iil I=I ILLIN OI S UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2012. COPYRIGHT NOTIFICATION In Public Domain. Published 1923-1977 in the U.S. without printed copyright notice. This digital copy was made from the printed version held by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It was made in compliance with copyright law. Prepared for the Brittle Books Project, Main Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2012 DOC. W 1.35: 11-2424 BOOKS" v.AC- M 1 WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR MODULATED AUDIO FREQUENCY RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS (WBAN RAOB MANUAL) WAR DEPA RTMENT _ _ _ ~C_ _ _I_~~ C _~_ _ ___ _ _ _ _I __ I~ II ___ __ II _ I ___ 0FEBRUJR7~Y 1 9455 WA R D E PA R T M E N T T E C H N I CA L MA N UA L TM 11-2424 The material in this manual is identical to that of United States Weather Bureau Circular "P," 5th edition, January 1945, and supersedes the 4th edition of the circular, August 1943 INSTRUCTIONS FOR MODULATED AUDIO FREQUENCY RADIOSONDE :,. OBSERVATIONS (WBAN RAOB MANUAL) WAR DEPART MEN T F E BR UA R Y 19 4 5 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. - Price 40 cents United States Government Printing Office Washington L( (tary U. of 1. Urbana-Charnpai n Librarv " " '" - ~s '' -- - -- - -- - - -- WAR DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON 25, D. C., 1 February 1945. TM 11-2424, Instruction for Modulated Audio Frequency Radiosonde Observations (WBAN RAOB Manual) is published for the information and guidance of all concerned. [A. G. 300.7 (23 May 44)] Bk ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR: OFFICIAL: G. C. MARSHALL J. A. ULIO Chief of Staff Major General The Adjutant General DISTRIBUTION: AAF (5); AGF (5); ASF (2); T of Opn (5); Dept (5); Def Comd (2); Base Comd (5); AAF Comd (2); Arm & Sv Bd (2); S Div ASF (1); Tech Sv (2); SvC (5); Area ASvC (2); WDGS Lib (5); PC&S (2); PE (2); Dep 11 (2); Gen Oversea SOS Dep (Sig Sec) (2); GH (2); M Cone C (2); Air Base H (2); Gen Sv Sch (5); Sp Sv Sch (10); USMA (2); ROTC (5); Lab 11 (2); Sig AS (2); Rep Sh 11 (2); A (5); D (2); AF (2). T/O & E 1-627 (125); 4-45 (5); 4-155 (5); 4-260-1 (3); 6-10-1 (3); 6-50-1 (3); 6-75 (5); 6-110-1 (3); 6-150-1 (3); 6-160-1 (3); 6-200-1 (3); 11-107 (3); 11-127 (3); 11-587 (3); 11-592 (3); 44-10-1 (3); 44-12 (3); 44-15 (5); 44-115 (5). For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6. Chapter I The Radiosonde _ _ _ _ II Radiosonde Ground Equipment___ III Radiosonde Batteries _ IV Balloons _ V Accessories_ _ _ VI Testing and Storage of Radiosondes_ VII Procedure Through Release VIII Obtaining the Recorder Record_ IX Evaluating the Recorder Record_ X Preparation of Forms________ . XI Transmission of Raob Messages_ --- Index_ _------------------------ - Table 3-1 6-1 7-1 7-2 10-1 Figu 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 2-1 2-2 4-1 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 8-1 9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-9 CONTENTS PART I PART II.-Supplement-Radiosonde Observation Computation Tables and Diagrams (follow index) *PART III.-Addendum TABLES Types of Radiosonde Batteries .. Radiosonde Performance-defect Table- Difference Between Station Elevation and Elevation of Instrument Shelter (Meters) Length of Exposure for Hygrometer Element .....- Octant of the Globe LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ire Friez Radiosonde Showing Transmitter, Battery, and Baroswitch Sections_ Schematic Diagram of Friez Radiosonde- Schematic Diagram of W. I. T. Radiosonde ..... Temperature Evaluator Used With Friez Radiosonde_ _ Temperature Evaluator Used With W. I. T. Radiosonde_ Ground Equipment Showing Super-Regenerative Receiver, Electronic Frequency Unit, and Micro- ammeter Recorder Ground Equipment Showing Superheterodyne Receiver, Electronic Frequency Unit, and Potentiometer Recorder___------- Box for Heat-Conditioning of Balloons____ Temperature and Humidity Elements of Friez Radiosonde, (a) Temperature Side; (b) Humidity Side_ Temperature and Humidity Elements of W. I. T. Radiosonde W. I. T. Radiosonde Showing Transmitter, Battery, and Baroswitch Sections .... Baroswitch Section of Friez Radiosonde -- Baroswitch Section of W. I. T. Radiosonde_ Friez Radiosonde Transmitter Section Diagram Showing Relationship Between Radiosonde Commutator and Calibration Chart Instrument Shelter with Radiosonde, Relay TestSwitch, Psychrometer and Fan in Position for Baseline Check _------------------ Instrument Shelter With Radiosonde, Motor Test Switch, and Small Whirling Psychrometer in Position for Baseline Check _ _ Baseline Check' Record Showing Two Humidity Traces in Agreement, (Radiosonde With High Reference Test Lead) - --------------------------------------------------- Baseline CheckRecord Showing Three Humidity Traces in Trend, (Radiosonde Without High Reference Test Lead) -------------------------------------- --------------- Portion of Raob Record Plotted from Visual Meter Readings- Recorder Record_-_ Facing pi Determining the Significance of a Point on the Recorder Record_ - Placing Levels at Cut-off Points and in a Motorboating Stratum -- Descent Record_ Determination of Drift-Shift Correction---------------- ------------------- -- Displaced Calibration Curve_ Evaluation of Zigzag Temperature Trace -------- -------------------------------------- Evaluation of Relative Humidity Trace, Example No. 1 Evaluation of Relative Humidity Trace, Example No. 2 --------- *Administrative only. Not available to general public. III 1 2 2 3 3 5 6 12 20 21 22 23 23 24 30 32 33 35 35 42 age 46 46 47 49 50 52 53 53 54 Page .1 5 ,8 11 17 19 39 44 57 73 75 8 26 30 33 69 CONTENTS Evaluation of Relative Humidity Trace, Example No. 3 ---- Evaluation of Relative Humidity Trace, Example No. 4_ Example of Folded Calibration Chart Showing Position of Labels- Determination of Ascent Corrections WBAN-30, Front WBAN-30, Back__ _ WBAN-31A_ WBAN-31B Superadiabatic Segment of Temperature Curve___ Computation of Mean Temperature Computation of Mean Virtual Temperature - -- Determination of Thickness of Strata Isentropic Surface, Normal Isentropic Surface, Adiabatic WBAN-32__ ---- Page 54 55 56 59 Facing page 60 Facing page 60 Facing page 60 Facing page 60 61 62 63 64 67 67 Facing page 69 IV Figure 9-10 9-11 9-12 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 Chapter I. THE RADIOSONDE 1100. GENERAL 1101. The radiosonde consists of a set of meteorological instruments combined with a small radio transmitter and assembled in a small cardboard box. The assembly is carried aloft by a free balloon. During the observa- tion, values indicating the pressure, tempera- ture, and relative humidity of the air are transmitted to the ground receiving station FIGURE 1-1.-Friez radiosonde showing transmitter, battery, and baroswitch sections. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS where they are automatically recorded. At the extreme altitude, the balloon bursts and the radiosonde descends to the surface of the earth on a small parachute. 1200. COMPONENT PARTS 1210. Radio Transmitter.-The radiosonde transmitter, one type of which is shown in fig- ure 6-6, emits a radio signal at a frequency of 72.2 megacycles. The signal is modulated by varying the resistance in the meterologi- cal control circuit by means of resistors sen- sitive to temperature and relative humidity changes, and two fixed resistors. The fixed resistors are in circuits termed the high and low reference circuits, respectively. Figures 1-2 and 1-3 show schematically the meteoro- logical control circuits of the two models of radiosondes now in general use. 1220. Baroswitch.-The baroswitch, shown in figures 6-4 and 6-5, has two functions in the radiosonde: (1) To indicate pressure values during the sounding, and (2) to switch into the control circuit in a definite order the tenmpera- ture, humidity, low reference, and high refer- ence resistors. One side of the pressure dia- phragm is fixed to a rigid support, the other side of the distending diaphragm engages a contact arm through a suitable linkage. As the radiosonde ascends through levels of de- creasing atmospheric pressure, the diaphragm of the baroswitch causes the contact arm to move across a commutator. 1221. The baroswitch commutator consists of either 80 (Friez) or 95 (W. I. T.) metallic segments separated by dielectric material. One metallic segment and the succeeding adjacent nonconducting segment comprise one "contact." The 80 (or 95) contacts are correlated with the indicated pressure values in a manner such that when the number of the contact is known the corresponding indicated pressure can be deter- mined from a calibration chart as shown in figure 9-6. 1222. By referring to figures 1-2 and 1-3, it can be seen that when the point of the con- tact arm rests on any one of several metallic HIGH -REFERENCE (RED) TEST LEADS LOW REFERENE (BLUE) HU IDITY (YELLOW) CONTACT ARM ANEROID CELLS LIII-- COMMUTATOR HUMIDITY ELEMENT TEMPERATURE RELAY ELEMENT TO RED WIRE TO TRANSMITTER TRANSMITTER AND BATTERY - -J BATTERY A+ FIGURE 1 -2.-Schematic diagram of Friez radiosonde. HIGH REFERENCE (RED) TEST LEADS LOW REFERENCE (SLUE ( F ----- HUMIDITY (YELLOW) TRANSMITTER COMMUTATOR AND CONTACT ARM RELAY BATTERY TO BATTERY A + ANEROID CELLS HUMIDITY TEMPERATURE ELEMENT ELEMENT FIGURE 1-3.-Schematic diagram of W. I. T. radiosonde. 7ft INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS segments, a relay is energized so that the humidity resistor is connected into the mete- orological control circuit and that the other metallic segments are connected to the high and low reference circuits. When the contact point rests on a nonconducting segment, the tempera- ture resistor is in the control circuit. 1230. Temperature Element.-The tem- perature resistor or element is made of a ceramic material, the resistance of which in- creases as the temperature decreases. Figures 6-1 and 6-2 show the two types of temperature elements now in general use. 1231. For each model of radiosonde, a tem- perature evaluator is provided. This evaluator is a two-scale slide rule designed to convert the recorded temperature ordinate into degrees cen- tigrade. As indicated in figures 1-4 and 1-5, one scale of the evaluator represents the temperature ordinates, the other, centigrade temperatures. During a prerelease check of the radiosonde, known as the "baseline check," the temperature evaluator is set with the instrument shelter tem- perature opposite the corresponding recorded temperature ordinate. From this setting, the temperature for any level of the sounding can be FIGURE 1-4. -Temperature evaluator used with Friez radiosonde. FIGURE 1-5.-Temperature evaluator used with W. I. T. radiosonde. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS determined by reading the temperature value opposite the temperature ordinate recorded for the level. Throughout this manual, the term ordinate is used as equivalent to the terms "recorder ordinate," "chart division," and "frequency division" which are found on the several types of evaluators and calibration charts used. 1240. Humidity Element.-The humidity resistor or hygrometer element consists of a chemically coated plastic strip with metallized edges. The resistance across the chemical film changes with variations in the relative humidity and the temperature of the air in which it is exposed. The effect of temperature is elimi- nated by the use of a special graph, from which the relative humidity of a given level of the sounding can be determined as a function of both the temperature and the humidity ordinate. Figure 9-6 shows a radiosonde calibration chart containing both the humidity evaluation graph and the pressure calibration curve. 1250. Ventilation Chamber.-The tempera- ture and humidity elements are installed in the ventilation chamber of the radiosonde. The elements are surrounded by a cylindrical shield designed to reduce the effects of radiation and insolation on the measurements. The methods of mounting the temperature and humidity elements are shown in figures 6-1 and 6-2. 4 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter II. RADIOSONDE GROUND EQUIPMENT 2100. GENERAL 2101. The radiosonde ground equipment con- sists of an antenna, shortwave radio receiver, electronic frequency unit, and a recorder. A voltage stabilizer is also used when improved regulation is necessary because of fluctuations in the available power supply. These units are FIGURE 2-1.-Ground equipment showing super-regenerative receiver, electronic frequency unit and microammeter recorder INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 2-2.-Ground equipment showing superheterodyne receiver, electronic frequency unit, and potentiometer recorder. used in the process of receiving and recording the radiosonde signals. 2200. ANTENNAS 2210. General.-The dipole and wire-doublet antennas are the two types of radiosonde an- tennas in general use. 2220. Dipole Antenna.-The standard ver- tical dipole antenna consists of a metal rod and a metal skirt, each approximately one quarter wave length in length. A gas-filled or a solid coaxial cable transmission line is used with this type of antenna to reduce loss of signal strength. 2230. Wire-Doublet Antenna.-The wire- doublet antenna, consisting of two legs, each of which has a length of approximately one quar- ter wave length, is used for standby or emer- gency purposes. Coaxial cable transmission line also produces better results with this an- INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS tenna, although twisted-pair telephone wire may be used successfully for the transmission line provided its length is kept at a minimum to avoid loss of signal strength. 2300. RECEIVERS 2301. Super-regenerative and superhetero- dyne receivers with especially designed audio- amplifiers are used for radiosonde reception on the 72.2-megacycle frequency. Super-regener- ative receivers are considered the better type for radiosonde observations since they require less frequent tuning than the superheterodyne type, permitting the observer to spend more time in evaluating the data as the record is made. However, at stations having considerable inter- ference, the superheterodyne receiver usually gives better results since it provides greater selectivity. 2400. ELECTRONIC FREQUENCY UNITS 2401. The electronic frequency units in gen- eral use all embody the same operating prin- ciple. A pulsating direct current proportional to the frequency of the applied alternating cur- rent voltage (input signal) operates a visual meter and a recorder. A current output of approximately 500 micro-amperes is required for full-scale deflection of 100 ordinates. The several types of frequency units in service dif- fer principally in mechanical design. Elabo- rate voltage regulation is required so that the output current is controlled by the input signal without being affected by variations in the power supply. 35,00. RECORDERS 2510. General.-The two radiosonde record- ers in general use are the microammeter and potentiometer types. 2520. Microammeter Recorder.-The mi- croammeter recorder is designed to register the position of a microammeter pointer. The posi- tion of the pointer depends on the current out- put of the electronic frequency unit. A photo- electric scanning device causes an impression to be printed on the recorder chart paper at a point corresponding in value to the position of the pointer. 2530. Potentiometer Recorder.-In the po- tentiometer recorder, the output of the elec- tronic frequency unit is balanced against an automatically operated slidewire potentiometer. The balancing mechanism moves a pen to the point on the recorder chart paper correspond- ing to the adjustment of the potentiometer. 7 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter III. RADIOSONDE BATTERIES 3100. GENERAL 3101. Power is supplied to the radiosonde transmitter by a small, compact dry cell bat- tery designed to produce a maximum output at a minimum weight. This battery is necessarily more delicate, has a shorter shelf life. and therefore requires greater care and better stor- age conditions than the larger types of dry- cell batteries., The effective life of the radio- sonde battery is greatly reduced by the low temperatures to which it is exposed in the upper atmosphere. The observer must, therefore, avoid wasting the energy of the battery. 3102. The radiosonde battery consists of two parts: The "A" section, which supplies approxi- mately 3 volts to the filament of the transmitter tube, and the "B" section, which supplies ap- proximately 90 volts to the plate of the tube. 3200. TYPES OF RADIOSONDE BATTERIES 3201. Table 3-1 lists the types of radiosonde dry-cell batteries now in general use. TABLE 3-1.-Types of radiosonde batteries. Type No. Manufacturer t d Cd BA-67_ _ _ National Carbon Co 3 90 700 4X2V60_ _- Burgess Battery Co______ 3 90 350 4X2W60 _ _ _ _ _ _ do_ 3 90 700 X-542 _____ National Carbon Co ..... 3 90 450 3202. Figures 1-1 and 6-3 show radiosondes with the batteries installed in the battery com- partments. 33,00. TESTING RADIOSONDE BATTERIES, 3310. Receipt of Batteries.-Instructions re- garding the receipt of radiosonde batteries, in- correct or missing invoices or packing slips, damages sustained in shipping, and shortages will be found in the addendum as required. 3311. Dry-cell radiosonde batteries sealed with a pliofilm or plastic wrapper or in plastic pouches usually will not be tested until just before installation in the radiosonde. How- ever, in certain cases specified as required in the addendum, the seal will be broken and the bat- tery tested prior to the expiration of the guarantee period, even though the battery is not to be used immediately. 3311.1. Batteries which are not sealed at the socket will be tested upon receipt. 3320. Required Voltages.-Each radio- sonde battery will be tested just prior to install- ing it in the radiosonde to minimize any loss due to battery failure. In every case the bat- tery will be tested with the voltmeter furnished for this purpose. (See sec. 5700.) Since the voltmeter places a load on the battery, it should not remain connected longer than is necessary to test the battery. 3321. Battery voltages should ordinarily be considered too low for use in raobs when the "A" voltage is less than 2.5 volts, and the "B" voltage is less than 82 volts. However, in the event that the supply of serviceable batteries be- comes exhausted, batteries having slightly lower voltages than those specified above may be used. 3322. Batteries will be rejected if the voltage is observed to be falling when connected to a radiosonde battery voltmeter for a period of one-half minute. 3323, All corrosion and foreign material will be removed from the plugs and sockets prior to connecting them. The battery plug will be removed at right angles to the top of the bat- tery plug by grasping the edge of the plug and not the wires. If it becomes necessary to re- move the plug by mechanical means, the caps of the plug and socket should remain parallel to avoid binding the prongs and damaging the electrical circuit. If a metal object, such as a screw-driver, is used for removing the battery plug from the socket, care must also be taken to avoid shorting the 90-volt section through the 3-volt side of the voltmeter or through the filament of the radiosonde transmitter tube. 3330. Disposition of Defective Batteries.- Instructions regarding the disposition of defec- tive or damaged radiosonde batteries are con- tained in the addendum. 3400. STORAGE OF RADIOSONDE BATTERIES 3410. General.-Humidity and temperature conditions during storage are the major factors 8 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS affecting the shelf life and performance of a radiosonde battery. 3411, Exposure in air having high or ab- normally low relative humidity will cause de- terioration of the battery with resultant reduc- tion in its ampere-hour output. 3412. High temperatures increase chemical action, thus reducing the shelf life of the bat- tery. Low temperatures arrest chemical action, thereby increasing the shelf life of the battery. Consequently, batteries should be stored at the lowest temperature practicable. 3413. The combination of high temperatures and high relative humidities not only shortens the life of the battery, but is favorable to the formation of corrosion, electrical leakage, and open circuits. 3414. Uniform temperatures below 360 F. (2o C.) and relative humidities between 50 and 80 percent provide ideal storage conditions. Since such conditions are not available at most stations, it is necessary for each station to utilize the most suitable conditions which are avail- able. 3420. Stations with Low Surface Tempera- tures.-At stations with low surface tempera- tures, batteries can be placed in water-tight containers and the containers packed in snow or ice to avoid extreme temperature fluctuations during long storage periods. Alternate thaw- ing and freezing must be avoided. Batteries stored at low temperatures should be exposed to room temperature for several days prior to use so that all parts will acquire the higher tem- perature. 3430. Stations in Tropical Regions.-In tropical or semi-tropical regions, excessively high and variable temperatures should be avoided. Subterranean storage is desirable provided excessive dampness can be avoided. Ventilated areas under buildings are more suit- able than the interiors of buildings where tem- peratures vary greatly. The batteries will be stored in closed shipping cartons in order to take advantage of the additional protection from high humidities, and from colloidal salt at coastal stations. If excelsior or sawdust is used for packing, the material must be dried out occasionally to avoid molding and the re- sulting generation of heat after the material has become saturated with moisture. 3440. Use of Electric Refrigerators.-With the proper precautions, the storage of batteries in electric refrigerators may be accomplished satisfactorily, provided space is available for this purpose. Keep the refrigerator closed as much as possible to avoid large variations in temperature and relative humidity. Adjust the controls of the refrigerator to a temperature of about 360 F. (20 C.). Protect the batteries from the possibility of damage due to water dripping from the refrigerator coils. Do not remove the batteries from the refrigerator for short inter- vals during the storage period, because the effect of condensation on the cells and connections is detrimental. Batteries stored in refrigerators will be exposed to room temperature for several days before use. 3500. PREPARATION OF RADIOSONDE BATTERY FOR USE 3510. Surface Temperatures above 0O C.- When the surface temperature is above freez- ing, the battery will be installed at room tem- perature just prior to exposing the radiosonde at atmospheric conditions. 3520. Surface Temperatures below 00 C.- When the surface temperature is below O0 C., the battery will be heated to a temperature not exceeding 550 C. (1310 F.) for a period of 1 hour immediately prior to beginning the base- line check. The battery will be installed in the radiosonde immediately before exposing the radiosonde in the instrument shelter. 3530. Surface Temperatures below -200 C.-When the surface temperature is below -200 C., the battery should not be installed until immediately prior to beginning the base- line check. However, since some types of scotch tape will not adhere to the case of the radio- sonde when applied under extremely low tem- peratures, modifications of this procedure may be necessary. Limited amounts of tape can usually be applied by warming the edge of the case with the bare hand. 3,600. REPAIR OF RADIOSONDE BATTERIES 3610. Stations Authorized to Make Re- pairs.-Remote stations with poor transporta- tion facilities and large battery inventories may find it impossible to use batteries prior to the expiration of the guarantee period. Such sta- tions are authorized to repair dry-cell radio- sonde batteries. 3620. Repair of Burgess Batteries.-When a Burgess battery is found defective at a re- mote station, the battery case should be opened to determine the cause. If the voltmeter shows zero voltage, a check should be made for an open circuit, which can be resoldered. If the voltage is low, the voltages of the individual cells should be checked. If a relatively few are found defective, they should be replaced by good cells taken from another defective battery. In replacing these cells, the parts of each cell and the wires should be cleaned. The connec- tions are then made by placing together the two parts which are to be joined and touching them INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS with the tip of a hot soldering iron containing molten solder. The joint must be made rapidly since excessive heating will damage the cell. Upon completion of the repairs, the battery case should be sealed with scotch or gummed tape. 3630. Repair of National Carbon Co. Bat- teries.-Since it is impracticable to test or re- place the individual cells in the National Car- bon Co. battery, each group of the layer cells should be checked as a unit and replaced by a serviceable group havinmg the same number of cells. Checks for open circuits should be made if a zero voltage is indicated by the voltmeter for either section of the battery. 110 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter IV. BALLOONS 4100. GENERAL 4110. Types of Balloons Used for Raobs.-- Two types of meteorological balloons are in general use for raobs. The large sounding bal- loon, which is used to carry the equipment aloft, weighs approximately 350 grams and has an average diameter of 2 to 3 feet before inflation and 5 to 6 feet after inflation. The ballast bal- loon used to retard the ascensional rate in the lower levels of the observation consists of a 10- gram ceiling balloon containing a sand ballast. 4111 A sounding balloon weighing 700 grams is occasionally used in place of the 350-gram balloon. This balloon has a diameter of 6 to 7 feet after inflation. 4120. Use of Neoprene in Balloons.-A syn- thetic rubber known as "neoprene" has replaced latex in the manufacture of meteorological bal- loons. All references in this manual are to bal- loons made of neoprene. 4121. A loss in the elasticity of the rubber in neoprene balloons results from aging and ex- posure to low or moderate temperatures in tran- sit, storage, and during the sounding. Neo- prene balloons, therefore, require conditioning by heating prior to use in order to avoid pre- mature bursting. It is important that meteoro- logical data be obtained to the highest possible level. 4200. STORAGE OF BALLOONS 4201. The 350-gram balloons will be stored in their original semiairtight containers at the highest available temperature not in excess of 490 C. (1200 F.). The balloons will be stored so that those from the oldest shipment on hand will be used first, in order to reduce deteriora- tion resulting from age. The 10-gram balloons should be stored in closed cartons under the same conditions as the 350-gram balloons. 4300. CONDITIONING OF BALLOONS 4310. General.-There are several satisfac- tory methods for conditioning neoprene bal- loons. The treatments described below have been found to give the most satisfactory results. 4311. The 350-gram balloons should remain sealed in their original containers until the treatment is to be started. If the balloon has been exposed to temperatures below 00 C., it should be stored at room temperature for not less than 6 hours prior to its removal from the container to avoid damage resulting from re- moving the folds while the rubber is in a stiff- ened condition. 4320. Double-Boiler Treatment.-Use a double-boiler arrangement of sufficient size (at least 3-quart size) to permit the heating and turning of two 350-gram balloons. Fill the lower container about three-fourths full of wa- ter and heat to the boiling point. Place the smaller container holding the balloons into the larger container and heat the balloons for 30 minutes. Change the positions of the balloons frequently to insure uniform heating. 4330. Hot Water Bath Treatment.-Use a container of at least 3-gallon capacity. Fill the container about three-fourths full of water and heat to the boiling point. To prevent air from entering the balloon when it is removed from its container, insert a small wooden plug, about the size of the inflation nozzle, in the neck of the balloon. (If a suitable plug is not available, a cloth ribbon or heavy twine may be used to close the neck of the balloon. The rib- bon or twine should be tied sufficiently tight to prevent air or water from entering the bal- loon during the treatment but it should not be tied so tightly that the neck will be cut when the rubber becomes soft.) If air is found in the balloon, remove it by rolling up the bal- loon. 4331. While the neck is closed with the plug or twine, submerge the entire balloon, except the neck, in the boiling water. Support the balloon by the neck. Stir constantly so that the balloon will not rest on the bottom of the con- tainer where the temperature may be sufficiently high to burn the neoprene. 4332. A 5-minute treatment is usually suffi- cient to soften the rubber. Shake all free water from the balloon before beginning the inflation. 4440. Direct Heat Treatment.-If facilities cannot be obtained for heating balloons with boiling water, the direct heat treatment may be used. The balloons can be heated by placing them over a heater, radiator, or electric lamp, care being taken to shield the balloon from direct contact. Lighting fixture globes which do not make direct contact with the bulb may also be used. A 150- or 200-watt bulb is re- quired to produce sufficient heat. Tempera- 11 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS tures as near as possible to the boiling point of water should be used. The value of lower tem- peratures for conditioning purposes is doubtful. However, if lower temperatures must be used, the value of the treatment can be deter- mined by noting the bursting elevations at- tained. An average weekly bursting elevation of 20,000 meters has been obtained with stand- ard 350-gram neoprene balloons which have been properly heated. 4441. Care must be taken to see that the tem- perature does not exceed 120' C. (2480 F.) since the neoprene will burn at higher temperatures. The treatment should be continued 'for at least 30 minutes if the temperature is 1000 C. (2120 F.) and for a proportionately longer period if it is below 1000 C. The balloons must be turned at intervals to insure uniform heating, since the performance of the balloon depends on the uni- formity of the envelope at the time of inflation. Excessively long periods of heating at tempera- tures near 1000 C. will result in deterioration of the rubber. 4450. Conditioning Chamber.-Figure 4-1 shows a suitable balloon conditioning chamber which can be constructed from material readily available at most stations. The wooden box is 111/2 inches wide, 13 inches deep, and 14 inches high, inside dimensions. The balloons are placed on a sliding shelf made of a piece of plastic screen mounted on a wooden frame. The top edge of the shelf is 21/2 inches above the top of the 200-watt bulb. A cone-shaped metal shield is used to provide even distribution of heat and is mounted so that its center is 1 inch above the top of the bulb. 4451. Tests showed that when the box had been stored at room temperature, the 200-watt bulb produced a temperature of approximately 1180 C. (2440 F.), at a point 3 inches below the top of the box, after the lamp had been on for 1 hour with the door of the box closed. 4452. Two balloons can be conditioned at one time in the box shown in figure 4-1. The balloons should be placed on the shelf and heated for 1 hour. They should be moved fre- quently to insure even heating during the con- ditioning period. 4453. If plastic screen is not available, the sliding shelf may be constructed of thin, sanded wooden slats spaced to provide adequate ventila- tion. 4460. Treatment of 10-gram Balloons.- Since the bursting diameter of the ballast bal- loon is controlled by the amount of gas in the balloon, the special heat treatment is usually un- FIGURE 4-1.-Box for heat-conditioning of balloons. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS necessary for the 10-gram balloons used for this purpose. The storage temperature will affect the bursting elevation. Therefore, when the optimum inflation circumference for obtaining the desired bursting elevation has been deter- mined by experience, it is important that the 10- gram balloons be stored at approximately the same temperature to, insure consistent bursting at the desired elevation. 4500. INFLATION OF BALLOONS 4510. Handling of Balloons.--Meteorologi- cal sounding balloons are extremely delicate especially when in a softened condition after the heat treatment. A slight abrasion, although not sufficient to cause perceptible damage, may cause the balloon to burst during inflation or prematurely during the sounding. Careful handling of balloons is therefore essential. 4511. All sharp edges and rough surfaces should be removed from the equipment used to heat the balloons. Balloons should be handled only by the necks and should not be permitted to come into contact with grease, oil, abrasive ma- terial, or rough surfaces. If it becomes neces- sary to lay a balloon down after it has been re- moved from the carton, it should be placed on clean paper. The balloons should not be exposed to direct sunlight except as may be necessary during the actual inflation or release. 4520. Inflation of 315,0-gram Balloons.--All excess air should be removed from the balloon. If the hot-water bath treatment has been used, the neck should remain closed until the inflation nozzle is to be inserted. 4521. If the gas regulator or outlet valve is equipped with a low-pressure gage, open the valve to a pressure not exceeding 20 pounds per square inch. If hydrogen is used directly from a generator, open the gage to a pressure not ex- ceeding 10 pounds per square inch. If no low- pressure outlet gage is available, adjust the flow of the gas so that a period of at least 10 min- utes is required to completely inflate the balloon with helium or so that 20 minutes are required if hydrogen is used. 4522. Place the balloon in a position where it will not come into contact with sharp objects or rough surfaces. Hold the balloon by the neck until it is supported by the gas. Check that the correct weights have been attached to the nozzle. 4523. When the balloon is about one-half in- flated, close the gas valve. Listen for gas leaks and examine the balloon for defects. Serious defects may result from foreign material in the rubber, a break in a double layer of rubber or a deformity in a small area of rubber film. Dis- coloration should not be considered as a defect 6133"8 --45- 2 unless experience indicates that certain types of discolorations result in premature bursting. If the balloon is defective, begin inflating a sec- ond balloon; otherwise, proceed with inflation. 4524. Close the outlet valve as soon as the inflation weights are raised from their support. Listen momentarily for escaping gas from the balloon. 4525. Use a 6-foot length of double cord (16- ply cotton twine) for tying the balloon. Make one turn of the doubled cord around the neck of the balloon just above the inflation nozzle and at a position about one-fourth of the length of the neck from the balloon. Adjust the doubled cord so that free ends of about 5 feet and 1 foot in length, respectively, are available. Pull the cord as tight as possible and tie with a square knot. Make another turn around the neck and tie again. Remove the nozzle, fold the neck upward at its midpoint, and again tie as above. 4526. Adjust the 5-foot portion of the doubled cord to equal lengths and tie securely to the cords provided at the top center of the para- chute. Check the parachute for crossed or tan- gled shroud lines. Tie a 50-foot length of cord securely to the free ends of the parachute shroud lines, just below the knot. (See par. 4610 re- garding use of a shorter cord.) Place the other end of the 50-foot cord in a convenient position for tying to the radiosonde. (See par. 7830.) 4527. The ballast balloon is then tied just be- low the parachute to the 50-foot cord unless it is later to be tied below the radiosonde. (See pars. 4552 and 4553.) 4530. Lift for 350-gram Balloon.-The total lift of a balloon is the sum of the inflation weights and the weights of the balloon, infla- tion nozzle, and that part of the hose supported by the balloon. This sum, less the weight of the balloon, is the lift available for carrying the train. 4531. The free lift of a balloon is the lift which remains available after the complete train is supported by the balloon. The free lift, there- fore, directly affects the ascensional rate. 4532. The ascensional rate of a balloon is affected by atmospheric conditions, shape of the balloon and weight of the train. Since these factors are variable, the optimum lift to be used for any given sounding can best be determined by experience. 4533. For good weather conditions, the total lift should be so adjusted that the average ascen- sional rate below the 400-millibar level will ap- proach but not exceed an average of 200 meters per minute. Therefore, a radiosonde released at or near sea level should reach the 400-millibar level in approximately 40 minutes. When pre- cipitation or icing is occurring or expected, an effort will be made to provide sufficient lift to 13 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS insure that the balloon will not descend or float as a result of the additional load. 4534. Under good weather conditions, a free lift of approximately 400 grams will normally provide an average ascensional rate under 200 meters per minute when helium is used. (Hy- drogen will produce slightly higher ascensional rates than helium with the same free lift.) For example, the average weight of the train with- out ballast balloon and using a type 4X2V60 battery is approximately 1,100 grams. A total lift (excluding the raob balloon) of 1,500 grams will provide a free lift of approximately 400 grams. The total lift should be increased by about 100 grams, if a type X-542 battery is used. If a type 4X2W60 or type BA67 battery is used, the total weight of the train would be increased by about 350 grams; therefore, a total lift of approximately 1,850 grams would be re- quired to obtain a free lift of 400 grams. 4534.1. Since the weights of radiosondes, bat- teries, and parachutes are changed from time to time, the observer should check the weights given in paragraph 4534 against those of the items actually supplied to the station. 4535. An increased lift of 100 grams is nor- mally sufficient to compensate for the increase in weight of the train resulting from moisture. This will vary with the type of parachute and type of cord used as well as with the downward force exerted on the balloon and train when precipitation is also occurring. Under light or moderate icing conditions an increase in the lift of from 200 to 300 grams will usually be suffi- cient. Under severe icing conditions an in- crease of up to 800 grams in free lift may be necessary to insure a successful sounding. 4536. When a ballast balloon is used, the total lift should be increased by approxi- mately three-fourths of the weight of the ballast to maintain a normal ascensional rate. 4537. Ascensional rates are important be- cause too high a rate decreases the accuracy and value of a record while too low a rate may re- sult in the loss of important data due to weak signals because of distance or low angles during high winds. Observers should study this prob- lem so that they will be able to make the proper adjustments in lifts to obtain ascensional rates near the desired value. 4538. The gas from an inflated balloon slowly escapes through pores in the rubber. If the re- lease is delayed for more than thirty minutes after the inflation of the balloon, a check of the total lift should be made prior to the release and the balloon reinflated to the proper lift if a change has occurred. 4539,. If a balloon is inflated and not used to make a scheduled sounding, the gas should be released from the balloon. If hydrogen has been used for inflating the balloon, deflation should be accomplished in the open air. If an inflated balloon is retained for the next raob (normally twelve hours later) fatigue of the rubber will result in premature bursting. 4540. Patching of Balloons.-The cost of a balloon is small compared to the loss which would be incurred if the sounding failed as the result of premature bursting of the balloon. Therefore, 350-gram balloons containing pin- holes should be patched only in case of an emer- gency resulting from a shortage of balloons. 4550. Ballast Balloon.-The purpose of the ballast balloon is to reduce the ascensional rate between the surface and the 400-millibar level and at the same time to permit the use of suf- ficient lift to insure rapid ascensional rates in the higher levels, with consequent reduction in the loss of the upper level data due to fading signals. The use of ballast balloons is also im- portant because higher ascensional rates can be obtained in the upper levels and thus the period during which the larger balloons are exposed to extremely low temperatures is reduced. The ballast balloon should be used unless precipita- tion or icing is expected or the surface wind ve- locity is so great that a successful release cannot be made because of the additional weight. 4551. The 10-gram balloon is used as the raob ballast balloon. From 300 to 500 grams of fine, dry sand are poured into the balloon. (Water will not be used for ballast at land stations.) The balloon is then inflated to ap- proximately 20 inches in the greater diameter. The inflated diameter should be such that the balloon will burst between the 400- and 500- millibar levels. Air may be used for inflating the ballast balloon. 4552. For releases during high wijds, it will be more convenient to suspend the ballast bal- loon below the radiosonde, since the 350-gram balloon will be able to rise more rapidly before it is required to carry the weight of the entire train. 45153. If the ballast balloon is suspended be- neath the radiosonde, the neck of the balloon should be tied in the center of a piece of cord 6 feet long. The cord should be passed through the support ring on top of the radiosonde and tied so as to form a loop around the radiosonde. The loop is then adjusted so the radiosonde will hang in its normal position. 4553.1. The ballast balloon should be located in the train so that it will not set up motions which will disturb the radiosonde. 4600. MAKING THE RELEASE 4610. Position of Radiosonde in the Train.-The radiosonde should be suspended not less than 50 feet below the 350-gram balloon unless high surface winds or obstructions make 14 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS it impossible to obtain a successful release with a long train. (See par. 7380.) This length is required to reduce the possibility of measuring erroneous temperatures in the vicinity of the balloon. A long cord reduces the amount of agi- tation to which the radiosonde is subjected when the balloon passes through turbulent air. A long cord also has an advantage in making an overhead release since it permits the balloon to gain a greater elevation before it must sup- port the weight of the radiosonde. 4620. The Release.-Release procedures must necessarily be varied with conditions surround- ing the site from which the release is made. The release should be made from the ground level when this is practicable. 4621. The observer should be familiar with all obstructions and air traffic over the area be- fore attempting a release. Before the balloon is removed from the inflation shelter, the wind direction and velocity should be determined and a point selected from which the radiosonde will not strike obstructions or encounter downdrafts. 4622. Release During Light Winds.- Firmly tie the 4-foot cord, which has already been attached to the ring of the radiosonde and the upper leg of the antenna, to the 50-foot cord which has been tied to the shroud lines of the parachute. Take the balloon from the inflation shelter to a point free from overhead obstructions. Pay out the train slowly until the radiosonde is reached. Hold the radiosonde by the ring or support strap. Observe the di- rectioin in which the balloon tends to move and select a new position if obstructions are in the path the balloon will follow. Release the radio- sonde when all checks have been completed. 4623. Release During Moderate or High Winds.-The two-man overhead release should be used during moderate or high winds. The radiosonde should be tied to the train and the visual checks prior to release made in front of the shelter before the balloon is removed. If precipitation is occurring, the checks may be completed in the inflation shelter, provided the temperature is approximately the same as in the instrument shelter. 4623.1. The release point and plan of release should be determined by the two observers. After the checks have been completed the ob- servers will proceed to the point of release and make the release as rapidly as possible. The first observer places the radiosonde, right side up in his left hand, taking care not to cover the ventilation chamber, and grasps the cord with his right hand at a point just above the top of the antenna. The second observer removes the balloon from the inflation shelter, grasping the balloon firmly by the neck. The first ob- server adjusts his movemnents so that a slight ten- sion is exerted on the cord in his right hand to avoid having the train become tangled. As soon as the selected spot is reached, the first observer shorts the low or high reference, if the wind permits, as provided in section 7854. The sec- ond observer holds the balloon directly upwind from the radiosonde and checks the path the balloon will follow. If obstructions will be en- countered he will request the first observer to assume a new position. 4623.2. As soon as the first observer is in position facing downwind, with the radiosonde in his left hand, the cord in his right hand, and while the train is taut, he gives the ready signal. The second observer gives the release signal at the instant he lets go of the balloon. Upon re- ceipt of the release signal and when the train slackens, the first observer runs downwind with the radiosonde until his right hand detects that the balloon has again taken up the slack. At this instant he raises the radiosonde with his left hand and brings the cord forward with his right hand. If the movements of both hands are coordinated, the radiosonde will follow the balloon without any noticeable jolt. 4623.3. If the balloon does not rise, the sec- ond observer should give the "hold" signal. The first observer should also attempt to observe the position of the balloon a moment prior to the release. After some experience, the approxi- mate position of the balloon can be determined by the angle of the tension of cord in the ob- server's right hand. 4623.4. If the balloon has not risen sufficiently so that the radiosonde will clear the surface or obstructions, the radiosonde should not be re- leased. If the cord breaks, a second balloon should be inflated and a new train assembled. A new baseline check should be made. If the original relationships still exist the same radio- sonde should be used, otherwise the standby radiosonde should be prepared for the next attempt. 4623.5. If the wind is gusty, the balloon should be released at time of or just before reaching the lowest velocity. The amount of variation can be determined by the force on the balloon. The second observer should time the moment of release to take advantage of the reduced velocity. 4623.6. If obstructions prevent the observer from running downwind the possibility of a jar at the instant of release is increased. The observer holding the radiosonde should stand in a position from which he can observe the movement of the balloon. At the instant the balloon takes up the slack, he should follow through with the radiosonde to reduce the jolt and any possible damage to the radiosonde which may affect the accuracy of the record. 4624. Roof Releases.-The same methods as used for ground releases can also be used with 15 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS some modifications for roof releases. The roof edge of areas used for releases should be prop- erly guarded. Since the radiosonde can usually be taken to the edge of the roof to obtain the necessary clearance from the ground, running with the radiosonde is not recommended. The balloon should be released from the windward side of the building in a position which will take advantage of rising air currents and avoid descending air currents after the release has been made. Rising air currents will frequently aid in raising the balloon sufficiently to avoid the full effects of the downdraft on the lee side of the building. 4630. Balloon Covers.-The full-flap type balloon cover has been designed to protect the 350-gram balloon while carrying it to the point of release and to aid in releasing the balloon in high winds. The cover weighs approximately 1,200 grams and can therefore be used as part of the inflation weight. In a protected infla- tion shelter, it is usually found more convenient to cover the balloon after the inflation has been completed. 4631. The cover is so designed that the balloon can be moved and controlled by holding two of the flaps in each hand. At the moment of releasing the balloon, release the two flaps held by one hand nearest the windward side of the balloon. Care should be taken to hold the flaps in such a manner that the two flaps held by one hand are on the same side of the cord. 4632. If a balloon cover has not been provided for the station, one can be improvized from a muslin sheet or similar material. The sheet is placed over the balloon in the inflation room. The four corners of the sheet are brought together near the neck of the balloon, thus enclosing the balloon. The release is com- pleted in a manner similar to that used with the specially designed cover. 16 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter V. ACCESSORIES 51,00. GENERAL 5101. A number of accessories are provided in order that standard procedures may be fol- lowed at all stations in the preparation of the radiosonde for flight. These items include the following which,' although of different designs in the three services, are fundamentally the sane: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Instrument shelter. Inflation equipment. Inflation equipment. Test switch. Test batteries. Battery voltmeter. 5200. INSTRUMENT SHELTER 5202. The instrument shelter is used for the exposure of the radiosonde to atmospheric con- ditions prior to and during the baseline check. Figures 7-2 and 7-3 show internal views of the instrument shelter with radiosonde, test switch, centigrade psychrometer, and psychrometer fan in the proper positions for making the baseline check. 5300. INFLATION SHELTER 5301. Plans for inflation shelters are pro- vided separately by the three services. In gen- eral, inflation of the 350-gram balloon requires a protected space of not less than 10 x 10 x 10 feet, with suitable doors to allow for the re- moval of the balloon. It is essential for the inside walls of the shelter to be covered with a smooth material in order to avoid damaging the balloon during the necessary handling. 5302. The doors of the shelter should be faced in a direction away from that of the highest pre- vailing winds to insure the least difficulty and the greatest protection to the balloon during its removal from the inflation shelter. 5303. A satisfactory temporary inflation shelter can be readily constructed using a frame- work of poles or pipes. Canvas or strong cloth can be lashed to the inside of the frame and across the top to provide a smooth surface for the protection of the inflated balloon. 5304. Where inflation of the 350-gram bal- loon is performed in a hangar or other large room, a canopy made from a sheet or blanket will aid in the handling of the inflated balloon. The sheet should be supported with its center tied up and the corners extended to form the canopy. This arrangement will provide a rest- ing place for the balloon after inflation and will serve to prevent damage due to striking rough surfaces. 5305 When hydrogen is used for inflating balloons, it is absolutely essential that no safety measure for the avoidance of explosions be overlooked. No smoking, flames, or sparks from electrical apparatus should be permitted near the inflation shelter. Electric fixtures should be of the flash-proof type. All metal parts of the inflation equipment should be grounded to eliminate sparks from static elec- tricity, since a high potential of static electric- ity may be generated by the friction of hydro- gen escaping at high velocity through a small orifice. When a hydrogen generator is used, precautions against explosion which are given in the instruction manuals must be rigidly ad- hered to for the safety of all concerned. 5400. INFLATION EQUIPMENT 5401. Inflation weights and a nozzle are pro- vided for use in inflating the 350-gram balloon. The equipment supplied to stations differs slightly according to the service concerned. In general, it is the practice to supply a large weight of 1,200 or 1,500 grams and smaller weights of 100, 200, 300, and 500 grams for use in combination with the large weight as re- quired. The inflation nozzle may be supplied either as part of the large inflation weight or separately. 5500. TEST SWITCH 5510. General.-The radiosonde test switch provides a means of obtaining a record of the temperature, low reference; humidity, and high reference ordinate values during the baseline check. 5520. Motor Test Switch.-The electric- motor-driven test switch is the type in most common use. This test switch uses an electric motor to close successively, by means of a cam arrangement, two (or three) microswitches for the purpose of completing the radiosonde hu- midity, low reference, and high reference cir- 17 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS cuits, if the latter is provided. The tempera- ture signal is transmitted when all the micro- switches are open. The usual arrangement provides a speed of one revolution per minute so that about 15 seconds are allowed each cir- cuit during each minute. 5530. Relay Test Switch.-The remote-con- trol-relay test switch is at present used only at certain stations. This type of test switch con- tains a relay for switching successively the tem- perature, low reference, humidity, and high reference circuits into the control circuit of the radiosonde transmitter. The time allotted each circuit is controlled by the observer at the ground equipment by means of a push-button switch provided for activating the relay. 5540. Storage of Test Switch.-The test switch will be stored indoors between observa- tions. 5600. TEST BATTERIES 5601. Test batteries, sometimes installed in a suitable case, are supplied to stations to reduce the expenditure involved in testing radio- sondes before or during preparations for flight. A set consisting of two 11/2-volt dry-cell bat- teries and two 45-volt "B" batteries will nor- mally provide a sufficient power supply for the average amount of testing for one year at a cost equal to one radiosonde battery. Therefore, serviceable radiosonde batteries should not be used for test purposes except in case of emer- gency. 5602. Test batteries should be checked at in- tervals with the radiosonde battery voltmeter to determine whether sufficient voltage is available. Batteries found to test below 2.5 volts in the "A" section or 82 volts in the "B" section should be replaced. Erroneous audio frequencies miay re- sult if lower voltages are used. 5603. Occasionally radiosondes are rejected as outside of the adjustable low reference range because of a low "B" voltage from the test bat- teries. In addition, it has been found that radiosonde relays often will not operate with an "A" voltage of less than 2.4 volts. Final rejections of radiosondes for these reasons should not be made when using the test bat- teries until the battery voltages have been checked. 5700. BATTERY VOLTMETER 5701L Voltmeters for testing radiosonde bat- teries are provided with either a single dual- scale meter or with two meters. In either type battery voltmeter, a shunt resistor of approxi- mately 10 ohms is provided across the "A" terminals and one of about 7,500 ohms is pro- vided across the "B" terminals. The meter is thus equipped to show the same load voltages as would be obtained with an operating radio- sonde. This arrangement is important since open circuit readings of battery voltages do not provide a positive indication of the condition of the battery for use. 18 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter VI. TESTING AND STORAGE OF RADIOSONDES 6100. GENERAL 6110. Receipt of Radiosondes. - Radio- sondes, unless sealed in individual moisture- proof pouches, will be tested upon receipt. Radiosondes received in moisture-proof pouches will not be removed from their pouches for testing more than twelve hours before they are to be used for raob or standby purposes. 611. Necessary instructions regarding the certification of invoices or packing slips, dam- ages sustained in shipping and shortages are contained in the addendum. 6120. Repairs to Radiosondes.-Only the re- pairs authorized in sec. 6400 and in the adden- dum will be made to radiosondes. 6130. Rejected Radiosondes.-A list of the defects discovered in each radiosonde will be placed in its battery compartment. Defects will not be indicated by markings on the radio- sonde case. Rejected radiosondes will be dis- posed of as provided in the addendum. 6140. Testing of Radiosondes.-The visual inspection and performance tests described in the following paragraphs will be made without exception. When defects are noted, the per- formance tests will be completed insofar as the defects permit. 6200. VISUAL INSPECTION 6210. General.-The visual inspection checks will be completed in the following order, after the flaps and front door of the radiosonde have been opened and the insulating material re- moved from the front of the transmitter and battery compartments. 6220. Serial Numbers.-Check that the se- rial numbers on the calibration chart and radio- sonde agree, and that the number of the baroswitch, which is on or near the baroswitch assembly, agrees with the corresponding num- ber on the calibration chart. If the baroswitch numbers disagree, the radiosonde will be re- jected. If the baroswitch numbers agree but the serial numbers do not, accept the radio- sonde and change the serial number on the cali- bration chart to agree with that found on the radiosonde. 6230. Temperature Section.-See figure 6-1 or 6-2. Check the temperature section for the following defects: (1) Cracked or chipped temperature element. (2) Broken or disconnected leads. (3) Insufficient tension to insure good electrical contact in the clips of any radio- sonde whose temperature element is mounted in Fahnestock clips. (4) Oxidation at the connection of leads and clips. ,6231. Replace all damaged temperature ele- ments with elements of the same type and manu- facture. Scrape off any oxidation found on the leads of replacement temperature elements. The element should be centered in the ventila- tion chamber to prevent its touching the sides. Reject any radiosonde having temperature sec- tion defects that cannot be repaired by a simple soldering operation or by replacing the temper- ature element. 6240. Hygrometer Section.-See figure 6-1 or 6-2. Check the hygrometer section as follows: (1) The hygrometer element mounting clamps must be in working order and have sufficient tension to prevent the element from falling out. (2) Any oxidation at the points where the clamps contact the edges of the element must be removed. (3) All electrical leads must be securely soldered. 6241. Each radiosonde is supplied with a hy- grometer element individually sealed in a vial containing relatively dry air. The seal of the vial will not be broken until the element is to be installed in the radiosonde prior to the base- line check, in accordance with paragraph 7450. 6250. Relay.-See figure 1-1 or 6-3. Re- move all foreign matter from the relay contacts, and from between the armature and the pole. Check to see that the spring has sufficient ten- sion to move the armature and that the arma- ture pivot functions properly. Do not attempt to adjust the relay. Reject any radiosonde having a defective relay. 6260. Baroswitch Section.-See figure 6-4 or 6-5. Inspect the baroswitch section to de- termine that: (1) The aneroid cells are rigidly mounted on the base and that the base is securely fixed to the radiosonde case. 19 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 6-1.-Temperature and humidity elements of Friez radiosonde, (a) temperature side; (b) humidity side. (2) The commutator is set in its frame in a plane parallel to that described by the movement of the contact arm. (3) The contact arm returns to its orig- inal position when moved a few contacts higher or lower on the commutator. In making this test do not move the contact arm far enough to place a strain on the pressure cells. (4) A normal amount of tension is pres- ent in the contact arm as determined by raising the arm with a pencil. Reject any radiosonde having a bent contact arm or disengaged linkage, since the pressure calibration will have been affected. (5) The contact point is within two con- tacts of the setting corresponding to the pressure at the elevation of the radiosonde. If the contact point is more than five con- tacts to the right or to the left of the proper setting, reject the radiosonde. If the con- tact point is from two to five contacts to the right or left of the proper setting, ad- just the point to the correct setting and set the radiosonde aside for a period of about one week. If at the end of this time, the contact point is within two contacts of the correct setting, accept the radiosonde; otherwise, reject it. The method of deter- mining the setting of the contact point for the pressure at the elevation of the radio- sonde is explained in paragraphs 7344-7346, inclusive. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 6-2.-Temperature and humidity elements of W. I. T. radiosonde. (6) The commutator adjustment screw operates properly. The spring in this as- sembly must allow the commutator to fol- low the action of the screw. (7) The commutator is free of any ir- regularity which cannot be removed by, light polishing with crocus paper. 6261. Draw a pencil line across a thin piece of paper placed over the commutator surface. If any irregularities can be felt when the line is drawn, the radiosonde should be rejected unless the irregularity can be removed by polishing with crocus paper. Never rub the finger across the commutator surface since any oil left on the surface may cause poor switching during the sounding. 6270. Transmitter and Circuits.-It is not necessary to remove the transmitter from its case for purposes of testing and inspecting. The radiosonde should be furnished with large pads of insulating material for the transmitter and battery compartments. A radiosonde should not be used without this insulating material. 6271. Visually check that all wiring leading to the transmitter is properly connected and that the wires within the compartment are suf- ficiently long that no strain will be placed on the antenna coil when the knots in the antenna are pulled against the case, and that no strain will be placed on the transmitter when the battery is installed. 6272. The circuits in the radiosonde are iden- tified by the color of the insulation of the wires. These colors are as follows: 6272.1. Blue Wire.-Blue wire is used in the low reference circuit and should be connected to the metallic segment of every commutator contact which is a multiple of 5, but not includ- ing multiples of 15, and to the metallic seg- ment of every contact above 60 on a Friez radio- sonde (above 70 on a W. I. T. radiosonde) which is not a multiple of 5. 6272.2. Red Wire.-Red wire is used in the high reference circuit and should be connected to the metallic segment of every contact which is a multiple of 15, except that above 60 on a Friez radiosonde (above 70 on a W. I. T. radio- INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 6-3.-W. I. T. radiosonde showing transmitter, battery, and baroswitch sections. sonde), it should be connected to the metallic seg- ment of every contact that is a multiple of 5. 6272.3. Yellow Wire.-Yellow wire is used in the humidity circuit and should be connected to the metallic segment of every contact through 59 on a Friez radiosonde (through 69 on a W. I. T. radiosonde), which is not a multi- ple of 5. 6272.4. Black Wire.-The black wire is the ground wire and is used to complete the hu- midity, high reference, and low reference cir- cuits during circuit tests, baseline checks and while the radiosonde is in flight. Inspect each radiosonde to determine that the black wire is connected to the metallic frame of the Friez baroswitch unit, or to the fine copper wire con- INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 6-4.-Baroswitcb section of Friez radiosonde. FIGURnE 6-5.-Baroswitch section of W. 1. T. radiosonde. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS -Battery Wires SAntenna Leads '- Battery Plug FIGUIE 6-6.-Friez radiosonde transmitter section. nected to the contact arm of the W. I. T. radio- sonde. The black wire should also be connected to the brass rivet or screw, the head of which is located on the outside of the case and marked "G" or "GND." 6273. Test Leads.-For purposes of testing and obtaining the baseline check, a ground wire and test leads from the humidity and low ref- erence circuits extend through the side of the radiosonde case. Some radiosondes also have a test lead connected to the high reference circuit. Each of the test leads has the characteristic color of the circuit to which it is connected. 6300. PERFORMANCE TEST 6310. General-Turn on the receiver and the electronic frequency unit. After their op- erating temperatures have been reached (about 30 minutes), make an adjustment of the fre- quency unit to the 60-cycle value. 6311. Adjustment of Frequency Unit to 60- cycle Value.-Turn the input switch to the 60-cycle position. By means of the frequency unit controls (labeled "coarse" and "fine" or "continuous" and "step"), adjust to the visual meter value that is correct for the frequency unit. This value is the one determined by the technician at the time of the latest calibration of the ground equipment. 6311.1. If the 60-cycle value has not been sup- plied for the frequency unit, set the visual meter to read 30.0 with the input switch on 60 cycles, provided 60 cycles is the nominal frequency of the power supply. On other line frequencies, set the visual meter to read one-half of the nomi- nal value of the line frequency. 6311.2. At a station having an extremely variable power supply frequency, the 60-cycle setting does not provide a satisfactory check of the radiosonde low reference frequency, as re- quired by paragraph 6330. In this case, there- fore, the check will be made without reference to this value by leaving the adjustment controls unchanged during tests and comparing the values indicated by other radiosondes on hand. Any radiosondes showing large deviations from the other radiosondes should be rejected: How- ever, considerable care is required, and the in- structions provided for use when a satisfactory 60-cycle value can be obtained should be used as a guide in this case. The 60-cycle value will be used for checks, if a stable power supply is available. 6312. The radiosonde transmitter is turned on by twisting together the battery wires ex- INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS tending through:the case. These wires should always be disconnected before plugging in the battery. This precaution will prevent burning out the transmitter tube if an attempt is made to insert the 3-volt prong into the 90-volt socket of the battery and will also prevent accidental discharge of the battery. ,6313,. Connect the radiosonde battery plug to a test battery with voltages not less than 2.5 and 82.0 volts for the A and B sections, respec- tively. If a test battery with lower voltages is used, the readings of the low reference and other circuits may appear to be outside the pre- scribed limits. 6314. Raise the contact arm and connect the battery wires. Tune in the radiosonde signal in accordance with instructions for tuning given in section 8200 or section 8300. Turn the input switch to "X." 6320. Transmitter.-If a 'signal is not re- ceived, check that the receiver is operating and that all tuning controls and switches are prop- erly adjusted. If the trouble is not found, test for a defective relay by connecting the red or blue test lead to the black test lead or to the grounded rivet on the side of the case. If a signal is not now received, the radiosonde will be rejected. 6330. Low Reference.-Connect the blue test lead to the black. The low reference signal should be received between 89.5 and 98.0 ordi- nates. (The visual meter should still be ad- justed for "true frequency" as stated in para- graphs 6311-6311.2, inclusive.) If the signal falls outside these limits, reject the radiosonde, after first determining that weak test batteries are not the cause. If the low reference value is within the limits, adjust the visual meter to read 95.0 and then determine that the frequency unit controls still have sufficient adjustment range to compensate for any normal low reference drifts and shifts. If they do not have sufficient range, reject the radiosonde. 6340. Stability Check.-While the radio- sonde is transmitting the low reference signal, tap the radiosonde lightly. If a permanent shift of low reference occurs, reject the radiosonde. 6350. High Reference.-Connect the red and black test leads. (If the radiosonde does not have a high reference test lead, connect the black lead to the red wire at the right end of the com- mutator.) The high reference signal should be received between 96.0 and 98.0 ordinates. If it lies outside these limits, reject the radiosonde. 6360. Temperature.-With all test leads dis- connected (and the contact point still raised from the commutator), the radiosonde should transmit a temperature signal. The tempera- ture element must give a value within the limits stated below for the type of radiosonde under test. Using the temperature evaluator proper for the type of radiosonde being tested, as indi- cated in the addendum, set the ordinate corre- sponding to the temperature signal opposite the temperature of the air at the radiosonde. For a Friez radiosonde, the 250 C. line should fall between 68.2 and 74.3 ordinates. For a W. I. T. radiosonde the 250 C. line should fall between 67.0 and 72.6 ordinates. If the indicated tem- perature value is not within these limits, replace the temperature element with another element of the same type and manufacture. If the re- placement element also indicates a value outside the limits, reject the radiosonde. 6370. Humidity.-Connect the yellow and black test leads. A steady signal termed "mo- torboating" should be received at approximately five ordinates. Short across the humidity clamps and then connect the yellow and black test leads. A low reference signal should be received. Disconnect the yellow and black test leads. 6371. A motorboating signal may *also be transmitted by a radiosonde having a hygrom- eter element installed, if the temperature or rel- ative humidity, or both, of the air are extremely low. In such cases, a motorboating humidity signal indicates that the relative humidity of the air is equal to or lower than the minimum value the radiosonde can measure at the given temperature. 6371.1. The exact ordinate at which motor- boating occurs varies with radiosondes and ground equipment, but usually has a value of about five ordinates. Radiosonde signals will be described as motorboating only when they are of an ordinate value equal to that indicated by the humidity circuit of the radiosonde when no hygrometer element is mounted in the clamps. 6380. Commutator.-Lower the contact arm and move the commutator back and forth by means of the adjustment screw. Alternate tem- perature and humidity, or reference, signals should be received. If the humidity or refer- enae signals are not received, lightly polish the commutator and the contact point and in- spect the relay to determine whether foreign matter is preventing its closing. If improper functioning persists, reject the radiosonde. (If necessary, polish the relay contact points in ac- cordance with the procedure given in par. 7340.) 6381. After completion of the performance tests, disconnect the battery wires and the test battery. 6400. REPAIR OF RADIOSONDES 6410. General.-Rejected radiosondes should be examined to determine whether repairs can be made to them at the station. A list of the repairs that may be made by station personnel 25 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS will be found in the addendum. It is desirable that the number of rejected radiosondes be as low as possible, consistent with accurate performance. 6411. With the exception of the temperature resistor and hygrometer element the individual units or parts, such as resistors, condensers, or radio tube, must not be replaced or interchanged. The assembled radiosonde has been checked at the factory for performance according to defi- nite standards. After any major repairs, the radiosonde must be recalibrated with specialized equipment not available to station personnel. 6420. Performance-Defect Relationships.- Table 6-1 lists the indications of common de- fects in radiosondes. The table is based on the radiosonde performance under the following conditions: (1) An air temperature of approxi- mately 250 C. at the radiosonde. (2) No hygrometer element in the radio- sonde and the mounting clamps not shorted. (3) The contact arm point raised from the commutator. (4) The radiosonde connected to a test battery with at least 2.5 volts on the A sec- tion and 82 volts on the B section. (5) The battery wires connected. (6) Low reference always adjusted to 95.0 on the visual meter, when the defects permit. TABLE 6-1.-Radiosonde performance-defect table Performance Tempera- Humidity High ref- ture erence # # # # *90-97. 5 # # # *97 75 MB 95 95 95 100+ 100 + MB # 95 95 97 95 MB MB 97 95 *97 97 97 97 Defect 1. Open circuit in red wire at or near transmitter. 2. Open circuit in black wire at or near transmitter. 3. Broken circuit in resistor connecting red and blue wires. 4. Blue wire shorted to red wire somewhere. 5. Blue wire shorted to ground somewhere. 6. Red wire shorted to ground somewhere. 7. Red wire shorted to yellow wire somewhere. 8. Yellow wire shorted to blue wire somewhere. 9. Yellow wire shorted to ground in relay battery circuit. 10. Temperature resistor circuit broken. # denotes no audio signal, not even motorboating, visual 'meter reads zero or value of noise level. MB denotes motorboating, a signal indicated at approximately 5 ordinates. *Low reference cannot be adjusted to 95.0 in these cases; therefore, the readings of the other circuits are those that would be indicated when the "true frequency" adjustment has been made as provided in par. 6311. t denotes that low reference has been set to 95.0 as provided in par. 6420 (6). 6430. Relay Defects.-The indications of a defective relay are not included in table 6-1. A defective relay, or one out of adjustment, may be indicated as shown below when there is no hygrometer element in the mounting clamps and the clamps are not shorted. No attempt should be made to adjust the relay. (1) Temperature ordinate is received for both temperature and humidity. (2) Motorboating ordinate is received for both temperature and humidity. (3) No audible signal is received for temperature or humidity, or both. 6500. STORAGE OF RADIOSONDES 6510. General.-A radiosonde is a precision instrument which will maintain its calibration only when stored under proper conditions. At continental stations the best storage conditions are usually found in the office quarters. Best results will be obtained from radiosondes stored at low humidities and moderate temperatures. 6511. The case of the radiosonde should be closed, with the flaps tied down during storage. Whenever possible, the radiosondes should be stored in the shipping cartons because of the additional protection afforded. 6520. Excessive Humidities.-It is espe- cially important that radiosondes be protected from excessive humidities, as prolonged ex- posure to such conditions will cause corrosion of the metal parts of the instrument. This will affect the electrical circuits and therefore the accuracy of the radiosonde. 6530. Excessive Temperatures.-Radio- sondes should not be stored at temperatures above 380 C. (100' F.) such as may be en- countered near the ceiling of a heated room. Higher temperatures may soften the wax on the audio-frequency coil, thus permitting move- ment of the coil, which will affect the calibra- tion of the radiosonde. Extremely low tem- peratures will not damage the radiosonde unless temperature changes cause condensation and subsequent formation of ice. Radiosondes 1_ 3-- 4 5- 7 - 8_ 9--- 10_ Low ref- erence # # # 195 t95 t95 100 + t95 t95 t95 26 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS stored at low temperatures will be brought into a warm room several hours before they are to be tested and prepared for flight. 6540. Order of Use by Serial Number. Ra- diosondes should be so stored that the oldest serviceable radiosonde on hand, usually the one with the lowest serial number, is readily avail- able for use. However, the moisture-proof pouches of individually-sealed radiosondes will not be opened merely for checking the radio- sonde serial numbers. Arrangements should be made to use these radiosondes by cartons ac- cording to age as indicated by the serial num- bers on the outside of each carton. 27 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter VII. PROCEDURE THROUGH RELEASE 7100. GENERAL 7110. Observation Schedules-Raobs will be made at 0400 and 1600 G. C. T., plus or minus 1 hour. However, when unfavorable weather conditions or other reasons prevent a release from being made on scheduled time, a release will be made as promptly as possible thereafter, but in no case later than 1000 or 2200 G. C. T., respectively. 7111. If, owing to unfavorable weather con- ditions, the time of release conflicts with the regular six-hourly synoptic surface weather ob- servation or any other routine duty and the serv- ices of available assistants are required to make a successful release, the radiosonde will be re- leased first, and the routine duties taken up as soon thereafter as possible. 7200. PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS 7210. General.-Before beginning prepara- tions for the raob, the observer will familiarize himself with the wind and weather conditions and the expected air traffic. He will decide on the lift and ballast to be used, and the method and place of making the release. He will con- sider the length of exposure required for the various pieces of equipment, and determine the order in which the preliminary steps are to be performed. The order must be adapted to the arrangements and needs of the station, and of the particular observation. Several of these op- erations can be carried on at the same time, and all must be started sufficiently early that the re- lease can be made on schedule, whenever possible. 7220. Exposure of Test Switch.-Place the test switch in the shelter and connect it to the power source, but with the switch turned off. This should be done in sufficient time that the test switch will have been exposed for at least 1 hour before the baseline check is begun. 7230. Check of Ground Equipment.-Turn on the radiosonde ground equipment. The ground equipment must warm up for at least 30 minutes before the baseline check is begun. 7231. Inspect all units of the ground equip- ment to make certain that they are operating properly. 7240. Check of Cycloray Recorder.--If a Friez Cycloray recorder is used, check that the main-drive, paper-drive, and ribbon-drive mo- tors are operating properly. Note whether there is sufficient paper in the recorder for the raob. 7241. Each roll of Cycloray recorder paper is marked "Six Feet Remaining" at that distance from the end of the paper. If this warning mark appears after the baseline check is begun, sufficient paper usually remains for completing the observation. 7241.1. When a new roll of paper is installed in the Cycloray recorder, the paper must be al- lowed to feed out for at least 15 minutes in order to be certain that it is aligned properly and that it does not creep or drift to one side. (The newer recorders have a pointer to indicate the position of the zero line of the paper when correctly aligned. A mark may be made on the paper feed roller of older recorders to serve the same purpose.) 7242. After the recorder has wlarmed up and the paper has become properly aligned, check the zero recording. 7242.1. With the input switch turned to "SC," the ordinate value of the zero line printed by the Cycloray recorder should agree with the latest calibration data issued to the station. If the zero recording does not appear at the proper position, recheck the alignment of the paper. Then, if necessary, adjust the zero re- cording to the proper value by means of the zero adjustment knob located in the front of the recorder compartment. 7250. Check of L&N Recorder.-If an L&N Speedomax recorder is used, check that the pa- per-drive and balancing motors are operating properly. Check the ink supply and the feed- ing of the recorder pen. Note whether there is sufficient paper in the recorder for the raob. 7251. Each roll of L&N recorder paper is marked "Approximately 82 Inches to End of Roll" at that distance from the end of the pa- per. If this warning mark appears after the baseline check is started, the amount of paper remaining is usually sufficient for completing the observation. 7251.1. When a new roll of paper is installed in the L&N recorder, it is only necessary that the paper be correctly placed over the sprock- ets, since the sprockets will keep the paper in alignment. The paper must be kept taut to prevent its slipping off the sprockets. 7252. After the recorder has warmed up and the paper has become properly aligned, check the zero recording. 7252.1. Balance the galvanometer needle of the L&N recorder at the zero point. Check the sensitivity of the recorder, and adjust it if the 28 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS sensitivity is less than the required 0.2 ordinate operating sensitivity. When the input switch is at "SC," the recorder pen should rest at the zero line printed on the paper. However, on some recorders, the limiting switch may open before the balancing motor returns the pen to the zero line. In such a case, turn the violin string disk by hand until it rests against the stop. The pen should now be at zero. If it is not, examine the recorder for slippage of the pen carriage on the violin string and for slip- page of the violin string disk on its shaft. 7252.2. The sensitivity adjustments of the L&N recorder will not be changed during or after the baseline check since questionable rec- ords will result. 7300. PREPARATION OF RADIOSONDES 7310. General.-Obtain the oldest service- able radiosonde on hand for use in the observa- tion and select the next oldest for use as a standby radiosonde. (See par. 6540.) Prepare these radiosondes in accordance with the fol- lowing instructions. 7320. Test of Radiosondes.-Make a com- plete visual inspection of the radiosondes in accordance with section 6200, and performance test as provided in section 6300. It is important that all radiosondes be visually inspected and that the circuits be tested before the radiosondes are prepared for use. This procedure will dis- close any deteriorations or breakdowns that might have occurred while the radiosondes were in storage at the station. Special attention should be given to checking the calibration chart to make certain that charts were not ex- changed during the testing of the instruments. 7330. Interference.-While the performance tests are being made, the radio frequency of the radiosonde signal should be checked to be sure that it is not near the frequency of any interfering signal. This is especially important whenever it is necessary to release a second radiosonde while the signal from the first is being transmitted. 7331. A reference log should be kept of the main tuning dial readings where interference has been found to occur. When a radiosonde signal is tuned in, turn the main tuning dial to each side of the peak tuning position to de- termine whether any other signal is within 15 dial divisions on the super-regenerative receiver or within 1 megacycle on the superheterodyne receiver. If it is found that interference is oc- curring or commonly occurs within this range, use another radiosonde or change the radio fre- quency of the radiosonde. 7332. Radiosonde transmitting frequencies are set for best performance at the factory, and 613388-45-3 should not be changed unless it is absolutely necessary to avoid interference. Any changes that are necessary should be made very care- fully, as it will be found that at some positions of the adjusting condenser the transmitted sig- nal will be very unstable, or will not be received at all. This is especially true if the maximum adjustment is made in either direction. 7332.1. On the Friez radiosonde, the trans- mitting frequency is changed by turning the screw on the small condenser which is located adjacent to the antenna coil. (See figs. 1-1 or 6-6.) The coil and the condenser are installed on the front of the transmitter and are readily located. The reading of the receiver dial at peak tuning is increased when the screw is turned to the left or loosened, and decreased when the screw is turned to the right or tightened. 7332.2. On the W. I. T. radiosonde, the trans- mitting frequency is adjusted by turning with a screw driver the slotted plate of the small con- denser located adjacent to the tank coil. The coil and the adjusting condenser can be seen through one of the openings in the top of the cardboard transmitter case. The observer should note whether the receiver tuning dial reading at peak tuning increases or decreases as the slotted plate is turned in one direction or the other. 7340. Relay and Baroswitch.-Using the crocus paper furnished with the radiosonde, polish the four contact points of the relay by gently drawing the crocus paper once or twice over each point. Clean the points of foreign matter by placing a piece of bond paper between the points and moving the paper back and forth several times. 7341. Polish the contact point by lowering it to the commutator and sliding crocus paper, with the abrasive side up, back and forth several times between them. 7342. Raise the contact arm. Polish the en- tire face of the commutator by placing the finger over the crocus paper and moving the paper back and forth along the entire length of the commutator. Remove any particles that may be present as a result of the polishing opera- tion with a clean cloth or tissue paper. Lower the contact arm to the commutator. The fingers should never be rubbed across the commutator, since any oil left on the surface may cause poor switching during the sounding. 7343. Adjust the commutator to the correct setting of the contact point in accordance with paragraphs 7344-7346. Tap the radiosonde lightly and note whether the contact point re- mains at the proper setting. If not, readjust the commutator. Raise the contact arm. 29 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 7344. Determination of Commutator Con- tact Setting.-The commutator contact set- ting for the pressure at the elevation of the radiosonde will be made as follows: 7344.1. Obtain the station barometric pres- sure from the station barograph. If the baro- graph is adjusted for sea-level pressure, the station pressure must be obtained from the mer- curial barometer. 7344.2. The station pressure will be corrected to the elevation of the radiosonde. Refer to table 7-1 to determine the correction correspond- ing to the difference in height. The table is based on the relationship of 1 millibar per 8.5 meters difference in elevation. The correction should be added to the station pressure when the elevation of the radiosonde is lower than that of the station, and subtracted when the radiosonde elevation is higher. For purposes of applying these corrections, a difference in elevation of 3 meters or less will be ignored. TABLE 7-1 Pressure Difference between station elevation and correction elevation of instrument shelter (meters): (millibars) 3 0. 4 4 . 5 5 .6-------------------------------------- 6 .------------------------------------ 7 7 ----------------------------------------- .8 8 -- -.9 9 _ _ 1. 1 10 --- -- ---- 1.2 7344.3. From the radiosonde calibration chart, determine to the nearest one-tenth of a contact the pressure contact corresponding to the pressure at the elevation of the radiosonde as determined in paragraph 7344.2. Using the adjustment screw, move the commutator until the contact point is to the left of the required point. Then, turn the adjustment screw until the contact point rests at the required setting after the radiosonde has been lightly tapped. If the commutator cannot be adjusted to the correct setting by means of the adjustment screw, reject the radiosonde. 7345. Commutator Contact.-A contact on the commutator extends from the left edge of one metallic segment to the right edge of the next succeeding insulator segment. In deter- mining proportional parts of a commutator con- tact, it may be helpful to keep in mind that in a humidity-temperature combination the tem- perature portion comprises three-fourths of the total contact, and the humidity portion, one- fourth. In a reference-temperature combina- tion, the temperature portion comprises six- tenths of the total contact, and the reference portion, four-tenths. 7346. Calibration Chart Contact.-A con- tact on the calibration chart is represented by the distance from the lower edge of one printed line to the lower edge of the next printed line. Figure 7-1 illustrates the relationship between the commutator and the calibration chart contacts. 7350. Installation of Battery.-Test and prepare for use the oldest serviceable radiosonde battery at the station. (See secs. 3320 and 3500.) 7351. Make sure that the battery wires are disconnected. Install the battery in its com- partment and insert the battery plug. If necessary, pack paper around the battery to prevent any possibility of its movement during flight. Any such movement will cause shifting or unstable signals. Replace the insulating ma- terial around the battery and transmitter. Note that this battery is the one to be used in making the baseline check and flight. (Changing of the battery after a baseline check will necessi- tate the making of a new baseline check.) 7360. Sealing of Case.-Make sure that the flap or slide in front of the commutator adjust- Commutator 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 5 10 Pressure Calibration Chart FIGURE 7-1.-Diagram showing relationship between radiosonde commutator and calibration chart. 30 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS ing screw can be easily opened later. Close the door of the radiosonde. Use a short piece of scotch tape to hold the door shut. Seal the edges of the door with scotch tape. 7361. Check the wall of the radiosonde case between the ventilation chamber and the baro- switch compartment. If a hole opening into the baroswitch compartment is found, seal it with a small piece of scotch tape. 7370. Recovery Tags.-If a radiosonde or a parachute recovery tag, or both, is to be used, enter the required information in the spaces provided. Attach a short piece of twine to the eyelet of each tag, for the use of the finder in mailing the recovered radiosonde. Fold the tag in half and place it under the upper ventila- tion chamber flap. Place a piece of scotch tape across the tag to hold it in place. Tie both flaps firmly in position with the cords provided. NoTE.-Do not tie the tag to the support ring of the radiosonde. Experience shows that this practice fre- quently results in erroneous temperature data because of an obstructed ventilation chamber. 7371. Information regarding the use of re- covery tags is contained in the addendum. 7380. Radiosonde Antenna.-Tie a piece of cotton cord about four feet long to the support ring in the top of the radiosonde. Extend the upper leg of the antenna along this cord and fasten it in several loops in the cord. The an- tenna leg should be loose enough that there will be no tension on it which would result in tilting the radiosonde when supported by the cord. At the same time, the antenna leg should not be tied so loosely that it would be free to move ap- preciably during flight. Extend the lower leg of the antenna downward and tape it to the side of the case. If high or gusty surface winds are expected at the time of release, the lower leg of the antenna should be stiffened with scotch tape or taped to narrow strips of cardboard. This will make the antenna leg stiff enough so that it will not remain out of position if thrown over the radiosonde or the cord at release, yet leaves it flexible enough to be handled in the instrument shelter. 7390. Standby Radiosonde.-The standby radiosonde should be similarly checked and tested, except that the installation of the battery, sealing of the case, placing of recovery tags, and preparation of the antenna should be omitted. The door of the standby radiosonde should be held shut with a rubber band or with a piece of cord. 7400. EXPOSURE OF RADIOSONDES TO ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS 7410. General.-The radiosondes will be placed in the instrument shelter for exposure to atmospheric conditions at least 30 minutes before beginning the baseline check. The standby radiosonde will be placed on the floor of the instrument shelter. 7420. Connections to Test Switch.-The radiosonde to be used in the observation will be placed on the test switch in a position such that the vehtilation chamber is not obstructed and is near the psychrometer. See figures 7-2 and 7-3 for illustrations showing the radiosonde in po- sition for the baseline check. 7421. Connect the radiosonde test leads to the proper leads of the test switch, making sure that all clips are tight and that good electrical contacts are obtained. 7422. When a four lead test switch is used with a radiosonde having four test leads, the radiosonde will be connected to the test switch so that the test circuits will be completed in the following order: (1) Low reference; (2) Temperature ; (3) High reference; (4) Humidity. 7423. When a four lead test switch is used with a radiosonde having three test leads (that is, with no high reference test lead), the test switch high reference lead should be discon- nected from its clip and connected to the same clip as the test switch low reference lead. No.-The test switch high reference lead will not be cut off, since it will be needed when using radio- sondes with four test leads. In this case, the circuits will be completed in the following order: (1) Low reference; (2) Temperature; (3) Low reference; (4) Humidity. 7423.1. In this case, it may be necessary to connect the two low reference microswitches of the test switch in parallel if the two low refer- ence values differ. This connection must be re- moved when radiosondes with four test leads are used. 7424. When a three lead test switch is used with a four test lead radiosonde, the radiosonde high reference test lead will be left unconnected. The other leads will be connected so that the cir- cuits are completed in the following order: (1) Low reference; (2) Temperature; (3) Humidity. 7425. When a three lead test switch is used with a three lead radiosonde, connect the leads so that the circuits are completed in the follow- ing order: (1) Low reference; (2) Temperature; (3) Humidity. 31 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 7-2.-Instrument shelter with radiosonde, relay test switch, psychrometer and fan in position for baseline check. 7430. Position of Antenna.-Stretch out the radiosonde antenna legs. Remove all kinks and hold the antenna legs taut by means of wooden wedges or with clips attached to rubber bands. (Any movement of the antenna legs may cause unstable or shifting audio frequencies during the baseline check.) 7440. Stand-by Radiosonde.-The stand-by radiosonde should be exposed on the fl:)or of the instrument shelter, out of the way of other equipment in the shelter. 7450. Exposure of Hygrometer Element.- Install the hygrometer element in the radiosonde early enough before the baseline check to insure that the prescribed exposure time will have elapsed. Table 7-2 shows the length of expo- sure required before making the baseline check, as well as the maxinium permissible exposure INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 7-3.--Instrument shelter with radiosonde, motor test switch, and small whirling psychrometer in position for baseline check. time for a given hygrometer element before re- lease. A hygrometer elenient will not be used for a raob if the total time of exposure prior to release exceeds that given in the table, nor will the baseline check be started until the minimum exposure time has elapsed. TABLE 7-2.--Lengthl of exposure for hygrometer clement. Length of exposure Maximum exposure Air temperature: before baseline before release 200 C. and above -- 1.5-30 min. 1 hr. 0o C. to 20' C___ - 15-30 min. 11/ hrs. --10 C. to 0O C_ --_-_ 30-45 min. 2 hrs. --10 C. and below____ 45-60 min. 3 hrs. 7451.. Break the seal on the hygrometer ele- ment vial by gently tapping the sealing wax just below the stopper. When this portion of the sealing wax has been removed, the stopper can be twisted and extracted. Handle the hygrometer element by the metal edges. Do not allow the fingers or any other object to touch the clear portion of the element. If the element is touched, it will be discarded. 7452. During exposure the hygrometer ele- ment should not be subjected to large changes of temperature and relative humidity, such as would be the case if the radiosonde were carried into a heated room. However, during low temperatures (below 0O C.) when the hygrom- eter element requires an exposure of more than 30 minutes, the element may be installed indoors provided the radiosonde is taken to the instru- ment shelter without delay. 7453. During periods in which the air tem- perature is below 00 C., two or three hygrometer elements sealed in vials should be stored in the instrument shelter. In case a second element INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS is required, one of these hygrometer elements may be used if it has been stored in the -shelter for at least 6 hours. (See par. 7743.1.') 7500. PREPARATION OF TRAIN 7501. Prepare and inflate the raob and ballast balloons and prepare the rest of the train in accordance with the instructions in Chapter IV. 7J600. CAUTION FOR AIRCRAFT 7610. Release at Controlled Airports.-To reduce the possibility of the raob balloon's be- coming a hazard to aircraft in flight, observers will inform the local control tower 30 minutes before the intended release and at the same time determine the traffic anticipated at the proposed time of release. If, after considering the traffic conditions anticipated at the proposed time of release, the ascensional rate and direction of drift of the balloon it is believed that release cannot safely be made at the proposed time, the baseline check will not be started until condi- tions have improved to such an extent that a safe release can be made upon its completion. Observers will be guided by the advice of the control tower personnel. Arrangements will be made for the control tower to flash a green (re- lease) or red (hold) light at the predetermined time of release to indicate whether anticipated traffic conditions at that time have changed since the time of release was agreed upon. When the release is about to be made and it is found that the traffic pattern has changed, making it inadvisable to release at the time pre- viously agreed upon, the radiosonde will not be released. 7620. Release at noncontrolled Airports or Offices.-Raob stations on airways but not at controlled airports will acquaint themselves with traffic conditions by consulting, whenever teletype or interphone facilities are available, with the airway controller (ATC) having juris- diction over the airway on which the airport or office is situated. 7630. Release at Military Establish- ments.-These provisions for release will be observed at military establishments, where con- trol officers will be consulted and informed in accordance with the foregoing. 7700. MAKING THE BASELINE CHECK 7710. General.-Turn the input switch to "SC" and check the zero setting of the recorder immediately before beginning the baseline check. (See par. 7242.1 or 7252.1.) A short portion of the zero record will be included as part of the baseline check record. !7711. Turn on the test switch. Check the po- sition of the radiosonde, test switch, and the radiosonde antenna wires. Connect the battery wires and make sure that the contact arm is not touching the commutator. 7720. Preliminary Check Temperature Readings.-Read the dry- and wet-bulb tem- peratures to the nearest one-tenth of a degree. These values are to be used only as a rough check of the temperature and relative humidity limits during the making of the baseline check. (The baseline check dry- and wet-bulb readings will be made immediately after the completion of the baseline check.) 7721. If the dry-bulb temperature is lower than - 100 C., the dry- and wet-bulb tempera- tures will be taken from Fahrenheit thermom- eters. These values will be used in computing the relative humidity from Fahrenheit psy- chrometric tables. The dry-bulb temperature will be converted to degrees and tenths centi- grade and this value will be used for all other computations. The temperatures required by this and the preceding paragraph will not be entered on any form. 7730. The Baseline Check.-Turn the input switch to "X." Tune the receiver, adjusting the controls for maximum signal strength and sta- bility. (See sec. 8200 or sec. 8300 for instruc- tions on tuning the radiosonde receiver.) 7730.1. If, because of the presence or proxim- ity of interfering signals, it is necessary to change the transmitting frequency of the radio- sonde during or after the baseline check, a com- plete new baseline check will be made. 7731. While the first low reference signal is being received, adjust the frequency unit con- trols so that the trace is recorded at 95.0. Check the value of each successive low reference trace and adjust to 95.0 whenever necessary. 7732. If an unstable record is received for any of the transmitted circuits, check, in the order given, the following: (1) The receiver tuning. (2) The position of the radiosonde antenna. (3) The test switch. (It may be possible that varying internal resistances in the test switch are causing the trouble.) 7732.1. If varying resistances in the test switch are suspected, disconnect the test switch and make the baseline check manually. 7732.2. When making a baseline check man- ually, use a short wire jumper with alligator clips to connect each of the other test leads to the black test lead. Allow each circuit to transmit for about 15 seconds by using the following procedure: (1) Connect the black to the blue test lead (low reference). 34 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS (2) Disconnect all test leads (tempera- ture). (3) Connect the black to the red test lead (high reference). (4) Connect the black to the yellow test lead (humidity). Repeat this sequence until a satisfactory base- line record is received. It is important, while the signal from each of the circuits is being transmitted, that the observer stand at least six feet away from the shelter, since any move- ment near the radiosonde will affect the signal. 7732.3. If a manual baseline check cannot be obtained, the radiosonde should be rejected, and the baseline check commenced with the standby radiosonde. The hygrometer element from the first radiosonde may be removed and installed in the standby instrument, if it is certain that the maximum exposure time shown in table 7-2 will not be exceeded. 7732.4. If a stable baseline check is obtained manually, the test switch is probably at fault and should be checked for varying internal resistance before the next raob. 7740. Requirements for Satisfactory Base- line Check.-During the baseline check, repeat the record from all circuits until the following conditions for a satisfactory baseline check are satisfied. Not less than two consecutive traces from all elements but humidity must be in re- spective agreement while the low reference is recorded at 95.0. Meanwhile, the humidity record must conform to one of the following conditions: 7740.1. Two consecutive traces must be in agreement (see Fig. 7-4) ; or three consecutive . ~~1111 HIM 1111111 111HIi I IlVlI 30![ 3Cr FIGU iiE Illll I 7- 4. -Baseli I Ir showing two humidity traces in agreemnt (radiosodew Ihig r e test lead). FIGURE 7i-4.-Baseline check record showing two humidity traces in agreement (razdiosonde with high reference test lead). FIGURE 7-5.-Baseline check record showing three humidity traces in trend (radiosonde without high reference test lead). 35 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS traces must show a trend in the same direction, that is, rising or falling. (See Fig. 7-5.) 7740.2. Verify any indications on the radio- sonde that the humidity is changing by mak- ing psychrometric readings. This is of especial importance when the relative humidity is indi- cated to be rising, since a hygrometer element that has not been exposed for a sufficient length of time will indicate rising values. 7740.3. The trace for each circuit in the base- line check should be at least .f inch in length. 7741. While the baseline record is being made, use the check temperature values ob- tained in accordance with paragraph 7720 to determine whether the temperature element is within the limits required by the provisions of paragraph 6360. (Friez radiosonde: 68.2-74.3 ordinates at 250 C. W. I. T. radiosonde: 67.0- 72.6 ordinates at 250 C.) If the values are near the stated limiting values, the baseline tempera- ture data obtained in accordance with para- graph 7750 should be used to determine whether to replace the temperature element or reject the radiosonde. 7742. Check that the relative humidity ob- tained from the psychrometric readings is within 10 percent (R. H.) of the value indi- cated by the radiosonde. When the radiosonde humidity ordinate is recorded as motorboating, the psychrometric value may be any amount less than the value corresponding to the motor- boating ordinate, but must not be more than 10 percent higher than the motorboating value. 7743. If the agreement between the radio- sonde and psychrometric relative humidity values is not within the 10 percent limit speci- fied in paragraph 7742, the hygrometer element will be rejected and another element installed in the radiosonde. 7743.1. When a hygrometer element taken from a vial that has been stored in the shelter for at least 6 hours is installed in the radio- sonde, the baseline check may be commenced after the element has been exposed 15 minutes or more. In such a case, the baseline check will be at least 5 minutes in duration. 7744. When the requirements for a satisfac- tory baseline check have been met, turn the in- put switch to "SC." Enter the time on the back of WBAN-30 under "Baseline Check ,Readings." Allow all units of the ground equipment to remain in operation. 7745. Disconnect the radiosonde battery wires and turn off the test switch. 7750. Baseline Check Temperature Read- ings.-Read the dry- and wet-bulb tempera- tures to the nearest one-tenth of a degree im- mediately after terminating the baseline check. Compute the relative humidity. Use these val- ues as the baseline check data, and enter them on WBAN-30, in the spaces provided and on the recorder record in the appropriate places. 7751. If the temperature is lower than - 100 C., the readings will be made in OF., converted to OC., and both sets of readings entered on the back of WBAN-30. The Fahrenheit read- ings will be used to compute the relative humidity. 7760. Evaluation of Baseline Chec k Data.-Evaluate the baseline data on the re- corder record. If the paper has not fed out sufficiently, read the baseline check temperature and humidity ordinates as closely as possible, and compare them with the baseline check tem- perature and humidity values to determine whether they are within the limits for the tem- perature resistor and hygrometer element. (See pars. 6360 (or 7741) and 7742.) 7761. When the recorder paper has fed out sufficiently, evaluate the baseline check accord- ing to the following paragraphs. 7761.1. Draw straight lines connecting the left edges of the temperature, humidity, and reference traces which comprise the baseline check. 7761.2. Draw a horizontal line across the re- corder record at the top of the last relative humidity contact. 7761.3. At approximately the tenth ordinate and immediately above the horizontal line, en- ter the notation "Baseline Check," followed by the time (G. C. T.) that the baseline check was obtained. 7761.4. Read the temperature ordinate to tenths. Enter this value immediately above the horizontal line, and immediately to the right of the temperature traces. Enter the proper recorder correction. Enter an equal sign and the corrected temperature ordinate value. En- ter another equal sign followed by the base- line check dry-bulb temperature value. For example: 60.1 - 0.1= 60.0= 8.30 C. 7761.5. Read the humidity ordinate value at the intersection of the horizontal line and the line connecting the left edges of the humidity traces. Enter this value in parentheses just be- low the horizontal line, under the temperature ordinate value, followed by the applicable re- corder correction, the corrected ordinate, and the baseline relative humidity values, humidity correction, and psychrometric humidity value; for example: (40.0 -0.3= 39.7= 40% +4% =44%). The radiosonde baseline check humidity cor- rection will be determined in accordance with paragraph 7765. 36 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 7761.51. If the humidity trace is recorded as motorboating, it will be evaluated as MB. 7761.6. The entries of the baseline humidity data may be spaced out to prevent obliteration of any part of the baseline record. 7762. Using the baseline temperature and ordinate values, make a final setting of the tem- perature evaluator and check that the tem- perature value is within the limits stated in paragraph 6360 (or 7741). (If the tempera- ture evaluator is made of cardboard, it can be locked by means of a large paper clip or clamp.) Enter the ordinate value in the proper space on WBAN-30. 7763. If a radiosonde which shows values out- side the prescribed temperature ordinate range is released, a second release will be made. 7764. Enter the corrected values of the base- line temperature and relative humidity ordi- nates on the back of WBAN-30, under "Base- line Check Readings." If the relative humidity ordinate is evaluated as motorboating, enter "MB" in the space for this datum. 7765. Determine the difference between the humidity value indicated by the radiosonde (including cut-off values when motorboating occurs) and the psychrometic value. This dif- ference is the correction to be applied to the radiosonde humidity values in flight until a new correction is established. A plus sign will be placed before this difference when the value in- dicated by the radiosonde is lower than that of the psychrometer, and a minus sign when it is higher. When the psychrometric value is less than the cut-off value, and the radiosonde is motorboating, the correction will be considered zero. Enter the correction, with the proper sign prefixed on the back of WBAN-30. Note that the amount of correction required must not be greater than 10 percent. 7766. If a radiosonde which shows relative humidity values outside of the prescribed range is inadvertently released, the record will be evaluated, and the relative humidity considered missing. 7800. MAKING THE RELEASE 7810. Raob NOTAMS.-Prior to the release of a radiosonde, all raob stations located at airports having CAA broadcasting facilities will file a "notice to airmen" (NOTAM) with the CAA communicator. This NOTAM will state the probable time of the balloon's release and the time it is expected to reach an altitude of 10,000 feet m. s. 1. If it becomes apparent that the time of the release will be delayed more than 15 minutes, a correction to the first NOTAM will be filed at once. These NOTAMS will be broadcast and transmitted to local inter- phone and teletype circuits. No transmission will be made to long-line circuits, except as may be necessary to notify the Airway Traffic Con- trol Center concerned. 7820. Preliminaries.-Determine the pres- sure at the elevation of the instrument shelter, and the proper contact point setting for this pressure. Lower the contact arm and adjust the commutator to the proper setting. Lock in place, or seal with scotch tape, the slide or flap in front of the commutator adjustment screw. 7821. Disconnect the radiosonde test leads from the test switch. Clip off the bare por- tions only of the radiosonde test leads except about one thirty-second of an inch of the high reference test lead. If the radiosonde has no high reference test lead, leave the short portion on the low reference test lead. This will be used to secure the release point on the recorder record. 7830. Assembly of Train.-Tie the 50-foot cord extending from the parachute to the 4-foot cord fastened to the radiosonde. Tie the bal- last balloon and all other elements of the train in their proper positions. (See sec. 4600.) 7840. Check of Train.-Take the assembled train to a point where all obstructions will be cleared at release. Make a rapid visual check of the train. 7841. Note that: (1) All knots are secure. (2) The parachute is properly unfurled with all shrouds clear. (3) The upper leg of the antenna is se- curely fastened to the cord and neither too tight nor too loose. (4) The lower leg of the antenna is hang- ing straight and has no kinks. (5) The contact arm is resting on the commutator. (6) The ventilation flaps are secured in an open position. (7) The recovery tags are securely fastened beneath the flap. (8) The radiosonde door is sealed with scotch tape. 7842. Connect the battery wires. 7850. The Release.-The observer at the re- corder will turn the input switch to "X,"' tune the receiver, and check that a steady trace of the proper circuit is being received. 7851. The observer at the recorder should note that the value of the circuit being received agrees closely with the value of the same circuit as transmitted during the baseline check. 7851.1. If there has been a change in the tem- perature ordinate value which is not accom- panied by a proportional shift in low reference, and which cannot be accounted for by any dif- ference that may exist between these values at 37 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS the release point and in the instrument shelter, the radiosonde should not be released. Pre- pare the standby radiosonde immediately and check the doubtful radiosonde later. 7852. When the observer at the recorder is satisfied with the operation of the radiosonde, he will have the control tower give the ob- server with the radiosonde the prearranged re- lease signal, if traffic conditions have not changed since the arrangements were made. If there is no control tower, the observer at the recorder will indicate to the observer at the radiosonde that the release may be made. 7853. When the observer at the radiosonde has received the signal that the radiosonde is. operating satisfactorily, he should await the re- lease signal, either from the observer at the recorder or from the control tower. 7854. When the release signal is received, the observer with the radiosonde will briefly touch the exposed tip of the reference wire to the grounded rivet on the side of the case to mark the point of release on the recorder record. 7854.1. If the contact point is on a high ref- erence contact, or if conditions are such that it is not possible to ground the reference test lead, the observer at the recorder should turn the input selector to "SC" momentarily prior to re- lease, and turn it back to "X" at the moment of release. 7854.2. If there is no observer at the recorder, the observer releasing the balloon should note the time at which the radiosonde is released and later, on his return to the recorder, note the time at which a given contact is being re- corded. The surface level on the record can then be located by making use of the known rate of paper feed. NOTE.-The horizontal lines printed on the latest type of Cycloray recorder paper are 1 minute apart, those on older types are one-fourth of a minute apart. The horizontal lines on L&N recorder paper are 1 minute apart. The paper feed rates given here are for recorders operating on 60-cycle current. If the power supply is of some other frequency, the paper feed rate will differ proportionally. 7855. Make a final check of the release condi- tions, especially with regard to any change in the wind or in the position of any mobile ob- structions. 7856. Make the release and note the time. (See sec. 4620 for suggestions on releasing.) 7860. Surface Observation at Release.- Make a complete surface observation as soon as possible after the time of release. The com- plete surface observation will include pressure, dry- and wet-bulb temperatures, wind direction and velocity, types and amount of clouds, cloud directions, weather phenomena, and restrictions to visibility. These data will be entered in the appropriate spaces on the back of WBAN-30. 7861. When no clouds are present, the word "cloudless" will be entered. When clouds are present, they will be entered in accordance with the classifications and notations adopted for synoptic reports. The type of cloud will be preceded by an "L," "M," or "H" to denote "low," "middle," and "high," respectively. The amounts of clouds will be expressed in tenths of sky covered. (The maximum possible cover- age for all cloud layers present is 10 tenths.) When the sky is overcast with breaks, the amount will be recorded as 9+; when clouds covering less than one-tenth of the sky are pres- ent, the amount will be recorded as 1-. Direc- tion of the clouds will be recorded to the nearest 100 and separated from the cloud type by a slant. Calm will be recorded as "00" and un- known as "U". Examples: 10L4/360', 1-M2/U. Cloud classifications are contained in the 1942 Weather Code, part II, tables 50, 51 and 62. 7870. Entry of Clouds and Weather.-In the spaces under this heading on the back of WBAN-30 will be entered notes regarding all significant weather phenomena, such as marked cloud changes, precipitation or thunderstorms, and restrictions to visibility occurring during the raob or within one hour of the beginning and termination of it. The times of beginnings and endings will be recorded if they are within the period beginning one hour before release and ending one hour after the termination of the sounding. If the beginning or ending, or both, extend beyond this period, they will be described as "cont'd" for "continued." Cloud observa- tions made at the time of release will not be re- peated in these spaces. 7871. If it is possible to observe the entry of the raob balloon into the base of any clouds that may be present, this should be done. The ob- server at the recorder should turn the input switch to "SC" momentarily to mark on the recorder record the point of the balloon's entry into the cloud layer. 38 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter VIII. OBTAINING THE RECORDER RECORD 8100. GENERAL 8110. Importance of Proper Tuning.-The observer at the recorder must pay primary at- tention to the task of obtaining an accurate and continuous record. Although it is often possi- ble for an experienced observer to spend con- siderable time evaluating the record during the ascent, this should not be done if it is necessary to neglect the tuning of the receiver. As the radiosonde moves away from the earth's surface, the radio frequency usually drifts slightly, and careful tuning is required. 8120. Proper Use of Antennas.-If more than one antenna is available, the one providing the most satisfactory signal should be used for the flight. Often, because of its location with respect to the path of the radiosondo signal, one antenna will pick up a stronger signal than another. If the radiosonde signal fades or weakens during the observation, switch to the standby antenna, to make sure that the antenna giving the better results is connected to the receiver. 8200. TUNING THE SUPER-REGENERA- TIVE RECEIVER (NATIONAL 1-10RS) 8210. Controls.-The controls of the super- regenerative radiosonde receiver together with a brief description of them and their operation, are given below. (a) Receiver Power Sitches.-The master switch of the ground equipment should be at "ON." If the receiver is equipped with "AC" and "B+" switches, set both to "ON." The pilot lamp above the S-meter is lighted when these switches are in the proper positions, pro- vided there is no failure in the receiver or power circuits. (b) Regeneration Control.-Adjust the re- generation control to as low a reading as will produce maximuni steadiness of the recorder or visual meter indication and maximum signal strength on the S-meter. (If the optimum set- ting has not been determined, set at about "3.") It is important to keep the regeneration setting low, since too high a setting will cause undesir- able oscillation in the receiver, a condition which can be detected by the presence of squealing noises in the speaker and marked unsteadiness of the recorder, visual meter, and S-meter indi- cations. If the S-meter reading is more than "9," adjust the reading to this value by reducing the audio gain. Usually, it will be found that a particular setting of the regeneration control will produce the best results. However, it will be necessary to vary this setting when a weak signal is being received. (c) Audio Gain Control.-Adjust the audio gain so that the S-meter indicates about "5." The gain should be set for only as strong a signal as required to give a steady recorder indication. In many cases it may be necessary to increase the audio gain while a low or high reference signal is being received, and to reduce it while a low ordinate temperature or humid- ity signal is being received. During some types of interference, a steadier record can be ob- tained by reducing the audio gain. (d) R. F. Trimmer.-Adjust the R. F. trim- mer for maximum steadiness of the recorder or visual meter indication, and for maximum sig- nal strength on the S-meter. If the S-meter reading is more than "9," adjust the reading to this value by reducing the audio gain. It will usually be found that a particular setting of the R. F. trimmer will produce the best results for the antenna and lead-in system used. This set- ting should be determined while a weak signal is being received. (e) 8 peak er Volume Control.-If the speaker volume control is on the front control panel, it should be adjusted to the position best suited to the comfort of the observer and any co-workers. If the control is located at the rear of the receiver, the optimum setting should be determined during a flight and the control left at this setting. This adjustment has no effect on the strength or steadiness of the radiosonde signal since it affects only the speaker output. (f) Main Tuning Dial.-On most receivers the radiosonde signal will be located in the range 300 to 340 on the main tuning dial. This range will differ with individual receivers and the exact readings will vary with radiosondes. Adjust the dial for maximum steadiness of the recorder or visual meter indication, and for maximum signal strength on the S-meter. If the S-meter reading is more than "9," reduce the audio gain. Check over a range of about 30 divisions to either side of the peak tuning point to make sure that the receiver is not tuned to a side band. While a fairly strong signal 39 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS may be received on a side band when the trans- mitter is near the receiver, such a signal fades rapidly as the radiosonde ascends. (g) 8-meter.--This meter indicates the strength of the incoming signal, and is there- fore used in determining the optimum settings for the tuning controls. It should be noted that evidence of satisfactory tuning consists of a steady indication on the visual meter and an unwavering trace on the recorder record. 8300. TUNING T HE SUPERHETERO- DYNE RECEIVER (HALLICRAFTERS S-27RS OR S-36RS) 8310. Control Adustments for F. M. Recep- tion.-The controls of the superheterodyne ra- diosonde receiver, together with a brief descrip- tion of them and their operation for F. M. reception, are given below: (a) Band Switch.-Set on "2" to receive the radiosonde signal of 72.2 megacycles. (b) Selectivity Switch.-Set to "BROAD." If interference becomes great enough to prevent the obtaining of a steady record, set to "SHARP." This will usually require read- justment of the tuning control. This control is the A. C. power switch, as well as the sensi- tivity selector, and the lamps behind the three dials should be lighted when the switch is turned away from the "A. C. OFF" position. (c) Send-Receive Switch.-Set to "REC." The receiver will not operate with this switch in the "SEND" position. (d) A. M.-F. M. Switch.-Set to "F. M.". (e) A. V. C. Switch.-Inoperative for F. M. reception. (f) A. N. L. Switch.-Inoperative for F. M. reception. (g) B. F. O. Switch.-Inoperative for radio- sonde work. (h) R. F. Gain.-Set the R. F. gain control to full position by gently turning the knob in the clockwise direction beyond "9" until a slight resistance is encountered. Then, with a slight additional pressure, turn past this position. A click of the switch will be heard as the max- imum position is reached. (i) Antenna Trimmer Control.-Set at a previously determined optimum value for the particular antenna and lead-in system used. If this setting is unknown or has not been de- termined, adjust the antenna trimmer for the maximum output of the speaker. (j) A. F. Gain.-Set at about "5." Increase or reduce as required to obtain a steady record. It may often be found necessary to increase the A. F. gain while a reference signal is being received and to reduce it while a low ordinate temperature or humidity signal is being received. (k) Pitch Control.-This control is inopera- tive for radiosonde work. (1) Speaker Volumlne Control.-The speaker volume control is located in the position labeled "TONE." (The tone control is inoperative for radiosonde work.) Adjust this control to the position best suited to the comfort of the ob- server and any co-workers. The speaker vol- ume control has no effect on the strength or steadiness of the radiosonde signal since it affects only the speaker output. (m) Main Tuning Dial.-This dial indicates the radio frequency of the received signal. It is adjusted by means of the tuning control. (n) Vernier Dial.-This dial, located imme- diately above the tuning control, aids in more closely marking the tuning position of a re- ceived signal. It is controlled by the tuning control and operates in conjunction with the main tuning dial. (o) Carrier Indicator or Tuning Meter.- This meter is also known as the "S-meter," and serves as an aid in obtaining correct tuning. (p) Speaker.-The speaker is also an aid in determining the tuning control setting for maxi- mum sensitivity and steadiness of the recorder indication. It is most useful in locating a sig- nal when the receiver is first being tuned or when the signal becomes temporarily lost due to interference or shifting frequency. (q) Tuning Control.-With the band switch on "2," check over a range of 2 to 3 megacycles to each side of the radiosonde signal to make sure that the receiver is not tuned to a side band. While a fairly strong signal is received on a side band when the radiosonde is near the re- ceiver, such a signal fades rapidly as the radio- sonde ascends. For peak tuning, adjust the tuning control and observe the action of the carrier indicator pointer. The pointer will start from the red zero and move to a maximum on one side as the signal frequency is ap- proached. Then, it will reverse and move to a maximum in the opposite direction, and finally fall back to zero as the signal is lost. When the pointer reaches the red zero line in its travel from a maximum in one direction to a maxi- mum in the other direction, the receiver is tuned to the exact signal frequency. The steadiest in- dication on the recorder record and visual meter can usually be obtained with the receiver tuned slightly to one side of the signal frequency. Locate this tuning position, by tuning from olne side of the exact signal frequency to the other side and use the point giving the steadiest record. Care must be taken with this type of receiver that the signal is properly tuned and not distorted. Frequently, with a low ordinate signal being received, such distortion will cause the signal to be recorded at twice the proper ordinate. Often, readjustment of the tuning 40 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS control is required each time the radiosonde signal switches from a high to a low ordinate value, and vice versa. 8320. Adjustment of Controls for A. M. Re- ception.-In some rare cases, a weak signal may be tuned in more sharply if A. M. tuning is used. When using A. M. tuning change the positions of the controls as indicated below. The other controls remain unchanged from the positions stated in sec. 8310. (a) A. M.-F. M. Switch.-Set to "A. M." (b) Selectivity Switch.-Set to either "SHARP" or "BROAD," whichever produces the better results. (c) A. V. C. Switch.-Set to "ON." (d) A. N. L. Switch.-Set to "ON." (e) Carrier Indicator.-For A. M. tuning, the carrier indicator meter operates as an S- meter and the pointer indicates in the scale be- ginning with the black zero. The meter op- erates as an S-meter only if the R. F. gain is set at maximum. (f) Tuning Control.-Adjust the tuning con- trol so that maximum deflection of the carrier indicator pointer is obtained. It is often bet- ter to adjust slightly to one side or the other of this point to obtain maximum steadiness of record. (g) A. F. Gain.-Increase or decrease the A. F. gain as required to obtain a steady record. It may often be found necessary to increase the A. F. gain while a high ordinate signal is being received and to reduce it when receiving a low ordinate signal. The carrier indicator reading should be near but not above "9," and never below "3" in such cases. 8321. If no material improvement in recep- tion is noted when using A. M. tuning, return to F. M. tuning, since this receiver usually op- erates more efficiently for radiosonde work wAhen the F. M1. circuit is used. 8400. ADJUSTING FREQUENCY UNIT 8410. Setting Low Reference to 95.0.-As each low reference is recorded, first note that the receiver is properly tuned and that the trace is being recorded clearly. Then, if required, adjust the low reference to 95.0, making sure that this adjustment is completed in time to allow a portion of the adjusted trace to record, before the signal switches to the temperature circuit. If the ascensional rate is so high that the recorded low reference traces are too short to provide a readable record both before and after adjustment, no adjustment should be at- tempted. Similarly, do not attempt to make an adjustment when the low reference trace is so scattered that there is doubt as to the actual value of the low reference ordinate. 8500. DRIFT OF RECORDER PAPER 8510. Checking Recorder Zero Setting.- From time to time check the alignment of the recorder paper. If it appears that the paper is drifting, turn the input switch to "SC" mo- mentarily to obtain a zero recording. The switch should be held at "SC" long enough for the recorder microammeter needle to reach the zero setting. This check should be made at a point in the record where no significant data will be lost, preferably during a long temper- ature trace. 8600. TERMINATION OF THE RECORDER RECORD 8610. Bursting Point.-Keep the receiver in tune in order to obtain the bursting point of the balloon when possible. If the bursting point is recorded, obtain the descent record as stated in paragraph 8620. 8620. Descent Record.-On nighttime raobs, obtain the descent record through the first high reference contact after the bursting point. On daytime raobs obtain the descent record to the 400-millibar level, or as close to that level as possible, if the descent temperatures near the bursting point are lower by 3o or more than the ascent temperatures at the corresponding points. If the temperature difference is less than 31, obtain the descent record for at least 5 contacts, continuing further, if necessary, to the first high reference contact. 8630. Zero Recording.-After the termina- tion of the observation, turn the input switch to 'SC" and obtain a recording of the recorder zero. A short portion of the zero recording after the termination of the observation will be submitted as part of the record. 8631. Check the zero recording to determine whether paper drift corrections are required. If the maximum paper drift, as indicated by a change in the position of the zero recording is more than 0.3 of an ordinate, paper drift correc- tions will be applied to all temperature ordi- nates. (See par. 9532.) 8632. If a Cycloray recorder is used, the zero record should be continued until the paper has moved out of the recorder far enough to permit a portion of the zero record to be cut off with the remainder of the flight record. The paper should be allowed to feed out of the recorder since the paper will be out of alignment if it is pulled out mnanually. 8700. OBSERVATIONS BY VISUAL METER 8710. Recorder Failure Prior to Baseline Check.-If the recorder fails prior to the start- 41 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS ing of the baseline check, and repairs cannot be made immediately, obtain the baseline check and flight ordinate values by reading the visual meter of the frequency unit. Proceed as follows: (a) Carefully read the ordinate value for the temperature, humidity, low reference, or high reference portion of each contact as nearly as possible at the instant before the visual meter pointer moves to the next portion of a contact. If the low reference is adjusted, a reading should be made before and after adjustment. (b) Tabulate these readings in any conven- ient manner. The right edge of the recorder paper may be used for this purpose. In any case, preserve the tabulated values for forward- ing with the other forms for the observation. (c) Using a uniform time scale of one con- tact per minute, plot a point for each of these tabulated values on a length of recorder paper. (See fig. 8-1, which shows, for example, that contact No. 7 consists of a temperature value of 71.4 ordinates and a humidity value of 63.9.) These two values are plotted in the third full minute space after release. (d) Evaluate the plotted record in the same manner as a recorder record, applying visual meter corrections, if required, instead of re- corder corrections. (See ch. IX.) 8720. Recorder Failure During Flight.-If the recorder becomes inoperative during the ob- servation, the remainder of the flight will be obtained by visual readings made in the manner described in paragraph 8710. However, if the visual meter and recorder were not in agree- ment at 95.0 before the failure, a correction in the amount of the disagreement must be ap- plied to all values between the last low refer- ence contact before the failure and the first low reference after the failure. 8721. For example, assume that at the last low reference before the failure the visual meter 3 'I g r rtswii i iii ir t[ ttt i I I ! I_ z H ill i i iiLL1 1 a 2 z a x 3 z 0 0 x 30 0e 2 K 0 K o o .� FIGURE 8-1.-Portion of raob record plotted from visual meter readings. 10 20 3 0 0 0 0 I 0 I I 1 1 , I 111111177711111111 If lI II1120 I 1 30 40 50 60 181111I I1110 IIII soll iI i 71 IIII solIII 111 I I I 1 I I I I I 1 11~111 1 III I I 1_1 I I I I I 1 I I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ) ) I I 1 I I 1~1 I ( I I I I _I.H+CCH- -f~BCQf-I#CK TCrH13-!t- rI I ! 1 5~11 1I iI I IPI<~FI ~ I .~~I~clwr II ~-~ II ~it~ (I II II II II 1I II_ II .......................~~'~90 Ib~ I II f~i 42 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS and recorder disagree by 5.0 ordinates, or that the visual meter indicates 90.0 when the recorder indicates 95.0. Also, assume that at the first low reference after the failure the visual meter indicates 88.0, that is, a drift of 2.0 ordinates has occurred. The recorded temperature and humidity values must be corrected by the pro- portional part of 2.0 ordinates and the visual readings by the proportional part of 7.0 ordi- nates. In other words, the 2.0 ordinates are considered as a drift and the 5.0 ordinates as a shift at the contact on which visual readings were begun. On the low reference contact, ad- just the visual meter to 95.0 and apply drift and shift corrections in the same manner as for the recorder record. (See pars. 9520 and 9521.) 43 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter IX. EVALUATING THE RECORDER RECORD 9100. GENERAL 9101. A raob that may be regarded as satis- factory, that is, one not necessitating a second release, must satisfy certain conditions of height and limitations of doubtful and missing data. These conditions and limitations are described in the following paragraphs. While evaluating the recorder record, the observer will be alert for evidences of conditions that will necessitate a second release. When a second release is re- quired but not made, the reasons therefor will be given fully in a note on the recorder record. 9110. SATISFACTORY RAOB- CRITERIA 9111. A raob must satisfy the conditions stated below. If the conditions are not satisfied, a second radiosonde will be released as promptly as possible (see pars. 7110 and 7111 for instruc- tions concerning delayed observations). How- ever, if owing to unfavorable atmospheric con- ditions or other reasons it is apparent that a height greater than 3 km. above the elevation of the station cannot be attained in subsequent at- tempts, an additional release will not be made. The descent record will be used only for com- puting corrections to the ascent temperatures; it will not be used for computing the sounding when the ascent record is poor or missing. 9112. Data must be sufficient to permit com- putation of the raob to an elevation of at least 3 km. above the elevation of the station. 9113. There must be not more than five con- secutive contacts of missing or doubtful tem- perature data between the surface level and an elevation of 3 km. above the station. 9114. If, because of prevailing weather con- ditions, the relative humidity is of decided im- portance, there must be not more than five con- secutive contacts of missing relative humidity data between the surface level and an elevation of 3 kmn. above the station. In many instances, the record might be considered satisfactory even though the relative humidity record were en- tirely missing from the observation. 9115. When a second release is made, the cali- bration chart and the recorder record pertain- ing to the first radiosonde will be submitted with the rest of the station's forms in accord- ance with the provisions of chapter X. The chart and record will be properly labeled and include the surface data at release and the base- line check. A complete explanation of the cir- cumstances attending the failure of the radio- sonde will be entered under the identifying data on the recorder record. 9120. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA AS DOUBTFUL AND MISSING 9120.1. When abnormal functioning of the ra- diosonde or ground equipment occurs, the ac- curacy of the raob data will be classified in accordance with the following paragraphs. A precise determination of the accuracy of the data will often be difficult or impossible. Classification, therefore, will be based upon the possible error characteristic of common situations. 9121. Temperature.-If the possible error is 10 C. or less, the data will be considered ac- curate. 9121.1. If the possible error is more than 10 C., but not more than 30 C., the data will be considered doubtful. 9121.2. If the possible error is more than 3o C., the data will be considered missing. 9122. Relative Humidity.-If the possible error is 10 percent or less, the data will be con- sidered accurate. 9122.1. If the possible error is more than 10 percent, the data will be considered missing. 9122.2. Relative humidity data will be classi- fled as missing whenever the radiosonde fails to transmit relative humidity data (including motorboating values) while the temperature is -400 or higher. 9122.3. Relative humidity data will not be classified as doubtful. 9123. Sources of Possible Error.-]Data may be subject to possible error because of any of the following conditions: 9123.1. The temperature or relative humidity trace (for reasons other than motorboating) may be entirely missing or scattered to such an extent that the actual ordinate values can- not be determined. If the stratum is more than five contacts in extent, the data will be classi- fied as missing. If it is not more than five con- tacts, the data will be classified as accurate, doubtful, or missing, in accordance with para- graphs 9121 and 9122. 9123.2. The low reference trace may be en- tirely missing or scattered to such an extent 44 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS that the actual ordinate value cannot be de- termined, thereby introducing a possible error in the value of the temperature and relative humidity ordinates. This condition often oc- curs near the end of a sounding when the radio- sonde signal may be so weak that the reference traces are not readable. In such cases, the error at the low reference ordinate is proportionately larger than at the temperature or relative hu- midity ordinate. For example, an unreadable low reference trace may have drifted three or- dinates, but a temperature trace evaluated as 20 ordinates would be only slightly more than 0.6 ordinate or 10 C. in error. 9123.3. A shift may occur in the temperature or relative humidity traces unaccompanied by a corresponding proportional shift in the low reference trace. The magnitude of possible er- ror in the relative humidity or temperature ordinate is determined in such cases by the mag- nitude of the shift. 9123.4. A shift of the low reference trace may occur unaccompanied by a corresponding proportional shift in the temperature and rela- tive humidity traces. The possible error in the latter traces will be less than the amount of the shift in low reference. 9123.5. Since temperature is a factor in the evaluation of relative humidity from the cali- bration chart, any error in the temperature data will introduce an error in the relative hu- midity evaluation. 9123.6. When a pressure cell in the radiosonde is leaking, the temperature and tropopause ap- pear higher and the maximum altitude of the raob greater than might normally be expected. In such cases, it is frequently difficult to deter- mine exactly where the leaking in the pressure cell commenced. All data may, therefore, be in error; and, in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 9112 and 9113, a second release may be required if the point where leakage began cannot be determined. 9123.7. Whenever the radiosonde fails to switch from temperature to relative humidity over a portion of the record not more than five contacts in extent, the temperature data will be considered accurate. The pressure contact val- ues of significant levels in this portion of the record will be computed by determining the pro- portional parts of the distance between the reference traces. If the continuous temperature trace is more than five contacts in extent, the temperature data will be classified as accurate, doubtful, or missing, depending upon the amount of possible error involved. 9123.8. If the radiosonde should cease to switch and thereafter only a continuous tem- perature trace is recorded, the data will be con- sidered missing and the computations termi- 613388--45-4 nated at the last contact at which switching occurred. 9123.9. Whenever any portion of the tem- perature record is classified as doubtful, the computations will be continued in the normal manner, except that more than five consecutive contacts of doubtful temperature data between the surface and 3,000 meters above the elevation of the station will necessitate a second raob. 9125. Termination 0 w i n g to Missing Data.-Whenever a stratum of missing tem- perature data is followed by a satisfactory record, the computations will be continued, pro- vided the stratum of missing data does not ex- ceed the following limits: 1. From surface to 3,000 meters above the - elevation of the sta-5 contacts of recorder record. tion. J 2. From 3,000 meters above the surface 2,000 meters. to 7,000 meters, meters. above sea level. 3. From 7,000 meters above sea level to3,000m the termination of meters. the flight. If the tropopause occurs in a stratum of missing temperature data more than 1,500 me- ters thick, the computations will be termi- nated. Whenever the limits above are ex- ceeded, the computations will be terminated at the beginning of the stratum of missing data. If the stratum of temperature data classified as missing is less than these limits, the com- putations will be continued in the normal manner. 9125.1. When relative humidity data are classified as missing, the computation of a sounding will be continued in the normal man- ner, except as provided in paragraph 9114. 9130. Entry of Surface Data, Etc., on Re- corder Record.-Within the first 7 inches of the record to be submitted, and at a place where the entries do not interfere with the baseline check data, enter the name of the sta- tion, date, and time of release G. C. T., radio- sonde serial number, reason for termination of the sounding, and name of computer and veri- fier. Begin each entry at about the tenth ordi- nate line on the recorder paper, as shown in figure 9-1. 9131. Enter the complete surface observation at release just below the release level at about the tenth ordinate line. These entries will com- prise pressure at the floor of the instrument shelter and the corresponding contact number, temperature, relative humidity, weather, wind, and clouds. If the elevation of the point of release is more than 3 meters different from that of the floor of the instrument shelter, the contact corresponding to the release point, cornm- 45 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS puted in accordance with paragraph 7344.2, will be entered in parentheses beside the contact corresponding to the pressure at the floor of the instrument shelter. Weather will be recorded in the same symbols as are used in airway weather reports and described in Weather Bureau Circular N. Wind will be entered to 16 points and in meters to tenths per second. Clouds will be entered in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 7861. "Cloudless" will be entered when no clouds are present. 9132. Notes and comments pertinent to the observation may be entered on the recorder be- low the station identification data. Observers are encouraged to make such entries on the record as will assist in clarifying, qualifying, or explaining any unusual aspects of the record. The provisions of this paragraph will not be construed as authorizing the solicitation of such instructions and opinions as should properly be made the subject of a letter. 9200. SELECTION OF SIGNIFICANT LEVELS (See figs. 9-1 to 9-7) 9201. Draw a horizontal line completely across the recorder record through each sig- nificant level selected in accordance with the following instructions. When selections have been completed, inspect the temperature trace between each pair of consecutive significant levels to determine whether additional levels need be selected. 9202. Surface.--Place a level at the point of the balloon's release. i 0 U a ~ o z z g w 1 o r 11 B 9210. Temperature.-Place levels at signifi- cant changes in the lapse rate. The significance of any point may be determined by placing a straightedge over the adj acent points of change. If the departure of the point in question from the linearity represented by the straightedge equals 10 C. in the troposphere and 20 C. in the stratosphere, the point will be considered as at a significant change in lapse rate. (See fig. 9-2.) 9211. Place levels at the bases and tops of all significant temperature inversions and isother- mal layers. The significance of temperature in- versions and isothermal layers will be deter- mined in accordance with the preceding para- graph. It should be noted that it is not suf- ficient to place a level at the base of a tempera- ture inversion or an isothermal layer and not place one at the top also, or vice versa; nor is it correct to place a level at the middle of such layers only. 9212. Place levels 'at the extreme maximum and minimum temperatures recorded. 9220. Relative Humidity.-Place levels at points indicating significant changes in the vertical relative humidity gradient. If the de- parture of any point from the linearity repre- sented by a straightedge placed over adjacent points of change equals 10 percent, the point will be considered significant. (See fig. 9-2.) 9221. Place a level between the -370 and - 400 portion of the record or the highest usable humidity contact below this portion. 9222. Relative humidity will not be evaluated on the recorder record for levels whose tempera- ture is lower than -400. .11111111111111111 111111111111111111 1111111111 It I I 0 50 0 8 90 I I III 1 1,210 1 11 1 .1 1 501 1 1 . ' ,,,, 4 j ,11 1'o1 118i011 9 I I II I - i '' ' " X I I IN I H I I I I I Li - 1 1- r 1 r- i u rr r I r I :1 i .I If 111111 Ir ~ 111111 11 1 II I II I I I I I I I I 1 ! 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIGURE 9-2.-Determining the significance of a point on the recorder record. NoTE.-Levels Nos. 4 and 5 have been selected, and it is desired to determine whether any point between the levels departs by 10 in temperature or 10 percent in relative humidity from the linearity represented by the straightedge AB, which is laid over the adjacent points of change. The temperature and relative humidity are evaluated at the points D and C. A difference of more than 10 in temperature but less than 10 percent in rela- tive humidity is noted between the two points. A level accordingly is placed at C on the temperature trace. I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I "I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 11 Will 111,111 1111 ... Hill r77- M "911111111.1 rr...t-I II 111 -lTl 11111 1 h f II I 1I 1I l n i huh fluff rr I I I r IIII r r rIrr Iirn i r 46 0 I p I a ii I' . 3E75 r~a~ ).3rniM~N. DLBION DI~IEN VIATON CRPORtION BALIMOR. MD. U.A. CCLORY ECRDERCHAR WHE ORDRINGSP~CFY N. 324~ FI OR. MD. U.SA. CCLORY REORDE C~AT VhLEN $I~DRINO5P4CFY N. 3245REICORDERTUICINT. WIWHNEN DIX VIATON C)RPOATIO. BATIMONO.M..3US7A. CHARY PAPER NO. 9-5001 COPIR. 191 BY FRIEZ INSTRUMENT DIVISION. BENDIX AVIATIO14 CORPORATION PRINTED IN U.S.A. 2 NSMIIS- yo~igO. 11bIXAVIATION CORPORATION. BALTIJ CHART PAPER NO. 9.5.V127 =OPR. 1943 BY FRIJZ INSTRUMENT DIVISION. BEIDIX AVIATION CORPORATI PRINTED 11 a' IU.S.A., CNHjT PAPER NO. 400O527 ,-OPR. 1941., Y FRIEZ INSTRUMENT VP i jT~ ~ N :<: ~ ~ A-4 1910N. BINDIX AVIATION CORPORATION Fiouas Q0-1.-Recorder record. 638~4 F ECORDER CHART WHEN ORDERINCo SPECIPM NO. 32741 UNIM AVIATION C .rrtHM MWRUbfKMT- DW49MON,- OX41X AVIATION CORPORATION1 FRI ORE, MO., U.S.A. rmax- tN*-rpu+ffNT- btVtSION. BALTIMORE, MO., U.S.-A. CYCLOR*VJ nORPORATION. BALTIMORE. MO.. U.S.A. CYCLORAY RECORDEA C IART- 613388*-45 We INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 9223. Motorboating Relative Humidity (See fig. 9-3).-The motorboating ordinate recorded will vary slightly with radiosondes and recorders. The points at which the relative humidity trace reaches or leaves motorboating values are termed cut-off points. The cut-off point will be considered as at an ordinate of 5.0 for any radiosonde whose motorboating ordi- nate is actually more or less than 5.0. 9223.1. Place levels at cut-off points that bound motorboating strata four contacts or more in extent. Levels need not be placed for strata of lesser extent unless the cut-off values pertaining to the strata differ by more than 10 percent from the relative humidity values of succeeding and preceding levels. 9223.2. A level need not be placed at the exact point of cut-off if temperature or other con- siderations make it desirable that a level be placed within a fraction of a contact above or below this point. The level will be considered as at the cut-off point and the relative humidity ordinate evaluated as 5.0. If the relative hu- midity trace varies between motorboating and nonmotorboating values, and the variations do not exceed the cut-off value by more than 10 percent, the stratum may be considered either wholly above or wholly below the cut-off point. Decision will be basedc on the predominant values. 9230. Additional Levels.-Place additional levels as follows: 9231. Within every motorboating stratum of more than four contacts; a level need not be placed within a motorboating stratum four con- tacts or less in extent, unless some point within the stratum is otherwise significant. A level placed in accordance with paragraph 9223.2 will be considered the lower boundary of the motor- boating stratum. 9232. If the radiosonde should descend owing to icing or turbulence and then reascend, a level will be placed at the highest complete contact of the first ascent and another level at the same contact of the second or last ascent. 9233. Where necessary to reduce the differ- ence in pressure between any two successive levels to 100 millibars or less. 9234. At the bursting point of the balloon or at the highest usable point of the record. If the bursting point occurs at a reference or a relative humidity contact, the temperature trace ~tiKK.t:1i K S110 20 30 40 0 60o 0 80 z 9 FIGURE 9-3.--Placing levels at cut-off points and in a motorboating stratum. NOTE.-The stratum AB is adjudged to be predominantly motorboating despite the points at D and C. Level No. 6 placed at the top of the inversion satisfies the requirement for one level in every motorboating stratum more than four contacts in extent. Point A is at a cut-off point and therefore evaluated as 5.0. No drift or recorder corrections are applied. This is also true of level No. 6, which is evaluated as MB. Level No. 7 is placed slightly above the cut-off point because of the change in temperature lapse rate at C. B nevertheless is evaluated as at the cut-off point and assigned an ordinate value of 5.0. O ii N Z J I 47 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS will be extrapolated to the bursting point if this can be done accurately. If it cannot be done with accuracy because the temperature has been varying considerably, or for other reasons, the flight will be terminated at the top of the last temperature contact. 9235. At the base of any cloud layer that the balloon is seen to enter; this level will have been marked by the observer at the recorder in ac- cordance with paragraph 7871. 9236. At the beginnings and endings of strata whose temperature or relative humidity data, or both, are classified as missing or doubtful. On the levels bounding missing strata, enter the notation "Beginning (or end) missing (or doubtful) data." This notation will be made close to the evaluated data but in a position where it will not interfere with or obliterate any part of the record or the evaluations. 9237. Within each stratum classified .as miss- ing. Since it will not be possible to evaluate data pertaining to such levels, the exact points at which the levels are placed is unimportant, but it is necessary that they be assigned a level number to aid in constructing the adiabatic chart and coding the raob message. For these purposes, only one level will be placed within each stratum of data classified as missing. Enter "Data missing" on the levels. 9238. At the base of strata in which icing occurs. 9238.1 Indications of Icing.-The occur- rence of icing under favorable conditions of temperature and relative humidity is usually indicated by a decrease in the ascensional rate of the raob balloon and a consequent lengthen- ing of the contacts on the recorder record. Since a decrease in the ascensional rate can be caused by turbulence as well as icing, the temperature and relative humidity will be examined criti- cally before assuming that the decrease is owing to icing. It will be noted that there should be a progressive increase in the length of the con- tacts to support the assumption that the accre- tion of ice is increasing. This increase cannot usually be exhibited in less than four contacts. Moreover, the temperature should be close to freezing or below, and the relative humidity high. The selection of a level at the base of a stratum within which icing occurs should be correlated with the selection of RAICG and RAFRZ data, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XI. 9240. DESCENT RECORD (See fig. 9-4) 0241. On daytime raobs, if any point on the descent record between the bursting point of the balloon and the 400-millibar surface is lower by 30 or more than the corresponding point on the ascent, corrections will be applied to the ascent temperatures. These corrections will be applied only above the 400-millibar surface and will be determined as follows: 9242. Select a point on the descent record one or two contacts below the bursting point of the balloon. It is not advisable to select the last contact reached because of the poor ventilation at that point. Draw a short horizontal line through the point selected. Select as many ad- ditional salient points on the descent record as can be clearly identified with corresponding points on the ascent record. Draw a short hori- zontal line through the points. Because of hysteresis, or lag, in the baroswitch section, these points will not necessarily be of the same pressure contact value as the corresponding points on the ascent record. 9243. When the bursting point of the balloon is above the tropopause, ascent temperature cor- rections will not be applied unless the tempera- ture difference between the ascent and descent records can be established for at least two points between the bursting point and the 400-millibar surface. If the bursting point occurs between the 400-millibar surface and the tropopause, the temperature difference for at least one point must be determined. 9300. CONTACT NUMBERS AND DRIFT LINE (See fig. 9-1) 9310. At each high and low reference contact, write the contact number (5, 10, 15, 20, etc.) to the right of the reference trace, provided the contact number is a multiple of 5. Connect each successive recorded low reference contact with a straight line, termed the "drift line," drawn from the upper left edge of the lower low refer- ence contact to the lower left edge of the suc- ceeding one, regardless of whether intervening low reference contacts are missing. This pro- cedure will be altered as explained below if a shift has occurred between successive low refer- ence contacts. (See par. 9350.) 9320. At the top and bottom of each low ref- erence contact and immediately to the left of it, enter to tenths of ordinates, with proper sign prefixed, the difference between the low refer- ence ordinate and the ninety-fifth. This difference is termed "the low reference drift correction." 9330. Draw the drift line vertically that is, parallel to the printed ordinate lines-from the lower left edge of the first low reference after release to the surface level, unless there is evi- dence to indicate that there has been a shift be- tween release and the first low reference. This may be indicated by an abrupt shift in the temperature trace or the displaced position of 48 INSTRUCTIOIS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 49 "I I i I : % i r1 111111111111811 111111111111111111111111111111 IIIIIIIII.I & _.I1iIiIIIIiIr i i lIIIi1 IIIIiIiIi1 iIII iiIIIIIiiiIi . III~ ~11111III111111iIIII1 40 5o so IIIIIIllIIIIIIIlliIIiIIII11 i � ~I I I I I I I I 1 I I i I 1 L I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I i I i I 1 I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I ~ I .1I 11I II 1 A II II IiI II I1 I I JR 9- . es en record1II lII IIIL . I11IIL INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS any high reference trace that might have been recorded between release and the first low refer- ence. The high reference ordinate differs from the low reference ordinate by an amount that is practically constant for a given radiosonde. 9340. If the record indicates that there has been an abrupt shift, draw the drift line ac- cordingly. Inspect the record to determine that there has been a shift of all elements and the shifts are proportional to their ordinate values. Determine carefully that there has not been an independent shift of the temperature trace. (See par. 9350.) 9350. If there has been a drift as well as a shift, draw the drift line as follows (see fig. 9-5): (1) Multiply the amount of shift of the tem- perature ordinate by the ordinate of the low reference before the shift, and divide the prod- uct by the temperature ordinate before the shift, thus: Shift of temperature ordinate x low reference before shift Correction for shift to be applied to Temperature ordinate before shift the following low reference contact. (2) At the following low reference place a point an amount equal to and in a direction opposite from the computed low reference shift. The difference between this point and the pre- ceding low reference is the amount of drift which occurred in addition to the shift. Draw the drift line from the preceding low reference toward this point, but stop at the level of the shift. Then displace the drift line the same direction and amount as the computed low ref- erence shift. Continue the drift line to the left edge of the following low reference. 9360. Missing Low Reference Contacts.- If one or more low reference contacts are miss- ing, draw the drift line between the first read- able low reference contact above and below them. If all the low reference contacts should become unreadable, but the temperature and relative humidity record continues readable, the drift line may be drawn vertically-that is, parallel to the printed ordinate lines-from the last readable low reference contact to the termination of the sounding, provided there has been little or no drifting and shifting and the temperature record indicates little possi- bility of a shift having occurred after the low reference contacts became unreadable. Under these circumstances, the data will be classified a.s accurate, doubtful, or missing, in accordance with paragraph 9121. L L 10 20 3 X40 X{ 60 0 i l 80 I i ! t ri 90I FIGURE 9-5.-Determination of drift-shift correction. NOTE.--At the point of shift, the line AB is drawn through the temperature trace and drift line. The shift of the temperature trace is 1.7 ordinates; the temperature ordinate before the shift, 53.8; and the preceding low reference 1.7 X 95 ordinate value, 95.0. Substituting the values in the formula above 53.8 2.6 (amount of shift at low reference). Point C at the base of the first low reference following the shift was displaced to the right-that is, in a direction opposite to that of the shift--2.6 ordinates. This point is marked "D." CD is the shift. DE, or the remainder, is the drift. The points D and F are lined up and a solid line drawn from F to G. G is then displaced to the left 2.6 ordinates to the point H. The points C and H are connected with a solid line and the line CH used as the drift line for any levels placed between them. The line FG is the drift line applicable to any levels coming between them. 50 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 9361. If the record indicates that an appre- ciable amount of shifting or drifting occurred, the drift line will be drawn in the same manner and the data examined very carefully with a view to classifying them as doubtful or miss- ing, since the possible error in such cases may be appreciably large. 9400. ENTERING DATA ON SIGNIFICANT LEVELS 9410. Level Number.-Number each signifi- cant level, making the surface level number 1. Write the appropriate number upon the level and at the extreme left of the recorder record. In cases of multiple ascents (see par. 9232), assign a level number one higher to the first level on the last ascent than the last level on the first ascent. 9411. On all levels except the surface, enter to the left of the drift line the ordinate difference between the drift line and the ninety-fifth or- dinate. Place a plus sign before the difference if the drift line is to the left of the ninety-fifth ordinate and a minus sign if it is to the right. 9420. Pressure Contact Value.-At each significant level, determine the pressure contact value to the nearest tenth by counting the con- tacts from the preceding reference contact, num- bered in accordance with paragraph 9310, to the given level. A contact begins at the base of the relative humidity or reference portion and ends at the top of the temperature portion. Deter- mine proportional parts of a contact with ref- erence to the whole contact as it appears on the recorder record; that is, the relative humidity portion of a contact will not necessarily be con- sidered as one-fourth of the whole contact-it may be as little as one-tenth or as much as nine- tenths. 9421. Enter the values of the pressure con- tacts immediately to the left of the temperature trace and upon the levels. 9422. On the surface level, enter the value of the pressure contact at release, as it appears on the recorder record. Enter this value on the back of WBAN-30 also, under the heading "Contact from Recorder Record." Beside this, enter under "Contact from Calibration Chart" the contact corresponding to the pressure at the time and point of release. (See par. 9131.) The fractional value of the contact at release will usually be estimated by comparing it with the length of the following contact, except that when conditions of wind and precipitation make this impossible the most reasonable value will be assigned to the contact. 9423. Discrepant Contact at Release.- Compare the value of the contact at release, as determined from the recorder record, with the computed value, as determined from the calibra- tion chart in accordance with paragraph 9422. 9423.1. If the difference between these two values is 0.2 contact or less, no corrections need be applied to the computed pressure contact values for the significant levels. 9423.2. If the difference is between 0.3 and 0.5 contact, inclusive, apply the difference to the pressure contact value. For example, if the record shows that the radiosonde was released with the contact point set at 5.0 contact and the calibration chart indicates that this setting should have been 4.5 contact, the pressure con- tact at the surface level will be entered as 5.0-0.5=4.5. In the same manner, this correc- tion of -0.5 contact will then be applied to the pressure contact values of all other significant levels. 9423.3. If the difference is more than 0.5 con- tact, the pressure calibration curve will be dis- placed in accordance with the following instructions: 9424. Displacing Calibration Curve (see fig. 9-6).-On the calibration chart, plot a point at the intersection of the actual contact at re- lease and the corresponding pressure. Measure the distance vertically from this point to the curve on the calibration chart. Displace the curve vertically in an amount equal to this dis- tance at a number of points throughout its length, and draw a new curve through the points. Cross out the old curve, and use the new curve for computing all values of pressure. 9430. Evaluation of Temperature Ordi- nate.-Owing to the effect of solar heating, day- time recorder records frequently show zigzag fluctuations in the temperature traces. When evaluating such traces, use the left or low tem- perature values. A penciled line connecting the low temperature values of the traces may be drawn to aid in the evaluation, taking care to avoid eliminating the larger fluctuations that indicate actual variations in the temperature of the air. Data evaluated in accordance with the provisions of this paragraph will not be con- sidered "doubtful" or "missing." (See fig. 9-7.) 9431. Enter the temperature ordinate values to tenths immediately to the right of the tem- perature trace and upon the levels. 9440. Evaluation of Relative Humidity Ordinates.-The relative humidity ordinates will usually be read at a point where the sig- nificant levels intersect a straight line connect- ing the tops of the relative humidity traces above and below them. (See figs. 9-8 and 9-9.) 9441. When the relative humidity is chang- ing rapidly, the effects of polarization (usually manifest during the first portion of each rela- tive humidity trace by a drift to the left) may be neglected. Under these circumstances the relative humidity trace may be evaluated at the point closest to the level. (See fig. 9-10.) 51 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS cc w w>- w I w D uw O NJ jr w w cr �p z U CLk 0<0 Zw Z 2 LI fn 0 pi 52 0 0 0 M N - U) SI z QI z U HG F-) z W 0< Cl -o 0 %t 0 0 0 0 v. a O N d, rl .HMO ft o 34 o a, 12 , . n+ INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS - I jim ,iIJLI1 II IILJ~..1J..LL.I1 yTj ' Ii i Ii I! z, Ir 5 I tl o 20 311I I Iii i I i o0 1 iIIiso I o , 7o iI1iIIi E"~nE~-i.-IIlato �f 'iite'prtr ,! . I;r !. " jl . . . . . .i i ; i n "I ;4; I i." i 1. . I I I 1tIIIIIII I III - II11 1 FIGURE 9-8.-Evaluation of relative humidity trace, example No. 1. NOTE.-Level No. 3, Example No. 1.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by drawing a straight line from the top of the humidity contact below level No. 3 to the top of the relative humidity contact above the level. The polarization effect is very apparent in this example. Polarization is indicated by a decrease of the relative humidity ordinate. f~. t-+-t~t~ ~L~r;-C~-tt~ --- C-- - --- ~ 53 ct '... _ .1112 � I ' w z c r z ! i~ 54 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS X0 20 30 40 50 600l0 80 90 0 FIGURE 9-9.-Evaluation of relative humidity trace, example No. 2. NoTE.-Level No. 7, Example No. 2.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by drawing a straight line from the top of the relative humidity contact below level No. 7 to the top of the relative humidity contact above the level. Although the trend of the relative humidity is rising, each individual contact shows definite evidence of polarization. II O 10 ?0 30 40 30 60 7 11-1111 111111111 II 1Y II1 11 1 10 80 901 1111111111ll m l . s Z .Jlll1lll1l 1 " lr llll IIIII 111111111 11 111111111 11 1I II IT' rll; Nll l l l i I I! ! ; , ~ I ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !i ! ! ! i I 1 I I ItI l lll t IIIII i i l I I I I I I II I I. I t l lI I I I l tl I l I I.I I I I I FIGURE 9-10.-Evaluation of relative humidity trace, example No. 3. NOTE.-Level No. 4, Example No. 3.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by drawing a straight line from the top of the relative humidity contact below level No. 4 to the bottom of the relative humidity contact above the level. At the relative humidity contact above level No. 4, the effect of polarization cannot be recognized because of extreme relative humidity changes while the contact was recording. Therefore, the polarization is disregarded in this case, and all points along the curve formed by the humidity trace may be used. Level No. 5.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by drawing a straight line from the top of the relative humidity contact below level No. 5 to the bottom of the relative humidity contact above the level. As in level No. 4, the polarization effect is disguised by changes in relative humidity. The indicated increase is caused by an actual increase in humidity, and, as such, masks polarization, which always appears as a decrease in the ordinate of relative humidity. 9442. Whenever a significant level occurs at a high or low reference contact, the relative hu- midity will usually be interpolated between the adjacent relative humidity traces. When the temperature lapse rate is uniform, the relative humidity interpolation will be made by con- necting the adjacent relative humidity traces in accordance with paragraph 9440 above. When the temperature record shows an inversion or the beginning or ending of an isothermal layer at a reference contact, the relative humidity record below the level will be extrapolated, and the ordinate of relative humidity obtained at the intersection of the level and the extrapolated trace. Usually, the base of an inversion will coincide with a point of maximum relative hu- midity value for the stratum and the top of an inversion with a point of minimum value. (See fig. 9-11.) S E INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS FIGURE 9-11.-Evaluation of relative humidity trace, example No. 4. NOTE.-Level No. 2, Example No. 4.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by the extrapolation, rather than the interpolation, method illustrated in the previous examples. In this example, extrapolation is necessary to obtain the maximum value of relative humidity. The maximum value should occur at or near the base of an inversion of this type. Level No. 3, Example No. 4.-The relative humidity ordinate is found by drawing a straight line from the top of the humidity contact below the level to the bottom of the humidity contact above the level. Polarization is again disregarded because of the extreme change in the recorded relative humidity. 9443. Read the relative humidity ordinate values to the nearest tenth and enter them imme- diately to the right of the temperature trace and below the levels. These values, and their re- corder and drift corrections, will be enclosed in parentheses. 9444. If at any level the relative humidity trace is believed to be at a cut-off point, the ordi- nate will be evaluated as 5.0. Recorder and drift corrections will not be applied to this value. 94454 If at any level the relative humidity trace is believed to be in a motorboating stratum, but not at cut-off points, the relative humidity ordinate will be evaluated as MB and entered on the recorder record. No corrections of any kind will be applied. 9500. APPLICATIONS OF CORRECTIONS TO TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY ORDINATES 9510. Recorder Corrections.-Enter the ap- plicable recorder corrections, with proper sign prefixed, to the right of the temperature and relative humidity ordinates. 9520. Drift and Shift Corrections.-Cor- rections for shifts will be applied as though the shift had been a drift. 9521. Drift corrections will be based on tem- perature ordinate values after recorder correc- tions have been applied. The ordinate differ- ence between the drift line and the ninety-fifth ordinate, at the point where each significant level intersects it, will be placed, with proper sign prefixed, immediately to the left of the drift line and on the significant level. 9522. Computation of Drift Corrections.- Multiply the temperature ordinate value for each level (after application of recorder cor- rections) by the drift at low reference, as found in paragraph 9521. Divide the product by the ordinate value of the paper drift line, and place the dividend, with proper sign prefixed, imme- diately after the recorder correction applied to the temperature ordinate. This will be fol- lowed by an equals (=) sign, and the corrected temperature ordinate, thus: 30.0-0.1+0.2= 30.1, where the recorder correction is -0.1 and the drift correction is + 0.2. 9522.1. To facilitate the computation of drift corrections, 90 may be used as the divisor if the low reference drift is to the left and does not exceed 7 ordinates. If the drift is to the right, 100 may be used as the divisor. 9522.2. If the reference drift is less than 3.0 ordinates, correction charts based on 95, as the divisor may be used. 9530. PAPER DRIFT CORRECTIONS 9531. Paper drift corrections will be com- puted if the check of the zero recording made in accordance with paragraph 8631 indicates a drift of 0.3 ordinate or more at any level of the sounding. 9532. If paper drift corrections are required, they will be placed, with proper sign prefixed, after the temperature ahd humidity ordinates to which recorder and drift corrections have been applied. An equals ( ) sign will be placed after them, followed by the corrected tempera- ture ordinate, thus : 30.0- 0.1+ 0.2 = 30.1- 0.3= 29.8, where-0.1 is the recorder correction, +0.2 is the drift correction, and -0.3 is the correction for paper drift. 9533. Computation of Paper Drift Correc- tions.-Draw the paper drift line from the left bc I I I I 1 . I I I l l l l 1 I 1 I I 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 I f _I l u l l _1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 _ _ - _I _ 1 - - T 55 b i INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS edge of the top of the zero trace before release to the bottom of the next zero trace, which may have been obtained before the termination of the sounding in accordance with paragraph 8510. Continue this drift line from the top of each zero trace to the bottom of the next following zero trace through the termination of the sounding. 9533.1. Enter the paper drift correction on each level immediately to the right of the paper drift line. The correction will be the ordinate difference between the drift line and the correct ordinate value of the zero setting. If the re- corder at zero prints to the left of the true ordi- nate of the zero setting, a positive correction will be required. If it prints to the right, a negative correction will be required. 9533.2. Subtract from 95.0 the temperature ordinate value to be corrected. Multiply the remainder by the paper drift correction at the given level and divide the product by 95. The quotient will be the required correction for the temperature ordinate. For example, if the tem- perature ordinate (after application of recorder and drift corrections) at a given level is 40.3, and the paper drift is 0.7 ordinate, the correction would be computed as follows: 54.7 x 0.7 95.0 -40.3=54.7, 95 0.4, the required paper drift correction for an ordinate of 40.3. 9540. Descent Temperature Data.-Points on the descent record selected in accordance with paragraph 9242 will be evaluated for tem- perature only, with the exception of the first point below the level at the maximum elevation of the sounding. Since it will usually not be possible to identify this point with a corre- sponding point of the ascent record, the pres- sure corresponding to its contact will be deter- mined from the calibration chart in order to plot the corresponding temperature difference in accordance with paragraph 10212.33. If this point should correspond to a level on the ascent record, it will not be necessary to secure the corresponding pressure. 9541. Enter to the left of the points selected, in accordance with paragraph 9242 the level numbers of the corresponding points on the ascent record. To the right of the temperature trace, enter the complete temperature ordinate data in a manner similar to the entry of such data on the ascent record. Recorder and drift corrections will be computed in a manner simi- lar to that for the ascent record data. 9542. Corrected descent temperature ordi- nates will be entered on WBAN-30 in the "Re- marks" column of the ascent levels to which they pertain. Above the data, enter the nota- tion "Descent temperature." Allow sufficient room to the right of the descent temperature ordinates for the two additional entries re- quired by the provisions of paragraph 10212.32. Beneath the ordinate pertaining to the first point selected below the level at the termination of the sounding, enter the corresponding pres- sure, if required, in accordance with paragraph 9540. 9550. Termination of the Sounding.-Enter the reason for the termination of the sounding slightly above the last ascent level evaluated. 9600. Recorder Record and Calibration Chart.-The recorder record will be folded uni- formly to facilitate inspection and filing. It will be folded evenly, accordion fashion, in 7-inch folds in order that the entire record may be examined by turning over the folds. The first fold, upon which the identifying data are entered, should face outward. The calibration chart will be folded once, with the pressure graph folded toward the relative humidity graph on the inside. The recorder record will be placed inside the folded calibration chart. (See fig. 9-12.) 9610. The name of the station, date, and time of release G. C. T. will be entered on the cali- bration chart just below the serial number on the inside of the chart, or, if space is not avail- able, these data will be entered in a convenient space near the serial number. After the cali- bration chart has been folded once with the blank side out and the fold at the bottom, the name of the station and date and time of re- lease G. C. T., will be entered in the upper right corner as shown in figure 9-12. Station ..------------------ '"" " '-' --- Date Time (24 hr.)G.T -Place Folded A Recorder Record Inside Fold Chart Here FIGURE 9-12.-Example of folded calibration chart showing position of labels. Dashed lines show recorder record inside folded chart (proportion approximate). 56 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter X. PREPARATION OF FORMS 10100. GENERAL 10110. Prepare all forms neatly and legibly, using well-sharpened pencils (No. 3). Rubber stamps will be used, when available, for enter- ing the date and the name of the station. Enter identification data on both sides of WBAN-30, both sections of WBAN-31, and all pages of WBAN-32. Black pencil will be used unless specific exception is made in these instructions. 10111. Enter the date and time of the raob on the recorder record and calibration chart, and on all forms except WBAN-32, in accordance with the 24-hour clock, G. C. T., to the nearest minute. Instructions for making these entries on WBAN-32 are given in section 10700. The time of release will be considered the time of the raob. The date will always conform with the time expressed in G. C. T. Midnight will be indicated as 0000 and considered as the begin- ning of the day; e. g., midnight of the 7th-8th will be entered as 0000 on the 8th. In no case will midnight be indicated as 2400. A colon will not be used between the hour and minutes. On WBAN-30, the actual release time and date will also be entered in terms of the time zone in which the station is situated. The meridian of the appropriate time zone will be entered in the space "__th mer." 10112. Enter the name of the station on all forms and on the recorder record and calibra- tion chart. At airports and military establish- ments the name of the city to which each is cus- tomarily considered to be attached will be entered followed in parentheses by the name of the field or establishment; e. g., Seattle, Wash. (Sand Point) ; Medford, Oreg. (Municipal Air- port) ; Fort Bragg, N. C. (Pope Field). 10113. On WBAN-30 and WBAN-31, enter the latitude and longitude of the station in de- grees and minutes, indicating by N or S in the case of latitude, and W or E in the case of longi- tude, the appropriate direction. 10114. Ascension Number.-Ascension num- bers required on WBAN-30 and WBAN-31A and B will be numbered consecutively through the year, becoming No. 1 for the first raob of each year. Special raobs and all raobs that have attained to a height of 3 km. or more will be given an ascension number. If a raob terminates below 3 km. above the elevation of the station, and a second radiosonde is released that attains to a greater height, the first sound- ing will not be evaluated or given an ascension number. If, because of unfavorable weather conditions or other reasons, a second radiosonde is not released, the first will be given an ascen- sion number, evaluated, and the data trans- mitted. If conditions should later improve to such an extent that a second raob is taken, and this extends to a higher elevation than the first, forms pertaining to both raobs will be forwarded in accordance with instructions. Forms for the first raob will retain the ascen- sion number already given it, and those for the second will be numbered one higher. 10115. Enter the initials and surname, and military rank or rating if any, of the computer and verifier wherever required on raob forms and recorder records. 10116. All forms for special raobs will be marked "Special." 10117. Forms will not be folded except as re- quired by instructions. 10118. So far as possible an observer other than the one doing the original work will check all forms completely. 10119. Instructions for mailing forms will be found in the addendum. 10200. WBAN-30 RAOB COMPUTATION DATA (See Figs. 10-2 and 10-3.) 10201. WIBAN-30 is one of the basic forms used in raob computations. Data from the re- corder record are entered on the front, which is headed "Raob Computation Data," evalu- ated, and then transcribed to the adiabatic chart for additional computations. Isentropic data, balloon data, check readings, surface observa- tion data, etc., are entered on the back. 10202. Horizontal lines on the front of the form are numbered close to the left edge in the column headed "Level Number." Surface data at release will be entered on the horizontal line labeled "Sfc. 1." The pressure contact, ordinate of temperature, and ordinate of rela- tive humidity for each upper level evaluated on the recorder record will be entered opposite its corresponding level number. The surface is the first significant level. 10203. When a level is placed on a recorder record to indicate missing data, "Data missing" will be entered on WBAN-30 at approximately the middle of the line corresponding to the level, thus furnishing a level number for the level in the missing stratum. The beginning and ending of doubtful data will be plainly 57 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS shown in the column headed "Remarks" by entering "Beginning (or Ending) Doubtful Data" on the levels bounding the stratum. 1021,0. Entry of Basic Data.-Entries will be made in the columns headed Pressure, Tem- perature, Relative Humidity, and Mixing Ratio in accordance with the following instructions: 10211. PRESSURE 10211.1. Contact.-No entry will be made un- der this heading on the surface level. For each upper level enter the value to the nearest tenth of a pressure contact. 10211.2. Millibars. On the surface level en- ter the surface pressure to whole millibars, cor- rected to the elevation of the floor of the instru- ment shelter, at the time of release. Obtain this datum from the back of the form under "Surface Observation at Release." For each upper level enter the pressure to whole millibars correspond- ing to the pressure contact of the level as found from the calibration curve. 10212. TEMPERATURE 10212.1. Ordinate.-No entry will be made under this heading on the surface level. For each upper level enter the ordinate readings to tenths as obtained from the recorder record after corrections for drift, etc., have been applied. 1,0212.2. Ascent.-On the surface level enter the dry-bulb temperature as obtained from the back of the form under "Surface Observation at Release." For each upper level enter the tem- perature to tenths, corresponding to the tem- perature ordinate of the level, as obtained from the temperature evaluator. 1.0212.3. Corrections.-If corrections are not applied to the ascent temperature of daytime raobs, no entries will be made in this column. When corrections are applied, no entry will be made for levels at and between the surface and 400 millibars. 10212.31. Determine the correction for levels above 400 millibars as follows: 10212.32. Enter the temperature to tenths to the right of the corresponding descent tempera- ture ordinate referred to in paragraph 9542. To the right of these entries, enter the difference between these descent temperatures and the cor- responding ascent temperatures. If the descent temperatures are higher than the ascent tem- peratures, a plus (+) sign will be placed before the corresponding differences; if they are lower, no sign will be entered before the differences. 10212.33. On the WBAN-31B used in the sounding, lay off a scale of temperature differ- ences at the extreme left so spaced that 1 kilo- meter is equal to 10 C. of temperature difference; that is, consider 24 km. equals +1�, 23 km. equals 0O ; 22 km. equals --1, etc. (see fig. 10-1). Plot the temperature differences against the ascent pressures to which they pertain. The correction at 400 millibars will be considered O0. Connect the points by solid straight lines. Since a correction will not have been obtained for the level at the bursting point of the bal- loon, project the slope of the correction curve segment immediately beneath it to that level. If the temperature for any portion of the de- scent is higher than that indicated for. the cor- responding portion of the ascent, the ascent temperature will be regarded as correct. The required correction will be obtained by noting the intersection of each significant level (above 400 millibars) with the correction curve, and referring this intersection to the scale laid off at the bottom of the chart. When corrections are required but were not obtained, the data above 400 millibars will be regarded as doubtful. In classifying these data as doubtful, it is as- sumed that the differences in excess of -30 (which would require a "missing" classification) are confined to a relatively shallow stratum of the sounding. 10212.4. Corrected.-If daytime corrections are necessary, the algebraic sum of the ascent temperature and the correction will be entered in degrees and tenths; the corrected tempera- ture will be used in all computations and for transmission purposes. If corrections are not necessary, this column will be left blank. 10213. RELATIVE HUMIDITY 10213.1. Ordinate.-No entry will be made on the surface level. For each upper level enter the ordinate readings to tenths. Enter "MB" if a level is evaluated as motorboating; enter "M" if the relative humidity data are missing; and 5.0 if the level has been evaluated as at the cut-off point, regardless of its actual recorded value. 10213.2. Uncorrected.-No entry will be made on the surface level. For each upper level enter the relative humidity to whole per- cent as obtained from the calibration chart. Relative humidity values at cut-off points will be evaluated in the same manner as other ordi- nates, but if the relative humidity ordinate is evaluated as "MB" or "M," a dash will be en- tered. .10213.3 Correction.-No entry will be made under this heading on the surface level. If the radiosonde was not motorboating at the time of the base-line check, enter the correction de- termined at that time on the line for the first upper level, provided this correction was not changed in the meantime. Entry of the cor- rection for succeeding levels will be made only 58 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS -7-17I S1r- '\ 1 1oo \ \ 1 r \ \ ~ In-- I V t- -t -K -b 250 300 350 x#88- -80� 23 kn. 22 km. 21 km. Io - 10 -.- FIGURE 10-1.- -70" -60� 20 km. 19 km. 18 km. 17 kn. -a* n " a -" -4; -Determination of ascent corrections. NOTE.-Ascent temperature corrections are required whenever the temperature at any point above 400 millibars is more than 3� lower on the descent record than the temperature at the corresponding point on the ascent record. In the example above, point A was selected on the descent record at approximately one contact lower than the bursting point of the balloon (see par. 9242). The temperature at this contact, which corresponded to 140 millibars, was evaluated in accordance with paragraph 10212.32. The difference between this temperature and the correspond- ing temperature on the ascent record was plotted at 140 millibars, in accordance with paragraph 10212.33. The next lower identifiable salient point on the descent record occurred at the tropopause, the temperature difference of which is plotted at point B. The temperature difference at 400 millibars, point C, is regarded as zero (see par. 10212.33). The points A,.B, and C are connected with straight lines. The line AB is projected along the same slope to D to obtain the correction applicable to the level at the maximum altitude of the sounding. The corrections applicable to the levels at D, E, and F are read on the scale at the bottom of the chart laid off in accordance with paragraph 10212.33. The correction at D is -3.9� ; at E, -1.5�; at F, -0.3�. The negative signs indicate that in all cases the descent temperatures were lower than temperatures at corresponding points on the ascent record. when the value of the correction is changed by the radiosonde's indicating values of relative humidity in excess of 100 percent. 10213.31. If the radiosonde was motorboating at the time of the base-line check, a correction will not be applied to upper levels unless values in excess of 100 percent are reached. The amount of this excess will be entered as a minus correction on the first level to which it pertains and applied to all succeeding levels until a new correction is established. This procedure also applies to flights in which the radiosonde was not motorboating at the time of release, but, in the course of the ensuing flight, values in excess of 100 percent were indicated. All cor- rections will be entered in this column on the lines pertaining to the first levels to whose rela- tive humidity value the corrections are to be applied. 10213.32. If at any level the relative humidity correction varies by 20 percent or more from the correction established at the baseline check, the relative humidity will not be computed for that level. The relative humidity data for that level and all levels thereafter will be classified as missing. 10213.4. Corrected.-On the surface level en- ter the relative humidity at the time of release, as recorded on the back of the form. The sur- face relative humidity will be entered regard- less of existing surface temperature. At each upper level enter the algebraic sum of the un- 59 500 - -90� 24 km. +/* -50� 16 km. 15 kn, Cu zf e _ 175 \ lyso 200 114-: 4 ,$Ze . I ! . "I J INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS corrected relative humidity and the correction. It will be noted that when corrections are ap- plied in accordance with the foregoing instruc- tions, values of relative humidity in excess of 100 percent will never be entered in the cor- rected column. Enter "MB" when a level is evaluated as motorboating, and "M" when data are missing. 10214. MIXING RATIO 10214.1. The mixing ratio for each level will be computed to the nearest 0.1 g./kg., by means of a mixing ratio slide rule furnished for that purpose, from the values of pressure, corrected relative humidity, and corrected temperature pertaining to the level. 10214.2. Mixing ratio data will not be com- puted for levels evaluated as motorboating. Enter MB to indicate that the relative humid- ity was motorboating, and M to indicate that the temperature or relative humidity was missing. 10300. WBAN-31A-B-ADIABATIC CHART (See figs. 10-4 and 10-5) 10301. The adiabatic chart consists of two sections: WBAN-31A, covering a pressure range of 1050 to 400 millibars, inclusive; and WBAN-31B, 500 to 10 millibars, inclusive. These charts furnish a graphical means of com- puting many of the functions of pressure, tem- perature, and relative humidity. In addition, they serve as final forms on which to represent and synchronize the instrumental and visual observations made during a raob. 10302. The horizontal lines represent pres- sure; and the vertical lines, temperature. Space is provided on the left side of the chart for plotting values of relative humidity and on the right side for entering computed values of mix- ing ratio. The sloping lines on the chart are dry adiabatic lines. Along the lower edge and below the temperature scale is a height scale expressed in kilometers above sea level. All heights are expressed in terms of the unit 0.98 dynamic meter, which is approximately equal to the geometric meter. In this manual it will be understood that meters are expressed in 0.98 dynamic meters. The pressure scale has been subdivided into intervals of 2 millibars. These intervals have been projected across the chart and repeated along the 350,200,4, -110, -200, -35�, and -500 temperature lines through certain values of pressure to facilitate the read- ing of pressure data at fixed levels. Short ver- tical lines, or tabs, have been printed on the 1000, 950, 900, 850, 800, 750, 650, 550, and 450 isobars. These short vertical tabs are used to obtain the virtual temperature increment for the strata in which they occur. 10303. In the following paragraphs, surface pressure and surface altitude refer to the value of these data at the floor of the instrument shelter. 10304. Whenever the observation extends to a pressure lower than 400 millibars, the highest level on WBAN-31A must be replotted as the lowest level on WBAN-31B in order to preserve the continuity of the record. If this level does not occur exactly at 400 millibars, temperature and relative humidity should be read on WBAN-31B at that pressure and plotted on the 400 millibar level of WBAN-31A. The temper- ature and relative humidity curves on the latter form will be drawn to these points as though they were plotted on a significant level. 10305. The limits of doubtful data on the adiabatic chart will be clearly indicated by en- tering "Beginning (or Ending) doubtful data" close to the temperature curve and on the levels bounding the stratum of doubtful data. Strata of missing data will be similarly indicated. Curves through strata of doubtful data will be drawn as solid lines. 10310. PLOTTING DATA ON THE ADIABATIC CHARTS 1031,1. Pressure.-Draw a line completely across the adiabatic chart at a point correspond- ing to the surface pressure shown on the front of WBAN-30. Label this line in the right mar- gin: "Sfc-1." In the left margin enter the sur- face pressure in parentheses immediately below the line. The height of the instrument shelter in whole meters will be entered on this line im- mediately above the surface pressure. 10311.1. Draw lines across the chart, at the pressures of significant levels, and number them in the right margin (note that the level at the surface has been numbered (1)). Levels placed in strata of missing data will be drawn approxi- mately midway between the upper and lower significant levels bounding the strata. 10311.2. Below the line at the level of the maximum elevation, and in the left margin, en- ter the corresponding value of pressure in parentheses. 10312. Temperature.-On each significant level plot the corresponding temperature to tenths and connect each successive point with a solid straight line. The completed tempera- ture curve will be labeled "T" at top and bottom on both sections of the chart. Curves will be drawn as dashed lines through strata whose data are classified as missing. For this pur- pose it will be assumed that the temperature lapse rate is represented by a straight line be- tween the two known temperature values bounding the missing portion. 60 LC LO cQo co 5, .J C (A o o AC / I Z 4Z 7 a 7s O i~4Z fIi K ' 7 n Ii 7, - T LLL. W LY-tL V /I 7~ 47+4 1 /1 V-LI% 7 ,I, y +N I --7K te ie - -.4-,, 1 -I 21!~ r / / V 1*&/4 1z, - 4,f fy 7z K 7Z 7Z- 7Z 7Zjjz 7;L > 0 O Ln r-1 Qc (; 0 is + xz I. z All /7 J.iL4~i 2~.~-All -~ ~ 7j;*rr 77 fz ~ ~47 x '- 7'- '2~jj, --a, LO 1 :1 C) 1 co C) i C) O }. oE A 'I E _ c ' C) C 21: L C) C 3-- /7 / VJF 777 AVAV /1 m~C No Co - I " *C~ a EC) O~- .Y Mo 00 O C ~~44 ~f iii 10 Cil 1/0 y I 71 r 74 N hl e - R ----- rz I 11 t I-A l _ i 1/1 I 1/_i --r i \i z < A_ o I I V, .1 Z-,r- C) 29o 47E Co, m. ! 4 I F7 I, ice' I Ts I- 71- I Meta T17 fI Wso a or 4 ~ a^ Eh~3 k w C r mow': }i9 p 4G ; " n ; yF f - .4 3 W 3, t 9 1 1 q. ' , p r ii R 4s� '�j: ir i i ti , tii U4 bI V 1J bI O: Ot O _O N Uj WE Form 1103 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER BUREAU RAOB COMPUTATION DATA WBAN-30 Scheduled release time and date May 1,, 194 / o 0 G. C. T. Actual release time and date May 1, 19h6 /-oSG. C. T. Ascension No. ,2 7/ Actual release time and date M y 1, 19L4h o80r th mer. Radiosonde No. 4/7" ,Z, I Security classification Station Phoenix, Ariz. (Sky Harbor Airport) Latitude 3J 3 M 'MLong. //A 63 . L Sfc. 1 2 _o. _ 3 _ 2 - 7,70 / " / 0/C 3 /D e6 4Z . /LL 3z"z-'7 �- 3 ______ 4 0 Y D Y_ .2 J f s 1 5L, 3 �2L6.630 4_,4 6 �D4A /V __ __ _ _ 7 40 5/ - 32 SJi rv d Aj 8 3 a o ec l s - .si 9 - 57 0S S. - i � _ _ - _ _ 10-36--0 7 310J,3- io - 6 12 11 o 4 4 -" 3 o ~. 12 2734 4 Z4 p J - 2 z 13 D..5 . 1 1 14 e o . 4 -, 3 1s ,2. -51 - 16 0 4j5 -JS 17 18 19_ 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 MANDATORY LEVELS FOR TRANSMISSION Code Level Altitude Pressure Tempera- Relative Mixing Altiudeture Humidity Mxn Check No. Millibars ore Humidity Ratio (corrected) (corrected) 3 1 Ya vu UA4 lA + _ 2 - /' ' 3 .576/ -7. , S . 4 (v 6 L -d- 5 DODO Jf . .5 /000 4L_ -4.L, 6 Ic,)o J7 r_- . 7 8 9 10 ALTITUDE 500 MB. SFC. CODED MESSAGE FOR TRANSMISSION (NOT ENCIPHERED) Meters Feet .S�r2 /f 779- LLrf 0 c 0 3r3 6oj7f 3 ~2ZZ1 s .37 / /e 85 I/94/ / a4 L5 .~~4~ O //77 1464 '/7 // 7Zb' 73 96 / c5 9 a SFor use with daytime observations (when required). Computed by G. . /lan. Verified by B. E. Dixa FIGURE 10-2.-WBAN-30, front. 613388--45--5 7 44 DiIJZ/3. /e/?S2 14111c~ _ L / 1 / i . oC SUnit of altitude: 0.96 dynamic motor; hence, approximately In meters above sea level. Name of station: Phondn , A'r-. (Sky Harbor, Airport) Date May 1, 1944 G.C. T. .Z l / Ascension No. SURFACE OBSERVATION AT RELEASE Pressure at Contact From Temperature TIME OF STATION PRESSURE Correction Pressur at Cta m mperat Rem. Surface Wind Clouds and Weather Inst. Shelter Re. Dry Wet Hum. RELEASE Calib. corder G. C. T. Inches Millibars Millibars Millibars Chart Record OF OF Dir. Vel. (mps) / o . a Y. 75-2 37 -0.7 y77A." 9 .s. 7f . ao.fC /.oc 1,-3 C m/ � /7' . For difference In elevation between barometer and instrument shelter. CLOUDS AND WEATHER BALLOON DATA (grams) From one hour before release to one hour after termination of flight G. C. T. Notes G. C. T. Notes Total lift * Weight of train * //Do Net wt. of ballast Free lift with ballast attached 30 Free lift without ballast * Exclusive of Raob Balloon and Ballast. BASELINE CHECK READINGS PRESSURES AT FIXED LEVELS ABOVE SEA LEVEL TEMPERATURE RELATIVE HUMIDITY ALTITUDE PRESSURE (mb) MEAN VIRTUAL COMPUTED Z PRESSURE (mb) TIME Dry Wet Py from adiabatic Meters TEMPERA. FOR TRANS G.C.T. Ordinate Ordinate Raob Cor. chrom- Feet Meters chart (for check) TURE O(C) MISSION OF OF (%) (%) eter (%) 5,000 1520 - 5W9 17 __ _ _ / do 7, 7/. / c 3.7c - l7o.ooo 30so 7a /0 05- -7 7 15,000 4570 5"/ - 5- - 4 58/ 20,000 6100 7 3 7 - / 7 C DATA FOR ISENTROPIC SURFACES e -A �AA 30- 9A 0 - _ ___'A mb P.= mb p- P-mb~ mb P.mU mb P= mb P.- mb RH- 3 % check P.- mb RH % mb RH- % v RH % check P,- mb t- /( 7 c 10.05T 7 / t= _ " o �C 10.0ST- ' 7 O~C 10.05 T- H- / 7 (0.98 gdm) gdm 7 H=, 00 (0.98 gdm) Hgdm = H (0.98 gdm) -gdm w- 3 g 5g/kg #-Sum w3 g/i3 /.3 g / =-Sum J0 J w= gf/kg #-Sum (101 ergs/gram) (10' ergs/gram) (10' ergs/gram) -Potential temperature; P-Actual pressure; P.-Condensation pressure; RH-Relative humidity; t-temperature In degrees centigrade; H-Height above mean sea level; w-Milxlng ratio; T-Absolute temperature; ogdm-Helght (geodynamic) In dynamic meters; 0-Stream function. FIGURE 10-3.-WBAN-30, back. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADII 10312.1. When the flight is made during day- time and requires corrections to the ascent tem- perature, care should be exercised that the cor- rected temperatures are plotted above 400 milli- bars. When corrected temperatures are used, the curves will be labeled "corrected T" at top and bottom. When corrections to the ascent temperatures are known to be required but were not obtained, draw the uncorrected temperature curve as a solid line. The data above 400 milli- bars will be considered doubtful and so labeled. Explain the circumstances in a note on the chart. 10312.2. Whenever the slope of the tempera- ture curve is greater than the dry adiabatic lines-that is, when the lapse rate is super- adiabatic (see fig. 10-6)-pressure data and all points pertaining to the temperature curve will be rechecked to discover any possible error in plotting points or evaluating the sounding. If this recheck does not discover any error, the word "rechecked," with arrows pointing to the beginning and end of the superadiabatic slope, will be placed beneath the segment of the tem- perature curve whose slope was rechecked. 10312.3. Whenever two temperature values occur at the same pressure (as when the balloon is forced down and reascends), both values will be plotted on the adiabatic chart if the differ- ence is 10 or more. The temperature curve for the first ascent will end, and for the last ascent resume, at their corresponding temperatures. Use the lower temperature for purposes of com- putations, transmission, and tabulation. If the difference is less than 10, the lower temperature will be plotted and the higher value ignored. 10313. Relative Humidity.-On each sig- nificant level plot the corresponding relative humidity and connect each successive point with a straight line. Enter "MB" on significant OSONDE OBSERVATIONS 61 levels at the 50-percent line to indicate motor- boating and "M" to indicate missing data, un- less the curve is drawn through the motorboat- ing stratum in accordance with paragraph 10313.1. 10313.1. The relative humidity curve will not be drawn through a stratum of motorboating data more than four contacts in extent; that is, the curve will terminate with the relative hu- midity evaluated at the beginning of 'the stratum and resume at the top. Neither dashed nor solid lines will be drawn through strata whose data are classified as missing. 10313.2. If the stratum of motorboating or missing data is four contacts or less in extent, the curve will always be drawn through the stratum as a solid line. 10313.3. Whenever two values of relative hu- midity occur at the same pressure (as when the balloon is forced down and reascends), both values will be plotted on the adiabatic chart. The relative humidity curve for the first ascent will end and for the last ascent resume, at their respective values. The value to be used in all computations, etc., pertaining to this level will be that corresponding to the temperature se- lected in accordance with paragraph 10312.3. 10313.4. The completed relative humidity curve will be labeled "RH" at top and bottom of both charts. 10313.5. When the relative humidity curve terminates at the highest level on WBAN-31A, this single value will not be plotted on WBAN- 31B. 10314. Mixing Ratio.-The value of the mix- ing ratio computed for each significant level will be entered numerically to the nearest 0.1 g./kg. on the level to which it pertains under the caption "Mixing Ratio g./kg." printed in the upper right corner of the chart. A mixing 000 I I \. I�� FIGURE 10-6.-Superadiabatic segment of temperature curve. NOTE.-The temperature segment AB is superadiabatic because its slope is greater than the slope of the adiabatic line DE. The computations have been rechecked; and no error having been found, "Rechecked," with arrows pointing to the beginning and end of the superadiabatic slope, is placed under the segment. (See par. 10312.2.) ! I X, !Y TTI I~ INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS ratio curve will not be drawn. Whenever appro- priate, enter "M" or "MB" to indicate "miss- ing" or "mnotorboating." 10320. THE PRESSURE-HEIGHT CURVE 10321. A pressure-height curve, based on pressure, temperature, and relative humidity data, is computed for each raob and drawn on the adiabatic chart. It provides a means of de- termining the altitude of significant levels and other data entered on the chart. These alti- tudes are in meters above mean sea level. The pressure-height curve will be computed by use of WBAN computation tables exclusively, which have been furnished for this purpose. From these tables the thicknesses of various strata between the surface and the maximum altitude of the raob can be determined. These strata are divided into three types, which are listed below: 1. The stratum between the surface at the level of the instrument shelter and the next higher standard isobaric surface (de- termined from tables 3 and 6). 2. The strata between adjacent standard isobaric surfaces (determined from table 4). 3. The stratum between the highest stand- ard isobaric surface below the maximum elevation of the sounding and the level at the maximum elevation (determined from tables 5 and 6). 10322. The standard isobaric surfaces are those listed in table 4. The tables give the thick- nesses-that is, the distances in metersbetween the respective isobaric surfaces and the levels referred to above. The addition of these dis- tances plus the elevation of the instrument shel- ter above mean sea level gives the actual eleva- tion of the respective surfaces above mean sea level. 10330. COMPUTATION OF THE PRESSURE-HEIGHT CURVE 10331. Mean Temperature (see fig. 10-7). Estimate the mean temperature for each stratum by laying a transparent straightedge over the temperature curve on the adiabatic chart. The straightedge should be kept parallel to the verti- cal temperature lines and moved from left to right until the edge intersecting the temperature curve produces equal areas to the left and right of it. These areas will be bounded by the straightedge, segments of the temperature curve, I H N+ I I , .- , , l_ \415 >11 _ r7 7,', L "4\\X T-1X X : \ \ \ J , \ ,. .., NI N 720 7km. 6100 6 km. \I I\ \! \ 00(C.) 5 km. 100 4 km FIGURE 10-7.-Computation of mean temperature. NOTE.-The straightedge BC is so adjusted that the sum of the shaded area on the right of it equals the sum of the shaded area on the left. The one-quarter inch vertical dash A is then placed at the midpoint of the stratum XY. (See par. 10331.) 62 1 \I 1 \1 I \I 1 \ \I I\ M I\ 1\1 1 k INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS and the isobaric surfaces bounding the stratum. When the straightedge has been adjusted to pro- vide for equal areas, draw a one-quarter inch vertical dash along the side of the straightedge and near the middle of the stratum. The tem- perature at this dash is the mean temperature of the stratum. The mean temperature for miss- ing portions of the record will be estimated by assuming that the temperature lapse rate is rep- resented by a straight line between the two known temperature values bounding the missing portion. 10332. Mean Virtual Temperature (see fig. 10-8) .-The mean virtual temperature for each stratum is found by displacing to the right- that is, toward higher temperature-the dashes representing the mean temperature of the stra- tum. Determining the amount of this displace- ment, which is based on the mean relative hu- midity and the mean temperature of the stra- tumn, is done as follows: (1) Find the distance between the ver- tical tabs bounding the dash denoting the mean temperature. (See par. 10302.) If there are no printed vertical tabs immedi- ately above or below the dash, and none embracing it, the mean virtual tempera- ture will be the same as the mean tempera- ture. (2) Estimate the mean percentage of relative humidity for the stratum, esti- mating so well as possible the value of missing and motorboating portions of the record. (3) Multiply the distance found in (1) by the mean percentage found in (2). (4) At a distance found in (3), draw a dash parallel to, and to the right of, the mean temperature dash for each stratum. The mean virtual temperature of the stra- tum will be read at the displaced dash. 10332.1. For example, if the relative humid- ity is 100 percent, the full distance between the vertical tabs will be added to the mean tem- perature to obtain the mean virtual tempera- ture; if the relative humidity is 50 percent, one- half the distance will be added, etc. If the mean virtual temperature is being determined for a complete stratum-that is, one bounded by standard isobaric surfaces-the tabs to be used will be those printed on the isobars inter- mediate between these standard isobars. If the mean virtual temperature is being determined for an incomplete stratum, the tabs to be used will be those nearest the midpoint of the stratum. 10332.2. The mean virtual temperature should be read to the nearest whole degree and entered at the midpoint of the stratum between the -48� and -500 lines of the temperature scale on WBAN-31A, and between the - 88� and -90� lines on WBAN-31B. 10340. Determination of the Thicknesses and Elevations of the Strata (see fig. 10-9.) 10341. Find the thickness of the stratum be- tween the surface and the next higher standard isobaric surface (and the elevation, meters m. s. 1., of the latter) in accordance with the following instructions: (1) Enter the surface elevation in meters above mean sea level immediately above the surface level and between the -450 and -490 vertical temperature lines. (2) Find the value in table 3 correspond- ing to the surface pressure. Enter this value below the surface isobar and beneath 1050 LI..LLI ~.L1 i.L. -M L L 't- L iL IL L L- r tTT -_NL J NNi -50� -400 -30� -20� -10� O�(C.) 10 20" 10 km. 9km. 8km. 7km. 6km. 5km. 4km. 3 k FIGURE 10-8.-Computation of mean virtual temperature. NoTE.-The mean temperature of the stratum, XY, is indicated by the vertical dash A, which is placed at the midpoint of the stratum. It is estimated that the mean relative humidity for the stratum is 90 percent. The tabs B-C are used in computing the mean virtual temperature because they are closest to A. Dash D is therefore placed to the right of A a distance equal to 90 percent of the distance between BC. The temperature at D (170) is entered to whole degrees at the midpoint of the stratum, at E. (See par. 10332.2.) 63 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS \',, N \' \J \ , I\" '" "V I \ N]KN N\I" K\VLK\KN ni '1 I\i\, 'F" NII L2 I\ 1 \I I^ ir Jr I. iJs \I .x . t . ~. L 'K NJ XI T x i PIT? YKIhi\J -xiI 1 Id 4, a\ e .t' t r m o s. P \ ' eb . t' I T e a. 42 H 8 b u I c m r m 1. P r. (6,2) 650 700 750 8 800 850 9 900 950 nI Y I V IXI S r E I 5 I\ 1 stbc t Om t--I I - 14. h 0 r bu.u cqa rs I ~i., Fal 1 )41 ) 'I I I I IN1 -K~I-xI\I-kI1I IN N NI I?1~A A> IN>N JNN\- 4 xl I'- I'i I\ l. \l.n J.R f'. 1 INhJ Z"X . l- ~'*' 4)' k eD L .\A'-u- I'- .r ' ' XI i I \I I\I - I tI I N IF-T \y ~ I a-- 4 " - Vf -I--t-' 'f' It" 'I ~AY P'1 I U I I II .I 'I, e ,-m SNJ T I I li I1- I NI1 1. IQ \I I - 'I ft InI I\ \t I C vu J/ I I i \,IN N1 TI I 1\1 1\1 1 \ \1 I " F INI 1=\I I1\ I 'I iI \1\I I I N II I I- IN 11 I1N I! 1 \ ix -40� 9 km. -30� 8 km. -20� FIGURE 10-9.-Determination of thickness of strata. the surface elevation entry. This value will be the thickness of the stratum, uncor- rected for temperature, between the surface level and the next higher standard isobaric surface. (3) Find the temperature correction for this thickness in table 6. The mean vir- tual temperature and the thickness of the stratum are the arguments for determining this correction. (4) The correction found in table 6 will be entered under the uncorrected thickness of the stratum, preceded by a minus sign if the mean virtual temperature is below O'. If the correction is negative, subtract it from the uncorrected thickness; if it is pos- itive, add it to the uncorrected thickness. The sum or remainder will be placed above the surface elevation entered in accordance with (1) above. (5) Enter the sum of the surface eleva- tion and the corrected thickness of the stratum upon the next higher standard iso- baric surface. This value is the height of the standard isobaric surface above mean sea level. 10342. Find the thickness of strata between standard isobaric surfaces as given in table 4. 64 600[ 4 -\ X X" \ \ \ \ \ \" - X \i' \ \ \ \ i% \ "\ ",,xi,\ \ \ ! \ \ \ , " (91310 -500 10 km. -10� 7 km. 6 km. (t')-Mean Virtual Temperature -- -- - r - 1- r T--l --- - r- \ ~~ 1 T~ r\ U r~~ rf, 'k w "VI ~ N h i D, 04 m W., I p I PnI 31 M=l AIR f4b:o \11 !. lv I M fi I oEd ~~F~t \fYl IN I i N NI1\1 \1 ii m I ( � I I J' . .. . . . j \ 1 _ I .\", - 1 _ . � , %i I \1 l~1nyi~ v v ' -y - ' 1 '-'V~R VI '11 \ \1 11 L vmwmwmumw � " \ ' N V \1 rX ",- " ' ", - - T ' T , . . . .Te- . .. 1 ". % 1"i ,,I'U I\i I HO I tit1 l I I)" i 'p(pl "5' 1 on I I f r k I INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS The mean virtual temperatures of these strata are the only arguments needed to determine their thicknesses. In determining the thickness of any given stratum, use the section in table 4 that lies between the pair of dashed lines, the upper and lower of which are labeled with the pressure at the corresponding isobaric surfaces of the stratum. The value found in table 4 will be entered between the -450 and -490 vertical temperature lines on WBAN-31A, and between the - 85� and - 89� lines on WBAN-31B, ap- proximately one-quarter inch above the lower isobaric surface bounding the stratum. 10343. Compute the elevation of each of the standard isobaric surfaces by adding the thick- ness of each stratum to the elevation of the base of the stratum, progressing upward to the high- est standard isobar below the level at the maxi- mum elevation of the sounding. Enter the ele- vation data thus found immediately above the isobars to which they relate and below the values entered in accordance with paragraph 10342. 10344. Find the thickness of the stratum be- tween the highest standard isobaric surface and the level at the maximum elevation of the raob (when this level does not coincide with a stand- ard isobaric surface) in accordance with the fol- lowing instructions: (1) From table 5 find the uncorrected thickness of this stratum, using as the sole argument the pressure at the maximum ele- vation of the raob. Enter this value from table 5 about one inch above the level drawn at the maximum altitude of the raob. (2) By use of table 6, the thickness found in table 5 will be corrected for temperature in the same manner as the corresponding thickness in the stratum bounded by the surface and the next higher, standard isobar. The arguments are the mean virtual tem- perature and the uncorrected thickness of the stratum. (3) The correction found in table 6 will be entered, preceded by a minus sign if the mean virtual temperature is below 0�, un- der the uncorrected thickness of the stratum. If the correction is negative, subtract it from the uncorrected thickness; if it is posi- tive, add it to the uncorrected thickness. The sum or remainder will be placed above the altitude of the highest standard isobaric surface. (4) The corrected thickness will be added to this altitude and the sum entered on the level at the maximum altitude of the sound- ing. This will be the altitude of that level. 10350. P 1 o t t i n g t h e Pressure-Height Curve.-Plot the surface elevation on the sur- face level against the height scale printed along the lower edge of the adiabatic chart. In the same manner, plot the height of each standard isobaric surface and of the level at the maximum altitude of the sounding. Connect successive points by straight lines and label the curve "PH" at top and bottom of each section of the adia- batic chart. 10351. Whenever the pressure-height curve is based on estimated mean virtual temperature, the estimated portion of the curve will be drawn as a solid line through missing or doubtful por tions of the record. 10360. Height of Significant Levels.-The height of each upper significant level to the nearest 10 meters above mean sea level will be determined by noting the point of intersection of the level with the pressure-height curve. Read on the height scale at the bottom of the chart the value corresponding to this point and enter the value on the level in the left margin of the chart. 103161. The height of these significant levels will then be transcribed to WBAN-30 in the column headed "Altitude." 10370. Height of the 500-Millibar Sur- face.-Enter to the nearest meter, in the space provided on the front of WBAN-30. Convert this height to feet and enter in the adjacent space. 10380. PRESSURES AT FIXED LEVELS 10381. The pressures at the 1520-, 3050-, 4570-, and 6100-meter (5,000-, 10,000-, 15,000-, and 20,000-foot) levels will be computed and entered on WBAN-30 in accordance with the following instructions. These pressures will be computed regardless of whether they occur in a missing portion of the record. If the elevation of the station is more than 1,520 meters m. s. 1., and the necessary tables are available, the sta- tion pressure reduced to the 5,000-foot plane will be used for transmission purposes and for entry on WBAN-30 under "Computed Pressure for Transmission." The spaces provided for addi- tional entries required for the 1520-meter level will be dashed. If pressure reduction tables are not available, all spaces will be dashed. 10381.1. Locate the exact point where the pressure-height curve crosses the 1520-meter line printed on the adiabatic chart. Using a sharply pointed blue pencil, draw a one-quarter inch line across this intersection and at the same pressure draw a one-quarter inch line across the temperature and relative humidity curves. Draw a line through the pressure scale at the right of the adiabatic chart, extending it into the margin about one-quarter inch. In the margin, label this line 1520m. 10382. The other fixed levels, including the 10-, 13-, and 16-km. levels, will be located and labelled in a similar manner. 65 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 10400. ENTRY OF DATA FOR FIXED LEVELS ON BACK OF WBAN-30 (See fig. 10-3.) 10410. Mean Virtual Temperature.-The mean virtual temperature for each of the strata listed below will be determined by the same method used in the computation of the pressure- height curve. The dashes denoting the mean virtual temperatures will be made with a blue pencil. When one or more fixed levels occur in a missing portion of a record, the mean vir- tual temperature will be estimated (see pars. 10331 and 10332(2)). 10411. Determine the mean virtual tempera- tures for the following strata and enter them in the appropriate spaces: (1) Between the 1520-meter level and the standard isobaric surface immediately below. When the surface pressure is less than 900 millibars, the mean virtual tem- perature will be determined for the stratum between the 1520-meter level and the next higher standard isobaric level (800 milli- bars). (2) Between the 3050-meter level and the standard isobaric surface immediately below. (3) Between the 4570-meter level and the standard isobaric surface immediately below. (4) Between the 6100-meter level and the standard isobaric surface immediately below. 10420. "Z" Meters.-Determine the thick- ness in meters of each of the above strata by (1) subtracting the height of the standard iso- baric surface immediately below the fixed level from the height of the fixed level; or, (2) when the surface pressure lies between the 900- and 800-millibar standard isobaric surfaces, by sub- tracting 1520 from the height of the 800-milli- bar standard isobaric surface. Enter the values of Z meters in the appropriate spaces. 10430. Read the pressure for each fixed level directly from the adiabatic chart and enter the values in the proper spaces. These pressures will not be used for transmission purposes. 10440. Computed Pressures for Transmis- sion. 10441. The pressures at the fixed levels are computed by use of WBAN Raob Computation Tables (tables 7 to 12), and used for transmis- sion in the raob message. 10442. The horizontal lines on the tables are pressures in millibars, the vertical lines are mean virtual temperatures (0 C.), and the slant- ing lines represent elevations in Z meters above (or, in the case of table 12, below) the level of the specified standard pressure level. Exam- ple: assume that the 1520-meter level lies above the 900-millibar surface; that the mean virtual temperature for the layer between the 1520- meter surface and the 900-millibar surface is 10 C.; and that the thickness of the same layer (Z meters) is 485 meters. Then, by noting (on table 7) the intersection of the 10 C. line with the 485 Z meter line (interpolating), it will be found that the pressure for the 1520-meter level is 847 millibars as read on the horizontal lines. 10443. Enter the computed values to the near- est whole millibar in the proper spaces. 10444. The computed pressures should agree within 1 millibar of those obtained from the adiabatic chart. If the differences are greater than one millibar, the data in all columns will be rechecked for possible error. If no error is found, the pressure-height curve will be re- computed. 10450. Entry of Fixed Level Data for Transmission on Front of WBAN-30 (see fig. 10-2). 10451 In the appropriate spaces under the heading "Mandatory Levels," enter the altitude and the computed pressures for the 1520-, 3050-, 4570-, and 6100-meter levels, and the altitudes and pressures as taken directly from the adia- batic chart for the 10-, 13-, and 16-km. levels. 10452. From the adiabatic chart, obtain the temperature to tenths and the relative humidity to whole percent at each fixed level, and enter the data in the appropriate spaces. Enter "M" if the data are missing, and "MB" if the relative humidity is motorboating. 10453. Using the temperature, relative hu- midity, and pressure of each fixed level, com- pute the mixing ratio to tenths and enter in the proper spaces. The mixing ratio will not be computed if the relative humidity is motorboat- ing or missing. 10500. ISENTROPIC DATA 10510. Isentropic data are computed for val- ues of potential temperature specified in the current Raob Code. The values in effect at the time of the raob will be entered in the appropri- ate spaces on the back of WBAN-30. The po- tential temperature lines on the adiabatic chart are the same as the dry adiabatic lines, some of which have their value in potential temperature (degrees Absolute) printed on them. 10520. Abstraction of Isentropic Data from the Adiabatic Chart. 10521. The isentropic surface for a given po- tential temperature will be found at the point of intersection of the corresponding potential temperature line on the adiabatic chart with the temperature curve of the raob. (See figs. 10-10 and 10-11.) 66 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 10522. Mark this point of intersection with a one-quarter inch horizontal dash, using a blue pencil; similar dashes should be placed at the corresponding points of the relative humidity and pressure-height curves, and on the pressure scale at the right edge of the chart. This latter dash should be labeled in the margin with the value of potential temperature pertaining to the isentropic surface. 10523. If the adiabat corresponding to a given potential temperature intersects the tem- perature curve at two or more points, the point of intersection at the highest elevation will be used for computing isentropic data. 10524. Enter the pressure to the nearest whole millibar, the relative humidity to the nearest whole percent (M or MB when appro- priate), the temperature to degrees and tenths, and the height of the isentropic surface to the nearest 10 meters mean sea level, in the appro- priate spaces of WBAN-30. 10525. Data for isentropic levels in strata of missing or doubtful temperature record will not be computed. 10526. The following examples are typical situations that may be encountered in obtaining these data from the adiabatic chart: 10527. Using the pressure and relative hu- midity data as found above, and the tempera- ture at the isentropic surface, compute the mix- ing ratio to hundredths and enter this value in the appropriate spaces of WBAN-30. 10528. Repeat the above procedure for each of the required isentropic surfaces. 10530. COMPUTATION OF CONDENSA- TION PRESSURE AND ENTRY ON WBAN-30 10531. Compute the condensation pressure by use of the Isentropic Computation Charts (ta- bles 16 and 17). The chart for 0 (potential tern- perature) =295� will be used for potential tem- peratures ranging from 285� to 3070, and the chart 0=315� will be used for potential tem- peratures ranging from 308� to 320�. The ver- tical lines on the charts are relative humidity (percent); the horizontal lines are the conden- sation pressures in millibars; and the curved lines represent actual pressures in millibars at the isentropic surface. 10532. Find the value of pressure correspond- ing to the pressure of the isentropic surface on the sloping lines of the chart. Find the value FIGURE 10-10.-Isentropic surface, normal. NOTE.-The actual pressure at the point of intersection of the temperature curve with the 296� A. potential temperature surface is 706 millibars, the relative humidity 73 percent, the temperature -5.2�, and the height 3060 meters m. s. 1. These points are indicated by one-quarter inch blue dashes. The dash in the right margin (not shown in the illustration) is labeled with the value of potential temperature for the isentropic surface. FIGURE 10-11.-Isentropic surface, adiabatic. NOTE.--An adiabatic lapse rate occurs at the approximate specified value of potential temperature (290� A.). At such times, the data for the isentropic level will be taken at the top of the adiabatic layer. In this case the pressure would be 695 millibars, the relative humidity 71 percent, the temperture -11.7�, and the height 3120 meters, m. s. 1. 67 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS of relative humidity pertaining to the isen- tropic surface along the upper margin of the chart. Follow the pressure value upward along the sloping line and the relative humidity value vertically downward. The point of intersec- tion is the condensation pressure, which is read on the horizontal lines at the scale on the left edge of the chart. Read the condensation pres- sure to the nearest millibar and enter it on WBAN-30. 10533. If the pressure for a given isentropic surface exceeds the range of pressures on the computation chart, a pseudoadiabatic diagram may be used in computing the condensation pressure. This is done by finding the saturation mixing ratio curve corresponding to the value of the mixing ratio at the isentropic surface. The pressure at the point of intersection of this mixing ratio curve and the potential tempera- ture of the isentropic surface in question will be the required condensation pressure. 10534. In all cases where the condensation pressure falls within the limits of the appropri- ate isentropic computation chart, an additional check of the condensation pressure will be made by use of a pseudoadiabatic diagram. This check pressure will be entered in the appropri- ate space. If the value of the condensation pressure computed by use of the isentropic chart differs by 10 millibars or more from that found by use of the pseudoadiabatic diagram, a re- check of all data will be made until the differ- ence is reconciled. 10540. Computation of Stream Function Data and Entry on WBAN-30. 10541. Refer to "Table 13: 10.05T, for Vari- ous Temperatures, t, in OC." and find the value corresponding to the temperature at the isen- tropic surface. Enter this value in the space opposite "10.05T." 1,0541. Refer to "Table 14 pgdm for Various 10 Heights (above sea level) Expressed in Terms of the Unit 0.98 Dynamic Meter," and find the value corresponding to the height of the isen- tropic surface. Enter this value in the space opposite 0gdm,, 10 10543. Obtain the stream function for the given potential temperature by taking the sum of the entries opposite "10.05T" and ,,gdm, 10 The result thus obtained will be represented by four digits without a decimal point, and will be entered in the space opposite "p=- Sum." 10544. It should be noted as a check on any computed value of the stream function that the first two digits thereof are almost invariably the same as the first two digits of the potential temperature serving as the basis. The differ- ence should never exceed one unit in the second digit. The first three digits of the stream function will be approximately equal in nu- merical value to the three digits of the potential temperature. The difference between the values of the stream functions for two isentropic sur- faces should be nearly constant, but will vary slightly in the last digit with change in atmos- pheric temperature and pressure conditions. Observers should note changes in the values of the stream function as they correlate with such conditions, thus providing a means of checking the results. 10600. NOTES, METEOROLOGICAL, ETC. 10610. All pertinent notes on the general meteorological conditions recorded on the back of WBAN-30 will be entered on the adiabatic chart. The notes will be entered at the altitudes of the phenomena close to the temperature curve when the observer knows or can estimate them with reasonable accuracy. When the altitudes of the phenomena are not known, enter the notes above the level at the maximum elevation of the sounding. Use the same symbols for recording clouds, weather, and notes as those employed in Weather Bureau Circular N. Whenever known, the height of cloud bases will appear in the body of the chart, regardless of whether the heights were obtained by means of measure- ments made with balloons and ceiling lights or from reports made by pilots. Phenomena whose heights are estimated will be entered close to the temperature curve on short dashed lines that intersect the temperature and pressure height curves at the proper elevation. When the altitudes are known, the phenomena will be entered on short unbroken lines, provided a significant level does not coincide with the same point. When appropriate, "Height estd." will follow the phenomena. Make all entries in meters above sea level. 10620. Depending upon their nature and the time of their occurrence, notes will be entered on the adiabatic chart as follows: 1,0630. Before Release.-Enter the notes in chronological order in a column running up- ward, followed by the time (G. C. T.) appro- priate to each. The first notes appearing in this group (beginning at the bottom) will relate to conditions that had their beginnings or end- ings approximately one hour before release. 10640. At Release.-Record on the surface pressure line, to the left of the temperature curve, any meteorological conditions (except wind) prevailing on the ground at the time of release, as recorded on the back of WBAN-30. Enter the surface wind direction to 16 points and velocity in m. p. s., at the time of release, on the surface pressure line at a point immedi- 68 F'7Z85 10-12. -WBAN-32. I Security classification Month and year Jan ary 1944 RAOB SUMMARY .. so on, r.(R r orort) Local time at this station isJith meridian time. BA1 Lat. PaL n '13 Lo2ang.// nh-O3p WBAN-32 To convert to O. C. T., add/nbk raet hours. ------------------------------------- IDENTIFICATION DATA FOR STANDARD LEVELS (meters. m. s. 1.) Index E d Scheduled ime r les E Surface 500 1.000 .500 .000 number bestrument -m ILa QL.L.I.I. RRea Rt Rel. Ral. Re sR as Year Month Day Hour o Pres. Temp. Rem. Pr s. Temp. hum Pres. Te . huem. Ps. Temp. fR. hm Prs. T . emp Pe . Te. 1 2 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 II 11 13 14 11 16 17 18 192021 '223 2s 27 28 2 3 3 1 3 33M MU W w 41 0 4s 47 @ H m e a ipa an a n M W 8 4 w 1 4 M M 3 n Is 74 a a 1 ad 3 01 / /5 775 D . l 5 3 7 c a r d 5.7 S- 6 Do.o 0 . 634o- 31030 74 p, 6ard. 4L -f 0 1 02r' 5 000f g . 763 4 1o .-05 f/ p003. 043 d 1 3 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS ately to the right of the surface. temperature. Notes which cannot be correlated on the adia- batic chart with respect to altitude will be recorded about 1 inch above the level at the maximum elevation. If the clouds observed at the time of release are not entered in the body of the chart because their bases are unknown, they will be entered at the top of the chart above the notes pertaining to conditions before release. The entries will be in ascending order of height. Above these will be entered notes on beginnings and endings of thunderstorms, precipitation, and obstructions to vision occurring at the time of release. Miscellaneous notes, such as distant lightning, distant thunderstorms, etc., will then be entered. 10650. After Release.-At the top of the chart and above the notes pertaining to condi- tions at release, enter notes concerning phe- nomena that have their beginnings or endings after release but not later than approximately one hour after the termination of the sounding. These notes will be on significant changes that occurred after release, suh as marked changes in cloud conditions, the beginning or ending of precipitation, fog, thunderstorm, the passage of fronts, etc. 10700. WBAN-32--RAOB SUMMARY FORM (See fig. 10-12) 10710. Entries of pressure, temperature, and relative humidity data at standard altitudes or levels are made on this form from daily raobs. The form consists of five pages with columns corresponding to standard levels extending from the surface to 32 kilometers m. s. 1. A sep- arate form will be prepared from the 0400 G. C. T. and 1600 G. C. T. (or as otherwise scheduled) observations. Page 1 of the form will always be submitted. The other pages will be submitted or not, according as there are data from at least one sounding entered on them. All entries will be made with a sharply pointed No. 3 pencil. Each form will be summarized promptly upon the close of the month to which it pertains. 10711. Enter the name of the station and the elevation to the nearest whole meter, the lati- tude and longitude, and the month and year in which the observations are made, on the ap- propriate lines at the top of the form. In the upper left corner, nonmobile stations will enter their time zone and the numnber of hours to be added to or subtracted from local time to con- vert to G. C. T. Mobile stations will place dashes in the spaces provided for these data. Enter the latitude and longitude in degrees and minutes, followed by "N" or "S" in the case of latitude and "W" or "E" in the case of longitude, whichever are appropriate. 10712. Enter the initials of the computer and verifier of each raob in the columns at the right side of page 1. 10720. ENTRIES UNDER "IDENTIFICA- TION" 10721. Index Number or QLaLalolo.-Sta- tions that have been assigned an index number will enter it, preceded by the necessary number of zeros to total five digits, in the column headed "Index number." Stations that have not been assigned an index number will enter their lati- tude and longitude in accordance with the fol- lowing paragraphs. This is required for the first entry of the month only, except as noted in par. 10722. 10722. Mobile stations will enter their lati- tude and longitude for each raob. The first digit in this column will indicate the octant of the globe (Q) in accordance with the following table: TABLE 1O--1.-Octant of the globe Code figure: Longitude 0 -- 0� to 90o west.......... 1 90� to 180� west-...... 2 1801' to 900 east ------ 3 - 90�0 to 0 east-- 5 0� to 900 west_ 6 ------ to 1800 west__- 7 ----- 1800 to 900 east .-.... 8 - -- 90� to 0� east_---- North latitude. South latitude. 10723. Enter the latitude (LaL) to whole de- grees, followed by the longitude (lolo) to whole degrees, supplying zeros as may be necessary to make each entry total two digits; e. g., 50 would be entered as 05. If the latitude or lon- gitude is 100� or more, the first figure, 1, will be dropped; e. g., 115� would be entered as 15. Example: Station at latitude 37�30' N., longitude 125010' W. Octant of the globe=1. (Since the station is in the north latitudes (37�30' N.), the code figure for the octant of the globe (see table above) lies between 0 and 3, inclusive. The longitude (125�10' W.) lies be- tween the values 90� to 180� west, which cor- responds to code figure 1.) Latitude and longitude expressed to whole degrees: Latitude 37030' N. 380.* Longitude 125010' W.=25 (the octant indicates that this value is really 125�). Required identification group for entry under "Station Index Number": 13825. *When the value of latitude or longitude ends in 30', the value in degrees will be increased by 1 if the final digit is odd but will remain unchanged if the final digit is even. 69 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS 10730. Elevation Floor of Instrument Shelter.-Enter this datum in tens of meters- that is, 193 meters will be entered as 019; 1190 meters will be entered as 119. 10740. Year, Month, and Day.-Enter these data to two digits each. Examples: January 11, 1945, will be entered 45 01 11. December 3, 1945, will be entered 45 12 03. The date will agree with the scheduled time of release, rather than the actual time. Entries for the year and month will be made for the first entry of the month only. 10750. Hour.-Enter the scheduled time (G. C. T.) of release to the nearest whole hour and to two digits, regardless of the actual time of release. That is, 04 or 16 (for 0400 and 1600 G. C. T.) will be entered even though the raob is delayed several hours. On forms for special observations, this entry will be the same as that of the actual time of release. 10760. Actual Time of Release.-Enter this datum to the nearest whole hour (G. C. T.), to two digits. 10770. ENTRIES UNDER "DATA FOR STANDARD LEVELS" 10771. Each standard level in meters m. s. 1. is printed at the top of the columns to which it applies. Pressure, temperature, and relative humidity data at corresponding levels (except the surface level) will be taken from the adia- batic chart and entered in this form promptly upon completion of the raob. 10771.1. When more than one raob is taken for a single observation (as when the first does not attain to a height of 3 km. above the station), data pertaining to the highest raob only will be entered for the scheduled observation. 10771.2. Data for the surface level will be taken from the front of WBAN-30. Data will not be entered in the surface column unless they are available for one or more upper standard levels. 10771.3. Enter pressure in whole millibars for all levels (including the surface), tempera- ture in degrees and tenths, and relative humidity in whole percent. 10771.4. Entries meade in the columns on WBAN-32 must contain the same number of digits as there are small figures at the head of each column. This is required for punch-card purposes. Thus, for the pressure data in the surface column, the figures 20, 21, 22, and 23 at the head of the column indicate that four digits must be entered in that column. The zeros printed in some columns will be counted as a digit. Whenever the value entered in a column has less than the required number of digits, an appropriate number of zeros will pre- cede the value. Minus signs will be considered a digit; decimal points will not. Examples: Pressure of 1010 millibars at the surface entered as 1010. Pressure of 66 millibars at the 19000-meter level entered as 66. Pressure of 315 millibars at the 9000-meter level entered as 0315. Temperature of 2:.4� C. at the 500-meter level entered as 002.4. Temperature of -7.30 C. at the 1500-meter level entered as -07.3. Temperature of -57.3� C. at the 14000-meter level entered as -57.3. Relative humidity of 100 percent at the surface entered as 100. Relative humidity of 85 percent at the 500-meter level entered as 085. Relative humidity of 9 percent at the 6000-meter level entered as 009. Relative humidity of 100 percent at the 1000-meter level entered as 100. 10772. Missing and Doubtful Data.-If a scheduled observation has not been taken, or all the data are doubtful, enter "RAOB not taken" (followed by the reason) or "Data doubtful" on the appropriate line of the first page of WBAN-32. Draw a line through the corre- sponding spaces on the other pages of the form. 10773. Doubtful data (temperature believed to be more than 1 and relative humidity more than 10 percent in error) will not be entered in this form. Pressure data based on estimated mean virtual temperature for strata not in ex- cess of those listed in paragraph 9125 are con- sidered accurate and will be entered, provided an accurate temperature record follows above the missing or doubtful portion. These pres- sure data will be entered even though tempera- ture and relative humidity data for the same level must be omitted. Enter "M" in the tem- perature and relative humidity columns to in- dicate missing or doubtful data. 10774. If the relative humidity data are miss- ing owing to motorboating (as indicated on WBAN-31A-B by the omission of a segment of the curve), values taken from a chart furnished for this purpose and applicable to specified radiosondes will be entered instead of "M." Care will be exercised to use the chart only for the radiosonde to which it applies. Data taken from the chart will be enclosed in parentheses on WBAN-32. 10774.1. The charts applicable to the radio- sondes currently in use are tables 19 and 20 of WBAN Computation Tables. 10774.2. The required value of relative hu- midcity for any level missing owing to motor- boating will be found by noting the point of intersection of the curve on the chart with the temperature for the same level. Read the rela- tive humidity at the side of the chart on the vertical scale corresponding to this point of in- 70 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS tersection. Enter this value enclosed in paren- theses. 10775. When taking data from the adiiabatic chart, draw a 1/4-inch dash with a sharply pointed red pencil across the pressure-height, temperature, and relative humidity curves and across the pressure scale printed along the right margin of the adiabatic chart. Enter data for each level required on WBAN-32 from the sur- face to the maximum altitude of the sounding. If the raob terminates or a missing portion of the record begins within the limits, listed below, of a higher standard level on WBAN-32, data will be entered for the level. Limits Termination of Raob: (Meters) Between surface and 5 km-------------------____ 20 Between 5 kin. and 10 km-------------------____ 30 Between 10 kmin. and 15 kin--_ 50 Above 15 kin --_,__ -_ ____ _-- --_____ 100 10775.1. For the above entries, temperature and relative humidity data will be used as re- corded on WBAN-30 for the termination of the raob or the beginning of the missing portion of the record. The pressure datum will be secured by extrapolating the pressure-height curve line- arly to the higher standard surface. No attempt will be made to extrapolate downward the re- sumption of a record. 10776. Summarizing.-Summarize all ele- ments of WBAN-32. The initials and surname and military rank, grade, or rating, if any, of the computer and verifier of the completed form will be entered in the lower margin. 10776.1.. Number of observations. Enter the number of entries for each level in the ap- propriate space at the base of each column. 10776.2. Sums.-Enter the sum for all col- umns. Place a minus sign (-) before all nega- tive values. Plus signs (+) will not be used. Include relative humidity data in the sums re- gardless of whether they are in parentheses. Enter the sums of pressure and relative humid- ity to whole numbers; temperature, to tenths. 10776.3 Means.-Compute the means by dividing the sums by the number of entries in each column. Where appropriate, place minus signs before means of temperature. Compute means of temperature and pressure only for col- umns having 5 or more entries. Compute means of relative humidity only for columns having at least 16 actual values as distinguished from those derived from the curve referred to in par- agraph 10774. Enter the means of temperature and pressure to tenths, and relative humidity to whole numbers. 10776.4. Temperature Extremes.-Under- line the maximum temperature of each standard level with a red pencil and the minimum tem- perature with a blue pencil. Data will not be underlined in columns having only a single entry. 10777. MEAN MONTHLY ADIABATIC CHARTS 10777.1. General.-Adiabatic charts will be drawn each month based on monthly mean val- ues of pressure, temperature, and relative hu- midity, as computed on WBAN-32. A separate chart will be prepared from WBAN-32 for the 0400 and 1600 G. C. T. (or as otherwise sched- uled) observations. These charts will be mailed with WBAN-32. Enter the name of the station and the month, year, and scheduled time of release (G. C. T.). Enter the following note in the margin at the bottom of each chart: "Pre- pared from means taken from WBAN-32." 10777.2. Construction of Chart.-Draw lines across the chart at mean values of pressure for the standard levels on WBAN-32. On these lines in the left margin of the chart enter the mean values of pressure, and altitude in meters in. s. 1., of the levels to which they pertain. In the right margin enter the number of observa- tions (determined by the number of entries of pressure) for each level. Plot the correspond- ing mean values of temperature and relative humidity on the appropriate levels, and draw straight lines between successive points. Label the top and bottom of each curve "T" and "RH," respectively. Construct the pressure-height curve by plotting a point on each level corre- sponding to its altitude above mean sea level, and draw straight lines between successive points. Values for all curves at the 400-millibar level will be obtained in a manner similar to that of daily raobs. (See par. 10304.) 10800. CHECKING FORMS 10810. All raob forms will be carefully checked in detail by an observer other than the computer, so far as possible, before the forms are mailed. After checking the forms, the veri- fier will print his name in the space labeled "Verifier." 10811. The verifier will not change readings when the differences are 0.2 or less of the small- est printed divisions on the various charts and scales when the differences obviously arise from variation in personal judgment. When differ- ences exceed 0.2 division, the readings will be reconsidered and corrected, if necessary. In general, it is expected that the differences be- tween the readings of two observers will not ex- ceed 0.1 division, especially where the divisions are relatively wide. 10812. Errors on the adiabatic chart deriving from errors on other forms need not be corrected on the chart if a displacement of 0.2 or less of a printed division would result. If a displace- ment greater than 0.2 is involved, the affected part of the chart will be redrawn. In some such 71 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS cases, errors may be corrected on WBAN-30 and not necessitate changes on the adiabatic chart. 10813. In checking the various forms, it has been found that the errors listed below occur frequently. Their sources, therefore, will be checked most carefully. (1) Identifications (such as station, date, curve-label, etc.) omitted or incorrect. (2) Failure to insert all significant levels. (3) Abstracting data from the calibra- tion curves. (4) Reading of ordinate and contact number from the recorder record. (5) Plotting of levels and points on adiabatic chart. (6) Errors in arithmetic. (7) Failure to make all changes resulting from changes made on other forms. 10900. PREPARATION OF FORMS FOR MAILING 10910. Raob forms will be prepared for mail- ing to cover the following periods in each month: (1) 1st to 10th___ (2) 11th to 20th _Inclusive. (3) 21st to last day of the month----- 10911. The forms to be mailed are WBAN- 30, WBAN-31A, and B, and the recorder rec- ords with their calibration charts. 10920. Mail all forms for each period in one 141/2" by 18" envelope. Arrange WBAN-31A and B chronologically, the earliest date upper- most, and folded once with the fold parallel to the vertical temperature lines, in such a man- ner that the edges of the innermost form meet. Do not crease these forms. Each calibration chart should be folded once, with the blank side out. The recorder record should then be placed within the folds of its corresponding chart. 10921. Arrange WBAN-30 and the recorder record and calibration chart in chronological order, and place them between the fold of the innermost adiabatic chart, after which insert all forms in the envelope with the fold of the adiabatic charts uppermost. Reinforce the en- velope with gummed kraft tape after sealing. 10922. Instructions for mailing these forms and WBAN-32 will be found in the addendum. 72 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS Chapter XI. TRANSMISSION OF RAOB MESSAGES 11100. The code to be used in the transmis- sion of raob messages will be specified in the addendum. 11101. Accuracy is essential in these mes- sages. Whenever possible, all raob forms will be checked before transmission of the message. 111,10. Code Check. In the column headed "Code Check" on WBAN-30, number the trans- mitted levels in the order in which they appear in the message. The surface level will be No. 1. 11111. The coded message will be entered on the front of WBAN-30. Each group in the message will be entered on a segment of the broken lines provided for the entries. Correc- tions will be made in red without obliterating or erasing the data as they originally appeared in the transmitted message. 11112. If a level was not computed at the 400- millibar surface, the data required for transmis- sion will be taken from the adiabatic chart and entered on WBAN-30 under "Mandatory Levels for Transmission."' Note that the entry of man- datory levels for transmission on WBAN-30 is in the ascending order of height. 11120. Selecting Levels for Transmis- sion.-The time allotted for transmission of raobs is limited. Therefore, only essential levels will be transmitted. Careful judgment must be exercised in selecting levels for transmission, since more levels are usually evaluated than are required by those who use the transmitted messages. 11121. Whenever a series of relatively thin strata (approximately 100 meters) having dif- ferent lapse rates occur adjacent to one another, data only for the lowermost and uppermost of such levels will be transmitted, unless required by the provisions of paragraph 11122. 11122. Select levels for transmission in ac- cordance with the following criteria: (1) Highest and lowest values of tem- perature and relative humidity on the plotted curves. (2) Bases of clouds and icing. (3) Levels bounding motorboating hu- midity and missing data strata more than four contacts in extent. (4) A level within each stratum required by (3) above. (5) Levels required by the raob code, since these will often make unnecessary the transmission of levels otherwise required. 11123. In the troposphere the temperature at any level intermediate between two transmitted levels should not differ by more than 20 C. from that obtained by linear interpolation between 613388--45- 6 the latter levels. In the stratosphere the differ- ence should not exceed 5� C. Relative humid- ity at any level intermediate between two trans- mitted levels should not differ by more than 10 percent from that obtained by linear inter- polation between the latter levels. 11130. Data termed "doubtful" or "missing" on WBAN-30 will be so indicated in the mes- sage. 11140. When for any reason the raob mes- sage cannot be transmitted at the regularly scheduled time, a "no raob" message, taken from the Raob Code, indicating the reason therefor, will be filed instead. 11150. If observations are permanently dis- continued at a station, "no raob" messages will continue to be filed until the station reports are finally discontinued on the sequence. 11160. Additional Raobs. - Whenever a height of less than 3 kilometers above the sta- tion is attained in the regular observation, the data will not be transmitted if a second raob is taken. Otherwise, the data obtained in the regularly scheduled observation, even though less than 3 kilometers above the station, will be transmitted at the scheduled time, provided the minimum height has been reached that is speci- fied in the current Raob Code instructions. 11161. Messages based on special or extra raobs will not be transmitted unless specifically authorized. No message will be filed later than 18 hours after the scheduled time of release. 111,70. Correction Messages.-Whenever an error is found to have been transmitted, a cor- rection message will be filed as soon as possible for transmission. 11200. TRANSMISSION OF FREEZING LEVEL AND ICING DATA IN HOURLY REPORTS 11210. These data will be reported as remarks in the first hourly (or 3-hourly) airway obser- vation following their determination. The re- port will be made incident to every raob when the surface temperature is above 00 C. and the sounding extends to the freezing level. The freezing level will be taken as occurring at 00 C. 11211. The altitude of the freezing level will be reported in hundreds of feet m. s. 1.; and the value of relative humidity, to the nearest per- cent. The report will be preceded by the phrase contraction "RAFRZ" (raob lowest freezing level). "RH" will be used to denote relative hu- midity; e. g., "RAFRZ 31 m. s. 1. RH 93" (raob lowest freezing level 3,100 feet m. s. 1.; relative 73 INSTRUCTIONS FOR RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS humidity at that level, 93 percent. Missing rel- ative humidity at the freezing level will be transmitted as "MISG." If motorboating is oc- curring, the value of relative humidity at the cut-off point (corresponding to 00 C.) will be transmitted. 11212. Data pertaining to the lowest point at which 00 occurs will be transmitted regardless of inversion and isothermal layers that might in- troduce additional 00 temperature levels aloft. 11213. Icing of the raob balloon (see par. 9238.1) will also be reported in remarks in the first hourly (or 3-hourly) airway observation filed after determination of icing. 11214. The report of icing will be preceded by the phrase contraction "RAICG" (raob icing). The altitude of icing will be expressed in hun- dreds of feet m. s. 1. and will be reported for the point where the first lengthened contact indi- cates a decrease in ascensional rate; e. g. "RAICG 13 m. s. 1." (raob icing at 1,300 feet m. s. 1.). If it is believed that snow is contribut- ing to the decreasing ascensional rate of the raob balloon, then the abbreviation "SNW" will fol- low "RAICG." 11215. When both icing and freezing level data are reported in the same observation, prece- dence may be given to either; e. g., "RAICG 13 m. s. 1. RAFRZ 12 m. s. 1. RH 93." A time group will be placed at the end of the report when an hour or more elapses between the time the raob balloon reaches the freezing level and the time the relevant data are included in an airway ob- servation. The time reported will be that at which the balloon reaches the freezing level and will be expressed to the nearest minute in terms of the time used for airway reports. 11220. Determination of the Height of Freezing and Icing Levels.-Table 18 of the WBAN Computation Tables will be used to de- termine the height above sea level of freezing and icing levels. The curve is based upon the standard atmosphere, and heights of levels de- termined by means of it will therefore usually differ from heights of the same levels determined by means of the adiabatic chart. Since the al- timeters used in most aircraft are calibrated to the standard atmosphere, heights indicated by an altimeter will generally be in much closer agreement with heights determined by the standard atmosphere curve than with those de- termined by an adiabatic chart. 11221. Determine from an inspection of the recorder record thile contact corresponding to the icing or freezing level. In the former case it will be the first lengthened contact; and in the latter, the first contact above the surface (see par. 9238.1) corresponding to a temperature of 00 C. (1) Find the pressure corresponding to this contact from the pressure-calibration chart furnished with each radiosonde and, from table 18, find the height to the nearest hundred feet corresponding to this pressure. (2) In the same manner, find the height in hundreds of feet corresponding to the station pressure at the time of release of the radiosonde. (3) Subtract algebraically the height found in (2) from the height found in (1). Add the station elevation in feet to the re- mainder. The resultant value will be the required height in feet, in. s. 1. Note that this subtraction must be made algebrai- cally, as shown in the following example: Given: Station elevation _____________- 60 feet. Station pressure__________ 1025 millibars. Freezing level occurs at the 25th contact. 1. The calibration chart furnished with the radiosonde indicates that the twenty-fifth con- tact corresponds to a pressure of 740 mbs. 2. From the standard atmosphere curve it is found that a pressure of 740 mbs. corresponds to an altitude of 8,400 feet mean sea level (to the nearest hundred feet). 3. In a similar manner it is found that the station pressure of 1025 millibars corresponds to an altitude of - 300 feet mean sea level (to the nearest hundred feet). 4. Subtract algebraically the value found in 2 from that found in 3: 8,400- (--300) =8, 700 Plus station elevation of 60 feet (to the nearest hundred feet) ___ 100 Required height__________ __ 8, 800 It will be noted that the value found in 3 will always be negative for pressures higher than 1013 mbs. 11222. The required height may also be ob- tained graphically as follows: Given: Station elevation ______ 60 feet. Station pressure _____________ 1025 millibars. Freezing level occurs at 25th contact on recorder record (corresponding to 740 mnbs.). 1. On table 18 find the intersection of the sta- tion pressure (1025 millibars) and station ele- vation (100 feet to nearest hundred feet). This point is four divisions (to the nearest whole division) to the right of the standard atmos- phere curve. 2. Find the point on the curve corresponding to 740 millibars and displace this point four divisions (as found in (1) immediately above) to the right and read the required height (8,800 feet) beneath the latter point on the horizontal scale at the bottom of the chart. This point should always be displaced to the same side of the curve and in the same amount as the point found in (1). 74 INDEX Paragraph Accessories, General -----------------------------------------------------------------------------5100 Addendum ----------------------------Foreword Adiabatic Chart (see also WBAN-31A-B). Mean Monthly, Mailing of_ ----------------- 10777.1 Preparation of Mean Monthly- - - - ------------ 10777 Airway Controller, Consultation with___ 7620 Airway Traffic Control Center, Transmission of NOTAMS to_-- 7810 Air Traffic, Familiarization with at Release ,_ 7210 Altitude, Surface___ 10303 Antennas_ 2200 Dipole--------------------2210,2220 Ground, Choice of ----- - 8120 Radiosonde, Disposition of Prior to Release_ -- 7380 Radiosonde, Position of in Shelter_ 7430 Standby, Use of -8120 Transmission Line---------------------------- 2220, 2230 Wire Doublet_ ------ -------- ------------- 2210, 2230 Ascensional Rate, Average - - - 4533 Conditions Affecting_--- 4532 Effect of Ballast Balloon on_ -- - 4536 Effect of High__ 8410 Icing-_ 9238.1 Importance of_ 4537 Ascension Number, Entry on Form of ------------------------------------------------------------10114 Ascent Temperature. (See Temperatures, Ascent.) Ballast, Amount to Use in Balloons -------------------------------------------------------------4551 Ballast Balloons. (See Balloons, Ballast.) Ballast, Kinds of __ 4551 Balloons, General_ -------------------------- 4100 Ascensional Rate of. (See Ascensional Rate.) Ballast, Inflated Diameter of- 4551 Inflation of---------------------------------__ 4551 Placing of in Train-- 4553.1 Purpose of___- 4550 Suspension Beneath Radiosonde _ 4553 Tying of to Parachute -- 4527 Use of During Precipitation or Icing 4550 Use of in High Winds 4550, 4552 When to Use - 4550 Bursting Point of____ ____ 8610 Conditioning of_ 4300 Chamber for_ 4450 Direct Heat Treatment _- 4440 Double-boiler Treatment_ 4320 Hot Water Bath Treatment 4330 Need_ 4121 Ten-gra -------------------------------------4460 Covers, Improvisation of_ 4632 Releasing with_ 4631 Use of as Part of Inflation Weight----- 4630 Defects of During Inflation_ - 4523 Handling of_-- 4510, 4511 Inflation of- 4500 Delay in Release After -- - - - - - - 4538, 4539 For Free Lift. (See Free Lift.) For Total Lift. (See Total Lift.) Precautionary Procedure During 4511, 4522, 4523 Procedure Upon Completion__- 4524 Pressure During 4521 350-gram_____ 4520 W ith H elium -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4534, 5305 With Hydrogen _ 4534 Patching of_ 4540 Sealing of After Inflation 4525 700-gram__ -- 4111 Storage of_ 4201 Tying of Parachute to 4526 Types of 4110 Use of Neoprene in ---------------------------------------------------------------- 4120 75 76 INDEX Paragraph Baroswitch -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1220 Functions of -------------------------------------------------------------------------1220 Serial Numbers of ------------------------6220 Baroswitch Compartment, Hole in_- 7361 Baroswitch Section, Inspection of_ 6260 Baseline Check, Adjusting Low Reference During _____________ __________________________ 7731 Application of Recorder Correction to ------------------- 7761.4 Entry of Notations on Recorder Record_ 7--------------- 761.3 Entry of on WEAN-30_ 7744, 7750, 7751, 7762, 7764, 7765 Entry of Time of_ - 7744 Evaluation of ------ 7760 Exposure of Humidity Element Prior to7______________________________- _____ 7450 Interference During ------------------- 7730.1 Length of Trace in-------------------------------------------------------------- 7740.3 Making the ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7700 Manual 7------------------------------------------------------------------ 732.2, 7732.3 Motorboating During_----------------------------- - 7 7761.51 Order of Test Circuits_ - - - - - - - - 7422, 7423, 7424, 7425 Position of Antenna During ---------------------- 7430 Preliminary Preparation for__ 7220, 7230, 7711 Procedure in Making__ ___________________ ___________ 7730 Recorder Failure Prior to__ ------------------8710 Relative Humidity Requirements in ------------------- _ 7740.1, 7740.2 Satisfactory, Requirements for ----------------------------------------------------- 7740 Temperature Readings 7750 Termination of------ 7744, 7745 Time of Exposure Before Beginning_______________________________ 741.0 Sensitivity Adjustments in Relation to------------------------------------------- 7252.2 Unstable Record- 7732 Verification of by Psychrometric Readings- - 7740.2 Batteries, Radiosonde, General ---------------------------------------------- 3100 "A" Section --------------------------------------------------3102 "B" Section 3102 Burgess, Repair of_ 3620 Damages Sustained in Shipping of. (See Addendum.) Defective, Disposition of. (See Addendum.) Installation of in Radiosonde ------------__ 7350, 7351 Installation of in Standby Radiosonde________________________________________ 7390 Making the Baseline Check with - - - - - - - 7351 National Carbon Co., Repair of______________________________________ 3630 Packing Slips of. (See Addendum.) Pliofilm Wrapped, Testing of ______________________________________ 3311 Precautions in Connecting to Radiosonde______________________________ 6312 Preparation of for Use ------------------------------------------------------3500 When Surface Temperature is Above 00C__________________ 3510 When Surface Temperature is Below 00 C 3520 When Surface Temperature is Below - 20� C - - 3530 Procedure in Testing of------------------------------------------------ 3323 Receipt of. (See Addendum.) Rejection of___________________________-- - - - - -_ 3322 Repairing of_____ --------------------- 3600 Shipping Invoices of. (See Addendum.) Shortages in Shipping of. (See Addendum.) Storage of_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- 3400 Storage of at Low Temperatures_______ _______________________________________ 3420 Storage of in Electric Refrigerator____________________________________________ 3440 Storage of in Tropical Regions_ 3430 Table of_ 3201 Testing of, General-_ 3300 Prior to Expiration of Guarantee Period_.... 3311 Prior to Use ------------------------------------------------------ 3320 Types of ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3200 Use of for Test Purposes_ - -_______________ ______________________--5601 Use of Insulating Material with 7351 Voltages, Minimum Required of - - - - -3321 Voltmeter to be used in Testing of _ - - - - -3320 Test, General___ 5600 "A" and "B" Sections of_ ------------- - - - - - 5601 Checking of--------------- - -_ 5602 Purpose of _ - - - - -5601 Use of___ - -- 5601 Voltages, Minimum of_ _ 5602, 5603 Battery Voltmeter, Description of 5700 Calibration Chart, General__ 1221 Checking Numbers on Prior to Flight------- - - - -_ 7320 Contact, Definition of _ - - - - - - - - - 7346 Entry of Data on------__ -----------------------9610 INDEX 77 Calibration Chart, Folding of_ - --------- Humidity Evaluation on - Calibration Curve, Displacing of_ Caution for Aircraft _____ Chart, Calibration. (See Calibration Chart.) Chart Division, Use of Term Checking Forms, General Correction of Derived Errors _ Participation of Personnel in_ Sources of Error -- Tolerance in Checking Raob Messages - - - Cloudless, When Used_ Clouds, Entry of, Notes Concerning, on WBAN-31L - On Recorder Record_ On WBAN-30____ Observing of _ ________ Noting Entry of Raob Balloon into Base of_________________ . Significant Level at Base of Clouds and Weather, Entry of on WBAN -30_ Coaxial Cable Code Check, Use of on WBAN-30 Commutation_ Commutator, Adjustment, of for Point of Release To Pressure Contact _ Adjustment Screw on_ Connections to- Description ofL Inspection of _- Irregularities in Performance Test of_ Polishing of_ Commutator Contact, Proportional Parts of_ - Commutator Contact Arm, Inspection of_ Commutator Contact Setting, Determination of_ Computation of Drift Corrections. (See Drift Corrections, Computation of.) Computation of Paper Drift Corrections. (See Paper Drift Corrections, Computation of.) Computations, Continuation of with Missing Data_ Computations, Termination of_ Condensation Pressure, Charts for Use in Computation of - Check of Computation of_ Computation of Entry of on WBAN-30_ Use of Charts for Computing_ Contact, at Release, Discrepant___ ___ At Release from Calibration Chart, Entry of on WBAN -30 Calibration Chart, Definition of_ Commutator, Definition of__ Description of- _ Proportional Parts of Recorder Record, Definition and Proportional Parts of Relative Humidity, Polarization of_-- Contact Numbers and Drift Line Contact Point, Polishing of_ Contact Setting, Determination of_ For Point of Release___ Control Adjustments for FM Reception, Superheterodyne Receiver__ Control Tower, Informing of Intention to Release- Signal at Release Corrected Temperature Data, Plotting of on WBAN-31 Correction Messages, Raob___ Paper Drift. (See Paper Drift Correction.) Relative Humidity. (See Relative Humidity Correction.) Corrections, Application of to Temperature and Relative Humidity Ordinates ------------ Drift and Shift. (See Drift and Shift Corrections.) Recorder. (See Recorder Corrections.) Covers, Balloon. (See Balloons, Covers.) Cut-off Point, Evaluation of Data, Classification of_ Doubtful. (See Doubtful Data.) Missing. (See Missing Data.) Defective Batteries, Disposition of. (See Addendum.) Defective Radiosondes, (See Radiosondes, Defects in.) Delayed Release _ Paragraph 9600 1240 9424 7600 1231 10800 10812 10118 10813 10811 11101 7861 10640,10650 9131 10610 7861 7871 9235 7870 2220,2230 11110 1222 __ 7820 7343, 7344.3 6260 6272 1221 6260 6261 6380 6261, 7342 7345 6260 7344 9125.1 9123.8, 9123.9 10531 10534 10530 10530 10532, 10533 9423 9422 7346 7345 1221 7345 9420 9441 9300 7341 7344 7820 8310 7610 7852, 7853 10312.1 11170 9500 9223.2,9444 9120 7810 78 INDEX Descent Record, Required Amount_ ____________ ______________________ Selection of Points on_ Use of--- When Required _- --- __ ______ Descent Temperature Data, Computation of Recorder and Drift Corrections for Entry of on WBAN-30- Evaluation of__ ____ _ - -- Descent Temperature Differences, Plotting of on WBAN-31B_ Descent Temperatures, Entry of on WBAN-30__________ Discrepant Contact at Release, Procedure for Correction of_ - Displacing Calibration Curve___________--- ______ Doubtful Data, Classification of______________________________________ Continuation of Computations_______ Entry of Notations on Recorder Record- Entry of on WBAN-32__ _ In Raob Message_ _ Notations of on WBAN-31_________ Temperature, Noting on WBAN-31____________ Definition of _-- When Ascent Correction Missing_ Doubtful Record, Isentropic Levels in______________________________________ Drift and Shift Corrections, Application of Drift Correction, Application of to Visual Meter Raobs_ At Cut-off Point-------------- Basis of__ _ _- of __-_ Computation of-_ _ -- - For Descent Temperature Data_ Entry of on Recorder Record ______________________ Drift Line, Computation of----- Drawing of for Paper Drift Correction______________________________ For Shift in Recorder Record - From Surface_ _ When Low Reference Contact Missing--- Drift Line and Contact Numbers - - Drift of Recorder Record Paper. (See Paper Drift Correction.) Electronic Frequency Units _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ------------------------------- Element, Humidity. (See Humidity Element.) Hygrometer. (See Humidity Element.) Elevation of Standard Isobaric Surfaces, Determination of- Error, Effect of Leaking Pressure Cell on- _ _--- ___ Possible Sources of_ Relative Humidity, Effect of Temperature on_-- Sources of in Checking --- Evaluating the Recorder Record, General_ Evaluating the Temperature Ordinate_ Evaluator, Temperature. (See Temperature Evaluator.) Exposure of Radiosonde _----------------------------------- Fahrenheit Temperatures When Used _ -- Failure of Recorder During Flight___ - Fixed Levels, Check of Computed Pressures_ Computation of Mixing Ratio at _ - Pressures at 1,520 Meters m. s. 1_ Pressures at, in Missing Strata_ Computed Pressure at for Transmission Data, Entry of on WBAN-30 Determination of Mean Virtual Temperature Pertaining to - Entry of Pressures at on WBAN-30_-- Errors in Computed Pressures at -- Motorboating at____ Pressure at from Adiabatic Chart___ Pressures at, General_ Pressure, Transmission of______________________________________ Rechecking of Computed Pressures at___ Use of Tables in Computing Pressures at - Z Meters - Folding Forms for Mailing (See Forms, folding of) Forms, General_ ---- Checking. (See Checking Forms.) Entry on of Ascension Number_ Date and Time of Raob _ Identification Data Latitude and Longitude - - Station Name_ Folding of _ Initialing of_ __ ___ _ _ Instructions for Mailing. (See Addendum.) Mailing of_ ____ _ __ Paragraph 9240 --___-__ 9242, 9243 9111 8620 9541 9542, 10212. 4 9540, 10212.32 __10212.33 10212.4 9423 to 9423.3 9424 9120 - - _ _ 9123.9 9236 ________10772, 10773 11130 10305 10312.1 9121 10212.33 10525 9520 8721 9444 9521 9522 9541 9320 9350 9533 9340 9330 ----- - 9360,9361 9300 2400 10340 9123.6 9123 9123. 5 10813 9100 9430 7400 7721,7751 ----- 8720,8721 1044 10453 10381 10381 10440 10400, 10450 10410, 10411 10381 10444 10452 10430 10380 10450 10444 10441, 10442 10420 10100 10114 10111 10110 10113 10112 10117, 10920, 10921 10115 10119 INDEX Forms, Preparation of for Mailing._................... Signing of_ Use of Pencils in Preparing......... ------------. Use of Stamps on - --_ - WBAN-30, General_ Code Check -- Entry on of Basic Data Data from Fixed Levels_ Fixed Level Data on Front of Height of 500 mb. Surface___ Height of Significant Levels_ Isentropic Data_ Mandatory Levels for Transn Missing Data_ Mixing Ratio_ Pressure Data Raob Messages .-- Relative Humidity Data- Stream Function Data Temperature Corrections Temnerature Data 79 ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - aission_ ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ------------------ Fahrenheit, When Used_ WBAN-31, Abstraction of Data from, for Fixed Level Pressures Checking of Superadiabatic Lapse Rate on ---- Curves on, Through Motorboating Strata_ Description of________,_ _____ Determination of Mean Temperature on_ Entry on, of Labels__________ 10312 to 1031i Mean Virtual Temperature -------- Meteorological Notes______________ Mixing Ratio_ -- Surface Elevation___________________________ Temperature Data Indicating Data Entered on WBAN-32----- Levels in Strata of Missing Data_______________ Multiple Ascents, Drawing Relative Humidity Curves from_ Notations of Missing or Doubtful Data on.__. Plotting Data on _ Corrected Temperature-_ _..._. Missing Relative Humidity Motorboating, Relative Humidity- - Multiple Ascents, Temperature -- Pressure-Height Curve. (See Pressure-Height Curve.) Reading Height of Significant Levels on...... WBAN-31B, Continuity of Record on_ Use of in Temperature Corrections _ WBAN-32, General _ _ _ -_---_- Data, When Entered---__ --- Description, Preparation, Summarization of- Entries of Missing or Doubtful Data on Entries Under Data for Standard Levels - - Entry on of Data Pertaining to Highest Raob _ Date__ Elevation_ Humidity Values from Curve_ Identification Data Index Number _ Initials _ - Pressure Data_ Relative Humidity Data from Curve- Surface Data_ Time of Raob ..-- Time of Release Extrapolation of Data to Standard Levels on- Mean Monthly Adiabatic Chart, Preparation of_ Number of Digits in Columns of_ Preparation of at Mobile Stations_ Signing of___________-_ Summarizing________ Temperature Extremes, Underlining of_ Units of Data Entered on_ Free Lift, Average Ascentional Rate___ Computation of.___ _-____ Definition of___________ __ During Precipitation or Icing_ Effect of Ballast Balloon on_ Effect of Varying Weights on_.. .. - - Paragraph 10900 10115 10110 10110 10201 11110 10210 10400 10450 10370 10361 10524 11112 10203 10214 10211 11111 10213 10540 10212.3 10212 7751 10381.1 10312.2 10313.2 10301 to 10305 10331 2.2, 10313. 4, 10381.1, 10522, 10775 10332.2 10610 -- 10314 _ 10311 10312 10775 10311.1 10313.3 10305 10310 10312.1 10313 10313.1 10312.3 10360 10304 10212.33 10700 10771 10710 10772, 10773 10771 10771.1 10711, 10740 10730 10774 10711, 10721, 10722, 10723 10721 10712 10771.3, 10773, 10775.1 10774, 10774.1, 10774.2, 10776.3 10771.2 10750 - 10750,10760 10775 10777 10771.4 10722 10776 10776 10776.4 10771.3 4533 4534 4531 4533,4535 4536 4534,4534.1,4535 80 INDEX Freezing Level Data. (See RAFRZ.) Frequency Division, Use of Term- _ _____ Frequency Shifts, During Baseline Check- Frequency Unit, Adjusting of_________________ Adjustment of _ _ ___ Adjustment Range of- Power Supply to_ Fronts, Notes on Passage of_ 400-Millibar Level, Plotting of on WBAN-31A 500-Millibar Surface, Entry of Height on WBAN-30_ Galvanometer Needle, Balancing of on L&N Recorder_ G. C. T., Use of Generator, Hydrogen_ Ground Equipment, General_ Check of Cycloray Recorders_ Check of Prior to Baseline Check_ Warm-up of High Reference, Grounding of at Release_ Performance Test of Relation to Low Reference Humidity Circuit, Performance Test of- Humidity Element, Effect of Temperature on Check of Mounting Clamps for Description of_________________ Handling of_-_ _- Installation Indoors Installation of _ Length of Exposure Time of_ Limits of________________________ Limits of, Checking at Baseline Che Mounting of in Radiosonde_ Performance of Radiosonde in Abse: Rejection of for Exceeding Limits Removing from Vial_ Replacement of_ Storage of in Instrument Shelter_ Use of Spare_ Vial Containing_ Hydrogen Generator_ _ -- Hydrogen, Precautions with_ Hygrometer Element. (See Humidity Element.) Hygrometer Section, Check of -- Hygrometer Unit, Repair of_ Icing, Indications of______ Icing Level Data. (See RAICG.) Inflating Balloons. (See Balloons, Inflation of.) Inflation Equipment______ Inflation Nozzle Inflation Shelter, General_____________ Electric Fixtures in_ Improvisation for_ Plans for_ Temporary - Use of Hydrogen Generator in Inflation Weights___________ Instructions, Exceptions to Obsolete _- Revisions and Additions Instrument Shelter, Entry of Height on WBAN-31- Floor of, Pressure and Altitude at_ Pressure at the Floor of- Use of_ Interference During Baseline Check__ _ Interference, Log of_______________________________ Checking of Radiosonde Signal for___ Inversion, Relative Humidity Value at _ _ _ Isentropic Data, General____________________________ Abstraction of from Adiabatic Chart Entry of on WBAN-30_ Isentropic Levels, Computation of Mixing Ratio at In Missing or Doubtful Record_ Potential Temperature at__ Isentropic Surfaces, Labeling on WBAN-31 _ _ Location of on Adiabatic Chart_ Standard____ ___ Labels, Entry of on WBAN-31_____ ____ Paragraph 1231 7430 8400 6311 6330 - 6311.1, 6311.2 10650 10304 10370 7252.1 10111 5305 2100 7240 7231 7230, 7242, 7252 _ 7854, 7854.1 6350 9330 6370 1240 6240 1240 7451 7452 6241 7450, 7743.1 7742 7760 1250 6430 7743 7451 6411 7453 7453 6241 5305 5305 6240 6411 9238.1 5400 5401 5300 5305 5304 5301 5303 5305 5401 Foreword Foreword Foreword 10311 10303 7820 5202 7730.1 7331 7330 9442 10500 10520 10524 10527 10525 10510 10522 10521, 10523, 10526 10322 10312 to 10312.2, 10313.4, 10381.1, 10522, 10775 INDEX L&N Recorder, Check of_ Sensitivity of__ Warming up of_ Latitude, Entry of on Forms ............ Level Number for Missing Data_ Levels in Transmitted Message. (See Raob Lead-in. (See Antennas.) Lift. (See Free Lift, Total Lift.) Limits, Temperature Ordinate - Log of Interference_________________ Longitude, Entry of on Forms_ -- Low Reference, Contacts Missing- Correcting Contacts of_ Grounding of at Release_ Performance Test of- Setting to 95.0_ Shift of at Release - Mailing Forms, Folding for_ Instructions for. (See Add( Periods for__ Preparation of for_ Mandatory Levels, Entry of Fixed Levels U For Transmission, Entry Manual Baseline Check. (See Baseline Che Mean Temperature, Determination of on W Mean Virtual Temperature, Determination Entry of on W Estimated_ Pertaining to I Messages, Raob. (See Raob Messages.) Meteorological Notes____________________ Meter, 0.98 Dynamic_ Minimum Height, Requirements_ Missing Contacts, Limits of_ Missing Data, Classification of_ Entry of on WBAN-30_ WBAN-32 in Raob Message___ in Tropopause__ Humidity, Limits When Imp Levels in Strata of on WBAIN Notation of on Recorder Rec Notations of on WBAN-31_ Relative Humidity, Correctio Definitio Entry of Plotting Surface to 3 km. Above Stati Temperature, Classified as- Definition of__ Termination of Raob Owing Missing Record, Isentropic Levels in _ Mixing Ratio at Fixed Levels_ _ _ _ Mixing Ratio, Computation of at Isentropic Computation of When Humic Entry of on WBAN-30 WBAN- 31 - Slide Rule - - Motorboating at Fixed Levels - Motorboating Data, Plotting of on WBAN- Motorboating During Baseline Check___ Motorboating, Evaluation of Record as_ Entry of on WBAN-30___ Values of on WBAIN Ordinate of _ Performance Test for__ Predominance of_ - Relative Humidity, Plotting Motorboating Strata, Curves Through, on Mlultiple Ascents____ Relative Humidity Data o Name of Station, Entry of on Forms- Notams, Correction to Filing of_ -o Transmission of_ of o Recorder Notes and Comments, Entry of on Recorder 81 Paragraph 7250 7252.1, 7252.2 --7252 10113 9237 Message.) 6360 7331 10113 9310, 9360 9310 7854, 7854.1 6330, 6340 - 8410 -------- 7851.1 10920,10921 endum.) ----10910 10900,10922 nder 10451 T of on WBAN-30 _ 11112 ck, Manual.) BAN-31 _ 10331 of__ 10332 'BAN-31 - - - - 10332.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 1 0 3 2 . 10351 Fixed Levels, Determination of_- - ---__ 10410,10411 10600 10302 9111, 9112 9113 9120 10203 10772,10773 - 11130 9125 ortant 9114 J-31 - 10311.1 ord -- 9236 10305 )n 20 Percent or More_ 10213. 32 n of_ _ 9122 on WBAN-30 10213.1 of on WBAN-31 10313 on__ 9113 10212. 33 9121 to_ 9125 10525 10453 Levels - -- 10527 dity Missing or Motorboating- 10214.2 10214 -- 1314 10214.1 10452 -31-- 10313.1 7742,7761.51 9445 10213.2 -32__ 10774 6371.1, 9223 6370,6371 9223.2 of on WBAN-31 10313 WBAN-31 10313.2 9232 )n WBAN- 31 10313.3 10112 7810 7810 7810 Record --------------------------------------------------9132 82 INDEX Notes, Entry of on WBAN-31. - Before Release_ At Release ____-- After Release_ _ ......... Notes, Meteorological, Etc_ Observation Schedules -- Observations, Surface, Entry of on Recorder Record- Visual Meter- ---___ Obsolete Instructions Obstructions to Vision, Entry of Notes on WBAN-31 Obtaining the Recorder Record, General_ Ordinate, Recorder Record__ __ Relative Humidity Evaluation of. (See Relative Humidity Ordinate, Evaluation of.) Use of Term--- - Paper Drift Correction - - - - Computation of -- Determination of Need of_ Entry of on Recorder Record_ Significant Levels Zero Recording for_ Paper, Cycloray Recorder--- L&N Recorder---_ Paper Feed, Rate of_ Parachute, Checking of Before Release Place of in Train ________ _______________ Tying of Balloon to_ Performance-Defect Relationships, Table of Performance Test of Radiosondes Completion of_ Preliminary________________ Plotting Data on WBAN-31A-B ___________________ Polarization, Manifestations of Potential Temperature Lines on WBAN-31- Precipitation, Entry of Notes on WBAN-30, WBAN-31 Preliminary Check Temperature Readings Preliminary Check Temperature Values, Use of Preparation of Forms, General___ Pressure Cell, Leaking__ Pressure Contact___ Pressure Contact at Release, Entry of on WBAN -30 Pressure at Floor of Instrument Shelter_ Pressure Contact Value, At Significant Levels - - Entry of on Significant Levels_ Pressure Data, At Fixed Levels. (See Fixed Levels.) Entry of on WBAN-30 _ Pressure, Determination of at Elevation of Radiosonde - Entry of on WBAN-31 at Maximum Elevation of Sounding Plotting on WBAN-31 _ Surface- Pressure-Height Curve, The_ Based on Estimated Mean Virtual Temperature Computation of_ Mean Temperature in Computing_ Mean Virtual Temperature in Computing Plotting of on WBAN-31 -- Tables for Computing Thicknesses and Elevations of Strata in ---------------- Pseudoadiabatic Diagram, Use of in Computing Condensation Pressure_ -- Radio Frequency, Changing of - 7 Radiosonde, The_ Antenna. (See Antenna.) Baroswitch. (See Baroswitch.) Batteries. (See Batteries, Radiosonde.) Certification of Invoices or Packing Slips of. (See Addendum.) Changing Radio Frequency of. (See Radio Frequency, Changing of.) Check of Temperature Section of _ Commutator. (See Commutator.) Component Parts of Connection of to Test Switch _ _ _ _ Damages Sustained in Shipping of. (See Addendum.) Defects in - Disposition of Rejected. (See Addendum.) Entry of Into Cloud Base ..... Exposure of Prior to Baseline Check _ Failure, Explanation of_ _ _ _ Paragraph _ 10610, 10620 10630 10640 10650 10600 7110 9131 8700 Foreword 10640 8100 1231 1231 9530 9533 8631 9533.1 9532 7242, 7252, 8510 7240, 7241, 7242 7250, 7251, 7252 7854.2 4526 7830 4526 6420 6300 6381 6310 10310 9441 10510 10640 7720 7741 10100 9123.6 1221 9422 - 7820, 9131 9420 9421 10211 7344.2 10311.2 10311 10303 10320 10351 10330 10331 10332 10350 10321 10340. 10344 10533 331, 7332, 7332.1, 7332.2, 7730.1 1100 6230 1200 7421 6140 7871 7400 7410 9115 I INDEX 83 Paragraph Radiosonde, Inspection of Transmitter and Circuits of-------------------------------------_ 6270, 6271 Major Repairs to_ -- 6411 Motorboating of. (See Motorboating.) Performance-Defect Table ------------ 6420 Performance Test of. (See Performance Test of Radiosondes.) Performance Test of Temperature Signal _ 6360 Placing on Test Switch---- 7420 Position of in Train__ 4610 Preparation of for Flight, General--- 7310 Radio Transmitter of --- 1210 Rejection of, at Baseline Check 7732.3 Caused by Low Test Voltages________________________________ 5603, 6330 For Baroswitch Section Defects--- 6260 For Defective Commutator _-_ 6380, 7344.3 For Defective High Reference Circuit 6350 For Defective Low Reference Circuit__ 6330 For Defective Relay --6320, 6430 For Large Deviations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6311.2 For Shift at Test_ - 6340 For Temperature Ordinate Limits_ 6360 For Temperature Section Defects_ 6231 Listing of Defects in_ _ _-- _ 6130 Receipt of _-- -- 6110 Recei t of ---- ----- --------- ------- "---- ' ----------- --------- ------------- - - - - - - 6 1 Relay. (See Relay.) Release of. (See Release of Radiosonde.) Repairs of_ ------------6120 Selngo----------------------------------------------------------350 76 Sealing of -. .. . . . 3530, 7360 Selection of for Flight-- -- 7310 Serial Numbers, Correspondence of-- 6220 Shortages in Shipping of. (See Addendum.) Signal, Interference with__ _ _ _b_- _ 7330 Stability Check of - - 6340 Standby, Check and Test of_- 7390 Exposure of in Shelter__ _ ..... . 7440 Storage of. (See Storage of Radiosonde.) Temperature Element. (See Temperature Element.) Temperature Section of. (See also Temperature Element) _ 6230 Testing of-----_ --- 6110, 6140 Prior to Flight_ - - 7320 Test Leads of - _ -- 6273 TestLea s o --- --- --- --- --- ------ --~------------------------------- - - - - - - 6 7 Time of Release of_ 7110 Tim o Rleseof-------- -- ------ ----------------------- ---------------- 71 Transmitter, Absence of Signal ............ -- - -- -- 6320 Transmitting Frequency of _ 1210 Tuning of .- - 7331 Turning on Transm itter of .........................- --................... 6312 Use of Recovery Tags with ...........- --- -- 7370 Use of Test Batteries with- - 6313 Ventilation Chamber. (See Ventilation Chamber.) Visual Inspection of, General- -__________ 6210 RAFRZ, Correlation with Raob-- 9238.1 Determination of Height of - - 11220 Examples of Computation of ---...........- .. 11221, 11222 How Reported -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - . ..- --- - - - 11211, 11212 How Transmitted ---. .......... ..... 11215 When Reported- -- - - - - - - - - - - 11210 RAICG, Correlation with Raob___ 9238.1 Determination of Height of 11220 Examples of Computation of -- 11221, 11222 How Reported__-- 11214 How Transmitted-_ _ 11215 When Reported--- 11213 Raob Messages, Checking of Before Transmission-- 11101 Code to be Used for Transmission of. (See Addendum.) Correction of on WBAN-30______________________________ 11111 Entry of on WBAN-30- 11111 Failure to Transmit _ 11140 Filing of for Special or Extra Raob - 11161 Mandatory Levels for Transmission 11112 "No Raob," When Filed in __ ____ _11140, 11150 Selection of Levels for Transmission in_ 11120, 11121, 11122, 11123 Transmission of Correction to-_ 11170 Transmission of Data Missing in-- 11130 Transmission of 400-Millibar Surface in 11112 Transmission of Data Doubtful in ____ _ 11130 When More than One Raob Taken_ - __ -____--- - - - -___-_ ____11160 i i i I I i I i i i i i i i i i i 84 Raobs, Date and Time of _ _ _ _ Discontinuance of _ - Precedence of Over Other Duties-- Satisfactory---_ Criteria of-- Special------------ Time of - - Receivers, General - - - Superregenerative ___- Superheterodyne-- Record, Descent. (See Descent Record.) R ecord er --.-- - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- -.. . . . . Failure During Flight__-- Prior to Baseline Check .. Lack of Agreement with Visual Meter-- - Microammeter-- - Potentiometer - - Types Used - Recorder Corrections _ INDEX Paragraph 10111 11150 7111 9101,9111 9110 10116 7110 2300 2301 2301 Application of to Baseline Check - At Cut-off Point _ - Computation of for Descent Temperature Data_ _ --- Recorder Paper, Disturbing Alignment of_-- -- Recorder Record, Descent. (See Descent Record.) Entry of Baseline Check Data on_-- - - -- Notes and Comments on_--- Surface Data on_--- Evaluating, General_-- Evaluation of Baseline Data on--- Folding of_ __----------------------- Independent Shifts in- _ _ _- Low Reference, Missing or Scattered-- Marking on of Cloud Base- -. Proportionate Error in---- Relative Humidity Missing or Scattered_--- Selection of Significant Levels on. (See Significant Levels, Selection of.) Shift in ..--------------------------------------. . Shift and Drift in ----------------------- --------- Temperature Missing or Scattered_ Termination of - - ------------------------ Unsatisfactory------------------------------ Recovery Tags, Use of_____________________________________ Rejected Radiosondes. (See Radiosondes, Rejection of.) Relative Humidity, Corrected, Entry of on WBAN-30- Correction, Change of After Release-- Determination of When Motorboating at Baseline Check_ Entry of on WBAN-30_ Variation from Baseline Value--_ Correction to- - When More Than 100 Percent_ - Cut-off Point---_ Data Classified as Missing---_ Data Missing. (See Missing Data, Relative Humidity.) Difference Between Psychrometric and Radiosonde Values of_ Entry of on WBAN-30- - Ordinate, Evaluation of_ - - - Ordinate of Motorboating_ -- Ordinate, Entry of on Recorder Record-- Plotting of on WBAN-31- - Single Point of on WBAN-31B _ _ Record, Extrapolation of- - - Interpolation of - - Values, Agreement between Radiosonde and Psychrometric_. from Curve, Entry of on WBAN-32--_ Relay, Adjustment of - Checking of__ Defects in---------------------------------------- Function of_ - Polishing Contacts of - - Polishing of for Performance Test---_ Test for Defective__ _ _ -_ _ _ - --_ _ _ -_ 2500 8720 8710 8721 2520 2530 2510 9510 7761.4 9444 -- 9541 8632 7761.3 9132 9130 9100 7760 9600 9123.3, 9123.4, 9340 9123.2 7871 9123.2, 9123.4 9123.1 9123. 3 9350 ------- 9123. 1 8600 9115 7370, 7390 10213.4 10213.3, 10213.31 10213.31 10213.3 10213.32 7765 10213.31 9223, 9223.1, 9223.2 7766 7765 10213 9440, 9441, 9443 9223 9443 10313 10313.5 9442 9442 7743. 10774 6430 6250 6430 1222 7340 6380 6320 INDEX 85 Paragraph Release of Radiosonde, General-- ------------------------------------------------------------4600, 7800 Additional, Explanation of - -_- 9115 Need of _ 9101 Nedo------------------------------------------------ 10 Required but not made -- -- -- -- -_ _ . . . .. . .._.. . .. . . ..._ 9101 Submission of Calibration Chart and Recorder Record Pertaining to___ 9115 When Required_ 7763, 9111 At Controlled Airports_--- 7610 At Military Establishments__ _ 7630 At Noncontrolled Airports or Offices_ 7620 Delays in- - 7810 During Gusty Winds-- 4623.5, 7380 During Light Winds_ 4622 During Moderate or High Winds___ 4623 Duties in Conflict with _ _ 7111 Exposure of Radiosonde Prior to_ 7410 From Roof 4624 FromRoo----------------------------~------------------------42 Making the 7850 to 7856 Main he------------------------------------------------- 75 o75 Marking of Release Point on Recorder Record __ 7821 Noting Time of _ 7854.2 Obstructions to 4623.6 Obstuctins t------------------- ------------------ -------------- ---------42. Plan of_ -------------------------4623.1 Point of_ 4623.1 Poin of-------------------------- ------------------- ------------ -------42. Marking of on Recorder Record_ 7821 Preliminary Preparations for - - 7200, 7820 Procedures. -------------------.......-- 4620, 4621, 4623.1 to 4623.6 Surface Observation at--- 7860 Time of_.-- - 7110 Noting- _ _ 7854.2 Unsuccessful- 4623.4 Unsu cesful---- ---- --- ----------------------------------- ------------ 4623. Use of Balloon Cover-- 4631 Visual Check Prior to----- 4623 With Humidity Values Outside of Prescribed Range _ 7766 With Temperature Outside of Limits _ 7763 Schedules, Observation _ _ 7110 Scoch ape Us of---------------------------------------------------------73,82 Scotch Tape, Use of__ 7360, 7820 Sealing Radiosonde, at Low Temperatures- - 3530 Standby --- 7390 With Tape_ - - 7360 -_ __a __ _ ..; . .� T 1 /CI a' -- . T -1 -C-;-I- -... ..- selection of -i ignicant Levels. (see Signifncant Levels, election of.) Sensitivity Adjustments, L. & N. Recorder---_ Serial Numbers of Radiosondes. (See Radiosonde, Serial Numbers, Correspondence of.) Shift. (See Recorder Record, Shift in.) Shift Correction, Application to Visual Meter Observation _-_- Signal, Fading or Weak---_ Unstable ---_--- - - Signing of Forms---__ - - Significant Levels, Entry on, of Data __________ _ Drift Corrections_ - - - Height, on WBAN-30-_ WBAN-31- Level Number_- ---- "Missing" or "Doubtful" Data_--- Temperature Ordinate Values___ Height of_ _ - - -- Pressure-Contact Value at- - -- Selection of, General_ - - at Boundaries of Icing - at Boundaries of Missing or Doubtful Data _ at Boundaries of Motorboating Strata at Bursting Point_ at Cloud Base- - -- at Cut-off Points- _ _.......... . at Inversion and Isothermal Layers--__- at Maximum and Minimum Temperatures - at Reference Contact_ at Surface _-- for Relative Humidity _-.............._ _ .. for Temperature______ _ - _ from Multiple Ascents - within Missing Strata_ _ _ - within Motorboating Strata_- - 100-millibar Limit_ _ At Surface, Entry on of Pressure Contact at Release - - - - - 7252.1, 7252.2 8721 8120 7351 10115 9400 9411, 9521 - 10361 10360 9410 9236 - 9431 10360 9420 9200 9238 9236 9223.1, 9223.2 _ 9234 9235 9223, 9223.1, 9223.2 9211 9212 9442 9202 _-----9220, 9221, 9222 -- 9210 9232 S9237 9231 _ 9233 9422 G G A 86 INDEX Sounding, Entry of Reason for Termination of on Recorder Record Special Raobs ---------------------------------------- Standard Atmosphere Curve, Use of -_______-_ --- Standard Isobaric Surfaces-------------------- Standby Radiosonde ___________------------------- Station Pressure, Barograph When Used to Obtain__ Corrected to Elevation of Radiosonde_ Mercurial Barometer When Used to Obtain_ Storage of Radiosondes, General____________ ______________ at High Relative Humidities_ at High Temperatures - - by Serial Number_ Deterioration During_ Stream Function, Check on Accuracy of_ _ _ _ Computation of, and Entry on WBAN-30_ Use of Tables in Computation of_ Superadiabatic Lapse Rate, Checking of-__________________________________ Superregenerative Receiver___________ _____ Tuning Controls of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Superheterodyne Receiver, Adjustment of Controls on for AM Reception- Tuning of_ Tuning of AM_ Surface Altitude, Point of Reference__ _ _ Surface Data, Entry of on Recorder Record________ ______________ Surface Observation at Release, Entry of on WBAN-30 - Surface Observations, Entry of on Recorder Record_ Surface Pressure, at Floor of Instrument Shelter_ Point of Reference_____ Switching, Classification of Data owing to Failure of_ Radiosonde___ _-_ _ ____ - Tags, Recovery_ - Temperature, Ascent, for Computing Raob___ Corrections, to Ascent_____________ ________________________ at Bursting Point_ Entry of on WBAN-30_ Required But Not Obtained_ Use of WBAN-31B in_ When Required_--- Data, Classification of When Trace Continuous Classified as Missing. (See Missing Data, Temperature.) Corrected_-- Descent. (See Descent Temperature Data.) Entry of on WBAN-30______________________________ WBAN-31__ Multiple Ascents, Plotting of on WBAN-31 Element, Composition of_ Damaged _ Limits of _ Mounting of in Radiosonde Replacement of---_ Evaluator, Setting and locking of_ Temperature Limits on___ Use of_ _ _ Extremes, Underlining of on WBAN -32 Fahrenheit, When Used______ Limits, Checking of at Baseline Check - Ordinate, Evaluation of-_________________ ________ Limits_-____ _ Values, Entry of on Significant Levels_ Outside of Limits _ _ ....... Preliminary Check Reading Readings, Baseline Check ---- Signal, Performance Test of_________________________________ Virtual. (See Virtual Temperature.) Termination of Raob, Owing to Missing Data_ Owing to Switching Failure_ Termination of Recorder Record_--- Termination of Sounding, Entry of on Recorder Record ...... Test Batteries. (See Batteries, Test.) Test Leads, Clipping of___ __ Color of__ Paragraph -- 9550 10116 11220 to 11222 10322 7390 7344.1 --- 7344.2 7344.1 6510 6520 6530 6540 7320 10544 10540 10541, 10542 10312.2 8200 8210 8320 8300 8321 10303 9130 7860 9131 9131 10303 9123.7 1222 7370 9111 10212.32 10212.33 10212.3 10212.33 10212.33 9241 9123.7 10212.4 10212 10312 10312.3 1230 6231 7741 1250 6231, 6411 7762 6360 1231 10776.4 7721, 7751 7760, 7762 9430 6360 9431 7763 7720 7750 6360 9125 9123.8 8600 9550 7821 6273 INDEX Test Switch, General Connection of to Radiosonde_ Exposure of Four-lead Type, Use with Four-Test Lead Radiosonde Use with Three-Test Lead Radiosonde_ Motor_ _ Parallel Connections for Use With__ Placing Radiosondes on - Relay ___ Storage of-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Three-Lead, Use of with Four-Test Lead Radiosonde Use of with Three-Test Lead Radiosonde_ Varying Resistances in_ Thunderstorms, Entry of Notes on WBAN-31_ Time, G. C. T. Local Actual Time of Release. (See Release of Radiosonde.) Total Lift, Definition of______________________________________ Trace, Continuous .............................. Length of in Baseline Check_________________________________ Zigzag Temperature_ Train, Assembly of Check of Length of Cord to Use in_ Position of Ballast Balloon in _ __________________ Position of Radiosonde in_ Preparation of__ Transmission Line, Antenna. (See Antenna.) Transmission of Raob Messages, Code to be Used for. (See Raob Messages.) Transmission of RAFRZ and RAICG in Hourly Reports Tropopause, Stratum of Missing Data in_ Tuning, Importance of Peak Position of Superregenerative Receiver_ Superheterodyne Receiver_ Twenty-four Hour Clock- Ventilation Chamber, Exposure of Temperature and Relative Humidity Elements in Violin String, Slippage of Virtual Temperature Increment_ Visual Meter, Lack of Agreement with Recorder_ Observations__ Voltage Stabilizer- Voltmeter, Battery, Description of___ Battery to be used in Testing of_ Warm-up of Ground Equipment_ WBAN Computation Tables, Required Use of_ WBAN Forms. (See Forms, WBAN.) WBAN Raob Computation Tables, Use in Computing Fixed Level Pressures Weather, Entry of on WBAN-30_ _ Entry of Notes on WBAN-31 Winds, Entry of on Recorder Record Wire Doublet Antenna. (See Antenna.) Zero Line, Cycloray Recorder Failure of Pen to Return to__ Zero Record, Cycloray____ Inclusion of with Baseline Check_ Zero Recording, Adjustment for on Cycloray Recorder_ at Termination of Raob_ at Termination of Record _ _ Check of, on Cycloray Recorder________ _________________ L&N Recorder Zero Setting, Prior to Baseline Check Securing During Observation_ Zigzag Fluctuations in Temperature Trace Z Meters Pertaining to Computations of Pressure at Fixed Levels 0.98 Dynamic Meter _ _ _ 87 Paragraph 5510 7420, 7421 7220 7422 7423 5520 7423.1 7420 5530 5540 7424 7425 7732.1, 7732.4 10640 10111 10111 4530 9123.7, 9123.8 7740.3 9430 7830 7840, 7841 4610 _ 4553, 4553.1 4610 7500 11200 9125 8110 7331,7332.1, 7332.2 8200 8300 10111 1250 7252.1 10302 8721 8700 2101 5700 3320 7230, 7242, 7252 10321 10441 7870 10600, 10640 9131 7241.1 7252.1 8632 7710 7242.1 8630 8630 7242, 7242.1 7252 7710 8510 9430 10420 10302 Radiosonde Observation Computation Tables and Diagrams (WBAN) Supplement S-I 613388 0 - 45 - 7 Table I BAROMETRIC INCHES (MERCURY) INTO MILLIBARS I inch = 33.86395 mb. I mb. = 0.02952993 inch Inches .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 27.0 27. I 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 28.0 28. I 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 28.9 29.0 29.1 I 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 29.9 30.0 30. I 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8 30.9 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.7 31.8 31.9 mb. mb. mb. mb. mb. 880.5 880.8 881.1 881.5 881.8 883.8 884.2 884.5 884.9 885.2 887.2 887.6 887.9 888.3 888.6 890.6 891.0 891.3 891.6 892.0 894.0 894.3 894.7 895.0 895.4 897.4 897.7 898.1 898.4 898.7 900.8 901.1 901.5 901.8 902.1 904.2 904.5 904.8 905.2 905.5 907.6 907.9 908.2 908.6 908.9 910.9 911.3 911.6 912.0 912.3 914.3 914.7 915.0 915.3 915.7 917.7 918.1 918.4 918.7 919.1 921.1 921.4 921.8 922.1 922.5 924.5 924.8 925.2 925.5 925.8 927.9 928.2 928.5 928.9 929.2 931.3 931.6 931.9 932.3 932.6 934.6 935.0 935.3 935.7 936.0 938.0 938.4 938.7 939.0 939.4 941.4 941.8 942.1 942.4 942.8 944.8 945.1 945.5 945.8 946.2 948.2 948.5 948.9 949.2 949.5 951.6 951.9 952.3 952.6 952.9 955.0 955.3 955.6 956.0 956.3 958.3 958.7 959.0 959.4 959.7 961.7 962.1 962.14 962.8 963.1 965,1 965.5 965.8 966. I1 966.5 968.5 968.8 969.2 969.5 969.9 971.9 972.2 972.6 972.9 973.2 975.3 975.6 976.0 976.3 976.6 978.7 979.0 979.3 979.7 980.0 982.1 982.4 982.7 983.1 983.4 985.4 985.8 986.1 986.5 986.8 988.8 989.2 989.5 989.8 990.2 992.2 992.6 992.9 993.2 993.6 995.6 995.9 996.3 996.6 997.0 999.0 999.3 999.7 1000.0 1000.3 1002.4 1002.7 1003.1 1003.4 1003.7 1005.8 1006. I1 1006.4 1006.8 1007.1 1009. 1 1009.5 1009.8 1010.2 1010.5 1012.5 1012.9 1013.2 1013.5 1013.9 1015.9 1016.3 1016.6 1016.9 1017.3 1019.3 1019.6 1020.0 1020.3 1020.7 1022.7 1023.0 1023.4 1023.7 1024.0 1026.1 1026.4 1026.8 1027.1 1027.4 1029.5 1029.8 1030.1 1030.5 1030.8 1032.9 1033.2 1033.5 1033.9 1034.2 1036.2 1036.6 1036.9 1037.3 1037.6 1039.6 1040.0 1040.3 1040.6 1041.0 1043.0 1043.3 1043.7 1044.0 1044.4 1046.4 1046.7 1047.1 1047.4 1047.8 1049.8 1050.1 1050.5 1050.8 1051.1 1053.2 1053.5 1053.8 1054.2 1054.5 1056.6 1056.9 1057.2 1057.6 1057.9 1059.9 1060.3 1060.6 1061.0 1061.3 1063.3 1063.7 1064.0 1064.3 1064.7 1066.7 1067.1 1067.4 1067.7 1068.1 1070.1 1070.4 1070.8 1071.1 1071.5 1073.5 1073.8 1074.2 1074.5 1074.8 1076.9 1077.2 1077.6 1077.9 1078.2 1080.3 1080.6 1080.9 1081.3 1081.6 mb. mb. mb. mb. mb. 882.2 885.5 888.9 892.3 895.7 899. I 902.5 905.9 909.2 912.6 916.0 919.4 922.8 926.2 929.6 933.0 936.3 939.7 943.1 946.5 949.9 953.3 956.7 960.0 963.4 966.8 970.2 973.6 977.0 980.4 983.7 987.1 I 990.5 993.9 997.3 1000.7 1004.1 I 1007.5 1010.8 1014.2 1017.6 1021.0 1024.4 1027.8 1031.2 1034.5 1037.9 1041.3 1044.7 1048.1 I 1051.5 1054.9 1058.2 1061.6 1065.0 1068.4 1071.8 1075.2 1078.6 1082.0 882.5 885.9 889.3 892.7 896.0 899.4 902.8 906.2 909.6 913.0 916.4 919.7 923.1 I 926.5 929.9 933.3 936.7 940. I 943.4 946.8 950.2 953.6 957.0 960.4 963.8 967.2 970.5 973.9 977.3 980.7 984.1 I 987.5 990.9 994.2 997.6 1001.0 1004.4 1007.8 1011.2 1014.6 1018.0 1021.3 1024.7 1028.1 1031.5 1034.9 1038.3 1041.7 1045.0 1048.4 1051.8 1055.2 1058.6 1062.0 1065.4 1068.7 1072. i 1075.5 1078.9 1082.3 882.8 886.2 889.6 893.0 896.4 899.8 903.2 906.5 909.9 913.3 916.7 920.1 I 923.5 926.9 930.2 933.6 937.0 940.4 943.8 947.2 950.6 953.9 957.3 960.7 964.1 I 967.5 970.9 974.3 977.7 981.0 984.4 987.8 991.2 994.6 998.0 1001.4 1004.7 1008. I 1011.5 1014.9 1018.3 1021.7 1025. I 1028.4 1031.8 1035.2 1038.6 104I2.0 1045.4 1048.8 1052.2 1055.5 1058.9 1062.3 1065.7 1069. I 1072.5 1075.9 1079.2 1082.6 883.2 886.6 889.9 893.3 896.7 900. I 903.5 906.9 910.3 913.6 917.0 920.4 923.8 927.2 930.6 934.0 937.4 940.7 944. I 947.5 950.9 954.3 957.7 961.1 964.4 967.8 971.2 974.6 978.0 981.4 984.8 988.2 991.5 994.9 998.3 1001.7 1005.1 I 1008.5 1011.9 1015.2 1018.6 1022.0 1025.4 1028.8 1032.2 1035.6 1038.9 1042.3 1045.7 1049. I 1052.5 1055.9 1059.3 1062.7 1066.0 1069.4 1072.8 1076.2 1079.6 1083.0 S-2 883. 5 886.9 890.3 893.7 897.1 900.4 903.8 907.2 910.6 914.0 917.4 920.8 924.1 927.5 930.9 934.3 937.7 941.1 944.5 947.9 951.2 954.6 958.0 961.4 964.8 968.2 971.6 974.9 978.3 981.7 985. 1 988.5 991.9 995.3 998.6 1002.0 1005.4 1008.8 1012.2 1015.6 1019.0 1022.4 1025.7 1029.1 1032.5 1035.9 1039.3 1042.7 1046.1 1049.5 1052.8 1056.2 1059.6 1063.0 1066.4 1069.8 1073,1 I 1076,5 1079.9 1083.3 - J RELATIVE HUMIDITY-CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURES Table 2 gives values of relative humidity, or per- centage of saturation, for air temperatures from -39* to +44C. (side argument) and for depressions of the wet-bulb thermometer at 0.l�C. intervals (top argu- ment). Thus, only a single interpolation is necessary. The values have been computed for a barometric pres- sure of 29.24 inches (990 mb.), this being approxi- mately the average station pressure for many stations in the United States not lying in mountainous or plateau regions. Since theory and observation have shown that the relative humidity can be computed from readings of the dry and wet bulb temperatures and the barometric pressure, errors may result when the table is used for pressures markedly different from the value given above. The following table, 2a, is illustrative of the cor- rections which it would be necessary to add to the relative humidities obtained from Table 2 in order to take into account the effect of barometric pres- sures differing from 29.24 inches. The corrections are given in whole numbers, and hence some of the irregularities which occur in this table are largely due to the dropping of fractional parts of one per cent. It is obvious that errors resulting from the use of Table 2 disregarding the prevailing barometric pressure are greatest at low temperatures, low humidi- ties, and for pressures deviating furthest from the value of 29.24 inches. To take cognizance of these facts, some restrictions in the use of Table 2 should be observed, depending on the allowable error. Errors of one to two percent are within the errors of obser- vation, and generally are considered allowable. Hence, for pressures within the limits 30.50 inches (1,033 mb.) and 28.00 inches (948 mb.) when temperatures are above -100C., the results obtained from Table 2 may be used with the errors ordinarily falling between zero to two per cent. At lower temperatures for pressures different from 29.24 inches (990 mb.), and at pressures outside the above limits for all temperatures, Table 2a should be consulted to determine the magnitude of the error. If this is too great, recourse must be had to more extended psychrometric tables (Weather Bureau No. 235, Psychrometric Tables, Fahrenheit degrees). TABLE ~a.-Additive corrections to values obtained from Table I to give. true relative humidities for various barometric pressures, temperatures, and depressions of the wet-bulb thermometer Air temper- B 31 in.= 1049.8mb. B=27 in.=914.3 mb. B 25 in.-846.6 mb. ature, t 39 At 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 -39 ___ 6 11 56 11 1 11 Sr...S '-3 -1 3 7 6 13 t-30 . ___ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1O0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 -30 .. r__ 83 65 48 30 13 83 85 48 30 13 83 6 48 30 12 5r..-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 3 3 5 6 2 5 7 10 12 (t_ 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.00.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 -20. 0 3 79 05 1 30 93 79 65 11 30 3 79 65 51 30 r... 0 -1-.2 -3 -4 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 4 6 9 - t___ 0.1 0.5 1.0 1. 2.0 0.1 0. 1.0 1.1 2.0 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -10..-- -r 0_ 97 84 67 51 35 97 84 67 5L 35 97 84 67 51 31 Or.. 0 -1 -2 -3 -3 0 0 2 2 3 0 1 3 5 7 t....... 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.1 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0--.----- 98 81 64 40 20 98 81 64 46 29 98 81 64 40 20 r.. 0 0 -2 -2 -2 0 1 1 3 4 0 2 3 5 6 t . 0. 1.0 2 4.0 6.0 0 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 05 1.0 2.0 4 6. 10.... 0 41077 5 340 41 077 15 34 4177 15 34 Sr-.. 0 0 -1- - -2 0 1 0 1 3 0 1 1 3 5 (t . 0.5 2.0 4.0 6.0 0.0 0.1 2.0 4.0 6.0 9.0 0.1 2.0 4.0 6.0 0.0 Br.. -1-1 0 --1 -2 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 2 3 3 S....... . 3.0 6.0 9.0 12. 01 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 3. 6.0 8 12. 0 0 3 6.0 10.0 15.0 0.1 3.0 0.0 10.0 11.0 0.1 3.0 6.0 10.0 11.0 40 .. t 97 82 671 40 67 0 20 97 2 07 48 2 r 0 0 -1' 0 - I 1o 1 01 1 0 2 2 t-dry-bulb (aIr) temperature. t'-wet-bulb temperature. A t-t'-depression ofwet-bulb thermometer. B =barometro pressure (statton). r="relative humidity" obtained from Table.(for B=29.24 n.), in per ent. r =additive corrections (%) to r to give true relative humdity for indicted values of B, t, and At. S-3 N N N M co n r. r- r- r_ NMrM=: rl- r r- rl- r MMM =t- r r r r M U7 =tl Lr) Ljr) r rrr r- 0-) N- 0)- N-) 0)-0- LO to cp LO LO CY) Cl N M m Lr LO LO CY) oo - cn n r ti r-_ C) O - - N N N N r-- r- 1 N N N CY: N N m m M N- r- tir- fl- S-4 CLU I- N 0- LUV 0) N~*)~ - LU tihh m0)C)(3 a ===za 22222n n 00 0 0 0 0 ( 822 rl CFW ())hh)0)0 C 0 00 0C a) sms a C28280) 2 a G?)0 28 0 0 - N I oC G0 )=- O( DnNM Y 14 :tNNNN N NN N C ji ~ 0-00)0 0)0N-00) -0))0- 0)O-0)) 00)00-M)0)N- )0) 0- ))0-t. o )N -000) -0)0- - C1 0 r C) C L-. N N M =t- o O r Ln to Ln Ll 0 too a n M w = h to (r) Zf = to to n tocM rrrrr rrrrr rrrrr N N M M M f = = - LT Lt) L cn Ln Ir, in CO cD to to to C.0 tD to Cto to to tD - - r r r r 04 to O =I" r o-M -oo0r 0-00= 0 -0-)0- ) 00)-0)n to r 00 0)) N N M M- 0 0 0 Ln if to CD c0 0 N M M M =:t , L Lf LC L t- n to to to to to co, to cD co co co, co ( r r r " r r r r r 0 N )0 MN to c 00) N)0 L O 0) U-) or) 00 M 000)0)0 N M =t- - -0)0-0) L0 to 0 )- to N M) CO M 0-r) Lo0 )0 L0n u)0 L)0 ) ) ) t0 t0 0 to to to to to o, 0rr- N N-N N-N- N-N-N-N-N- N-N-N-N-N- 0) M0 r M oON- L3 co, - 0)N-0 0-0)0)0-n to ,o0N -) M O - - - 0)0)0)0 M0-0=0)-0)0)L to 0)ror00N-N N M M Lf Ln LC L i n Lf) to to c to to CD t to to t to to r r r r r r r r r ( r r 1 r- r I,- 0L)0an))0to 40 C to to (C)N- to N O - N-N-N-N-N- Ln to N-N-N-N-N F 00 M 0 0 m N- 0) 0) 0-0) 0)0)000)0 - C- 0)0-t N ) 0--) COC N ) J-)0 )0 to (-0-0 0C)0 ) N- 000) a M M LQ= T Ln CJ ::tLrLL US 0 oo to m o to to S to r r8 r r r r r rr 0) M L L0 LO CC to o to to 0)0)0)0 00o 0)0-0 N- 0)0-0) 0 )N- 0)0)00- 0r 0 ) ) r- - N- ND N- o 0)0)0 0))-00 0-00))00)00))0 0))0)0 0-ON-N-N~u~o ~ m a - N---- N-N-N-N-N-f - N-I N- N--N N-N N-N-N-=I=a a 00~ ~ ~ 2252 SSEN $$29 2882 00aC t o~a V()= 0 0 0 M D - )M -), )-00 N N -0Lt) C0- )0o )0)0-0)0) 0)0'0 N- N to to - r 00)0 0 a )0)00 O C7 "r; M Cr) = - LO U ) 0 0 Ln tory to co co 0 N- to to to N-N-N-N N-N-N-N-N N r-N r - N-N-N-N-N- - 00 0 M M $ U S G00 g ::I-RR R R 0) 0-0-N 0)0 L LD-,N 0n -0)0-0) )oN-0)t0 0 0()-0- to 0))) 0N N NN )0 )0)0) 0 00 000 0 - 000 00 252 Bat 888 0 ?0 RkE RERES L;Lnt ( *, 00 -0-0-0)0)0)0)0)0 ) 00000 0)000N N-N- N-N N-NN--N N-N (,( ~~- N- N-N N-N-N-N-N- 0)0)0)0)0) 0- 0 o 0) M Lo0 r- 00 t7 - 0-0) LO to 00 (?) -0)0)0 )0- 0- )O L to to ) N-)- 000 0 00 M - - 0) L) 00 C, LO ) in 0) ) - N to to - to 0 to 0- 0)0r0)0-0- 0)0000N-N- N- 0 0) 000 -0 - 00 0 00 M 0) 00 ) M =00 o 0)0)0 - ) =' L)N- r 0 )0-0- 0)0) M '0)0 0 t0N-N0 0)0)0)0) 000 --- - =I L!)-0-0 0) 0)C L0 Q 0)0) c 0)u -N-N-N- to N- N-N--N-N- N- N-NNN N-N-N-N-N- 0 ) r r r r 0000)0) 000 C to )0)0)0 - CN-N-N-N-- N-- N-NN--N N-N-N-0) 0) 0)0)0)0 - - - ) 000))0 0 n L Cr. to tea c(- 0)00)0)0- 0)N-0 --0)0)0- )o to 0 - N ) 0)000 ---00 00 000 00 *5 M h O N 0--)0000)0)) m0 - a -- N NN N- LN to -NN r r0) 00)0)0) 0)0) N N N 0) N 0) 0) L ) L) -t.0 N- )0)- 00) to to )o to to 0-0 0 rN - 0 0 - r r r r r r r r r r r r r 00 0) 0 0)0)00)00000 - O 0to)M)N0to0 0)r 000 ) N-N-N- N-N-N N N- N- N- N M to -o - 00 0 00M 00)0)0)0) N 0)0))00 M M)0) 0)0 N- N L 0 Nin o 0) to t- -) - to to to 0 -00) rr N- 000 ---0) 00 00 00 00 000 - 0 0000 )0 * 00 )0)0)0)00)0)0)) ON-N-NoQ-- N-NN N - = N-N-N-N to -o N- 00 0 M5 -- - N N N (N ) c00)0) S L u Ln t to to to 0 0 Co to )00)0- -0)0)0- 0) N-) 000)000 --0)0 0) 0000) 0- 0-000-0000) cc 0))00 000 M)0n N-NN- ON- N-N--N-N N-N- 00)0 o )0)0)0 0)0)0)000)0) -- 0)0)0 N M 0)0)0)0) 0- LO f to to to to Co to C to 0)0- 00-- 0)0)0 00 00 )0- 00 00 000 00 00 00000 0 000 0)N =t)0)0)0 )) N-N- N-N-NNN- N-N-N-N-D - r-00)00) M -0)))00 - N 0 C )0 M 0 M )0 L) L 0) L Lto tcD CD to (J.'- 0)0)0-0) 0 - N-0 0 0 ---0) 00)000- 00 00 000) 0)0000) 00N N- o 0)M o M0- N Ln r N00 M- N-N-N--N- N N-N-N- 000 00) 0))000) 0)00 N N C0 0M )0)00) o L0)0n ) Ln n n c) 00 to t ) 0to ) 0)0)0)00 -- r)0)0)0 00 00 - 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 0 )N0 N - 00 00 00 Lt) 00 0 N N-N-N-N-N Nr 0 M - N -F LNN - V to- r O 0 0)0)0)0)D -0 - N N N M M M =t 0)=t0 Ln 0 0) 0 n ) 0 0 n Ln to CD to to D to -o 00)0- 0)0)0-0) 0- N 0 ) 0- - ) 0)0)000- 0 ON-N- N N-0000 00 0000)00 N 0) ) 000)0-0)to 0)0-0)0)N- r 0)0)0)0- r-0)0)0)0) 0 0)0 000) 0000000 000000 )00 N-N-N-N-N- 0)0 0000) 0)0000) 0) N- M 0- 0))N-r 000 -0)0)0)0)0)0- 0-0)0)0)00 00)MO0)N-N-N- N-NM =k -0 Lo) LO 0)0)0)0)0) 0)0)0)00 N- % 0-0)0-0) 0to Nto t 0 --0)0)0)0)0-0-r r 0 00) 00 0 000 00 000N-0-NN-0M)0)0 000 00000 0 00000 00 N O M j u? r 00 M O N M =t"='L to r 00 00 M M O O - - N N M M =f- = =tJ- LO LO LO LO (n to to toCDr rrrr0 ON-N-N-N N-N-N to -N-N- 0) 0)0)0)0) 0 00 0 00 00 00 00 00)00)0))0))000)0 0)) 0 0 00)0000) 0) =I 00 N- ) p-0 t) 0)00-00)t)0)00) N--N- N-M0M M "0)0) ))0) ntototot)0000 " 0 0 - 0 0 0 0- 0-0000000)o 0-0)0)0) r r 0) r0-0)0)0) 000) -N- - 0000 00 0 0 0 ) 0 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 N-N-NN-N- 0)0)0000) 0)0)00)0) 0)0000) 0 000 ) 0 00) 0) 00 0 00 00)) 0 0 Oro00 00 ) 0 0)0 000)0)0 ) N-- -)0 0000)) 0)00)))r)000)0 0)))00 000))) ))000) 000)000) o00)000) 00 M -co too Or r 0)000)000)r r00 r0)000)0 o0 00000 0 00 00 00 000 0)0)0)0o ro000 0)0)0)0))00)0))0)0)0)0)0)00)00)0 000)0 0000) - 0 0 0 0 00 0- (7)-N0)0 00 o 0 0 000000 0000 0000 M 0)0)0)000 00 00 000 - 0 00)0)0 0)0)0)0)0)0 0 00)0 )0-0- * ))000) 00)00)a)r 000 0ro ro00000000 00000000 00)O0000) 00000) 000 000 00) 0)0000) 0 0 )0 0 0) 0)00) 0( C)0) MM0)0)0 0o 0)0-0-0) r00 ) 0 0)) 0--- N)0M)0)l0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)r00 000-0-0-0-0- 0M o OO O---- " 0)00000)0) r000)000)00 0) 00 0 0 0 0 00 000 )00 ))))) 00)00)o0)0) 0)0000) 0 ) 0000) 0)0 )0)0)M 0)0 M M ))0) 0) co )0)o r0N -0)0) 0 0 -0MppO N NM L C)0)o 0)0)0)D00)00)0)0)0) 0-0-0-0-0- 0-- --0- --0)0)0 " r000)0) 000) 000 0 D 00 0 0 0 00 000 0))0))000)0 0)0 0 00000 0000 )0) o 00)0)0)0) 0)0)0)0)0)M 0)0)0))0) * 000000)0) O00)0)0)0) 0) 0)0)00) t0)0)00)0) 00)0000 ) 0)0)0))M)O 0)0))0)0) 0))0)0)0) )0)0)0)N N- rN- rr00 0 0 0 0 0000 0 000000 0-0 000))- 0-0000- 0 0-000 )0)0)0)00)0)0)0)0)00)0)M 0)00000)0 r r00)0 0 0 o )0)0000000)000)0)0)0)0)0))0) 0 0)0 000) 0)0000) 0)0)0)0)0)M 0)0)0)0)0) 0)0)0)0)0)M 0)0)0)0) 0) 00 0 ---0)0) 00 0 00)0 0 00 0)0 00000-0)0)00)0 )0 M M ))0)0)00)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)00 MOMoMoMo 000000)0)0)0)0) 0000)0)0 0)0 )0)M)M)M 0)0)0)0)0) M0)0)0)0)M 0)0M0M0)0) M)M)M0)M)M 0)0)0)0)0) 0)0)0)0) O$a 82DE RE ES 8E 00 o c)r 0 0 0 MO O- -N NN M M MM ' R E O E S C)Ef E 2 " 22 0 BU 0 0 0 0 MM MM M M MM ) MM M M MM MM MM MM M M MM OC0f: oo 00 0 00 00M rnh na 0 ) a n B ) n a )( Ma) r rn n rn 0 m ) rn rnm rn rn rn r 0 m y) a ) ) ) r t M n t o 2 MS> 28 8 St R WR RFER REto 5522 22 0) O USDSh RR ER 82 22 2E to S M OO - N M M c =- f- R 0ER O ES ELL E E29 to toto22 o 0 o 22tot t E t tEt 0M M M M MM MM C) MM M MM M MM M a)M M MM MM MM MM M MM M -~- N N N Lr, N N M tL1 - Ln 00 N N N N M 00 N W C) M N N M M C-) =1' 00 - Ln N N (V M co M = if) -- 0 0 if) LO in Ln U-) =tl if) (o P- 00 LO LO LO LO in tcfar Ovfn if) (f) LC) in Lf) Lf) r 00 Cn O LO Lt) LO Ln to co 00 m O -- Ln Lf) LO CO (n O O - N N to to to t0 to a) - - N M LO to to to to CO - N m t0 (.0 to to (n - NM=t- LO (D (0 t0 to (D NM =I- tI) (D to t0 (n t0 M::t.LO Lnco Cfy (D to to to Lf) Lr (0 rl_ to to to m to Ln Ln to r-. to CCU to to tD Lrtop-R00 cn to to to cDrt OO(Y) cn Co cp Co cn 00 00 co cn cc, co cn 00 00 0) O to co cn cfl r 00 a) to cc co rn cr o o - cn (JO r. rr- rn Cl o - - L a e O F L a: L -+J 4- O C O "N N O L CD- (L) o . - N N N M MMM=t =t Q m0) 0) 03 Ln l17 (D C) CY) 0) (7:a) 0) a) m a) 00 00 00 00 cr) 0) cy) a) m a) CY) Mr)=t.= rnrnrnrn0) =t- =:t-Lr) Lr) Lr) rn rn rn rn rn co co cn Q, (n mrna) 0) rr- n 0cr) 0 a a) rnrnrn rnrn(7) 0') (71% rnrn0) Ocr) ::tl LC) U') rnrn(3) o:rn Ln LO co to co rnm rnrnrn 00 00 00 00 00 m rn 0) rn m rnrnrnrn(7) CY) a) m C) t- fl- r- t- a) o) a) rn fl 00 Go 00 00 00 rn rn 0') rn rn 00 00 00 00 00 rnrna) a) 0) a> rnrnrn cy) rn rn rn rn rn rn rn rna) rnrnrn Ln LL Ln LC) Lr) 0) a) (nCY) (31) co CC) co (0 (n a) Cn C) C fl- r- hP- Q) Cn (7) Cn a) 00 00 00 00 00 0)mCn0) Cn C) Cn0) 0) O) Cn C) Cn CT to ca co ca cn wo rnrnrn P- r- 00 rn rn rn rn rn 00 00 00 00 00 rnrnrnrn0) rnrna) (7) CF) rn rn m rn rn cp co cn tL co m m m m m mmmmm 00 00 00 00 00 55 a) a) co 5) 00 00 00 m rn mmmmm m m m m m S-5 -_,' O SS t N NN0MM M MoN0 LO(00-0 0N M (0Nco00 04040400MM M000M0 0(00 4 0 ((ON0 LOL (00 to O-MOC 00 -0-M co r,- ~ 000-M (000(0 r O - -04040 0 - - 0444 o0 --0-0 NMC M C C --0--0-0 In L Ln O C+7(00(0(0 00 MLO N 0- N0 0- U MM oNM0'-L o r. 0000 - -N40M0M o! N00- - - N (N0.NN -N(M0M M N M 00-IO =f ::j-N =-0000- 04to400(0- N P_ O Mto m ---M O(00)Q0--M0-0-0- O 0-0-=t-u -0-o 0-0 m O O- N M(0o0(0 0- N00(0 00N 0 00 N 0 - 4 N M MM M (0 00 ) --04O 000O - M(0 0\OMt 0 00 -0( (0 (0(0 O -ML o0 000400- (0(ON(0l? 00 0MO-404N 00-=t' O u (---� 04040404000000M00-0-0-0-M0- 0-0-0-0-LO (0 LO Lo 0(0( to M0 N-0-N" m 0-(0(0 00 40N::- ON O 0-0400- ( NN0 0- N040 tr.-COo NO (oC N o-P.p 0N4N r - 00- t(00 0-0400O::-(0O ON M (000 o0-0400M M0L(0 to00 to to a) ---04 Mt04040400000rl-00- 00--0M 0-- 0( (0 0 ((0(M - t 000r 0 0 -00(0004N0(0(0004M M OMoM - 0-0(0 N(000- -0400-0- LO00N NL) 0--MN 0 P- OM om No 0O-N0 t(0(0(00 - 040y-(LON ( 00000 0(0 : (0 f- =k(n 0NN(0 LO N-m N0 N L o-ML 0O-N0(0 N(0. 0-0 0- (0ON (00040 0(00 - N( ot [ MLr S ~rL f )00(00 ---0 04- 40 00 00 - -0 0M--0M ((00L ((00( (00- -0 0 OO Mt 00 0 0 0N t0- 0M 0-4(000 M:'(00- m0-040- N 0MM 00N) t0r- 00 0 (0NN N 0 (N N N M M :j OU)Nou(00QU- OLi ot L fL O 04 0 4 - O - o 00 0 - N(000-LO00-C0400-0(0 f-mO NM N O(0 r"00 0 --m (0 m(M0 toNm0N4=00 04 -0(00 -o040N-(0 f)O o �N 00 04=400 (N(0(00o 00 --0C 4 C " - � N(0(0 00(0- 04(0NM -00- N (00- 04 0 0(0(00 NLOLO N(000 00--0'.4O t 0 (0 O4( OD 0 -- M( 0 (0 N m0 0 m N (0ON t00-040 N0M0-0N N(00r00 0--0404 04 N NOMNM 04(0(0004 0-0(00- 00-LOLN L00-040 LO(OO (0(00 0 (--0 040o LO (000(0- O 0 O 0-0 (N:dto 004m N LO o 0- 4 (0 0 NO 0 00 - 4 4 0 0) ---04140404040:J-LC0000-0-NN N NM M M0-0-MLO(0(0(0(0(0 LO(0(0(0(00-0( o000(0OOLO 0n t 00(0 t 0J N-(0O00 0N00o 000-0 N- 0 -040- (0( �N : O NN(0 000--m 0404000- 0 (0Nto () 0(000(0 N O 0040- N((00(000r -0400( N ONM N(t00 --0N000m -- N0- (0 O-0 0 0 0000 (000-Mt -M L r ocON 040(0(0 o N(0 r00 00-0404o- 000-0 0-C O -0040-N N0m40- (0 00400O (0 0 000( (0(0 rt f-r.00 m0-04040 00-0-0- (0 (00 N-0- 004-o 00000040 0r ' otot mO - N M LN (00 00-m -0400- 0(0(0(00 0- --04(00 0(00 00 (0N o (00040 0-M(0O N (Dr000-- 04040-0- (0(0M0=t(0 04 00 N-mN O 04(0N to- -000- OON(0 O N 0 00-04400 mO O - 00 NM ( ON InN (00000 04(0(0- o 00(0004f- - o N00O-N M=tL or r0 O t -L O( 0i (0 N -(0(00L 00 040 OM(00- 0400(0MN(000 --04000P O m O-(0(0 ONM LO N(0(0(0 C (0 (0000 0400-0- M0(0 040-M ON:0004 o0-N L r OL n 00 -- 040-00-0nto o000NN (0(0(000 tov^ N o N- 0N0Ncy40) N MMto-00 N(00U-) CO 0 O0(0N(0 O( 0 00040 0C)0-0(0 O(0NN(0 O (00000O --0 04 40 00 0- -0LO0- (0 0(LO0( 0- 00 0( O( (0( 00to o C 0000 t(0 00( 0 N OV m0MNr 0(-0-0 (00N0-0 (00-040 0(0(0(0(0M00-040400 m O O -0(00 -N 00000 " - -4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0-0(0(0(0 (0 (0(0(0(LO0L LO - (0(00000( O o o 000( 000(( 0 c c O t (0NN (0 E S h CO = 0 N N M M M L) m - M :J Ln tor-00 m O N N M LOLOto to rr 0 tD i ' zt LnLOLnLOLO n O O O C ( C t M L> (0(0t0 0 o o 0 Cn.(O(t O N to O o N -e0 m t o p - n - n O 0 0 n N M M = 8 8to20 r r r M 0 " - N N N M M = =-:tLO LOtOLOLf Lt' L L 2 () D o 0 o o D o o 0 0 o o r S 00 r - n 0 C M Ln N M O N M n O 0 m O N M M 't LOLO nhoh r B 0 D " - N N M M M :j L L L L 0) O 11LO LO t0 t0 to co (n (O t0 (C ( c t t ( M co (O C 2LO228 haaB W t O Nt0 :I toOo N t m ? J M u)to , 2 m O N ^ E M B Mto r 080 00m " � N M M M :t O n ) L L L L LO LO (Dto (. to (nto to t0 o o o o D t t t t t SES$Sn258 at N N � D O ' C 4 a -CO n p - L t r_00 m O M 2 5to 5 o o r 5 00 00 m 0 0C " - N N M M M M t C o o O LOLO m r. LO to (C c0(0 CO tot t t at t a t t ( C e ( LO aasagg gg tO 0 - -- - L O) =' o 0 O N :J ( a; N L t 0 00 m - N M =' o o D 00 00 m o m O -- -$ M D 28 E $ $ LO N N M M L L L LCI L L 2 L ( ( (0to tot0toc0m 0 O o o o 0 o f)r"fl di 0 004(o0 0 -0- N M0- 888th Dfl f CoDf. n00 ShbOSS t t 8 00a)a)0 - (Df,00a) O - N " LA LOLOLO D o o c t t to 0 SEU O- NM = =I $28LOLO52 t t 25CC t t 0-040 - 000- ( oN-c(0o 0-0 00 (00N g NN (0 -0CY4) Lr, 111 L0t L: N Z w 0LiJ F- J W: wr -.J. Il rl- C) LO OD Lrl 0 tD N 1 O M M LC) OD N N M CQ 00 -- M N N N N LC) N - N C4 =r - N N c0 00 - CO LO N N N cl-I N M Lo N M try ACS O ::f- 0) N - - - N . � c[) Q N N 00 M f - t[) N N O =J- m N N - t0 O =I- 00 N N N = CN =1, CV) LO 9? CO L.C) 00O-M=J- un Lo Lf) LL)tNLOLO O N M =t, LL) LL) LL) Ln Ld) LL) - N =t Lf) to LO LL) LL7 LL7 Ln N M U.) (P P U) LL) Ln LL7 LC) O4 47 4' 4i emy00O - - - N "EROMC N" N N N N N N N N QN N N N N N NN ^NP N N N E C) M -C4o 100N0 - 000040MM0 40N M00 M0M-M4 CO)M 4 00) 000.000 O0--40004 0040)0 0404000 -N =WLO -- - -040N0N0N0 N NN N M M M M M LO (00000 04M00000) N-000440 000)0-04 N 040400 -- N N N M M Mc M M 0M4M 4 to 00)- N4 to 00 O) LOto 0O-04 M0LOLC)N- -- - -N0 N N NM- o O)N-00 M 00 0NO) N M LO to 0040 M 00LO to LO0 0400004 0 (1-000- N0 L 0000 gO0- N M 4 LO o rN-. tD LO ~0000 4000440 o 04 04 O 0CAO-NM N 00N- 0 0) N- 0- - Ln ) N L0004000 0 1040400 C040000 00 - --- - - -04040404 404 c 04M0M M4 co0M4M '- t~0400-000 0-4') Q1O 04M-O o 00O) Oo -0N04M 4LO 0N-O00)M M - -0-N NN 4NN NN0MM 0MM MM M M MM N4 O)N te0O)- M t o :I Ot - 0 CO) 0 00 o ^0L) " 01N0400 N 00004N0400M M M::t_ O04 oM M M00 a t N O OO0004 l1)4f- O)oN0 N N- CV N0N004M 040M040M)M- 00 0)00 O M000 -00N- 0-04N000 N N-CO M 4M0M4M 0N-M 000) - NN- M)N400000 M LnC 0-04 000400 N-O0D OD00 -04 C 040 040 -0 N0 0-400-000 NNNNL oN 040 09-40 - N)--0 f ) 040000004 N O L040 t0400l- 00 M 1=1 44 -040 0 4N 0- 0400 00 N MV N .0) 004040004 M M MN- 00 0)0 0- 4040 N 000)04 N0400 004 0004 N 000 M-04000400 oN 00 ) 9- 040M 49 40 in-0 0 0 N- )04 =1000000 0 0404M00400 o N-00 O); N4 N N- CV CV M M M M M M M' M M z'') 0 to 0 ( 0 NN N N M 040404 M M00 0000 00000 -t000) ::I0 00940 00 )0 40000000 0)0--04 0400040404M N 04 -00 - N N N N0 N-04N M 40M N-0 0)M-404M000040 04 000404 0004004N N N0N-N -044 M0M04M0N tD00)400-t 40440o00-40 4m N-0u)0 00t0NN 00M404N -M - o o040L10c r c ON- L 00 f 0040400 0 N N M MM4 M M404o0MM4=00N-f-00c0)0O^ -04040004MM MM0M00 MN-00 00 L - L1 0o O 0) 0 O N 0 (0 - N M t) to0400 O O ; I N-oCD 0 (0 0 - tDco N- D 0 O00000 00000 0)0 U 00 - 00) M04 ON- O04 000000) 040004000 )0-404 00040000-0-)0 S-6 LI.j 0 x W uI W 0m cD N = W -J W 000NM LO 00 O N =f, co M - N=t (O M^M LOCO Oj Lr) M M M M O - N N M M M M M M O - N M M M M M M a - N M M M CO M M N M M M M M M CO 0 0 N w CR ti Q7 r cc-cc ccco =-co cc 00c ncc ccn cc LO~l ~-c cc~cc Ic n t0 00 O-cNc toc cc O - r - -o - cc- -cccco- N c c orO O N McctN rc00- Q cccc r oM ccNcMccN t rccc-ccN c Occc0- M NcccN ED o-cc00 00-- ccc-Ncc~c c-c c t0 ~L N 00 Co -cccC)cNc0 M 4-cN o o - .-- -cccc ccr.cc c- - cc cc 00 Lc N N O-ccc cN 0000 -ccccMcOcN N N - c Nc C6- - - -cccc N cc cc ccc- occcc cccto- ccccccccNcc cc-- -cc-c -c cccccNcc c L M cccccc M-ccUccN cc 0cc M cccNccNMcc c - -cccccc cccccc Oc ( 0c- 0cc 0c-Nc oc 0ccc ccN ccM E - ccccccc c Nc cNc c Nccocc M Oc N M to to 00cM N N N N O r cccocccc c -c-o - coccN cccco-cc cc-cccc -coc -c-cc Nc Nc c-- c -,ccyccccc ccccc c -tcNc 0ccc cccc-cc tD gM O cc t 00 C) M r- a) O N M 00CP - NM OD CD -N=' * O ui N a N d' N ti d. N O d" N d' N d' d' N M d" N N d" N . d" N O N M N O M N ti M N t0 N 0 M N d' . m N Cl? M N N M N M N O M N N N N N ems.. N N N N N N Id, N N M N N N N N 17 N N. O N N O N O N N (D N U? N d' N M N N N N O N rn O N O N ti O �dtuc4 S-7 W F- Il- w W CD - w LU F- -J w cccccccco ccccctccc cccccccc-cccccccc cc~cccc-cccccccc cc~cco- Dccrcc 00 cc~ccccc ccccccc cc cccccc-c ccccccc00 cc cccccc-c cccccc c S-B w w w C, - LU N 1- " ) 0 w F w C M)00N-NMU N -M 0)N)co ) -M 0- U) ) U f) U) -- E)fi0) O LtON (0 W CO-0r-OC QU =t,0 -0 -Nr - =- 0Ur-COW U)LO - --NCU?)C cC r^0 0 0ODCOD 000 =t U-) co r- 00 00 00 oc 00 00 00 00 rn o a oc 00 00 rn rn N N M =t- =t- LE) Ln Lo rl- tir- 1- 00 rnrnrnrna) 00 O N LYE co (o 00 c) (-- 00 00 M Lf) CO 00 00 00 00 00 {l- 00 f) O - 00 00 00 O) a) Lo LO (7) Q) a) 0) 0) Lr) 00 N LC) LC) LC) to (O 0=I- , - a) N to to to (C) r*- OMLO ti0) C) N M LC) co 00 00 00 00 00 C) - NNCY) Onm CY) a) CT) -C- i. i V 0))N t- 'A O='0-0)0)-0 M CON- 1?COO M0-0)0) -0 f 0)U)N- M OU/ 00 T0)P)- M 0) U)0U) C) N- o U)DU) NC N 0- to-- -0o N) 0) C) O U) 1--00 G;-r --0)0) � N- N N U)0 0) 0) - CCON-- U) ^)- N -N N M C)-r-M0) N N M cO LO U) 0 D U) 0 ) a) CO M NCg N N-0M)M 0) r) MN0)M U-)0) 00 CC 0) - -0N) M - rU)- 4-0 N - - N NU)OM C) CC ) 0 0 M - N-CO N 00OC MN-- 0N -00N)U) Cy N 0 )0UNC0)CC0CCM - C7) U) o00 00 N)r N to -0-N00) N � - N- M 0:=- CT LO C ) L C )- 0- 0 - ) r) ) 0) N -M U) M L 0 N-N M0U MCU.O0 U)N-00L) LO C4 - -0-0N0N) M 0-0 =J'U LO)) LOU)U 0) r U N r.)0U) to) M)U) o- 0)40-U MC 0)C) ::I'N-0)N-- C)) 00 N 0) )0-Uo )- N- N-0-NO-U M0 UM0- - =t- 0-COC)Ln a) -C 00 U) N00 M 0 -)00 Mn U)Mt00 LC OLCOC --0)CC) 00) t- =t )U)U) ) mCOO N-N-N- --0)04N M00-- UU) U) :t LU Uf) )LNN-N-N C3 0) COO) U)--- - (Y) ()N-a04 -040)0) -0004)00) 0 0 N U)) U CUN) CO r)0N-NN--N CS) to N r N0-0)0 U)U U- COUN -- m0)0- N-Ur -(D COC0 -)co Q 00 - rN-o N-N-N-N-N- 0))N) 0)-00U) 0U)U)0- )UL L)00 CC ) toN-0C)0 t0 0)N-0- 0U) LOU C))LO :t0=')UrN- 0)-0)0-)0 0 )0 - 0 --0) )0) 0-0U)UU) 0U))CO- LNN-NN-N- N-U)U)U)CO -C)00))--)U)UM ) :' CO CO NN-- - r ONN-N-U) Co c)COO CN U00 U) 0 )0U -N)0) t0- N-0)000 - 0)0-U)U)M U)N-U ) U )00 -00))N-0U)U)) )CO)N- LN-N-N-N-O t o cotCC)COr OCOCCO. 00O-N=I- 00 00 00 00 N =. tt> co r- 00 00 00 00 00 00a) a) 0 00 00 00 00 Cn - N N M M a) a) a) a) co to CO to Cn CY) a) m rn o C) - 00 00 0) rn 0) - - N N cr a) (3) mO) MM =1- O)0) o) cr) LO (O (O 0) (3) ma) 00 00 00 00 00 rn, rn rn v) m S-9 Table 3 Distances from a surface of given pressure to a standard isobaric surface, where the mean virtual temperature between the surfaces is 0oC.; the distances being expressed in terms of the unit: 0 98 dynamic meter, thus giving them approximately in geometric meters. Pressure (millibars) 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 800-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------800 800 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 89 Distance 810 99 109 119 129 139 149 158 168 178 188 of the 820 197 207 217 227 236 246 256 265 275 285 800-mb 830 294 304 314 323 333 342 352 362 371 381 surface 840 390 400 409 419 428 438 447 456 466 475 above a 850 485 494 504 513 522 532 541 550 560 569 surface 860 578 588 597 806 615 625 634 643 652 662 of given 870 671 680 689 698 707 717 726 735 744 753 pressure 880 762 771 780 789 798 807 816 825 834 843 890 852 861 870 879 888 897 906 915 924 933 900---------------------------------- ----- ------------------------- 900 900 0 9 18 27 35 44 53 62 71 80 Distance 910 88 97 106 115 123 132 141 150 158 167 of the 920 176 184 193 202 210 219 228 236 245 254 900-mrib 930 262 271 279 288 297 305 314 322 331 339 surface 940 348 356 365 373 382 390 399 407 415 424 above a 950 432 441 449 458 466 474 483 491 499 508 surface 950 516 524 533 541 549 558 566 574 582 591 of given 970 599 607 615 624 632 640 648 656 665 673 oressure 980 681 689 697 705 714 722 730 738 746 754 990 762 770 778 786 794 802 810 81 8 826 834 1000-------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------- 1000 1000 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 Distance 1010 80 87 95 103 III 119 127 135 143 150 of the 1020 158 166 174 182 190 197 205 213 221 229 000-mb 1030 236 244 252 260 267 275 283 291 298 306 surface 1040 314 321 329 337 344 352 360 367 375 383 above a 1050 390 398 405 413 421 428 436 443 451 458 surface 1060 466 473 481 489 496 504 511 519 526 534 of given 1070 541 548 656 563 571 578 586 593 601 608 oressure 1080 615 623 630 638 645 652 660 667 674 682 1090 689 696 704 71 I 718 726 733 740 748 755 -n10 Table 9. "Distances between standard isobaric surfaces, expressed in terms of the unit:* 0.98 dynamic meter, thus giving distances approximately in geometric meters. Standard isobar ic surface mb. t'0C. 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 400-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------400 -70 1326 1319 1313 1306 1300 1293 1287 1280 1274 1267 -60 1391 1385 1378 1372 1365 1359 1352 1346 1339 1332 -50 1457 1,50 1444 1437 1431 1424 14 18 1411 1404 1398 -40 1522 1516 1509 1503 1496 1490 1483 1477 1470 1463 -30 1588 1581 1575 1568 1562 1555 1549 1542 1535 1529 -20 1653 1647 1640 1634 1627 1621 1614 1607 1601 1594 -10 1719 1712 1706 1699 1693 1686 1680 1673 1666 1660 - 0 1784 1778 1771 1765 1758 1752 1745 1738 1732 1725 + 0 1784 1791 1797 1804 1811 1817 1824 1830 1837 1843 500-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------500 -60 1137 1132 1126 1121 1115 1110 I105 1099 1094 1089 -50 1190 1185 1180 1174 1169 1164 1158 1153 1148 1142 -40 1244 1239 1233 1228 1222 1217 1212 1206 1201 1196 -30 1297 1292 1287 1281 1276 1271 1265 1260 1255 1249 -20 1351 1346 1340 1335 1329 1324 1319 1313 1308 1303 -10 1404 1 399 1394 1388 1383 1378 1372 1367 1362 1356 - 0 1458 1453 1447 1442 1436 1431 1426 1420 14.15 1410 + 0 1458 1463 1469 174 14 79 1485 1490 1495 1501 1506 +10 1511 517 1522 1527 1533 1538 1543 1549 1554 1560 600-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------600 -50 1006 1002 997 993 988 984 979 975 970 966 -40 1052 1047 1043 1038 1034 1029 1025 1020 1015 1011 -30 1097 1092 1088 1083 1079 1074 1070 1065 1061 1056 -20 1142 1138 1133 1129 1124 1120 I 115 11 10 1106 1101 -10 1187 1183 1178 1174 1169 1165 1160 1156 1151 I147 - 0 1233 1228 1224 1219 1215 1210 1205 1201 1196 1192 + 0 1233 1237 1242 1246 1251 1255 1260 1264 1269 1273 +10 1278 1282 1287 1291 1296 1300 1305 1310 1314 1319 +20 1323 1328 1332 1337 1341 1346 1350 1355 1359 1364 700--------------- --------------------------------------------- -------------------------700 -40 911 907 903 899 895 891 887 884 880 876 -30 950 946 942 938 935 931 927 923 919 915 -20 989 985 982 978 974 970 966 962 958 954 -10 1029 1025 1021 1017 1013 1009 1005 1001 997 993 - 0 1068 1064 1060 1056 1052 1048 1044 1040 1036 1032 + 0 1068 1072 1076 1080 1083 1087 1091 1095 1099 1103 +10 1107 IIII 1115 1119 1123 1127 1130 1134 1138 11142 +20 1146 1150 1154 1158 1162 1166 1170 1174 1177 1181 800-----------------------------------------------------.. ------- ------ - --800 -40 804 800 797 793 790 786 783 779 776 772 -30 838 835 831 828 824 821 817 814 810 807 -20 873 869 866 862 859 855 852 849 845 842 -10 907 904 900 897 893 890 887 883 880 876 - 0 942 938 935 931 928 925 921 918 914 91 I + 0 942 945 949 952 956 959 963 966 969 973 +10 976 980 983 987 990 994 997 1001 1004 1008 +20 101 1I014 1018 1021 1025 1028 1032 1035 1039 1042 +30 1046 1049 1052 1056 1059 1063 1066 1070 1073 1077 900 ---------------------------------- . -------------------------------------------------900 -40 719 716 713 710 706 703 700 697 694 691 -30 750 747 744 740 737 734 731 728 725 722 -20 781 778 774 771 768 765 762 759 756 753 -10 812 808 805 802 799 796 793 790 787 784 - 0 812 839 836 833 830 827 82. 821 818 815 + 0 8112 816 819 852 855 858 861 861 867 870 +10 873 876 880 883 886 889 892 895 898 901 +20 901 907 910 9111 917 920 923 926 929 932 +30 935 938 9111 915 9118 951 95 957 960 963 +10 966 96 9 972 975 979 982 985 988 991 99 1000------------------------------............-.-----------------------------------------------1000 *DiLstances expressed in terms of this unit may be converted to distances in terms of dynamic meters by multiplying the former by the factor 0.98, i.e. by subtracting 2% thereof. t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum between standard isobaric surfaces. S-II Table 4 Distances between standard isobaric surfaces, expressed in terms of the unit:* 0.98 dynamic meter, thus giving distances approximately in geometric meters. Standard isobar ic surface mb. t' �C. 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------100 -80 1260 1254 1247 1241 1234 1228 1221 1215 1208 1201 -70 1326 1319 1313 1306 1300 1293 1287 1280 1274 1267 -60 1391 1385 1378 1372 1365 1359 1352 1346 1339 1332 -50 1457 1450 1444 1437 1431 1424 1418 1411 1404 1398 -40 1522 1516 1509 1503 1496 1490 1483 1477 1470 1463 -30 1588 1581 1575 1568 1562 1555 1549 1542 1535 1529 125------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125 -80 1030 1024 1019 1014 1008 1003 998 992 987 982 -70 1083 1078 1073 1067 1062 1057 1051 1046 1041 1035 -60 1137 1132 1126 1121 1115 1110 1105 1099 1094 1089 -50 1190 1185 1180 1174 1169 1164 1158 1153 1148 1142 -40 1244 1239 1233 1228 1222 1217 1212 1206 1201 1196 -30 1297 1292 1287 1281 1276 1271 1265 1260 1255 1249 150ISO--------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------150 -80 871 866 862 857 853 848 844 839 835 830 -70 916 911 907 902 898 893 889 884 880 875 -60 961 957 952 948 943 939 934 930 925 920 -50 1006 1002 997 993 988 984 979 975 970 966 -40 1052 1047 1043 1038 1034 1029 1025 1020 1015 101l -30 1097 1092 1088 1083 1079 1074 1070 1065 1061 1056 175--------------------------------- -- ------------------------------------------------------175 -80 754 750 746 743 739 735 731 727 723 719 -70 793 790 786 782 778 774 770 766 762 758 -60 833 829 825 821 817 813 809 805 801 797 -50 872 868 864 860 856 852 848 844 840 837 -40 911 907 903 899 895 891 887 884 880 876 -30 950 946 942 938 935 931 927 923 919 915 200------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------200 -80 1260 1254 1247 1241 1234 1228 1221 1215 1208 1201 -70 1326 1319 1313 1306 1300 1293 1287 1280 1274 1267 -60 1391 1385 1378 1372 1365 1359 1352 1346 1339 1332 -50 1457 1450 1444 1437 1431 1424 1418 141 I11404 1398 -40 1522 1516 1509 1503 1496 1490 1483 1477 1470 1463 -30 1588 1581 1575 1568 1562 1555 1549 1542 1535 1529 250 ------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------250 -80 1030 1024 1019 1014 1008 1003 998 992 987 982 -70 1083 1078 1073 1067 1062 1057 1051 1046 1041 1035 -60 1137 1132 1126 1121 1115 II10 1105 1099 1094 1089 -50 1190 1185 1180 1174 1169 1164 1158 1153 1148 1142 -40 1244 1239 1233 1228 1222 1217 1212 1206 1201 1196 -30 1297 1292 1287 1281 1276 1271 1265 1260 1255 1249 -20 1351 1346 1340 1335 1329 1324 1319 1313 1308 1303 300----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------300 -70 916 911 907 902 898 893 889 884 880 875 -60 961 957 952 948 9143 939 934 930 925 920 -50 1006 1002 997 993 988 984 979 975 970 966 -40 1052 10147 1043 1038 1034 1029 1025 1020 1015 1011 -30 1097 1092 1088 1083 1079 1074 1070 1065 1061 1056 -20 1142 1138 1133 1129 1124 1120 1115 1110 1106 1101 -10 1187 1183 1178 1174 1169 1165 1160 1156 1151 1147 350------------------------------- -------- ----------------------- ---------------350 -60 833 829 825 821 817 813 809 805 801 797 -50 872 868 864 860 856 852 848 844 840 837 -40 911 907 903 899 895 891 887 884 880 876 -30 950 946 942 938 935 931 927 923 919 915 -20 989 985 982 978 974 970 966 962 958 954 -10 1029 1025 1021 1017 1013 1009 1005 1001 997 993 - 0 1068 1064 1060 1056 1052 1048 1014 10140 1036 1032 400- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------400 *Distances expressed in terms of this unit may be converted to distances in terms of dynamic meters by multiplying the former by the factor 0.98, I.e. by subtracting 2% thereof. t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum between standard isobaric surfaces. S-12 Table 4 Distances between standard isobaric surfaces, expressed in terms of the unit:* 0.98 dynamic meter, thus giving distances approximately in geometric meters. Standard isobar ic surface mb. t' OC. 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 -80 3915 3895 3875 3854 3834 3814 3793 3773 3753 3732 -70 4119 4098 4078 4058 4037 4017 3997 3976 3956 3936 -60 4322 4302 4281 4261 4241 4220 4200 4180 4159 4139 -50 4526 4505 4485 4464 4444 4424 4403 4383 4363 4342 -40 4729 4709 4688 4668 4648 4627 4607 4587 4566 4546 -30 4932 4912 4892 4871 4851 4831 4810 4790 4770 4749 1 0 --- - - -_-------------------- -- --- - ---- - - --- -- - -- --- - -- -- - -- -- - -- --- -- -- -- - --- - -- -- ----------------------0 -80 2290 2278 2266 2255 2243 2231 2219 2207 2195 2183 -70 2409 2397 2385 2374 2362 2350 2338 2326 2314 2302 -60 2528 2516 2504 2493 2481 2469 2457 2445 2433 2421 -50 2647 2635 2623 2612 2600 2588 2576 2564 2552 2540 -40 2766 2754 2742 2731 2719 2707 2695 2683 2671 2659 -30 2885 2873 2861 2850 2838 2826 2814 2802 2790 2778 15-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15 -80 1625 1617 1608 1600 1591 1583 1574 1566 1557 1549 -70 1709 1701 1693 1684 1676 1667 1659 1650 1642 1633 -60 1794 1785 1777 1769 1760 1752 1743 1735 1726 1718 -50 1878 1870 1861 1853 1844 1836 1828 1819 1811 1802 -40 1963 1954 1946 1937 1929 1920 1912 1904 1895 1887 -30 2047 2039 2030 2022 2013 2005 1996 1988 1980 1971 20-------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------20 -80 2290 2278 2266 2255 2243 2231 2219 2207 2195 2183 -70 2409 2397 2385 2374 2362 2350 2338 2326 2314 2302 -60 2528 2516 2504 2493 2481 2469 2457 2445 2433 2421 -50 2647 2635 2623 2612 2600 2588 2576 2564 2552 2540 -40 2766 2754 2742 2731 2719 2707 2695 2683 2671 2659 -30 2885 2873 2861 2850 2838 2826 2814 2802 2790 2778 30---------------------------------------------.---.-..------------------------------------ 30 -80 1625 1617 1608 1600 1591 1583 1574 1566 1557 1549 -70 1709 1701 1693 1684 1676 1667 1659 1650 1642 1633 -60 1794 1785 1777 1769 1760 1752 1743 1735 1726 1718 -50 1878 1870 1861 1853 1844 1836 1828 1819 181 I1 1802 -40 1963 1954 1946 1937 1929 1920 1912 1904 1895 1887 -30 2047 2039 2030 2022 2013 2005 1996 1988 1980 1971 40--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40 -~0 1260 1254 1247 1241 1234 1228 1221 1215 1208 1201 -70 1326 1319 1313 1306 1300 1293 1287 1280 1274 1267 -60 1391 1385 1378 1372 1365 1359 1352 1346 1339 1332 -50 1457 1450 1444 1437 1431 1424 1418 1411 1404 1398 -40 1522 1516 1509 1503 1496 1490 1483 1477 1470 1463 -30 1588 1581 1575 1568 1562 1555 1549 1542 1535 1529 50-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50 -80 1030 1024 1019 1014 1008 1003 998 992 987 982 -70 1083 1078 1073 1067 1062 1057 1051 1046 1041 1035 -60 1137 1132 1126 1121 Ill5 I O 1110 1 105 1099 1094 1089 -50 1190 1185 1180 1174 1169 1164 1158 1153 1148 1142 -40 1244 1239 1233 1228 1222 1217 1212 1206 1201 1196 -30 I1297 1292 1287 1281 1276 1271 1265 1260 1255 1249 60--- --------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------60 -80 1625 1617 1608 1600 1591 1583 1574 1566 1557 1549 -70 1709 1701 1693 1684 1676 1667 1659 1650 1642 1633 -60 1794 1785 1777 1769 1760 1752 1743 1735 1726 171-8 -50 1878 1 870 186I 1853 1844 1836 1828 1819 181 1802 -40 1963 1954 1946 1937 1929 1920 1912 1904 1895 1887 -30 2047 2039 2030 2022 2013 2005 1996 1988 1980 1971 80--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 0 -80 1260 1254 1247 1241 1234 1228 1221 1215 1208 1201 -70 1326 1319 1313 1306 1300 1293 1287 1280 1274 1267 -60 1391 1385 1378 1372 1365 1359 1352 1346 1339 1332 -50 1457 1450 1444 1437 1431 1424 1418 1411 1404 1398 -40 1522 1516 1509 1503 1496 1490 1483 1477 1470 1463 -30 1588 158I 1575 1568 1562 1555 1549 1542 1535 1529 100----------------------------------------------------100 *Distances expressed in terms of this unit may be converted to distances in terms of dynamic meters by multiplying the former by the factor 0.98, I.e. by subtracting 2% thereof. t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum between standard isobaric surfaces. S-13 Table 5 Distances from a standard isobaric surface to a surface of given pressure, where the mean virtual temperature between the surfaces is 00 C.; the distances being expressed in terms of the unit:' 0.98 dynamic meter, thus giving them approximately in geometric meters. Pressure (mill ibars)1 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 ------------ 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1784 1764 1744 1725 1705 1587 1567 1548 1529 1509 1394 1375 1356 1337 1318 1206 1187 1169 1150 1132 1022 1004 986 968 950 842 825 807 789 772 667 649 632 615 598 495 478 461 444 427 326 310 293 277 260 162 145 129 113 97 ------------------------------------- 1458 1300 1144 992 842 696 552 410 271 134 1442 1284 1129 977 828 681 537 396 257 121 1426 1268 1114 962 813 667 523 382 244 107 1410 1253 1098 947 798 652 509 368 230 94 1394 1237 1083 932 783 638 495 354 216 80 1685 1665 1646 1626 1606 1490 1471 1451 1432 1413 1300 1281 1262 1243 1225 1114 1095 1077 1059 1040 932 914 896 878 860 754 737 719 702 684 580 563 546 529 512 410 393 377 360 343 244 227 211 194 178 80 64 48 32 16 --------- -------- -------- ------ --- ---- -- 1378 1362 1347 1331 1315 1222 1206 I 191 1175 I 160 1068 1053 1037 1022 1007 917 902 887 872 857 769 754 739 725 710 623 609 595 580 566 481 466 452 438 424 340 326 313 299 285 202 189 175 162 148 67 53 40 27 13 ---500 buu - - - - - - - -------- -- --bUU 600 1233 1219 1206 1193 1179 1166 1153 1140 1127 1114 610 1100 1087 1074 1061 1048 1035 1022 1009 996 983 620 970 958 945 932 919 906 893 881 868 855 Distances 630 842 830 817 804 792 779 767 754 742 729 from the 640 717 704 692 679 667 654 642 630 617 605 700-mb. 650 593 580 568 556 544 531 519 507 495 483 surface 660 471 458 446 434 422 410 398 386 374 362 670 350 338 326 315 303 291 279 267 255 244 680 232 220 208 197 185 173 162 150 138 127 690 115 103 92 80 69 57 46 34 23 11 700----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------700 700 1068 1056 1045 1034 1022 1011 999 988 977 966 710 954 943 932 921 909 898 887 876 865 854 720 842 831 820 809 798 787 776 765 754 743 Distances 730 732 721 710 699 688 678 667 656 645 634 from the 740 623 613 602 591 580 570 559 548 537 527 800-mb. 750 516 505 495 484 474 463 452 442 431 421 surface 760 410 400 389 379 368 358 347 337 326 316 770 306 295 285 275 264 254 244 233 223 213 780 202 192 182 172 162 151 141 131 121 I11 790 101 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 800-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------800 800 942 932 922 912 902 892 882 872 862 852 810 842 833 823 813 803 793 783 774 764 754 820 744 735 725 715 705 696 686 676 667 657 Distances 830 647 638 628 619 609 599 590 580 571 561 from the 840 552 542 533 523 514 504 495 485 476 466 900-mb. 850 457 448 438 429 420 410 401 391 382 373 surface X60 364 354 345 336 326 317 308 299 289 280 870 271 262 253 244 234 225 216 207 198 189 880 180 171 162 152 143 134 125 116 107 98 890 89 80 71 62 53 45 36 27 18 9 900----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 900 900 842 834 825 816 807 798 789 781 772 763 910 754 745 737 728 719 710 702 693 614 675 920 667 658 649 641 632 623 615 606 598 589 Distances 930 580 572 563 555 546 537 529 520 512 503 from the 940 495 486 478 469 461 452 444 435 427 419 1000-mb. 950 410 402 393 385 377 368 360 351 343 335 surface 960 326 318 310 301 293 285 277 268 260 252 970 244 235 227 219 211 202 194 186 178 170 980 162 153 145 137 129 121 113 105 97 88 990 80 72 64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8 1000 .--.----------------------------------------------- ----- - 1000 1000 0 -8 -16 -24 -32 -40 -48 -56 -64 -72 1010 -80 -87 -95 -103 -III -119 -127 -135 -143 -150 1020 -158 -166 -174 -182 -190 -197 -205 -213 -221 -229 Distances 1030 -236 -244 -252 -260 -267 -275 -283 -291 -298 -306 from the 1040 -314 -321 -329 -337 -344 -352 -360 -367 -375 -383 1000-mb. 1050 -390 -398 -405 -413 -421 -428 -436 -443 -451 -458 surface 1060 -466 -473 -481 -489 -496 -504 -511 -519 -526 -534 1070 -541 -548 -556 -563 -5371 -578 -586 -593 -601 -608 1080 -615 -623 -630 -638 -645 -652 -660 -667 -674 -682 1090 -689 -696 -704 -711 -718 -726 -733 -740 -748 -755 Distances from the 500-mb. surface 500------ Distances from the 600-mb,. surface I - - S-14 Table 5 Distances from a standard isobaric surface to a surface of given pressure, where the mean virtual temperature between, the surfaces is 0� C.; the distances being expressed in terms of the unit:' 0.98 dynamic meter, thus giving them approximately in geometric meters. Pressure (millibars) 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Distances from the 10-mb. surface 0 5543 4085 2852 1784 842 0------ ------------------- 5------08-----28----- -------------- I 74Distances from the 15-mb. surface 10 3242 2480 1784 1144 552 15------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 Distances from the 20-mrb. surface I 0 2300 1784 1300 842 410 20---------------------- 0----------- -------------2-----------------------------------20 Distances from the 30-mb. surface 20 3242 2852 2480 2125 1784 1458 1144 842 552 271 30-------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30 Distances from the 40-mb. surface 30 2300 2038 1784 1538 1300 1068 842 623 410 202 40---------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------4O Distances from the 50-mb. surface 40 1784 1587 1394 1206 1022 842 667 495 326 162 50------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50 I Distances from the 60-mb. surface 50 1458 1300 1144 992 842 j 696 552 410 271 134 60--------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------60 Distances from the 80-mb. surface 60 2300 2168 2038 1910 1784 1660 1538 1418 1300 1183 70 1068 954 842 732 623 516 410 306 202 101 80-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80 Distances from the 100-mb. surface 80 1784 1685 1587 1490 1394 1300 1206 1114 1022 932 90 842 754 667 580 495 410 326 244 162 80 100------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100 Distances from the 125-mb. surface 100 1784 1705 1626 1548 1471 1394 1318 1243 1169 1095 I10 1022 950 878 807 737 667 598 529 461 393 120 326 260 194 129 64 125----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125 Distances from the 150-mb. surface 120 1458 1394 1331 1268 1206 130 1144 1083 1022 962 902 842 783 725 667 609 140 552 495 438 382 326 271 216 162 107 53 150-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------150 Distances from the 175-mb. surface 150 1233 1179 1127 1074 1022 970 919 868 817 767 160 717 667 617 568 519 471 422 374 326 279 170 232 185 138 92 46 175------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------175 Distances from the,200-mb. surface 170 1068 1022 977 932 887 180 842 798 754 710 667 623 580 537 495 452 190 410 368 326 285 244 202 162 121 80 40 200----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------200 Distances 200 1784 1744 1705 1665 1626 1587 1548 1509 1471 1432 from the 210 1394 1356 1318 1281 1243 1206 1169 1132 1095 1059 250-mb. 220 1022 986 950 914 878 842 807 772 737 702 surface 230 667 632 598 563 529 495 461 427 393 360 240 326 293 260 227 194 162 129 97 64 32 250------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------250 Distances 250 1458 1426 1394 1362 1331 1300 1268 1237 1206 1175 from the 260 I 44 11 14 1083 1053 1022 992 962 932 902 872 300-mb. 270 842 813 783 754 725 696 667 638 609 580 surface 280 552 523 495 466 438 410 382 354 326 299 290 271 244 216 189 162 134 107 80 53 27 300------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------300 Distances 300 1233 1206 1179 11S3 1127 1100 1074 1048 1022 996 from the 310 970 945 919 893 868 842 817 792 767 742 350-m6. 320 717 692 667 642 617 593 568 544 519 495 330 471 446 422 398 374 350 326 303 279 255 340 232 208 185 162 138 I15 92 69 46 23 350 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------350 Distances 350 1068 1045 i022 999 977 954 932 909 887 865 . from the 360 842 820 798 776 754 732 710 688 667 645 400-mb. 370 623 602 580 559 537 516 495 474 452 431 surface 380 4I0 389 368 347 326 306 285 264 244 223 390 202 182 162 141 121 101 80 60 40 20 400 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------400 C Distances expressed in terms of this unit may be converted to distances in terms of dynamic meters by multiplying the former by the factor 0.98, i.e. by subtracting 25 thereof. Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction=(Hu4-1)(0.00367t'), where t' =mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 00 C.) the values are to be (added ) (below 0� C.) (subtracted). Hur-H1 1 0 1 t20 0C.51 (meters) 1o o20 oS6o o0 80 o o100o12o13o1� o160o .8o 190 200 21o22o23o24o 250 26o27o 280 29o30o 10.... 20.... S0.... 40.... 50.... 60.... 70.... 80.... 90.... 100.... 110.... 120.... 130.... 140.... 150.... 160.... 170.... 180.... 190.... 200.... 210.... 220.... 230 .... 240.... 250.... 260.... 270.... 280.... 290.... 300.... 310.... 320.... 330.... 340.... 350.... 360.... 370.... 380.... 390.... 400.... 410.... 420... 430 .... O0.... 450.... 460.... 470.... 480.... 490.... 500.... 510.... 520.... 530.... 540.... 550.... 560.... 570.... 580.... 590.... 600.... 610.... 620.... 630.... 640.... 650.... 660.... 670.... 680.... 690.... 700.... 710.... 720.... 730.... 740.... 750.... 760.... 770.... 780.... 790.... 800.... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 12 2 12 2 1 15 1 1 1 1 I 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 67 7 7 7 7 7 7 78 8 8 8 8 8 89 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11I 11 11 11 11 12 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 3 3 4 4 4. 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 i 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 9 12 15 18 21 23 26 29 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 35 35 )5 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 35. 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 33 34 34 St 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 43 44 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 24. 25 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 47 484 49 49 50 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 26 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 38 38 39 40 40 41 42 42 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 488 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 36 37 38 38 39 40 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 45 46 47 47 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 54 54 55 56 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 37 37 38 39 40 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 54 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 1 1 2 2 2 2 33 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 22 23 23 24 2% 25 25 26 25 27 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 29 31 30 31 31 32 32 33 32 34 33 35 34 36 35 36 35 37 36 38 37 39 38 40 39 40 39 41 40 42 41 43 42 44 42 44 43 45 44 46 45 47 45 48 46 48 47 49 48 50 49 51 49 52 50 52 51 53 52 54 52 55 53 56 4 57 55 57 55 58 56 59 57 60 58 61 59 61 59 62 60 63 61 64 62 65 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 30 31 32 33 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 6)3 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 39 40 41 42 43 84 45 46 47 48 49 50 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 38 35 36 37 30 39 40 42 43 44 45 46 47 488 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 88 S-15 Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction=(Hu-H1)(0.00367t'), where t' =mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 00 C.) the values are to be (added ) (below 00 C.) (subtracted). Hu-H t,' 3 3 o 3 o 0o 1 oC. o (meters) 31o 320o3o o $ 50 3o0 7o o8 o9400 o042o o 45046 0 o048 0 490 500 51 0 52 0 5o5 40 550 560 570 580 590 600 1 1 33 44 5 6 7 7 8 8 10 10 11 11 12 13 1 1 2 2 48 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 25 26 27 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 34 35 35 36 10..... 20..... 30..... 40..... 50..... 60..... 70..... 80..... 90..... 100..... 110..... 120..... 130..... 1 0..... 150..... 160..... 170..... 180..... 190..... 200..... 210..... 220..... 230..... 240..... 250..... 260..... 270..... 280..... 290..... 300..... 310..... 320..... 3 30..... )so0..... 350..... 360..... 370..... 380..... 390..... 400..... 410..... 420..... 430..... 840..... 450..... 460..... 470..... 880..... 490..... 500..... 510..... 520..... 530..... 540..... 550..... 560..... 570..... 580..... 590..... 600..... 610..... 620..... 630..... 640.... 650..... 660..... 670..... 680..... 690..... 700..... 710..... 720..... 730..... 740..... 750..... 760..... 770..... 780..... 790..... 800..... 1 3 6 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 17 18 20 21 22 24 25 26 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 88 89 90 91 1 2 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 52 53 54 55 56 58 59 60 61 62 6)3 65 66 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 85 86 87 88 89 90 92 93 948 16 17 19 21 22 24 25 27 28 30 17 18 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 31 17 19 20 22 24 25 27 29 30 32 17 19 21 22 24 26 28 29 31 33 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 17 18 20 21 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 33 35 36 38 39 41 42 44 45 47 48 50 51 53 54 56 57 59 60 62 63 65 66 68 69 71 72 74 75 77 78 80 81 83 84 86 87 89 90 92 95 97 99 101 103 92 94 96 99 101 103 105 93 96 98 100 102 105 107 95 97 99 102 104 106 109 96 99 101 103 106 108 110 98 100 103 105 107 110 112 99 102 104 107 109 111 114 101 103 106 108 111 113 116 102 105 107 110 112 115 117 104 106 109 111 114 116 119 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 25 26 28 30 32 33 35 37 39 41 42 44 46 48 49 51 53 55 56 58 60 62 63 65 67 69 70 72 74 76 78 79 81 83 85 86 88 90 92 93 95 97 99 100 102 10 106 107 109 111 113 115 116 118 120 122 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16 18 20 22 23 25 27 29 31 32 34 36 38 40 41 43 45 47 49 50 52 54 56 58 59 61 63 65 67 68 70 72 74 76 77 79 81 83 85 86 88 90 92 94 95 97 99 101 103 104 106 108 110 111 113 115 117 119 120 122 124 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 18 20 22 24 26 28 29 31 33 35 37 39 40 42 44 46 48 50 51 53 55 57 59 61 62 64 66 68 70 72 73 75 77 79 81 8)3 84 86 88 90 92 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 106 108 110 112 114 116 117 119 121 123 125 127 105 108 110 113 116 118 121 123 126 128 107 109 112 115 117 120 122 125 128 130 108 111 114 116 119 122 124 127 129 132 110 113 115 118 121 123 126 129 131 134 111 114 117 119 122 125 128 130 133 136 113 116 118 121 124 127 129 132 135 138 114 117 120 123 126 128 131 134 137 139 116 119 122 124 127 130 133 136 138 141 117 120 123 126 129 132 135 137 140 143 119 122 125 128 130 133 136 139 142 145 13 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 24 25 26 28 29 30 32 33 34 36 37 38 13 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 35 36 37 14 15 16 18 19 20 22 23 24 26 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 37 38e 39 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 52 58 56 58 60 62 64 66 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 140 143 188 186 188 2 4 6 8 10 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 124 126 128 130 132 134 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 136 139 141 144 146 138 141 143 146 149 140 143 145 148 151 142 145 147 150 153 144 147 149 152 155 146 149 151 154 157 148 151 153 156 159 150 153 155 158 161 152 155 157 160 163 154 157 159 162 165 36 37 39 40 41 42 43 44 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 86 39 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 40 41 42 44 45 46 47 48 41 42 44 4 5 46 47 49 50 42 41 4 45 46 48 49 50 51 44 45 46 48 49 50 52 53 45 46 48 49 50 52 53 54 46 47 49 50 52 53 54 56 47 49 50 52 53 54 56 57 48 50 51 53 54 56 57 59 50 51 53 54 56 57 59 60 51 52 54 55 57 59 60 62 52 54 55 57 58 60 62 63 53 55 57 58 60 61 63 65 54 56 58 59 61 63 64 66 56 57 59 61 62 64 66 68 57 59 60 62 64 66 67 69 58 60 62 63 65 67 69 70 59 61 63 65 67 68 70 72 61 62 64 66 68 70 72 73 62 64 66 67 69 71 73 75 63 65 67 69 71 73 74 76 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 69 71 73 75 77 79 82 84 70 72 75 77 79 81 83 85 71 74 76 78 80 82 84 87 73 75 77 79 81 84 86 88 74 76 78 81 83 85 87 90 75 77 80 82 84 86 89 91 76 79 81 83 86 88 90 92 78 80 82 85 87 89 92 94 79 81 83 86 88 91 93 95 80 82 85 87 90 92 94 97 81 84 86 89 91 93 96 98 82 85 87 90 92 95 97 100 84 86 89 91 94 96 99 101 85 87 90 92 95 98 100 103 86 89 91 94 96 99 102 104 87 90 92 95 98 100 103 106 88 91 94 96 99 102 104 107 90 92 95 98 100 103 106 109 91 94 96 99 102 105 107 110 92 95 98 100 103 106 109 112 93 96 99 102 105 107 110 113 94 97 100 103 106 109 112 115 96 99 101 104 107 110 113 116 97 100 103 106 109 112 115 117 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 38 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127 129 132 134 136 138 140 142 2 4 6 8 10 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 36 38 40 42 48 46 48 50 52 54 56 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 103 105 107 109 111 113t 115 117 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 S-16 2 4 6 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 2 4 6 9 11 13 15 17 19 22 24 26 28 30 32 35 37 39 41 43 45 48 50 52 54 56 58 61 63 65 67 69 71 74 76 78 80 82 84 87 89 91 93 95 97 100 102 104 106 108 110 113 115 117 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 134 136 139 141 143 145 147 149 152 154 156 158 160 162 165 167 169 171 173 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 18 20 22 24 26 29 31 33 35 37 40 42 44 46 48 51 53 55 57 59 62 64 66 68 70 73 75 77 79 81 84 86 88 90 92 95 97 99 101 103 106 108 110 112 115 117 119 121 123 126 128 130 132 134 137 139 141 143 145 148 150 152 154 156 159 161 163 165 167 170 172 174 176 120 123 126 129 132 135 138 141 144 147 j 150 153 156 159 161 164 167 83 84 86 84 86 88 86 88 90 88 89 91 89 91 93 91 93 95 92 95 97 94 96 98 96 98 100 97 100 102 I L I Table 6 S-?17 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction (Hu-H1)(0.00367t'), where t'= mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 00 C.) the values are to be (added ) (below 00 C.) (subtracted). Hu-H1 t' OC. (meters) 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 o 690o70� 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 o10.... 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 20.... 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 30.... 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 40.... 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 t11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 50.... 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 60.... 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 70.... 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 21 80.... 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 90.... 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 100.... 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 28 29 29 29 110.... 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 28 28 29 29 29 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 130.... 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 35 35 130.... 29 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 38 140.... 31 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 150.... 34 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 43 44 160.... 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 42 43 43 41 45 45 46 46 47 170.... 38 39 39 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 44 45 46 46 47 47 48 49 49 50 180.... 40 41 42 42 43 44 44 4 5 46 46 47 48 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 5 3 190.... 43 43 44 45 45 46 47 47 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 54 54 55 56 200.... 45 46 46 47 48 18 49 50 51 51 52 53 54 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 210.... 47 48 49 49 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 55 56 57 58 59 59 60 61 62 220.... 49 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 65 230.... 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 240.... 54 55 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 70 250.... 56 57 58 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 260.... 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 270.... 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 280.... 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 290.... 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 300.... 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 88 310.... 69 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 88 89 90 91 320.... 72 73 74 75 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 85 86 87 88 89 90 92 93 94 330.... 74 75 76 78 79 80 81 82 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 92 93 94 96 97 340.... 76 77 79 80 81 82 84 85 86 87 89 90 91 92 94 95 96 97 99 100 350.... 78 80 81 82 83 85 86 87 89 90 91 92 94 95 96 98 99 100 101 103 360.... 81 82 83 85 86 87 89 90 91 92 94 95 96 98 99 100 102 103 104 106 370.... 83 84 86 87 88 90 91 92 94 95 96 98 99 100 102 103 105 106 107 109 380.... 85 86 88 89 91 92 93 95 96 98 99 100 102 103 105 106 107 109 110 112 390.... 87 89 90 92 93 94 96 97 99 100 102 103 104 106 107 109 110 112 113 115 400.... 90 91 92 94 95 97 98 100 101 103 104 106 107 109 110 112 113 115 116 117 410.... 92 93 95 96 98 99 101 102 104 105 107 108 110 111 113 114 116 117 119 120 420.... 94 96 97 99 100 102 103 105 106 108 109 111 113 114 116 117 119 120 122 123 430.... 96 98 99 101 103 104 106 107 109 110 112 114 115 117 118 120 122 123 125 126 440.... 99 100 102 103 105 107 108 110 111 113 115 116 118 119 121 123 124 126 128 129 450.... 101 102 104 106 107 109 111 112 114 116 117 119 121 122 124 126 127 129 130 132 460.... 103 105 106 108 110 111 113 115 116 118 120 122 123 125 127 128 130 132 133 135 470.... 105 107 109 110 112 114 116 117 119 121 122 124 126 128 129 131 133 135 136 138 480.... 107 109 111 113 115 116 118 120 122 123 125 127 129 130 132 134 136 137 139 141 490.... 110 111 113 115 117 119 120 122 124 126 128 129 131 133 135 137 138 140 142 144 500.... 112 114 116 117 119 121 123 125 127 128 130 132 134 136 138 139 141 143 145 147 510.... 114 116 118 120 122 124 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 140 142 114 146 148 150 520.... 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 530.... 119 121 123 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 540.... 121 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 159 550.... 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 159 161 560.... 125 127 129 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 570.... 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 149 15: 153 155 157 159 161 163 165 167 580.... 130 132 134 136 138 140 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 590.... 132 134 136 139 141 143 145 147 149 152 154 156 158 160 162 165 167 169 171 173 600.... 134 137 139 141 143 145 148 150 152 154 156 159 161 163 165 167 170 172 174 176 610.... 137 139 141 143 146 148 150 152 154 157 159 161 163 166 1'8 170 172 175 177 179 620.... 139 141 143 146 148 150 152 155 157 159 162 164 166 168 171 173 175 177 180 182 630.... 141 143 146 148 150 153 155 157 160 162 164 166 169 171 173 176 178 180 183 185 640 .... 111 116 148 150 153 155 157 160 162 164 167 169 171 174 176 179 181 183 186 188 650.... 116 118 150 153 155 157 160 162 165 167 169 172 174 177 179 181 184 186 188 191 660.... 148 150 153 155 157 160 162 165 167 170 172 17 177 179 182 184 187 189 191 194 670.... 150 152 155 157 160 162 165 167 170 172 175 177 179 182 184 187 189 192 194 197 680.... 152 155 157 160 162 165 167 170 172 175 177 180 182 185 187 190 192 195 197 200 690.... 154 157 160 162 165 167 170 172 175 177 180 182 185 187 190 192 195 198 200 203 700.... 157 159 162 164 167 170 172 175 177 180 182 185 188 190 193 195 198 200 203 206 710.... 159 162 161 167 169 172 175 177 180 182 185 188 190 193 195 198 201 203 206 208 720.... 161 16 166 169 172 174 177 180 182 185 188 190 193 196 198 201 203 206 209 211 730.... 163 166 169 171 174 177 179 182 185 188 190 193 196 198 201 204 206 209 212 21 740.... 166 168 171 174 177 179 182 185 187 190 193 196 198 201 204 206 209 212 215 217 750.... 168 171 173 176 179 182 181 187 190 193 195 198 201 20 206 209 212 215 217 220 760.... 170 173 176 179 181 18 187 190 192 195 198 201 20 206 209 212 215 218 220 223 770.... 172 175 178 181 184 187 189 192 195 198 201 203 206 209 212 215 210 220 223 226 780.... 175 177 180 183 186 189 192 195 198 200 203 206 209 212 215 218 220 223 226 229 790.... 177 180 183 186 188 191 191 197 200 203 201 209 212 215 217 220 223 226 229 232 800.... 179 182 185 188 191 194 197 200 203 206 208 211 214 217 220 223 226 229 232 235 613388 0 - 45 - 8 Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction = (Hu-H1) (0.00367t'), where t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 0 C.) the values are to be ( acted). (below 0 C.) (subtracted). oHU-H1 t' �oC1o 1 I+o0 .. .. . (meters) to o 3o s o e670 go 9 100 110 12 o 1 15016o 170 18o i19o 20 21 220 23 24o 250o 26o 270o 28o 290 30o 810..... 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 6 59 62 65 68 71 74 77 80 8 86 89 820..... 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 3 36 39 42 45 8 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 830..... 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 3 7 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 840..... 3 6 9 12 15 18 22 25 28 3It 3 7 80 3 46 49 52 55 59 62 65 68 71 74 77 80 83 86 89 92 850..... 3 6 9 12 16 19 22 25 28 3 t 3 397 t1 44 47 50 53 56 59 62 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 94 860..... 3 6 9 13 16 19 22 25 28 32 35 38 1 44 47 50 54 57 60 69 66 69 73 76 79 82 85 88 92 95 870..... 3 6 10 13 16 19 22 26 29 32 35 38 42 45 48 51 54 57 61 64 67 70 73 77 80 83 86 89 93 96 880..... 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29 32 36 39 42 45 48 52 55 58 61 65 68 71 74 78 t 81 4 87 90 94 97 890..... 3 7 10 13 16 20 29 26 29 3 36 39 42 6 49 52 56 59 62 65 69 72 75 78 82 85 88 91 95 98 900..... 3 7 o10 13 17 20 23 26 30 33 936 0 43 46 50 53 56 59 63 66 69 73 76 79 83 86 89 92 96 99 910..... ? 7 t o1 17 20 23 27 30 33 37 40 43 7 50 53 57 60 63 67 70 73 77 80 83 87 90 94 97 100 920..... 3 7 10 18 17 20 24 27 30 94 37 1 44 47 51 54 57 61 64 68 71 74 78 81 8 88 91 95 98 101 930..... 3 7 10 14 17 20 24 27 1 84 38 1 44 48 51 55 58 61 65 68 72 75 79 82 85 89 92 96 99 102 940..... 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31 394 38 41 45 48 52 55 59 62 66 69 72 76 79 83 86 90 93 97 100 103 950..... 3 7 10 i1 17 21 24 28 t 35 38 42 45 89 52 56 59 63 66 70 7) 77 80 84 87 91 94 98 101O 105 960..... 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 9 42 46 49 53 56 60 63 67 70 74 78 81 85 88 92 95 99 102 106 970..... 4 7 it 1 18 21 25 28 32 36 39 3 46 50 53 57 61 64 68 71 75 78 82 85 89 93 96 100 03 107 980..... 4 7 it 1 18 22 25 29 2 386 40 43 47 50 54 58 61 65 68 72 76 79 83 86 90 94 97 101104 108 990..... 4 7 i t f5 18 22 25 29 33 36 40 44 47 51 54 58 62 65 69 73 76 80 84 87 91 94 98 102 105 109 1000..... 4 7 it 15 18 22 26 29 337 40 44 48 51 55 59 62 66 70 73 77 81 84 88 92 95 99 10 106 110 1010..... 4 7 it 15 19 22 26 30 $3 37 1 48 52 56 59 63 67 70 74 78 82 85 89 93 96 100 104 107 til 1020..... 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 34 37 41 45 49 52 56 60 64 67 71 75 79 82 86 90 . 97 101 105 109 112 1030..... 4 8 it 15 19 23 26 30 3 t 38 42 45 49 53 57 60 64 68 72 76 79 83 87 91 ' 98 102 106 110 113 1080..... 4 8 it 15 19 29 27 3194 38 42 46 50 59 57 61 65 69 79 76 80 84 88 92 96 99 103 107 t111 115 1050..... 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 3 135 39 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 69 73 77 81 85 89 92 96 100 10 108 112 116 1060..... 8 8 12 16 19 23 27 1 35S 39 843 47 51 4 58 62 66 70 78 78 82 86 89 93 97 101 105 109 113 117 1070..... 4 8 12 16 20 24 27 S31 35 39 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 o110 1i 11t8 1080..... 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 8 8 52 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99 103 107 i l115 119 1090..... 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120 1100..... 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93 97 101 105 109 113 117 121 1110..... 4 8 12 16 224 29 3337 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 79 77 81 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 11 118 122 1120..... 4 8 12 16 21 25 29 3337 41 45 49 53 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 95 99 103 07 111it15 t119 123 1130..... 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 46 50 54 58 62 66 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 100 14 108 112 116 120 124 1140..... 4 8 13 17 21 25 29 33 38 42 46 50 54 59 63 67 71 75 79 84 88 92 96 100 105 109 113t117 121 126 1150..... 4 8 19 17 21 25 30 34 38 42 46 51 55 59 63 68 72 76 80 84 89 93 97 101 106 O110 114 118 122 127 1160..... 4 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 38 43 47 51 55 60 64 68 72 77 81 85 89 94 98 102 106 111 115 119 123 128 1170..... 4 9 13 17 21 26 30 38 39 43 47 52 86 60 64 69 79 77 82 86 90 94 99 103 107 112 t16 120 125 129 1180..... 4 9 13 17 22 26 30 35 39 43 48 52 56 61 65 69 78 78 82 87 91 95 100 104 108 113 t117 121 126 130 1190..... 4 9 13 17 22 26 31 35 8 39 44 48 52 57 61 66 70 74 79 83 87 92 96 100 105 109 i114 18 122 127 t131t 1200..... 4 9 13 18 22 26 31 35 40 44 48 S3 57 62 66 70 75 79 84 88 92 97 101 106 110 115 119 123 128 1932 1210..... 4 9 13 18 22 27 91 6 40 44 49 59 58 62 67 71 75 80 84 89 93 98 102 107 111 115 120 124 129 133 1220..... 4 9 13 18 22 27 It 36 40 45 49 54 58 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 94 99 103 107 112 116 121125 130 94 1230..... 5 9 14 18 23 27 32 36 41 45 50 54 59 63 68 72 77 81 86 90 95 99 104 108 1 13 117 122 126 131135 1240..... 5 9 14 18 23 27 32 36 81 46 50 55 59 64 68 73 77 82 86 91 96 100 105 109 11 11t8 123 127 192 137 1250..... 5 9 14 18 23 28 32 37 41 46 50 55 60 64 69 7 78 83 87 92 96 101 106 110 115 19 124 128 133 138 1260..... 5 9 18 18 23 28 32 37 42 46 51 55 60 65 69 74 79 83 88 92 97 102 106 111 116 120 125 129 194 139 1270..... 5 9 14 19 23 28 33 37 42 47 51 56 61 65 70 75 79 84 89 93 98 103 107 112 117 121 126 131 135 140 1280..... 5 9 14 19 23 28 33 38 42 47 52 56 61 66 70 75 80 85 89 94 99 103 108 11 117 122 127 132 16 141 1290..... 5 9 14 19 24 28 333 8 43 47 52 57 62 66 71 76 80 85 90 95 99 104 109 t11 118 123 128 133 17 142 1900..... 5 10 i1 19 24 29 33 38 43 48 52 57 62 67 72 76 81 86 91 95 100 105 110 115 119 124 129 134 138 143 1310..... 5 10 14 19 24 29 438 43 48 53 58 63 67 72 77 82 87 91 96 101 106 111 115 120 125 130 135 139 144 1320..... 5 10 15 19 24 29 3 39 448 8 53 58 63 68 73 78 82 87 92 97 102 107111 i16 121 126 131 136 140 145 1330..... 5 10 15 20 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 63 68 73 78 83 88 93 98 103 107 112 117 122 127 132 137 142 186 1340..... 5 10 15 20 25 s30 4 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89 93 98 103 108 11 i18 123 128 13 138 183 148 1350..... 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89 94 99 104 109 114 119 124 129 134 139 144 149 1360..... 5 10 15 20 25 0 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 t100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 1370..... 5 10I 15 2025 830 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 91 96 O11106 Lit116 121 126 13 n1361 t 146 151 1980..... 5 o10 15 20 25 30 35 81 46 St 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 101 106 ti 11t6 122 127 132 137 182 187 152 1390..... 5 10 15 20 26 31 96 41 86 51 56 61 66 71 77 82 87 92 97 102 107 112 117 122 128 133 138 143 188 153 1400...., 5 to 15 21 26 91 96 41 46 51 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 92 98 103 108 113 118 123 128 13 139 1i 189 154 1410..... 5 10 16 21 26 31 3 6 41 87 52 57 62 67 72 78 83 88 93 98 103 109 114 119 124 129 135 140 145 150 155 1420..... 5 10 16 21 26 31 96 42 47 82 57 63 68 73 78 83 89 94 99 104 109 t115 120 125 130 135 141 146 151 186 1490..... 5 t10 16 21 26 31 97 42 47 52 58 69 68 73 79 84 89 94 100 105 110 115 121 126 131 136 112 147 152 157 140..... 5 it 16 21 26 32 37 42 48 53 58 63 69 74 79 88 90 95 100 106 111 116 122 127 132 137 143 i18 153 189 1850..... 1t 16 21 27 32 37 83 88 53 59 68 69 75 80 85 90 96 101 106 112 117 122 128 i3 138 1at 189 158 160 1860..... 5 it 16 21 27 32 38 4) 88 58 59 68 70 75 80 86 91 96 102 107 113 118 123 129 138 139 15 150 155 161 1870..... 5 i 16 22 27 32 38 83 89 58 59 65 70 76 81 86 92 97 103 108 113 119 128 129 135 180 186 151 156 162 1880..... 1i 16 22 27 33 38 83 89 58 60 65 71 76 81 87 92 98 103 109 It 119 125 130 136 181 187 152 158 163 1890..... 5 i 16 22 27 33 38 88 89 55 60 66 71 77 82 87 93 98 108- 109 115 120 126 131 137 182 188 153 159 168 1500..... 6 it 17 22 28 33 39 84 50 55 61 66 72 77 83 88 98 99 105 110 it6 121 127 132 138 183 189 158 160 165 1510..... 6 11 17 22 28 33 39 88 50 55 61 67 72 78 83 89 98 100 105 tl1 116 122 127 i3 139 188 150 155 161 166 1520..... 6 it 17 22 28 33 39 85 50 56 61 67 7) 78 88 89 95 100 106 112 117 123 128 138 19 185 151 156 162 167 1530..... 6 11 17 22 28 38 39 85 51 56 62 67 73 79 84 90 95 101 107 112 118 128 129 135 180 186 152 157 163 168 1580..... 6 it 17 23 28 38 80 85 51 57 62 68 73 79 85 90 96 102 107 113 119 128 130 136 181 187 153 158 168 170 1550..... 6 it 17 23 28 3t 80 86 51 57 63 68 78 80 85 91 97 102 108 i18 119 125 13t 137 182 188 158 159 165 171 1560..... 6 1t 17 23 29 38 80 86 52 57 63 69 78 80 86 92 97 103 109 115 120 126 132 137 183 189 155 160 166 172 1570..... 6 12 17 23 29 35 80 86 52 58 63 69 75 81 86 92 98 108 109 115 121 127 133 198 1a 150 156 161 167 173 1580..... 6 12 17 23 29 35 81 86 52 58 68 70 75 81 87 93 99 108 110 116 122 128 133 139 185 151 157 162 168 178 1590..... 6 12 18 23 29 35 81 17 53 58 64 70 76 82 88 93 99 105 111 117 123 128 138 180 186 152 158 163 169 175 I5 17 176 - S-18 1 12 t2 05 41 47 13 t9 16 17 17 I avvv.... 1600..... 12 18 23 29 35 41 47 53 591 65 70 76 82 88 94C 100 106 112 117 Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction = (Hu-H1) (0.00367t'), where t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 00 C.) the values are to be ( a ted ). (below 0 C.) (subtracted). Nu-NI t o�C. (meters)3o ! 2o o o o 3 o o 7�38o o 4o o2o o o4 O46O 47O o� ,o 50o Sto 52o o 5 o 55o 56o 57o 5o 59o o60o (meter9 810..... 820..... 830..... 840..... 850.... 860..... 870..... 880..... 890..... 900*... 910.... 920..... 930..... 940..... 950.... 960..... 970..... 980..... 990.... 1000..... 1010..... 1020..... 1030..... 101.0..... 1050..... 1060..... 1070..... 1080..... 1090..... 1100..... 1110..... 1120..... 1130..... 1140..... 1150..... 11it60..... 1170..... 1180..... 1190..... 1200..... 1210..... 12206..... 1230..... 1240..... 1250..... 1260..... 1270..... 1280..... 1290..... 1300..... 1310..... 1320..... 133 0..... 1340..... 1350..... 1360..... 1370.... 1380..... 1390..... 1400..... 1410..... 1420..... 1830..... 1840...... 1450..... 1460..... 1470..... 1*80..... 1490..... 1500.... 1510..... 1520..... 1530..... 1540..... 1550..... 1560..... 1570..... 1580..... 1590..... 92 95 98 101 104 107 110 113 116 11t9 93 96 99 102 105 108 lit 11t 11it7 120 94 97 101 10* 107 110 t113 t116 11it9 122 96 99 102 105 108 til tit t117 120 123 97 100 103 106 109 112 t115 119 122 125 98 101 104 107 110 11it ?117 120 123 126 99 102 105 109 112 i15 118 121 125 128 100 103 107 110 113 11it6 119 123 126 129 101 105 108 111 11i* 118 121 124 127 131 102 106 109 112 116 119 122 126 129 132 104 107 110 11i 117 120 124 127 130 138 105 108 111 115 118 122 125 128 132 135 106 109 113 116 119 123 126 130 133 137 107 110 it* 117 121 124 128 131 135 138 108 ti2 115 119 122 126 129 132 136 139 109 113 116 120 123 127 130 134 137 141 110 114 117 121 125 128 132 135 139 142 111 115 119 122 126 129 133 137 140 184 113 116 120 124 127 131 13 13 8 142 185 114 117 121 125 128 132 136 139 143 147 115 119 122 126 130 133 137 141t 145 148 116 120 124 127 131 135 139 142 1*6 150 117 121 125 129 132 136 140 184 17 151 118 122 126 130 13* 137 141 185 149 153 119 123 127 131 135 139 143 146 150 154 121 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 122 126 130 134 13t7 141 145 149 153 157 123 127 131 135 139 143 147 151 155 159 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 160 125 129 133 137 141 145 149 153 157 161 126 130 13 139 143 147 151 155 159 163 127 132 136 1*0 18* 148 152 156 160 164 129 133 137 141 145 149 153 158 162 166 130 134 138 142 146 151 155 159 163 167 131 135 139 143 18 152 156 160 165 169 132 136 140 185 1*9 153 158 162 166 170 133 137 142 146 150 155 159 163 167 172 134 139 1*3 147 152 156 160 165 169 173 135 140 144 1*8 153 157 162 166 170 175 137 141 145 150 154 159 163 167 172 176 138 142 147 151 155 160 164 169 173 178 139 143 148 152 157 161 166 170 175 179 140 144 149 153 158 163 167 172 176 181 141 146 150 155 159 164 168 173 177 182 142 147 151 156 161 165 170 174 179 184 143 18 153 157 162 166 171 176 180 185 184 149 154 158 163 168 172 177 182 186 146 150 155 160 164 169 174 179 183 188 147 151 156 161 166 170 175 180 185 189 148 153 157 162 167 172 177 181 186 191 149 154 159 163 168 173 178 183 188 192 150 155 160 165 170 174 179 184 189 194 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 185 190 195 152 157 162 167 172 177 182 187 192 197 154 159 163 168 173 178 183 188 193 198 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 191 196 201 157 162 167 172 177 182 187 192 198 203 158 163 168 173 179 184 189 194 199 204 159 164 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 206 160 166 171 176 181 186 191 197 202 207 162 167 172 177 182 188 193 198 203 208 163 168 173 178 18* 189 194 199 205 210 164 169 174 180 185 190 196 201 206 211 165 170 176 181 186 192 197 202 208 213 166 171 177 182 188 193 198 204 209 214 167 173 178 183 189 194 200 205 210 216 168 174 179 185 190 196 201 206 212 217 170 175 180 186 191 197 202 208 213 219 171 176 182 187 193 198 204 209 215 220 172 177 183 188 194 200 205 21i 216 222 173 179 184 190 195 201 206 212 218 223 174 180 185 191 197 202 208 21 219 225 175 181 187 192 198 203 209 215 220 226 176 182 188 193 199 205 210 216 222 228 177 18) 189 195 200 206 212 218 223 229 179 184 190 196 202 207 21) 219 225 290 180 186 191 197 203 209 215 220 226 232 181 187 193 198 204 210 216 222 228 239 122 125 128 131 134 137 123 126 129 132 135 138 125 128 131 13* 137 140 126 129 133 136 139 1*2 128 131 13 137 140 1*3 129 133 136 139 1*2 145 131 193 137 140 184 147 132 136 139 142 145 1*9 194 137 1*0 184 147 150 135 199 142 1*5 149 152 137 140 is 147 150 15* 138 1*2 145 1*9 152 155 140 143 147 150 15* 157 141 15 18 152 155 159 1*3 16 150 153 157 160 144 184 151 155 159 162 146 150 153 157 160 164 147 151 155 158 162 165 149 153 156 160 163 167 150 154 158 161 168 169 152 156 159 163 167 171 153 157 161 165 168 172 155 159 163 166 170 174 156 160 164 168 172 176 158 162 166 170 173 177 159 163 167 171 175 179 161 165 169 173 177 181 163 166 170 174 178 182 16* 168 172 176 180 184 166 170 174 178 182 186 167 171 175 179 183 187 169 173 177 181 185 189 170 174 178 182 187 191 172 176 180 184 188 192 173 177 181 186 190 194 175 179 183 187 192 196 176 180 185 189 193 198 178 182 186 191 195 199 179 183 188 192 197 201 181 185 189 194 198 203 182 187 191 195 200 204 184 188 193 197 201 206 185 190 194 199 203 208 187 191 196 200 205 209 188 193 197 202 206 211 190 194 199 203 208 213 191 196 200 205 210 214 193 197 202 207 211 216 194 199 204 208 219 218 196 200 205 210 215 219 197 202 207 212 216 221 199 203 208 213 218 223 200 205 210 215 220 225 202 207 211 216 221 226 203 208 213 218 223 228 205 210 215 220 225 230 206 211 216 221 226 231 208 213 218 223 228 233 209 214 219 224 230 235 211 216 221 226 231 296 212 217 223 228 233 238 214 219 224 229 235 240 215 220 226 231 236 241 217 222 227 233 238 243 218 224 229 234 239 245 220 225 230 236 241 246 221 227 232 237 243 28 223 228 234 239 244 250 224 230 235 241 246 252 226 231 237 242 248 253 227 233 238 244 249 255 229 234 240 245 251 257 230 236 241 247 253 258 232 237 243 249 254 260 233 239 245 250 256 262 235 240 2*6 252 258 263 236 2*2 248 25* 259 265 238 2*4 2*9 255 261 267 239 285 251 257 263 268 140 141 117 185 187 188 150 152 15* 155 157 159 160 162 16* 166 167 169 171 172 17* 176 178 179 181 183 185 186 188 190 191 193 195 197 198 200 202 204 205 207 209 210 212 214 216 217 219 221 223 224 226 228 229 231 233 235 236 238 240 2*1 243 245 247 2*8 250 252 254 255 257 259 260 262 264 266 267 269 271 273 27* 14 184 146 188 150 151 153 155 157 159 160 162 164 166 167 169 171 173 174 176 178 180 181 183 185 187 188 190 192 194 196 197 199 201 203 204 206 208 210 211 213 215 217 218 220 222 224 225 227 229 231 233 238 296 28 240 241 243 245 247 2485 250 252 254 255 257 259 261 262 264 266 268 270 271 273 275 277 278 280 186 117 1*9 151 153 155 156 158 160 162 164 165 167 169 171 173 174 176 178 180 182 183 185 187 189 191 192 194 196 198 200 201 2093 205 207 209 210 212 21* 216 218 219 221 223 225 227 228 230 232 23* 236 237 239 241 243 245 246 248 250 252 254 255 257 259 261 263 264 266 268 270 272 273 275 277 279 281 282 28* 286 189 150ISO 152 154 156 158 160 161 163 165 167 169 171 172 174 176 178 180 182 188 185 187 189 191 193 195 196 198 200 202 204 206 207 209 211 213 215 217 218 220 222 224 226 228 229 231 233 235 237 29 240 242 28 246 248 250 251 253 255 257 259 261 262 268 266 268 270 272 273 275 277 279 281 283 284 286 288 290 292 152 153 155 157 159 161 163 165 167 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 182 183 185 187 189 191 193 195 197 198 200 202 204 206 208 210 212 213 215 217 219 22t1 223 225 226 228 230 232 2394 236 238 240 241 243 245 247 249 251 253 255 256 258 260 262 264 266 268 270 271 273 275 277 279 281 283 284 286 288 290 292 29* 296 298 155 158 156 159 158 161 160 163 162 165 164 167 166 169 168 171 170 173 172 175 174 177 176 179 177 181 179 183 181 185 183 187 185 189 187 191 189 193 191 195 193 196 195 198 197 200 198 202 200 204 202 206 204 208 206 210 208 212 210 214 212 216 214 218 216 220 218 222 219 224 221 226 223 228 225 230 227 231 229 233 231 235 233 237 235 239 237 241 239 243 240 245 242 247 244 249 246 251 248 253 250 255 252 257 254 259 256 261 258 263 260 265 261 266 263 268 265 270 267 272 269 274 271 276 273 278 275 280 277 282 279 284 281 286 282 288 284 290 286 292 288 294 290 296 292 298 294 300 296 301 298 303 300 305 302 307 303 309 161 163 163 166 164 168 166 170 168 172 170 174 t12 176 174 178 176 180 178 182 180 184 182 186 184 188 186 190 188 192 190 194 192 196 194 198 196 200 198 202 200 204 202 206 204 208 206 210 208 212 210 21* 212 216 21 218 216 220 218 222 220 224 222 226 224 228 226 230 228 232 230 2 4 232 236 234 238 236 240 238 212 2*0 244 242 2856 244 248 246 250 248 252 250 254 252 256 254 258 256 260 258 262 260 264 262 266 264 268 266 270 268 272 270 275 272 277 273 279 275 281 277 283 279 285 281 287 283 289 285 291 287 293 289 295 291 297 293 299 295 301 297 303 299 305 301 307 303 309 305 311t 307 313 309 3t5 3it 317 3t3 3t9 3t5 321 166 169 171 173 175 177 179 181i 183 185 187 189 191 193 195 197 199 201 203 206 208 210 212 214 216 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 23* 236 238 240 2493 245 2*7 2*9 251 253 255 257 259 261 263 265 267 269 271 273 275 277 280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294 296 298 300 302 304 306 308 310 312 318 317 319 321 323 325 327 169 172 174 176 178 180 182 18* 186 188 190 192 195 197 199 201 200 205 207 209 211 213 215 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 234 236 238 2*1 243 245 2*7 2*9 251 253 255 257 259 261 26* 266 268 270 272 27* 276 278 280 282 284 287 289 291 293 295 297 299 301 303 305 308 310 312 31* 316 318 320 322 24 326 328 331 3S3 S-19 172 175 175 178 177 18t63 179 182 181 18* 183 186 185 188 187 191 189 193 192 195 194 197 196 199 198 201 200 20* 202 206 204 208 206 210 209 212 211 214 213 217 215 219 217 221 219 223 221 225 224 227 226 230 228 232 230 234 232 236 234 238 236 240 238 243 241 245 243 247 245 249 247 251 249 253 251 256 253 258 255 260 258 262 260 264 262 266 264 268 266 271 268 273 276 275 272 277 275 279 277 281 279 284 281 K26 283 288 285 290 287 292 289 294 292 297 294 299 296 301 298 303 300 305. 302 307 304 310 307 312 309 314 3t1 316 313 318 315 320 317 323 319 325 321 327 32* 329 326 331t 328 333 330 336 332 338 33* 3*0 336 3*2 338 3*8 160 . 8218 9*0020 1121 23 2 25 *127 S225 6*27 26 8 25 9*29 8511 31 2332 -53* 36 5 178 181 183 185 187 189 192 194 196 198 200 203 205 207 209 2tt11 214 216 218 220 222 225 227 229 231 233 236 238 240 242 244 247 249 251 253 255 258 260 262 264 266 269 271 273 275 277 280 282 284 286 288 291 293 295 297 299 302 304 306 308 3o ..s M 315 317 319 321 324 326 328 330 339 395 337 339 341 38* 3*6 3*8 350 , 199 go Ii 17 12 39 35 31 46 15 t600..... 102 188 198 200 206 211 217 223 229 233 1 281 247 252 259 6 270 276 292 288 294 Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction = (Hu-Hi) (0.00367t'), where t' = mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (above 0 C.) the values are to be (added ) (below 00 C.) (subtracted). Hu^ 1 t. oC. _ees 610 620 63o 6o 65o 660 67o 68o 690 70o 7to 72o 7o 75o 760 770 780 790 80o (metrs t. �C730 810..... 820..... 830..... 840..... 850..... 860..... 870..... 880..... 890..... 900..... 910..... 920..... 930..... 940..... 950..... 960..... 970..... 980..... 990..... 1000..... 1010..... 1020..... 1030..... 1040..... 1050..... 1060..... 1070..... 1080..... 1090..... 1100..... 1110..... 1120..... 1130..... 110..... 1150..... 1160..... 1170..... 1180.... 1190..... 1200..... 1210.1.0. 1220..... 1230..... 1240..... 1250..... 1260..... 1270..... 1280..... 1290..... 1300..... 1310..... 1320..... 1930..... 1340..... 1350..... 1360..... 1370..... 1380..... 1390..... 1400..... 1810..... 1420..... 1430..... 1440..... 1450..... 1460..... 1470..... 1480..... 1x90..... 1500..... 1510..... 1520..... 1530..... 1580..... 1550..... 1560..... 1570..... 1580..... 1590..... 1600..... 181 184 187 190 193 196 184 187 190 193 196 199 186 189 192 195 198 201 188 191 194 197 200 203 190 193 197 200 203 206 193 196 199 202 205 208 195 198 201 204 208 211 197 200 203 207 210 213 199 203 206 209 212 216 201 205 208 211 215 218 204 207 210 214 217 220 206 209 213 216 219 223 208 212 215 218 222 225 210 218 217 221 224 228 213 216 220 223 227 230 215 218 222 225 229 233 217 221 224 228 231 235 219 223 227 230 234 237 222 225 229 233 236 240 224 228 231 235 239 242 226 230 234 237 241 245 228 232 236 240 243 247 231 234 238 242 246 249 233 237 240 244 248 252 235 239 243 247 250 254 237 241 245 249 253 257 240 243 247 251 255 259 242 246 250 254 258 262 244 248 252 256 260 264 246 250 254 258 262 266 248 253 257 261 265 269 251 255 259 263 267 271 253 257 261 265 270 274 255 259 264 268 272 276 257 262 266 270 274 279 260 264 268 272 277 281 262 266 271 275 279 283 264 268 273 277 281 286 266 271 275 280 284 288 269 273 277 282 286 291 271 275 280 284 289 293 273 278 282 287 291 296 275 280 284 289 293 298 278 282 287 291 296 300 280 284 289 294 298 303 282 287 291 296 301 305 284 289 294 298 303 300 287 291 296 301 305 310 289 294 298 303 308 312 291 296 301 305 310 315 293 298 303 308 313) 317 296 300 305 310 315 320 298 303 308 312 317 322 300 305 310 315 320 325 302 307 3t2 317 322 327 304 309 314 3t9 3284 329 307 312 317 322 327 332 309 t314 319 324 29 334 311 316 321 326 332 337 313 319 324 329 334 339 316 321 326 331 336 342 318 323 328 334 339 34 320 325 331 336 341 346 322 328 33$3 338 344 349 325 330 335 341 346 351 327 332 338 343 348 354 329 334 340 3405 351 356 331 337 342 348 353 358 334 339 345 350 355 361 336 341 347 352 358 363 338 346 349 355 3 60 366 340 346 351 357 363 368 343 348 354 359 65 371 345 350 356 362 367 373 347 353 358 364 370 375 349 355 361 366 372 378 351 357 363 369 375 380 354 360 365 371 377 383 356 3562 368 373 379 385 358 364 370 376 302 388 202 205 208 199 202 204 207 209 211 214 216 219 221 224 226 229 231 234 236 239 241 243 246 248 251 253 256 258 261 263 266 268 270 273 275 278 280 283 285 288 290 293 295 298 300 302 305 307 310 312 315 317 320 322 325 327 329 332 334 337 339 342 344 347 349 352 354 357 359 361 364 366 369 371 374 376 379 381 384 386 389 391 393 205 207 210 212 215 217 220 222 225 227 230 232 235 297 240 242 245 247 250 252 255 257 260 262 265 267 270 272 275 277 280 282 286 287 289 292 294 297 209 302 SO# 304 307 309 312 314 317 319 322 324 5327 329 332 334 SS$ 337 339 342 344 347 349 352 354 357 359 362 364 367 369 372 374 377 379 382 364 387 389 392 394 397 399 208 210 213 215 218 220 223 225 228 230 233 236 238 241 243 246 248 251 253 256 258 261 263 266 268 271 273 276 279 281 284 286 289 291 294 296 299 301 304 906 309 311 314 317 319 322 324 327 329 332 334 337 339 342 344 347 349 352 355 357 360 362 365 367 370 372 375 377 380 382 385 387 390 393 395 398 400 403 405 211 213) 216 218 221 224 226 229 231 234 236 239 241 244 247 249 252 254 257 259 262 265 267 270 272 275 277 280 283 285 288 290 293 295 298 301 303 306 308 t311 313 316 319 321 324 326 329 331 334 337 339 342 364 347 919 352 355 357 360 362 365 367 370 373 375 378 30 383 385 388 390 393 396 398 4101 4035 406 408 411 211 214 217 220 223 214 217 220 223 226 216 219 222 225 228 219 222 225 228 231 221 225 228 231 234 224 227 230 234 237 227 230 233 236 239 229 233 236 239 242 232 235 238 242 245 235 238 241 244 248 237 240 28 247 250 240 243 246 250 253 242 246 249 253 256 245 248 252 255 259 248 251 255 258 261 250 254 257 261 264 253 256 260 263 267 255 259 263 266 270 258 262 265 269 272 261 264 268 272 275 263 267 271 274 278 266 270 273 277 281 268 272 276 280 284 271 275 279 282 286 274 277 281 285 289 276 280 284 288 292 279 283 287 291 295 281 285 289 293 297 284 288 292 296 300 287 291 295 299 303 289 293 297 301 306 292 296 300 304 308 294 299 303 307 311 297 301 305 310 314 300 304 308 312 317 302 307 311 315 319 305 309 t313 318 322 307 t312 t316 320 325 310 314 319 323 328 313 317 321 326 330 315 320 324 329 333 318 322 327 331 336 321 325 330 33 339 323 328 332 337 341 326 330 335 339 344 328 333 338 342 347 331t 336 340 345 350 334 338 343 348 352 336 341 346 350 355 339 344 348 353 358 341 346 351 356 361 344 349 354 358 363 347 351 356 361 366 349 354 359 364 369 352 357 362 367 372 354 359 364 369 374 357 362 367 372 377 360 365 370 375 380 362 367 372 377 383 365 370 375 380 385 367 373 378 383 388 370 375 380 386 391 373 378 33 3 88 394 375 381 386 391 396 378 383 388 394 399 380 386 391 397 402 383 388 394 399 405 386 391 397 402 407 388 394 399 405 410 391 396 402 407 413 393 399 405 11to 0 416 396 402 407 413 418 399 404 410 416 421 401 407 413 418 424 404 410 415 421 427 406 412 418 424 429 409 415 421 426 432 412 417 423 429 435 414 420 426 432 438 417 423 429 435 40 2 26 229 232 229 232 235 232 235 238 234 237 240 237 240 243 240 243 246 243 246 249 245 249 252 248 252 255 251 254 258 254 257 260 257 260 263 259 263 266 262 266 269 265 268 272 268 271 275 271 274 278 273 277 281 276 280 283 279 283 286 282 285 289 284 288 292 287 291 295 290 294 298 293 297 o301 296 300 303 298 302 306 301 305 309 304 308 312 307 311 315 310 314 318 312 317 321 315 319 323 318 322 326 321 325 329 324 328 332 326 331 335 329 33 338 332 336 341 335 339 34 337 342 3146 340 345 349 343 348 352 346 350 355 349 353 358 351 356 361 354 359 364 357 362 366 360 365 369 363 367 372 365 370 375 368 373 378 371 976 381 374 379 384 377 381 386 379 384 389 382 387 392 385 390 395 388 393 398 390 396 401 393 398 404 396 401 406 399 404 409 402 407 412 404 410 415 407 413 418 410 415 421 413 418 424 416 421 427 418 424 429 421 427 432 424 430 435 4127 432 438 430 435 441 432 438 444 435 441 447 438 444 449 441 446 452 443 449 455 486 452 453 235 2 8 241 244 246 249 252 255 258 261 264 267 270 273 275 278 281 284 287 290 293 296 299 302 304 307 310 313 316 319 322 325 328 331 333 336 339 342 345 348 351 354 357 360 362 365 368 371 374 377 "30 383 386 389 391 394 397 400 403 406 409 412 415 417 420 423 426 429 432 435 438 4t1 444 446 449 152 455 458 461 464 S-20 238 241 244 247 250 252 255 258 261 264 267 270 273 276 279 282 285 288 291 294 297 299 302 305 308 311t 314 317 320 323 326 329 332 335 338 341 344 346 349 352 355 358 361 364 367 370 3 73 376 379 382 385 388 390 393 396 399 402 405 408 411 414 417 420 423 426 429 432 435 437 440 443 486 449 452 455 458 461 464 467 470 I L Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temoerature correction=(Hu-H1)(0.00367t'), where t' =mean virtual temperature of stratum. For temperatures (below 0� C.) evalues are to be (add ed ). ( u-t ) t, oC. 31o 320 3o�340 350 360 7�go� 3o04 0 0 4 1042� 40U�4501460 7470�go490 500 510 520 530 54� 550 560 570 580 590 600 1610..... 1620..... 16 0..... 1640..... 1650..... 1660..... 1670.... 1680..... 1690..... 1700..... 1710..... 1720..... 1730..... 1740..... 1750..... 1760..... 1770..... 1780..... 1790..... 1800..... 1810..... 1820..... 1830..... 1840..... 1850..... 1860..... 1870..... 1880..... 1890..... 1900..... 1910..... 1.920..... 1930..... 1940..... 1950..... 1960..... 1970..... 1980..... 1990..... 2000..... 2010..... 2020..... 2030..... 2040..... 2050..... 2060..... 2070..... 2080..... 2090..... 2100..... 2110..... 2120..... 2130..... 2140..... 2150..... 2160..... 2170..... 2180..... 2190.... 2200..... 2210..... 2220..... 2230..... 2240..... 2250..... 2260..... 2270..... 2280..... 2290..... 2300..... 2310..... 2320..... 2330..... 2340..... 2350..... 2360..... 2370..... 2 80..... 2390..... 2400..... 183 189 195 201 207 213 219 225 230 236 184 190 196 202 208 214 220 226 232 238 185 191 197 203 209 215 221 227 233 239 187 193 199 205 211 217 223 229 235 241 188 194 200 206 212 218 224 230 236 242 189 195 201 207 213 219 225 232 238 244 190 196 202 208 215 221 227 233 239 245 191 197 203 210 216 222 228 234 240 247 192 198 205 211 217 223 229 236 242 248 193 200 206 212 218 225 231 237 243 250 195 201 207 213 220 226 232 238 245 251 196 202 208 215 221 227 234 240 246 252 197 203 210 216 222 229 235 241 248 254 198 204 211 217 224 230 236 243 249 255 199 206 212 218 225 231 238 244 250 257 200 207 213 220 226 233 239 245 252 258 201 208 214 221 227 234 240 247 253 260 203 209 216 222 229 235 242 248 255 261 204 21v 217 223 230 236 243 250 256 263 205 211 218 225 231 238 244 251 258 264 206 213 219 226 232 239 246 252 259 266 207 214 220 227 234 240 247 254 260 267 208 215 222 228 235 242 248 255 262 269 209 216 223 230 236 243 250 257 263 270 210 217 224 231 238 244 251 258 265 272 212 218 225 232 239 246 253 259 266 273 213 220 226 233 240 247 254 261 268 275 214 221 228 235 241 248 255 262 269 276 215 222 229 236 243 250 257 264 271 277 216 223 230 237 244 251 258 265 272 279 217 224 231 238 245 252 259 266 273 280 218 225 233 240 247 254 261 268 275 282 220 227 234 241 248 255 262 269 276 283 221 228 235 242 249 256 263 271 278 285 222 229 236 243 250 258 265 272 279 286 223 230 237 245 252 259 266 273 281 288 224 231 239 246 253 260 268 275 282 289 225 233 240 247 254 262 269 276 283 291 226 234 241 248 256 263 270 278 285 292 228 235 242 250 257 264 272 279 286 294 229 236 243 251 258 266 273 280 288 295 230 237 245 252 259 267 274 282 289 297 231 238 246 253 261 268 276 283 291 298 232 240 247 255 262 270 277 284 292 299 233 241 248 256 263 271 278 286 293 301 234 242 249 257 265 272 280 287 295 302 236 243 251 258 266 273 281 289 296 304 237 244 252 260 267 275 282 290 298 305 238 245 253 241 268 276 284 291 299 307 239 247 254 262 270 277 285 293 301 308 240 248 256 263 271 279 287 294 302 310 241 249 257 265 272 280 288 296 303 311 242 250 258 266 274 281 289 297 305 313 243 251 259 267 275 283 291 298 306 314 245 252 260 268 276 284 292 300 308 316 246 254 262 270 277 285 293 301 309 317 247 255 263 271 279 287 295 303 311 319 248 256 264 272 280 288 296 304 312 320 249 257 265 273 281 289 297 305 313 321 250 258 266 275 283 291 299 307 315 323 251 260 268 276 284 292 300 308 316 324 253 261 269 277 285 293 301 310 318 326 254 262 270 278 286 295 303 311 319 327 255 263 271 280 288 296 304 312 321 329 256 264 272 281 289 297 306 314 322 330 257 265 274 282 290 299 307 315 323 332 258 267 275 283 292 300 308 317 325 333 259 268 276 284 293 301 310 318 326 335 261 269 277 286 294 303 311 319 328 336 262 270 279 287 295 304 312 321 329 338 263 271 280 288 297 305 314 322 331 339 264 272 281 289 298 307 315 324 332 341 265 274 282 291 299 308 316 325 333 342 266 275 283 292 301 309 318 326 335 344 267 276 285 293 302 310 319 328 336 345 268 277 286 294 303 312 320 329 338 346 270 278 287 296 304 313 322 331 339 348 271 280 288 297 306 31 4 32 332 34 1 349 272 281 289 298 307 316 325 3); 3 2 351 242 248 254 260 266 272 278 284 290 244 250 256 262 268 273 279 285 291 245 251 257 263 269 275 281 287 293 247 253 259 265 271 277 283 289 295 248 254 260 266 272 279 285 291 297 250 256 262 268 274 280 286 292 299 251 257 264 270 276 282 288 294 300 253 259 265 271 277 284 290 296 302 254 260 267 273 279 285 292 298 304 256 262 268 275 281 287 293 299 306 257 264 270 276 282 289 295 301 308 259 265 271 278 284 290 297 303 309 260 267 273 279 286 292 298 305 311 262 268 275 281 287 294 300 307 313 263 270 276 283 289 295 302 308 315 265 271 278 284 291 297 304 310 317 266 273 279 286 292 299 305 312 318 268 274 281 287 294 300 307 314 320 269 276 282 289 296 302 309 315 322 271 277 284 291 297 304 310 317 324 272 279 286 292 299 306 312 319 325 274 281 287 294 301 307 314 321 327 275 282 289 296 302 309 316 322 329 277 284 290 297 304 311 317 324 331 278 285 292 299 306 312 319 326 333 280 287 294 300 307 314 321 328 334 281 288 295 302 309 316 323 329 336 283 290 297 304 310 217 324 331 338 284 291 298 305 312 319 326 333 340 286 293 300 307 314 321 328 335 342 287 294 301 308 315 322 329 336 343 289 296 303 310 317 324 331 338 345 290 297 305 312 319 326 333 340 347 292 299 306 313 320 328 335 342 349 293 301 308 315 322 329 336 344 351 295 302 309 317 324 331 338 345 352 296 304 311 318 325 333 340 347 354 298 305 312 320 327 334 342 349 356 299 307 314 321 329 336 343 351 358 301 308 316 323 330 338 345 352 360 302 310 317 325 332 339 347 354 361 304 311 319 326 334 341 348 356 363 305 313 320 328 335 343 350 358 365 307 314 322 329 337 344 352 359 367 308 316 324 331 339 346 354 361 369 310 318 325 333 340 348 355 363 370 311i 319 327 334 342 349 357 365 372 313 321 328 336 344 351 359 366 374 314 322 330 337 345 353 361 368 376 316 324 331 339 347 355 362 370 378 317 325 333 341 348 356 364 372 379 319 327 335 342 350 358 366 373 381 321 328 336 344 352 360 367 375 383 322 330 338 346 353 361 369 377 385 324 331 339 347 355 363 371 379 387 325 333 341 349 357 365 373 381 388 327 334 342 350 358 366 374 382 390 328 336 344 352 360 368 376 384 392 330 338 346 354 362 370 378 386 394 331 339 347 355 363 371 379 388 396 333 341 349 357 365 373 381 389 397 334. 342 350 358 367 375 383 391 399 336 344 352 360 368 376 385 393 401 337 345 353 362 370 378 386 395 403 339 347 355 363 372 380 388 396 405 340 348 357 365 373 382 390 398 406 342 350 358 367 375 383 392 400 408 343 351 360 368 377 385 393 402 410 345 353 361 370 378 387 395 403 412 346 355 363 371 380 388 397 405 414 348 356 365 373 381 390 398 407 415 349 358 366 375 383 392 400 409 417 351 359 368 376 385 393 402 410 419 352 361 369 378 386 395 404 412 421 354 362 371 379 388 397 405 414 423 355 364 372 381 390 398 407 416 424 357 365 374 383 391 400 409 417 426 358 367 376 384 393 402 411 419 428 360 368 377 386 395 403 412 421 430 295 297 299 301 303 305 306 3U8 310 312 314 316 317 319 321 323 325 327 328 330 332 334 336 338 339 341 343 345 347 349 350 352 354 356 358 360 361 363 365 367 369 371 373 374 376 378 380 382 384 385 387 389 391 393 395 396 398 400 402 404 406 407 409 411 413 415 417 418 420 422 424 426 428 429 431 433 435 437 439 301 303 305 307 309 311 313 314 316 318 320 322 324 326 328 329 331 333 335 337 339 341 343 344 346 348 350 3 52 354 356 357 359 361 363 365 367 369 371 372 374 376 378 380 382 384 386 387 389 391 393 395 397 399 401 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 417 419 421 423 425 427 429 430 439 432 441 434 443 436 U5 438 447 440 448 442 4.50 444 452 445 454 447 456 S-21 313 319 325 331 337 343 349 355 315 321 327 333 339 345 351 357 317 323 329 335 341 347 353 359 319 325 331 337 343 349 355 361 321 327 333 339 345 351 357 363 323 329 335 341 347 353 359 366 325 331 337 3413 349 355 362 368 327 333 339 345 351 358 364 370 329 335 341 347 354 360 366 372 307 309 311 313 315 317 319 321 323 324 326 320 330 332 334 336 338 340 342 344 345 347 349 351 353 355 357 359 361 363 365 366 368 370 372 374 376 378 380 382 384 385 387 389 391 393 395 397 399 401 403 405 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 422 424 426 427 429 431 433 435 437 337 343 349 356 362 339 345 351 358 364 341 347 353 360 366 343 349 356 362 368 3415 351 358 364 370 347 353 360 366 373 349 355 362 368 375 351 357 364 370 377 353 359 366 372 379 355 361 368 374 381 357 363 370 377 383 359 365 372 379 385 361 367 374 381 387 363 369 376 383 390 365 371 378 385 392 367 373 380 387 394 369 375 382 389 396 371 377 381 391 398 373 379 386 393 400 375 381 388 395 402 331 333 335 337 338 340 342 344 346 348 350 352 354 356 358 360 362 364 366 368 370 372 373 375 377 379 381 383 385 387 389 391 393 395 397 399 401 403 405 407 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 422 424 426 384 386 388 390 392 394 396 398 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 422 424 426 428 4.30 432 434 436 438 440 442 428 436 444 430 438 446 432 440 448 434 442 450 436 444 452 438 446 454 440 448 456 442 450 458 443 452 460 445 454 462 447 449 451 453 455 457 459 461 463 465 456 458 40 462 464 466 468 470 472 474 464 466 468 470 472 474 476 478 480 482 390 393 395 397 399 401 403 405 407 409 411 413 415 417 419 421 423 425 427 430 432 434 436 438 440 442 444 446 448 450 452 454 456 458 460 462 464 467 469 471 473 475 477 479 481 483 485 487 489 491 397 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 423 425 427 429 431 433 435 437 439 441 443 446 448 450 452 454 456 458 460 462 464 466 469 471 473 475 477 479 481 483 485 487 490 492 494 496 498 500 404 407 409 411 413 415 417 419 421 424 426 428 430 432 434 436 438 441 443 445 447 49 451 453 456 458 460 462 464 466 468 470 473 475 477 479 481 483 485 487 368 370 372 375 377 379 381 383 385 388 390 392 394 396 398 401 403 405 407 409 411 414 416 418 420 422 424 427 429 431 433 435 437 440 442 444 446 448 450 453 455 457 459 461 463 466 468 470 472 474 476 479 481 483 485 487 489 492 494 496 374 377 379 381 383 385 388 390 392 394 396 399 401 403 405 407 410 412 414 416 418 421 423 425 427 429 432 434 436 438 440 443 445 447 449 451 454 456 458 460 462 465 467 469 471 473 476 478 480 482 484 487 489 491 493 495 498 500 502 504 490 498 506 492 500 509 494 502 511 496 505 513 498 507 515 500 509 517 502 511 520 504 513 522 507 515 524 509 518 526 273 282 291 299 308 317 326 335 344 3521361 370 379 388 396 405 41 423 432 440 1449 458 467 476 484 493 502 511 520 528 377 379 381 382 384 386 388 390 392 3934 396 398 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 422 424 426 3428 430 3432 434 t _ _ S-22 Table 6 Determination of heights by the barometer. Temperature correction=-(Ilu-H1)(0.00367t'), where t' -mean virtual temperature of stratum. (above 00 C.) (added ) For temoeratures (below 00 C.) the values are to be (added ) (below 0� C.) (subtracted). t*'�C. Nu-1t ( 610 620 63 64' 65' 660 67 o68' 69� 70 70 72� o 0 74� 75� 76� o7o 9o o 1610..... 360 366 372 378 384 390 396 402 408 M81 420 25 431 437 443 449 455 461 467 473 1620..... 363 369 375 381 386 392 398 404 410 416 422 128 434 440 446 452 458 464 470 476 1630..... 365 371 377 383 389 395 401 407 413 419 425 431 437 4 43 449 455 461 467 47)3 479 1640..... 367 373 379 385 391 397 403 409 415 421 427 433 439 445 451 457 46)3 469 475 482 1650..... 369 375 381 388 394 400 406 412 418 424 430 436 42 448 454 460 466 472 478 484 1660..... 372 378 384 390 396 402 408 414 420 426 433 439 445 451 457 463 469 475 481 487 1670..... 374 380 386 392 398 405 411 417 423 429 435 441 447 454 460 466 472 478 484 490 1680..... 376 382 388 395 401 407 413 419 425 432 438 444 450 456 462 469 475 481 487 493 1690..... 378 385 391 397 403 409 416 422 428 434 440 447 453 459 465 471 478 484 490 496 1700..... 381 387 39) 399 406 412 418 424 430 437 443 449 455 462 468 474 480 487 493 499 1710..... 83 389 395 402 408 414 420 427 43) 439 446 452 458 464 471 477 483 490 496 502 1720..... 385 391 398 404 410 417 423 429 436 442 448 454 461 467 47)3 480 486 492 499 505 1730..... 387 394 400 406 413 419 425 432 438 444 451 457 463 470 476 483 489 495 502 508 1740..... 390 396 402 409 415 421 428 434 441 447 453 460 466 47)3 479 485 492 498 504 511 1750..... 392 398 405 411 417 424 430 437 443 450 456 462 469 475 482 488 495 501 507 514 1760..... 394 400 407 413 420 426 43) 439 446 452 459 465 472 478 484 491 497 504 510 517 1770..... 396 403 409 416 422 429 435 442 448 455 461 468 474 481 487 494 500 507 513 520 1780..... 398 405 412 418 425 431 438 444 451 457 464 470 477 483 490 496 503 510 516 523 1790..... 401 407 414 420 427 434 440 447 453 460 466 473 480 486 49)3 499 506 512 519 526 1800..... 03 410 416 42)3 429 436 443) 449 456 462 469 476 482 489 495 502 509 515 522 528 1810 ..... 405 412 418 425 432 438 445 452 458 465 472 478 485 492 498 505 ui1 518 525 531 1820..... 407 414 421 427 434 441t 448 454 461 468 474 481 486 4 94 501 508 514 521 528 534 1830.....410 416 423 430 437 443 450 457 463 470 477 484 490 497 504 510 517 524 531 537 1840..... 412 419 425 432 439 446 452 459 466 473 479 486 493 500 506 513 520 527 533 540 1850.....414 421 428 435 441 448 455 462 468 475 482 489 496 502 509 516 52) 530 536 543 1860..... 416 42)3 430 437 444 451 457 464 471 478 485 491 498 505 512 519 526 532 539 546 1870..... 419 425 432 439 446 453 460 467 474 480 487 494 501 508 515 522 528 535 542 549 1880..... 421 428 435 442 4148 455 462 469 476 483 490 497 504 511 517 524 531 538 545 552 1890..... 423 430 437 444 451 458 465 472 479 486 492 499 506 513 520 527 534 541 548 555 1900..... 425 432 439 46 453 460 467 1474 481 488 495 502 509 516 523 530 537 544 551 558 1910..... 428 435 442 449 456 463 470 477 484 491 498 505 512 519 526 533 540 547 554 561 1920.....430 437 444 451 458 465 472 479 486 493 500 507 514 521 528 536 543 550 557 564 1930.....4 32 439 446 453 60 467 475 482 489 496 503 510 517 524 531 538 545 552 560 567 1940.....434 441 449 456 463 470 477 484 491 498 506 513 520 527 534 541 548 555 562 570 1950..... 437 444 451 458 465 472 479 487 494 501 508 515 522 530 537 544 551 558 565 573 1960..... 439 446 453 460 468 475 482 489 496 504 511 518 525 532 539 547 554 561 568 575 1970..... 441 448 455 463 470 477 484 492 499 506 513 521 528 035 542 549 557 564 571 578 1980..... 443 451 458 465 472 480 487 494 501 509 516 523 530 538 545 552 560 567 574 581 1990..... 446 453 460 467 475 482 489 497 504 511 519 526 533 540 548 555 562 570 577 584 2000..... 448 455 462 470 477 484 492 499 506 514 521 528 536 543 550 558 565 573 580 587 2010..... 450 457 465 472 . 479 487 494 502 509 516 524 531 538 546 553 561 568 575 583 590 2020..... 452 460 467 474 482 489 497 504 512 519 526 534 541 549 556 563 571 578 586 593 2030..... 454 462 469 477 484 492 499 507 514 522 529 536 544 551 559 566 574 581 589 596 2040..... 457 464 472 479 487 494 502 509 517 524 532 539 547 5541 562 569 576 584 591 599 2050..... 459 466 474 482 489 497 504 512 519 527 534 542 549 557 564 572 579 587 594 602 2060..... 461 469 476 484 491 499 507 514 522 529 537 544 552 559 567 575 582 590 597 605 2070..... 463 471 479 486 494 501 509 517 524 532 539 547 555 562 570 577 585 593 609 608 2080..... 466 473 481 489 496 504 511 519 527 534 542 550 557 565 573 580 588 595 603 611 2090..... 468 476 483 491 499 506 514 522 529 537 545 552 560 568 575 58) 591 598 606 614 2100..... 470 478 486 493 501 509 516 524 532 539 547 555 563 570 578 586 593 601 609 617 2110..... 472 480 488 196 503 511 519 527 534 542 550 558 565 573 581 589 596 604 612 619 2120:.... 475 482 490 498 506 514 521 529 537 545 552 560 568 576 584 591 599 607 615 622 2130..... 477 485 492 500 508 516 524 532 539 547 555 56) 571 578 586 594 602 610 618 625 2140..... 479 487 495 503 510 518 526 534 542 550 558 565 57) 581 589 597 605 613 620 628 2150..... 481 489 497 505 513 521 529 537 544 552 560 568 576 584 592 600 608 615 623 631 2160..... 484 491 499 507 515 523 531 539 547 555 563 571 579 587 595 602 610 618 626 634 2170..... 486 494 502 510 518 526 534 542 550 557 565 573 581 589 597 605 613 621 629 637 2180..... 488 496 501 512 520 528 536 544 552 560 568 576 584 592 600 608 616 624 632 640 2190..... 490 498 506 514 522 530 538 547 555 563 571 579 587 595 603 611 619 627 635 643 2200..... 49) 501 509 517 525 533 541 549 557 565 57) 581 589 597 606 614 622 630 638 646 2210.... 495 503 511 519 527 535 543 552 560 568 576 584 592 600 608 616 625 633 641 649 2220..... 497 505 513 521 530 538 546 554 562 570 578 587 595 603 611 619 627 635 644 652 2230..... 499 507 516 524 532 540 548 557 565 573 581 589 597 606 614 622 630 638 647 655 224 0..... 501 510 518 526 534 543 551 559 567 575 584 592 600 608 617 625 633 641 649 658 2250.....504 512 520 528 537 545 55) 562 570 578 586 595 60) 611 619 628 636 644 652 66i 2260..... 506 514 523 531 539 547 556 564 572 581 589 597 605 614 622 630 639 647 655 664 2270..... 508 517 525 533 $42 550 558 567 575 583 591 600 608 616 625 633 641 650 658 666 2280..... 510 519 527 536 544 552 561 569 577 586 594 602 611 619 628 636 644 653 661 669 2290..... 51) 521 529 538 546 555 56) 571 580 588 597 605 614 622 630 639 647 656 664 672 2300..... 515 523 532 540 549 557 566 574 582 591 599 608 616 625 63 642 650 658 667 675 2310..... 517 526 534 543 551 560 568 576 585 593 602 610 6t9 627 636 1a4 653 661 670 678 2320..... 519 528 536 545 553 562 570 579 587 596 605 613 622 630 639 647 656 664 67) 681 2330 .... 522 530 539 547 556 564 57) 581 590 599 607 616 624 6)3 641 650 658 667 676 684 2340...524 532 541 550 558 567 575 584 593 601 610 618 627 635 644 65) 661 670 678 687 2350 .... 526 535 54) 552 561 569 578 586 595 604 612 621 630 638 647 655 664 67) 681 690 2360..... 528 537 546 554 563 572 580 589 598 606 615 624 632 641 650 658 667 676 684 693 2370..... 531 539 548 557 565 574 583 591 600 609 618 626 635 644 652 661 670 678 687 696 2380..... 533 542 550 559 568 576 585 591 60) 611 620 629 638 646 655 664 67) 681 690 699 2390..... 535 544 553 561 570 579 588 596 605 614 62) 632 640 649 658 667 675 684 693 702 2400..... 537 546 555 564 573 581 590 599 608 617 625 634 645 652 661 669 678 6487 696 705 Table 7 PRESSURE AT Z ME7TERS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF 900 m b. -200 lii I I if I I-- 835 E 1850 855 875 880 -20o -100 Mean Virtual Temperature �C S/anting lines represent elevations of Z meters (0.98 dynamic meters) above the level of the 900 mb surface -40o i. " "' " 10o 20o 30o S-23 810 815 820 810 - 820 895 son -30' i 900 30a X835 mu oqo O aw i&-s 8601 1975 885 -30� -10� Table 8 PRESSURE AT E METERS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF 800 mb. S30� - 20� -10 � 0� 10� - N - - -ll - :t 20 30� 700 1I 705 715 7/25 730 735 740 745 750 755 770 780 I II I I 780 785 785 100 790 790 r iT T T S795 800 i 800 30� S-24 -400 700 705. 725 730 740 -zE 755 760 - 300 - 20� 100 0� 10� 20� Mean Virtual Temperature �C Slaonting lines represent e/evohions of Znmefers (098do'nomic me/ern) above the level of the 800mb surface IT'+ __ + ,.r ,I I i i v I w I f~f~f~~ I F- "71 141 1---l I 1, .41 710 715" __t ~T1I 7 Cfff~ -..... 1:11L 1 -' T It i T- I I I I I _T 745 ann7 765 775 1 775 -400 Table 9 PRESSURE AT Z METERS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF 700mb. -40 -30� -20 -10" n" 60.....600 - 61 60 6150" 615 62-0;- 6 625l 615 ! - -+635j 64 615 ---- - - I- pp - I I T: 625 655 i 1. i -Ti I ! 640 I 64 5 _ t } - - - - 675 -r 2O' +HJt rQC 1I ' + -~~--~ -4t -4 -~660 ~0iii _ _ I I " -4 665 . - 675 680 - - - - 685 685 690 HiA -40* -30 -20� -10� 0� 10 Mean Virtual Temperature �C Slantin9 lines represent elevations ofZ meters (098 dynamic meters) above the level of the 700mb surface S-25 -5o* 690 695 20 L-- I --L- 6ml 1 1 665 bi d . . . I /W rNr 50 10� 201 Table 10 PRESSURE AT 2 METERS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF 600 mb. o50 -30 - P 0o� 10� 2 I I0 i -"-L TN..II"N.I T .LIG4q:I'I',7, 505' Th~ H. i 515 520 525 550 555 560 565 570 585 590 595 -40 -30� -20 -o10 0 10 Mean Virtual Temperature �C S/onting ines represent e/evations of Z meters (098 dynamic meters) above the level of the 600mb surface 200 520 q~tc~zllt:: 525 S-26 JEiimr" -50� cv - 1V 505 5n *-4 i _ T!-l- I~E-I6I1 4~Q~rt~f~~ ~Writ~ fii-: Ll I 53 * I : I u! 117t!:6 530 535 040 irt ice t"n 565 5i7n 1580 5%1 5951 Table II PRESSURE AT Z METERS ABOVE THE LEVEL OF 500 mb. -50 -40� -30� -20� -10 J I J li" l l t-stI > I R l L IR- ! I, I -IR I ->4 1 1 1 1lk! ,1 I It -J 425 1- -- ~50 - 40* - 30o -200 - 10 Mean Virtual Temperature �C Slanting lines represent elevations of Z meters (098 dynamic meters) above the /eve/ of the 500mb surface 405 410 S-27 0. 10o00 435 425 - 445 an 435 440 445 46c 465 470 4bb55 460 4651 490 495 4/U 475 480 seoL 50 Ce -60� I I I I I I I I 15 em" i 1n40 A t fTTITRTNT ~I MI NJ T NJ'N4 ME1 r,--- - 7 l- 4/7 Table 12. PRESSURE AT Z METERS BELOW THE LEVEL OF 800mA - 300 _ 200 - 100 00 100 800 20 30� S I I I I r I T T 80 805 S810 I'llI I I r rjT 815t 820 200 825 830 820 830 835 840 845 L 1 t ;- t I, - 5 00 860 860 f- 1 f 8GG 865 . . . . . . . . . .... . . . i;,' - 870 870 -- - --- - - - - -. .--- 875 875 880 a00 I--880 / I 885 885 14 890 t -- "890 .-- --. 895 ; 895 900 ....o900 0o0...0 n0 S-28 -300- 20� - 10' 10� 20 Mean Virtual Temperature �C S/on!ny /nes represen/ e/evohons of Zmeters (Q098d ynom/c reefers) be/ow the level of the 80Omb. surfoce TET"LUTT 805 , , ,,.,,, Ti =_ IE~~~fa~ 610I I I I ri i I I i i i E i I I -i I i "t+- -- - -- .t- -t- L 1 1 I -- --- -----t-' t -I I I 1 ! I I I 1 f I "I I T I 1L I 1 1 1 I I 1 --J---+ -1"'f ! I I 1 1 - -i I I 1 I 1 ; 1 ' ' 1 I I I 1 l 1 I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I . ~E~E~i -It --t- -- -1 8353 ~II rT T 7- T ~ I , I T71r 855 L-LLC - 4u� ~0~D O 0CC~ICC'J C~c~ 000 0000 0 S-29 LO o - 0 O- NML c O-NM=f't00 (p00100 O- gMI w cgffg, o 0C> NMI OcD 00m O N O NN N NNN NN NN NN00 NN NN000V00 0" 0003 M C Mt M 000 t t 000000 mo C*4co n 0 000 o - oooO 0000ntD 000 00 c to0000 000 NMI tD O0 0 o 0 MI P PPPP PP 00000 a aa a o 0 2 00a0 a a-- -00000 -00000- 00000 4.J000 00C00 N- 0o 00 w (C LO I)CD 00 ) N-NN- N N-N-N C N0000 000 0MM CS)g to 0ga)Og gg N C0o 000o - c HOQ 8= 0t00-40 oJ 0P 00C000 -4 'NM lnDP0 00)0 0)0 000Q 0 0 NNNN0 00--NNNN-N NNN NN -N N0MI NM- N-000 00000000000 00000 o oo H C CM A 0 14 cotn 0 0 00N o 00 0 00Ma- t -oN0 0 00C -4 Ln 00000 0000 n toN-0 00Q O NNNNN N NN NNNN NNNNN "000 0 DNN-NN-N-N-NN- N-N-N-N-N N-NMN-N-N N-N-MMM p0 0 0000 0 - - PP P RP NP PP000P 0 0 0 OC 0 0N0O0 0 00 co N- O 00 W0 00 oN-0 000 0 0 In 040 00 D0 0 000C700" = 4tt P0Ma-" no 00C-A0 -NM00 000o 0 0000O0�NM OLO oooo ooooo- - 0000 NNN 0-NNNNN 0-NN NO cfO-00 NN 00 NO N00 N - yN MAC RNDNO 00-0 MMM4M N- 0C00D P- 000 ~0- ~ ~ 00~00 0 00 CO- N Mpp p 00 00 000p 0 o 0000C00 0"m 1tDPo CO-400 000 AO-NM noP0 9 "'N o o1-00 CO-N O NN I-NNNNN00NN0 0NNNNN NNVNMOM � C c)Mo o r a a a o " " "". 0. o C 0 O. LO -0 00 -C-JO Nf. CC0N N0 M- C'O inMM M oN-0 -0-0M ON 00O"C-JO 6, LO0 NO00 0C"- 0 00000 0000000000N N00 NN 0C4 -40NN00000 N00000 N00000 00000 N0000 Eu 0) to- - co0C.00 N N8 M = V) N N 00 0N Ma -NCO t o , 0 M N 00tn NO00O-0 0N-NM CPo 00o- M LO .0 Poo 00 00N00000N-00 - m L MnonmM7 M M M L D ^ nnt O 1t) 0000 0 00000 0000 000oN sN -NNNNN-N NNN-NNN-.NNI. NNNCO 0N000 00000 00-VNNNNN NNNNNNNNN N-N-COO CO N00000 N00000 N0 00000000N000000N0000 00000 P No l-0000 * 00 0000NC PP 00M 0 0000000 0 00 N-CO000-0000 00 - 000000 00 c 0CO CDM0000 0 pp 00 00-00 000O000 00 0 L( HMO 0)-40-4-4N 000 000 0000 '~-N C0 0) PMO ~n CAt 0 tMPO mMN0 0000000000 0000000 --- -N 00000NN 0000000000 00000 0000000000 00000 000n t~ot~O0 0N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N NN'2 N N N N -'" I0 (L4, .r.00 0 ; 4.0 Ob aa 0 e� E y U) O 0 .C00 o . m.r0 1 O 00 ti N d m++ a C1 "C > > U E C 'C ii T 00 CY) O; 0,O-NM to to CD co to tD to to Ln Lo tri O - N CO Ln tD AD w to LnLn =tl O - N M LO to tD tD tD =t'=:I MMM CY) O - N M Ln tD to tD tp M CO) N N N CY) O tD -N M to tD tD to N N N - - M O - N M tD Ln ID tD to Ln CD tD tD to Cn to Co tD to 0) 0) a) co co II o0Ma-N Cn LO tD CD tD co co 00 ^ f 00mp-N' U') LC) CD cD co O O � Op O C, - O to cD cD CD to 00ONNN~f, NNO cD o 0000000000o V t - 0 0 O N 0 000 �"M oN1-00 nN MS, 0N 00 -000 0 ONP-O 2 " o " a s " " s " e " o " o " " o cCo ooCD Co occ� C> C> p CD- C co f- 00 0) tD n Ln =' CDnoo tD CD CD CD cD Lntor- co 'cD to to to to =t"=P McMM =I- W) to P- 00 cD t9 to to to MMNCV t11 :;r Ln tD p- 00 tD to to to a) a) a tonhGo N N N N N M D) t'3) 00 co = ninn00 tdNNNCy to tD r M N N N N N i h n h cD cD . =t' Lin tD h 00 NNNNN (6 to Ln to W^00 N 04 C*4 LO to to M' =t' =9' to to pp 00 N N cod tl N " i " e " " a a a " e a " O)O!NC9 004,Cr(7)0) 0) OOP- 0 0Ocn 0) 0) 0) 0) Go 00 OD 00(oCA -Cd co 00 rn rn rn 00 rl OD OO niV 00 00 (7) 0) 0) r 10 Oo 4m O N 00 00 0) m 0) tD to to Lf) LO 000) 0-N In &n U') 7=tl 000) O - N 0000000) 00 O O - N 00000) 0a) M M m CV N 00 a)O - N 00000) q,0 N N N - - 0000-N 0000O0) O) U)(m rn rn m rn rnrn000000 M Ln tPl- 0)0) 0)0) 0) 0000r- 1.1. M =t' Ln cD t\ MMMa) M CD (D M to LO LC) tof\ 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) LC) Ln Ln M LCD cn ( . '0)0)0)0)0) I ' =21 ::t =1' M CV) Ln =t* U) CD 1-- 0)GY) M MM M M M N N M :2, to cD 1'. 0)0)0)0)0) N N N - - CM =t' Ln CD 1 0)0) 0) 0)(7) CM*9Ln cOD 0)Cn0) 0)0) . " " e . D a 0 0 0 0 LO CD 1- 000) Lr) In =P =1* --J* o -C4M =t* N N N N N :I* Mt*co p - N M N N N N N QQMMNN cV CVNNNN N N_ p N m 1-11 C d N N N N N N N N N C3 g V 9 0) N N N N N CflGf CO M N N N N 00 00 Wn^ O N M --N NN N I Np N-c N V NM "" 000?aonl % M c0 00 00 00 00 00 n ,-tcccn My 1nc0N 00 00 00 00 CD r- r P- to 'D oo 0) O - N I.P 00OO00 tD (D to LO U) 00 0) a - N co 00 00 LO =tl CO O - N r-- OD 00 00 =t- =MM ^000000 i O O pOp O O co 00 00 co 00 p - N M :d, mC*m MM pNp N - M M M M M O - N M M M C9 co M OO- M O - - M MMMt"9co M 07 00 00 co N M N co M M 00OO0_0fl- f" M M M M n I\ f tD tD lV t M co ItDtDtDU) Ln' to 0 -� N M Nm(M MM III In to Rn oo NM CqM f M N CO N M M M " . e 0 " 'C 000 000 o Cm M M M M M L0n .00O co00 00 ND NN a00 tpOO0O co Mo 000 0 0 0 M 0 O N M 0) a) co 00 00 M ff 0000^ 0)40 � N M CMS =t. t f tD CD tD M to tD to to to Gn 0 � N M CV) ::p =p =t =k Qn Lf) U-) =11 7 Ct M M M N N M9 _ Cl CV) N N N � C" cn " a a " " " a . " " s f " 0 0 0 0 o C> 0 0 N ++ W d ' E > V O E- c N 00 r O 000 ^00 ooornrn 9! 5t : " : e " s 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O p N M LC) Lr) Lin Ln 00t.t_^ ,O (D t_ oo =t =t. =k =I- r" r*- 4D to to =11 U) ID r- 00 or= =k -to in Ln co t, 00 U*) Lo to =D, =k fi=11 MM fLn g P- CID MMMCW N =P* to CD to 00 CV CVlV--- r4 to tD t ' t> o U, 9D t*l 00 I I I e " s " e " a t � o " w al oco CD c)o IS) f GO 0 of LC) I NNN- O N M =1 p s N ip n. m_0aa U*) (D r- 00 w -TL-L-m NNC14 cD1 000O0)i1a-C*4 1 " a " o 0 o e n " a o e e " " s " " e " O O pO O O p N M Table 15 PRESSURE-ALTITUDE CHART 5000 4000- 3000 2000 - E 000 0 - as 1 "000 For (1) and (2).-H is first measured off the linear scale at the left. This distance is laid along the ap- propriate t line with oneend placed at Po (or P). P (or Po) may then be read off at the other end. For (3)-To find 6H, the distance between the known P and Po values on the appropriate t. line is measured with the aid of the scale o at the left. The scale reading corre- sponding to that distance repre- .�-1lIlH sentsal o-11111L- Mean Virtual Temperature-C(C.) S-31 Mb. 1600oo This chart involves four related quantities: P -Pressure at the top of the given air column Prepsreetdb given air column P � Prssr at tehtn tHeigrifepreneb oH -Difference i height (0.98 geo- Hei drnce dynamic meters) between top masued y and bottom of air column means of scale at the left. Mean virtual t. -Mean virtual temperature of the tenmperature air column represehted by vertical lines This chart has the following principal applications: ((1) P ifPo, H andt.) To compute (2) Poif P, and are known. o(3ff if P, Po and - i 1650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 S-32 mN7 Q m 0 4 4A am o A m mg o~ W 0 0 (D Leo ! m D a w 42 tiro 13 ! o A F 60 m .tl N w p U m (D N- d Lt o ~ONC O o Co r-WOMI -4 C M N(.0 O W CMQCr-+Nt t O t o CDOr-W M D t-4NtM cO OtoNC C Ot t OCMt OCOO- to0r+NMKtL . t- 4 t O to r-, N C O mM tototo COCOCOCOCOCCC"tOCOCOCOCnotl0oCoCotoLoU) OOO toCCOOOCCO ONNh\NtoN~-.NoCoCoCooco C0OCOOCO V N 0 0) 0) I to \ ON! \ I \\ \ \ \ N ______ _____ N C) 4))) 0~tI o 0 \ \ \ \ \0O O \\\ O \ \000:)f _ _ _ N r C C l lI L o66Z .L6Z I56Z oLRZ 0 LO 0) I U zW 0 0 U U I- z w (In ~IIIIYI w \ I l X k \ \ \ k \ \ I \ 1 \ 1, \, ', \ 3,d \ \ X, \,, \ '\ 1 '\ \\ Nv '\ 1 '\ \ I \ 31K -A-- -L\ \1 1\ -4-- \ \ i II _- T _ S-33 (qw) 3JflSS3ad 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 crt o o o 4 0 00 t� NV 0 00 0 0 0 0 LO 0000 0 0 LO 00N o 0 U) (W~ _w VZ0 U z 0 Q w- LO 60� o-LOI p 0 CC 0 cC 0O M M r-4CC t a "613388 0 - 45 - 9 S-34 Ur w -J wls * . A-'C 00 [l f [L t 1 ~E L E ~ E LE 11111 I (%) ~~4IPIWflH *AI4DI0~ S -35 0 o o 0 0 0 iC) 0 o U H C) w -J W z w I Ct) 0 0 H w. 0 0 0 0 0 >ci: ,~, w r') a. E 4) I- HU) 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 'B S LLJ 0 C~J a -I-- ~' ~w .2 z~ 0 w 0:: LL 0 Cl) w -J z uj $ - 0 0 0 N - 0 C.) H C.) U r') -J U z U I 0 (I) N U H 0 U 0 a- wo HZ H ~a-ooc~c 0 0 I~ N >U) ~ H- ~ 1W o.2 I.. 0 >0 0 ~LL U 0 -J z U Table 21 FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURES �F. .0 . I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 +120 119 118 117 116 +115 11i4 113 112 III +110 109 108 107 106 +105 104 103 102 101 +100 99 98 97 96 + 95 94 93 92 91 + 90 89 88 87 86 + 85 84 83 82 81 + 80 79 78 77 76 + 75 74 73 72 71 + 70 69 e8 67 66 + 65 611 63 62 61 S -37 �C. �c. OC. OC. OCc. +48.89 +48.94 +49.00 +49.06 +49.11 48.33 48.39 48.44 48.50 48.56 47.78 47.83 47.89 47.94 48.00 47.22 47.28 47.33 47.39 47.44 46.67 46.72 46.78 46.83 46.89 +46.11 +46.17 +46.22 +46.28 +46.33 45.56 45.61 45.67 45.72 45.78 45.00 45.06 45.11 45.17 45.22 44.44 44.50 44.56 44.61 44.67 43.89 43.9 4 44.00 44.06 44.11 +43.33 43.39 +43.44 +43.50 +43.56 42.78 42.83 42.89 42.94 43.00 42.22 42.28 42.33 42.39 42.144 41.67 41.72 41.78 41.83 41.89 41.11 41.17 41.22 41.28 41.33 +40.56 +40.61 +40.67 +40.72 +40.78 40.00 ( 40.06 40.11 40.17 40.22 39.44 39.50 39.56 39.61 39.67 38.89 38.94 39.00 39.06 39.11 38.33 38.39 38.44 38.50 38.56 +37.78 +37.83 +37.89 +37.94 +38.00 37.22 37.28 37.33 37.39 37.44 36.67 36.72 36.78 36.83 36.89 36.11 36.17 36.22 36.28 36.33 35.56 35.61 35.67 35.72 35.78 +35.00 +35.06 +35. 11 +35.17 +35.22 34.44 34.50 34.56 34.61 34.67 33.89 33.94 34.00 34.06 34.11 33.33 33.39 33.44 33.50 33.56 32.78 32.83 32.89 32.94 33.00 +32.22 +32.28 +32.33 +32.39 +32. 44 31.67 31.72 31.78 31.83 31.89 31.11 31.17 31.22 31.28 31.33 30.56 30.61 30.67 30.72 30.78 30.00 30.06 30.11 30.17 30.22 +29.44 +29.50 +29.56 +29.61 +29.67 28.89 28.94 29.00 29.06 29. 11 28.33 28.39 28.44 28.50 28.56 27.78 27.83 27.89 27.94 28.00 27.22 27.28 27.33 27.39 27.44 +26.67 +26.72 +26.78 +26.83 +26.89 26.11 26.17 26.22 26.28 26.33 25.56 25.61 25.67 25.72 25.78 25.00 25.06 25. IL 25.17 25.22 24.44 24.50 24.56 24.61 24.67 +23.89 +23.94 +24.00 +24.06 +24. 11 23.33 23.39 23.44 23.50 23.56 22.78 22.83 22.89 22.94 23.00 22.22 22.28 22.33 22.39 22.44 21.67 21.72 21.78 21.83 21.89 +21.11 +21.17 +21.22 +21.28 +21.33 20.56 20.61 20.67 20.72 20.78 20.00 20.06 20. 11 20.17 20.22 19.1.. 19.50 19.56 19.61 19.67 18.89 18.94. 19.00 19.06 19.11 +18.33 +18.39 +18.44 +18.50 +18.56 17.78 17.83 17.89 17.94 18.00 17.22 17.28 17.33 17.39 17.41 16.67 16.72 16.78 16.83 16.89 16.11 16.17 16.22 16.28 16.33 oC. oC. OC. oc. Oc. +49.17 +49.22 +49.28 +49.33 +49.39 48.61 48.67 48.72 48.78 48.83 48.06 48.11 48.17 48.22 48.28 47.50 47.56 47.61 47.67 47.72 46.94 47.00 47.06 47.11I 47.17 +46.39 +46.44 +46.50 +46.56 +46.61 45.83 45.89 45.9 4 46.00 46.06 45.28 45.33 45.39 45.144 45.50 144.72 44.78 44.83 44.89 44.94 44.17 44.22 44.28 44.33 44.39 +43.61 +43.67 +43.72 +43.78 +43.83 43.06 43.11 43.17 43.22 43.28 42.50 42.56 42.6 I 42.67 42.72 41.94 42.00 42.06 42.11 42.17 41.39 41. 44 41.50 41.56 41.61 +40.83 +40.89 +40.94 +41 .00 +41.06 40.28 40.33 -40.39 40.144 40.50 39.72 39.78 39.83 39.89 39.94 39.17 39.22 39.28 39.33 39.39 38.61 38.67 38.72 38.78 38.83 +38.06 +38.11 +38.17 +38.22 +38.28 37.50 37.56 37.61 37.67 37.72 36.94 37.00 37.06 37. 11 37.17 36.39 36.44 36.50 36.56 36.61 35.83 35.89 35.94 36.00 36.03 +35.28 +35.33 +35.39 +35.44 +35.50 34.72 34.78 34.83 34.89 34.94 34. 17 34.22 34.28 34.33 34.39 33.61 33.67 33.72 33.78 33.83 33.06 33.11 33.17 33.22 33.28 +32.50 +32.56 +32.61 +32.67 +32.72 31.94 32.00 32.06 32.11 32.17 31.39 31.44 31.50 31.56 31.61 30.83 30.89 30.94 31.00 31.06 30.28 30.33 30.39 30.44 30.50 +29.72 +29.78 +29.83 +29.89 +29.94 29.17 29.22 29.28 29.33 29.39 28.61 28.67 28.72 28.78 28.83 28.06 28.11 28.17 28.22 28.28 27.50 27.56 27.61 27.67 27.72 +26.94 +27.00 +27.06 +27.11 +27.17 26.39 26.44 26.50 26.56 26.61 25.83 25.89 25.94 26.00 26.06 25.28 25.33 25.39 25.44 25.50 24.72 24.78 24.83 24.89 24.94 +24.17 +24.22 +24.28 +24.33 +24.39 23.61 23.67 23.72 23.78 23.83 23.06 23.11 23.17 23.22 23.28 22.50 22.56 22.61 22.67 22.72 21.94 22.00 22.06 22.11 22.17 +21.39 +21.44 +21.50 +21.56 +21.61 20.83 20.89 20.94 21.00 21.06 20.28 20.33 20.39 20.44 20.50 19.72 19.78 19.83 19.89 19.9 19.17 19.22 19.28 19.33 19.39 +18.61 +l8.67 +18.72 +18.78 +18.83 18.06 18.11 18.17 18.22 18.28 17.50 17.56 17.61 17.67 17.72 16.91 17.00 17.06 17. 1I 17.17 16.39 16.14 16.50 16.56 16.61 I I _ Table 21 FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURES oF. .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 +60 59 58 57 56 +55 54 53 52 51 +50 49 48 47 46 +45 44 43 42 41 +40 39 38 37 36 +35 34 33 32 31 +30 29 28 27 26 +25 24 23 22 21 +20 19 18 17 16 +15 14 13 12 II +10 9 8 7 6 +5 4 3 2 I + 0 oc. oc. oc. oc. oC. +15.56 +15.61 +15.67 +15.72 +15.78 15.00 15.06 15.11 15.17 15.22 14.44 14.50 14.56 14.61 14.67 13.89 13.94 14.00 14.06 14.11 13.33 13.39 13.44 13.50 13.56 +12.78 +12.83 +12.89 +12.94 +13.00 12.22 12.28 12.33 12.39 12.44 11.67 II .72 11.78 11.83 11.89 11.11 11.17 11.22 11.28 11.33 10.56 10.61 10.67 10.72 10.78 +10.00 +10.06 +10. II +10.17 +10.22 9.44 9.50 9.56 9.61 9.67 8.89 8.94 9.00 9.06 9.11 8.33 8.39 8.44 8.50 8.56 7.78 7.83 7.89 7.94 8.00 + 7.22 + 7.28 + 7.33 + 7.39 + 7.44 6.67 6.72 6.78 6.83 6.89 6. 11 6.17 6.22 6.28 6.33 5.56 5.6 I 5.67 5.72 5.78 5.00 5.06 5.II 5.17 5.22 + 4.44 + 4.50 + 4.56 + 4.61 + 4.67 3.89 3.94 4.00 4.06 4. 11i 3.33 3.39 3.44 3.50 3.56 2.78 2.83 2.89 2.94 3.00 2.22 2.28 2.33 2.39 2.44 + 1.67 + 1.72 + 1.78 + 1.83 + 1.89 + 1.11 + 1.17 + 1.22 + 1.28 + 1.33 + 0.56 + 0.61 + 0.67 + 0.72 + 0.78 0.00 + 0.06 + 0.11 + 0.17 + 0.22 - 0.56 - 0.50 - 0.44 - 0.39 - 0.33 - I.II - 1.06 - 1.00 - 0.94 - 0.89 1.67 1.61 1.56 1.50 1.44 2.22 2.17 2. 11 2.06 2.00 2.78 2.72 2.67 2.61 2.56 3.33 3.28 3.22 3.17 3.11 - 3.89 - 3.83 - 3.78 - 3.72 - 3.67 4.44 4.39 4.33 4.28 4.22 5.00 4.94 4.89 4.83 4.78 5.56 5.50 5.44 5.39 5.33 6. 11 6.06 6.00 5.94 5.89 - 6.67 - 6.61 - 6.56 - 6.50 - 6.44 7.22 7.17 7. 11 7.06 7.00 7.78 7.72 7.67 7.61 7.56 8.33 8.28 8.22 8.17 8. 11 8.89 8.83 8.78 8.72 8.67 - 9.44 - 9.39 - 9.33 - 9.28 - 9.22 10.00 9.94 9.89 9.83 9.78 10.56 10.50 10.44 10.39 10.33 I I. 1 1 11.06 11.00 10.94 10.89 I 1.67 11.61 11 .56 11.50 11.44 -12.22 -12.17 -12. II -12.06 -12.00 12.78 12.72 12.67 12.61 12.56 13.33 13.28 13.22 13.17 13.11 13.89 13.83 13.78 13.72 13.67 14.44 14.39 14.33 14.28 14.22 -15.00 -14.94 -14.89 -14.83 -14.78 15.56 15.50 15.44 15.39 15.33 16. 1I 16.06 16.00 15.94 15.89 16.67 16.6 1 16.56 16.50 16.44 17.22 17.17 17. II 17.06 17.00 17.78 17.72 17.67 17.6 I 17.56 S-38 oc. oc. oc. oC. oc. +15.83 +15.89 +15.94 +16.00 +16.06 15.28 15.33 15.39 15.44 15.50 14.72 14.78 14.83 14.89 14.94 14.17 I4.22 14.28 i4.33 14.39 13.61 13.67 13.72 13.78 13.83 +13.06 +13.11 +13.17 +13.22 +13.28 12.50 12.56 12.61 12.67 12.72 11.94 12.00 12.06 12. 11 12.17 11.39 11I.44 11.50 11.56 11.61 10.83 10.89 10.94 11.00 11.06 +10.28 +10.33 +10.39 +10.44 +10.50 9.72 9.78 9.83 9.89 9.94 9.17 9.22 9.28 9.33 9.39 8.61 8.67 8.72 8.78 8.83 8.06 8.11 8.17 8.22 8.28 + 7.50 '+ 7.56 + 7.61 + 7.67 + 7.72 6.94 7.00 7.06 7.11 7.17 6.39 6.44 6.50 6.56 6.61 5.83 5.89 5.94 6.00 6.06 5.28 5.33 5.39 5.44 5.50 + 4.72 + 4.78 + 4.83 + 4.89 + 4.94 4.17 4.22 4.28 4.33 4.39 3.61 3.67 3.72 3.78 3.83 3.06 3. 11i 3.17 3.22 3.28 2.50 2.56 2.61 2.67 2.72 + 1.94 + 2.00 + 2.06 + 2.11 + 2.17 + 1.39 + 1.44 + 1.50 + 1.56 + 1.61 + 0.83 + 0.89 + 0.94 + 1.00 + 1.06 + 0.28 + 0.33 + 0.39 + 0.44 + 0.50 - 0.28 - 0.22 - 0.17 - 0.11 - 0.06 -0.83 - 0.78 - 0.72 - 0.67 - 0.61 1.39 1.33 1.28 1.22 1.17 1.94 1.89 1.83 1.78 1.72 2.50 2.44 2.39 2.33 2.28 3.06 3.00 2.94 2.89 2.83 - 3.61 - 3.56 - 3.50 - 3.44 - 3.39 4.17 4.II 4.06 4.00 3.94 4.72 4.67 4.6 I 4.56 4.50 5.28 5.22 5.17 5. 11 5.06 5.83 5.78 5.72 5.67 5.6 I - 6.39 - 6.33 6.28 - 6.22 - 6.17 6.94 6.89 6.83 6.78 6.72 7.50 7.44 7.39 7.33 7.28 8.06 8.00 7.94 7.89 7.83 8.61 8.56 8.50 8.44 8.39 -9.17 - 9.11 - 9.06 -9.00 - 8.94 9.72 9.67 9.61 9.56 9.50 10.28 10.22 10.17 10. 11 10.06 10.83 I0.,78 10.72 10.67 10.6 I I 1.39 11.33 11.28 11.22 I I.17 -11.94 -11.89 -I 1.83 -I .78 -I .72 12.50 12.44 12.39 12.33 12.28 13.06 13.00 12.94 12.89 12.83 13.61I 13.56 13.50 13.44 13.39 14.17 14.11 '4.06 '4.00 13.94 -14.72 -14.67 -1'4.6 I -14.56 -I4.50 15.28 15.22 15.17 15. II 15.06 15.83 15.78 15.72 15.67 15.61 16.39 16.33 16.28 16.22 16. 17 16.94 16.89 16.83 16.78 16.72 17.50 17.44 17.39 17.33 17.28 I _ _ _ S-39 Table 21 FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURES OF. .0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 -0 I 2 3 4 -5 6 7 8 9 -10 II 12 13 14 -15 16 17 18 19 -20 21 22 23 24 -25 26 27 28 29 -30 31 32 33 34 -35 36 37 38 39 -40 41 42 43 44 -45 46 47 48 49 -50 51 52 53 54 -55 56 57 58 59 T r 1 __ .1 _ �C. O�C. oC. O�C. OC. -17.78 -17.83 -17.89 -17.94 -18.00 18.33 18.39 18.44 18.50 18.56 18.89 18.94 19.00 19.06 19. 11 19.44 19.50 19.56 19.6 1 19.67 20.00 20.06 20.II 20.17 20.22 -20.56 -20.61 -20.67 -20.72 -20.78 21.11 21.17 21.22 21.28 21.33 21.67 21.72 21.78 21.83 21.89 22.22 22.28 22.33 22.39 22.44 22.78 22.83 22.89 22.94 23.00 -23.33 -23.39 -23.44 -23.50 -23.56 23.89 23.94 24.00 24.06 24. 11 24.44 24.50 24.56 24.6 I 24.67 25.00 25.06 25. II 25.17 25.22 25.56 25.6 I 25.67 25.72 25.78 -26.11 -26.17 -26.22 -26.28 -26.33 26.67 26.72 26.78 26.83 26.89 27.22 27.28 27.33 27.39 27.44 27.78 27.83 27.89 27.94 28.00 28.33 28.39 28.44 28.50 28.56 -28.89 -28.94 -29.00 -29.06 -29.11 29.44 29.50 29.56 29.6 I 29.67 30.00 30.06 30.11 30.17 30.22 30.56 30.61 30.67 30.72 30.78 31.11 31.17 31.22 31.28 31.33 -31.67 -31.72 -31.78 -31.83 -31.89 32.22 32.28 32.33 32.39 32.44 32.78 32.83 32.89 32.94 33.00 33.33 33.39 33.44 33.50 33.56 33.89 33.94 34.00 34.06 34.11 -34.44 -34.50 -34.56 -34.6 I -34.67 35.00 35.06 35. 11 35.17 35.22 35.56 35.61 35.67 35.72 35.78 36. 11 36.17 36.22 36.28 36.33 36.67 36.72 36.78 36.83 36.89 -37.22 -37.28 -37.33 -37.39 -37.44 37.78 37.83 37.89 37.94 38.00 38.33 38.39 38.44 38.50 38.56 38.89 38.94 39.00 39.06 39.11 39.44 39.50 39.56 39.61 39.67 -40.00 -40.06 -40. 11 -40.17 -40.22 40-56 40.61 40.67 40.72 40.78 41.11 41.17 41.22 41.28 41.33 41.67 41.72 41.78 41.83 41.89 42.22 42.28 42.33 42.39 42.44 -42.78 -42.83 -42.89 -42.94 -43.00 43.33 43.39 43.44 43.50 43.56 43.89 43.94 44.00 44.06 44. 11 44.44 44.50 44.56 44.61 44.67 45.00 45.06 45.11 45.17 45.22 -45.56 -45.61 -45.67 -45.72 -45.78 46. 11 46.17 46.22 46.28 46.33 46.67 46.72 46.78 46.83 46.89 47.22 47.28 47.33 47.39 47.44 47.78 47.83 47.89 47.94 48.00 -48.33 -C8.39 -48.44 -48.50 -48.56 48.89 48.94 49.00 49.06 49. 11 49.44 49.50 49.56 49.61 49.67 50.00 50.06 50. II 50. 17 50.22 50.56 50.6 1 50.67 50.72 50.78 oC. oc. oC. oC. oc. -18.06 -18. 11 -18.17 -18.22 -18.28 18.61 18.67 18.72 18.78 18.88 19.17 19.22 19.28 19.33 19.39 19.72 19.78 19.83 19.89 19.94 20.28 20.33 20.39 20.44 20.50 -20.83 -20.89 -20.94 -21.00 -21.06 21.39 21.44 21.50 21.56 21.61 21.94 22.00 22.06 22.11 22.17 22.50 22.56 22.61 22.67 22.72 23.06 23.11 23.17 23.22 23.28 -23.61 -23.67 -23.72 -23.78 -23.83 24.17 24.22 24.28 24.33 24.39 24.72 24.78 24.83 24.89 24.94 25.28 25.33 25.39 25.44 25.50 25.83 25.89 25.94 26.00 26.06 -26.39 -26.44 -26.50 -26.56 -26.61I 26.94 27.00 27.06 27. 11 27.17 27.50 27.56 27.61 27.67 27.72 28.06 28. 11 28.17 28.22 28.28 28.6 1 28.67 28.72 28.78 28.83 -29.17 -29.22 -29.28 -29.33 -29.39 29.72 29.78 29.83 29.89 29.94 30.28 30.33 30.39 30.44 30.50 30.83 30.89 30.94 31.00 31.06 31.39 31.44 31.50 31.56 31.61 -31.94 -32.00 -32.06 -32.11 -32.17 32.50 32.56 32.6 I 32.67 32.72 33.06 33.11 33.17 33.22 33.28 33.6 1 33.67 33.72 33.78 33.83 34.17 34.22 34.28 34.33 34.39 -34.72 -34.78 -34.83 -34.89 -34.94 35.28 35.33 35.39 35.44 35.50 35.83 35.89 35.94 36.00 36.06 36.39 36.44 36.50 36.56 36.6 I 36.94 37.00 37.06 37. II 37.17 -37.50 -37.56 -37.61 -37.67 -37.72 38.06 38. 11 38.17 38.22 38.28 38.6 I 38.67 38.72 38.78 38.83 39.17 39.22 39.28 39.33 39.39 39.72 39.78 39.83 39.89 39.94 -40.28 -40.33 -40.39 -40.44 -40.50 40.83 40.89 40.94 41.00 41,06 41.39 41.44 41.50 41.56 41.61 41.94 42.00 42.06 42.11 42.17 42.50 42.56 42.6 1 42.67 42.72 -43.06 -43. 11 -43.17 -43.22 -43.28 43.61 43.67 43.72 43.78 43.83 44.17 44.22 44.28 44.33 44.39 44.72 44.78 44.83 44.89 44.94 45.28 45.33 45.39 45.44 45.50 -45.83 -45.89 -45.94 -46.00 -46.06 46.39 46.44 46.50 46.56 46.6 I 46.94 47.00 47.06 47.11 47.17 47.50 47.56 47.61 47.67 47.72 48.06 48.11 48.17 48.22 48.28 -48.61 -48.67 -48.72 -48.78 -48.83 49.17 49.22 49.28 49.33 49.39 49.72 49.78 49.83 49.89 49.94 50.28 50.33 50.39 50.44 50.50 50.83 50.89 50.94 51.00 51.06 Table 21 FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURES OF. .0 . .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9, - 60 61 62 63 614 - 65 66 67 68 69 - 70 71 72 73 74 - 75 76 77 78 79 - 80 81 82 83 84 - 85 86 87 88 89 - 90 91 92 93 911 - 95 96 97 98 99 -100 10I1 102 103 104 - 105 106 107 108 109 -1 I10 III 112 113 115 116 117 118 119 oC. OC. oc. oC. OC. -51. 11 -51.17 -51.22 -51.28 -51.33 51.67 51.72 51.78 51.83 51.89 52.22 52.28 52.33 52.39 52,44 52.78 52.83 52.89 52.94 53.00 53.33 53.39 53.44 53.50 53.56 -53.89 -53.94 -54.00 -54.06 -54. 11 54.44 54.50 54.56 54.6 I 54.67 55.00 55,06 55. 11 55.17 55.22 55.56 55.6 I 55.67 55.72 55.78 56. 11 56.17 56.22 56.28 56.33 -56.67 -56.72 -56.78 -56.83 -56.89 57.22 57.28 57.33 57.39 57.44 57.78 57.83 57.89 57.94 58.00 58.33 58.39 58.44 58.50 58.56 58.89 58.94 59.00 59.06 59. I1 -59.44 -59.50 -59.56 -59.6 I -59.67 60.00 60.06 60.11 60.17 60.22 60.56 60.61 60.67 60.72 60.78 61.11 61.17 61.22 61.28 61.33 61.67 61.72 61.78 61.83 61.89 -62.22 -62.28 -62.33 -62.39 -62.44 62,78 62.83 62.89 62.94 63.00 63.33 63.39 63.44 63.50 63.56 63.89 63.94 64.00 64.06 64. 11 64.44 64.50 64.56 64.61 64.67 -65.00 -65.06 -65.11 -65.17 -65.22 65.56 65.61 65.67 65.72 65.78 66. 11 66.17 66.22 66.28 66.33 66.67 66.72 66.78 66.83 66.89 67.22 67.28 67.33 67.39 67.44 -67.78 -67.83 -67.89 -67.94 -68.00 68.33 68.39 68.44 68.50 68.56 68.89 68.94 69.00 69.06 69. I! 69.44 69.50 69.56 69.61 69.67 70.00 70.06 70. II 70.17 70.22 -70.56 -70.6 I -70.67 -70.72 -70.78 7 1. 11 71.17 71.22 71.28 71.33 71.67 71.72 71.78 71.83 71.89 72.22 72.28 72.33 72.39 72.44 72.78 72.83 72.89 7'?.94 73.00 -73.33 -73.39 -73.44 -73.50 -73.56 73.89 73.94 74.00 74.06 74.11 74.44 74.50 74.56 74.61 74.67 75.00 75.06 75. II 75. 17 75.22 75.66 75.6 I 75.67 75.72 75.78 -76. 11 -76.17 -76.22 -76.28 -76.33 76.67 76.72 76.78 76.83 76.89 77.22 77.28 77.33 77.39 77.44 77.78 77.83 77.89 77.94 78.00 78.33 78.39 78.44 78.50 78.56 -78.89 -78.94 -79.00 -79.06 -79. I1 79.44 79.50 79.56 79.6 I 79.67 80.00 80.06 80. II 80.17 80.22 80.56 80.6 1 80.67 80.72 80.78 81.11 81.17 81.22 81.28 81.33 -8 1.67 -8 1.72 -8 1.78 -81.83 -8 1.89 82.22 82.28 82.33 82.39 82.11 82.78 82.83 82.89 82.91 83.00 83.33 83.39 83.111 83.50 83.56 83.89 83.9 81.00 811.06 81. 11 S-40 1 _1 _ OC. �C. �C. �C. �C. -51.39 -51.44 -5f.50 -51.56 -51.61 51.94 52.00 52.06 52.11 52.17 52.50 52.56 52.6 I 52.67 52.72 53.06 53.11 53.17 53.22 53.28 53.61 53.67 53.72 53.78 53.83 -54. 17 -54.22 -54.28 -54.33 -54.39 54.72 54.78 54.83 54.89 54.94 55.28 55.33 55.39 55.44 55.50 55.83 55.89 55.94 56.00 56.06 56.39 56.44 56.50 56.56 56.6 I -56.94 -57.00 -57.06 -57. I1I -57.17 57.50 57.56 57.61 57.67 57.72 58.06 58. I1I 58.17 58.22 58.28 58.61 58.67 58.72 58.78 58.83 59.17 59.22 59.28 59.33 59.39 -59.72 -59.78 -59.83 -59.89 -59.914 60.28 60.33 60.39 60.44 60.50 60.83 60.89 60.914 6 1.00 61.06 61.39 61.44 61.50 61.56 61.61I 61.94 62.00 62.06 62.11I 62.17 -62.50 -62.56 -62.6 I -62.67 -62.72 63.06 63. II 63.17 63.22 63.28 63.6 I 63.67 63.72 63.78 63.83 64.17 64.22 614.28 614.33 64.39 64.72 64.78 64.83 64.89 64.94 -65.28 -65.33 -65.39 -65.44 -65.50 65.83 65.89 65.94 66.00 66.06 66.39 66.44 66.50 66.56 66.6 I 66.914 67.00 67.06 67.11 67.17 67.50 67.56 67.61 67.67 67.72 -68.06 -68. 11 -68. 17 -68.22 -68.28 68.6 I 68.67 68.72 68.78 68.83 69.17 69.22 69.28 69.33 69.39 69.72 69.78 69.83 69.89 69.911 70.28 70.33 70.39 70.144 70.50 -70.83 -70.89 -70.914 -71.00 -71.06 71.39 71.44 71.50 71.56 71.61 71.94 72.00 72.06 72.11 72.17 72.50 72.56 72.61 72.67 72.72 73.06 73. II 73.17 73.22 73.28 -73.61I -73.67 -73.72 -73.78 -73.83 74.17 74.22 74.28 74.33 74.39 74.72 74.78 74.83 74.89 74.94 75.28 75.33 75.39 75.44 75.50 75.83 75.89 75.94 76.00 76.06 -76.39 -76.44 -76.50 -76.56 -76.6 1 76.94 77.00 77.06 77.11 77.17 77.50 77.56 77.6 I 77.67 77.72 78.06 78. II 78.17 78.22 78.28 78.61 78.67 78.72 78.78 78.83 -79.17 -79.22 -79.28 -79.33 -79.39 79.72 79.78 79.83 79.89 79.94 80.28 80.33 80.39 80.44 80.50 80.83 80.89 80.9 81.00 81.06 8i,39 81.141 81.50 81.56 81.6I -81.914 -82.00 -82.06 -82. II -82.17 82.50 82.56 82.6 I 82.67 82.72 83.06 83.II 83.17 83.22 83.28 83.6 I 83.67 83.72 83.78 83.83 811 17 811.22 811.28 811.33 811.39 S-41 Table 22 CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURES oC. .0 , . I , .2 .3 . .5 .6 .7 .8 9 +60 59 58 57 56 +55 54 53 52 51 +50 49 48 47 46 +45 44 43 42 41 +40 39 38 37 36 +35 34 33 32 31 +30 29 28 27 26 +25 24 23 22 21 +20 19 18 17 16 +15 I14 13 12 II OF. OF. OF. OF. �F. +140.00 +140.18 +140.36 +140.54 +140.72 138.20 138.38 138.56 138.74 138.92 136.40 136.58 136.76 136.94 137.12 134.60 134.78 I 34.96 135. 14 135.32 132.80 132.98 133.16 133.34 133.52 +131.00 +131.18 +131.36 +131.54 +131.72 129.20 129.38 129.56 i 29.74 129.92 127.40 127.58 127.76 127.94 128.12 125.60 125.78 125.96 126.14 126.32 123.80 123.98 124.16 1 24.34 124.52 +122.00 +122.18 +122.36 +122.54 +122.72 120.20 120.38 120.56 120.74 120.92 118.40 118.58 118.76 1 18.94 119.12 116.60 116.78 116.96 117.14 117.32 114.80 114.98 115.16 115.34 115.52 +113.00 +113.18 +113.36 +113.54 +113.72 1 11.20 111.38 111.56 111.74 111.92 109.40 109.58 109.76 109.94 I110.12 107.60 107.78 107.96 108. 14 108.32 105.80 105.98 106.16 106.34 106.52 +104.00 +104.18 +104.36 +104.54 +104.72 102.20 102.38 102.56 102.74 102.92 100.40 100.58 00.76 100.94 101.12 98.60 98.78 98.96 99. 14 99.32 96.80 96.98 97.16 97.34 97.52 + 95.00 + 95.18 + 95.36 + 95.54 + 95.72 93.20 93.38 93.56 93.74 93.92 91.40 91.58 91.76 91.94 92.12 89.60 89.78 89.96 90.14 90.32 87.80 87.98 88.16 88.34 88.52 + 86.00 + 86.18 + 86.36 + 86.54 + 86.72 84.20 84.38 84.56 84.74 84.92 82.40 82.58 82.76 82.94 83.12 80.60 80.78 80.96 81.14 81.32 78.80 78.98 79.16 79.34 79.52 + 77.00 + 77.18 + 77.36 + 77.54 + 77.72 75.20 75.38 75.56 75.74 75.92 73.40 73.58 73.76 73.94 74.12 71.60 71.78 71.96 72.14 72.32 69.80 69.98 70.16 70.34 70.52 + 68.00 + 68.18 + 68.36 + 68.54 + 68.72 66.20 66.38 66.56 66.74 66.92 64.40 64.58 64.76 64.94 65.12 62.60 62.78 62.96 63.14 63.32 60.80 60.98 61.16 61.34 61.52 + 59.00 + 59.18 + 59.36 + 59.54 + 59.72 57.20 57.38 57.56 57.74 57.92 55.40 55.58 55.76 55.94 56.12 53.60 53.78 53.96 54.14 54.32 51.80 51.98 52.16 52.34 52.52 OF. OF. OF. OF. +140.90 +141.08 +141.26 +141.44 139.10 139.28 139.46 139.64 137.30 137.48 137.66 137.84 135.50 135.68 135.86 136.04 133.70 133.88 134.06 134.24 +131.90 +132.08 +132.26 +132.44 130.10 I 30.28 I 30.46 130.64 128.30 128.48 128.66 128.84 126.50 126.68 126.86 127.04 124.70 124.88 125.06 125.24 +122.90 +123.08 +123.26 +123.44 121.10 121.28 121.46 121.64 119.30 119.48 119.66 119.84 117.50 117.68 117.86 118.04 115.70 115.88 116.06 116.24 +113.90 +114.08 +114.26 +114.44 112.10 112.28 112.46 112.64 110.30 110.48 110.66 I 10.84 108.50 108.68 108.86 109.04 106.70 106.88 107.06 107.24 +104.90 +105.08 +105.26 +105.44 103.10 103.28 103.46 103.64 101.30 101.48 101.66 101.84 99.50 99.68 99.86 100.04 97.70 97.88 98.06 98.24 + 95.90 + 96.08 + 96.26 + 96.44 94.10 94.28 94.46 94.64 92.30 92.48 92.66 92.84 90.50 90.68 90.86 91.04 88.70 88.88 89.06 89.24 + 86.90 + 87.08 + 87.26 + 87.44 85.10 85.28 85.46 85.64 83.30 83.48 83.66 83.84 81.50 81.68 81.86 82.04 79.70 79.88 80.06 80.24 + 77.90 + 78.08 + 78.26 + 78.44 76.10 76.28 76.46 76.61 74.30 74.48 74.66 74.84 72.50 72.68 72.86 73.04 70.70 70.88 71.06 71.24 + 68.90 + 69.08 + 69.26 + 69.44 67.10 67.28 67.46 67.64 65.30 65.48 65.66 65.84 63.50 63.68 63.86 64.04 61.70 61.88 62.06 62.24 + 59.90 + 60.08 + 60.26 + 60.44 58.10 58.28 58.46 58.64 56.30 56.48 56.66 56.84 54.50 54.68 54.86 55.04 52.70 52.88 53.06 53.24 OF, +141.62 139.82 138.02 136.22 134.42 +132.62 130.82 129.02 127.22 125.42 +123.62 121.82 120,02 118.22 116.42 +114.62 112.82 111.02 109.22 107,42 +105.62 103.82 102.02 100.22 98. 42 + 96.62 94.82 93.02 91.22 89.42 + 87.62 85.82 84.02 82.22 80.42 + 78.62 76.82 75,02 73.22 71.42 + 69.62 67.82 66.02 64.22 62.42 + 60.62 58.82 57.02 55.22 53.42 Table 22 CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURES OC. .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 8 .9 +10 +9 8 7 6 5 + 4 3 2 I +0 -0 I 2 3 4 -5 6 7 8 9 -10 II 12 13 14 -15 16 17 18 19 -20 21 22 23 24 -25 26 27 28 29 -30 31 32 33 34 -35 36 37 38 39 OF, OF. OF. OF. OF. +50.00 +50.18 +50.36 +50.54 +50.72 +48.20 +48.38 +48.56 +48.74 +48.92 46.40 46.58 46.76 46.94 47.12 44.60 44.78 44.96 45.14 45.32 42.80 42.98 43.16 43.34 43.52 41.00 41.18 41.36 41.54 41.72 +39.20 +39.38 +39.56 +39.74 +39.92 37.40 37.58 37.76 37.94 38.12 35.60 35.78 35.96 36.14 36.32 33.80 33.98 34.16 34.34 34.52 32.00 32.18 32.36 32.54 32.72 +32.00 +31.82 +31.64 +31.46 +31.28 30.20 30.02 29.84 29.66 29.48 28.40 28.22 28.04 27.86 27.68 26.60 26.42 26.24 26.06 25.88 24.80 24.62 24.44 24.26 24.08 +23.00 +22.82 +22.64 +22.46 +22.28 21.20 21.02 20.84 20.66 20.48 19.40 19.22 19.04 18.86 18.68 17.60 17.42 17.24 17.06 16.88 15.80 15.62 15.44 15.26 15.08 +14.00 +13.82 +13.64 +13.46 +13.28 12.20 12.02 I11.84 11.66 11.48 10.40 10.22 10.04 9.86 9.68 8.60 8.42 8.24 8.06 7.88 6.80 6.62 6.44 6.26 6.08 + 5.00 + 4.82 + 4.64 + 4.46 + 4.28 + 3.20 + 3.02 + 2.84 + 2.66 + 2.48 + 1.40 + 1.22 + 1.04 + 0.86 + 0.68 - 0.40 - 0.58 - 0.76 - 0.94 - 1.12 - 2.20 - 2.38 - 2.56 - 2.74 - 2.92 - 4.00 - 4.18 - 4.36 - 4.54 - 4.72 5.80 5.98 6.16 6.34 6.52 7.60 7.78 7.96 8.14 8.32 9.40 9.58 9.76 9.94 10.12 11.20 11.38 I11.56 I11.74 11.92 -13.00 -13.18 -13.36 -13.54 -13.72 14.80 14.98 15.16 15.34 15.52 16.60 16.78 16.96 17.14 17.32 18.40 18.58 18.76 18.94 19.12 20.20 20.38 20.56 20.74 20.92 -22.00 -22.18 -22.36 -22.54 -22.72 23.80 23.98 24.16 24.34 24.52 25.60 25.78 25.96 26.1 4 26.32 27.40 27.58 27.76 27.94 28.12 29.20 29.38 29.56 29.74 29.92 -31.00 -31.18 -31.36 -31.54 -31.72 32.80 32.98 33.16 33.34 33.52 34.60 34.78 34.96 35.14 35.32 36.40 36.58 36.76 36.94 37.12 38.20 38.38 38.56 38.74 38.92 S-42 r OF. OF. OF. oF. +50.90 +51.08 +51.26 +51.44 +49.10 +49.28 +49.46 +49.64 47.30 47.48 47.66 47.84 45.50 45.68 45.86 46.04 43.70 43.88 44.06 44.24 41.90 42.08 42.26 42.44 +40. 10 +40.28 +40.46 +40.64 38.30 38.48 38.66 38.84 36.50 36.68 36.86 37.04 34.70 34.88 35.06 35.24 32.90 33.08 33.26 33.44 +31.10 +30.92 +30.74 +30.56 29.30 29.12 28.94 28.76 27.50 27.32 27.14 26.96 25.70 25.52 25.34 25.16 23.90 23.72 23.54 23.36 +22.10 +21.92 +21.74 +21.56 20.30 20.12 19.94 19.76 18.50 18.32 18.14 17.96 16.70 16.52 16.34 16.16 14.90 14.72 14.54 14.36 +13.10 +12.92 +12.74 +12.56 11.30 11.12 10.94 10.76 9.50 9.32 9. 14 8.96 7.70 7.52 7.34 7.16 5.90 5.72 5.54 5.36 + 4.10 + 3.92 + 3.74 + 3.56 + 2.30 + 2.12 + 1.94 + 1.76 + 0.50 + 0.32 + 0.14 - 0.04 - 1.30 - I.48 - 1.66 - 1.84 - 3.10 - 3.28 - 3.46 - 3.64 - 4.90 - 5.08 - 5.26 - 5.44 6.70 6.88 7.06 7.24 8.50 8.68 8.86 9.04 10.30 10.48 10.66 10.84 12.10 12.28 12.46 12.64 -13.90 -14.08 -14.26 -14.44 15.70 15.88 16.06 16.24 17.50 17.68 17.86 18.04 19.30 19.48 19.66 19.84 21.10 21.28 21.46 21.64 -22.90 -23.08 -23.26 -23.44 24.70 24.88 25.06 25.24 26.50 26.68 26.86 27.04 28.30 28.48 28.66 28.84 30.10 30.28 30.46 30.64 -31.90 -32.08 -32.26 -32.44 33.70 33.88 34.06 34.24 35.50 35.68 35.86 36.04 37.30 37.48 37.66 37.84 39. 10 39.28 39.46 39.64 +21.38 19.58 17.78 15.98 14.18 +12.38 10.58 8.78 6.98 5.18 + 3.38 + 1.58 - 0.22 - 2.02 - 3.82 - 5.62 7.42 9.22 11.02 12.82 -14.62 16.42 18.22 20.02 21.82 -23.62 25.42 27.22 29.02 30.82 -32.62 34.42 36.22 38.02 39.82 OF. +51.62 +49.82 48.02 46.22 44.42 42.62 +40.82 39.02 37.22 35.42 33.62 +30.38 28.58 26.78 24.98 23.18 - Table 22 CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURES C. .0 .I .2 .3 .4� .5 .6 .7.8 .9 -40 41 42 43 44 -45 46 47 48 49 -50 51 52 53 54 -55 56 57 58 59 -60 61 62 63 64 -65 66 67 68 69 -70 71 72 73 74 -75 76 77 78 79 -80 81 82 83 84 -85 86 87 88 89 OF. OF. �F. OF. �F. - 40.00 - 40.18 - 40.36 - 40.54 - 40.72 41.80 41.98 42.16 42.34 42.52 43.60 43.78 43.96 44.14 44.32 45.40 45.58 45.76 45.94 46.12 47.20 47.38 47.56 47.74 47.92 - 49.00 - 49.18 - 49.36 - 49.54 - 49.72 50.80 50.98 51.16 51.34 51.52 52.60 52.78 52.96 53.14 53.32 54.40 54.58 54.76 54.94 55.12 56.20 56.38 56.56 56.74 56.92 - 58.00 - 58.18 - 58.36 - 58.54 - 58.72 59.80 59.98 60.16 60.34 60.52 61.60 61.78 61.96 62.14 62.32 63.40 63.58 63.76 63.94 64.12 65.20 65.38 65.56 65.74 65.92 - 67.00 - 67.18 - 67.36 - 67.54 - 67.72 68.80 68.98 69.16 69.34 69.52 70.60 70.78 70.96 71.14 71.32 72.40 72.58 72.76 72.94 73.12 74.20 74.38 74.56 74.74 74.92 - 76.00 - 76.18 - 76.36 - 76.54 - 76.72 77.80 77.98 78.16 78.34 78.52 79.60 79.78 79.96 80.14 80.32 81.40 81.58 81.76 81.94 82.12 83.20 83.38 83.56 83.74 83.92 - 85.00 - 85.18 - 85.36 - 85.54 - 85.72 86.80 86.98 87.16 87.34 87.52 88.60 88.78 88.96 89.14 89.32 90.40 90.58 90.76 90.94 91.12 92.20 92.38 92.56 92.74 92.92 - 94.00 - 94.18 - 94.36 - 94.54 - 94.72 95.80 95.98 96.16 96.34 96.52 97.60 97.78 97.96 98.14 98.32 99.40 99.58 99.76 99.94 100.12 101.20 101.38 101.56 101.74 101.92 -103.00 -103.18 -103.36 -103.54 -103.72 104.80 104.98 105.16 105.34 105.52 106.60 106.78 106.96 107.14 I 07.32 108.40 108.58 108.76 108.94 109.12 110.20 110.38 110.56 110.74 110.92 -112.00 -112.18 -112.36 -112.54 -112.72 113.80 113.98 114.16 114.34 1 14.52 115.60 115.78 115.96 116.14 116.32 117.40 117.58 117.76 117.94 118.12 119.20 119.38 119.56 119.74 119.92 -121.00 -121.18 -121.36 -121.54 -121.72 122.80 122.98 123.16 123.34 123.52 124.60 124.78 124.96 125.14 125.32 126.40 126.58 126.76 126.94 127.12 128.20 128.38 128.56 128.74 128.92 S-43 �F. �F, OF. �F. - 40.90 - 41.08 - 41.26 - 41.44 42.70 42.88 43.06 43.24 44.50 44.68 44.86 45.04 46.30 46.48 46.66 46.84 48.10 48.28 48.46 48.64 - 49.90 - 50.08 - 50.26 - 50.44 51.70 51.88 52.06 52.24 53.50 53.68 53.86 54.04 55.30 55.48 55.66 55.84 57.10 57.28 57.46 57.64 - 58.90 - 59.08 - 59.26 - 59.44 60.70 60.88 61.06 61.24 62.50 62.68 62.86 63.04 64.30 64.48 64.66 64.84 66.10 66.28 66.46 66.64 - 67.90 - 68.08 - 68.26 - 68.44 69.70 69.88 70.06 70.24 71.50 71.68 71.86 72.04 73.30 73.48 73.66 73.84 75.10 75.28 75.46 75.64 - 76.90 - 77.08 - 77.26 - 77.44 78.70 78.88 79.06 79.24 80.50 80.68 80.86 81.04 82.30 82.48 82.66 82.84 84.10 84.28 84.46 84.64 - 85.90 - 86.08 - 86.26 - 86.44 87.70 87.88 88.06 88.24 89.50 89.68 89.86 90.04 91.30 91.48 91.66 91.84 93.10 93.28 93.46 93.64 - 94.90 - 95.08 - 95.26 - 95.44 96.70 96.88 97.06 97.24 98.50 98.68 98.86 99.04 100.30 100.48 100.66 100.84 102. 10 102.28 102.46 102.64 -103.90 -104.08 -104.26 -104.44 105.70 105.88 106.06 106.24 107.50 107.68 107.86 108.04 109.30 109.48 109.66 109.84 111 .10 111.28 11 1.46 11 1.64 -112.90 -113.08 -113.26 -113.44 114.70 I 14.88 I 5.06 I 15.24 116.50 116.68 116.86 117.04 118.30 118.48 118.66 118.84 120.10 120.28 120.46 120.64 -121.90 -122.08 -122.26 -122.44 123.70 123.88 124.06 124.24 125.50 125.68 125.86 126.04 127.30 127.48 127.66 127.84 129.10 129.28 129.46 129.64 oF. - 41.62 43.42 45.22 47.02 48.82 - 50.62 52.42 54.22 56.02 57.82 - 59.62 61.42 63.22 65.02 66.82 - 68.62 70.42 72.22 74.02 75.82 - 77.62 79.42 81.22 83.02 84.82 - 86.62 88.42 90.22 92.02 93.82 - 95.62 97.42 99.22 101.02 102.82 -104.62 106.42 108.22 110.02 111.82 -113.62 115.42 117.22 I 19.02 120.82 -122.62 124.42 126.22 128.02 129.82 " s. Table 23 METERS INTO FEET I meter= 39.3700 inches = 3.280833 feet Meters 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 0 0.00 3.28 6.56 9.84 13.12 16.40 19.68 22.97 26.25 29.53 10 32.81 36.09 39.37 42.65 45.93 49.21 52.49 55.77 59.05 62.34 20 65.62 68.90 72.18 75.46 78.74 82.02 85.30 88.58 91.86 95.14 30 98.42 101.71 104.99 108.27 111.55 114.83 118. 11 121.39 124.67 127.95 40 131.23 134.51 137.79 141.08 144.36 147,64 150.92 154.20 157.48 160.76 50 164.04 167.32 170.60 173.88 177.16 180.45 183.73 187.01 190.29 193.57 60 196.85 200.13 203.41 206.69 209.97 213.25 216.53 219.82 223.10 226.38 70 229.66 232.94 236.22 239.50 242.78 246.06 249.34 252.62 255.90 259.19 80 262.37 265.75 269.03 272.31 275.59 278.87 282.15 285.43 288.71 291.99 90 295.27 298.56 301.84 305.12 308.40 311.68 314.96 318.24 321.52 324.80 100 328.08 331.36 334.64 337.93 341.21 344.49 347.77 351.05 354.33 357.61 110 360.89 364.17 367.45 370.73 374.01 377.30 380.58 383.86 387.14 390.42 120 393.70 396.98 400.26 403.54 406.82 410.10 413.38 416.67 419.95 423.23 130 426.51 429.79 433.07 436.35 439.63 442.91 446.19 449.47 452.75 456.04 140 459.32 462.60 465.88 469.16 472.44 475.72 479.00 482.28 485.56 488.84 150 492.12 495.41 498.69 501.97 505.25 508.53 511.81 515.09 518.37 521.65 160 524.93 528.21 531.49 534.78 538.06 541.34 544.62 547.90 551.18 554.46 170 557.74 561.02 564.30 567.58 570.86 574.15 577.43 580.71 583.99 587.27 180 590.55 593.83 597.11 600.39 603.67 606.95 610.23 613.52 616.80 620.08 190 623.36 626.64 629.92 633.20 636.48 639.76 643.04 646.32 649.60 652.89 200 656.17 659.45 662.73 666.01 669.29 672.57 675.85 679.13 682.41 685.69 210 688.97 692.26 695.54 698.82 702.10 705.38 708.66 711.94 715.22 718.50 220 721.78 725.06 728.34 731.63 734.91 738.19 741.47 744.75 748.03 751.31 230 754.59 757.87 761.15 764.43 767.71 771.00 774.28 777.56 780.84 784.12 240 787.40 790.68 793.96 797.24 800.52 803.80 807.09 810.37 813.65 816.93 250 820.21 823.49 826,.77 830.05 833.33 836.61 839.89 843.17 846.45 849.74 260 853.02 856.30 859.58 862.86 866.14 869.42 872.70 875.98 879.26 882.54 270 885.82 889.11 892.39 895.67 898.95 902.23 905.51 908.79 912.07 915.35 280 918.63 921.91 925.19 928.48 931.76 935.04 938.32 941.60 944.88 948.16 290 951.44 954.72 958.00 961.28 964.56 967.85 971.13 974.41 977.69 980.97 300 984.25 987.53 990.81 994.09 997.37 1000.65 1003.93 1007.22 1010.50 1013.78 310 1017.06 1020.34 1023.62 1026.90 1030.18 1033.46 1036.74 1040.02 1043.30 1046.59 320 1049.87 1053.15 1056.43 1059.71 1062.99 1066,27 1069.55 1072.83 1076.11 1079.39 330 1082.67 1085.96 1089.24 1092.52 1095.80 1099.08 1102.36 1105.64 1109.92 1112.20 340 1115.48 1118.76 1122.04 1125.33 1128.61 1131.89 1135.17 1138.45 1141.73 1145.01 350 1148.29 1151.57 1154.85 1158.13 1161.41 1164.70 1167.98 1171.26 1174.54 1177.82 360 1181.10 1184.38 1187.66 1190.94 1194.22 1197.50 1200.78 1204.07 1207.35 1210.63 370 1213.91 1217.19 1220.47 1223.75 1227.03 1230.31 1233.59 1236.87 1240.15 1243.44 380 1246.72 1250.00 1253.28 1256.56 1259.84 1263.12 1266.40 1269.68 1272.96 1276.24 390 1279.52 1282.81 1286.09 1289.37 1292.65 1295.93 1299.21 1302.49 1305.77 1309.05 400 1312.33 1315.61 1318.89 1322.18 1325.46 1328.74 1332.02 1335.30 1338.58 1341.86 410 1345.14 1348.42 1351.70 1354.98 1358.26 1361.55 1364.83 1368.11 1371.39 1374.67 420 1377.95 1381.23 1384.51 1387.79 1391.07 1394.35 1397.63 1400.92 1404.20 1407.48 430 1410.76 1414.04 1417.32 1420.60 1423.88 1427.16 1430.44 1433.72 1437.00 1440.29 440 1443.57 1446.85 1450.13 1453.41 1456.69 1459.97 1463.25 1466.53 1469.81 1473.09 450 1476.37 1479.66 1482.94 1486.22 1489.50 1492.78 1496.06 1499.34 1502.62 1505.90 460 1509.18 1512.46 1515.74 1519.03 1522.31 1525.59 1528.87 1532.15 1535.43 1538.71 470 1541.99 1545.27 1548.55 1551.83 1555.11 1558.40 1561.68 1564.96 1568.24 1571.52 480 1574.80 1578.08 1581.36 1584.64 1587.92 1591.20 1594.48 1597.77 1601.05 1604.33 490 1607.61 1610.89 1614. 17 1617.45 1620.73 1624.01 1627.29 1630.57 1633.85 1637. 14 S-44 S-45 Table 23 METERS INTO FEET I meter- 39.3700 inches -= 3.280833 feet Meters 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 500 1640.4 1673.2 1706.0 1738.8 1771.6 1804.5 1837.3 1870.1 1902.9 1935.7 600 1968.5 2001.3 2034.1 I 2066.9 2099.7 2132.5 2165.3 2198.2 2231.0 2263.8 700 2296.6 2329.4 2362.2 2395.0 2427.8 2460.6 2493.4 2526.2 2559.0 2591.9 800 2624.7 2657.5 2690.3 2723. I 2755.9 2788.7 2821.5 2854.3 2887.1 I 2919.9 900 2952.7 2985.6 3018.4 3051.2 3084.0 3116.8 3149.6 3182.4 3215.2 3248.0 1000 3280.8 3313.6 3346.4 3379.3 3412.1 3444.9 3477.7 3510.5 3543.3 3576.1 1100 3608.9 3641.7 3674.5 3707.3 3740.1 3773.0 3805.8 3838.6 3871.4 3904.2 1200 3937.0 3969.8 4002.6 4035.4 4068.2 4101.0 4133.8 4166.7 4199.5 4232.3 1300 4265. I 4297.9 4330.7 4363.5 4396.3 4429. I 4461.9 4494.7 4527.5 4560.4 1400 4593.2 4626.0 4658.8 4691.6 4724.4 4757.2 4790.0 4822.8 4855.6 4888.4 1500 4921.2 4954.1 4986.9 5019.7 5052.5 5085.3 5118.1 5150.9 5183.7 5216.5 1600 5249.3 5282.1 5314.9 5347.8 5380.6 5413.4 5446.2 5479.0 5511.8 5544.6 1700 5577.4 5610.2 5643.0 5675.8 5708.6 5741.5 5774.3 5807.1 5839.9 5872.7 1800 5905.5 5938.3 5971. I 6003.9 6036.7 6069.5 6102.3 6135.2 6168.0 6200.8 1900 6233.6 6266.4 6299.2 6332.0 6364.8 6397.6 6430.4 6463.2 6496.0 6528.9 2000 6561.7 6594.5 6627.3 6660.1 I 6692.9 6725.7 6758.5 6791.3 6824. I 856.9 2100 6889.7 6922.6 6955.4 6988.2 7021.0 7053.8 7086.6 7119.4 7152.2 7185.0 2200 7217.8 7250.6 7283.4 7316.3 7349.1 7381.9 7414.7 7447.5 7480.3 7513.1 2300 7545.9 7578.7 7611.5 7644.3 7677.1 7710.0 7742.8 7775.6 7808.4 7841.2 2400 7874.0 7906.8 7939.6 7972.4 8005.2 8038.0 8070.8 8103.7 8136.5 8169.3 2500 8202.1 I 8234.9 8267.7 8300.5 8333.3 8366. I 8398.9 8431.7 8464.5 8497.4 2600 8530.2 8563.0 8595.8 8628.6 8661.4 8694.2 8727.0 8759.8 8792.6 8825.4 2700 8858.2 8891. I 8923.9 8956.7 8989.5 9022.3 9055.1 9087.9 9120.7 9153.5 2800 9186.3 9219.1 I 9251.9 9284.8 9317.6 9350.4 9383.2 9416.0 9448.8 9481.6 2900 9514.4 9547.2 9580.0 9612.8 9645.6 9678.5 9711.3 9744. I 9776.9 9809.7 3000 9842.5 9875.3 9908. I 9940.9 9973.7 10006.5 10039.3 10072.2 10105.0 10137.8 3100 10170.6 10203.4 10236.2 10269.0 10301.8 10334.6 10367.4 10400.2 10433.0 10465.9 3200 10498.7 10531.5 10564.3 10597.1 10629.9 10662.7 10695.5 10728.3 10761.1 10793.9 3300 10826.7 10859.6 10892.4 10925.2 10958.0 10990.8 11023.6 1 1056.4 11089.2 11 122.0 3400 II 154.8 11 187.6 11220.4 11253.3 11286. 1 11318.9 11351.7 11384.5 11417.3 11450.1 I 3500 11482.9 11515.7 11548.5 11581.3 11614.1 I 11647.0 11679.8 11712.6 11745.4 11778.2 3600 11811.0 11843.8 11876.6 11909.4 11942.2 1 1975.0 12007.8 12040.7 12073.5 12196.3 3700 12139.1 I 12171.9 12204.7 12237.5 12270.3 12303.1 I 12335.9 12368.7 12401.5 12434.4 3800 12467.2 12500.0 12532.8 12565.6 12598.4 12631.2 12664.0 12696.8 12729.6 12762.4 3900 12795.2 12828.1 12860.9 12893.7 12926.5 12959.3 12992.1 13024.9 13057.7 13090.5 4000 13123.3 13156.1 13188.9 13221.8 13254.6 13287.4 13320.2 13353.0 13385.8 13418.6 4100 13451.4 13484.2 13517.0 13549.8 13582.6 13615.5 13648.3 13681.1 13713.9 13746.7 4200 13779.5 13812.3 13845. I 13877.9 13910.7 13943.5 13976.3 14009.2 14042.0 14074.8 4300 14107.6 14140.4 14173.2 14206.0 14238.8 14271.6 14304.4 14337.2 14370.0 14402.9 4400 14435.7 14468.5 14501.3 14534.1 14566.9 14599.7 14632.5 14665.3 14698.1 14730.9 4500 14763.7 14796.6 14829.4 14862.2 14895.0 14927.8 14960.6 14993.4 15026.2 15059.0 4600 15091.8 15124.6 15157.4 15190.3 15223.1 15255.9 15288.7 15321.5 15354.3 15387.1 4700 15419.9 15452.7 15485.5 15518.3 15551.1 I 15584.0 15616.8 15649.6 15682.4 15715.2 4800 15748.0 15780.8 15813.6 15846.4 15879.2 15912.0 15944.8 15977.7 16010.5 16043.3 4900 16076.1 16108.9 16141.7 16174,5 16207.3 16240.1 16272.9 16305.7 16338.5 16371.4 S-46 Table 23 METERS INTO FEET I meter = 3.280833 feet Meters 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 5000 16404 16407 16411 16414 16417 16421 16424 16427 16430 16434 5010 16437 16440 16444 16447 16450 16453 16457 16460 16463 16467 5020 16470 16473 16476 16480 16483 16486 16489 16493 16496 16499 5030 16503 16506 16509 16512 16516 16519 16522 16526 16529 16532 5040 16535 16539 16542 16545 16549 16552 16555 16558 16562 16565 5050 16568 16571 16575 16578 16581 16585 16588 16591 16594 16598 5060 16601 16604 16608 16611 16614 16617 16621 16624 16627 16631 5070 16634 16637 16640 16644 16647 16650 16654 16657 16660 16663 5080 16667 16670 16673 16676 16680 16683 16686 16690 16693 16696 5090 16699 16703 16706 16709 16713 16716 16719 16722 16726 16729 5100 16732 16736 16739 16742 16745 16749 16752 16755 16758 16762 5110 16765 16768 16772 16775 16778 16781 16785 16788 16791 16795 5120 16798 16801 16804 16808 16811 16814 16818 16821 16824 16827 5130 16831 16834 16837 16841 16844 16847 16850 16854 16857 16860 5140 16863 16867 16870 16873 16877 16880 16883 16886 16890 16893 5150 16896 16900 16903 16906 16909 16913 16916 16919 16923 16926 5160 16929 16932 16936 16939 16942 16946 16949 16952 16955 16959 5170 16962 16965 16968 16972 16975 16978 16982 16985 16988 16991 5180 18995 16998 17001 17005 17008 17011 17014 17018 17021 17024 5190 17028 17031 17034 17037 17041 17044 17047 17050 17054 17057 5200 17060 17064 17067 17070 17073 17077 17080 17083 17087 17090 5210 17093 17096 17100 17103 17106 171 I10 17113 17116 17119 17123 5220 17126 17129 17133 17136 17139 17142 17146 17149 17152 17155 5230 17159 17162 17165 17169 17172 17175 17178 17182 17185 17188 5240 17192 17195 17198 17201 17205 17208 17211 17215 17218 17221 5250 17224 17228 17231 17234 17237 17241 17244 17247 17251 17254 5260 17257 17260 17264 17267 17270 17274 17277 17280 17283 17287 5270 17290 17293 17297 17300 17303 17306 17310 17313 17316 17320 5280 17323 17326 17329 17333 17336 17339 17342 17346 17349 17352 5290 17356 17359 17362 17365 17369 17372 17375 17379 17382 17385 5300 17388 17392 17395 17398 17402 17405 17408 17411 17415 17418 5310 17421 17425 17428 17431 17434 17438 17441 17444 17447 17451 5320 17454 17457 17461 17464 17467 17470 17474 17477 17480 17484 5330 17487 17490 17493 17497 17500 17503 17507 17510 17513 17516 5340 17520 17523 17526 17529 17533 17536 17539 17543 17546 17549 5350 17552 17556 17559 17562 17566 17569 17572 17575 17579 17582 5360 17585 17589 17592 17595 17598 17602 17605 17608 17612 17615 5370 17618 17621 17625 17628 17631 17634 17638 17641 17644 17648 5380 17651 17654 17657 1766 1 17664 17667 17671 17674 17677 17680 5390 17684 17687 17690 17694 17697 17700 17703 17707 17710 17713 5400 17716 17720 17723 17726 17730 17733 17736 17739 17743 17746 5410 17749 17753 17756 17759 17762 17766 17769 17772 17776 17779 5420 17782 17785 17789 17792 17795 17799 17802 17805 17808 17812 5430 17815 17818 17821 17825 17828 17831 17835 17838 17841 17844 5440 17848 17851 17854 17858 17861 17864 17867 17871 17874 17877 5450 17880 17884 17887 17890 17894 17897 17900 17904 17907 17910 5460 17913 17917 17920 17923 17926 17930 17933 17936 17940 17943 5470 17946 17949 17953 17956 17959 17963 17966 17969 17972 17976 5480 17979 17982 17986 17989 17992 17995 17999 18002 18005 18008 5490 18012 18015 18018 18022 18025 18028 18031 18035 18038 18041 5500 18045 18048 18051 18054 18058 18061 18064 18068 18071 18074 5510 18077 18081 18084 18087 18091 18094 18097 18100 18104 18107 5520 18110 18113 18117 18120 18123 18127 18130 18133 18136 18140 5530 18143 18146 18150 18153 18156 18159 18163 18166 18169 18173 5540 18176 18179 18182 18186 18189 18192 18195 18199 18202 18205 5550 18209 18212 18215 18218 18222 18225 18228 18232 18235 18238 5560 18241 18245 18248 18251 18255 18258 18261 18264 18268 18271 5570 18274 18278 18281 18284 18287 18291 18294 18297 18300 18304 5580 18307 18310 18314 18317 18320 18323 18327 18330 18333 18337 5590 18340 18343 18346 18350 18353 18358 18360 18363 18366 18369 S- 47 Table 23 METERS INTO FEET I meter - 3.280833 feet Meters 0 I 2 3 1I 5 6 7 8 9 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 5600 5610 5620 5630 5640 5650 5660 5670 5680 5690 5700 5710 5720 5730 5740 5750 5760 5770 5780 5790 5800 5810 5820 5830 5840 5850 5860 5870 5880 5890 5900 5910 5920 5930 5940 5950 5960 5970 5980 5990 6000 6010 6020 6030 6040 6050 6060 6070 6080 6090 6100 6110 6120 6130 6140 6150 6160 6170 6180 6190 18373 18405 18438 18471 18504 18537 18570 18602 18635 18668 1870 I1 18734 18766 18799 18832 18865 18898 18930 18963 18996 19029 19062 19094 19127 19160 19193 19226 19258 19291 19324 19357 19390 19423 19455 19488 19521 19554 19587 19619 19652 19685 19718 19751 19783 19816 19849 19882 19915 19947 19980 20013 200146 20079 20112 20144 20177 20210 20213 20276 20308 18376 18409 184422 18474 18507 18540 18573 18606 1 8638 18671 1 870 4 18737 18770 18802 18835 18868 1890 i 18934 18966 18999 19032 19065 19098 19131 19163 19196 19229 19262 19295 19327 19360 19393 19426 19459 19491I 19524 19557 19590 19623 19655 19688 19721 19754 19787 19820 19852 19885 19918 19951 19984 20016 20049 20082 20115 20148 20180 20213 20216 20279 20312 Feet Feet Feet Feet Feet 18379 18412 184455 18478 18510 185143 18576 18609 18642 18675 18707 18740 18773 18806 18839 18871 18904 18937 18970 19003 19035 19068 19101 19134 19167 19199 19232 19265 19298 19331 19363 19396 19429 19462 19495 19528 19560 19593 19626 19659 19692 19724 19757 19790 19823 19856 19888 19921 19954 19987, 20020 20052 20085 20118 20151 20181 20216 20219 20282 20315 18383 18415 184488 18481 18514 18547 18579 18612 18645 18678 18711 187143 18776 18809 18842 18875 18907 18940 18973 19006 19039 19071 19104 19137 19170 19203 19236 19268 19301 19334 19367 191400 19432 19465 19498 19531 19564 19596 19629 19662 19695 19728 19760 19793 19826 19859 19892 19924 19957 19990 20023 20056 20089 20121 20154 20187 20220 20253 20285 20318 18386 18419 18451 181484 18517 18550 18583 18615 18648 18681 18714 18747 18779 18812 18845 18878 18911 18944 18976 19009 19042 19075 19108 19140 19173 19206 19239 19272 19304 19337 19370 19403 19436 19468 19501 19534 19567 19600 19633 19665 19698 1973 I 19764 19797 19829 19862 19895 19928 19961 19993 20026 20059 20092 20125 20157 20190 20223 20256 20289 20321 18389 18392 18422 18425 18455 18458 18487 1811491 18520 1 8524 18553 18556 18586 18589 18619 18622 18652 18655 18684 18688 18717 18720 18750 18753 18783 18786 18816 188113 18848 18852 18881 18884 18914 18917 18947 18950 18980 18983 19012 19016 19045 190149 19078 19081 19111 19114 19144 19147 19176 19180 19209 19213 19242 19245 19275 19278 19308 19311 19341 19344 19373 19377 19406 19409 19439 194422 19472 19475 19505 19508 19537 19541 19570 19573 19603 19606 19636 19639 19669 19672 19701 19705 19734 19737 19767 19770 19800 19803 19833 19836 19865 19869 19898 19902 19931 19934 19964 19967 19997 20000 20029 20033 20062 20066 20095 20098 20128 20131 20161 20164 20191 20197 20226 20230 20259 20262 20292 20295 20325 20328 18396 18399 18428 18432 18461 18465 18494 18497 18527 18530 18560 18563 18592 18596 18625 18629 18658 18661 18691 18694 18724 18727 18757 18760 18789 18793 18822 18825 18855 18858 18888 18891 18921 18924 18953 18957 18986 18989 19019 19022 19052 19055 19085 19088 19117 19121 19150 19154 19183 19186 19216 19219 19249 19252 19281 19285 19314 19318 19347 19350 19380 19383 19413 19416 191445 19449 19478 191482 19511 19514 19544 19547 19577 19580 19610 19613 19642 196146 19675 19678 19708 19711 19741 19744 19774 19777 19806 19810 19839 19842 19872 19875 19905 19908 19938 19941 19970 19974 20003 20007 20036 20039 20069 20072 20102 20105 20134 20138 20167 20171 20200 20203 20233 ?0236 20266 20269 20299 20302 20331 20335 18402 18435 18468 18501 18533 18566 18599 18632 18665 18697 18730 18763 18796 18829 18862 18894 18927 18960 18993 19026 19058 19091 19124 19157 19190 19222 19255 19288 19321 19354 19386 19419 19452 19485 19518 19550 19583 19616 19649 19682 19715 19747 19780 19813 19846 19879 19911 I 19944 19977 20010 20043 20075 20108 20141 20174 20207 20239 20272 20306 20338 i Table 24 FEET INTO METERS I foot = 0.3048006 meter Feet 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. m. m. m. m. 0.000 0.305 0.610 0.914 1.219 3.048 3.353 3.658 3.962 4.267 6. 401 9.449 12.4197 15.545 18.593 21.641 24.689 27.737 6.706 9.754 12.802 15.850 18.898 21.946 24.994 28.042 7.010 10.058 13. 106 16.154 19.202 22.250 25.298 28.346 7.315 10.363 13.1411 16.459 19.507 22.555 25.603 28.651 m. 1.524 4.572 7.620 10.668 13.716 16.764 19.812 22.860 25.908 28.956 m. 1.829 4. 877 7.925 10.973 14.021 17.069 20.117 23.165 26.213 29.261 m. 2.1314 5. 182 8.230 II.278 14.326 17.374 20. 422 23.470 26.518 29.566 m. 2. 1438 5.1486 8.534 (1.582 14.630 17.678 20.726 23.774 26.822 29.870 m. 2.743 5.791 8.839 I I.887 14.935 17.983 21.031I 24.079 27.127 30.175 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 I100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 230Q 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 3400 3500 3600 3700 3800 3900 36.58 67.06 97.54 128.02 158.50 188.98 219.46 249.94 280.42 310.90 341.38 371.86 402.34 1432.82 1463.30 493.78 524.26 5514.714 585.22 615.70 646.18 676.66 707.14 737.62 768.10 798.58 829.06 859.54 890.02 920.50 950.98 981.46 39.62 70.10 100.58 131.06 161.54 192.02 222.50 252.98 283.46 313.914 344. 42 3714.90 405.38 1435.86 1466.34 1496.82 527.3 1 557.79 588.27 618.75 649.23 679.71 710.19 740.67 771.15 801.63 832. II 862.59 893.07 923.55 954.03 9814.51 42.67 73.15 103.63 134.11 1614.59 195.07 225.55 256.03 286.51 316.99 347.47 377.95 1408.43 1438.91 469.39 499.87 530.35 560.83 591.31 621.79 652.27 682.75 713.23 743.71 774.19 8014.67 835.15 865.63 896. II 926.59 957.06 987.55 145.72 76.20 106.68 137.16 167.64 198.12 228.60 259.08 289.56 320.04 350.52 381.00 1411.48 441.96 472.44 502.92 533. 40 563.88 5914.36 624.84 655.32 685.80 716.28 746.76 777.24 807.72 838.20 868.68 899.16 929.64 960.12 990.60 30.48 60.96 91.44 121.92 152.40 182.88 213.36 243.84 274.32 3014.80 335.28 365.76 396.24 1426.72 457.20 487.68 518.16 548.64 579.12 609.60 640.08 670.56 701.04 731.52 762.00 792. 48 822.96 853.44 883.92 914.40 944.88 975.36 1005.84 1036.32 1066.80 1069.85 1072.90 1075.95 1078.99 1097.28 1100.33 1103.38 1106.143 1109.47 1127.76 1130.81 1133.86 1136.91 1139.95 1158.24 1161.29 1161.34 1167.39 1170.43 1188.72 1191.77 11914.82 1197.87 1200.91 148.77 79.25 109.73 140.21 170.69 201.17 231.65 262.13 292.61 323.09 353.57 3814.05 14114.53 1445.01 1475. 49 505.97 536.45 566.93 597. 41 627.89 658.37 688.85 719.33 749.81 780.29 810.77 841 .25 871.73 902.21 932.69 963.17 993.65 1024.13 1054.61 1082.04 1085.09 1112.52 1115.57 1143.00 1146.05 1173.148 1176.53 1203.96 1207.01 51.82 82.30 112.78 143.26 173.74 204.22 2314.70 265.18 295.66 326.14 356.62 387.10 1417.58 448.06 1478.54 509.02 539.50 569.98 600.46 630.94 661.42 691.90 722.38 752.86 783.34 813.82 844.30 8714.78 905.26 935.74 966.22 996.70 1027.18 1057.66 1088. 14 II 18.62 1149.10 I179.58 1210.06 54.86 85.34 115.82 146.30 176.78 207.26 237.74 268.22 298.70 329.18 359.67 390. 14 1420.62 1451.10 1481.58 512.07 542.55 573.03 603.51 633.99 664.47 6941.95 725.43 755.91 786.39 816.87 847.35 877.83 908.31 938.79 969.27 999.75 1030.23 1060.71 1091.19 1121.67 1152.15 1182.63 1213.11 57.91 88.39 I18.87 149.35 179.83 210.31 240.79 271.27 301.75 332.23 362.71 393.19 1423.67 1454.15 4894.63 515.11 545.59 576.07 606.55 637.03 667.51 697.99 728.47 758.95 789.43 819.91 850.39 880.87 911.35 941.83 972.31 1002.79 1033.27 1063.75 1094.23 11214.71 1155.19 1185.67 1216.15 S-48 6.096 9. 144. 12.192 15.240 18.288 21.336 24.384 27.432 33.53 64.01 84. 49 1214.97 155. 45 185.93 216.41 246.89 277.37 307.85 338.33 368.81 399.29 1429.77 460.25 490.73 521.21 551.69 582.17 612.65 643.13 673.6 I 704.09 734.57 765.05 795.53 826.01 856.49 886.97 917.45 947.93 978.41 1008.89 1011.94 1014.99 1018.03 1021.08 1039.37 10142.42 10145.147 10148.51 1051.56 I ' I Table 24 FEET INTO METERS I foot = 0.3048006 meter I0 10 20 30 40 Feet 4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4900 5000 5100 5200 5300 5400 5500 5600 5700 5800 5900 6000 6100 6200 6300 6400 6500 6600 6700 6800 6900 7000 7100 7200 7300 7400 7500 7600 7700 7800 7900 8000 8100 8200 8300 8400 8500 8600 8700 8800 8900 m. 1219.2 1249.7 1280.2 1310.6 1341. I 1371.6 1402. I 1432.6 1463.0 1493.5 1524.0 1554.5 1585.0 1615.4 1645.9 1676.4 1706.9 1737,4 1767.8 1798.3 1828.8 1859.3 1889.8 1920.2 1950.7 1981.2 2011.7 2042.2 2072.6 2103.1 2133.6 2164.1 2194.6 2225.0 2255.5 2286.0 2316.5 2347.0 2377.4 2407.9 2438.4 2468.9 2499.4 2529.8 2560.3 2590.8 2621.3 2651.8 2682.2 2712.7 m. 1222.3 1252.7 1283.2 1313.7 1344.2 1374.7 1405. I 1435.6 1466. I 1496.6 1527.1 1557.5 1588.0 1618.5 1649.0 1679.5 1709.9 1740.4 1770.9 1801.4 1831.9 1862.3 1892.8 1923.3 1953.8 1984.3 2014.7 2045.2 2075.7 2106.2 2136.7 2167.1 2197.6 2228. I 2258.6 2289.1 2319.5 2350.0 2380.5 2411.0 2441.5 2471.9 2502.4 2532.9 2563.4 2593.9 2624.3 2654.8 2685.3 2715.8 m. 1225.3 1255.8 1286.3 1316.7 1347.2 1377.7 1408.2 1438.7 1469.1 1499.6 1530.1 1560.6 1591. 1 1621.5 1652.0 1682.5 1713.0 1743.5 1773.9 1804.4 1834.9 1865.4 1895.9 1926.3 1956.8 1987.3 2017.8 2048.3 2078.7 2109.2 2139.7 2170.2 2200.7 223 1. I 2261.6 2292.1 I 2322.6 2353. ! 2383.5 2414.0 2444.5 2475.0 2505.5 2535.9 2566.4 2596.9 2627.4 2657.9 2688.3 2718.8 m. 1228.3 1258.8 1289.3 1319.8 1350.3 1380.7 1411.2 1441.7 1472.2 1502.7 1533.1 1563.6 1594.1 1624.6 1655. 1 1685.5 1716.0 1746.5 1777.0 1807.5 1837.9 1868.4 1898.9 1929.4 1959.9 1990.3 2020.8 2051.3 2081.8 2112.3 2142.7 2173.2 2203.7 2234.2 2264.7 2295. I 2325.6 2356.1 I 2386.6 2417.1 2447.5 2478.0 2508.5 2539.0 2569.5 2599.9 2630.4 2660.9 2691.4 2721.9 50 60 70 80 90 m. 1231.4 1261.9 1292.4 1322.8 1353.3 1383.8 1414.3 1444.8 1475.2 1505.7 1536.2 1566.7 1597.2 1627.6 1658. 1688.6 1719.1 1749.6 1780.0 1810.5 1841.0 1871.5 1902.0 1932.4 1962.9 1993.4 2023.9 2054.4 2084.8 2115.3 2145.8 2176.3 2206.8 2237.2 2267.7 2298.2 2328.7 2359.2 2389.6 2420.1 2450.6 2481.1 2511.6 2542.0 2572.5 2603.0 2633.5 2664.0 2694.4 2724.9 m. 1234.4 1264.9 1295.4 1325.9 1356.4 1386.8 1417.3 1447.8 1478.3 1508.8 1539.2 1569.7 1600.2 1630.7 1661.2 1691.6 1722. I 1752.6 1783. I 1813.6 1844.0 1874.5 1905.0 1935.5 1966.0 1996.4 2026.9 2057.4 2087.9 2118.4 2148.8 2179.3 2209.8 2240.3 2270.8 2301.2 2331.7 2362.2 2392.7 2423.2 2453.6 2484.1 2514.6 2545. I 2575.6 2606.0 2636. 5 2667.0 2697.5 2728.0 m. 1237.5 1268.0 1298.5 1328.9 1359.4 1389.9 1420.4 1450.9 1481.3 1511.8 1542.3 1572.8 1603.3 1633.7 1664.2 1694.7 1725.2 1755.7 1786. I 1816.6 1847. I 1877.6 1908.1 1938.5 1969.0 1999.5 2030.0 2060.5 2090.9 2121.4 2151.9 2182.4 2212.9 2243.3 2273.8 2304.3 2334.8 2365.3 2395.7 2426.2 2456.7 2487.2 2517.7 2548. I 2578.6 2609.1 2639.6 2670. I 2700.5 2731.0 m. 1240.5 1271.0 1301.5 1332.0 1362.5 1392.9 1423.4 1453.9 1484.4 1514.9 1545.3 1575.8 1606.3 1636.8 1667.3 1697.7 1728.2 1758.7 1789.2 1819.7 1850. I 1880.6 1911.1 1941.6 1972.1 2002.5 2033.0 2063.5 2094.0 2124.5 2154.9 2185.4 2215.9 2246.4 2276.9 2307.3 2337.8 2368.3 2398.8 2429.3 2459.7 2490.2 2520.7 2551.2 2581.7 2612.1 2642.6 2673.1 2703.6 2734.1 m. 1243.6 1274. I 1304.5 1335.0 1365.5 1396.0 1426.5 1456.9 1487.4 1517.9 1548.4 1578.9 1609.3 1639.8 1670.3 1700.8 1731.3 1761.7 1792.2 1822.7 1853.2 1883.7 1914.1 1944.6 1975. ! 2005.6 2036. I 2066.5 2097.0 2127.5 2158.0 2188.5 2218.9 2249.4 2279.9 2310.4 2340.9 2371.3 2401.8 2432.3 2462.8 2493.3 2523.7 2554.2 2584.7 2615.2 2645.7 2676.1 2706.6 2737.1 S-49 m. 1246.6 1277.1 I 1307.6 1338.1 I 1368.6 1399.0 1429.5 1460.0 1490.5 1521.0 1551.4 1581 .9 1612.4 1642.9 1673.4 1703.8 1734.3 1764.8 1795.3 1825.8 1856.2 1886.7 1917.2 1947.7 1978.2 2008.6 2039. 1 2069.6 2100.1 2130.6 2161.0 2191.5 2222.0 2252.5 2283.0 2313.4 2343.9 2374.4 2404.9 2435.4 2465.8 2496.3 2526.8 2557.3 2587.8 2618.2 2648.7 2679.2 2709.7 2740.2 613388 0 - 45 - 10 --t-------- ---- -L _ .~i Table 25 PRESSURE (ib.) OF AQUEOUS VAPOR OVER WATER FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES (�C.) OC, .0 .1I .2 .3 .4 1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 IIO 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34, 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 6.10 6.56 7.05 7.58 8.13 8.72 9.35 1%.02 10.73 11.48 12.28 13.13 14.03 14.98 I 5.99 17.06 18.19 19.38 20.65 21.98 23.40 24.88 26.46 28.11 29.86 31.70 33.64 35.69 37.84 40.10 42.48 44.98 47.60 50.36 53.26 56.30 59.49 62.83 66.34 70.01 73,86 77.88 82.10 86.51 91.13 6.15 6.61 7.10 7.03 8. 19 8.78 9.41 10.09 10.80 11.56 12.36 13.21 1 4.12 15.08 16.09 17.17 18.30 19.51 20.78 22.12 23.54 25,04 26.62 28.28 30.04 31.89 33.84 35.90 38.06 40.33 42.72 45.23 47.87 50.65 53.56 56.61 59.81 63. 17 66.69 70.38 74.25 78.30 82.53 86.96 91.60 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 6.20 6.66 7.16 7.68 8.25 8.84 9.48 10.S 10.87 i11.64 12.44 13.30 1 4.21 15.18 16.20 17.28 18.42 19.63 20.91 22.26 23.69 25.19 26.78 28.46 30.22 32.08 34.04 36.1 I 38.28 40.56 42.97 45.49 48.14 50.93 53.85 56.92 60.14 63.52 67.06 70.76 74.65 78.71 82.97 87.42 92.07 6.24 6.71 7.21 7.74 8.30 8.91 9.54 10.22 10,95 11.71 12.53 13.39 14.31 15.28 16.30 17.39 18.54 19.76 21.04 22.40 6.29 6.76 7.26 7.79 8.36 8.97 9.61 10.30 11.02 11.79 12.61 13.48 14.40 15.38 16.41 17.50 I 8.66 19.88 21.17 22.54 6.33 6.81 7.31 7.85 8.42 9.03 9.68 1 0.37 I1I.10 I1.87 12.70 13.57 14.50 15.48 16.51 17.61 18.78 20.01 21.31 22.68 24.13 25.66 27.27 28.98 30.77 32.66 34.65 36.75 38.95 41.27 43.71 46.27 48.97 51.79 54.76 57.87 61.14 64.56 68.15 71.91 75.85 79.97 84.28 88.79 93.51 23.83 23.98 25.35 25.50 26.94 27.11 28.63 28.80 30.40 30.59 32.28 32.47 34.25 34.45 36.32 36.53 38.50 38.73 40.80 41.04 43.21 43.46 45.75 46.01 48.42 48.69 51.22 51.50 54.15 54.46 57.24 57.56 60.47 60.81 63.86 64.21 67.42 67.78 71.14 71.53 75.04 75.44 79.13 79.55 83.40 83.84 87.87 88.33 92.55 93.03 6.38 6.86 7.36 7.90 8.48 9.09 9.74 10.44 11.17 11.95 12.78 13.66 14.59 15.58 16.62 17.73 18.90 20.13 21.44 22.82 24.28 25.82 27.44 29.15 30.96 32.86 34.86 36.96 39.18 41.51 43.96 46.54 49.24 52.08 55.06 58. 19 6 1.47 64.91 68.52 72.30 76.25 80.39 84.72 89.26 93.99 6.42 6.47 6.90 6.95 7.42 7.47 7.96 8.02 8.54 8.60 9.16 9.22 9.81 9.88 10.51 10.58 11.25 11.32 12.03 12.12 12.87 12.95 13.75 13.84 14.69 14.78 15.68 15.78 1 6.73 16.84 17.84 17.96 19.02 19.14 20.26 20.39 21.58 21.71 22.96 23.11 24.43 24.58 25.98 26.14 27.6 I 27,78 29.33 29.51 31.14 31.33 33.05 33.25 35.06 35.27 37.18 37.40 39.41 39.64 41.75 41.99 44.21 44.47 46.80 47.07 49.52 49.80 52.37 52.67 55.31 55.68 58.51 58.84 61.81 62.15 65.27 65.62 68.89 69.26 72.68 73.07 76.66 77.06 80.81 81.24 85.17 85.61 89.72 90.19 94.48 94.97 6.52 7.00 7.52 8.07 8.66 9.28 9.95 10.65 S11.40 12.20 13.04 13.93 14.88 15.89 16.95 18.07 19.26 20.52 21.85 23.25 24.73 26.30 27.94 29.68 31.51 33.45 35.48 37.62 39.87 42.23 44.72 47.33 .50.08 52.96 55.99 59.16 62.49 65.98 69.63 73.46 77.47 81.67 86.06 90.66 95.46 I 1 - Table 25 PRESSURE (rmb.) OF AQUEOUS VAPOR OVER WATER FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURES (oC) oC 4 .5 .17 9 - 0 6.10 6.06 6.02 5.97 5.93 5,89 5.84 5,80 5.76 572 -I 5.68 5.64 5.59 5.55 5,51 5, 47 5,43 5,.39 5,35 5.31 - 2 5.28 5.24 5.20 5.16 5.12 5,.08 5.05 5.01 4.97 1.o9 , -3 4.90 44.6 1.83 4.79 4.75 4.72 ! 4.68 65 461 4.=58 - 4 4.55 4.51 4q.48 4.44 4.41 4.38 4.35 4 31 4.28 4.25 - 5 4.22 4.18 4.15 4.12 4L.09 4,06 4.03 4.00 3.97 3,94 - 6 3.91 3.88 3.85 3.82 3.79 3.76 3.73 3,70 3.68 3,65 7 3.62 3.59 3.56 3.54 3.51 3.48 3.46 3.13 3,.40 3.138 - 8 3.35 3.33 3.30 3.27 3.25 3.22 3.20 3.17 3.o1 3.12 -9 3.10 3.08 3.05 3.03 3.00 2.98 2.96 2.94 2.91 2.89 -10 2.87 2.84 2.82 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.73 2.71 2.69 2.,67 -II 2.65 2.63 2.61 2.58 2. 56 2.54 2.52 2 50 2.,48 2,.6 -12 2.44 2.42 2.40 2.39 2.37 2.35 2.33 2.31 2,29 2.27 -13 2.26 2.24 2.22 2.20 2.18 2.16 2.15 2.13 2.11 2.10 -14 2.08 2.06 2.04 2.03 2.01 2.00 1.98 1.16 1.95 1,93 -15 1.92 1.90 1.88 1,87 1.85 1.84 1I.82 1.81 1.79 1.78 -16 1.76 1.75 1.73 !1.72 1.71 1.69 1,68 1.66 1.65 1.6 4 -17 1.62 1.61 1.59 1.58 1.57 1.56 1.54 1.53 1.52 1.50 -18 1.49 1.48 1.46 1.45 1.44 1.43 1.42 1.40 1.39 1.38 -19 1.37 1.36 1.35 1.34 1.32 1.31 1.30 1.29 1.28 1.27 -20 1.26 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.2( 1.20 1.19 1.18 1.17 1.16 -21 1.16 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.06 -22 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 ,993 .985 .976 -23 .967 .958 .949 .941 .933 .925 .917 .909 .901 .893 -24 .885 .877 .869 .861 .854 .846 .838 .830 .823 .8156 -2b .809 .802 .795 .788 .781 .774 .767 .760 .753 .746 -26 .739 .732 .726 .720 .713 .706 .699 .693 .687 .681 -27 .674 .668 .662. .656 .650 .644 .638 .632 .627 .621 -28 .615 .609 .603 .598 .592 .587 .581 .576 .571 .565 -29 .560 .554 .549 .544 .539 .534 .529 .524 .520 .515 -30 .510 .505 .501 .496 .491 .486 .482 .477 0,7% .468 -31 .464 .460 .455 .451 .447 .442 .438 .434 ! .0 .426 -32 .421 .418 .414 .410 .406 .402 .398 .3914 .3.0 .386 -33 .383 .379 .375 . .372 .368 .364 .361 .357 .3514 350 34 .347 .344 .340 .337 .334 .330 .327 .324 .321 .318 -35 .314 .31 I .308 .305 .302 .299 .296 .293 .290 .288 -36 .285 .282 .279 .276 .273 .271 .268 .265 .263 .260 -37 .257 .255 .252 .250 .247 .245 .242 .240 .237 .235 -38 .233 .230 .228 .226 .223 .221 .219 .217 .215 .212 -39 .210 .208 .206 .204 .201 .199 .197 .195 .193 .191 -40 .189 .187 .185 .183 .182 .180 .178 . 176 .174 172 -41 .170 .169 .167 .165 .163 .162 160 .158 157 .155 -42 .153 .152 .150 .149 .147 .145 .144 .142 .141 .139 -43 .138 .136 .135 .134 .132 .131 .129 ,128 .127 .125 -44 .124 .122 .121 .120 .119 .117 .116 .115 .113 .112 -45 .111 .110 .109 .107 .106 .105 .104 .103 .102 .101 -46 .099 .098 .097 .096 .095 .094 .093 .092 .09I .090 -47 .089 .088 .087 .086 .085 .084 .083 .082 .081 .GR -48 .080 .079 .078 .077 .076 .075 .074 .074 .073 .072 -49 .071 .070 .069 .069 .068 .067 .066 .066 .065 .064 This book is a preservation facsimile produced for the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper). Preservation facsimile printing and binding by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2012