert-€re); face-tiae, jokes (facg-to-) ; gra-tia, pleasingness, thanks (gra-to-); indfitise, a truce (ong. uncer- tain); inep-tise (pi.), trifles, nonsense (in, ap-isci); inscl-tia, awk- wardness (in, scire); mlnHtia (Sen.), smallness (mlnu-6re); mddes-tia, modesty (m6des-to-); m6les-tia, troublesomeness (mdles-to); nup-tise- (pl.), marriage (ntLb-6re). Also Ostia, town at mouth of Tiber (6s-). (2) From other adjectives: justl-tia,(justo-); lautl-tia, elegance (lauto-); mall-tia, mischievousness (maio-); prlml-tise (pi.), first fruits (primo-); pudici-tia, bashfulness (pudlco-); pu§ri-tia, childhood (pu6ro-); savi-tia, cruelty (ssevo-).358 Word-Formation. {Book TIL (3) Stems in -i-tie, usually with collateral stem in -i-tia (§§ 340, 342): &m9xl-ties (Catull.), bitterness (am&ro-); &mlcl-tia (-e stem once Lucr.), friendship (&mIco-); &vari-tia (-e stem once Lucr.), greedi- ness (&v&ro-); calvi-ties (post-Aug.), baldness (calvo-); caul-ties (-a stem once Plin.), grayness (cano-); dUri-ties (also -a stem), hardness (diiro-); lenti-tia (-e stem once post-Aug.), pliancy (lento-); molll-tia (also -e stem), softness (molli-); mundi-tia (-e stem once Catull.), cleanliness (mundo-); neqvl-tia (also -e stem), roguishness (neqvam-); nigri-ties (Gels.; -a stem Plin.), blackness (nigro-); no- tl-tia (-e stem Lucr.), acquaintance (ndti-); plgri-tia (-e stem Li v. once), laziness (pigro-); planl-ties (also -a stem), a level (piano-); pulll-ties (Varr., Col.), a brood (pullo-); s6gnl-tla (also segnl-ties), inactivity (segni-); spurcl-tia (-e stem Lucr. once), smuttiness (spurco-); tristi-tia (-e stem Ter. once), sadness (tristi-); vastl-ties (Plaut.), desolatim (v&sto-). (c) Neuter: (1) -io appended to supine stems: c&m-l-tium, place of assembly (cowlre); exercl-tium (post-Aug.), exercise (exer- cere); ex-I-tium, destruction (ex-Ire); in-I-tium, beginning (inire). (2) From nouns, or of uncertain origin: calvl-tium, baldness (calvo-); equi-tium, a stud of horses (Squo-); gurgustium, a hovel; lautia (pi.), entertainment, only in Liv. (lauto-?) ; lotium, urine; os-tium, a door (os-); otium, leisure; P&latium (in Martial Pall- idum), a Roman hill, a palace; prStium, price; servi-tium, slavery (servo-); spatium, space; vltium, a blemish, fault, vice (cf. Cic. T.D. 4.13). -en-t-io i.e. -io or -a appended to stem (in -enti) of present par- 933 ticiples or adjectives of like form: 1. Feminine: afflu-entia, abundance (afflu-gre); audi-entia, a hearing (aud-ire); b6n6v61-entia, goodwill (bene, velle); clem-entia, mercifulness (clem-enti-); contin-entia, self control (contin-rere); dllig-entia, accuracy (dilig-6re); fjlggantia, neatness (eleganti); fr6- qventia, crowd (frgqventi-); excandesc-entia, bursting into a glow, i. e. irascibility (excande-sc-6re); indlg-entia, needy craving (indlg- ere); infantia, .speechlessness, infancy (in, fUri); intellgg-entia, /«- telligence (intellSg-Sre); neglSg-entia, carelessness (negl8g-£re); pes- tll-entia, infection (pestil-enti-); pStul-antia, forward conduct (p6ttil-anti; comp. petul-cus); prM-entia, forethought (prfid-enti-, i.e. provid-enti-); s&pi-entia, wisdom (sipS-re); sent-entia, an opinion (for sentientia? from sentlre); temftl-entia, drunkenness (temiil-ento-); vindl-entia, intoxication (vinol-ento-); vi&l-entia, violence (viol-ento-); and many others. So the names of to.wns; e.g. Placentia, Pollentia, Valentia, &c. " a. Neuter: silentium, silence (silere).Chap. IX.) Vowel Noun-Stems: -Itie, -entia, -m5nio, &c. 359 -n-d-io Formed from stem of gerund: crSpundia (n.pl.), a child's rattle (crfip&re); facundia (f.), eloquence (facundo-, cf. § 820); iracundia (f.), wrathfulness (Iracundo-); vere- cundia (f.), bashfulness (v&reri). -n-io contlci-nium, time of general silence, evening (contlce-sc- 9'H $re); l&clnia, a flap of a garment (comp. Aa/a?, a rent); luscinia, a nightingale; pgcii-nia, money (stock of cattle ? from pecu- with suffix -Ino, see § 747); serinium, a writing-desk (scrfb-Sre?); sterqvili-nium, a dung heap (for stercdr-Il-inium, or (with 1 for r) for stercor-inium ? from stereos-). See also proper names in § 948. -mn-io calu-mnia, a fcdse charge (calv-gre). -5n-io aqullonius (adj. Plin.), northern (aquilQn-); cdlonla, a farmer-settlement (colono-); F&vonius, (west wind (f&v- ere) j* flamonium (not flaminium: cf. Momm. Eph. Epig. I. 221), flamed s office; fullonius (adj.), of a fuller (fullon-); lenonius (adj.), of a pander (lendn-); mangonium (Pljn. once), a trimming up of wares (mang5n-); mulionius (adj.), of a muleteer (million-); prse- conium, a proclamation (praecon-). See also in § 948. -m5n-io Substantives: (a) feminine: acrl-mOnia, sharpness (acri-) 5 93s aegrf-monia, sorrow (agro-); caeri-mflnia, a sacred rite; castl-monia, chastity (casto-); parsI-mOnia, thriftiness (from parti- ciple of parc&re); qu6rI-monia, a complaint (quSr-i); sancti-monia, sanctity (sancto-). ([b) Neuter: al-Im6nium (also alimSnia, Plaut.), nourishment (41-6re); matr-Imonium, marriage (matr-); merci-mOnium (Plaut., Tac.), wares (merci-); patr-imonium, hereditary estate (patr-); testtimdnium (testimonium), evidence (testi-); v&d-imdnium, re- cognizance, appearance on bail (v&d-). -3ln-io i.e. -io suffixed to stem of verbs in -clna (cf. § 967). 936 latro-cin-ium, robbery (latro-cinari); l§no-cin-ium, arts (ISnS-cinari); p&tro-cin-ium, protection (patro-cinari); ratio- cln-ium, calculation (ratio-clnsiri); tlro-cin-ium, pupillage (tlron-; the verb is not in use); vati-cln-ium, prophecy (vati-clnari). -1-io i.e. -io suffixed to a diminutival suffix -lo. 937 auxilium, aid (auxo-, for aucto-? cf. av^auco); conci- lium, a council (concire); pScCL-lium, property of children or slaves (small stock of cattle, peeu-); prcelium, a battle; qvisqvi-lise (pi.), refuse (§ 118. 4). See also proper names in § 949. -&l-io Baccanilia (g. pi. Baccanaliorum, § 425); See. Cf. p. 335. 938 -61-io C£pitolmmT the Roman Capitol. 939 -Sl-io eontiim§lia, insult (contumere ?); fid-elia, an earthen jar. -ill-io or -il-io. See proper names in § 949.360' Word-Formation. \B00k III. -r-io 1. Adjectives: prdprius, one's own; v&rivi&x varied. 94© 2. Substantives: cantSrius, a gelding (from #cai>0jjAio??); centtiria, a division composed of a hundred men (centum, viro-? § 94. a); dSciiria, a division composed of ten (dftcem-); eqvirria pr ecurria (pi.)? horse-race day on Feb. 37, Mar. 14 (for eqvi-curr-ia from eqvo-, curr-6re ?) gloria, glory (clufire? § 127); LSmiiria (pi.). Night of offerings to wrathful spirits, May 9, 11, 13 (LSmures); longurius, a long pole (longo-); lux&ria (luxuries), luxury (luxu-); mac6ria (also early maceries), a wall; pendria, scarcity (comp. Tvelva, hunger); promuntttrium, see § 943. a; tug&rium, a hut (tgg-Sre?); volturius, a vulture (comp. voltur, § 454). See also § 928. -br io 1. Adjectives: ebrius, drunken; sobrius, sober (comp. 941 o-c5?, safe). 2. Substantives: Fimbria (proper name); fimbriae (pi.), fringe (fibro-?); lddi-brium, mockery, sport (lfldo-); manu-brium, a handle (manu-). -ar-io Very numerous, often with collateral stems in -ari (§ 906), 942 but without any tendency to change to -alio when an r precedes. Many of these words, named here as substantives, are also usxl, less noticeably, as adjectives, or in other genders, or other special meanings. 1. Adjectives: advers-arius, opposed (adverso-); ser-arius, of bronze, of money (ass-); &gr-arius, of land (agro-); al-arius, of the wing (&la-); axmivers-arius, annual (anno-, verso-); &qv-arius, of water (aqva-); argent-arius, of silver, money (argento-); auxlli-arius (also auxiliaris), auxiliary (auxilio-); calc-arius, of chalk (calci-); cald-arius, of warm baths (calda-); "caus-arius, in ill-health (causa-, an ailment, Cels., Sen., Plin.); cell-Sxius, of the cellar (cella-); classi-arius, of the fleet (classi-); contr-arius, opposed (contra); extr-arius, outside, strange (extra); fldilci-arius, under a trust (flducia-); friiment-arius, of corn (frUmento-); gr6g-arius, of a herd (grSg-) ; hdnor-arius, of honour or 0/ a public office (h6- nor-); jUdici-arius, of the law courts (jddicio-); 16gi5n-arius, of a legion (lfcgion-); m&ntifest-arius (Plaut.), caught in the act (manu- festo-); materi-arius, of timber (materia-); mens-arius, of a bank (mensa-); mercenn-arius, for hire (from merced-, with a suffix -6n); naumachi-arius (Plin., Suet.), for a sea-fight (vavuaxia); n6cess-arius, necessary (ngcesse); numm-arius, of money (nummo-); 6n6r-ariiis, for burden (dniis-); 6p6r-arius, of labour (dpgra-); p6- cu-arius, of cattle (pScu-); pisc-arius, offish (pisci-); piscln-arius, of a fishpond (piscina-); prgc-arius, on sufferance (pr$c-); prim- arius, of the first (primo-); qvinusvicenarius, of twenty-five (qvino-, viceno-); qvinqv5,gen-arius, consisting of fifty (qvinqvageno-); s6-Chap. JX.] Vowel Noun-Stems: -rio, -"brio, -ario. 361 cund-arius, secondary (sficundo-); s§n-arius, containing six (s§no-); stlpendi-arius, paying a {fixed) tribute (stlpendio-); s&bit-arius, hasty (siiblto-); subsidi-arius, in reserve (subsldio-); sumptu-arius, of expense (sumptu-); t&bell-arius, of the ballot, see also % (a) (t&bella-); taiarius, of dice (taio-); t$m§r-arius, rash (t6m$re); tempflr-arius, for a time (tempds-); testament-arius, of a will (testamento-); tftmultu-arius, of a bustle, hurriedly done (tftmultu-); vesti-arius, of clothes (vesti-); vln-arius, of wine (vino-); unci-arius, of an ounce or twelfth part (uncia-); vdlunt-arius, by free will (v61unti-, or for vdlunta-tarius); vdlupt-arius, of pleasure (v6- luptat-; for volupta-tarius); and others. 2. Substantives: (a) masculine: anticiv-arius (post-Aug.), an antiquarian (antlqvo-); cet-arius, a fishmonger (c£to-); cin§r-arius, a hair curler (clnls-, ashes in which the irons were heated); comment-arius (sc. liber), a note-book (com- inento-); ctiblctil-arius (Cic., cf. § 906), a valet (cubiculo-); den- arius (sc. ntlmus), a ten-as-piece (deho-); emiss-arius, a stout (emisso-); febru-arius (sc. mensis), the month of purifications (februo-); horre-arius, a granary-keeper (horreo-); janu-arius (sc. mensis), the gate-month} (janua-), or month of fanus-feast? (Jano-, Januo-); llbr-arius, a transcriber (libro-); lign-arius, a joiner (ligno-); marm6r-arius, a marble mason (marmdr-); n6t-arius, a shorthand writer (nota-); osti-arius, a doorkeeper (ostio-); prolet- arius, a citizen of the lowest class • pull-arius, a chicken-keeper (puUo-); pult-arius (sc. calix), a cup, properly for pottage (pulti-); qvadrig-arius, a driver of four-in-hand (qvadriga-); reti-arius, a net-fighter (reti-); ror-arius, a light-armed soldier; sext-arius, a pint, a sixth of a congius (sexto-); tabul-arius, a registrar (tabtila-); tabell-arius, a letter-carrier (tabella-); tolut-arius (Sen.), a trotter (cf. tolutim, § 534); tri-arius, a soldier of the third line (tri-); vlc- arius, a deputy (vici-); and others. (b) Feminine: aren-arias (pi.), sandpits (arena-); argent-aria, a bank, a silver mine (argento-); calv-aria, a skull (calvo-, bald); ferr-arise (pi.), ironworks (ferro-); sulpiir-aria, a sulphur pit (sulptir-). So as names of plays (cf. Ritschl. Parerg. Plaut. p. 140); e.g. by Plautus: Asln-aria (sc. fabula), of an ass (asino-); AultU-aria, of a pottle (aulula-); Cistell-aria, of a casket (cistella-); Frlvdl-aria, of cracked crockery ? (frivdlo-, cf. Fest. p. 90, Mtill.); Mostell-aria,. of a ghost (mostello-, from monstro-); Nerv51-aria, of a little thong (nervdlo-); Vidtil-aria, of a portmanteau (vidillo-). By Naevius, Coroll-aria, Ttinlcul-arig. (tiiniciila-); by Nonius, Gallinaria, Ta- bellaria, Togularia; by Pomponius, Sarciilaria. (c) Neuter: ser-arium, the treasury (as-); aestu-arium, a tidal bay (sestu-); armament-arium, an arsenal (armamento-); arm-362 Word-Formation. {Book III. arium, a cupboard (arma); &vi-arium, an aviary (&vi-); bell-aria (Varr.), pastry (bello- ?); bo-arium (sc. forum), the cattle-market (b6v-); cer-arium, a fee for sealing (cera-).; clb-aria (pi.), provisions (clbo-); cfilumb-arium, a dovecot, a set of pigeon-holes (c&lumba-); column-arium, a tax on pillars (cdlumna-); congi-arium, a quart- largess (eongius = 576 pints); di-arium, daily allowance (die-)'; don-arium, a temple, an offering (dono-); emiss-arium, an outlet (emisso-); frigid-arium, the cooling-place (frlgida-, sc. aqua); fustu- arium, a cudgelling (fusti-, cf. § 405); .gran-aria (pi.), granaries (grftno-); kalend-arium, an account-book (kalenda-); mort-arium, a mortar (morti-?); p8m-arium, an orchard (pomo-); pulment-aria (pi.), condiments, relish (pulmento-); sacr-arium, a shrine (sacro-); s&l-arium, salt-money, salary (sal-); sol-arium, a sun-dial, balcony (sol-); sdl-arium (Dig.), ground-rent (solo-); sftd-arium, a towel (suda-re, to sweat); tabul-arium, a registry (tabula-)'; vlrld-arium (or virldi-arium), a shrubbery (vlrldi-); vlv-arium, a preserve, e.g. a fishpond (vivo-); and others. ^sSrifA I *,e* -ioaPPer,ded t° personal names in -tor (or-sor § 908). ' Some appear to be formed immediately from the supine stem, or past participle: 1. Adjectives: acciisa-tor-ius, of an accuser; ftle^-tor-ius, of a gamester; &ma- tor-ius, amatory; ambiila-torius (Plin.), moveable; bella-tor-ius, of a warrior; cen-sor-ius, of a censor; circiila-tor-ius (Quint.), of a mountebank; damna-tor-ius, damnatory; declama-tor-ius, declama- tory; decr§-tor-ius (post-Aug.), decisive (deereto-); defunc-torius (post-Aug.), slight, cursory; dieta-tor-ius, of a dictator; explora- tor-ius (Suet.), of a scout; gesta-tor-ius (Suet.), for carrying; gift- dia-tor-ius, of a gladiator; impSra-tor-ius, of a general; lu-sor-ius (post-Aug.), for playing (KLsu-?); mes-sor-ius, of a reaper; m6rl- torius, for hire (mSrito-); niiga-tor-ius, trifling; objurga-tor-ius, reproachful; ora-tor-ius, of an orator; pas-tor-ius (Ov.), of a shep- herd; perfii-sor-ius (post-Aug.), superficial; pisca-tor-ius, of a fisher- man; pis-tor-ius (Cels., Plin.), of a baker; po-torius (Plin.), for drinking (potu-).; prsecur-sorius (Plin. Ep.), as a forerunner; prseda-tor-ius, predatory; prsedia-tor-ius, of purchasers of estates sold by auction; profes-sor-ius (Tac.), of a professor; pugna-tor-ius (post-Aug.), of a combatant; quass-tor-ius, of a quastor; rScftpfira- tor-ius, of recovery-commissioners; salta.-tor-ius, of dancers; scrip- tor4us, of writers; sSna-tor-ius, of a senator; spScula-tor-ius, of scouts; sva-sor-ius (post-Ailg.), persuasive; sii-tor-ius, of a shoe- maker; vStSra-tor-ius, of an old practitioner .; and others. 2, Substantives: (a) feminine: Agltatoria (sc. fabula), name of a play by Naevius, of a driver (agitat5r-); victor-ia, victory; vorsoria, a turn (only in Plautus ' cape vorsoriam').Chap. IX.] Vowel Noun-Stems: -tSrio (-sorio). 363 Neuter: aud-Itor-ium, a lecture-room; adjfUtor~ium (post-Aug.), assistance ; cen£-toria (pi.), dinner dress; condi-tor-ium, a store- house; devor-sor-ium, an inn; dMb-It6r-ium, a ballot-distributing place; portorium, a toll (harbour or gate toll? portu-, porta-),; pra-tSr-ium, the general's tent; promunt-5r-ium {promuntitriuin, Fleck.), a headland (prominere?); r6p6si-tor-mm, a dumbwaiter; seclfi-s6rium (Varr.), a place of retreat (secluso-); tec-tor-ium, plaster of walls (tecto-); tentor-ium, a tent (tent®-); terrltorium, a territory (terr-ere? i.e. a place from which people .are warned off). -eio legulejus, a pettifogger (as if from leg-tCLa-); plebejus, of the commons (plebe-).. For proper names see § 951. Compound stem-endings: -i&co, § 775; -iensi, § 815; -iano, §832; -ieno, § 837; -ion, -cion, -iiiSn (-sion), § 85a—854. " iii. Proper names with stems ending in -io. 944 A vast number of Roman names have stems ending in -io. They are properly adjectives, and the suffix -io is probably the same1 as the genitival suffix seen in iilius (illo-ius), cuius (quo-ius; also used as adjective, § 379), See.1 Thus Claud-ius is of Lame, i.e. (often) Lame's son (comp. John Williams = William's John). Most of these names are clan-names, i.e. nomina in the strict sense. Some are prsenomina. (These have here 4 praen.' appended). The names are selected* principally from those occurring in the Corp. Inscr. Lat. Vol. I., /especially in the Fasti. Few are post- Augustan only. The quantity of the vowels is marked only when distinct authority for it, either from poetry or Greek transcription, has been found. p-io Ampius j Appius (praen,); Oppius; P&pius; PCLpius; Ulpius. 94S b-io Albius (albo- white); Baebius; F&bius (f&ba-, bean); VIbius. m-io Memmius; Mummius; Opxmius (6pimo-, fat); Posttunius (postumo- last); Septimius (septimo-, seventh). V-io J53,vius; Fl&vius (flavo- yellow); Fulvius (fulvo- tawny); fravius (probably same as Gaius: comp. gau-dium, yavpos, yai€iu); Helvius (belvo- yellow); LIvius (comp. livere, 1 Key, Proc. Phil. Soc. for J 856, p. 239.364 Word-Formation. [Book III, to be blue); Maevius; Naevius (nsevo- wart); Ndvius (ndvo-, new)- Octavius (octavo-, eighth), Pacuvius; Salvius (salvo- safe); Servius, praen. (servo-, slave); Silvius (silva-, a wood); Vitruvlus. f-io Alfius; FHfLus. c-io Accius1; Anicius; Aplcius; Csedicius; Cincius; Cornlf Icius 946 horn maker ? (cornu- facSre); DScius; Fabricius (fabro-, workman)-, Genucius; Larcius; Lucius, praen. (lUc-, light f); Maccius (macco-, buffoon); Marcius (Marco-); MIniicius; Mdcius; Nftmlcius; Plancius (Planco-); Poblicivs (publico-); Porcius (porco-, pig)\ Roscius; Tuccius (Tucca-); Sulplcius; Vinicius. g-io Magius; Sergius; Valglus (valgo-, bow legged). t-io Aebutius; Antistius (antistSt-,/r/V.tf); Arruntius; Attius1; 947 C&tius (c&to-, sharp); Cluentius (cluenti- client); Curi- atius; Curtius (curto-, clipt)] Digitius (dlglto- finger); Ddmltius (ddmito-, tamed); Egnatius; Gratius (grato-, pleasing) ; Hdratius; Hirtius (hirto-, shaggy)', Hostius; Instantius (instanti-, urgent); Juventius (juvSn-, young); Liicrefcius; Liltatius; Matius; Miinatius; Nautius (nauta-, sailor); Plautius or Plotius (plauto-, flat); Pon- tius (for Pomptius? cf. § 951); Pdtltius (pdtito-, won); Prdper- tius; Qvinctius (qvincto-, fifth); Sallustius; Scaptius ; Sentius; Sextius or Sestius (sexto- sixth); St&tius; Tgrentius; TItius (Tito-) ; TrSbatius; Vegetius (vfiggto-, active); Vettius. d-io AufldiUs; Calldius (c&lldo-, hot); CSnIdia (c5no-, hoary); Claudius 01* Ciodius (claudo-, lame); Considius (Conso-); Gordius (cord-, heart); Falcidius (falci-, reaping-hook); Fftfidius (Fttflo-?); Helvidius (helvo-, yellow); Nigidius; Ovldius (6vi-, sheep?); PSdius (pSd-, foot); Ventidius (vento-, wind?); Vettldius; Vibidius. n-io AfrSnius; Annius (anno-, year}); AntSnius; ^pronius; 948 Asinius ('Ao-iWios and 'Aa-lvtos) (aslno-, ass); Autronius; Calpurnius; Caninius; Canius; Cilnius; Cdminius; Coponius (cSpon-, inn-keeper}); Cosc8nius; Cossinius (cosso-, wrinkled}); Ennius; Fan- nius; Feronia, an Italian goddess; Flamlnius (flamgn-, priest); Fun- danius; Furnius (furno-, oven); Gabinius; Geganius; H6rennius (heredheir} comp. mercennarius); Jdnius (jiivSn-, young); L6mQ- nia, a tribe; Liclnius (Aitdvvios and Alklvlos) (licino-, curled upwards); Msenius; Magulnius; Manius, praen. (mani-, morning); Mfinenius; Nonius (nOno-, ninth); Papinius; Pfitronius (petrOn-, rustic ?); Plinius; PompOnius; Pupinia, a tribe; Scrlbonius; Sempronius; 1 The poet's name is written both Attius and Accius. In Greek "Attios only is found.Chap. IX.] Vowel*Noun-Stems: Proper names in -io. 365 Sicinius; Sinnius; Stertlnius (stertSre, snore ?); Svetonius; Tarqvl- nius; Titlnius; TrSbSnius; Vatinius; Verginius; Vinius (vino-, *wine ?); Vipsanius; V&conius; Voltinia, a tribe; VOlumnius. 1-io Acllius; iElius; wEmllius (amftlo-, rival); Aquilius 01-949 Aquillius (aqvila-?, eagle); Arelius; Atilius; Aurelius; Csscllius; Camilla, a tribe; Carvillius; Cascellius; Coelius; Corne- lius; Dulllus or Duellius (duello-, order to suit a different shade or turn of the radical concep- tion (comp. verr-fire with vert-ere). In some cases the apparent root may conceal a compound or derivative origin. 2, The second class contains verbs with each of the stem suffixes, e.g. amare, cfib&re; argu-ere, minu-ere; tenere, c&rere; vfinire, fSrire. In some cases the stein-suffix is constant in all parts of the verb; in others it is confined to the present tense. This in- constancy may be accounted for on the presumption that the stem- suffix was originally a tense-suffix only, or that its use was the result of a gradual growth, and therefore precarious and uncertain in its occurrence. In this class of e verbs, the e is constant only where it is radical.Chap. X!\ Verbs with -a Stems. 3. The, third class contains the great majority of the a verbs and a considerable number of e verbs* In some cases the noun from which the verb might naturally be derived js not found, but the verb i& formed on the analogy of others. 4. The fourth class can hardly be said to exist at all unless the frequentative verbs (§§ 964—966) be referred to it and not to the third class. The other verbs with derivative suffixes named below (§§ 962, 963, 967—969) may probably be considered as presuming noun-stems as their origin. The suffix src (§ 978) is more properly an inflexional than a derivative suffix. The following lists contain chiefly verbs of the third and fourth 954 classes, and those verbs of the second class in which" the stem-suffix is constant.. The other verbs of the second class (with some excep- tions, chiefly of i verbs) and the verbs of the first class are omitted here, being already enumerated in Book II. Chap. xxx. (also in xxi. and xxiii.). The verbs will be arranged here'under their stem'suffixes (not in the above-named classes), i. Verbs with -a stems. 955 (1) from substantives with -a stersffis: ancillary be a handmaid? &nlmar«, Jill with breath; &quari, fetch (mater; bullare (also bullire), bubble; c&lumniari, bring false charges; c&villail> jest; causari, glue as a reason; cenare, sup; centuriare, divide into centuries; cdmare, furnish with hair (only in participles); convlvari, banquet with others; cSpiilare, unite; c5r5nare, crown; culpare, blame; curare, take charge of; diif amare, spread abroad (f§.ma); effeminare, make thoroughly womanish; ' fepftlari, feast; fabrlcare, fashion; fibular!, converse'; feriari, keep holiday; figdrara, form; flammare, bla%e; formare, mould; forari- care, creep like ants; fortiinare, bless; ftigare, put to flight; fii- riare, drive mad; gemmare, bud; gloriari, boast; infltiari, equivocate; insldiari, put an ambush; l&crlmare, weep; llbrare, balance; lineare, make straight; limare, to file; luxtiriare, be rank; lirare, plough-in seed; m£chlnari, contrive; m&ctilare, spot; m&tS- riari, fill wood; mStari, measure; minari, threaten; mfirarl, delay; imiltare,j£# -11a374 Word-Formation. [Book III. -tr& calci-trare, kick (calci-); castrare, geld (comp. Kan-rap and Plin. 8. § 109); frustrari, cheat (frustra, fraudi-); latrare, bark (comp. XaK-eu/?); patrare, perform (patr-); p&n6- trare, penetrate (pgnfts, store). Formed from, or parallel to, other verbs; most are compounds: 97° antlclpare, anticipate (ante, cap6-re); ap- (com-) -pellare, ad- dress (pellgre); aspernari, scorn, spurn (ab, sperngre); consplcari, descry (conspIcSre); consternare, dismay (consternSre); dicare, dedi- cate (dlcfire); ediicare, bring up, train (ediicSre); indSLgare, track out (indo agSre ? indagbn-); instigare, goad on (in, stingvgre); l&bare, slip (lata); lavare, wash (l&v6re); liqvare, melt (llqvere or liqvi, be fluid or clear); mandare, commit, entrust (m&nu-, dare); mulcare, beat (mulcere, stroke); nuncupare (nomine capgre? cf. § 997); oc- cupare, seize (ob, capgre); pipare (cf. plplre), chirp; placare, pacify (pl&cere, be pleasing); r6cup6rare, recover (re, capgre); sedare, settle (sSdere, sit); suspicari, suspect (suspIcSre). Miscellaneous: chiefly of obscure origin; many have derivative 971 suffixes similar to noun-stems: adftlari, fawn on (ad-ululare?); sestimare, esteem; altercari, wrangle; amare, love; ampliare, enlarge (comp. amplo-); arare, plough; auscultare, listen (comp. auris, ear); autiimare, affirm; balare, bleat; baubari, howl; beare, bless; betare (bltare), go (comp. fiaiveiv); blatSrare, bluster (comp. balatro, a jester); boare, cry aloud (comp. fioav); cacare; calare, summon (comp. kclXcIv) ; call- gare, be in darkness; celare, conceal (comp. clam); clamare, shout; clinare, bend; coaxare (Suet.), croak (koc. 405 4 The preceding observations shew that the absolute quantity 4 of voice in a vocal consonant depends on the nature of the follow- 4 ing element Five degrees of absolute quantity in the sound of / 4 will be recognised in the following combinations; arranged from * shortest to longest: felt, health, feWd, realm, fell.1 M. Bell, Visible Speech, p. 67. ix. In French such words as stable, schisme are not pro- nounced as in English with the final voiced consonant held or pro- longed, but either with the faintest vowel murmur following, thus making 1, m initial and consequently shortening the sound, or with an entire remission of the vocal murmur, i. e. with 1, m whispered. See Ellis, p. 52. x. The same imperfect vocality is noticeable particularly in a comparison of Icelandic with English s. 4 S is always (in Icelandic) intentionally s and never z, but z is * sometimes generated, although it is not recognized. Thus s final * after 1, n, and perhaps in other cases, generates an intermediate z. 4 For example if we compare eins, sins with English stains, scenes * we should see that the difference of the terminations arises from the * s in Icelandic being intentional and predominant, but the z gene- 4 rated and therefore lightly touched, while in English the z is inten- * tional and predominant, and although the s is often prolonged and " in the church singing of charity children not unfrequently pain- ' fully hissed, it is yet merely generated by a careless relaxation of 4 the voice, and its very existence, is unknown to many speakers. * I found also that there was an unacknowledged tendency to pro- 'nounce s final after long vowels in the same way.' Ellis, p. 547. This is only in accordance with English (and Icelandic) habits of modifying the second consonant to suit the preceding sound. Latin took the opposite course and expelled n when preceding s, or s when preceding m or n, clearly because s was sharp and morn fiat (see §§ 191, 2. 193). On diphthongs. (Comp. § 20.) xi. 1 The common definition of a diphthong " a complexion or 4 coupling of vowels when the two letters send forth a joint sound, 1 so as in one syllable both sounds be heard" (Ben Jonson), is quite * defective if not absolutely erroneous. Between a coupling of 4 sounds and a diphthongal sound the interval is as wide as between 4 a mechanical mixture and a chemical combination. The two 4 marks of sound which connote a diphthong are neither of them 4 sounded, they do but indicate the two limits, from one of which to 4 the other the voice passes continuously in uttering the diphthong;406 Appendix A. 4 it is the filling up of the interval so symbolised which constitutes 4 the diphthongal sound and accordingly it is not every two vowel ' symbols which can be conjoined to represent a diphthong, but only * such two as admit of a continuous uninterrupted passage of the 4 breath from one limit to the other. A diphthong is a sound of an 'essentially different nature from a vowel or any combination of ' vowels. However rapidly two vowels are made to succeed each 'other they will remain two vowels still and never blend into a 4 diphthong. The nearest analogue to the diphthong is the slur in 4 vocal music. In general (I do not say always), a diphthong cannot 4 be reversed as such; i. e. in the act of reversal it becomes a vowel 'syllable.' J. J. Sylvester, Laws of verse (Lond. 1870), p. 50. A similar definition of a diphthong is found in Briicke, p. 27. See also M. Bell, Visible Speech, p. 78. Ellis, p. 51. Comp. Rumpelt, Deutsche Cram., p. 33. xii. 4 The general rale for the stress upon the elements of diph- 4 thongs, is that it falls upon the first, but this rule is occasionally 4 violated. Thus in many combinations with initial i, u the stress 4 falls on the second element, in which case, according to some 4 writers, the first element falls into y, w, which, however, others 4 deny. In iu, ui the stress is properly on the first element. But 4 in Italian chiaro, ghiaccio the i is touched quite lightly, and is almost 4 evanescent, so that it would generally be thought enough to denote 4 the chi, glii as palatalised k, g.' Ellis, p. 418. ' There are three principal vowels a, i, u, whence are formed six ' principal diphthongs, each consisting of two vowels connected by a ' gliding sound arising from the continuance of the voice-sound while 'the organs of speech pass from the positions due to one vowel 4 to that due to the other. It is this glide which gives the diphthongal 'character. The first element or vowel is usually brief, but it 4 generally receives the accent, and it may be long. The second 'element is generally long and occasionally accented. These six ' diphthongs are ai, au, ui, iu, ia, ua. The two first, ai, au, degene- ' rate into the intermediate vowels e, o in various shades, as may be 4 satisfactorily proved historically. The two next, ui, iu, generate 'the peculiar middle vowels French eu, u; and the two last ' cause the evolution of the consonants y, w. Of these the diph- 4 thongs ui, iu are the most unstable. The pure sound of the ' first occurs in the French oui as now pronounced; it is however 4 used as a dissyllable by Moliere1 and must therefore have been pro- 4 nounced as the present French oui. The pure sound of the second, 'iu, is common in Italian aspiu. In both ui, iu, the stress may be 1 Diez's Etymological Dictionary, sub voce. The older oil was dis- syllabic, from hoc Mud. (Ellis.)Quotations from M. Bell, A. J. Ellis, 407 4 laid on either element, and in both the attempt may be made to fuse ' the'diphthong into a single sound. When the stress falls on the 'second element, an Englishman (but not a Welshman) says ere est bibere 1 points at once to the antiquity of the sound in that country in 4 which it is still used for both b and v, and to the probable pronun- 4 ciation of v in Latin as bh at that time. The example of Kavveas 4 being heard as cav' n'eas = cave ne eas would be solved by the 4 identity (kabhne'as) in both languages at that time.' [But comp. § 94.] 4 At the time when the Anglo-Saxons being Christianized 4 adopted the Christian Roman alphabet, the Roman v consonant 4 was certainly [the denti-labial] v, a sound which the Anglo-Saxons 4 did not then distinguish from f. 4 An accurate conception of the three sounds w, bh, v is neces- 4 sary for the proper understanding of many linguistic relations. 4 For w the lips are rounded nearly as for u, and the back of the 4 tongue is raised, but the outer edges of the lips are brought more 4 together than for u, and the sound of w, when continued, is there- 4 fore a buzz, a mixture of voice and whisper, and not a pure 4 vowel sound. When the buzz is strong, the tremor of the lips is ' very perceptible, and a little more force produces the labial trill 4 brh. If the voice is removed, we have wh, and the back of the 4 tongue being raised as before mentioned, the slightest effort suffices 4 to raise it higher and produce kwh. This gives the relation between * the gutturals and labials which plays such an important part in 4 comparative philology. On the other hand for bh the tongue is 4 not raised, the sound is a pure labial, less like u, but easily deduced 4 from w by lowering the tongue and slightly flattening the lips. It 4 is to those used to it an extremely easy and pleasant consonant, pro- 4 duced with the least possible effort. By dropping the voice it pro- 4 duces ph, which is not now used in Europe but was probably a 4 value of (jf). For w, bii there must be no contact with the teeth. 4 Directly the lower lip touches the upper teeth, an impediment is 4 raised to the passage of the air through the mouth, and the breath 4 escaping out on both sides, produces a rushing, rubbing, rustling 1 sound, distinctive of the 44divided" consonants, and known as v, 4 which on dropping the voice, becomes f. But all degrees of con- ' tact between the lower lip and the teeth are possible, producing * varieties of f, v. from sounds which can scarcely be distinguished 4 from ph, bh, up to extremely harsh hisses and buzzes. Generally 4 then w is a consonant framed from u by closing the lips too closely 4 to allow of a pure resonance for the vowel sound; bh is a b with 4 the lips just slightly opened, or a v without touching the teeth, 4 that is, a pure labial; vis a denti-labial. The w is further dis- tinguished from bh, v by having the tongue raised. It is possible 4 of course to raise the tongue when sounding v; the result is vh,Quotations from M. Bell\ A. J Ellis, &>c. 411 4 a very peculiar and disagreeable sound. But if the tongue is raised 4 when sounding bh, no ear would distinguish the result from w. 'The following words may shew these differences. Fr. out, out; 4 Engl. we, Germ. wie, Fr. i'ie; usual Scotch quhen, English '-when, Aberdeenshire fen; usual German schreiben, faulty German ' schreiwenGerman pferd, now pfert, once probably pphert, and in 4 some Bavarian dialectsp'hert? Ellis, pp. 514, 515. Roman Preference of vo to vu. (Comp. § 93.) xix. The reason of the Romans retaining this vowel 0 after v instead of allowing it to pass into u (§213) was the danger of thus losing either the consonant sound v (= w) or the vowel u. 'The 10th vowel (i.e. u = oo) has an articulativKauri). The m before Curia is the old form with five strokes (see p. 23), for which in modern books M' is substituted.Republican Inscriptions. 4:7 in. On a bronze tablet found at Firmum in Picenum, now in the Paris museum, 4 of a date nearer to the oldest Scipio inscription than to the second.' Ritschl. Corp. I. R. 181. Ritschl, tab. xcvu. A. erentio-l-f | .aprufenio . c• f | 1 • turpilio• c• f j m • albani • 1 • f | t • munatio • t f | quaistores j aire • moltaticod | dederont | Terentius, Lucii jiliiis, Aprufenius Gait jilius, Lucius Turpilius Gait Jilius, Marcus Albanius Lucii jilius, Titus Munatius, Titi Jilius, qua stores are multatico dederunt; i.e. from the produce of fines. iv. On a bronze tablet, first made known at Rome, but the place of finding is unknown. Corp. I. R. 187. Ritschl, tab. 11. B. m • mindios • 1 • fi | p • condetios • ua • fi | aidiles • uicesma. parti | apolones • dederi | Marcus'Mindius Lucii Jilius, Publius Condetius, 'valesi (?) Jilius, atdilis 'vicesimam partem Apollinis dederunt, i.e. have offered Apollo's twentieth. v. On a small stone column found at Tusculum near the tomb of the Furii. ' A faithful copy of an original older than the Scipio inscriptions.' Ritschl. Corp. I. R. 63. Ritschl, tab. xlix. B. m • fourio • c • f • tribunos militare • de • praidad • maurte • dedet • Marcus Furius, Gaii Jilius, tribunus, militari de prada Marti dedit. . vi. This and viii. xi. xm. xiv. are all on stone and taken from the tombs of the Scipios near the Capene gate. This inscription is on L. Cornelius Scipio, son of Barbatus, Consul 495 u.c. * It probably was written about 500 u.c.' Ritschl. 27Appendix B. Corp. I. R. 32. Ritschl, tab. xxxviii. E. The additions in italics are from Ritschl's conjecture. honcoino • ploirume • cosentiont • r duonoro • optumo • fuise • uiro luciom • scipione • filios • barbati rtrnsol • censor • aidilis • hie • fuet • a hec. cepit • corsica • aleriaque • urbe dt det • tempestatebus ♦ aide • mereto omai virorum pud vos m pugnandod d votam. Arranged by Ritschl as Saturnian metre, as follows (except that the words are here modernised), the accents denoting the arses, and the vertical lines the caesuras. Hunc unum plurimt con | sentiunt Romai (i.e.Romae) bonorum optimum fu | isse Marti sacrum. Gmus Placentitis, Herafdtus. Marti dmum deMu (The small rounds are probably marks of nails.) viii. On L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, Consul 456. 'The inscription dates not later than 520 u.c.' Ritschl. Corp. I. R. 30. Ritschl, tab. xxxvu. B. Cornelius • lucius • scipio • barbattis«gnaiuod • patre j prognatus • fortis • uir. sapiensque—quoius • forma • uirtutei • parisuma | fuit—consol • censor • aidilis • quei * fuit • apud • uos—taurasia • cisauna | samnio • cepit-^-subigit • omne . loucanam. opsidesque • abdoucit • |Republican Inscriptions. 419 Cornelius Lucius \ Scipio Bar bat us, Gnao patre prognatus | fortis tvtr sapiensque, Cujus forma virtu | ti parissuma fuit, Consul, censor, adilis \ qui fuit apud *vos Taurasiam Cisaunam | Samnium cepit Subigit omnem Lucaniam, obsidesque abducit. Mommsen considers Samnio to be th£ ablative, Taurasra and C'sauna being towns iin SamniumLucanam sc. terram, i.e. Lu- caniam ix. On a bronze plate found in the mountains of Gibraltar near Alcala de los Gazules by a Polish engineer in a.d. 1867. Pub- lished in facsimile and with Commentaries by E. Hlibner and Mommsen, Hermes, ill. 243 sq. Decree made 565 U.C., and inscription is probably of this date. Corp. I. R. 11. No. 5041. laimilius • 1 • f. inpeirator . decreiuit | utei • quei • hasten sium • seruei | in • turri • lascutana • habitarent | leiberei • es sent • agrum • oppidumqu | quod -ea • tempestate • posedisent | item . possidere • habereque | iousit • dum. poplus . senatus que | romanus • uellet • act incastreis | ad • xii • k • febr L. JEmilius, Lucius' son, general, decreed that such slaves of the people of Hasta as dwelt in the tower of Lascuta should be free. With regard to the land and town which they had possessed at that time, he ordered them to continue to possess and hold it so long as the people and senate of Rome should will. Done in the camp 19 January. This inscription though of the same age as the S. C. de Baca- nalibus is not so antique in spelling, probably owing to the more formal legal nature of the S. C. de Bac. The ei in inpeirator appears to be an inscriber's blunder. This inscription affords the earliest instance of doubled letters, e. g. essent, *uellet_ Cf. § 58. Ritschl has discussed the peculiarities in his Neue ■Plautinische Ex curse, 1st Heft. 1869, p. 16 n. x. On bronze, found at Tiriolo a village in the country of the Bruttii. Supposed to be written at the time of the event referred to, i.e. 568 A.u.c. See Liv. xxxix. 8—19. Cic. Leg. 11. 15, § 37. Corp. I. R. 196. Ritschl, tab. xviii. marcius. 1 • f • s • postumius. 1 • f • cos • senatum. consoluerunt • 11 • octob • apud • aedem | duelonai. sc • arf• m • claudi • m. f• 1. ualeri.p.f.q.minuci.c.f. de• bacanalibus quei• foideratei j 27—2420 Appendix B. esent • ita. exdercendum • censuere • neiquis • eorum . sacanal. habuise • uelet • sei • ques | esent • quei • sibei • deicerent nece sus • ese • bacanal • habere • eeis • utei • ad • pr • urbanum | ro mam . uenirent • dequeeeis • rebus • ubei • eor m. utr a • audita • esent • utei • senatu# | noster • decerneret • dum • ne • minus • senator bus •c-adese^//. rescosoleretur | bacas-uir • nequis -adiese • uelet • ceiuis • romanus • neue-nommus-latin neue • socium | quisquam • nisei • pr • urbanum • adie • sent • is que- e • senatuos • sententiad dum-ne | minus• senatoribus • c • adesent • quom • ea- res • cosoleretur • iousisent ce suere [ sacerdos • nequis • uir • eset • magister • nequeuir • neque • mulier • quisquam •ese•t | neuepecuniam • quisquameorum • comoin abuise-ue et neue . magistraturr> | neue-promagi stratuo • neque • uirum ier • em quiquam • fecise • uelet j neue • post hac • inter • sed • conioura e • comuouise • neue • conspondis • e | neue -conprome • siseuelet • neue • quis quamfidem inter • sed • dedise • uelet | sacra-in. dquol tod-ne quisquam • fecise - uelet • neue-in-poplicod-neue-in | preiuatod • neue • exstrad . urbem • sacra • quisquam • fecise • uelet • nisei | pr • ur anum . adieset • isque • de • senatuos • sententiad • dum • ne • minus | senatoribus • c • adesent • quom • ea • res • cosoleretur • iousisent • censuere | homines • pious • u • oinuorsei • uirei • atque • mulieres • sacra • ne • quis quam | fecise • uelet • neue • inter • ibei • uirei • pldfas • duobus • mulieribus • ploustribus | ar/uise • uelent • nisei • de • pr • urbani • senatuosque • sententiad • utei • suprad | scriptumest • haice • utei • in • couentinoid • exdeicatis • ne • minus • trinum | noun dinum . senatuosque • sententiam . utei • scientes • esetis • eorum • | sententia • ita • fuit • sei • ques • esent • quei • aruorsum . ead • fecisent quam . suprad | scriptum • est • eeis • remcaputalem. faciendam . censuere atque-utei | hoce- in • tabolam . ahenam • inceideretis • ita • senatus • aiquom • cen suit | uteique • earn . figier • ioubeatis • ubei • facilumed • gnoscierpotisit • atque | utei-ea-bacanalia-'sei-qua-sunt . exstrad • quam • sei • quid • ibei • sacri • est | ita • utei • suprad . scriptum • est • in • diebus • x • quibus • uobeis. tabelai • datai [ erunt-faciatis*utei dismota-sient in• agro• teurano | The letters in italics are such as appear from the facsimile to be those inscribed. But in line 6 nt would be very nearly right for pit. In the 12th and 13th lines I have omitted some letters, which have been supplied on a modern insertion in the broken plate.Republican Inscriptions. 421 Q. Marcius 1 Lucii filius, Spurius Postumius, Lucii JUlus consules senatum consuluerunt nonis Octobribus apud adem Bellona. Scribendo adfuerunt M. Claudius, Marci Jilius, X. Valerius, Publii Jilius, g. ikf/- nucius, 6izii Jilius. De Bacchanalibus qui feederati essent it a edicendum censuere: (i.c, decreed the issue to those who were in league with the Romans, of a proclamation in the matter of the feasts of Bacchus) nequis eorum Bacchanal habuisse vellet. Siqui essent, qui sibi dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal habere, ei uti ad prat or em urbanum Romam venirent, deque eis rebus, eorum 'verba audita essent, uti senatus noster decerneret, minus senatoribus centum adessent, m- consuleretur. Bacchas vir nequis adiisse vellet civis Rom anus, neve nominis Latini, ne*ve sociorum quisquam, nisi prat or em urbanum adi- is sent, isque de senatus sententia, dum ne minus senatoribus centum adessent, ea res consuleretur, jus sis set. Censuere, sacerdos nequis vir esset: magister neque vir neque mulier quisquam esset: neve pecuniam quisquam eorum communem habuisse vellet, neve magistratum, magistratu neque virum neque mu- lier em quisquam fecisse vellet. Neve posthac inter se conjurasse neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, neve compromisisse vellet, quisquam Jidem inter se dedisse vellet. Sacra in occulto nequisquam fecisse vellet, in publico, /# privato, extra urbem sacra quisquam fecisse vellet, prat or em urbanum adiisset, ^ senatus sententia dum ne minus senatoribus centum adessent, gazott consuleretur, jussisset. Censuere, homines plus quinque universi, uiri at que mulieres sacra ne quisquam fecisse vellet, interibi viri plus duobus, mulieribus plus tribus, adfuisse vellent, de prat oris urbani senatusque sententia, supra scriptum est (i.e. that not more than five persons in all men and women, celebrate the rites, that the five should be two men, and three women, quisquam is in apposition to homines). Hac uti in contione exdicatis ne minus trinum nundinum (i. e. not less than three assembly days); senatusque sententiam uti scientes es- setis. Eorum sententia itafuit: siqui essent qui advorsum ea fecissent, quam supra scriptum est, capitalem faciendam censuere. Atque uti hoc in tabulam ahenam incideretis: ita senatus aquum censuit; Utique earn fgi jubeatis, ubi facillume nosci possit; Atque uti ea Bacchanalia, siqua sunt, j/ quid ibi sacri est, z/tf scriptum est, diebus decern, quibus vobis tabella data eruntj faciatis uti dimota sint. In agro Teurano. The document is evidently a letter (tabella) from the consuls to the local magistrates conveying to them a copy of (as Mommseo422 Appendix B. thinks, part only of) the decree of the senate, an intimation of the penalty which the senate ordered for a transgression of it, and direc- tions for its publication. XI. On the son of P. Scipio Africanus major. Augur 574 A.u.c. 'End of 6th century u. C.' Ritschl. There is a vertical fracture in the middle of the stone, occasioning a loss of several letters. Corp. I. R. 33. Ritschl. tab. xxxix. F. quei • apiceinsign e • dial aminis • gesistei | mors • perfe tua • ut • essent • omnia breuia • hor os • fama • uirtusque gloria • atque • in • genium • quibus • sei | in • longa • lieu set-tibe utier»uita | fa • cile • factei superases • gloriam | maior.um qua.re• lubens• te• ingremiu | scipio • recip t • terra • publi prognat • um • publio • corneli Qui cipicem ins'tgnem dialis \Jlaminis gessisti, mors p'erf'ecit tua ut | essent omnia brervia hon'os fama evirtusque | gloria atque ingenium, quibus si in longa ftcuis | set tibi utier (i.e. ut'i) vita facile factis superasses | gloriam majorum, Quare lubens te in gremium, j Scipio, recipit Terra, Publi, prognatum | Publio Cornell (i.e. Cornelia). XII. Qn stone at Sora. 4 Not later than 620 A.u.c., perhaps more pro- bably at the very beginning of the century.' Ritschl. Corp. I. R. 1175. Ritschl. tab. LH. A, a - p • uertuleieis • c. f. | quod-re-sua-d eidens-asper | afleicta • parens • timens | heic-uouit-uoto-ho c | solut cuma • facta | polouctaleibereis • lube | te s donu.danunt. | hercolei • maxsume • j mereto semol-te | orant-se* oti-crebro | condemn es» IRepublican Inscriptions. 423 Marcus Publius Vertuleii, Gaii filii Quod re sua diffidens \ aspere affiicta Parens timens hie vovit, | rubto hoc soluto, Decuma facta pollucta, | /i^rz libentes JDonum danunt (i.e. dant) Herculi | maxime rnerito Simul te orant se . The was written _l and abbreviated into l; ® from a raise notion of its origin made like the initial of centum; and a> as- similated to ordinary letters cio. The half of q>, viz. d, was taken for | 1000, i.e. 500; X probably from the ancient form of 8, viz. (§), being adopted for 10, the half of it v was taken for 5 (Ritschl2). According to others, an outstretched finger, the open hand, and the double hand, were taken, viz. 1, v, X for 1, 5, 10; and another position of v (viz. l) for 503. 1 Marquardt, Rom. AUertk. III. 2, p. 32. 2 Rkein. Mus. 1869, XXIV. p. 12. 3 See Mommsen, Rom* Gesch. B. I. kap. XIV.442 Appendix D. iii. Inflexions of Numerals. Unus. For mode of declension see § 371. In the plural it is only used with substantives whose plural denotes a singular, e.g. unse litter88, one epistle; unse sedes, one house (set of rooms, or of hearths ?) ; uni mores, one and the same conduct; uni Suevi, the single tribe of the Suevi (or the Suevi alone). Duo. The masc. and neut. are: nom. acc. duo, gen. duorum or duum, dat. abl. duofous. For the m. acc. duos is also used. The fern, is: nom. duse, acc. duas, gen. duarum or duum, dat. abl. duabus. Ambo, both, is similarly declined. In expressions like duodecim, duodeviginti, duoetvicesimus, duo is not varied. Nom. and acc. tres, n. tria, gen. trium, dat. tribus. All the other cardinal numbers up to centum are undeclined: so also is mille when used as an adjective. As a substantive it has a declinable plural millia, millium, millibus (cf. § 177) : but in the singular is only used in nom. or acc., except ablative (mille) in PL Trin. 959 and (milli) Lucil. ap. Gell. I. 16. In expressions like C23si sunt tria millia treeenti milites, we must supply militum after millia. If the name of the thing, &c. numbered precede, it is usually put in the genitive, e.g. militum (not milites) tria millia treeenti csesi sunt. The other cardinal, all the ordinal and the distributive numbers, are declinable adjectives with -0 stems. The genitive plural of the cardinals and distributives is usually in -um for -orum (cf. § 365); e. g. non plus mille qvingentum geris (for qvingentorum numnio- rum); senum septenumque denum. iv. Order in compounding Numerals. In compound numbers, from thirteen to nineteen inclusive, the smaller is usually prefixed to the larger without et, e.g. septem de- cern (or septemdecim), septimus decimus, septeni deni, septies decies; but in cardinals and ordinals the order is sometimes reversed, and in cardinals et is sometimes inserted, especially if the larger come first, e.g. decern septem, decern et septem, septem et decern: deci- mus septimus (Sen.). From twenty-one to ninety-nine, the rule is that, either the larger should precede the smaller number without et, or the smaller pre- cede the larger with et, e.g. viginti qvattuor or qvattuor et viginti; vicesimus quartus or qvartus et vicesimus, &c.; but in the ordinals and distributives, exceptions to both usages occur, e.g. qvadra- gesimum et sextum, sexto tricesimo, qvinqvagena et singula, qvinos vicenos, &c.; and in cardinals and distributives the conjunction is sometimes inserted even when the larger precedes, e.g. viginti et septem (Cic.), qvadr^ ^ta et qvisque (Liv.), vicies ac septies, See.Numerals, Measures, Weights, &c. 443 From a'hundred and one upwards, the larger number is usually put first, either without or (except distributives) with a conjunc- tion, e. g. ducentos (et) qvadraginta (et) qvattuor, qvingentesimum (et) qvinqvagesimum (et) octavum, duceni septuageni, centies (et) qvadragies; but with a conjunction the smaller (cardinal or ordi- nal) number sometimes is found preceding, e.g. qvinqvaginta et ducenta, septimum et qvinqvagesimum ac centesimum. So also du- centos et mille, mille et ducentos. For eighteen, nineteen, twenty-eight, twenty-nine, &c., the sub- tractive forms (e.g. duodeviginti, undeviginti, undetrigesimus, &c.) are most common, but compound forms are also found, e. g. decern octo, decern et octo (frequently), octodecim (rare); novem et tri- ginta, qvinqvaginta octo, triginta novem (Liv.), octavo decimo (Tac.), octoni deni (Liv.). v. Use of classes of Numerals. The ordinal, not the cardinal, is used in giving the date, e. g. In the year 1869 aun0 naillesimo octingentesimo sexagesimo nono. The distributives are used (1) to denote that the number belongs to each of several persons or things, e.g. Caesar et Ariovistus denos comites ad colloqvium ad- duxerunt, took ten companions each; pueri senum septenumve denum annorum, boys of sixteen or seventeen years old, i.e. each was 16 or 17; ambulare bina millia passuum, to walk two miles each time; tritici modius erat sestertiis ternis, corn was at three sesterces the (i.e. each) bushel. If singuli is expressed with the persons, &c., the cardinal number may be used with the things numbered, e.g. singulis denarii trecenti imperabantur, each was required to pay three hundred pence. In this use terni, not trini, is used. (2) in expressions of multiplication, e.g. bis bina, twice two; ter novenee virgines, thrice nine girls; decies centena millia, ten times a hundred thousand. In these expressions the distributive nu- merals, e.g. decies centena millia, do not mean a million to each per- son, but a hundred thousand taken each of ten times, (3) with nouns which have no singular, e.g. bina castra, the two camps; trinis hostium spoliis, with three sets of spoils from the enemy. (In this use uni not singuli; trini not terni is used.) (4) Poets use distributives as merely equivalent to cardinals, e.g. centum quoi bracMa dicunt centenasque manus (Verg. A. x. 565), i.e. a hundred hands in all, not a hundred in each arm. So also post-Augustan writers use trinus (not ternus). (5) In the singular the distributives are sometimes used, chiefly444 Appendix D. by poets, e.g. centauri corpore bino, a double body; centenaque arbore fluctum verberat assurgens (Verg.), with an hundred-fold shaft, i.e. a hundred oars; novena lampade, with nine torches (a torch repeated nine times). Every other is expressed by alterni; e.g. alternis diebus, every second day. vi. Expression of Fractions1. Fractions are expressed in words in several ways: 1. All fractions, with i for numerator, are denoted by ordinal numbers, with or without pars, e.g. -§-, dimidium (not dimidia) or dimidia pars; tertia or tertia pars; qvarta, See. 2. All fractions with a numerator less by one than the denomi- nator are denoted by the cardinal with partes simply, e.g. •§-, duse partes; J, tres partes; f, qvattuor partes ; 4, qvinque partes. 3. All fractions with 12, or its multiples for a denominator, are denoted by the parts of an as, which is taken as the whole and is equal to 12 uncise. (See below, § viii.) Hence heres ex asse, heir to the whole inheritance: ex triente, to a third; ex dimidia et sextante, to two thirds (a half and a sixth). 4. Other fractions, not expressible by one of the above methods, are denoted by the cardinal for a numerator, and the ordinal (as in subsection 1) for the denominator, e.g. f, quattuor septimse; septem nense. 5. Some fractions are denoted by resolution into their compo- nents, e.g. dimidia et quarta; f, pars dimidia et sexta; £, pars tertia et nona; { f, pars tertia et septima. • 6. Sometimes further division is resorted to, e.g. dimidia qvinta. And dimidia tertia is used for sexta; dimidia qvarta for octava. 7. Sesqui, if, is used only in compounds, see § 987 (p. 386). vii. Money coinage. (Chiefly from Hultsch, see below, p. 451.) Coined money was not used at Rome till the time of the Decem- viral legislation (303 u.c. = 45i B.C.). The coin was called an as, and was supposed to weigh a pound; hence called in distinction from the subsequent as, as libralis or librarius. Coins also existed for the semis, triens, qvadrans, sextans, and uncia. The real weight (of unworn pieces now found) was 9 to 11 uncise and may be taken 1 Chiefly from Gossrau, Lat. Sprachlehre, § 125.Numerals, Measures, Weights, &>c. 445 therefore at 10 unciso. The coinage was of copper (ses), alloyed with tin and lead. Analysis of these pieces gives 7*16 to 7*66 per cent, of tin; and 19*56 to 29*32 per cent, of lead. In 485 u.c. ( = 269 B.C.), shortly before the first Punic war, silver was first coined, o.nd at the same time the as was reduced to the weight of 4 uncise (and then gradually before the end of the 1 st Punic war to 2 uncise) instead of an actual 10, nominal 12, uncise. Three silver coins were introduced, the denarius (often stamped with a biga, or quadriga, and thence called bigatus or quadrigatus) = 10 (reduced) asses; the qvinarius = 5 asses; the ses- tertius = 2-§- asses. The coin equivalent to the reduced as was of copper and called libella; the half of this was sembella; the quarter (of the libella) was teruncius. The double as was coined and called dupondius; other coins were tressis = 3 asses; decessis=io asses. The denarius was probably ~ pound of silver. In the year 537 u.c. ( = 217 B.C.) the copper as was reduced to the weight of one uncia, and to the value of TV denarius or J ses- tertius. Probably at the same time the denarius, which had been gradually losing, was reduced so as to be equal to -g1^ pound of silver. The as eventually sunk to the value of uncia. A new silver coin called victoriatus, because stamped on the reverse with a figure of Victory, was introduced probably about the year 228 B.C. At first it was -% denarius, afterwards by the Clo- dian law, 104 B.C., it was reduced to be = -§■ denarius, and as such was known to Varro, Cicero, &c. In the time of Nero the denarius was again reduced to pound of silver, and remained at this until Marcus Aurelius. At the same time Nero debased the silver, which hitherto had been fine, by an admixture of 5 to 10 per cent, of alloy. Under Trajan, about the year 100, the alloy was 15 per cent., under Hadrian nearly 20 per cent., under Marcus Aurelius 25 per cent., under Gommodus 30 per cent., under Septimius Severus 50 to 60 per cent. Copper coinage was dropped from about 84 to 74 B.C. until 15 B.C. (Except that some coins by Antony are found.) Then the silver sesterce being given up, a four-as piece was coined instead; and a piece of half the value of the new sesterce, viz. the dupondius. Both these were of brass (the proportions being not quite \ zinc to more than -f copper). The as, semis and qvadrans were of copper. Gold was first coined in 217 B.C.; but sparsely until Sulla, Pompey and Caesar. Caesar's coin called aureus was fixed as equi- valent to 25 denarii or 100 sesterces. The value of these different coins is as follows according to Hultsch. Hultsch's values are reduced to English money on the basis of 1 silver groschen = 1 %d. sterling.446 Appendix D. Silver groschen. Eng. mon. As libralis (copper) . . 269—217 b.c. As sextantarius ( = f sestertius) (copper) Sestertius (silver) Denarius (silver) 217—30 b.c. Sestertius (silver) .... Denarius (silver) .... Aureus (gold) = 25 denarii =100 sesterl Hence the following amounts are deduced: Mille sestertium .... Decies sestertium = 1,000,000 sestertii In intrinsic value the denarius is reckoned by Hussey at 8*62 pence; the aureus, in terms of the English sovereign, at £1. is. i\d. If the value of the denarius (fixed at the twenty-fifth of the aureus) is deduced from this value, it would, of course, be considerably higher than that given above. 4*7 5'2>d. •81 •9 id. 2* i\d. 8-2 9 li- nearly 1-7 2 d. V 8 \d. i 17 J. £S. 10 s. £8500. Silver groschen. Eng. mon. viii. Expression of sums of money. The denarius which was the silver coin in most currency was little used in reckoning. The ordinary unit of reckoning was the sestertius, or nummus, or, in full, sestertius nummus. Up to 2000, the cardinal numbers are prefixed, e.g. centum ses- tertii, ducenti sestertii. But for higher numbers, in thousands up to a million, a neuter substantive in the plural number was used, sestertia, e.g. duo or septem sestertia for duo or septem millia sestertium (the short form of the genitive plural being taken for a neuter substantive); sestertium sexagena millia, sestertium sexagena millia nummum, sestertium nummum qvinqve millia. For sums of a million and upwards numeral adverbs are resorted to, e.g. decies centum (or centena) millia sestertium. Usually the numeral adverb and sestertium are put alone, e.g. decies sestertium; similarly duodecies sestertium (1,200,000), ter et vicies (2,300,000). In these expressions again sestertium was taken to be a neuter sub- stantive, and described as such, but in the singular number only, e.g. (nom.) sestertium qvadragies relinqvitur (4,000,000); (acc.) sestertium qvadragies accepi; (abl.) sestertio decies fundum emi, in sestertio vicies egere (to be poor in the possession of 2,000,000 sesterces). Occasionally, when the context is clear, the adverb alone is put, and sestertium omitted. Sometimes other parts of the full 1 But intrinsically worth from 1*97 to 0*93 silv. gr.Numerals, Measures, Weights, &°c. 441 expression are omitted, e.g. decies centena millia, decies centena. (cf. § v. 2.) As an instance of a composite expression may serve, Accepi vicies ducenta, triginta qvinqve milia, qvadringentos decern et septem nummos (G. Ferr. Lib. i. 14), 2,235,417 sesterces1. The sign for a denarius was X, for a qvinarius V, for an as I, for a dupondius II, for a sestertius IIS (for duo + semis). Sometimes a line is drawn through the middle of these signs, and hence printers have substituted for IIS HS. Hence IIS decern = 10 ses- terces; IIS decern millia= 10,000 sesterces; IIS decies = 10,00,000. If the numbers were not written in full but denoted by letters an ambiguity might arise, which was however obviated by add- ing (see § ii.) a top line for thousands IIS; and top and side lines for hundred-thousands when the sum was equal to a million or more2; e.g.Plin.33.3, 17, §§55,56(ed. Jan.). Auri in aerario populi Romani fuere sex Julio L. Aurelio coss. septem annis ante bellum Punicum ' tertium, pondo xvn.ccccx., argenti xxillxx. et in numerato |lxi|.xxxv.cccc. ; Sex. Julio d. Marcio coss. hoc est, belli socialis initio, auri |xvi|.xx.dcccxxxi.: i.e. There was in the Roman treasury in the year 157 b.c., in weight 17,410 (pounds) of gold, 22,070 (pounds) of silver, and in count (i.e. in coin) 6,135,400 sesterces ; in the year 91 b.c. 1,620,831 (pounds]) of gold. The as3 consisted originally of 12 uncise, and there were distinct names and signs for each multiple of the uncia and for some frac- tions of it. uncise. 12 assis or as, a pound 11 deunx (de-uncia), an ounce-off 10 dextans (desextans), a sixth-off 9 dodrans (deqvadrans), a fourth-off 8 "bessis or bes (dvi-assis), a t sextans sicilicus "5-+4V % dupundius 2 TS 2- sescuncia X "8" 1 as (assis) 1 iT 23 semuncia sicilicus I.I 24 "T" 4 5" i Odd pence,' when the denarius was the unit. N.B. The crossed X (for denarius) ought to be prefixed to all the signs. In this duodecimal system the half denoted by S contains 6 parts; but T^-=T85. * Odd pence,' when the sestertius was the unit. In this decimal system the half denoted by S contains VO .5 parts. asses. sestertii. sign. name of sign. explanation of name. 4 sestertius I IIS ■ 3i tressis semis I S Z- 2 T octo libellse singula teruncius _J?—1—L_ J—*_ 10 ' 20 ' 40 3 tressis A 4 S Z 2 septem libellse singula _7_ _|__L_ ioT 20 dupundius semis * S-T sex libellse teruncius iot4o a dupundius X 2 S qvinqve libellse _5_ 1 0 as semis 3 "ff Z-2T tres libellse singula teruncius I0T20T40 1 as X 4 Z 2 duse libellse singula I _I_ I O ' 2 O X "a semis X "sr — T libel] a teruncius -JL._L._i_ IO ~ 40 * Odd pence,' when the sestertius was the unit. In this decimal system the half denoted by S contains VO i. e. quindecim serfifteen in copper. Comp. the use of pondo. i. e. quindecim serfifteen in copper. Comp. the use of pondo.450 Appendix D. ix. Expression of Interest of Money. Interest was denoted at first by the proportionate part of the' capital, and the parts of the as were made use of for this purpose. Thus the decemviral legislation fixed legal interest at TV of the capital, fenus unciarium. This is equivalent to 8|- per cent., and if Niebuhr's views be right, that this originally related to the old year of ten months, it would be equivalent to 10 per cent, for a year of twelve months. In 347 B.C. the rate was reduced to semunciarium fenus, i. e. of the capital, i. e. 5 per cent, for the year of twelve months. In and after Sulla's time, the more common Greek method of reckoning interest by the month came in, and the legal rate was j-bo of the capital per month, called centesima (sc. pars sortis), i.e. iz per cent, for a year. Lower rates of interest were denoted by the fractional parts of the as (the centesima being taken as the as), higher rates by distributives (or a combination of distributives and fractions). The following expressions are found either in the Corpus Juris or Cicero1. Interest is expressed by the 'plural usurse, in apposition to the parts of the as: usurse uncise . . i.e. -ZT2- of the centesima . = 1 per cent. usurse qvadrantes. i ............= 3 ... usurse trientes or ter- tia centesimse pars \ ............—4 usurse qvincunces. . ............=5 ... usurse semisse3 or di- midia centesimse . -§- ............— 6 usurse besses or fees centesimse . . . -| ............=8 usurse deunces . . . -f J ............=11 usurse centesimse . . ............=12 "... binse centesimse . . ...........=24 ... ternse centesimse . . ............=36 ... qvaternse centesimse. ............=48 qvinae (centesimse) . ............=60 But the singular is sometimes found, e.g. fenus ex triente factum erat bessibus (G. Att. 1 v. 15). Interest rose from f to f, i.e. per month, =4 per cent, to 8 per cent, per year. 1 Marquardt, Rom. Alterth. Th. ill. Abth. 2, p. 50.Numerals, Measures, Weights, cW 451. x. Measures of Weight1. The as and its divisions and multiples have been already given, § viii. The Greek system also was used in the imperial times, the unit being a denarius, called from the Greek drachma, of which the libra ( = as) contained until Nero's time 84 (so in Celsus and Pliny), afterwards 96. This latter drachma was divided into three scriptula, the scriptulum = two oboli, the obelus = three siliquse. If the libra be taken as equal to 5053*2 Engl, grains (so B<5ckh^ Mommsen, Hultsch), it will be about pound Troy (5760 grains). Hence the denarius or drachma (before Nero's time) was=6o*i6 grains, i.e. nearly an Engl, drachm (60 grains). After Nero's tim£ the drachma was =52*6 grains and the siliqua %-9 grains. xi. Measures of leftgthi The unit of one system was a jinger-breadth, digitus; foirf finger-breadths made a palm, palmus ; and four palms, a foot, pes ; a foot and a palm was palmipes; a foot and a half (sesquipes) was a forearm, cubitus. The ulna was taken as a third of a man's height, perhaps the length of the Whole arm. But the foot was also divided into twelve parts, and for these the names of the fractions of an as were used. Tkvo feet was similarly called dupondius; feet was pes sestertius In land-surveying, the rod, pertica, contained ten feet, hence called decempeda. The actus (i.e. the furrow made at one drawing (driving) of the plough oxen) measured 12 rods. The unit of distance was not the single step (gradus, feet) biit the passus, 5 feet, i.e. the distance from the point where the same foot is taken up to the point where it is put down. A thousand paces, mille passus, gives the origin of a mile. The Greek stadium was also used and taken at of a mile (i.e. our furlong). The pes = 11*6 Eng. inches or *97 Eng. foot; mille passus = 4850 Eng. feet or *919 Eng. mile. The pertica = 9 feet 8*5 inches^ 1 In §§ x.—xiii. I have chiefly followed Hultsch's Griech. u. Rom. Metrologie (1862). See also his Metrologici Scripiores, Vol. II. The English equivalents are usually from the tables appended to Smith's Diet. Antiqq. 29—2452 Appendix D. xii. Measures of Surface. The pes qvadratus (square foot), as contrasted with the pes por- rectus {foot in length), was the unit. But in land-measurement a higher unit was taken, the scripulum (Varro), decempeda qvadrata (Pallad.), i.e. the square rod. The actus qvadratus, often simply actus, contained 144 square rods, pertic89; a double actus was a jugerum; a double jugerum formed an heredium; 100 heredia formed a centuria; 4 centuriae formed a saltus (Varr. R.R. no). The fractions of the jugerum were denoted by the parts of an as, the sicilicus also being used for ; the sextula for ; the scri- pulum for (i of the sextula, i.e. for) of the jugerum. The pes qvadratus = -94 Engl. sq. foot: the actus qvadratus = 1 rood 9 perches 331 sq. feet: the jugerum = 2 roods 19 perches 189*9 square feet, i.e. almost -J of an acre; an heredium was nearly an acre and a quarter. xiii. Measures of Capacity. The unit of liquid measure was the qvadrantal, which was de- fined as vas pedis qvadrati, i.e. as containing a square foot of wine. The name in and after Cicero's time was superseded by that of amphora (d/x^opew). The amphora contained two urnse, the urna four congii; the congius six sextarii; the sextarius two hemlnse; the hemlna two qvartarii; the qvartarius two acetafcula. A culeus contained 20 amphorse. * • The duodecimal system was applied to the sextarius, a twelfth of which was a cyathus = uncia. The triens = 4 cyathi, qvadrans = 3 cyathi, sextans = % cyathi, &c., are spoken of. (See also Mart. 11, 36; 12, 38.) The unit of dry measure was the modius, which contained two semodii or 16 sextarii. The divisions of the sextarius (hemina, See.) were the same as of liquid measure. The sextarius was =-96 pint Engl. Hence the amphora was about = 5 gall. 6 pints Engl.; the modius =1 gall. 7-36 pints Engl.Numerals, Measures, Weights, &c. 453 xiv. Division of Time. The Romans divided time into years, months, days, and hours. A civil day, as recognised in law, was from midnight to midnight; a natural day, from sunrise to sunset. The duodecimal system was applied here also, the natural day being divided into twelfths, called horse, which were therefore of different absolute lengths according to the time of year. From Dec. 23rd, when the day at Rome was, according to modern reckoning, 8 hrs. 54 m. long, and the Roman hour was 44-lm., the length increased up to 25 June, when the day was 15 hrs. 6 m., and the Roman hour 75-m. At the equinoxes, 23 March, 25 Sept., the Roman hour was of the same length as our own. The civil day is sometimes spoken of as divided into twenty-four hours. The night was for military purposes divided into four watches (vigilia prima, &c.) of equal length. And a similar division of the day into four parts is also implied by Varro's account of the prsetor's marshal crying the 3rd hour, noon, and the 9th hour. Various loose names for different parts of the day and night came into vogue, and are arranged by Gensorinus (c. 24) in the following order, starting from midnight: 1. De media nocte; 2. gallicinium; 3. conticinium, general si- lence; 4. ante lucem; 5. diluculum; 6. mane; 7. ad meridiem; 8. meridies; 9. de meridie; 10. suprema; 11. vespera; 12. cre- pusculum; 13. luminifcus aceensis, or, anciently, prima face; 14. concubium; 15. intempesta nox; 16. ad mediam noctem; 17. media nox. xv. Expression of the Date. (Partly from Madvig. Supfil. to Gram.) The division of time into weeks of seven days with distinct names was not used by the ancient Romans (before the introduc- tion of Christianity). The months were distinguished by the names adopted by us from the Romans, excepting that, before the time of the Emperor Augustus, Julius and Augustus had the names of Quinctilis and Sextilis (i. e. fifth and sixth month, March being the first). The days of the month were computed from three leading days in each, which were called respectively Calendse (Kal.), Nonse (Non.), and Idus (Id.); to these the name of the month was appended as an adjective* The GalendtS was the first day of every454 Appendix D. month; the Nonas and Idus the fifth and thirteenth, except in the months of March, May, July, and October, in which they were the seventh and fifteenth respectively. From these days they counted backwards, the days between the ist and the Nones being reckoned as so many days before the Nones; the days between the Nones and Ides as so many days before the Ides; and the remaining days of the month as so many days before the Kalends of the next month. The day immediately preceding any of these reckoning points was called pridie Nonas, &c.; the day next but one before was the third day before (in consequence of the Nones, &c. being them- selves included in the reckoning), and so on. There are two abbreviated modes of denoting the date; e.g. the 27th of March might be marked as vi Kal. Apr., or a. d. vi Kal. Apr. The first is for sexto (die ante) Kalendas Apriles; the second for ante diem sextum Kalendas Apriles. The latter expression appears to have originally signified before (on the sixth day) the Kalends of April; the exact day being thrown in parenthetically, and attracted from the ablative into the accusative case in consequence of follow- ing ante. Similarly we find the date sometimes denoted by the number of days preceding a festival; as, a. d. v Terminalia, i.e. 19th Feb. (the festival of the god of boundaries being on the 23rd Feb.). This expression was considered as one word, before which in or ex may stand; as, Ex ante diem iii Nonas Junias usque ad pridie galendas Septembres, from the 3rd June to the 31st August; differre aiiquid in ante diem xv Kalendas Noveipbres, to put off something to the 1 Zth October. The readiest way of reckoning the day is, (1) if the date lie between the Kalends and Nones, or between the Nones and Ides, to subtract the number of the day mentioned from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add one (for the inclusive reckoning): (2) if the date lie between the Ides and the Kalends, to subtract the number of the day mentioned from the number of the days in the month, and add two (i.e. one for the inclusive reckoning, and one because the Kalends are not the last of the month in which the date lies, but the first of the following month). In leap year the intercalated day was counted between a. d. vi Kal. Mart, and a. d. vii Kal. Mart, and denominated a. d. bissextum Kal. Mart., so that a. d. vii. Kal. Mart, answers as in the ordinary February to Feb. 23, and a. d. viii Kal. Mart, to Feb. 22nd, &c. (Hence the name of leap year, annus bissextilis.) Before the reformation of the Calendar by Julius Caesar, b.c. 45, the number of days in the months were in March, May, July and October, 31; in February 28; in all the rest 29. Hence, asNumerals, Measures," Weights, 6° sometimes (i.e. not unfrequently). quandoque ) interdum, sometimes (i.e. occasionally). subinde, one after the other. unquam, ever (after negatives, &c.). usque, ever (of progressive continuance).Abbreviations. 461 APPENDIX G. ABBREVIATIONS. For abbreviations in Inscriptions see Hiibner's Index to Corp. lnscr. Rom. I. pp. 610—613 et passim, also supra App. B. For others, esp. legal abbreviations, see Keil's Gram. Lat. iv. p. 276 sqq.; and Lachmann's Gaius, p. 43a sqq. For abbreviations of money, see App. D. viii., of date, App. D. xv. (1) First Names (Praenomina). A. Aulus. Mam. Mamercus. App. Appius. N. or Num. Numerius. C. Gaius. P. Publius. Cn. Gnaeus. CL Qvintus. D. Decimus. S. or Sex. Sextus. K. Kaeso. Ser. Servius. L. Lucius. S. or Sp. Spurius. M. Marcus. T. Titus. AV- Manius. Ti. Tiberius. (1) First Names (Praenomina). Women's names are expressed by inverted characters; as, 3 for Gaia. Women's names are expressed by inverted characters; as, 3 for Gaia. (2) Titles of Persons, &r*c. Ces. or Cens. Censor or Cen- pROC.orPRO.) ______ Cos.1 D. Des. F. Imp. Leg. L. or Lib. Mag. N. P. C. P. M. Pr. 1 Not until 3rd cent. p. Chr. was cons, used; in Diocletian's time began the custom of doubling the s (e.g. conss.) to denote the plural (Mommsen, Liv. Cod. Ver. p. 189). sores. Consul or Consu- les. Divus. Designatus. Filius. Imperator. Legatus. Libertus, Liberta. Magister. Nepos. Patres Conscript!. PontifexMaximus. Praetor, or Prae- tores. Cos. Pro. Pr. Proq. P. R. Quir. Resp. rruuonsiu. Propraetor, x Proqvaestor. Populus Romanus. Qvaestor. Qvirites. Respublica. R. P. P. R. Eespublica Populi Romani Qviritium. S. Servus. S. P. Q^R. Senatus Populus- que Romanus. S. P. P. Q^R. Senatus Populus Plebesque Ro- mana.462 v Appendix G. Tr. Mil.( Tribunus militum. X. Vir. Stl. Decemvir stliti- Tr. Pl. Tribunus Plebis. Judik. bus (i.e. litibus) Tr. Pot. Tribunicia Potes- judicandis. tate. XV. V. S. F. Qvindecimviri sa- X. V. Decemvir. cris faciundis. The name of the tribe to which a person belonged is sometimes added to the name in an abbreviated form; thus, Pup. for Pupinia; Qvi. or Qvir. for Qvirina. See §1113, and Caelius' letter in Cic. Epist. ad Fam. viii. 8, § 5. (3) Sepulchral. D. M. S. Dis Manibus sacrum. H. S. E. Hie situs est. D. S. P. De sua pecunia. OB. Obiit. F. C. Faciundum curavit. P. C. Ponendum curavit. H. G. E. Hie conditus est. V. Vixit. (4) In 'voting on trials. A. C. N. L. Absolvo. Condemno. Non liquet. In 'voting on laws. A. P. Antiquam (legem) probo. V. R. Uti rogas. (5) Epistolary. D. Data (est epistola). S. D. Salutem dicit. S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit. S. Salutem (dicit). S. V. B. E. E. V. Si vales, bene est: ego valeo. S. T. E. Q^V. B. E. E. Q^V. Si tu exercitusque valetis bene est: ego quoque valeo. S. V. G. V. Si Tales gaudeo. Valeo. (6) In decrees of the Senate. D. E. Pv. I. C. De ea re ita censuerunt. I. N. Intercessit nemo. Scr. arf. Scribendo adfuerunt. S. C. Senatus consultum. V. F. Verba fecit.Abbreviations. 463 (7) Miscellaneous. A. U. G. Anno urbis conditaB. D. D. Dono dedit. DD. Dederunt. D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedicat. F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortu- natum. ITER. Iterum. L. Libertas. M. P. Mille passuum. Q^B. F. F. Q^S. Quod bonum fe- lix faustumque sit. (8) Modern Latin. A.C. Anno Christi. A. D. Anno Domini. A.M. Anno Mundi. a. C. 11.) ante) QjiriS^um natum. p.C.n.j post} c. caput, capitis, &c. {chapter). cet. cetera. cf. confer, or, conferatur. Cod., Codd. Codex, Codices, coll. collato, or, collatis. comp. compara, or, comparetur. del. dele, or, deleatur. D. O. M. Deo optimo maximo. ed., edd. editio, editiones. e. g. exempli gratis. etc. or See. et cetera. h. e. hoc est. I. G. Jesus Christus. Ictus. Juris consultus. ibid, ibidem. id. idem. i.e. id est. i. q. id quod. L. or Lib., Libb. liber, Libri. L. B. Lectori Benevolo. 1. c. loco citato. 1.1. loco laudato. leg. lege, or, legatur. L. S. Locus Sigilli. MS.,MSS. Manuscriptum (orMa- nuscriptus, sc. liber), Manuscripta, or -ti. N. B. Nota bene. N. T. Novum Testamentum. obs. observa, or, observetur. P. S. Postscriptum. q. v. quem, or quod, vide, sc. scilicet. sq., sqq. sequenti, sequentibus. s. v. sub voce. vid. vide. viz. videlicet. v. versus, versum, &c. v. c. verbi causa. V. cel. Vir celeberrimus. V. cl. Vir clarissimus. V. T. Vetus Testamentum.Select Index. The numbers denote sections, unless f. (for page) is prefixed. ab-, p. 388 abavus, p. 382 abolere, 209, 2 ; p. 252 abstemius, 990 absurdus, 816, c -abundo-, 819 ac, 109 accensus, 788, a acceptilatio, 983, c accipiter, 905 accusare, 990 -aceo-, 920 acer, 430 Acheruns, 497 Achillei, 482 -aci-, 779 aciei, 357, b\ 360, a acies, 343 acii; 35 7, d -aco-, 773 acroama, 317 actus, 151, 1 note acuai, 94, 2 a. d.,p. 454 ad-, Comp. of pp. 381, 382, 388 adagium, 129, 2 ,d adfatim, 803 adit, 662 aditio, 144, 2 adnepos, p. 382 adorea, 919, 2, b aduncus,/. 382 adqve, 158, 2 adsum, 160, 9 se,. sound of Pref p. lxxv sedes, 331, 1 yedituus, p. 393 -selo-, 871 -amo-, 836 seqvinoctium, p. 387 seqviperare, 993 aerem, 507 serumna, 825 ses excurrens, p. 448 ./Esculapius, 220, 7 /Etna, 152, 4 af, 97 affinis, 390 agcora, 162 age, 398 agere, Comp. U) hui, 999 liuic, 222 humi, 134,2 jacSre, in compos., j44 -i&co-, 775 jam, 141, 3 -iano-, 832 Janus, 143, 1 ibo, 603 -ibu'ndo, 818 Ibus, 377 -¥c- {Jor 8c), 777 -*o, 778 -ic-, 781 AcS- {verbs), 962 iccirco, 109, 1 -Ici-, 781 -4cio-, 930 -Icio-, 930 ico (icio), /. 247 -Ico-, 768 -ico-, 774 -Icttloso, 814 identidem, 531 idoneus, 924 -Idtfn- (idfri), 848 iecit, p. 247; cf 14 jgcur, 250, 2 ; 454 -ieno-, 837 -iensi-, 815 -ier, in fin., 614, 615 ignoscere, 984 ignoturus, ^.251 -IgSn- (igfn), 845 -¥la (vetbs), 968 -Wagon (ilagin), 845 -ileno-, 837 -m, 875 -iii-, 882 ilicet, 982, a ilico, 511, (1) -Ilio-, 939 -ilia- (verbs), 968 ille, 373 illico, see ilico illim, 532 illius, 373 -illo-, 870 -illtilo, 866 -llo-, 867 -1I0, 873 imago, 843 imbuere, 972 immanis, 843 immo, 85, 1 ; 511 immunis, p. 383 -imo-, 754 impete, 443 in (for is-ne), 193, 2 in-, Comp. of, p. 383; 389 in- =' notComp. of, p. 381; 383 incessere, 625 inchoare, 136, 3 inclle, 882, 2, b incohare, 136, 3 incolumis, 209, 2; p. 383 indagare, 970 indago, 845 indigena, 985 indo, prep., p. 381 indoles, 985 indultum,/. 247 industria, 985 indutise, 110, 4 -ingr, 905 infandus, 984,^ infera, p. 424 infestus, p. 220, n infit, p. 245 infitias, 369; 928, a ingenium, 929, a ingens, p. 383 ingenuus, 762, 1, a ingluvies,389 -¥no-, 823, 824 -Ino-, 838, 839 inqvam ,p. 248 inqvilinus, 839 -inqvo-, 772 instaurare, 971 instigare, 971 inter-, Conip. of, p. 383 intercus, 443, 990 | interdius, 513 interduim, 589 iriterduo,/. 191 ,n. internuntius,381 interpolis,381 interpres,/. 381 interrex,/. 389 intertrimentum, p. 381 intrinsecus, 532 invitus, 787 -io-, 926—929 -ion-, 852 -ior (for ios), 917 -ios-, 917 -ioso-, 814 Jovis, 392 Joum, 469 ipsimus, 754 -iqvo-, 772 -*ro-, 895 -11*0-, 889 irritus, 787 -¥s- (Sr), 914 -isstimo-, 755 istimodi, 373 -It- (for -St-), 805 It, 662Select Index. 471 -ita- (verbs), 965 -itano-, 833 iter, 9Q0 iterum, 888 -Iti-, 812 itidem, 524/1, -ttie-, 932, b (3) -Ito-, 799 jubere, 76 juglaris, 989 jugulse, 859 jugum, 141, 2 jumentum, 792 Juppiter, T41, 2 -ivo-, 763 jurgare, 997 jurisconsultus, 983, c jus, 141, 2 jus, 141; 918 jusjurandum, 983, b justitium, p. 393 Kalendse, 817 Kalendarium, 942 Kastorus, 213, 6; p. 426 -1-, 874 Labici, Pref. p, xlii labor, 75, 3 lac, 176, 3 ; 418 lacruma, 174, 4 lact, 418 lactare, 964 lacus, 394, 776 lagoena, 208, ii. 2 lamentum, 176, 3 lana, 203 lapicidinae,/. 391 laqvear, 906 larua, 94, 2 lases, 183, 1, a latro, 851 lavgre, Pref. p. xcix Lavici, Pref. p. xlii laurus, 398 laus, 446 lautia, 932, c, % -lco, 771 lectisternium,/. 393 legere, Comp. of \ p, 392 lenibo, 603 -lenti-, 807, fin, -leo-, 925 lessus, 800 levasso, 622 levir, 174, 3 -li-, 874 liber, 886, 2, a libet,/. 249 libripens,/. 393 licere, liceri249 licet,/. 249 -ltco-, 771 lien, 423 -Wmo-, 756 limus, 110 -lino-, 841 -lio-, 937 -lio-, Prop, navies, 949 liqvefacere, 994 liqvidus, 243, 1 lis, 152 ; 176, 3 litigare, 992 littera, 888, 2, b -i°-> 855 loculi, 330 locuples, 812 locus, 152; 176, 3; 369 loidos,/. 427 loqvi, Comp. of p. 392 -loso-, 814 lucrifacere, 983, $ lucrum, 887 ludificare, 993 lugubris, 901 lupus, 66, 5 lustrare, Comp. of p. 392 lustrum, 888, 2, c luxuries, 343 -m-, 759 Maarco,/. 429 machina, 239, ii. 3 macilentus, 798 mactare, 964 macte, 516 mactus, 787 Maiia, 137 mala, 871; cf 870, 2, b maledicus, 997 malevolus, 997 malus, 201, 3 mandare, 970; 997 mane, 423 manipulus, 860 manufestus, 998 manupretium, 989 Marcipor, 456 Marcus, 767, 2 mare, 429 martulus, p. 324 massa, 189, c matertera, 888, 2, b Matho, 132 maxilla, p. 870, 2, b med, 385 mediastinus, 840 Medientius, 195 medius, 230, 2 medius frdius, p. 398 mehercules, p. 398 mel, 453 melos, 485 memini,/. 249 Memmiadae, 475, c memor, 429 -mSn- (mln), 850 mens, 230, 2 menstruus, 762 mensum, gen. pi., 469 mentiri, 974 -mento-, 792 .mercennarius, 160, 4 mercules, 136, 3 mereri, 734 mereta, p, 425; cf 693 mereto,/, 423 merges, 805 mendies, 988 mers, 414 mertare, 191, 3 messui,p. 212, n.; 250 -mSt, 389 -mSt- (mlt), 806 metus, 396 Mezentius, 189, 3 mi, 345 -mi-, 759 mille,p. 44$ millia, 177, 1 miluus, 94, 2 -mini (in verbs), 57* -mlno-, 825472 Select Index. -mlno (imperative), 587 Minoidi, 500 -mio, Prop, names, 945 mis, 386 misereri, p. 250 mitigare, 993 mixtum, 700 -mnio-, 934 -mno, 835 ■-mo-, 753 modestus, 789 molas, 356, b molestus, 789 moneta, 798 -monio-, 935 monstrum, 888, 2, c monstruosus, 814 moralis, 880 mordicus, 543 morigerus, p. 392 mostellaria, 168, 3, c mucus, 220, I; 767, 2, a Mulciber, 455 mulgere, Comp. of p. 392 muliebris, 185, 2 multifidus, 997 multimodis, 983 multo, Comp. of 988 mundus, 817 munia, 458 municipium, gen., p. 150 munis, 423 musca, 767, 2, b muscipulum, 858 mutare, 211, 3 mutilus, 867 mutus, 787 myrtus, 396 naevus, 761, 2, a nanciam, p. 251 nascor, 129, 3 nassiterna, 829 nasturtium, 110, 2 nasutus, 797 nauci, 369 nausea, 239, ii. 2 -ndio-, 933 ne-, Comp. of, 984 n§ {not nse), 523 necesse> 432; 800 necessus, 432 nefandus, 984, e nefas, 459 nefrens, p. 381 negare, 127 neglegi, p. 249 negotium, no, 4 nemine, 373 nempe, ,517 -neo-, 922 nepos, 811 Neptunus, 835 neqveuntis, 616 neqviter, 733 NSro, 165; 851 nevis, 728 nexui, p. 251 nf, effect of 167; cf Pref. p. lix -ni-, 843 nihilum, 369 ninguit, 632 -nio-, 934 -nio-, Prop, names, 948 nisi, 524 nitela, 160, 4 nitor, 997 -no-, 823, 824 noctivagus, 997 noenum, 86, 2 non, 528 nonaginta, 794 non vis, 728 nonus, 754 -n<5r- (fomtis), 911 -norma, 753, 2, b -nSs- (nSr), 911 novem, 209, 4 noxior, p. 436 ns, effect of Pref. p. lix ; § 187 nucerum, 469 nucifrangibula, 861 nudius tertius, p. 380; § 983. 3 nullius, 372 numero, 511, (1) nundinae, 211, 3; p. 386 nuntius, no, 4; 932 nurus, 896 nutiqvam, 524 nutricius, 927 o, sound oft Pref. pp. lxix, sqq. ob-, Comp. of pp. 381 jr 389 obesus, 787 obinunt, 631 obiter, 541 obliqvus, 772 ; p. 383 obnoxius, p. 389 obsecrare, 990 obstipui, 224, 1 obstipus,/. 383 occasus, 735 occipitium, p. 383 ocellus, 231, 2 -oci-, 780 -od-, 822 odi, p. 252 odivi, p. 252 odor, 916 oe, sound of Pref p. lxxv CEdipus, 499 -oeno-, 834 officina, 839, b officium, 929, a ohe, 279; 287, l, e; 999 oino, 86, 2 oitile, 264, 1 ; 427 -51a- {verbs), 968 51at, p. 252 81 ere, p. 252 olim, 532 -olio-, 939 olla, 250, 1 -olio-, 868 -8I0-, 856 -0I0-, 871 omnipotens, 997 -tin- (in), 844 -on-, 851 -oneo-, 924 -ono, 834 onyx, 323 opifex, p. 391 opiparus, p. 393 oportet, p. 25 2, § 973 oportunus, 78, 4 oppido, 511, (1) opportunus, p. 389Select Index. 473 opprobare, p. 389 ops, 437 optimus, 757 -Sr-, 898 -8r- {for -8s-), 910 -or- (for -os-), 916 -or-, 907 orcinianus, 832 ordia prima, 982, e orfmur, &c., p. 252 -ftro-, 884 -oro-, 891 orum, 250, t -8s- (5r), 910 -os- (<5r), 916 oscen, 997 -oso-, 813 ossuum, 398 Ostia, 932, 2, b osus, 735 -ttt-, 804 -ot-, 911 Otho, 132 -oti-, 8n otium, no, 4 -oto-, 797 ovis, 318 -p-,.75<> pacisci, 253 pselex, 777 pseninsula, 983 paenitet, p. 253 palam, 526 Palatinus, 838, b palatium, 932, c, {1) palatum,/. 358 Pampilus, 65 paiigere, p. 253 panis, 423 pannucius, 921 panus, 824 Papirius, 65 Papisius, 183 parare, Comp. of p. 393 Parcse, 767, 2, b parare, Comp. of p. 393, 395 parietinse, 839, b Parilia, 176, 7 parricida, p. 39 r parsimonia, 935 partei, 466 partus, 464 pascere, 635 passus,451 paterfamilias, 356, ^ patricius, no, 4 Patricoles, 208 patrlmus, 753 -pe, 121, 4 peculium, 937 pecunia, 934 pediseqvus, p. 393 pejerare, 143, 1 pejor, 143, 1 pelage, 485 pelagus, 338 pelex, 777 pend&re, Comp. of p. 393 pSnitus, 544 penna, 824, c penu, 398 per, Comp> of p. 384, 389 peraccommodatus, 384 percepset, 663 perdere, in pass., p. 244 perduellis, p. 389 perduint, 589 perendinus, 823 peritus,/. 254 perjurus, p. 389 permities, 340 peropus, p. 384 perosus, p. 252 perperam, 526 Perses, 482 pertica, pp. 451, 452 pessimus, 757 pessum dare, 369; 788, c pestis, 803 petere, Comp. of p. 393 petit, 662 petulans, 808 -pho-, 750 phui, 999 phy, 999 -pi-, 750 pictura, 240, 4 piget,/. 254 pignus, 458 piissimus, ^.436 Pilonices, 65 pilumnoe, 264, 3; 361 pinguis, 240, 5 pinus, Iio, 1; 398; 839, b -pio-, Prop, names, 945 Piraeea166, u pirata, 239, ii., 4 pitvita, 98 platea, 919, 2, b plaustrum, 882, c plebei, 357; 360 plebi, 357, d pleps, 78, 411 plerique, 754; 894 -plo-, 860 plus, p. 432 -po-, 750 pol,p. 398 Pollio, 177 Pompei, 139; 353 Pompeius, 138 pondo, 369 pone, 522 pono, 185, 1 Poplicola, 992 poploe, 358, 361 -por, 94, 3; 356 porca, 767, 2, b porric&re, p. 247; Pref p. lxix, n. Porsena, 824, b\ Pref p. lxix, n. portus, 209, 2 posivi, p. 255 posse, Comp. of p. 395 Post, 535 post, Comp. of, p. 390 postliminium, 929, c post mod um, 528 postus, 245, 1 potestas, 8ri potiri, p. 255 potis, poti, 209, 2; 407; 72 5 potivi, p. 255 potui, 725 prse, /. 381, 384; 390 prsebere, p. 247 praecordia, p. 390 prseditus, p. 243474 Select Index. prsedium, 929 « prsefica, 985 prsefiscini, 524 prsemium, 929, a praeposterus, p. 384 praerat, 725 praes, 446 praesepe, 410 praesertim, 533 proestare, p. 260 pransus, 735 prehendere, 230, 3 prelum, 176, 1 primigenus, 997 primipara, 997 primo-, Comp. of p. 386 prior, neut., 460 privilegium, 988 privignus, 826 pro, 160, 8 pro-, Comp. of p. 384; /• 390 proavus,/. 384 probeat, 211, 3 procus, 234, 5 prod, 16c, 8 prodigium, 929, d profanus, p. 390 profecto, 511, (1) profestus, p. 390 profligare,/. 246 progener, p. 384 proh, 999 prohibessit, 619, 622 proin, 211,2 proles, 426 promisee, 515 promulsis, 822 promunturium, 940 pronuba, 985 propago, 160, 8 propalam, p. 384 propediem, 529 propellere, 160, 8 propemodo, 511, (1) propemodum, 528 propinare, 160, 8 prora, 891,/. 340 prosa, 185, 1; 211 Prosepnais, 356, ^ prosperus, p. 390 protelum, p. 384 proverbium, 929, c proximus, 754 -pse, 378 -pte, 389 publicus, 69 Publipor, 94, 3 Publius, 69 pudet256 puer, 315 puere, 347 puerpera, p. 393 pulcros, 132 puleium, 929, b pulex, 174, 2 -ptilo-, 860 pultare, 191, 3 pungere, Comp. of p. 393 pusula, pustula, 859 j; Pref. p. lxv putare, 964 puteal, p. 334 putrefacere, 994 putus, 787 qvadr-, Comp. of p. 386 qvadriduum, 184, 2 qnadrifidus, 997 qvadrupes, 446 qvadruplari, 958 qvaeso, p. 256 quamde, 522 qvase, 234, 6 qvasi, 524, 1 qveo, 733 qvercus, 395 qverqvetum, t 19 qvi, abl379, 383 qvi, adj.) 380 qvid, 383 qvies, 240, 4 qvilibet, 995 qvinc-, Comp. of p. 386 qvindecimaere, p. 449 qvinqvatrus, 902 qvinqve, 118, 2 Qvintilius, 90, 2 qvipiam, 382 qvippe, 517 qviqvi, 382 qvis, 379 qvisqviliae, 741, 2 qvitus, 733 qvivis, 995 -qvo-, 767 qvocirca, 160, IX qvod, 536 qvoiei, 379 qvom, 528 qvondam, 528 qvum, 108, 4 r whispered, Pref p. lviii -r-, 897 rabula, 859 Rabuleius, 951 rana, 831 rapere, Comp. of p. 393, 395 rarefacere, 994 rationi, 467 ravus, 761 -rco-, 771 reapse, 373 reatus, 801 recido, 160, 6 recipie, 86, 1 reciprocus, 767 recuperare, 971 recuperatores,346 red, 160, 6 reddibo, 604 redivivus, 763 reducere, 160, 6 reduvia, 928, a refert, p. 245 regificus, 996 regifugium, 996 rei, 359? c\ 3<* reice, 144 reiculus, 862 religio, 160, 6 reliqvid, 158 reliqvus, 118, 2; i6p, 6 remulcus, 771 repperi, 160, 6 repraesentare, 960 repudium, 929, a reqvies, 445 res, 343, 357, 360 restibilis, 876 -ri-, 897Select Index. 47 S -rfco, 771 rigare, 240, 3 -rimo-, 756 -rio-, 940 -rio-, Prop. names, 950 rivus, 761 -ro-, 883 Roma, 753 rosmarinus, p. 380 -ru-, 896 rudimentum, 792 rufus, 99, 6 runcina, 824, c ruta, p- 257 -sa- (verbs), 964 sacerdos,/. 391 sacrilegus, /. 392 sacrosanctus, 998; Pref. p. xxi saeculum, p. 325 ssepes, 66, 5 sagum, 783 Saguntum, 126, 4 sal, 453 salix, 201, 3 salve,/. 257 salus, 811 salvus, 761 sam, sas, 377 Samnium, 78 sangvis, 449 Saranus, 830, c satago,/. 240 satias, 445 satis, 545 Satumus, 828 saxatilis, 879 -sc- (verbs), 978 scabellum, 870, 2, c scalse, 871 scalpere, Comp. of p. 393 scalpurire, 977 scamnum, 78 schema, 492 schemasin, 492 scibam, 607 scibo, 603 scicidi,/. 258 scindere, 240, 2 Scipiadas, 475, c scriptulum, 858 scriptura, 893, 2 scrupulum, 858 sciitula, 858 scutula or scytale, 219, 2 se-, Comp. of p. 390 se- (sex), Comp. of p. 387 secare, Comp. of p- 393 sector,/. 347 secus, subst912 secus, adv., 543 -secus, 532 sed, 160, 6; 385 sedulus,/. 390 seedes, p. 429 segestre, 904 seispita, 444 sembella, pp. 386, 445 semi-, Comp. of 142, 2; p. 386 semol, 538 semper, 540 senati, 399 senatuos, 463 senatus, 801 senex, 449; 777 sensiculus, 862, 2, a senticetum, 798 septem, Comp. of p. 386 septentrio, 852 septuaginta, 794 seqvester, 388 seqvi, Comp. of p. 393 sererq, link, 182, 2 serere, sow, Comp. of p. 393 Serranus, 830, c serum, 230, 4 sesqvi, Comp. of p. 386 sestertium, p. 446 sestertius,/. 386 set, 150 setius, no, 4 seu, 518 severus, 90, 3 Severus, 894 sextarius, 942, 2 sexus, 800 si, 524 . -si- (for -ti-), 802, 803 sibe, 234,6; 265, e -slbfli- (for tibili), 877 sic, 524 sicilicus,//. 448,. 449 siccus, 767 -slcio- (for tlcio), 931 siem, 590; 722 sigillaria, 906, 2 Silanus, 830, c -slli- (for -tili), 878 simia, 318; 928, b simltu, 514 simitur, 514 simplex, 190, 3 sin, 537 sinciput, 109, 3 singula, p. 448 singuli, use of App> D* v. 1, 3 sfriistimus, 757 -sio-, Prop, names, 950 -sion- (for tion), 854 siremps, 542 sis, 728 siser, 455 siseres, 322 -slta- (verbs), 966 sive, 518 -sivo- (for tivo), 764 -so- (for to), 787, 788 sobrinus, 839 socer, 887 socordia, 4 r sodes, p. 398 solacium, no, 4 soldus, 245 , solere, p. 259 solinunt, 632 sollicitus, 998 sollistimum, 757 sollus, 757 solox, 779 solstitium, /. 393 solvere, 41 somnus, 84 sona, 189, 2 sonare, p. 260 sonare, Comp. of p. 393; 396 -sor- (for tor), 908 sorbeo, 75, 3 sordes, 421476 Select Index. sordi, 421 -sorio- (for torio), 943 sors, 803 sorsum, 232, 3 sorti, 420 sortilegus, p. 392 sortiunto, 430 specere, Comp. of, p. 393 spolium, 66, 5 spurius, 65, 2 ss, origin of Pref. p. lxii -ss-, contracted forms in, 661, 663 -sso, futures, d^c. in, 619 —624 st, interj., 999 -st-, Pref p. lxii st (jfor est), 721 statim, 533 stator, 908, b statuere, Comp. of p. 393 staturus,/. 260 Stella, 328 sternere, Comp. of, p. 393 sternuere, 230, 3 sterqvilinium, 934 sti = isti, 375 -sti-, 808 stillicidium, 177, 1; 996 stimulus, 129, 2, c stipendium, p. 393 stipulari, 955 stlis, 176, 3 strictim, 533 strigilis, 182 strues, 413 struix, 781 studere, 149 -su- (for tu), 800 sub, 68, 1 sub-, Comp. of pp. 382; 384 5 39° sublimis,/. 390 sublustris, 90+ suboles,^. 381 subrupio, 204, e subsellium, p. 390 subtilis, 113 subula, 861 subulcus, 771 Subura, 892 subus, 392 svc, 892 succedaneus, 923 succensui, p. 248 succidia, 928, a sucula, 862, 2, b sucus, 107, 3 sueris, 592 suerunt, 94, 2 suffibulum, 861 suffocare, p. 390; § 960 suffragari, 971 suffragium, 929, a sugere, Comp. of p. 393 -sul-, 874 sulcare, Comp. of p. 396 Sulla, 868 sullaturire, 976 sultis, 728 summus, 754 suovetaurilia, 991 supellex, 878 super, adj., 885, 1 supercilium, p. 390 superstitio, 854, b suppeditare,390 supplicium, 929 supra, 160, 6 surge.re, p. 257 -suro- (for turo), 893 surpere, 245, 3 surrexe, 663 surus, 219, 1 sus, 392; 400 suspicio, no, 4 susum, 512 -ta- (verbs), 964 tabe, tabo, 411 tsedet, p. 260 talitrum, 888, 2 talpa, 149? 3 > 349 -taneo-, 924 tapeta, 418 tarpessita, 184, a -tat-, 810 taxtax, 999 tecina, 54 ted, 385 tela, 872 -teo-, 921 temperi, 458 tempestivus,, 763 templum, 859 tenebricus, 814 tenere, Comp. of p. 393 tennitur, 166 tensum, 702 tenvis, 92, 142 tenus 543 -ter-, 905 terere, Comp. of p. 393 t8res, 417 -tSri-, 903 terni, p. 443 -terno-, 829 -tSro-, 888 terricola,p. 325 terrigena, 996 territorium, p. 363 terui, 678 teruncius, pp. 445, 448 tessera, 885 testa, 788, b testis, 803 testu, 396 tetini, 667 Thales, 494 -ti- (si), 802, 803 Tiberius, 239 -tlcio-, 931 -tlga- (verbs), 963 tigris, 501 -tlli- (sili), 878 -timo-, 757 -tino-, 827 -tlno, 840 -tio-, 932 -tio-, Prop, names, 947 -tion- (sion), 854 tis, 386 -tita- (verbs),_966 -tivo-, 764 -to-, 786 -to- (so), 787, 788 toga, 234, 5 toli, 667 tomentum, 792 -tor-, 90S -torio-, 943 torus, 149; 193 tosillae, 168, 2, cSelect Index. 477 -to,-tote (jimperative), 584 totse, dat., 372 totus, 371 -tr-, 905 trans-, Comp. of, p. 382; 39° tra^etas, 418 trastrum, 168, 3, c trepidus, 69, 2 -tri-, 903 tribunicius, no, 4 -trie-, 782 trientabulum, 861 trini, p. 443 -trlno-, 842 tripudium, 929, c triqvetrus,387 triumvir,/. 387 -tro-, 888 Troasin, 498 trochlea, 925 -tru-, 902 trutina, 219, I tt, instances of Pref p. lxvi tuatim, 534 tuber, 455 tubicen, 997 -tudftn- (tudftn), 847 tueri, p. 262 tueri, Comp. of p. 393 -ttimo-, 757 turgere, 149 -turo- (suro), 893 tussis, 803 -tut-, 811 tutu, 2t6 v, labial, Pref p. xlii; p. 409 vacefacere, 094 vacillare, 969 vacivos, 94, 2 vae, 999 vagire, 974 vah, 999 vapor, 121 vapularis, 906, 1 vara, 890 varus, 884 varus, 890 ; Pref p. xli vas (vad-), 446 vasa, 459 vatum, 418 -ftceo-, 921 -Geo-, 773 -tid-, 822 -Qdtfn- (udfri), 846 ve-, Comp. of 385 vegetus, p. 262 veha, 928, a vehemens, r 36, 3 vel, 538 velificare, p. 391 velivolus, 997 velle, 176. 5; 612 velle, Comp. of p. 396 velum, 176, 1 ; 872,, b Venerus, p. 427 veniet, 603 venificus, 391 veno, 369 venum ire, 982 vermina, 850, b vernaculus, 862 verrucossus, 168 versare, Comp. of, p, 393 versipellis, 988 vera, 398 vesci, 635 Vesuvius, 90, 3 veterinus, 838, b vetus, 458 -ugtfn- (ugfri), 845 -vi-, 765 -ui-, 765 via, 928, a vicesma, 417 viqomagister, Pref p. xxii videlicet, 982 videsis, 583 vietus, 263 vigil, 453 viginti, 126, 4; 794 vilicus, 177, 1 vinum, 839 -vio-, Prop, names, 945 vipera, 885 vir, .184, 3; 349 vires, 432 virgo, 845 vis, 240, 2; 432 vivere, 129, 2, c -tila- (verbs), 968 -tilento-, 793 -uli-, 881 -ullo-, 868 -ulltilo-, 868 -tilo-, 857—859 -ulo-, 871 -ultu-, 800 ululare, 74 t, i -tuno-, 754 -unctilo-, 863 unde, 121, 3 undecim, 991 -undo-, 817 ungvis, 126, 3 universitas, 810 -unti- (see also -enti), 616 uno, Comp. of p. 387 -uno-, 835 -vo-, 760, 761 -uo-, 7r)o, 762 vocare, 107, 3 vociferare, p. %92 vocivos, 94, 2 vola, 855 volare, Comp. of p. 396 volones, 851, a voltus, 800 voluntas, 810 volup, 516 voluptuosus, 814 vorare, Comp. of, p. 393 vorsoria, 943 -vorsum, -vorsus, 51 2 vortere, 93 -uoso-, 814 upilio, 94, if b -tir-, 899 -ur- (for us), 918 urgere, 126, 2 -tirl- (verbs), 976 -uri- (verbs), 977 -uri-, 909 -urno-, 828 -tiro-, 884 -tiro-, 892 urps, 78 ursus, 220, 5 -tls- (tlr), 918478 Select Index. -usctilo-, 864 -usto-, 789 usurae, p. 450 usurpare,/. 393 ususfructus, p, 380 ut, 150 -tit- (It), 804 -ut-, 811 uti, 524, 1 -Utl- {verbs), 975 -uto-, 797 vulgus, 338 vulsi, p. 262 vulta, 396 CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY C. 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