s ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2019.COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION In Copyright. Reproduced according to U.S. copyright law USC 17 section 107. Contact dcc@librarv.uiuc.edu for more information. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Preservation Department, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2019THE LtBRAKY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS .Attf;QVigV. pXfe WW v»'r t* ! (,m i... rw : ■ . ■ IP »vR 1^ Imn timi m—t~ , //'/j\\Uyll£L^ miai/kx •IMM; TOWER OF KNOWLEDGE (FROM THE "MARGARITA PHILOSOPHICA," 1504), SHOWING STAGES IN MEDIEVAL EDUCATIONUNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY Number 11 THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS for one thousand years the leading textbook of grammar translated from the latin, with introductory sketch BY WAYLAND JOHNSON CHASE Associate Professor of Education MADISON 1926Copyright 1926 By the University of Wisconsin f PRINTED 1 llN U.S.A. r41 5 XnU C o p, INTRODUCTION Learning and education, throughout the Middle Ages, survived because of the fostering care taken by the Christian church. Origi- nating in the days of the Roman Empire, this church had recruited its membership from people of many and diverse races, bound to- gether by the might of Rome's power and the universal use of the Latin language. From this universality of Latin it had resulted that for centuries before the Roman Empire came to an end Latin had been both the spoken tongue of all churchmen, whether in the Brit- ish Isles or on the Continent, and the literary language in which church records and church doctrines were written. Far into the period which followed the overthrow of Rome's power Latin con- tinued to be the language of both speech and writing among ecclesi- asts, and also the literary tool of scholarship and officialdom. In- deed, it is safe to assert that until about the twelfth century there was practically no writing done in Western Europe except in Latin. In those Middle Ages the church-fostered education existed not for priests alone, for from the ranks of those trained in church schools were drawn ministers of state, secretaries of feudal nobles, diploma- tists, lawyers, and physicians, architects, and musicians. The bailiff of the manor and the merchant required Latin for their accounts, and the town clerk and the gild clerk, for their minutes. Today we have the Latin books in which Columbus studied navigation and geog- raphy, and it was in Latin that the captains of his day and later studied military tactics. Indeed, proceedings in law were recorded in Latin in England as late as 1730. The common use of it among all educated men made and kept it, throughout the Middle Ages and far into modern times, a truly international speech. This gave to authors like Erasmus a public comprising the whole civilized world, and rendered scholars cosmopolitan in a sense almost incon- ceivable to the student of today. Moreover, the Latin-speaking world was not merely that of the Romanic and Germanic peoples of Europe. This speech of Caesar and Cicero, before the Middle Ages passed, had penetrated far into Slavic lands: into Iceland and 34 university of wisconsin studies Greenland and perhaps to the shores of North America; and it be- came widespread in Southeastern Europe and Western Asia when, because of the crusading expeditions, there had come to be a Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and a Latin Empire of Constantinople. In this widely extending area, knowledge of Latin, therefore, was indispensable. So the schools everywhere were Latin schools and learning to read was learning Latin, and the study of the gram- mar of this tongue was the recognized route to mastery of the power to read, speak, and write. By far the most commonly used grammar between 400 a.d. and 1500 was an elementary textbook which, in its long career, ap- peared under many titles, the most usual of which was Donati De Partibus Orationis Ars Minor, translatable into the Lesser Study of Donatus about the Parts of Speech. • As will appear, this title came to be commonly contracted to Ars Minor, or to Donatus, Donat, or Donet. The author was a teacher of rhetoric in Rome around 350 a.d., and perhaps bore the additional name of Aelius, which, however, appears not to have been attached to his name in any of the early manuscripts of his grammars. Our slight knowledge of him as teacher is derived principally from a passing reference or two to him made by a renowned pupil of his, Jerome, the Church Father and translator of the Bible into the Vulgate. He, quoting Terence's "Every good thing has been said before," wrote, "My master, Do- natus, used to say, 'Perish those who have said our good things before us.'" Besides his work on grammar, this Donatus was the author of commentaries on Terence and Virgil.1 His full grammatical treatise comprised two sections, of which the Ars Minor is the first. The other, about five times its size, was commonly known as the Ars Maior, its full title being Donati Grammatici Urbis Romae Ars Grammatica. It treats of these topics: the voice, letters, syllables, metrical feet, accents, punctuation marks, the parts of speech, de- fects and excellences of language, poetical license in forms and in *W. S. Teuffel and L. Schwabe, History of Roman Literature. 5 vols., II (Leipsic, 1892), 340; Henry Keil, Grammatici Latini. 7 vols., IV (Leipsic, 1864), xl; Martin von Schanz, "Geschichte der Romischen Litteratur," in Handbuch der Klassichen Altertums— wissenschaft, edited by Ivan von Miiller, VIII (Munich, 1905), Part IV, chap, i, 161.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 5 syntax, and figures of rhetoric, and contains many citations from the classical writers, especially Virgil. By the sixth century this had a specially formidable rival in the grammatical treatise of Priscian, who lived in Constantinople around 515. Donatus' elementary trea- tise, however, the Ars Minor, was unequaled by any of its many rivals, and for more than a thousand years was the staff most leaned upon by beginners in Latin study, not only in Europe, but also in the Latin states erected by the crusaders in Asia. Evidences of this dominance abound, and will be presented under the categories of literary references, library lists, and school records, not, however, without a recognition that these sometimes overlap. Pope Gregory the Great, around 600, in the introduction to his "Moralium Libri" defends himself against the charge of being un- grammatical by saying that he considers it unworthy of the subject of his treatise "to keep the language of the divine oracles in subjec- tion to the rules of Donatus."2 Alcuin, who, in the last of the eighth century, went from England to the court of Charlemagne in Frank- land, makes mention of Donatus in his poem, "On the Bishops and Saints of the Church of York."3 Peter Damiani, who died in 1072, protested that the monks of his day cared little for the Rule of Bene- dict in comparison with the rules of Donatus;4 while Roger Bacon, whose life extended over the greater part of the thirteenth century, expressed regret because "many thousands become friars who can- not read their Psalter or their Donat."5 John of Salisbury, in the twelfth century, testifies to its vogue in his day.6 Peter of Blois, a contemporary of the foregoing, wrote to a friend: "Our tender years used to be spent in rules of grammar with Donatus."7 In France, Theodoric, in about 11*41, composed a work on the Seven Liberal Arts, treating each of them in connection with the textbooks of his 2 Gregory the Great, "Moralium Libri," in Patrologiae Cursus Computus, edited by J. P. Migne, 221 vols. (Paris, 1855), Vol. LXXV, col. 516. 3 A. F. Leach, Educational Charters (Cambridge, 1911), p. 16. 4 J. E. Sandys, A History oj Classical Scholarship. 2 vols., I (Cambridge, 1903), 500. 6 G. G. Coulton, The Medieval Garner (London, 1910), p. 343. 9 John of Salisbury, "Metalogicus," Migne, Vol. CXCIX, col. 850. 7 A. Clerval, Les icoles de Chartres au moyen age (Paris, 1895), p. 309.6 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES time and earlier. For grammar he quotes Donatus and Priscian.8 In Germany, in that century, a monk of Erfurt wrote a satire in which Donatus is named as one of the subjects of study in the schools of his region.9 In the last of the thirteenth century the Nor- man trouvere, Henri d'Andeli, wrote his poem entitled, "La Bataille Des. VII. Ars." This "Battle of the Seven Arts" describes the com- bat between the forces of logic and the supporters of grammar, the former representing the scholastic emphasis at the University of Paris, and the latter, that at Orleans. Around the banner of gram- mar gather Homer, Claudian, Persius, Priscian, and Donatus. Fit- tingly, it is Donatus who begins the battle by attacking Plato, while Aristotle and Priscian join in combat. The poem ends thus: "Mean- while I declare that any scholar who cannot construe his text is a contemptible person, since in every science whoever is not perfect in his parts of speech must be deemed the veriest boy."10 In the Laborintus of Eberhard of Bethune, a grammatical trea- tise of the thirteenth century, a tribute is paid to the peculiar serv- iceableness of Donatus for young pupils.11 As early as 1200, so long-continued and widespread had been the use of the Ars Minor, "donat" or "donet" or "donatist" had come to mean, in several of the vernaculars, not merely both the beginner in grammar and the primer of that subject, but also the novice and the first princi- ples in any study or art. Thus John Langland makes Pierce Plow- man say, "Then drewe I me among drapers my donet to lerne," meaning, not grammar, but the beginnings of the draper's trade. There is an old French proverb as follows: Les diables estoient en- cores a leur Donat, which signified that the devils were still young at their trade. John of Basin, about 1240, entitled his Greek gram- mar Donatus Graecorum. In the fourteenth century Hugues Faidit gave his grammatical treatise the title Donatz Proensals. 8 Sandys, I, 645. 9 Ibid., p. 622. 10 Oeuvres de Henri d'Andeli (Paris, 1881). 11 "Donatus pueris puerilia donet uterque, In quo Remigius remigis usus erit, Donatus recitat, quod discipulis prohibebis, Et quod permittas." —Ebehasdus Betuniae, "Laborintus," in Historia Poetarum et Poematum Medii Aevi, Polycarp Leyser, editor (Magdeburg, 1721), Tractatus I, 11. 205-8.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 7 In about 1449 Bishop Pecock gave to two of his works the titles Donet into Cristen Religion and Folower to the Donet. Chaucer used the term with the same meaning, and recurringly in the writ- ings of authors of both the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries in England and on the Continent the word "donet" has this signifi- cance. By Shakespeare's time other beginning Latin books, notably Lily's, had in a large degree in England supplanted the Ars Minor, so that he probably learned his "small Latin" from another source. That doubtless is the reason why the glossary-makers, for his works, do not include donet in the Shakespearian vocabulary. Nev- ertheless it is a matter of surprise that he makes no use of this word, for his was the sixteenth century, and at one end of it Sir Thomas Moore wrote, "After the Psalter, children were wont to go straight to this Donat";12 and toward the other end of it, Thomas Platter wrote in his autobiography that at eighteen he was so ignorant that he couldn't even read the Donat. Moreover, John Colet, in A Lytell Proheme to the Boke, which in 1513 began its long career as Lily's Latin Grammar, wrote: "A1 be it mani haue writen and haue made certayne introduccyons in to latyn speche, called Donates....." Also, in 1611, five years before Shakespeare's death, Cotsgrave's A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues was published in London, and in it appeared the following: "Donat, The name of a certaine gramarian, read in some Schooles." Institutional and private libraries in the Middle Ages contained but few books, so for a title to appear often in the lists of these is excellent evidence of the accepted merit of the work and of its wide use. In almost all the book lists contained in the material used for this study the Ars Minor is mentioned. Thus it is in Alcuin's list of the books possessed by the School of York in the eighth century,13 and in the eighth- and ninth-century lists of the Abbey of St. Gall; on a ninth-century list of the Abbey of St. Riquier; in twelfth-cen- tury lists of the Abbeys of Canterbury, of St. Armand, of Chartres, of St. Bertin, and of Corbie, and of the Archbishop of Rouen; in a 12 F. Watson, editor, The Encyclopoedia and Dictionary of Education. 4 vols., I (London, 1921-22), 477. 13 Ernest Duemmler, "Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini," in Monumenta Germaniae His- torica: Poetarum Latinorum Medii Aevi. 3 vols., I (Berlin, 1881), 204, 1. 1555-8 UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN STUDIES list of the Abbey of Amiens in the thirteenth century, and in the library of St. Albans in the fifteenth century.14 As would be expected, the records of medieval schools supply the most and the clearest evidences of the long-continued use of this textbook. It was the beginner's book in the monastic schools of Ire- land;15 Alcuin made use of it in Frankland in the ninth century, as did his successor at the head of the palace school, Theodulfus.16 Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester in the tenth century, "did not scorn ever to explain the difficulties of Donatus and Priscian to lit- tle boys."17 iElfric, in the last of the tenth century, begins his preface to his English-Latin grammar thus: "I TElfric, as not being very learned, have taken pains to translate these extracts from the larger and smaller Priscian for you tender children into your own language, so that when you have gone through Donatus on the Parts of Speech, you may be able to instil both languages, Latin and English, into your youthful minds, by this little book, until you reach more ad- vanced studies."18 Hildegaire, chancellor of Chartres in the eleventh century, taught the Donat to the younger boys of his school, and at the school of Chartres it was the book that all beginners used in the eleventh century.19 Thierry, scholasticus and chancellor in that school, in the first half of the twelfth century brought out his Epta- teuchon, taking for his title the Greek term for the "Seven Liberal Arts." This encyclopedia-like presentation of the learning of his day was essentially the official curriculum of the schools. In it he gives the first place to grammar (Latin, of course) and to the Ars Minor as the book for beginners, praising it thus: "Donatus has taught the grammar with an admirable brevity, condensing it clev- erly and explaining it shrewdly. To start the children in this sub- 14 Leon Maitre, Les icoles episcopales et monastiques de VOccident (Paris, 1866), pp. 278, 279, 282, 286, 288, 292, 293; Victor Le Clerc, Histoire litteraire de la France au quatorzieme siecle. 2 vols., I (Paris, 1865), 421. 15 Thesaurus Palaeokibernicus, edited by Whitley Stokes and John Strachan. 2 vols., II (Cambridge, 1901), xxv. 16 C. Jourdain, Excursions historiques (Paris, 1888), p. 471. 17 A. W. Parry, Education in England in the Middle Ages (London, 1920), p. 35. 18 Leach, p. 49. 19 A. Clerval, p. 51.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 9 ject he made this edition [the Ars Minor] in which he has presented that which it was necessary to ask and that which one should an- swer. Thus he has collected all the grammar into condensed sec- tions and into examples which reveal it fully."20 The little schools of the towns and country in France in the fourteenth century uni- versally used this grammar, and did not take their pupils be- yond it.21 From the twelfth century we have one of the very few lists of textbooks that have come down to us from the Middle Ages, prob- ably the compilation of Alexander Neckham, abbot of Cirencester. Therein it is prescribed that after the pupil "has learned the alpha- bet and has become conversant with the other primary rudiments he shall learn the Donatus and that useful compendium of morality which is commonly thought of as Cato's."22 And, from the same century, came the Doctrinale Puerorum, a description of the work done in the monastic schools, with the Ars Minor named as a man- ual of grammar.23 The statutes made for the Warwick Grammar School and Song School around 1316 direct that the grammar-master "shall have the Donatists, and thenceforward have, keep, and teach scholars in Grammar, .... while the Music Master shall keep and teach those learning their first letters, the psalter, music and song."24 In the statutes of Winchester College, written about 1386, grammar is prescribed under the term antiquus donatus.25 That the book continued to be published in England as late as 1577 is proved by the existence in this country of one or more copies of this work bearing that date.26 Proof is afforded that in Italy the Ars Minor had general vogue in the fifteenth century, for we know that it was the prescribed text in the famous schools of Guarino and Vitto- 20 Ibid., pp. 221-22. 21 Ibid., p. 359. 22 C. H. Haskins, "List of Textbooks from the Close of the Twelfth Century," in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, XX (Cambridge, 1909), 90. 23 Augusta Theodosia Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars (New York, 1910), p. 181. 24 Leach, pp. xxx, 275. 25 John William Adamson, A Short History of Education (Cambridge, 1919), p. 65. 26 "Aelii Donati, viri clarissimi, de Octo Partibus Orationis methodis, quaestiunculis puerilibus, undique collectis illustrata, per Leonhardum Culmannum Crailsheymensem."10 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES rino.27 In that country it is reported to be still employed in some of the schools. This belief finds support from the following entry in a late Bollettino Delle Publicazioni Italiane: "Donato Nuovo prin- cipi di grammatica latina ad uso delle classi ginnasiali inferiori, pubblicati dal soc. Celestino Durando. Edizione Cinquatessima 1901." The prolonged use of it in the schools of Germany is at- tested by much evidence. Martin Luther first learned his Latin through it;28 Melancthon prescribed it for the many schools with the organization of which he was concerned in Saxony and Bruns- wick.29 Textbook lists of many German schools continued for long to include titles which in English would be Rudiments of Grammar for Boys, Most Carefully Selected from Remigius, Donatus, and Alexander, and Juvenile Exercises on Donatus.™ The philosopher Herder was brought up on one such as late as in the second half of the eighteenth century,31 and the use of it in the schools of Germany almost outlasted that century. As to France, there is plenty of evi- dence of its use in the schools there in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in connection with other schools than those of the Jesuits, and in their schools when they had become established there. For example, we have a late fifteenth-century publication entitled Le Donnet, traite de grammaire, bailie a feu roi Charles VIII.32 Rabe- lais learned the Ars Minor at the Cluniac Monastery of Seuille, and in his Gargantua reports it as the grammar on which his giant hero was drilled by Master Tubal Holofernes.33 In about 1580 it was prescribed in the ratio studiorum for the lowest grammar class in the schools of the Order of Jesus. This must have meant the use of it in their widely spread system, not only throughout the Catholic 27 W. W. Woodward, Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators (Cambridge, 1912), p. 70; Education in the Age of the Renaissance (Cambridge, 1906), p. 38. 28 Henry Barnard, The American Journal of Education, 31 vols., XXIV (Hartford, 1858), 103. 20 Friedrich Koldewey, "Braunschweigische Schulordnungen," in Monumenta Ger- maniae Paedagogica, edited by Karl Kehrbach, I (Berlin, 1887), 53, 100, 106; Karl Hart- felder, "Philipp Melanchton als Praeceptor Germaniae," ibid., VII, 263, 420 ft. 30 Bernard, XI, 161; Hartfelder, p. 278. 81 H. Nevinson, Herder and His Times (London, 1884), p. 10. 32Thomas Warton, History of English Poetry. 3 vols., II (London, 1840), 56. 33 W. F. Smith, Rabelais in His Writings (Cambridge, 1918), p. 8; Oeuvres de Rabe- lais, edited by M. A. L. Sardou. 3 vols., I (San Remo, 1874), 65.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 11 countries of Europe—Ireland, Belgium, France, South German states, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Spain, and Portugal—but also in the Americas and the Orient.34 For a book to be in the fifteenth-century list of those which the infant art of printing selected for broadcasting is highly significant of the importance the times attached to it. Five printings of the Ars Minor are recorded for England of the fifteenth century; three, in Latin; two, in English.35 On the continent the editions which appeared during that time were, most of them, in Gothic characters without date, place, or printer's name. Indeed, "The typograph- ical history of no work save the Scriptures has excited more interest among bibliographers or given them more trouble. Even before printing from movable type, several editions seem to have been thrown off from blocks, and fragments of these are extant."36 It was printed at Haarlem by Coster before Gutenberg's press began its work at Mainz, and one of the earliest issues of that press was an edition of the Ars Minor printed on parchment before 1447.37 A fragment of four pages of this was found wrapped around a bundle of accounts in the archives of Mainz, and one of these is now owned in this country. A French translation of this old grammar was printed about 1460, and is believed to be the first French book made from type.38 The purpose of heaping up these data, which are, of course, but a small part of those in existence, is to give broad support to the contention that no other grammar in the Middle Ages exerted an equal influence upon (1) the learning of Latin, (2) the form that Latin grammars have taken in the modern age, and (3) the ter- minology of the grammars of various vernaculars of Western Eu- rope, especially English. 84 G. M. Pachtler, "Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones Scholasticae Societatis Jesu," in Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica, edited by Karl Kehrbach, II (Berlin, 1887), 249. 36 E. Gordon Duff, Fifteenth-Century English Books (Oxford, 1917), pp. 36, 37. 36 William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 3 vols., I (Boston, 1849), 1065, 1066; Paul Schwenke, "Die Donat- und Kalender-Type," in Verofientlichungen der Gutenberg-Gesellschaft, II (Mainz, 1903), 24 ff. 37 Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, IX (London, 1908), 13. 38 James Westfall Thompson, The Frankfort Book Fair (Chicago, 1911); Leon Dorez, editor, L'Ars Minor de Donat—traduction frangaise (Paris, 1890).12 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES Donatus' excellence as a teacher he developed in Rome; as for the rest, we know nothing about his career as a grammarian, since the tales respecting him which found origin and credence in the Middle Ages are entirely undeserving of consideration. With the grammatical writings of Diomedes, and in the last part also with Charisius, Donatus' grammar is in agreement: at times, indeed, there is close similarity of expression. These agreements are as- cribed, however, to the use by these three authors of the same source: the now lost Ars Grammatica of Palaemon, a Roman au- thor of the first century.39 Palaemon's reliance was on the great work of the Greek grammarian, Dionysius Thrax, and of his mas- ter, Aristarchus, who lived in Alexandria 217-143 B.C., and was among the first definitely to recognize eight parts of speech.40 Thus the Ars Minor drew its sanction and authority from the same Alex- andrian age that gave a like authority to Euclid. In the long careers in the schools of these twin offspring of Hellenistic scholarship there is an interesting parallel. The medieval boy commonly began his schooling between the ages of five and seven, and as soon as he had learned to recognize his letters and to form them into syllables he was set to committing to memory the Latin words and phrases which made up the Credo, the Lord's Prayer, and other essential parts of the church service. Throughout the Middle Ages the laboriously hand-copied books made out of parchment were too costly and scarce to be owned by the ordinary schoolboy. So it was the practice of the priest or monk who taught these classes to pronounce the words to be learned, and these the boys repeated after him. This was tediously persisted in till the words had become fixed in the pupil's mind—words that at first had no meaning to the learner.41 Had the pupil possessed the text, he would yet have lacked very many of those aids to memory that come from successful efforts to impress the learner's eye, for no printed copy of the Ars Minot which has come down to us from a 39 Keil, III, 408; Schanz, p. 161. 40 Sandys,-I, 130, 137. 41 A. Appuhn, Das Trivium und Quadrivium in Theorie und Praxis (Erlangen, 1900), PP. 53-6o; Thomas Wright, Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies. 2 vols., I (London, 1884), v; Foster Watson, The English Grammar Schools to 1660 (Cambridge, 1907), p. 226.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 13 date earlier than 1500 shows any pretense of tabular arrangement, and in all the manuscript copies the text runs on line after line without marks of sentence-beginning or ending.42 A variation of the learning method was for the boys to write down the words pronounced to them, using for this purpose wax tablets. What was thus written must be speedily learned by heart, because it must be erased soon from the tablet in order that the next day's dictation might take its place. When the simplest parts of the church service had been committed to memory in this fashion, some of the most used psalms were also learned.43 By this stage of the practice good teachers had endeavored to give meaning to the Latin through the medium of the native tongue. Of this numerous glosses on the old manuscripts afford proof. Two values were sought often by these methods: one, the ability to say, chant, or sing the serv- ices of the church, either as choir boy or general worshiper; and the other, the possession of a vocabulary of Latin words, with a knowl- edge of their meaning as needed equipment for an attack upon the grammar which was itself in Latin. Sometimes the acquiring of a vocabulary was sought still further, before grammar study was be- gun, through the use of the Distichs of Cato, a collection of Latin couplets which, as a sort of first reader, had wide and long vogue. Most often, however, the Cato accompanied the grammar. Some- times the grammar and the reader were united in a single manu- script, like that one of the fourteenth century, now in the library of Mr. George A. Plimpton of New York City. In this a worked-over form of the Ars Minor is followed by the Disticha Catonis. By methods like those already described, the teachers endeav- ored to impart and explain the text of the Ars Minor, word after word and sentence by sentence, use being made of the Latin vocab- ulary already acquired and of the native speech. How untiring was the industry that was required may be appreciated by recalling that the pupil had no grammar through which he could refresh his recol- lection by looking up a rule or a paradigm; so his memory had to be his sole reliance. It must be remembered that this Latin was taught as a living tongue; that it was first of all to speak Latin that the boy 42 Adamson, p. 14. 43 Watson, The English Grammar Schools to 1660, p. 226.14 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES was urged, by precept and example, to strive. Every expedient for practice of Latin speaking was made use of, and the question and answer in Latin were largely used, the interrogatory form of the Ars Minor assisting in this. Vocabularies fashioned in the form of colloquies early came into use. Here is one in which the school curriculum formed a part of the catechism: Es tu scolaris? Sum. [Are you a pupil? I am.] Quid legis? Non lego sed audio. [What do you read? I don't read, but I listen.] Quid audis? Tabulam, vel Donatum vel Alexandrum vel logicam vel musicam. [What do you hear? The tablet—Donatus or Alexander or logic or music.]44 Great must have been the distaste that the medieval pupil felt for this daily Latin grind and it is not to be wondered at that the rod ruled the schools of this day as it had in still more ancient times. That this was the case an abundance of various sorts of evidence furnishes proof. For example, down into modern times at Oxford University descended the practice of having an important part of the ceremony of installation of a new master of the grammar school consist in the public flogging by him of some luckless boy who re- ceived a groat for his pains.45 Yet how soon and with what childish prattle these grammar pupils might begin to speak and write Latin is well shown by a letter written about 900 from a monastic school by a boy to his parents. In connection with asking for various little things came these words: Parentibus suis A agnus ablactatus pium balatum, which seems to mean, "To his parents A, a weaned lamb, sends a loving bah."46 Besides the influence exerted by the Ars Minor directly upon students through its use as a textbook is that which manifested itself in its shaping of later Latin grammars. This is observable even with respect to Priscian's Institutiones Grammaticae, already referred to as sharing with Donatus the control of the schools of the 44 A. E. Shaw, "The Earliest Latin Grammars in English," in Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, V, 44. 45 C. E. Mallet, The History of the University of Oxford. 3 vols., I (London, 192.4), 181. 46 "Robertus Metensis," in Migne, Vol. CXXXII, col. 533; Henry Osborn Taylor, The Medieval Mind. 2 vols., II (New York, 1919), i5ov/i,\,THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 15 Middle Ages. This comprised eighteen books, the first sixteen of which were devoted to the parts of speech and the various forms created in some of them by differences of gender, declension, and conjugation, and were filled with examples of usage of early au- thors, especially Virgil, to whom about eight hundred citations were made. The remaining two dealt with syntax. Though Priscian's chief reliance as a source for his work was Apollonius, yet his refer- ences to Donatus, both the Ars Minor and the Ars Maior, reveal their considerable influence upon him. Priscian was of Constanti- nople in the sixth century, and those who, in the next five centuries, essay the task of grammarian, base their productions more upon him and Donatus than upon any of the other ancient writers of grammar. But by no means were all the sections of Donatus made use of. Most of the Ars Maior sank into disuse, and when the gram- marians, from the first of the eleventh century on, cite Donatus, it is the Ars Minor that they mean. With this was often associated that section of the Ars Maior which came to be called the Barbaris- mus, that word being the subject of its opening sentence.47 Of the writers on grammar between 400 and 900, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, St. Boniface, Alcuin and Remi of Auxerre may be named as of special importance. Cassiodorus, 486-569, Italian statesman, scholar, founder of monasteries, and promoter of learning in them, was the author of several influential works, among them that enti- tled On the Arts and Disciplines of Liberal Letters. In this the sec- tion devoted to grammar is an abridgement of Donatus.48 Though the most important work of Isidore, Bishop of Seville, about 570-636, bore the title The Twenty Books of Etymologies, it was not restricted to that aspect of learning, but was encyclopedic in character, and for many centuries constituted for the medieval student the fullest repository of ancient knowledge and the chief re- source in higher learning. Its first section deals with grammar, and Donatus is his chief source.49 47 Charles Thurot, "Notices et extraits de divers manuscrits latins pour servir a l'his- toire des doctrines grammaticales au moyen age," in Notices et extraits des manuscrits bibli- otheque nationale. 40 vols., XXII (Paris, 1874), 94. 48 A. F. West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools (New York, 1903), p. 25. 49 Marius Michel, "Le livre Des Origines D'Isidore de Seville," in Revue Internation- ale de L'Enseignement, XXI (Paris, 1891), 207, 209, 210; Migne, Vol. XXCII ("Liber Primus de Grammatical), cols. 74 ff.16 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES The many-sided services to civilization of the great missionary to the Germans, St. Boniface, about 680-755, included the promo- tion of education in the regions of his missionary effort. To this end he wrote several textbooks, of which that on grammar was compiled from the Ars Minor.50 Alcuin, about 735-804, one-time head of the great school at York, England, and later head of Charlemagne's palace school, and, so to speak, his Minister of Education, was the author of a work entitled On Grammar. "Whatever is excellent in any way in this must be credited to Donatus, from whom he drew his material."51 Beside these medieval writers of grammars there were, in the first five centuries following Donatus, numerous writers of com- mentaries on his grammar. Of them the most notable were Servius, Cledonius, Pompeius, Smaragdus, and Remigius, of whom the last- named is much the most important. This Remigius, or Remi of Auxerre, was foremost among the teachers in Paris in 900 and pro- duced, in the field of textbooks for the schools, commentaries on Donatus, Marcianus Capella, and Priscian. Though the first-named of these, his Expositio super Donatum, probably included a treat- ment of Ars Maior, it was the part dealing with the Ars Minor which has come down to us in very many manuscripts. This work remained in use as a textbook into the time of the Renaissance, being many times printed in the fifteenth century.52 In the period between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, however, it suf- fered some eclipse, because by the end of the twelfth century public favor was being given in increasing measure to grammatical trea- tises so different from their predecessors in both form and substance /I that the term "the new grammars" is justly applied to them. By , then Latin grammar, in its technical aspects, had come to be so im- portant a subject of the schools as to surpass in significance all of the others of the seven liberal arts: rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy, and had come also to be strongly tinc- tured with the abstract theorizings characteristic of the Schoolmen. For example, there had been introduced into grammar in the schools 60 P. Abelson, The Seven Liberal Arts (New York, 1906), p. 41. 61 West, p. 101. 62 Abelson, p. 42; Sandys, I, 639; Schanz, p. 161; Thurot, XXII, 8, 9, 94.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 17 of Paris the distinction between the meaning of a word and the manner of denoting that meaning, modus significandi. This and similar abstractions became, throughout the schools of Europe, both exceedingly popular themes of discussion and also the occasions for a new, extensive and precise grammatical terminology deeply in- fected with the language of medieval dialectic.53 Of public disputa- tions over grammar, in which, beyond a doubt, Donatus was often named as an authority, John Stow, born in 1525, gives us pictures in his Survey of London. First quoting from the twelfth-century chronicler, Fitzstephen, he says: In the raigne of king Stephen, and of Henry the second upon Festiuall dayes the Maisters [of the various schools of London] made solemne meetings in the Churches, where their Scholers disputed Logically and demonstratively : .... the boyes of diverse Schooles did cap or pot verses, and contended of the principles of grammar..... As for the meeting of the Schoolmasters, on festiuall dayes, at festiuall Churches, and the disputing of their Schollers Logically, etc., whereof I have before spoken, the same was long since discontinued. But the arguing of the Schoole boyes about the principles of Grammer, hath beene continued even till our time; for I my selfe in my youth have yearely seene on the eve of S. Bartholomew the Apostle, the schollers of divers Grammer Schooles repayre into the Church yard at S. Bartholomew, the Priorie in Smithfield, where upon a bank boarded about under a tree, someone Scholler hath stepped up, and there hath apposed and answered, till he were by some better scholler overcome and put downe: and then the overcomer taking the place, did like as the first.....54 In the twelfth century, as appears in Fitzstephen's statement, Latin verse-making had great vogue in the schools. This was re- flected to an astonishing extent in practices outside scholastic walls. Town charters were drawn in rhyme, monastic chronicles took verse form, sermons were written in rhyme, and even a rhymed Bible ap- peared. As might be expected, both Donatus and Priscian were put into verse, as were also the new grammars.55 Of these the most im- 53 L. J. Paetow, "The Arts Course at Medieval Universities," in University Studies of the University of Illinois, III, No. 7 (Champaign, 1910), 34; Thurot, XXII, 158 ff. 54 John Stow, A Survey of London, Reprinted from the text of 1603, edited by C. L. Kingsford. 2 vols., I (Oxford, 1908), 72, 74- 55 The Tractatus in Partibus Donati of Smaragadus, Abbot of St. Michael till his death, about 830, was a sort of versified paraphrase of the Ars Minor; Ernest Dummler, "Poetarum Latinorum Medii Aevi," in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, I (Berlin, 1881), 607-15; Paetow, p. 34.18 UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN STUDIES portant were the Doctrinale of Alexander of Villedieu and the Graecismus of Eberhard of Bethune. The former, a Franciscan friar, was long a student at Paris, where he and two fellow-students put into metrical form their lecture notes on the grammarians. By 1199 this material had become his and under his hand had taken the form of the Doctrinale. It was a hexameter poem of twelve chapters, usually grouped into three parts—etymology, syntax, and quantity, with accent and figures of speech. Though Priscian was his chief source, yet Donatus was also drawn upon. Moreover, the author expected the users of his book to have mastered the Ars Minor, for in his sixth chapter he says: Donatum sequere per verba jruentia lege,56 It may be called to mind that this Doctrinale in the fifteenth century played an important part in the public cor- rection of the Latin of an emperor, for when Sigismund, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, said to the delegates at the Council of Constance, Videte Patres ut eradicetis schismam Hussitarum, a Bo- hemian member cried out, Serenissime Rex, schisma est generis neutri. "And how know you that," inquired the Emperor. "Alexander Gallus says so." "And who is Alexander?" "He is a monk." "And I," said Sigismund, "am Roman Emperor, and my word is worth as much as a monk's any day."57 Eberhard of Bethune's Graecismus appeared first in 1212, and it too was in hexameters. Although this author was ignorant of Greek, like the great majority of medieval scholars, he devoted one of his chapters to Greek etymology, desiring to make plain the many Greek words which, through the Vulgate and the writings of the Church Fathers, had come into the Latin of the day. It was this chapter which gave the book its name. Like the Doctrinale, it had its source in the lectures of the scholars of those days and was imbued with their characteristic doctrines.58 In the prologue the author says: "Secundum Donati ordinem executus, primo de nom- 66 Paetow, p. 37; Thurot, XXII, 98. 67 Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, V, 44. 58 Thurot, XXII, 100.THE ARS MINOR OE DONATUS 19 ine, secundo de pronomine tractans, et sic deinceps stilum acuere predestinavi."59 Both of these grammarians, in their exposition of the theory of the modi significandi, followed Donatus' Ars Minor in all that touched the parts of speech and their accidents, while they drew on Priscian for the elements of the definitions. And it is clear that much of the plentiful discussion of the medieval scholars over grammar related to the differences between Donatus and Pris- cian. And as to Donatus it is especially the Ars Minor that is used and the works of those medieval grammarians who had elaborated it.60 How much this dialectic practice had permeated grammar is seen in the announcements through which the printers in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries sought to attract purchasers. This illustration may suffice: "Commentum valdum perutile magistri Iohannis Versoris super Donatum minorem cum pulchris notabili- bus atque argumentis summe bonis, per quorum cognitionem iu- venes scholares in optimum argumentandi et respondendi modum devenire possunt facillime."61 Till near the end of the fifteenth century the "new" grammars were almost universally the textbooks of the higher schools, while the Donat ruled the lower. During this period the vernacular tongues were coming into the schools as aids in interpreting the Latin rules, and soon bilingual treatments of the Ars Minor appear. A characteristically medieval perversion of grammar, as well as an- other indication of the great and persisting interest in it, is Jean Gerson's conversion of the Ars Minor into a treatise on morals in the fourteenth century. The quality of this can be seen from the following: "What is the pronoun? Man is your noun, sinner is your pro- ; noun. When you pray before God, use only the Pronoun and say, 'O, Heavenly Father, I do not pray to you as a man, but as sinner I implore your pardon.'" 59 "Because I have followed the second section (Ars Minor) of Donatus treating first of the noun, then of the pronoun, and so forth, I have secured that my writing shall be effective." 60 Thurot, XXII, 158. 61 Ibid., p. 487: "The exceedingly useful production of Master John Versor dealing with the lesser Donatus in an extraordinarily charming fashion and with superlatively good arguments through the knowledge of which young scholars may arrive very easily at the very best possible manner of arguing and debating."20 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES The author's paraphrase of Donatus and play upon the paral- lelism of the declension of the noun and the declension of the human soul from God are best shown in his own Latin: "Prima declinatio est ab obedientia Dei in suggestionem diaboli: per hanc declinavit Eva. Secunda, ab obedientia Dei in Consensum mulieris, ut Adam declinavit per Evam. Tertia a paradiso in hunc mundum. Quarta, ab hoc mundo in limbum inferni."62 In the revolt of the renaissance scholars against medievalism, most of this "new grammar" was dismissed as worthless, and almost complete reliance was had on Donatus and Priscian and those from whom they had drawn their material. Thus, Erasmus in his De Ra- tione Studii said: "For the purposes of vocabulary, ornament and style, you can have no better guide than Lorenzo Valla.....Re- fer also to Donatus and Diomedes for syntax."63 When the human- ists set themselves to making textbooks on Latin grammar the Ars Minor exerted a perceptible influence on these. This is clearly dis- cernible in a manuscript of Latin grammar made by Guarino around 1450, and now in the library of Mr. Plimpton. Perhaps this influ- ence can be most effectively shown from that Latin grammar which, by royal proclamation in England in about 1540, became the au- thorized and required text in the schools. Although this was ordi- narily referred to as Lily's Grammar, it was really a co-operative work, in the making of which several notables collaborated. John Colet, the dean of St. Paul's Cathedral and the refounder of St. Paul's school, fashioned that part which bore the title "Introduc- tion to the Eight Parts of Speech," and William Lily, the first mas- ter of that school, compiled a syntax in the complete shaping of which, later, the great Erasmus, at Colet's request, rendered assist- ance.64 This joint production appeared in 1513, and was written throughout in Latin, with the title, A bsolutissimus de octo orationis partium Constructione libellus, etc. This "Complete treatise on the construction of the eight parts of speech" was designed by Colet to 62 "The first declension from obedience to God is at the suggestion of the devil: be- cause of this Eve fell. The second declension was from obedience to God, like the woman's, as Adam fell because of Eve. The third was from Paradise into this world. The fourth, from this world into the border of hell" (Le Clerc, I, 421). 63 W. H. Woodward, Erasmus concerning Education (Cambridge, 1904), p. 165. 64 Watson, The English Grammar Schools to 1660, pp. 243-50.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 21 be a brief elementary text adapted to "lytell chyldren" and it would appear that both as to its title and as to its brevity it reflected the Ars Minor. The subject content also strongly shows the influence of this source. Both grammars have the same eight parts of speech, the participle being one and the adjective being absent. Both recog- nize a common gender of three kinds and use the same illustrations. The same is true in respect to epicene gender. Both ascribe com- parison to nouns. Both recognize the five kinds of verbs—active, passive, neuter, deponent, and common, and use for illustration curro as type of neuter verb, loquor as deponent, and osculor as common. Both have twenty-three categories of adverbs. Other similarities also could be shown. This Lily's grammar was edited and re-edited during a period of nearly three hundred years, but the traces of the Ars Minor remained and can be seen in the third revi- sion of John Ward's edition which was published in London in 1789 and was standard in both England and the United States. In Dub- lin in 1741 there was published a combination of Latin reader and grammar which is quite like that fourteenth century twofold manu- script already referred to, for it contains the Distichs of Cato, and, along with other grammatical material, a section labeled "Prin- cipia," which, on examination, proves to be a condensed Ars Minor.65 There are extant one or more copies of a but little-known Latin grammair from the pen of the great John Milton, whose distin- guished career, like that of Cardinal Wolsey, began with the teach- ing of Latin to schoolboys. This, in its brevity, its subject matter, its definitions, and phrasing clearly shows the influence of the Ars Minor upon its author.66 In many others of the Latin grammars of 65"Dionysij: Catonis Disticha Moralia et Gulielmi Lilij Monita Paedagogica." Both this and John Ward's A Short Introduction of Grammar are in Mr. Plimpton's library. 66 "Accedence Commenc't Grammar Supply'd with sufficient Rules For the use of such as, Younger or Elder, are desirous, without more trouble than needs, to attain the Latin Tongue; the elder sort especially, with little teaching and their own industry." —J. M. (London, 1669). In Mr. Plimpton's library.22 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries this influence of Donatus is clearly discernible.67 Writers of Greek grammars in the Middle Ages both imitated the method of Donatus and made use of his name. The only Greek book that is in the list of the contents of the library of Christ Church, Canterbury, at the end of the twelfth century, is a gram- mar entitled Donatus Graece,68 As was stated in another connec- tion, John of Basin, who lived around 1240, called his Greek gram- mar Donatus Graecorum.69 The famous Greek, Chrysolaras, whose arrival in Florence in 1397 influenced so much the revival of inter- est in Greek study in western Europe, fashioned his elementary manual of Greek grammar upon the Latin Donat.70 Another important sphere of the influence of the Ars Minor is that of vernacular grammars. The modern languages were shaped to literary use by men who wrote and spoke Latin and thought of it as the ideal speech. A large part of the literatures of these lan- guages was translated or imitated from Latin authors. It is unques- tionably true, therefore, that the Latin influenced both the develop- ment of these tongues and greatly affected their grammars, bringing about extended and uniform use of forms that are like the Latin and the disuse of those that are different, and so drawing the gram- mars near to each other. Often servile modeling of the younger grammar upon the older took place. Good illustrations of this as to the continent of Europe are afforded by the Donatz Proensals of Hugues Faidit and Las Rasos de Trobar of Raymond Vidal de Be- saudun, both of the fourteenth century. A study of both of these establishes beyond a question the shaping influence of the Ars Mi- nor upon the grammar of the French language.71 The influence upon the development of the grammar of English is clearly to be seen. It was assumed that because Latin had five 67 Roberti Whitintoni alma in vniuersitate Oxoniensi laureati, de octo partibus ora- tionis editio (Wynkyn de Worde, London, 1523); Gasperis Scioppii, Grammatica Philo- sophica (Amstelodami, 1659); G. G. (Georgium Gordon), Paedomathes seu Manuductio Grammaticalis (London, 1689); Thomas Ruddiman, The Rudiments of the Latin Tongue (Glasgow, 1790; also Philadelphia, 1815). 68 Sandys, I, 586. 60 Warton, II, 56. 70Adamson, p. 90. 71 Guessard, Grammaires provengales (Paris, 1858).THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 23 cases English must necessarily have just as many and no more. So man was declined thus: Nominative.......man Genitive.......man's Dative........to a man Accusative.......man Vocative.......Oh man! Ablative.......by a man This imitation was not only positive, but negative also, as early English grammarians ignored the emphatic and negative forms or moods simply because such forms are not recognized in Latin grammar.72 Donatus, following his grammatical forebears, gave the term "declining" to the giving of case forms to noun, pronoun, and ad- jective in singular and plural, because the earliest teachers of gram- mar were wont to represent the cases graphically by radii drawn in the first quadrant of a circle. In that plan the nominative case was the upright line, and the others, in their order, were lines drawn from the same center farther and farther to the right of it, and so declining from the upright.73 Our English grammarians appropri- ate the word "decline," regardless of its first significance. Again, the Latins, like the Greeks, were wont to say "I and you and he went or loved" or what you will; whence came, in order of their po- sitions, the terms "first," "second," and "third" persons. We say "you and he and I went," using a different order. Yet, largely through Donatus' influence, we adhere to the Roman nomenclature in this matter, though we have not adopted the practice on which it is based. By the close of the sixteenth century a few grammars of the English language were appearing, such as William Bullokar's A Brej Grammar for English in 1586. An examination of these and of others that were published in the early part of the next century reveals clearly the shaping influence exerted upon them by the Ars Minor. This may be shown most convincingly from that one which was the most important, the work of "rare" Ben Jonson, and first printed in London in 1640. It bore the title The English Grammar 72 H. C. Wyld, The Collected Papers of Henry Sweet (Oxford, 1913). 73 Sandys, I, 137.24 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES made by Ben Jonson, for the Benefit of All Strangers, Out of His Observation of the English Language, Now Spoken and in Use. Be- side the matter of nomenclature to which reference has been made already, the arrangement of his subject matter is very like that of Donatus. Like him, too, he recognized five genders of nouns: mas- culine, feminine, neuter, common, and epicene. Also, as he said: "In our English speech we number the same parts with the Latins"; to which we may add that he called these eight parts of speech by the same names which Donatus used, and, like him, considered the adjective as a form of noun rather than as a distinct part of speech. In how many particulars the long-used Ars Minor may be judged to have created the nomenclature of English grammar, and in a similar degree that of other vernacular grammars, may be seen in the following parallelism between the terms used in our English grammar today and those of Donatus: pars orationis, part of speech; nomen, noun; pronomen, pronoun; verbum, verb; adver- bium, adverb; participium, participle; conjunctio, conjunction; praepositio, preposition; interjectio, interjection; casus, case; nu- merus, number; genus, gender; comparatio, comparison; proprium nomen, proper noun; positivus, positive; comparativus, compara- tive; superlativus, superlative; appellativus, appellative; mascu- linus, masculine; femininus, feminine; neutrum, neuter; epicoenon, epicene; communis, common; nominativus, nominative; genetivus, genitive; dativus, dative; accusativus, accusative; vocativus, voca- tive; ablativus, ablative; modus, mood; singularis, singular; plu- ralis, plural; declino, decline; persona, person; impersonalis, im- personal; finitus, finite; infinitivus, infinitive; relativus, relative; possessivus, possessive; demonstrativus, demonstrative; expletivus, expletive; copulativus, copulative; disjunctivus, disjunctive; indic- ativus, indicative; imperativus, imperative; optativus, optative; inchoativus, inchoative; conjunctivus, conjunctive; passivus, pas- sive; activus, active; deponens, deponent; gerendi, gerundive; in- flecto, inflect; conjugatio, conjugation; tempus, time; articularis, article; praesens, present; praeteritum, preterite; futurum, future; perfectum, perfect; imperfectum, imperfect; plusquamperfectum, pluperfect; forma, form; simplex, simple; compositus, compositeTHE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 25 (compound). Still other transfers of terms from the Latin of the Ars Minor to those of present usage in English grammar can be dis- covered by any student of pages 28 and following in this treatise. That Donatus has shaped for us of today not merely grammat- ical form and terms, but also method of language-teaching, may be seen in that to parse a word was, originally, to fit that word accu- rately into the "eight parts of speech" of Donatus. The word "parse" itself originated in the stereotyped question of the medieval schoolroom, Quae pars orationis est? "Construe," of today's use, is still another word out of the teacher's vocabulary of those same medieval days when the boy, obedient to this command, "Con- struct!," applied his Donatus to the sentence of his Cato and traced the grammatical construction of it. In 1496 there was printed at Heidelberg one of the most popu- lar of the cyclopedias of learning of which the late Middle Ages and the early modern centuries produced many. This, written in Latin and bearing the title Aepitoma Omnis Phylosophiae, Alias Mar- garita Phylosophica Tractans de omni genere scibili: cum addi- tionibus: Que in alijs non habentur, was the work of Gregorovius de Reisch, prior of the Carthusian monastery at Freiburg and con- fessor of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The twelve books comprising it treat first, one after the other, of the seven lib- eral arts; the eighth and the ninth, of natural phenomena; and the other three, of the soul. That which gives this representative work its special significance for us is that the study of Donatus' Ars Mi- nor is made the beginning and the foundation of learning. This is prettily shown in one of the numerous illustrations of the book. It depicts a small boy about to enter the "Tower of Knowledge," at whose door stands a stately dame, perhaps the Muse of Wisdom, holding out to him a hornbook with its ABC's, and bearing in her other hand the key to the tower's door. On the ground floor can be seen, through a window, Donatus, duly labeled, instructing a group of children from whom another child is departing, represented as about to ascend to the next floor, where Priscian is teaching a group. From this room steps lead to other floors, where appropriately labeled worthies are teaching the other subjects taught in those26 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES days, and treated of in this Margarita Philosophical That the Ars Minor had been indeed the basis of the learning of the schools, as this picture declares, it has been the purpose of this treatise to prove. It is, of course, recognized that there is an abundance of evidence of the sorts presented in excess of what has been offered. But it is believed that sufficient has been supplied to justify the con- clusion that few, if any, school textbooks of a secular sort have had the educational importance of this little fourth-century manual of Latin grammar. So far as the author knows, an English translation of it has not been published before. The source from which the Latin text of the Ars Minor is taken for this study is the Gram- matici Latini ex recensione Henrici Keilii, IV (Leipsic, 1864), 355-66. 74 "The Complete Epitome of Philosophy, or the Philosophical Pearl, Treating of every kind of known thing: with additions such as are to be found nowhere else" (Mar- garita Philosopkica [Heidelberg, 1504], in the library of Mr. Plimpton).DONATI DE PARTIBUS ORATIONIS ARS MINOR Partes orationis quot sunt? Octo. Quae? Nomen pronomen verbum adverbium participium coniunctio praepositio interiectio. DE NOMINE Nomen quid est? Pars orationis cum casu corpus aut rem pro- prie communiterve significans. Nomini quot accidunt? Sex. Quae? Qualitas conparatio genus numerus figura casus. Qualitas nominum in quo est? Bipertita est: aut enim unius nomen est et proprium dicitur, aut multorum et appellativum. Conparationis gradus quot sunt? Tres. Qui? Positivus, ut doctus, conparativus, ut doctior, superlativus, ut doctissimus. Quae nomina conparantur? Appella- tiva dumtaxat qualitatem aut quantitatem significantia. Conpara- tivus gradus cui casui servit? Ablativo sine praepositione: dicimus enim "doctior illo." Superlativus cui? Genetivo tantum plurali: dicimus enim "doctissimus poetarum." Genera nominum quot sunt? Quattuor. Quae? Masculinum, ut hie magister, femininum, ut haec Musa, neutrum, ut hoc scamnum, commune, ut hie et haec sacerdos. est praeterea trium generum, quod omne dicitur, ut hie et haec et hoc felix; est epicoenon, id est promiscuum, ut passer aquila. Numeri nominum quot sunt? Duo. Qui? Singularis, ut hie magister, pluralis, ut hi magistri. Figurae nominum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex, ut decens potens, conposita, ut indecens in- potens. Quibus modis nomina conponuntur? Quattuor: ex duobus integris, ut suburbanus; ex duobus corruptis, ut efficax municeps; ex integro et corrupto, ut insulsus; ex corrupto et integro, ut nugi- gerulus; aliquando ex conpluribus, ut inexpugnabilis inperterritus. Casus nominum quot sunt? Sex. Qui? Nominativus genetivus dativus accusativus vocativus ablativus. per hos omnium generum 28ARS MINOR OF DONATUS CONCERNING THE PARTS OF SPEECH How many parts of speech are there? Eight. What? Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, inter- jection. CONCERNING THE NOUN What is a noun? A part of speech which signifies with the case a person or a thing specifically or generally. How many attributes has a noun? Six. What? Quality, comparison, gender, number, form, case. In what does the quality of nouns consist? It is two- fold, for either it is the name of one and is called proper, or it is the name of many and is called common. How many degrees of com- parison are there? Three. What? Positive, as learned; compara- tive, as more learned; superlative, as most learned. What nouns are compared? Only common nouns signifying quality or quantity. What case is the comparative degree used with? The ablative with- out a preposition; for we say, "doctior illo." What case with the superlative? Only the genitive plural: for we say, "doctissimus poetarum." What are the genders of nouns? Four. What? Mascu- line, as hie magister; feminine, as haec musa; neuter, as hoc scam- num; common, as hie et haec sacerdos. There is besides the com- mon of three genders, if so be everything is said, as hie et haec et hoc felix. It is epicene, that is, without distinction of gender, as passer, aquila. The numbers of nouns are how many? Two. What? Singular, as hie magister; plural, as hi magistri. The forms of nouns are how many? Two. What? Simple, as decens, potens; compound as indecens, impotens. In what ways are nouns com- pounded? Four: from two in their original forms, as suburbanus; from two that have been changed, as efficax, municeps; from an original form and a changed form, as insulsus; from a changed form and an unchanged, as nugigerulus; sometimes from several together, as inexpugnabilis, inperterritus. The cases of nouns are how many? Six. What? Nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, 2930 UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN STUDIES nomina pronomina participia declinantur hoc modo. Magister nomen appellativum generis masculini numeri singu- laris figurae simplicis casus nominativi et vocativi, quod declinabi- tur sic: nominativo hie magister, genetivo huius magistri, dativo huic magistro, accusativo hunc magistrum, ablativo ab hoc magis- tro; et pluraliter nominativo hi magistri, genetivo horum magistro- rum, dativo his magistris, accusativo hos magistros, vocativo o magistri, ablativo ab his magistris. Musa nomen appellativum generis feminini numeri singularis figurae simplicis casus nomina- tivi et vocativi, quod declinabitur sic: nominativo haec Musa, genetivo huius Musae, dativo huic Musae, accusativo hanc Musam, vocativo o Musa, ablativo ab hac Musa; et pluraliter nominativo hae Musae, genetivo harum Musarum, dativo his Musis, accusativo has Musas, vocativo o Musae, ablativo ab his Musis, scamnum nomen appellativum generis neutri numeri singularis figurae sim- plicis casus nominativi accusativi et vocativi, quod declinabitur sic: nominativo hoc scamnum, genetivo huius scamni, dativo huic scam- no, accusativo hoc scamnum, vocativo o scamnum, ablativo ab hoc scamno; et pluraliter nominativo haec scamna, genetivo horum scamnorum, dativo his scamnis, accusativo haec scamna, vocativo o scamna, ablativo ab his scamnis. sacerdos nomen appelativum generis communis numeri singularis figurae conpositae casus nomi- nativi et vocativi, quod declinabitur sic: nominativo hie et haec sacerdos, genetivo huius sacerdotis, dativo huic sacerdoti, accusa- tivo hunc et hanc sacerdotem, vocativo o sacerdos, ablativo ab hoc et ab hac sacerdote; et pluraliter nominativo hi et hae sacerdotes, genetivo horum et harum sacerdotum, dativo his sacerdotibus, ac- cusativo hos et has sacerdotes, vocativo o sacerdotes, ablativo ab his sacerdotibus. felix nomen appellativum generis omnis numeriTHE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 31 vocative, ablative. Through these, nouns, pronouns, and participles of all genders are declined in this way: Magister is a common noun of masculine gender, singular num- ber, simple form, nominative and vocative case, which will be de- clined thus: in the nominative, hie magister; in the genitive, huius magistri; in the dative, huic magistro; in the accusative, hunc magistrum; in the ablative, ab hoc magistro; and in the plural in the nominative, hi magistri; in the genitive, horum magistrorum; in the dative, his magistris; in the accusative, hos magistros; in the vocative, O magistri; in the ablative, ab his magistris. Musa is a common noun of feminine gender, singular number, simple form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, haec musa; in the genitive, huius musae; in the dative, huic musae; in the accusative, hanc musam; in the vocative, O musa; in the ablative, ab hac musa; and in the plural in the nominative, hae musae; in the genitive, harum musarum; in the dative, his musis; in the accusative, has musas; in the vocative, O musae; in the ablative, ab his musis. Scamnum is a common noun of neuter gender, singular number, simple form, nominative, accusative, and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, hoc scamnum; in the genitive, huius scamni; in the dative, huic scamno; in the accusative, hoc scamnum; in the vocative, O scamnum; in the ablative, ab hoc scamno; and in the plural in the nominative, haec scamna; in the genitive, horum scamnorum; in the dative, his scamnis; in the ac- cusative, haec scamna; in the vocative, O scamna; in the ablative, ab his scamnis. Sacerdos is a common noun of common gender, singular num- ber, compound form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, hie and haec sacerdos; in the genitive, huius sacerdotis; in the dative, huic sacerdoti; in the accusative, hunc and hanc sacerdotem; in the vocative, O sacerdos; in the ablative, ab hoc and ab hac sacerdote; and in the plural in the nominative, hi and hae sacerdotes; in the genitive, horum and harum sacerdotum; in the dative, his sacerdotibus; in the accusa- tive, hos and has sacerdotes; in the vocative, O sacerdotes; in the ablative, ab his sacerdotibus.32 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES singularis figurae simplicis casus nominativi et vocativi, quod de- clinabitur sic: nominativo hie et haec et hoc felix, gentivo huius felicis, dativo huic felici, accusativo hunc et hanc felicem et hoc felix, vocativo o felix, ablativo ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc felice vel felici; et pluraliter nominativo hi et hae felices et haec felicia, genetivo horum et harum et horum felicium, dativo his felicibus, accusativo hos et has felices et haec felicia, vocativo o felices et o felicia, ablativo ab his felicibus. Quaecumque nomina ablativo casu singulari a vel o fuerint ' terminata genetivum pluralem in quid mittunt? In rum, dativum et ablativum in is. Quaecumque nomina ablativo casu singulari e vel i vel u fuerint terminata genetivum pluralem in quid mittunt? Si e correpta fuerit, in um; si producta, in rum; si i fuerit, in ium; si u, in uum geminata u littera. Dativum et ablativum in quid mittunt? In bus omnia. DE PRONOMINE Pronomen quid est? Pars orationis, quae pro nomine posita tantundem paene significat personamque interdum recipit. Pro- nomini quot accidunt? Sex. Quae? Qualitas genus numerus figura persona casus. Qualitas pronominum in quo est? Bipertita est: aut enim finita sunt pronomina aut infinita. Quae sunt finita? Quae recipiunt personas, ut ego tu ille. Quae sunt infinita? Quae non recipiunt personas, ut quis quae quod. Genera pronominum quae sunt? Eadem fere quae et nominum: masculinum, ut quis, femini- num, ut quae, neutrum, ut quod, commune, ut qualis talis, trium generum, ut ego tu. Numeri pronominum quot sunt? Duo. Qui? Singularis, ut hie, pluralis, ut hi. Figurae pronominum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex, ut quis, conposita, ut quisquis. Personae pronominum quot sunt? Tres. Quae? Prima, ut ego, seconda, ut tu, tertia, ut ille. Casus item pronominum quot sunt? Sex, quem ad modum et nominum, per quos omnium generum pronomina in- flectuntur hoc modo. Ego pronomen finitum generis omnis numeri singularis figurae simplicis personae primae casus nominativi, quod declinabitur sic:THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 33 Felix is a common noun of all genders, singular number, sim- ple form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, hie and haec and hoc felix; in the genitive, huius felicis; in the dative, huic felici; in the accusative, hunc and hanc felicem, and hoc felix; in the vocative, O felix; in the ablative, ab hoc and ab hac and ab hoc felice or felici; and in the plural in the nominative, hi and hae felices and haec felicia; in the genitive, horum and harum and horum felicium; in the dative, his felicibus; in the accusative, hos and has felices and haec felicia; in the voca- tive, O felices and O felicia; in the ablative, ab his felicibus. Those nouns which have formed their endings in the ablative case singular in "a" or "o," change the genitive plural into what? Into "rum," and the dative and ablative, into "is." Those nouns which have formed their endings in the ablative case singular in "e" or "i" or "u" change the genitive plural into what? If they have been contracted with "e," into "um"; if pro- longed, into "rum"; if with "i," into "ium"; if with "u," into "uum," the letter "u" doubled. They change the dative and abla- tive into what? All of them into "bus." CONCERNING THE PRONOUN What is a pronoun? A part of speech that is often used in place of the noun to convey the same meaning and now and then refers to a person previously mentioned. How many attributes be- long to the pronoun? Six. What? Quality, gender, number, form, person, case. In what is the quality of pronouns? It is twofold: for pronouns are either definite or indefinite. Which are definite? Those which stand for persons, as ego, tu, ille. What are indefinite? Those that don't stand for persons, as quis, quae, quod. What are the genders of pronouns? Almost the same as of nouns: masculine as quis, feminine as quae, neuter as quod, common as qualis and talis, of three genders as ego, tu. How many numbers of pronouns are there? Two. What? Singular, as hie; plural, as hi. How many numbers of pronouns are there? Two. What? Simple, as quis, compound, as quisquis. How many persons of pronouns are there? Three. What? First, as ego, second, as tu, third, as ille. How many cases also are there? Six, just as of nouns, through which pro- nouns of all genders are inflected in this way. Ego is a definite pro- noun of all genders, singular number, simple form, first person,34 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES ego mei vel mis mihi me a me, et pluraliter nos nostrum vel nostri nobis nos o a nobis: personae secondae generis omnis numeri singu- laris tu tui vel tis tibi te o a te, et pluraliter vos vestrum vel vestri vobis vos o a vobis: personae tertiae generis masculini numeri singularis ille illius illi ilium ab illo, et pluraliter illi illorum illis illos ab illis; generis feminini numeri singularis ilia illius illi illam ab ilia, et pluraliter illae illarum illis illas ab illis; generis neutri numeri singularis illud illius illi illud ab illo, et pluraliter ilia illorum illis ilia ab illis. minus quam finita generis masculini numeri singu- laris ipse ipsius ipsi ipsum ab ipso, et pluraliter ipsi ipsorum ipsis ipsos ab ipsis; generis feminini numeri singularis ipsa ipsius ipsi ipsam ab ipsa, et pluraliter ipsae ipsarum ipsis ipsas ab ipsis; generis neutri numeri singularis ipsum ipsius ipsi ipsum ab ipso, et pluraliter ipsa ipsorum ipsis ipsa ab ipsis. item minus quam finita generis masculini numeri singularis iste istius isti istum ab isto, et pluraliter isti istorum istis istos ab istis; generis feminini numeri singularis ista istius isti istam ab ista, et pluraliter istae istarum istis istas ab istis; generis neutri numeri singularis istud istius isti istud ab isto, et pluraliter ista istorum istis ista ab istis. item articulare praepositivum vel demonstrativum generis masculini numeri singularis hie huius huic hunc o ab hoc, et pluraliter hi horum his hos o ab his; generis feminini numeri singularis haec huius huic hanc o ab hac, et pluraliter hae harum his has o ab his; generis neutri numeri singularis hoc huius huic hoc o ab hoc, et pluraliter haec horum his haec o ab his. item subiunctivum vel rela- tivum generis masculini numeri singularis is eius ei eum ab eo, et pluraliter ei eorum eis eos ab eis; generis feminini numeri singularis ea eius ei earn ab ea, et pluraliter eae earum eis eas ab eis; generis neutri numeri singularis id eius ei id ab eo, et pluraliter ea eorum eis ea ab eis. item infinita generis masculini numeri singularis quis cuius cui quem a quo vel a qui, et pluraliter qui quorum quis vel quibus quos a quis vel a quibus; generis feminini numeri singularis quae cuius cui quam a qua vel a qui, et pluraliter quae quarum quis vel quibus quas a quis vel a quibus; generis neutri numeri singu-THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 35 nominative case, which will be declined thus: Ego, mei, or mis, mihi, me, a me, and plural, nos, nostrum or nostri, nobis, nos, o (and) a nobis;75 of the second person, every gender, singular num- ber, tu, tui or tis, tibi, te, o (and) a te, and plural vos, vestrum or vestri, vobis, vos, o (and) a vobis; of the third person, masculine gender, singular number, ille, illius, illi, ilium, ab illo, and plural illi, illorum, illis, illos, ab illis; of feminine gender, singular number, ilia, illius, illi, illam, ab ilia, and plural, illae, illarum, illis, illas, ab illis; of neuter gender, singular number, illud, illius, illi, illud, ab illo, and plural, ilia, illorum, illis, ilia, ab illis. Somewhat less definite, of masculine gender, singular number, ipse, ipsius, ipsi, ipsum, ab ipso, and plural, ipsi, ipsorum, ipsis, ipsos, ab ipsis; of feminine gender, singular number, ipsa, ipsius, ipsi, ipsam, ab ipsa, and plural, ipsae, ipsarum, ipsis, ipsas, ab ipsis; of neuter gender, singular number, ipsum, ipsius, ipsi, ipsum, ab ipso, and plural, ipsa, ipsorum, ipsis, ipsa, ab ipsis. Also some- what less definite, of masculine gender, singular number, iste, istius, isti, istum, ab isto, and plural, isti, istorum, istis, istos, ab istis; of feminine gender, singular number, ista, istius, isti, istam, ab ista, and plural, istae, istarum, istis, istas, ab istis; of neuter gender, singular number, istud, istius, isti, istud, ab isto, and plural, ista, istorum, istis, ista, ab istis. Also the article-like prepositive or demonstrative, of masculine gender, singular number, hie, huius, huic, hunc, o (and) ab hoc, and plural, hi, horum, his, hos, o (and) ab his; of feminine gender, singular number, haec, huius, huic, hanc, o (and) ab hac, and plural, haec, harum, his, has, o (and) ab his; of neuter gender, singular number, hoc, huius, huic, hoc, o (and) ab hoc, and plural, haec, horum, his, haec, o (and) ab his. Also the attributive, or relative of masculine gender, singular num- ber, is, eius, ei, eum, ab eo, and plural, ei, eorum, eis, eos, ab eis; of feminine gender, singular number, ea, eius, ei, earn, ab ea, and plu- ral, eae, earum, eis, eas, ab eis; of neuter gender, singular number, id, eius, ei, id, ab eo, and plural, ea, eorum, eis, ea, ab eis. Also the indefinite of masculine gender, singular number, quis, cuius, cui, quem, a quo or a qui, and plural, qui, quorum, quis or quibus, quos, a quis or a quibus; of feminine gender, singular number, quae, cuius, cui, quam, a qua or a qui, and plural, quae quarum quis or 76 The letter "o" is judged to be used here and in following instances as a symbol of the vocative case.36 UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN STUDIES laris quod cuius cui quod a quo vel a qui, et pluraliter quae quorum quis vel quibus quae a quis vel a quibus. item possessiva finita ad aliquid dicta ex utraque parte singularia generis masculini meus mei meo meum o a meo, et pluraliter ex altera parte mei meo- rum meis meos o a meis; generis feminini numeri singularis mea meae meae meam o a mea, et pluraliter meae mearum meis meas o a meis; generis neutri numeri singularis meum'mei meo meum o a meo, et pluraliter mea meorum meis mea o a meis: personae se- cundae generis masculini numeri singularis tuus tui tuo tuum a tuo, et pluraliter tui tuorum tuis tuos a tuis; generis feminini numeri singularis tua tuae tuae tuam a tua, et pluraliter tuae tuarum tuis tuas a tuis; generis neutri numeri singularis tuum tui tuo tuum a tuo, et pluraliter tua tuorum tuis tua a tuis: personae tertiae generis masculini numeri singularis suus sui suo suum a suo, et pluraliter sui suorum suis suos a suis; generis feminini numeri singularis sua suae suae suam a sua, et pluraliter suae suarum suis suas a suis; generis neutri numeri singularis suum sui suo suum a suo, et pluraliter sua suorum suis sua a suis. item possessiva finita ad aliquid dicta ex altera parte pluralia generis masculini noster nostri nostro nostrum o a nostro, et pluraliter ex utraque parte nostri nostrorum nostris nostros o a nostris; generis feminini numeri singularis nostra nostrae nostrae nostram o a nostra, et pluraliter nostrae nostrarum nostris nostras o a nostris; generis neutri numeri singularis nostrum nostri nostro nostrum o a nostro, et pluraliter nostra nostrorum nostris nostra o a nostris: personae secundae generis masculini numeri singularis vester vestri vestro vestrum a vestro, et pluraliter vestri vestrorum vestris vestros a vestris; generis feminini numeri singularis vestra vestrae vestrae vestram a vestra, et pluraliter vestrae vestrarum vestris vestras a vestris; generis neutri numeri singularis vestrum vestri vestro vestrum a vestro, et pluraliter vestra vestrorum vestris vestra a vestris. Da horum conposita. Egomet, tute, illic, istic, idem masculino genere productum, neutro correptum, quisquis, quisnam, quispiam, aliquis et cetera.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 37 quibus quas a quis or a quibus; of neuter gender, singular number, quod cuius cui quod a quo or a qui, and plural, quae quorum quis or quibus quae a quis or a quibus. Also possessive, definite words which are used in relation to something else, and are singular in each of two ways, and of masculine gender, meus, mei, meo, meum, o (and) a meo, and plural in one of the two ways, mei, meorum, meis, meos, o (and) a meis; of feminine gender, singular number, mea, meae, meam, o (and) a mea, and plural, meae, mearum, meis, meas, o (and) a meis; of neuter gender, singular number, meum, mei, meo, meum, o (and) a meo, and plural, mea, meorum, meis, mea, o (and) a meis; of second person, masculine gender, singular number, tuus, tui, tuo, tuum, a tuo, and plural, tui, tuorum, tuis, tuos, a tuis; of feminine gender, singular number, tua, tuae, tuae, tuam, a tua, and plural, tuae, tuarum, tuis, tuas, a tuis; of neuter gender, singular number, tuum, tui, tuo, tuum, a tuo, and plural, tua, tuorum, tuis, tua, a tuis: of third person, masculine gender, singular number, suus, sui, suo, suum, a suo, and plural, sui, suo- rum, suis, suos, a suis; of feminine gender, singular number, sua, suae, suae, suam, a sua, and plural, suae, suarum, suis, suas, a suis; of neuter gender, singular number, suum, sui, suo, suum, a suo, and plural, sua, suorum, suis, sua, a suis. Also possessive, definite words, used in relation to something else, plural in one of two ways, and of masculine gender, noster, nostri, nostro, nostrum, o (and) a nostro, and plural in each of the two ways, nostri, nostrorum, nostris, nos- tros, o (and) a nostris; of feminine gender, singular number, nos- tra, nostrae, nostrae, nostram, o (and) a nostra, and plural, nostrae, nostrarum, nostris, nostras, o (and) a nostris; of neuter gender, singular number, nostrum, nostri, nostro, nostrum, o (and) a nos- tro, and plural, nostro, nostrorum, nostris, nostra, o (and) a nostris: of second person, masculine gender, singular number, vester, vestri, vestro, vestrum, a vestro, and plural, vestri, vestrorum, vestris, vestros, a vestris; of feminine gender, singular number, vestra, vestrae, vestrae, vestram, a vestra, and plural, vestrae, vestrarum, vestris, vestras, a vestris; of neuter gender, singular number, ves- trum, vestri, vestro, vestrum, a vestro, and plural, vestra, vestro- rum, vestris, vestra, a vestris. Give the compounds of these. Egomet, tute, illic, istic, idem; in masculine gender lengthened, in neuter shortened, quisquis, quisnam, quispiam, aliquis, and others.38 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES DE VERBO Verbum quid est? Pars oratiotiis cum tempore et persona sine casu aut agere aliquid aut pati aut neutrum significans. Verbo quot accidunt? Septem. Quae? Qualitas coniugatio genus numerus figu- ra tempus persona. Qualitas verborum in quo est? In modis et in formis. Modi qui sunt? Indicativus, ut lego, imperativus, ut lege, optativus, ut utinam legerem, coniunctivus, ut cum legam, infihiti- vus, ut legere, inpersonalis, ut legitur. Formae verborum quot sunt? Quattuor. Quae? Perfecta, ut lego, meditativa, ut lecturio, frequentativa, ut lectito, inchoativa, ut fervesco calesco. Coniuga- tiones verborum quot sunt? Tres. Quae? Prima secunda tertia. Prima quae est? Quae indicativo modo tempore praesenti numero singulari secunda persona verbo activo et neutrali a productam habet ante novissimam litteram, passivo communi et deponenti ante novissimam syllabam, ut amo amas, amor amaris; et futurum tempus eiusdem modi in bo et in bor syllabam mittit, ut amo amabo, amor amabor. Secunda quae est? Quae indicativo modo tempore praesenti numero singulari secunda persona verbo activo et neutrali e productam habet ante novissimam litteram, passivo com- muni et deponenti ante novissimam syllabam, ut doceo doces, doceor doceris; et futurum tempus eiusdem modi in bo et in bor syllabam mittit, ut doceo docebo, doceor docebor. Tertia quae est? Quae indicativo modo tempore praesenti numero singulari secunda persona verbo activo et neutrali i correptam vel i productam habet ante novissimam litteram, passivo communi et deponenti pro i littera e correptam vel i productam habet ante novissimam sylla- bam, ut lego legis, legor legeris, audio audis, audior audiris; et futurum tempus eiusdem modi in am et in ar syllabam mittit, ut lego legam, legor legar, audio audiam, audior audiar. haec in im- perativo et in infinitivo statim discerni possunt, utrum i littera cor- repta sit an producta. nam correpta i littera in e convertitur; pro- ducta si fuerit, non mutatur. Quando tertia coniugatio futurum tempus non in am tantum sed etiam in bo mittit? Interdum, cum i litteram non correptam habuerit sed productam, ut eo is ibo, queo quis quibo. Genera verborum quot sunt? Quinque. Quae? Activa passiva neutra deponentia communia. Activa quae sunt? Quae inTHE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 39 CONCERNING THE VERB What is a verb? A part of speech with tense and person, with- out case, signifying "to perform some action/' or "to suffer/' or neither. How many attributes has the verb? Seven. What? Qual- ity, conjugation, gender, number, inflection, tense, person. In what does the quality of verbs consist? In modes and in forms. What are the modes? Indicative, as lego; imperative, as lege; optative, as utinam legerem; subjunctive, as cum legam; infinitive, as legere; impersonal, as legitur. How many forms of verbs are there? Four. What? Undefined, as lego; desiderative, aslecturio; frequentative, as lectito; inchoative, as fervesco, calesco. How many conjugations of verbs are there? Three. What? First, second, third. What is the first? It has in the indicative mode, present time, singular number, second person in the active and neuter verb, long "a" before the last letter; in the passive, common, and deponent, before the last syl- lable, as amo, amas, amor, amaris; and the future tense of the same mode, ends the syllable in "bo" and "bor," as amo amabo, amor amabor. What is the second? It has in the indicative mode, present tense, singular number, second person, active and neuter verb, long "e" before the last letter; in the passive, common, and de- ponent, before the last syllable, as doceo doces, doceor doceris; and the future tense of the same mode, ends the syllable in "bo" and in "bor/' as doceo docebo, doceor docebor. What is the third? That which in the indicative mode, present tense, singular number, sec- ond person, active and neuter verb, has a short "i" or a long "i" before the last letter; in the passive, common, and deponent, in place of "i," short "e" or long "i" before the last syllable, as lego legis, legor legeris, audio audis, audior audiris; and the future tense of the same mode ends in "am" and in "ar," as lego legam, legor legar, audio audiam, audior audiar. It can be seen immediately in the imperative and in the infinitive whether the letter "i" is short or long. For short "i" is turned into "e"; if it has been made long, it is not changed. When does the third conjugation end the future tense not in "am" only, but also in "bo"? Occasionally when it has had the letter "i" not shortened but lengthened, as eo is ibo: queo quis quibo. How many kinds of verbs are there? Five. What? Active, passive, neuter, deponent, common. What are the40 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES o desinunt et accepta r littera faciunt ex se passiva, lit lego legor. Passiva quae sunt? Quae in r desinunt et ea dempta redeunt in activa, ut legor lego. Neutra quae sunt? Quae in o desinunt, ut activa, sed accepta r littera Latina non sunt, ut sto curro: stor curror non dicimus. Deponentia quae sunt? Quae in r desinunt, ut passiva, sed ea dempta Latina non sunt, ut luctor loquor. Communia quae sunt? Quae in r desinunt, ut deponentia, sed in duas formas cadunt, patientis et agentis, ut osculor criminor: dicimus enim osculor te et osculor a te, criminor te et criminor a te. Numeri verborum quot sunt? Duo. Qui? Singularis, ut lego, pluralis, ut legimus. Figurae verborum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex, ut lego, conposita, ut neglego. Tempora verborum quot sunt? Tria. Quae? praesens, ut lego, praeteritum, ut legi, futurum, ut legam. Quot sunt tempora in declinatione verborum? Quinque. Quae? Praesens, ut lego, praeteritum inperfectum, ut legebam, praeteritum perfectum, ut legi, praeteritum plusquamperfectum, ut legeram, futurum, ut legam. Personae verborum quot sunt? Tres. Quae? Prima, ut lego, secunda, ut legis, tertia, ut legit. Da declinationem verbi activi. Lego verbum activum indica- tivo modo dictum temporis praesentis numeri singularis figurae simplicis personae primae coniugationis tertiae correptae, quod declinabitur sic: lego legis legit, et pluraliter legimus legitis legunt: eodem modo tempore praeterito imperfecto legebam legebas legebat, et pluraliter legebamus legebatis legebant: eodem modo tempore praeterito perfecto legi legisti legit, et pluraliter legimus legistis legerunt vel legere: eodem modo tempore praeterito plusquamper- fecto legeram legeras legerat, et pluraliter legeramus legeratis legerant: eodem modo tempore futuro legam leges leget, et plurali- ter legemus legetis legent. imperativo modo tempore praesenti ad secumdam et tertiam personam lege vel legas legat, et pluraliter legamus legite vel legatis legant: eodem modo tempore futuro legito vel legas legito vel legat, et pluraliter legamus legitote vel legatis legant vel legunto vel leguntote. optativo modo tempore praesenti et praeterito inperfecto utinam legerem legeres legeret,THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 41 active? Those that end in "o," and make the passive by adding the letter "r," as lego legor. What are the passive? Those which end in "r" and, when that has been dropped, return into the active, as legor lego. What are the neuter? Those which end in "o" as active, but are not Latin when the letter "r" has been added, as sto curro: we do not say, "stor curror." Which are the deponent? Those which end in "r" as passive, but are not Latin when that is with- drawn, as luctor loquor. Which are common? Those which end in "r" as deponent, but fall into two forms, of the one undergoing action, and the one acting, as osculor criminor; for we say, "oscu- lor te," and "osculor a te," "criminor te," and "criminor a te." How many numbers of verbs are there? Two. What? Singular, as lego, plural, as legimus. How many forms of verbs are there? Two. What? Simple, as lego; compound, as neglego. How many tenses of verbs are there? Three. What? Present, as lego; preterite, as legi; future, as legam. How many tenses are there in the inflection of verbs? Five. What? Present, as lego; preterite imperfect, as legebam; preterite perfect, as legi; preterite pluperfect, as legeram; future, as legam. How many persons of verbs are there? Three. What? First, as lego; second, as legis; third, as legit. Give the inflection of the active verb. Lego, an active verb, in the indicative mode, a word of present time, singular number, sim- ple form, first person, third short conjugation, which will be in- flected thus: lego, legis, legit, and plural, legimus, legitis, legunt; in the same mode in the preterite imperfect tense, legebam, legebas, legebat, and plural, legebamus, legebatis, legebant; in the same mode in the preterite perfect tense, legi, legisti, legit, and plural, legimus, legistis, legerunt or legere; in the same mode in the pre- terite pluferfect tense, legeram, legeras, legerat, and plural, legera- mus, legeratis legerant; in the same mode in the future tense, legam, leges, leget, and plural, legemus, legetis, legent. In the im- perative mode in the present tense for the second and third person, lege or legas, legat, and plural, legamus, legite, or legatis, legant; in the same mode in the future tense, legito or legas, legito or legat, and plural, legamus, legitote, or legatis, legant or legunto or legun- tote.76 In the optative mode in the present and the preterite im- 76 Donatus combines here the present and future imperatives with the jussive sub- junctives.42 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES et pluraliter utinam legeremus legeretis legerent: eodem modo tempore praeterito perfecto et plusquamperfecto utinam legissem legisses legisset, et pluraliter utinam legissemus legissetis legissent: eodem modo tempore futuro utinam legam legas legat, et pluraliter utinam legamus legatis legant. coniunctivo modo tempore praesenti cum legam legas legat, et pluraliter cum legamus legatis legant: eodem modo tempore praeterito inperfecto cum legerem legeres legeret, et pluraliter cum legeremus legeretis legerent: eodem modo tempore praeterito perfecto cum legerim legeris legerit, et plurali- ter cum legerimus legeritis legerint: eodem modo tempore prae- terito plusquamperfecto cum legissem legisses legisset, et pluraliter cum legissemus legissetis legissent: eodem modo tempore futuro cum legero legeris legerit, et pluraliter cum legerimus legeritis leg- erint. infinitivo modo numeris et personis tempore praesenti et praeterito inperfecto legere, praeterito perfecto et plusquamper- fecto legisse, futuro lectum ire vel lecturum esse, verbo inperson- ali tempore praesenti legitur, praeterito inperfecto legebatur, prae- terito perfecto lectum est vel lectum fuit, praeterito plusquamper- fecto lectum erat vel lectum fuerat, futuro legetur. gerendi vel participialia verba sunt haec, legendi legendo legendum lectum lec- tu. participia trahuntur a verbo activo duo, praesentis temporis et futuri, praesentis legens, futuri lecturus. legor verbum passivum indicativo modo dictum temporis praesentis numeri singularis fig- urae simplicis personae primae coniugationis tertiae correptae, quod declinabitur sic: legor legeris vel legere legitur, et pluraliter legimur legimini leguntur: eodem modo tempore praeterito inper- fecto legebar legebaris vel legebare legebatur, et pluraliter legeba- mur legebamini legebantur: eodem modo tempore praeterito per- fecto lectus sum es est, et pluraliter lecti sumus estis sunt; et ulte- riore modo lectus fui fuisti fuit, et pluraliter lecti fuimus fuistis fuerunt vel fuere: eodem modo tempore praeterito plusquamper- fecto lectus eram eras erat, et pluraliter lecti eramus eratis erant; et ulteriore modo lectus fueram fueras fuerat, et pluraliter lectiTHE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 43 perfect tense, utinam legerem, legeres, legeret, and plural, utinam legeremus, legeretis, legerent; in the same mode in the preterite per- fect tense and in the pluperfect, utinam legissem, legisses, legisset, and plural, utinam legissemus, legissetis, legissent; in the same mode in the future tense, utinam legam, legas, legat, and plural, utinam legamus, legatis, legant. In the subjunctive mode in the present tense, cum legam, legas, legat, and plural, cum legamus, legatis, legant; in the same mode in the preterite imperfect, cum legerem, legeres, legeret, and plural, cum legeremus, legeretis, leg- erent ; in the same mode in the perfect preterite tense, cum legerim, legeris, legerit, and plural, cum legerimus, legeritis, legerint; in the same mode in the pluperfect preterite tense, cum legissem, legisses, legisset, and plural, cum legissemus, legissetis, legissent; in the same mode in the future tense, cum legero, legeris, legerit, and plu- ral, cum legerimus, legeritis, legerint.77 In the infinitive mode in numbers and persons in the present tense and the preterite imper- fect, legere; in the perfect preterite and the pluperfect, legisse; in the future, lectum ire or lecturum esse. For the impersonal verb in the present tense, legitur; in the imperfect preterite, legebatur; in the perfect preterite, lectum est or lectum fuit; in the pluperfect preterite, lectum erat or lectum fuerat; in the future, legetur. Ge- rundives or participial verbs are these: legendi, legendo, legendum, lectum, lectu. Two participles are derived from the active verb, of the present tense and of the future, of the present, legens; of the future, lecturus. Legor, a passive verb in the indicative mode, a word of present tense, singular number, simple form, first person, third short conjugation, which is inflected thus: legor, legeris or legere, legitur, and plural, legimur, legimini, leguntur; in the same mode in the imperfect preterite tense, legebar, legebaris or legebare, legebatur, and plural, legebamur, legebamini, legebantur; in the same mode in the perfect preterite tense, lectus sum, es, est, and plural, lecti sumus, estis, sunt; and in that mode with a sense of remoter time, lectus fui, fuisti, fuit, and plural, lecti fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt or fuere; in the same mode in the pluperfect preterite tense, lectus eram, eras, erat, and plural, lecti eramus, eratis, erant; and in the same mode with a sense of remoter time, lectus fueram, fue- 77 Donatus leaves out the future perfect under the indicative and places it under the subjunctive, calling it the future.44 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES fueramus fueratis fuerant: eodem modo tempore futuro legar legeris vel legere legetur, et pluraliter legemur legemini legentur. imperativo modo tempore praesenti ad secundam et tertiam per- sonam legere vel legaris legatur, et pluraliter legamur legimini vel legamini legantur. eodem modo tempore futuro legitor vel legaris legitor vel legatur, et pluraliter legamur legimini vel legiminor legantur vel leguntor. optativo modo tempore praesenti et praeter- ito inperfecto utinam legerer legereris vel legerere legeretur, et plu- raliter utinam legeremur legeremini legerentur: eodem modo tem- pore praeterito perfecto et plusquamperfecto utinam lectus essem esses esset, et pluraliter utinam lecti essemus essetis essent; et ulte- riore modo utinam lectus fuissem fuisses fuisset, et pluraliter utinam lecti fuissemus fuissetis fuissent: eodem modo tempore futuro utinam legar legaris vel legare legatur, et pluraliter utinam legamur legamini legantur. coniunctivo modo tempore praesenti cum legar legaris vel legare legatur, et pluraliter cum legamur lega- mini legantur: eodem modo tempore praeterito inperfecto cum legerer legereris vel legerere legeretur, et pluraliter cum legeremur legeremini legerentur: eodem modo tempore praeterito perfecto cum lectus sim sis sit, et pluraliter cum lecti simus sitis sint; et ulteriore modo cum lectus fuerim fueris fuerit, et pluraliter cum lecti fuerimus fueritis fuerint: eodem modo tempore praeterito plusquamperfecto cum lectus essem esses esset, et pluraliter cum lecti essemus essetis essent; et ulteriore modo cum lectus fuissem fuisses fuisset, et pluraliter cum lecti fuissemus fuissetis fuissent; eodem modo tempore futuro cum lectus ero eris erit, et pluraliter cum lecti erimus eritis erint, et ulteriore modo cum lectus fuero fueris fuerit, et pluraliter cum lecti fuerimus fueritis fuerint. infini- tivo modo numeris et personis tempore praesenti et praeterito in- perfecto legi, praeterito perfecto et plusquamperfecto lectum esse vel fuisse, futuro lectum iri. participia trahuntur a verbo passivo duo, praeteriti temporis et futuri, praeteriti lectus, futuri legendus. activi verbi regulam neutrale verbum sequitur, passivi commune et deponens.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 45 ras, fuerat, and plural, lecti fueramus, fueratis, fuerant; in the same mode in the future tense, legar, legeris or legere, legetur, and plural, legemur, legemini, legentur; in the imperative mode in the present tense for the second and third person, legere or legaris, legatur, and plural, legamur, legimini or legamini, legantur; in the same mode in the future tense, legitor or legaris, legitor or legatur, and plural, legamur, legimini or legiminor, legantur or leguntor; in the optative mode in the present tense and in the imperfect pret- erite, utinam legerer, legereris or legerere, legeretur, and plural, utinam legeremur, legeremini, legerentur; in the same mode in the preterite perfect tense and the pluperfect, utinam lectus essem, esses, esset, and plural, utinam lecti essemus, essetis, essent; and in that mode with a sense of remoter time, utinam lectus fuissem, fuis- ses, fuisset, and plural, utinam lecti fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent; in the same mode in the future tense, utinam legar, legaris or legare, legatur, and plural, utinam legamur, legamini, legantur; in the sub- junctive mode in the present tense, cum legar, legaris or legare, legatur, and plural, cum legamur, legamini, legantur; in the same mode in the imperfect preterite tense, cum legerer, legereris or lege- rere, legeretur, and plural, cum legeremur, legeremini, legerentur; in the same mode in the perfect preterite tense, cum lectus sim, sis, sit, and plural, cum lecti simus, sitis, sint; and in that mode with a sense of remoter time, cum lectus fuerim, fueris, fuerit, and plural, cum lecti fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint; in the same mode in the pluper- fect preterite tense, cum lectus essem, esses, esset, and plural, cum lecti essemus, essetis, essent; and in that mode with a sense of re- moter time, cum lectus fuissem, fuisses, fuisset, and plural, cum lecti fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent; in the same mode in the future tense, cum lectus ero, eris, erit, and plural, cum lecti erimus, eritis, erint; and in that mode with a sense of remoter time, cum lectus fuero, fueris, fuerit, and plural, cum lecti fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint. In the infinitive mode in numbers and persons in the present tense and in the imperfect preterite, legi; in the perfect preterite and the pluperfect, lectum esse or fuisse; in the future, lectum iri. Two participles are derived from the passive verb, of the preterite tense and of the future; of the preterite, lectus; of the future, legendus. The neuter verb follows the rule of the active verb; the common and the deponent, of the passive.46 UNIVERSITY OE WISCONSIN STUDIES DE ADVERBIO Adverbium quid est? Pars orationis, quae adiecta verbo sig- nificationem eius explanat atque inplet. Adverbio quot accidunt? Tria. Quae? Signifkatio conparatio figura. Significatio adverbio- rum in quo est? Quia sunt aut loci adverbia aut temporis aut numeri aut negandi aut affirmandi aut demonstrandi aut optandi aut hortandi aut ordinis aut interrogandi aut similitudinis aut qual- itatis aut quantitatis aut dubitandi aut personalia aut vocandi aut respondendi aut separandi aut iurandi aut eligendi aut congregandi aut prohibendi aut eventus aut conparandi. Da adverbia loci. Vt hie vel ibi, intus vel foris, illic vel inde. Da temporis. Vt hodie nuper aliquando; numeri, ut semel bis; negandi, ut non; affirmandi, ut etiam quinni; demonstrandi, ut en ecce; optandi, ut utinam; hortandi, ut eia; ordinis, ut deinde; interrogandi, ut cur quare quamobrem; similitudinis, ut quasi ceu; qualitatis, ut docte pul- chre; quantitatis, ut multum parum; dubitandi, ut forsitan for- tasse; personalia, ut mecum tecum secum nobiscum vobiscum; vo- candi, ut heus; respondendi, ut heu; separandi, ut seorsum; iurandi, ut edepol, ecastor, hercle, medius fidius; eligendi, ut potius immo; congregandi, ut simul una; prohibendi, ut ne; eventus, ut forte fortuitu; conparandi, ut magis vel tam. Conparatio adverbio- rum in quo est? In tribus gradibus conparationis, positivo conpara- tivo superlativo. Da adverbium positivi gradus. Vt docte; conpara- tivi, ut doctius; superlativi, ut doctissime. magis doctius et tam doctissime non dicimus, quia magis et tam positivo gradui tantum iungitur, licet veteres dixerint tam magis et quam magis. Figurae adverbiorum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex et conposita, sim- plex, ut docte prudenter, conposita, ut indocte inprudenter. ad- verbia localia vel in loco sunt vel de loco vel ad locum, sed in loco et de loco eandem significationem habent, ut intus sum, intus exeo, foris sum, foris venio. ad locum aliam significationem habent, ut intro eo, foras eo. de intus autem et de foris sic non dicimus, quo modo in foras vel ad foras.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 47 CONCERNING THE ADVERB What is an adverb? A part of speech which, added to a verb, explains the meaning of it and completes it. What attributes has an adverb? Three. Meaning, comparison, form. In what does the meaning of adverbs consist? Because they are adverbs of place, or of time, or of number, or of denying, or of affirming, or of showing, or of desiring, or of encouraging, or of order, or of enquiry, or of likeness, or of quality, or of quantity, or of doubting, or personal, or of calling, or of replying, or of separating, or of swearing, or of choosing, or of grouping, or of preventing, or of result, or of com- paring. Give the adverbs of place. As hie or ibi, intus or foris, illic or inde. Give those of time. As hodie, nuper, aliquando; those of number, as semel, bis; of negation, as non; of affirmation, as etiam quinni;78 of demonstration, as eu, ecce; of desire, as utinam; of urging, as eia; of order, as deinde; of interrogation, as cur, quare, quamobrem; of likeness, as quasi, ceu; of quality, as docte, pul- chre; of quantity, as multum, parum; of doubt, as forsitan, for- tasse; personal, as mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, vobiscum; of calling, as heus; of replying, as heu; of separating, as seorsum; of swearing, as edepol, ecastor, hercle, medius fidius; of selecting, as potius, immo; of grouping, as simul, una; of preventing, as ne; of result, as forte, fortuitu; of comparing, as magis or tam. Compar- ison of adverbs consists in what? In three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, superlative. Give an adverb of the positive degree. As docte: of the comparative, as doctius; of the superla- tive, as doctissime. We do not say, "magis doctius" and "tam doc- tissime" because magis and tam are joined only to the positive de- gree, although our ancestors said "tam magis" and "quam magis." How many forms of adverbs are there? Two. What? Simple and compound; simple, as docte, prudenter; compound, as indocte, im- prudenter. Adverbs of location are concerned with in the place, or from the place, or to the place. But in loco and de loco have the same meaning, as intus sum, intus exeo, foris sum, foris venio. Ad locum has another meaning, as intro eo, foras eo. But we do not say thus, "de intus and de foris," though we say, "in foras" or "ad foras." 78 Keil gives quidni in a footnote.48 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES DE PARTICIPIO Participium quid est? Pars orationis partem capiens nominis, partem verbi; nominis genera et casus, verbi tempora et significa- tiones, utriusque numerum et figuram. Participio quot accidunt? Sex. Quae? Genus casus tempus significatio numerus figura. Ge- nera participiorum quot sunt? Quattuor. Quae? Masculinum, ut hie lectus, femininum, ut haec lecta, neutrum, ut hoc lectum, com- mune tribus generibus, ut hie et haec et hoc legens. Casus partici- piorum quot sunt? Sex. Qui? Nominativus, ut hie legens, geneti- vus, ut huius legentis, dativus, ut huic legenti, accusativus, ut hunc legentem, vocativus, ut o legens, ablativus, ut ab hoc legente. Tem- pora participiorum quot sunt? Tria. Quae? Praesens, ut legens, praeteritum, ut lectus, futurum, ut lecturus et legendus. Significa- tiones participiorum in quo sunt? Quia ab activo verbo duo par- ticipia veniunt, praesens et futurum, ut legens lecturus; a passivo duo, praeteritum et futurum, ut lectus legendus; a neutro duo, sicut ab activo, praesens et futurum, ut stans staturus, a deponenti tria, praesens praeteritum et futurum, ut loquens locutus locuturus; a communi quattuor, praesens praeteritum et duo futura, ut crimi- nans criminatus criminaturus criminandus. Numeri participiorum quot sunt? Duo. Qui? Singularis, ut hie legens, pluralis, ut hi legentes. Figurae participiorum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex, ut legens, conposita, ut neglegens. Da declinationem participii. Legens participium veniens a verbo activo temporis praesentis gen- eris omnis numeri singularis figurae simplicis casus nominativi (accusativi) et vocativi, quod declinabitur sic: nominativo hie et haec et hoc legens, genetivo huius legentis, dativo huic legenti, ac- cusativo hunc et hanc legentem et hoc legens, vocativo o legens, ablativo ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc legente vel legenti; et pluraliter nominativo hi et hae legentes et haec legentia, genetivo horum et harum et horum legentium, dativo his legentibus, accusativo hos et has legentes et haec legentia, vocativo o legentes et o legentia, ab- lativo ab his legentibus. lecturus lectura lecturum participia veni- entia a verbo activo temporis futuri generis masculini feminini et neutri numeri singularis figurae simplicis casus nominativi et voca-THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 49 CONCERNING THE PARTICIPLE What is a participle? A part of speech partaking of the nature of the noun, and of the verb; of the noun, the genders and cases; of the verb, the tenses and meanings; of both, the number and form. How many attributes has the participle? Six. What? Gender, case, tense, meaning, number, form. How many genders of participles are there? Four. What? Masculine, as hie lectus; feminine, as haec lecta; neuter, as hoc lectum; common in three genders, as hie and haec and hoc legens. How many cases of participles are there? Six. What? Nominative, as hie legens; genitive, as huius legentis; dative, as huic legenti; accusative, as hunc legentem; vocative, as O legens.; ablative, as ab hoc legente. How many tenses of parti- ciples are there? Three. What? Present, as legens; preterite, as lectus; future, as lecturus and legendus. In what do the meanings of participles consist? Because two participles come from the active verb, present and future, as legens lecturus; from the passive two, preterite and future, as lectus legendus; from the neuter two, just as from the active, present, and future, as stans, staturus; from the deponent three, present, preterite, and future, as loquens, locutus, locuturus; from the common four, present, preterite, and two fu- tures, as criminans, criminatus, criminaturus, criminandus. How many numbers of participles are there? Two. What? Singular, as hie legens; plural, as hi legentes. How many forms of participles are there? Two. What? Simple, as legens; compound, as negle- gens. Give the declension of the participle. Legens is a participle coming from the active verb of present tense, every gender, singu- lar number, simple form, nominative, accusative, and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, hie and haec and hoc legens; genitive, huius legentis; dative, huic legenti; accusa- tive, hunc and hanc legentem and hoc legens; vocative, O legens; ablative, ab hoc and ab hac and ab hoc legente or legenti; and plu- ral nominative, hi and hae legentes and haec legentia; genitive, horum and harum and horum legentium; dative, his legentibus; accusative, hos and has legentes and haec legentia; vocative, O legentes and O legentia; ablative, ab his legentibus. Lecturus, lec- tura, lecturum, participles coming from the active verb of future tense, masculine, feminine and neuter gender, singular number, sim-50 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES tivi, quae declinabuntur sic: nominativo lecturus lectura lecturum, genetivo lecturi lecturae lecturi, dativo lecturo lecturae lecturo, ac- cusativo lecturum lecturam lecturum, vocativo lecture lectura lec- turum, ablativo ab hoc lecturo ab hac lectura ab hoc lecturo; et pluraliter nominativo lecturi lecturae lectura, genetivo lecturorum lecturarum lecturorum, dativo lecturis, accusativo lecturos lecturas lectura, vocativo lecturi lecturae lectura, ablativo ab his lecturis. lectus lecta lectum participia venientia a verbo passivo temporis praeteriti generis masculini feminini et neutri numeri singularis fig- urae simplicis casus nominativi et vocativi, quae declinabuntur sic: nominativo lectus lecta lectum, genetivo lecti lectae lecti, dativo lecto lectae lecto, accusativo lectum lectam lectum, vocativo lecte lecta lectum, ablativo ab hoc lecto ab hac lecta ab hoc lecto; et pluraliter nominativo lecti lectae lecta, genetivo lectorum lectarum lectorum, dativo lectis, accusativo lectos lectas lecta, vocativo lecti lectae lecta, ablativo ab his lectis. legendus legenda legendum par- ticipia venientia a verbo passivo temporis futuri generis masculini feminini et neutri numeri singularis figurae simplicis casus nomina- tivi et vocativi, quae declinabuntur sic: nominativo legendus legenda legendum, genetivo legendi legendae legendi, dativo legendo legendae legendo, accusativo legendum legendam legendum, voca- tivo legende legenda legendum, ablativo ab hoc legendo ab hac legenda ab hoc legendo; et pluraliter nominativo legendi legendae legenda, genetivo legendorum legendarum legendorum, dativo legendis, accusativo legendos legendas legenda, vocativo legendi legendae legenda, ablativo ab his legendis. DE CONIUNCTIONE Coniunctio quid est? Pars orationis adnectens ordinansque sententiam. Coniunctioni quot accidunt? Tria. Quae? Potestas figura ordo. Potestas coniunctionum quot species habet? Quinque. Quas? Copulativas disiunctivas expletivas causales rationales. Da copulativas. Et que at atque ac ast. Da disiunctivas. Aut ve vel ne nec neque. Da expletivas. Quidem, equidem, saltim, videlicet,THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 51 pie form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, lecturus, lectura, lecturum; genitive, lec- turi, lecturae, lecturi; dative, lecturo, lecturae, lecturo; accusative, lecturum, lecturam, lecturum; vocative, lecture, lectura, lecturum; ablative, ab hoc lecturo, ab hac lectura, ab hoc lecturo; and plural nominative, lecturi, lecturae, lectura; genitive, lecturorum, lectura- rum, lecturorum; dative, lecturis; accusative, lecturos, lecturas, lec- tura; vocative, lecturi, lecturae, lectura; ablative, ab his lecturis. Lectus, lecta, lectum, participles coming from the passive verb of preterite tense, masculine, feminine and neuter gender, singular number, simple form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, lectus, lecta, lectum; genitive, lecti, lectae, lecti; dative, lecto, lectae, lecto; accusative, lectum, lectam, lectum; vocative, lecte, lecta, lectum; ablative, ab hoc lecto, ab hac lecta, ab hoc lecto; and plural nominative, lecti, lectae, lecta; genitive, lectorum, lectarum, lectorum; dative, lectis; ac- cusative, lectos, lectas, lecta; vocative, lecti, lectae, lecta; ablative, ab his lectis. Legendus, legenda, legendum, participles coming from the passive verb of future tense, masculine, feminine, and neuter gender, singular number, simple form, nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative, legendus, legenda, legendum; genitive, legendi, legendae, legendi; dative, legendo, legendae, legendo; accusative, legendum, legendam, legen- dum; vocative, legende, legenda, legendum; ablative, ab hoc legen- do, ab hac legenda, ab hoc legendo; and plural nominative, legendi, legendae, legenda; genitive, legendorum, legendarum, legendorum; dative, legendis; accusative, legendos, legendas, legenda; vocative, legendi, legendae, legenda; ablative, ab his legendis. CONCERNING THE CONJUNCTION What is a conjunction? The part of speech which binds to- gether the sentence and sets it in order. How many attributes has a conjunction? Three. What? Function, form, order. The function of conjunctions is of how many sorts? Five. What? Copulative, disjunctive, expletive, causal, rational. Give the copulatives. Et, que, at, atque, ac, ast. Give the disjunctives. Aut, ve, vel, ne, nec, neque. Give the expletives. Quidem, equidem, saltim, videlicet,52 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES quamquam, quamvis, quoque, autem, porro, porro autem, tamen. Da causales. Si etsi, etiamsi, si quidem, quando, quando quidem, quin, quin etiam, quatinus, sin, seu, sive, nam, namque, ni, nisi, nisi si, si enim, etenim, ne, sed, interea, licet, quamobrem, praeser- tim item, itemque, ceterum, alioquin, praeterea. Da rationales. Ita, itaque, enim, enimvero, quia, quapropter, quoniam, quoniam qui- dem, quippe, ergo, ideo, igitur, scilicet, propterea, idcirco. Fig- urae coniunctionum quot sunt? Duae. Quae? Simplex, ut nam, conposita, ut namque. Ordo coniunctionum in quo est? Quia aut praepositivae coniunctiones sunt, ut ac ast, aut subiunctivae, ut que autem, aut communes, ut et igitur ergo. DE PRAEPOSITIONE Praepositio quid est? Pars orationis quae praeposita aliis parti- bus orationis significationem earum aut conplet aut mutat aut min- uit. Praepositioni quot accidunt? Vnum. Quid? Casus tantum. Quot? Duo. Qui? Accusativus et ablativus. Da praepositiones casus accusativi. Ad apud ante adversum cis citra circum circa con- tra erga extra inter intra infra iuxta ob pone per prope secundum post trans ultra praeter propter supra usque penes. Quo modo? Dicimus enim ad patrem, apud villam, ante aedes, adversum inimi- cos, cis Renum, citra forum, circum vicinos, circa templum, contra hostem, erga propinquos, extra terminos, inter naves, intra moenia. infra tectum, iuxta macellum, ob augurium, pone tribunal, per parietem, prope fenestram, secundum fores, post tergum, trans ripam, ultra fines, praeter officium, propter rem, supra caelum, usque Oceanum, penes arbitros. Da praepositiones casus ablativi. A ab abs cum coram clam de e ex pro prae palam sine absque tenus. Quo modo? Dicimus enim a domo, ab homine, abs quolibet, cum exercitu, coram testibus, clam custodibus, de foro, e iure, ex prae- fectura, pro clientibus, prae timore, palam omnibus, sine labore, absque iniuria, tenus pube, quod nos dicimus pube tenus. Da utri- usque casus praepositiones. In sub super subter. In et sub quando accusativo casui iunguntur? Quando vel nos vel quoslibet in locumTHE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 53 quamquam, quamvis, quoque, autem, porro, porro autem, tamen. Give the causals. Si, etsi, etiamsi, siquidem, quando quidem, quin, quin etiam, quatinus, sin, seu, sive, nam, namque, ni, nisi, nisi si, si enim, etenim, ne, sed, interea, licet, quamobrem, praesertim, item, itemque, ceterum, alioquin, praeterea. Give the rationals. Ita, ita- que, enim, enimvero, quia, quapropter, quoniam, quoniam quidem, quippe, ergo, ideo, igitur, scilicet, propterea, idcirco. How many forms of conjunctions are there? Two. What? Simple, as nam; compound, as namque. The order of conjunctions depends on what? Accordingly as they are conjunctions which are placed be- fore, as ac, ast; or placed afterward, as que, autem; or general, as et, igitur, ergo. ABOUT THE PREPOSITION What is a preposition? A part of speech which, placed before other parts of speech, completes their meaning or alters it or dimin- ishes it. How many attributes has a preposition? One. What? Case alone. How many? Two. What? Accusative and ablative. Give the prepositions of [used with] the accusative case. Ad, apud, ante, adversum, cis, citra, circum, circa, contra, erga, extra, inter, intra, infra, juxta, ob, pone, per, prope, secundum, post, trans, ultra, praeter, propter, supra, usque, penes. How are they used? Namely, we say ad patrem, apud villam, ante aedes, adversum inimicos, cis Renum, citra forum, circum vicinos, circa templum, contra hostem, erga propinquos, extra terminos, inter naves, intra moenia, infra tectum, juxta macellum, ob augurium, pone tribunal, per parietem, prope fenestram, secundum fores, post tergum, trans ripam, ultra fines, praeter officium, propter rem, supra caelum, usque oceanum, penes arbitros. Give the prepositions used with the ablative case. A, ab, abs, cum, coram, clam, de, e, ex, pro, prae, palam, sine, absque, tenus. How are they used? Namely, we say a domo, ab homine, abs quolibet, cum exercitu, coram testibus, clam custodibus, de foro, e iure, ex praefectura, pro clientibus, prae timore, palam omnibus, sine labore, absque iniuria, tenus pube, though we say pube tenus. Give prepositions of both cases. In, sub, super, subter. When are "in" and "sub" used with the accusa- tive case? Whenever we mean that either we or someone else are54 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES ire isse ituros esse significamus. Quando ablativo? Quando vel nos vel quoslibet in loco esse fuisse futuros esse significamus. in accusa- tivi casus, "itur in antiquam silvam"; in ablativi casus, "stans celsa in puppi": sub accusativi casus, "postesque subipsos Nituntur gradibus"; sub ablativi casus, "arma sub adversa posuit radiantia quercu". Super quam vim habet? Vbi locum significat, magis ac- cusativo casui servit quam ablativo; ubi mentionem alicuius faci- mus, ablativo tantum, ut "multa super Priamo rogitans". In quam vim habet? Etiam turn accusativo casui servit, cum significat con- tra, ut in adulterum, in desertorem. Subter quam vim habet? Ean- dem quam superiores ad locum et in loco significantes. Quae prae- positiones sunt quae dictionibus serviunt et separari non possunt? Di dis re se am con. Quo modo? Dicimus enim diduco distraho recipio secubo amplector congredior. Quae sunt quae coniungi non possunt? Apud et penes. Quae coniunguntur et separantur? Reli- quae omnes. DE INTERIECTIONE Interiectio quid est? Pars orationis significans mentis affectum voce incondita. Interiectioni quid accidit? Tantum significatio. Significatio interiectionis in quo est? Quia aut laetitiam significa- mus, ut evax, aut dolorem, ut heu, aut admirationem, ut papae, aut metum, ut attat, et siqua sunt similia.THE ARS MINOR OF DONATUS 55 going, have gone, are about to go into a place. When with the abla- tive? When we mean that either we or someone else are, have been, are about to be, in a place. In with the accusative case, "itur in an- tiquam silvam"; in with the ablative case, "stans celsa in puppe"; sub with the accusative case, "postesque sub ipsos Nituntur gradi- bus"; sub with the ablative case, "arma sub adversa posuit radi- antia quercu." Super has what force? When it means place, it more often governs the accusative case than the ablative; when we make mention of anyone, in the ablative only, as "multa super Priamo rogitans." In has what force? As when it governs the accusative case and signifies against, as in adulterum, in desertorem. Subter has what force? The same as the former, meaning to a place and in a place. Which are the prepositions which govern words and can be used only in compounds? Di, dis, re, se, am, con. How? Thus, we say diduco, distraho, recipio, secubo, amplector, congredior. Which are those which cannot be joined? Apud and penes. Which are joined and are separated? All the rest. ABOUT THE INTERJECTION What is an interjection? A part of speech signifying a state of the mind by an unusual tone of the voice. What attribute has an interjection? Only meaning. The meaning of an interjection is in what? Because we signify joy, as evax; or grief, as heu; or won- der, as papae; or fear as attat; and any others that are like them.This book is a preservation facsimile produced for the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper). Preservation facsimile printing and binding by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2019