ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC OF THE HUMAN B ANATOMY y*-' > ODT. BY DR J. FAU, FOR THE USE OF ART SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, BOARDING SCHOOLS, ETC. ^rartslateii &ni> Oridtcb BY C. CAETEE BLAKE, Doer. Sol, LECTURER ON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND ZOOLOGY, WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL SCHOOL Of MEDICINE. TENTH EDITION. LONDON: BAILLIEEE, TINDALL, AND COX, KING WILLIAM STREET, CHARING CROSS.TO THE MEMORY OF ROBERT KNOX, M.D. ONCE EXPONENT OF THE FRENCH SCHOOL OF ARTISTIC ANATOMY IN ENGLAND, WBO WAS THOROUGH IN HIS KNOWLEDGE, ELOQUENT IN HIS TEACHING, AND REVERENCED BY ALL WHOM HE TAUGHT ; THIS TRANSLATION, SEVENTEEN YEARS AFTER HIS DEATn, S0 ^zbicntzi, BY ONE TO WHOM HE WROTE, THAT a8CIENCE WILL NOT BE SUFFERED TO REMAIN STATIONARY IN YOUR HANDS. S. T. T. L. :hThe success which has attended the publication of Dr. Robert Knox’s translation of the work by Dr. Fau on the External Forms of Man, and the circulation of the smaller work on artistic Anatomy on the Continent, has led me to offer, to art students especially, an English translation of the latter, the moderate price of which may induce a greater attention being paid to the details of anatomy than is usual in England. The elegance of the engravings demands no comment at my hands. I have not attempted in any way to alter the manner in which Dr. Fau, who probably addressed a more aesthetic audience than he would have found in England, has called especial attention to the beauty of the human frame. The love of approbation, or admiration for the ideally beau- tiful, which is inherent in the French mind, may not find a precise echo in the English anatomical schools. The author has, however, conveyed an enormous amount of information in a very small space, and this work will serve as an introduction in some cases to the quarto atlas, whilst the majority of people will acquire from its perusal information which may be ofVI PREFACE. service to them in their examinations, or in the preparation for them. The hope of the author, that this work may serve as the basis on which the first studies of artistic anatomy may be made, is re-echoed on this occasion by the translator, who, mindful of the fact that the quarto edition was translated into English by the great master of the Edinburgh school, can only hope that the present smaller edition, which contains a selec- tion from the same plates, may also be accepted by a later generation of art students. C. CARTER BLAKE, Doct. Scl Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy and Zoology, Westminster Hospital. 20, King William Street, Charing Cross, London.CONTENTS. CONSIDERATIONS ON ANATOMY APPLIED TO ART GENERAL IDEA OF ORGANISATION -........................ SYSTEM OF PROPORTIONS OF JEAN COUSIN - SKELETON (FRONT VIEW)...........................Plate SKELETON (BACK VIEW) -..............................„ SKELETON (SIDE VIEW) -.......................- „ ARTICULATIONS OF THE SHOULDER, THE JAW, THE VERTEBRAE, AND THE UPPER LIMB -.......................„ ARTICULATIONS OF THE PELVIS AND OF THE LOWER LTMB ,, HEAD (FACE AND PROFILE) - - - - - • TRUNK (FRONT VIEW)..................................„ TRUNK (BACK VIEW)...................................„ TRUNK (SIDE VIEW)................................. UPPER LIMB (FRONT VIEW)...........................„ UPPER LIMB (BACK VIEW)............................„ UPPER LIMB (SIDE VIEW)............................„ LOWER LIMB (INNER VIEW)...........................„ LOWER LIMB (DEEP LAYER OF THE THIGH, UPPER AND UNDER FACES OF THE FOOT).......................„ LOWER LIMB (BACK VIEW)............................„ LOWER LIMB (FRONT VIEW) - - - - - - „ LOWER LIMB (OUTER VIEW) PAGE • 9 14 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. CONSIDERATIONS ON ANATOMY APPLIED TO ART. The faithful reproduction of animate or inanimate bodies is the principal object which artists propose to themselves; but this imitation does not alone constitute what is properly called art. Frequent observation on the same object makes us cognizant of all its details, and terminates by making us so familiar with it, that we are able without difficulty to make reproductions which are mathematically exact. These representations are sufficient, when it is merely neces- sary to preserve a form, and especially that of an inanimate object, such as a building or a piece of furniture. But when this object is isolated, independent of all surroundings and accessories, it then plays a part in another whole; it assumes a new character and a particular aspect which the vulgar copyist does not recognise, but of which the genuine artist will know how to interpret the most salient features. A painter draws a tree according to nature; this exercise being repeated twenty or a hundred times, gives him a know- ledge of the form of the tree. Yet, nevertheless, when he sees his own work, he is unconscious of the sensations which the sight of the tree would have produced in his mind. The10 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. reason is that the painter has forgotten to paint on his canvas the air, the sun, the freshness of the foliage, the vibrations which the lightest breeze impresses on it, the thousand shades which it reflects after deriving them from the atmosphere, the sun, and surrounding objects: finally, all which constitutes the animation of lifeless things. He is, therefore, not an artist, but merely an adroit copyist. This is even more true, when man himself is the model he desires to reproduce. Man, with his infinite variety of actions, with passions that manifest themselves under phenomena so numerous, so movable, and so fugitive. Can it then be considered that the study of form is unneces- sary, and that art is to be sought for elsewhere ? An anato- mical handbook will not be expected to treat on a question which has already been so discussed, but those who have read the preceding sentences may imagine that whilst writing on forms, I have a secret inclination to sacrifice them somewhat to the seductions of the colourist. It is, however, very different; as now, more than at any other time, I desire to prove the indispensable necessity of anatomical studies applied to,the fine arts. Among many other passages in my ‘Anatomy of Forms/ I shall cite the following, in which I have enlarged on the same proposition which I maintain at present. “ Why is a sensation of distress always felt at the appearance of certain pictures which are executed with the most scrupu- lous exactitude ? All has been copied from nature. The most penetrating eye will not be able to discover the slightest omission, or the slightest error of form. Nevertheless, we stand unmoved before this work, or evince an inexplicable displeasure. This is because the artist, perfectly correct in his material execution, has forgotten the ingenious fiction of the ancients, the Galatea in marble which animated itself, and quivered under the loving caresses and the passionate embraces of the sculptor Pygmalion. The student will in vain aspire to place himself beside the great masters if he has not made a profound study of expression and of the living form. For ever he may spread his paints on the canvas, for ever he may hewCONSIDERATIONS ON ANATOMY APPLIED TO ART. 11 at the marble, the result will be always the same. Inanimate (nature is being without life.”* It is, then, evident that the study of form alone will not lead to any satisfactory result, if it does not involve necessary consequences of which the importance is incontestable. In fact, to understand a constant or variable form it is neces- sary to seek for its origin. Has it been produced by a bone, a tendon, or a muscle ? What are the insertions of this muscle, the movements which it produces, or which it aids in pro- ducing ? What are the changes which its action produces on form ? Does not form itself undergo other modifications under the influence of age, of sex, and of profession ? The anatomy of the face gives us the real key to its admirable mobility, and the variety of expressions which let the emotions of the soul be seen from without. We should never forget the following precepts, extracted from the ‘ Trattato della pintura ’ of Leonardo da Yinci “ Write down what are the muscles and tendons which, according to different attitudes or different movements, are discovered or concealed in each member, or which even are under neither condition; and you will perceive that this study is of grpat importance to painters and sculptors, who are obliged by their profession to know the muscles, their functions and uses. Besides, it is necessary to make these remarks on the body of man, considered in all ages, from infancy to the most extreme old age, and to observe the changes*'which take place in each member during life, &c.”§ * * * * * “ It is necessary that the attitudes of figures in all their members should be so disposed, and should have such an expression, that they should by themselves convey the idea which they intend to represent.”|| * J. Fan, ‘ Anatomie des formes ext^rieures du corps humain, a l’usage des peintres et des sculpteurs/ 1 vol., 8vo., with atlas of 25 plates drawn after nature. Paris, 1865. f Log. Git. # .... % 6 Trattato della pintura/ By Leonardo da Yinci. (French edition, by M. Gault, of St. Germain, an XL) § Chap.lvii.^ || Chap, ccxvi.12 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. It does not appear to me to be necessary to multiply® exrmples to prove that if the study of form alone is in-B sufficient, it is evident that it compels the student to makeB numerous researches which will place him in the path of real! art, by unfolding to him its first secrets. From the exact and I severe description which the anatomist teaches him, he passes I to the lively and seductive paintings of physiology; and after- ■ wards, being irresistibly led by the attractions and the manifest I utility of these studies, he sees that it is necessary for him tom penetrate into the mysteries of nature. It is then alone that I he elevates himself above the people, that he becomes a real I artist, that he can take his place in the front ranks of art, and I produce those immortal works, of which posterity disputes 1 even for the rags which have been left by the ravages of time. I He can follow in the track of Leonardo, of Michelangelo, of I Raffaelle, of Benvenuto [Cellini], etc., etc., etc., and of that I sublime pleiad animated by a sacred fire—a fire which burns up and crumbles into dust the ignorant person whose impru- dent hand seeks to grasp at a few sparks. Finally, everything in nature proceeds by determinate order, everything progresses, and we are ignorant of the spot to which development may proceed. It is to this ignorance pre- cisely that we owe progress. When our foot is on the first step, we would retire if we did not feel an impulse which draws us irresistibly towards the summit. Everything here below is connected and chained with every other thing; the most simple lever is able to lift the world. Archimedes sought for it a fulcrum, but he had already the iron hand capable of putting the lever into action. At present, I shall only say a few words on the method which it is necessary to follow in these preliminary studies. Draw at the School of Art to render yourself familiar with j the subject of your researches; involuntarily you will ex- perience the desire of knowing the cause of these various forms of which your pencil seeks to imitate the contours. Quit after- wards the pencil for the scalpel, and interrogate nature her- self. Her reply will never hesitate, and will be always clear and precise. If at any time the slightest doubt should arise inCONSIDERATIONS ON ANATOMY APPLIED TO ART. 13 Irour mind, summon it before dead and living nature, awaken Ind galvanise the body by its relations with the living model; Interrogate its mechanical actions throughout the changes (which are induced in them by will, and by the situation of the fcnotor organs; carry your investigation over the colour, the [accidents and accessories of the general envelopes of the body ; [and, above all, study the movements and modifications which [they determine, the shades of changing light, and you then Iwill be able to plant your foot firmly on the elevated steps of art. Let your zeal be reanimated at these first successes, and your mind be impelled to grasp at the highest rank ; demand of the emotions of the soul the secret of their diverse expressions ; do not shrink from the sad spectacle of human suffering, and march ' with perseverance, the scalpel in one hand, and the crayon in the other. You will thus follow the sage precepts of the legis- lator of art,* who was always met with sketching on a large scale the impressions which struck him on his route. The artist, he said, should be universal. To reproduce nature, we must be acquainted with her secret mechanism, and read without cessation in her infinite and always open works. This abridgment will facilitate the first studies of artistic anatomy; if the scholar is well sensible of its utility, my com- plete work will be necessary to him. Later on, he will doubt- less find it insufficient, but at that time, above all, I shall be satisfied with my work, which will have attained its object. • Leonardo da Yinci.14 GENERAL IDEA OF ORGANISATION. Although strictly the artist- has not to occupy himself with all the parts which enter into the composition of the human frame, he cannot, nevertheless, dispense himself from acquiring general notions on the material organisation of man; and 1 should deem that I had not sufficiently fulfilled the obligations which are imposed on me in writing a book destined for schools if I did not devote a few lines to this interesting subject. The human body is composed of solids and fluids, but the former exist in much smaller quantity than the fluids, which are spread over the whole organisation, and penetrate into/ every organ. A corpse dried by the heat of the sun, or by artificial heat in a furnace, loses nearly nine-tenths of its weight. Professor Chaussier has made some very interesting experiments on the relative weight of fresh and dried bodies, ,and some voyagers have reported that they have seen, on the burning sands of deserts, bodies of camels dried by the solar rays, and so light that a single man was able to lift them without difficulty. We see, in certain sicknesses, the body reduced to such emaciation that the skin seems to be immediately stuck on the bones. The study of fluids does not present any further points of interest to the artist so I shall pass on to the examination of the solid parts. The skin, which generally covers the body, offers itself first to our regard. It is moulded on the underlying structures, of which it reproduces the forms, but the presence of cellular tissue, and the thickness even of the skin, modifies these forms diminishes their asperity, and lends them a special grace. ThereGENERAL IDEA OF ORGANISATION. 15 3 exists a considerable difference between an ecorcM and a body covered with external integument. . Covered with ridges, folds, wrinkles, and hairs which destroy , the monotony of its surface, limit naturally certain regions and .pmbellish many, the skin, of which the important details will occupy us later, is pierced with apertures which establish the communication of this envelope with the mucous membranes, considered by anatomists as an internal integument. This Itransition of tissues is very evident on the eyelids, at the orifices of the auditory canal, on the nostrils, the mouth, the anus, and the urethral canal, where we see the dermal tissue become thin, change in colour, and transform itself almost insensibly into mucous membrane. The nails and the hairs are only de- pendences of the skin, which, according to the elegant definition of Bichat, is a sensitive limit, placed at the extremity of the domain of the soul, where external bodies constantly come into contact with it, in order to establish relations with animal life, and to connect thus the existence of man with that of all his surroundings Immediately beneath the skin is found the cellular tissue, excepting on the neck and on the face, where particular muscles, known under the name of cutaneous muscles, intimately adhere to the exterior envelope. The cellular tissue does not merely form a subcutaneous bed, more or less thick in different regions, but it penetrates into all the interstices which the subjacent parts present, connects them with each other, forms them into soft coats, facilitates their play on each other, and protects them against violent shocks. In this tissue the nervous cords and threads glide in sinuous turns. To the subcutaneous tissue succeed the muscles, of which the total forms many superimposed coats. According to a great number of anatomists, the muscles are to the number of four hundred. Professor Chaussier only/adpfits three hundred and sixty-eight. The active organs of locomotion, have com- monly a more or less deep red colour, and present numerous varieties in relation to volume, form and direction. The mus- cles are composed of fibrillse, of which the reunion forms fibres,16 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. and bundles linked between each other by cellular tissue, ancjl intersected by a great number of nerves and vessels. They are sometimes directly inserted on the bones, and sometime/3 attach themselves by means of tendons to it. The muscles are enveloped on all sides by resisting semi>' transparent membranes, of which the particular dispositions have been minutely described by M. Gerdy. These aponeu- roses, which are at first recognised under the superficial cellulai- tissue, send to all parts laminae, which unite and form sheaths] in which the muscles are exactly enclosed. Finally, in the centre of these muscular masses, and using them for supports! or points of attachment, are found bones united with each other'( by numerous ligaments destined to preserve them in an almost fixed position, or permitting them to execute very extended; movements. Some of these bones are pierced with a canal^ which is termed medullary; others do not present any cavity throughout their substance. It is remarkable that solid bones 1 are nearly all destined to form, by their reunion, the^ large j cavities of the body—the skull, the breast, a large part of the abdomen, have their bony framework entirely composed of solid bones, whilst the soft parts of the limbs are supported by bones which are provided with a medullary cavity. The walls of the large cavities on which I am about to speak present the same disposition of parts which is observed in the limbs, but beyond the bony layers are to be found trans- parent membranes, slender, moistened throughout all their extent by a particular fluid, serum, which gives its name to the serous membranes; these delicate networks cover the cavities, and fold on themselves, following everywhere a rather com- plicated pattern, in order to envelope with more or less exacti- tude the organs which they support by facilitating their play. The skull contains the brain and the cerebellum ; the spinal marrow is lodged in the canal, which is formed by the super- imposed vertebrae. The delicate organisation of these viscera renders their lesion excessively grave and frequently mortal; they are therefore protected by solid envelopes, which never- theless are not always sufficient to preserve them. From this common centre arise in ail directions white and supple threads,GENERAL IDEA OF ORGANISATION. 17 of which the various trunks divide and subdivide ad infinitum uniting by their ramifications, penetrating organs and tissues, and sending their most delicate branches to the periphery of the body, where they serve to establish the relation of the in- dividual with all its environment. The nerves are at the same time the messengers of sensation and will; they bring the first to a common centre, and go in all directions to execute its orders. The lungs and the heart are contained in a pectoral or thoracic cavity, a mysterious laboratory of respiration and of circulation, both inseparable sources of life. Artists cannot ignore the exact position of these organs without exposing themselves to the commission of grave errors. Situated behind the sternum and before the vertebral column, the heart occupies between the two lungs the middle part of the breast. It is contained in a particular pouch, which is called pericardium. The form of the heart is nearly that of an irregular cone, flattened from before backwards; its base is directed upwards and a little to the right; its summit, or point, corresponds to the interval of the fifth and sixth ribs on the left side. Laennec had thought he had recognised that in a healthy subject the volume of the heart was equal to that of the wrist, but the dimensions of the heart are too variable to permit us to place the slightest confidence in this idea of the celebrated Breton physician. The principal arterial and venous trunks originate or terminate in the cavities of the heart, which are to the number of four. The chest is nearly entirely filled by the two lungs, organs of respiration. The summit of each lung corresponds to the first ribs on the right and left side; the bases of these organs repose on the convexity of the diaphragm, a membranous par- tition which is fixed between the chest and the abdominal cavity.* The lungs communicate with the exterior by means * The diaphragm is extended, forwardly, to the ensiform cartilage ; behind, to the transverse processes of the first lumbar vertebrae, and to the front part of the body and the cartilages of the second, third, and fourth lumbar vertebrae ; on the side it is inserted to the cartilages and 218 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. of tubes which bear the name of bronchi and unite to form a trachea, terminated above by the larynx, where sounds are partly formed, and which opens in the back part of the mouth. This superior opening of the pulmonary channel is protected by the epiglottis, an elastic “ sucket,” destined to prevent food falling into the larynx. The play of the lungs is facilitated by the presence of a serous membrane which envelopes them, maintains them, and supports the thoracic walls. The (Esophagus, of which the orifice is placed behind that of the larynx, descends also into the chest to communicate with the stomach and to transmit food to it. We may perhaps think that I have occupied myself too long on the organs contained in the chest, although I have scarcely done more than merely enumerate them ; but I shall hardly be reproached for my laconism. What more important for a man who wishes to reproduce nature and its accidents than the knowledge of the situation of the organs of life ? History has handed down to us the noble achievements in arms of the heroes of antiquity and our ancestors; it shows us the fatal blow which made them fall gloriously on the field of battle; mythology recounts to us the fantastic exploits of its deities, and the cruel chastisements which their omnipotent caprice in- flicted on the disturbers of order in Olympus, on the imitators of their works, and many others ; the artist ought to reproduce faithfully these wounds and these punishments. He ought, if the expression may be allowed to me, to kill a man exactly and readily ; his vulture ought not awkwardly to fumble for the liver of Prometheus. The abdominal cavity also contains organs which are impor- tant to know. We have seen that they are limited above by the diaphragm, we know also that the lungs correspond by their bases to the convex surface of the diaphragm ; the lower face of this partition is accordingly concave, it forms a domed cavity, and in this dome are lodged the organs, which are protected by the ribs and the vertebral column. to the bodies of the six last ribs. These insertions are worth knowing, because they indicate the limits which separate the thoracic and abdo* minal cavities.GENERAL IDEA OF ORGANISATION. 19 The stomach is placed transversely to the posterior part of the abdomen. Its form has some analogy with that of a bag- pipe, but it presents two openings : one situated to the left, re- ceiving the oesophagus, of which I have spoken, and the other to the right, opening on the intestinal canal. The stomach is situated below the diaphragm ; when full, it makes a pro- tuberance under the ensiform cartilage, in the point which is called the pit of the stomach. The intestinal tube is divided into two principal portions, the long intestine, and the great intestine. I shall not speak of the conventional subdivisions by which these two portions have been, divided. The intestine, of which the length is six or seven times that of the body, ought necessarily to fold on itself, and to form numerous convolutions to ledge itself in a cavity which is already occupied by other organs. Finally, these convolutions are not mixed together, and nevertheless enjoy rather free motions ; they are fixed to the posterior wall of the abdomen by membranous folds which are called the peritoneum, a vast serous membrane which envelopes nearly all the intestinal tube, and many other organs, lines the walls of the abdomen, and follows a rather complicated track. The lower extremity of the intes- tine opens into the anus, and furnishes thus, from the mouth to this latter orifice, a continuous channel for the food, which undergoes in its transit many modifications destined to render certain parts useful for the preservation of the individual, while others which are useless or noxious are driven to the extremity of the intestine, and finally eliminated. The right part of the dome under the diaphragm lodges the liver, a voluminous organ, of which the lower or front border can be felt under the false ribs on the right side. This viscus is situated above the stomach and part of the intestine; it is maintained by slips of peritoneum, which furnish an envelope to it. I must, however, yet abridge my descriptions, and content myself with rapidly enumerating the other abdominal organs. The spleen is situated in the left hypochondrium, below the diaphragm; the kidneys, two in number, are placed in the lumbar region, on each side of the vertebral column, at the level 2—220 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. of the two last dorsal and the two first lumbar vertebrae. Before the rectum, the lowest portion of the intestinal tube, is found the bladder, which communicates with the urethral canal, and by means of two tubes called ureters with the kidneys. The urine, secreted by the kidneys, descends into the bladder, whence it is expelled along the channel of the urethra. In the female, the uterus separates the bladder from the rectum. In the centre of all these organs, in the thickness of their tissues, we always find nerves and vessels, and without them they could not accomplish their functions and contribute to the existence of the individual. The lower portion of this abdominal cavity is formed to a great extent by the pelvis. This cavity is therefore to be found protected above and below by bony walls; here by the ribs, and there by the iliac bones and the coccyx ; backwards the vertebral column ranges along the whole length. I have been obliged necessarily to dispense with the descrip- tion and even with the enumeration of many parts which are very important to anatomists, but without interest to artists. I shall also pass under silence the sense-organs, and I shall close this rapid sketch, which is sufficient to give to the artist an idea of the human body, and to inspire him with the desire of acquiring a more complete and deeper knowledge.21 SYSTEM OF PROPORTIONS OF JEAN COUSIN. The system of proportions of Jean Cousin is generally fol- lowed in our schools, and it is the only one which I shall mention in this abridgment, referring for all others to my * Anatomy of Forms.’ I have thought necessary to introduce a modification in the order adopted by the author, because it appeared to me impor- tant to give the general proportions of the body, instead of commencing by that of various parts of the face, as Jean Cousin has done. The length of the nose corresponds to a fourth of the height of the head divided into four parts, and the celebrated artist from whom I have borrowed these proportions takes often the length of this organ as a unity of measure. The moment the metric value of the nose is comprehended, it is, I conceive, more convenient to count by parts, and to say,for example, “The length of the foot viewed sideways is four parts,” instead of employing the expression which, at least, is singular, “The foot seen sideways is four noses long.” Apart from these slight modifications, I have changed nothing from the system of Jean Cousin.* The height of the body from the summit of the head to the sole of the feet is eight heads ; f this division is made in the following manner: * ‘L’art de desseigner de maistre Jean Cousin/ Paris, achev6 d’im- primer, 25 April, 1685. Small oblong 4to. t Eight heads are also counted from the extremity of the digitus medius on the one hand to the same extremity on the opposite hand, when the arms are outstretched. The variations in the height of the human body are principally due to the difference in length of the ab- dominal members.22 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. From the summit of the head to the lower part of the chin From the lower part of the chin to the nipples - From the nipples to the navel ------- From the navel to the genitals ------- From the genitals to the middle of the thigh * From the middle of the thigh to the knee - From the knee below the calf ------- From below the calf to the heel* ------ The head is divided into four equal parts:— From the crown of the head to the roots of the hair - From the roots of the hair to the origin of the nose - From the origin of the nose to the lower part of this organ From the lower part of the nose to the lower part of the chin - A fifth part comprises the length of the neck to the suprasternal fossa ---------- Measuring the upper limb from the shoulder joint to the wrist, we find -..................- From the wrist to the extremity of the middle finger The lower limb, measured from the genitals to the sole of the foot, comprises -------- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 head » yy yy ' 1 part 1 1 1 yy yy yy 2 heads 1 „ The hands have the same length as the face, and are divided into three lengths of the nose, and also one length added for the wrist. The first finger terminates at the level of the lower part of the last phalanx of the medius, the third finger at the upper part of the same phalanx, the auricular finger extends as far as the last articulation of the ring-finger, and the thumb as far as the first articulation of the forefinger. The length of the foot, seen in profile, is four parts or one head. This is divided into three equal parts at the diameter of the lower part of the leg. From the ankle to the meta- carpo-phalangeal articulation of the great toe is counted one part and two-thirds. The foot being equal to four parts, the little toe takes its origin from the last third of the third part, and does not extend beyond half the phalanx of the great toe. The following toes augment progressively by the length of a nail. Such are the proportions of length indicated by Jean Cousin; we shall now see how he measures the body according to its breadth and its depth. * Cousin gives the length of the trunk separately. In front the trunk has three heads, from the shoulders to the genitals : from the shoulders to the nipple, one head ; from the nipple to the navel, one head ; from the navel to the genitals, one head. Behind : the shoulders to the lower angle of the scapula, one head ,* from this angle to the haunches, one head ; from the haunches to the buttocks, one head.SYSTEM OF PROPORTIONS OF JEAN COUSIN. 23 He divides the line which passes in front of the eyes into five equal parts; the eyes occupy the second and fourth, the nose the third. The eye is itself divided into three parts, of which the middle one includes the transparent cornea ; the opening of the eyes is equal to one of these parts. On the middle of the third line, which divides the height of the face, the nose occupies a space equal to the breadth of the eye; in profile it is nanower by a fourth; the nostrils equal in length the half of the length of the nose. The breadth of the mouth is one eye and a half, the height of the upper lip is equal to one-eighth of its length, and that of the lower lip t<7 one-fifth.* The ear extends from the line of the eyes to that of the nose, and is broader by half. The face and neck, taken at the height of the line of the nose, is one half-head broader, and is also twice as broad as the level of the supra-sternal fossa; at the origin of the shoulders its breadth is that of half the five parts which serve to divide the length of the head and the neck. Two neads are counted from one shoulder to the other; the diameter of the haunches opposite the navel, as well as the separation of the trochanters, is six parts. In profile, five parts are seen from the shoulder to the nipple; at the level of the navel, one head ; below the buttocks, four parts and a half. In front, and at the elbow, the arm is a third of the head in breadth, one part at the wrist, and three-quarters of a part at the joint. Inwards and outwards the thickness of the arm is two parts towards the shoulder, one part and two-thirds at the elbow, one-third of the head below the elbow, "f and one part at the wrist.J * There will be found here some measures of height and of length which cannot be separated from measures of breadth. t Jean Cousin, without doubt, commits an involuntary error in saying that at this part the arm is equivalent to three parts of the head. This is perhaps merely a printer’s error. J The author divides transversely the wrist into four equal parts, and only gives three to the same part seen sideways.24 ELEMENTARY ARTISTIC ANATOMY. At the height of the genitals, the transverse diameter of the thigh is three parts, the middle of the limb is two parts and two-thirds broad; the knee is one part and three-fourths; the leg, at the level of the calf, has two parts and a fourth; under the ca]f, one part three-fourths; below the ankle, one part. Inside, as outside, the height of the thigh is three parts and a fourth, the middle of the limb three parts; the knee, the calf, and below the calf have the same dimensions as in front, and the part situated above the ankle is one-third of a head broader. Seen on the front face the diameter of the instep is one part two-thirds; this diameter is divided into three equal parts; the first comprises the great toe, the second the two following, and the third the two last. Behind, the lower part of the leg, above the ankle, and the back part of the foot, are each one part in breadth. In profile, there is seen one part and a half from the sole of the foot to the ankle joint, towards the junction of the foot with the leg. The great divisions are the same in females as in males, but there is only to be counted in the female six parts from one shoulder to the other, and five parts at the waist, whilst the diameter of the haunches is equal to two heads. In profile, the anterior-posterior diameter of the trunk, at the level of the nipple and the haunches, is five parts. The diameter of the waist and the thigh below the buttocks is one head. The knee has the same diameter as the neck, or one part five-sixths. The wrist and the leg above the ankle are as broad as one half the neck. Jean Cousin recommends that the female form should be drawn one part in height less than that of man. The child shows five parts of the female, or five heads in height; three heads from the top of the head to the genitals, two for the lower limbs. The navel is placed three parts and a half of the head below the nipple, and the lower fold of the belly half a head below the navel. The foot measures the distance which separates the roots of the hair from the mouth or two parts and one-third of the head. The hand is twoSYSTEM OF PROPORTIONS OF JEA.N COUSIN. 25 parts and a half of the head in length. The diameter of the shoulders is one head, as is also that of the waist. In profile, four parts and a half are counted from the head to the waist one head to the haunches, three parts of the head to the armpits. The height of the thigh seen in front has a diameter of one-third of two heads;* and three parts and a half of the head seen in profile. The knee is two-fifths of the head ; the leg above the ankle is as broad as half the neck; the instep is as broad as the knee. The wrist is as broad as one fifth of the head.-f- Note. When the upper limbs are left to themselves, the dorsal face of the hand and the fore-arm is turned forwards, and the palmar surface turned backwards. I have adopted in the figures of this work the anatomical position, because it is most convenient for description, and especially in order that pupils shall not be confused, and led to commit errors, if they wish to make re- searches in special anatomical treatises. The explanatory text of the plates gives the name of the muscles, of their attachments and functions. By the indica- tion 1° the superior or more elevated attachments are shown ; 2° designates the lower attachments. * I copy Jean Cousin. t The proportions indicated by Jean Cousin are those of a child of about three years old. From three to four years, the total height is five heads and a half ; from eight to nine, six heads ; from twelve to thirteen, six heads and a half ; from fifteen to seventeen, seven heads. \'l IPLATE L 27 PLATE I. SKELETON. Front view. 1. Frontal. 18. Sacrum. 2. Parietal. 19. Coccyx. 3. Temporal. 20. Ilium. 4. Occipital. 21. Humerus. 5. Malar. 22. Ulna. 6. Maxillary. 23. Kadius. 7. Nasal. 24. Carpus. 8. Mandible. 25. Metacarpus. .9. Last cervical vertebra. 26. Phalanges. 10. Clavicle. 27. Femur. 11. Scapula. 28. Patella. 12. Sternum. 29. Tibia. 13. First rib. 30. Fibula. 14. Seventh rib. 31. Tarsus. 15. Twelfth rib. 32. Metatarsus. 16. Second dorsal vertebra. 33. Phalanges. 17. Fifth lumbar vertebra. Note : —The dotted lines, which are shown on the top of the head and under the heel in plates 1 and 2, indicate the direction of the line of gravity. PLATE II. SKELETON Back view. 1. Parietal. 15. Clavicle. 2. Occipital.' 16. Scapula. 3. Temporal. 17. Humerus. 4. Malar. 18. Ulna. 5. Mandible. 19. Kadius. 6. First cervical vertebra. 20. Carpus. 7. Seventh cervical vertebra. 21. Metacarpus. 8. Twelfth dorsal vertebra. 22. Phalanges. 9. Fifth lumbar vertebra. 23. Femur. 10. Sacrum. 21. Tibia. 11. Coccyx. 25. Fibula. 12. Ilium. 26. Tarsus. 13. First rib. 27. Metatarsus. 14. Twelfth rib. 28. Phalanges.28 PLATES III., IV. PLATE III. SKELETON. Fide view. 3. Frontal. 17. First rib. 2. Parietal. 18. Last rib. 3. Temporal 19. Humerus. 4. Occipital. 20. Ulna. 5. Malar. 21. Badius. 6. Nasal. 22. Carpus. 7. Maxillary. 23. Metacarpus. 8. Mandible. 24. Phalanges. 9. First cervical vertebra. 25. Femur. 10. Seventh cervical vertebra. 26. Patella. 11. Ilium. 27. Tibia. 12. Sacrum. 28. Fibula. 13. Coccyx. 29. Tarsus. 14. Clavicle. 30. Metatarsus. 15. Sternum. 31. Phalanges. 16. Scapula. PLATE IV. JOINTS. Articulations of the shoulder, of the jaw, of the vertebra*, and of the upper limb. Fig. 1. A. Clavicle. B. Scapula. C. Humerus. 1. Articular surface of the internal extremity of the clavicle. 2. Ooraco-elavicular ligament. 3. Coraco-acromial ligament. 4. Scapulo-clavicular fibrous cap- sule. 5. Scapulo-coracoid ligament. 6. Coraco-humeral ligament. 7. Scapulo-humeral fibrous cap- sule. 8. Tendon of the infra-scapular muscle. 9. Tendon of the biceps muscle. 10. Tendon of the long portion of the triceps muscle. Fkj. 2. A. Clavicle. B. Scapula. C. Humerus. 1. Articular surface of the cla- vicle. 2. Coraco-clavicular ligament. 3. Scapulo-clavicular capsule. 4. Scapulo-coracoid ligament. 5. Capsule of the joint. 6. Attachments of thesupra-spina- tus, infra-spinatus, and teres minor muscles. 7. Tendon of the long portion of the triceps. Fig. 3. A. Inferior portion of the cranium. B. Bamus of the jaw. 1. External lateral ligament. 2. Stylo-maxillary ligament. Fig. 4. A. Inferior portion of the occipitaL B. Atlas. C. Axis. 1. Anterior cervical ligament. 2. Anterior ligament, connecting the atlas to the occipitalbone.PI. 133PJ.1Y J.B'.Baillim* et Fils F.diteurs a Paris.PLATE IV. 29 3. Fibrous capsule, connecting the atlas to the axis.. 4. Capsules of the articular pro- cesses of the second, third, fourth and fifth vertebras. 5. Divided tendons of the long muscles of the neck. Fig. 5. A, B, C, D. Bodies of the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth dor- sal vertebrae. 1, 1. Common anterior vertebral ligament. 2, 2. Inter-articular discs, or inter- vertebral fibro cartilages. 3. Costo-vertebral ligaments. _ 4. Inferior costo-transverse liga- ments. 5. Inter-spinous dorsal ligaments. 6,6. Supra-spinous dorsal liga- ments. Fig. 6. A, B, C, D. Bodies of the first, se- cond, third and fourth lum- bar vertebrae. 1. Pillar of the diaphragm. 2. Anterior common vertebral ligament. 3. Badiated ligament. 4, 4. Inter-vertebral discs. 5. Articulo-transverse ligaments. 6. Tendon of the lumbar portion of the transverse spinous muscle. 7, 7, 7. Inter-spinous ligaments, and tendons of the long muscles of the back. 8, 8. Supra-spinous ligaments. 9. Articular capsule. Fig. 7. A. Humerus. B. Ulna. C. Badius. D. Hand-bones. 1. Anterior ligament of the articu- lation of the wrist. 2. Internal lateral ligament. 3. External lateral ligament 4. Tendon of the biceps. 5. Interosseous ligament. 6. Anterior inferior ulno-radial ligament. [ment. 7. Great anterior radio-carpal liga- 8. Internal lateral ligament. 9. External lateral ligament. 10. Ligaments of the carpus. 11. Fibrous capsule, uniting the trapezium to the first meta- carpal bone. 12. Palmar interosseous ligaments. 13. Tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle. 14. Tendon of the long abductor muscle of the thumb. 15. Transverse metacarpal liga- ment. 16. Articular ligament and capsule of the thumb. 17. Index finger and fibrous sheath of the tendons. 18. Medius. The tendons of the superficial and deep flexors have been exposed by dis- section. 19. Bing finger, with the tendons removed. 20. Little finger, with the meta- carpo - phalangeal capsule open. Fig. 8. A. Humerus. B. Ulna. G. Badius. D. Bones of the hand. 1. Posterior humero - ulnar liga- ment. 2. Internal lateral ligament of the elbow. 3. External lateral ligament. 4. Annular ligament in which the radius moves. 5. Interosseous ligament. 6. Posterior ulno-radial ligament. 7. Great posterior radio-carpal ligament. 8. Internal lateral ligament of the wrist. 9. External lateral ligament. 10. Ligament of the carpus. 11. Fibrous capsule of the first metacarpal bone. 12. Dorsal interosseous ligament. 13. Tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle. 14. Tendon of the long abductor of the thumb. 15. Tendons of the radial muscles. 16. Transverse metacarpal liga- ment. [sules. 17. 17. Fingers, ligaments and cap-30 PLATE V. PLATE V. JOINTS. Articulations of the pelvis and of the lower limb. Fig. 1. A. Iliac bone. B. Sacrum. 0. Last lumbar vertebra. D. Femur. 1. Inter-articular disc. 2. Iko-lumbar ligament. 3. Anterior sacro-iliac ligament. 4. Sacro-sciatic ligament. 5. Anterior sacro-coccygeal liga- ment. 6. Cross ligaments of the pubis. 7. Snbpubic ligament. 8. Articular fibro-capsule, with its strengthening fasci- culus. 9. Tendon of the rectus muscle. 10. Gluteus medius. 11. Gluteus minimus. 12. Triceps. Fig. 2. A. Iliac bone. B. Sacrum. C. Coccyx. 1). Femur. 1. Posterior sacro-iliac ligament. 2. Great sacro-sciatic ligament. 3. Posterior sacro-coccygeal liga- ment. 4. Sub-pubic ligament. 5. Fibrous capsule. (J. Attachment of the gluteus minimus. 7. Attachment of the gluteus medius. 8. Attachment of the biceps and the semi-tendinosus. 9. Attachment of the third ad- ductor. Fig. 3. A. Femur. B. Tibia. C. Fibula. D. Patella. 1. Section of the triceps muscle. 2. Patellar tendon. 3. Internal lateral patellar liga- ment. 4. External ligament. 5. External lateral ligament of the joint. 6. Internal lateral ligament. 7. Tendon of the aponeurosis of the fascia lata. 8. Interosseous ligament. 9. Tendon of the third adductor. 10. Tendon of the biceps. 11. Tendon of the internal muscles of the thigh. Fig. 4 A. Femur. B. Tibia. C. Fibula. 1. Posterior superficial ligament. 2. Internal lateral ligament. 3. External lateral ligament. 4. Posterior fibulo-tibial ligament. 5. Interosseous ligament. 6. Attachment of the third ad- ductor. 7. Attachment of the gastro- cnemius internus and plan- taris gracilis. 8. Attachment of the popliteus. 9. Attachment of the biceps. 10. Attachment of the soleus. 11. Attachment of the peroneus longus. Fig. 5. A. Malleolus internus. B. Malleolus externus. C. Calcaneum and tendo-achillis. 1. Interosseous ligament. 2. Posterior ligament of the lower peroneo-tibial articulation. 3. Posterior peroneo-astragalian ligament. 4. External lateral ligament of the joint. 5. Internal lateral ligament. 6. Sheath of the common flexor tendon of the toes.PI. vr J.I’j.Biullii'ro c ■I Fils Editeurs a ParisPLATE Y. 31 7. Sheath of the tibialis posticus. 8 Sheath of the tendons of the peronei muscles. .TV. -L lUlct. B. Fibula. 0. Scaphoid. D. Calcaneum. E. Astragalus. 1. Interosseous ligament. 2. Inferior fibulo-tibial ligament. 3. Anterior tibio-tarsal ligament. 4. Internal lateral ligament. 5. External lateral ligament. 6. Fibulo-astragalar ligament. 7. Ligaments of the tarsus. 8. Transverse metatarsal liga- ment. 9. Attachment of the tibialis anti- cus muscle. 10. Attachment of the peroneus brevis muscle. 11. Attachment of the adductor of the great toe. 12. 12, 12. Tendons of the long ex- tensors of the toes ; their sheaths; and the articula- tion of the fourth toe open. Fig. 7. A. Calcaneum. B. Malleolus externua, 1. Lower calcaneo-cuboid liga- ment. 2. Groove for the long proper flexor of the great toe. 3. Groove for the common long flexor of the toes. 4. Cuneo-metatarsal ligament. 5. Transverse metatarsal liga- ment. 6. Attachment of the tibialis posticus. 7. Attachment of the tibialis anticus. 8. Attachment of the peroneus longus. 9. Attachment of the peroneus brevis. 10. Attachment of the adductor of the little toe. 11. Attachment of the short flexor of the little toe. 12. Attachment of the adductor and the short flexor of the great toe. 13. Attachment of the oblique ad- ductor of the great toe. 14. 14, 14. Toes ; sheaths and ten- dons of the long flexor. The articulation of the fourth toe is open.32 PLATE VL PLATE YI. HEAD. Face and Profile. Too much detail would be entered into if it was thought right tc indicate in a manner intelligible to artists the attachments of the muscles of the face, connected nearly all with each other, in such a manner as merely to form, as may be said, one muscle, of which the fasciae cross each other, are confounded with each other, and constitute a muscular system, which partly adheres to the skin, and partly to the bones or aponeuroses. In this are only to be discerned the attachments of the occipito-frontal, of the temporal, and of the masseter. As for the others, I merely give their names. Fig. 1. 1. Frontal portion of the occipito- frontalis muscle, (a.) 2. Orbicular muscle of the eye- lids. 3. Common elevator of the nose and upper lip. 4. Triangular of the nose ; the pyramidal is above it. 5. Proper elevator of the upper lip. 6. Smaller zygomatic. 7. Larger zygomatic. 8. Orbicular of the lips. 9. Triangular of the chin. 10. Square muscle of the chin. 11. Elevator of the chin. ] 2. Masseter muscle. (See fig. 3.) 13. Latissimus colli muscle. (See fig. 2.) _ 14. Sterno-cleido mastoideus. (b.) 15. Sterno-thyroideus. (c.) 16. Sterno-hyoideus. (d.) 17. Trapezius. (See fig. 8.) Fig. 2. 1. Anterior auricular. 2. Superior auricular. 3. Posterior auricular. 4. Parotid gland. 5. Risorius muscle of Santorini. G. Latissimus colli. (e.) Fig. 3. 1. Frontal portion of the occipito- frontal muscle. (See fig. 1.) 1*. Occipital portion of the same muscle, (f.) 2. Temporal, (g.) 3. Orbicular of the eyelids. 4. Common elevator of the wing of the nose and of the upper lip, 4\ Proper elevator of the upper lip. 5. Triangular of the nose. 6. Small zygomatic. 7. Great zygomatic. 8. Orbicular muscle of the lips. 9. Buccinator. 10. Triangular muscle of the chin. 11. Square muscle of the chin. 12. Masseter. (k.) 13. Sterno-cleido mastoid. (See fig- !•) 14. Digastric, (i.) 15. Mylo-hyoid. (/.) 16. Sterno-hyoicl. (See fig. 1.) 17. Omo-hyoid. (See fig. 1.) 18. Thyro-hyoid. (A) ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS. (a.) Attachments. Totheepicra- nian aponeurosis, interlacing with the orbicular muscle of the eyelids; also to the dorsal aponeu- rosis of the nose, and continues with the pyramidalis muscle. (6.) Attachments. 1°. To the mas- toid process and to the superior occipital curved line. 2°. To the internal part of the clavicle, and to the superior and anterior part of the sternum.HI.VI, J.B.Bailliere et Fils Editeurs fi Pans. J'io\ 2.PLATO VI. S3 Functions. When one of these muscles acts alone, it turns the head on the opposite side ; but when the two muscles are con- tracted, the head is flexed on the chest. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the lower edge of the hyoid bone. 2°. To the upper edge of the scapula, behind the curved notch. Functions. To lower the hy- oid and draw it aside and back- wards. (d.) Attachments. 1°. To the lower edge of the body of the hyoid bone. 2°. To the inner extremity of the clavicle and to the upper part of the sternum. Functions. To depress the hyoid. (e.) Attachments. 1°. To the lower jaw and to the skin of the face. 2°. To the skin of the front, and upper part of the breast. Functions. To wrinkle the skin of the neck and to depress the mouth by drawing it out- wards. (/.) Attachments. Backwards, to the two external thirds of the superior occipital curved line, and to the mastoid region of the temporal bone. 2°. It interlaces with the orbi- cular muscle of the eyelids, con- tinues with the pyramidalis, and unites with the dorsal apo- neurosis of the nose. The two parts are re-united by the epi- cranian aponeurosis. Functions. It wrinkles the forehead horizontally, and puts the hairy scalp and the skin of the forehead into action. (g.) Attachments. 1°. To all the temporal fossa aj^d to the super- ficial temporal aponeurosis. 2°. To the poronoid apophysis of the lower jaw. Functions. To elevate and draw back the lower jaw. (h.) Attachments. 1°. To the lower border of the zygomatic arch. 2°. To the external face of the ramus and to the angle of the lower jaw, and to the outer part of the coronoid process. Functions. To elevate the lower jaw. (i.) Attachments. 1°. To the mas- toid process. 2°. To the base of the lower jaw, near the symphysis of the chin, and to the hyoid bone. Functions.—To depress the lower jaw and to elevate the hyoid bone. (j.) Attachments. 1°. To the mylo-hyoidean line. 2°. To the hyoid bone. Functions. As the preceding. (L) Attachments. 1°. To the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. 2°. To the body and to the greater horn of the hyoid. Functions. To lower the hyoid, and to elevate the thyroid cartilage.34 PLATE VIL PLATE YIL TRUNK. Front view. A. Lower jaw. B. Clavicle. C. Sternum. D. Anterior and superior iliac spine. E. Pubis.. 1. Latissimus colli, (a.) 2. Digastric. (See pi. 6.) 3. Sterno-cleido mastoid. (See pi. 6.) 4. Sterno-hyoid. (See pi. 6.) 5. Omo-hyoid. (See pi. 6.) 6. Trapezius. (See pi. 8 ) 7. Deltoid. (See pi. 12.) 8. Great pectoral. (5.) 0. Serratus magnus. (See pi. 10. Latissimus dorsi. (See pi. 11. Great oblique muscle. pi. 9.) 12. Bectus abdominis. (c.) 13. Pyramidalis. (d.) 14. Tensor of the fascia lata. (See pi. 16.) 15. Sartorius. (See pi. 17.) The cor- responding muscle is covered by the aponeurosis. 15. 16. Pectmeus. (See pi. 13.) 17. Testicular cord. ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS. (a.) Attachments. 1°. To the skin of the front and upper part of the breast. 2°. To the lower jaw and the skin of the face. Functions. To lower the mouth, to draw it outwards, and to wrinkle the skin of the neck. (Jb.) Attachments. 1°. Tg the in- ternal edge of the clavicle, to the front face of the sternum, to the cartilages of the second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth ribs, to the body of the sixth, and to the ab- dominal aponeurosis. 2*. To the front edge of the bicipital groove of the humerus. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the car- tilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs and to the sternum. 2°. To the upper edge of the pubis, between the spine and the symphysis. Functions. A flexor of the chest on the pelvis and recipro- cally ; it supports the abdominal cavity. (d.) Attachments. 1°. Tothelinea alba. 2°. To the front of the rectus. Functions. An accessory of the preceding.pi.vir. > J.B.Bailliere et Fils F.dileurs a Paris. LPI. VIII.PLATE VIII. 35 PLATE VIIL TRUNK. Back view. A. Seventh, cervical vertebra. B. Spine of the scapula. 0. Iliac bone. D. Great trochanter. 1. Occipital. 2. Sterno-cleido mastoideus. 3. Splenius. 4. Trapezius, (a.) 5. Deltoid. (See pi. 12.) 6. Triceps. (See pi. 11.) 7. Infra spinatus. (6.) 8. Teres minor. (c.) 9. Teres major, (d.) 10. Rhomboid. (e.) 11. Latissimus dor si. (/.) 12. Fleshy sacro-lumbar masses, composed of the muscles called sacro-lumbar, longis- simus dorsi, and transverse spinous. (g.) 13. Great oblique. (See pi. 9.) 14. Gluteus maxim us. (See pi. 15.) 15. Gluteus medius. (See pi. 17.) 16. Tensor of the aponeurosis. (See pi. 17.) ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS. ((a.) Attachments. 1°. Totheinner third of the superior occipital curved line, to the external occi- pital protuberance, to the pos- terior cervical ligament, to the spinous processes of the sixth and seventh cervical vertebrse, to the ten first, and sometimes to all the dorsal vertebrae. 2°. To all the edge of the sca- pular spine, to the back edge of the acromion, to the external third of the posterior edge of the clavicle. Functions. Its lower part lowers the shoulder, and its upper part elevates it. The shoulder being fixed, the muscle inclines the head backwards. (b.) Attachments. 1°. To the two internal thirds of the infra-spi- nous fossa, and to the aponeuroses. 2°. To the middle part of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Functions. Rotator of the arm outwardly and backwardly. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the in- fra-spinous fossa near the ex- ternal edge of the scapula, and to the aponeuroses. 2°. To the lower part of the great tuberosity of the humerus. Functions. The arm is lightly separated from the trunk. (d.) Attachments. 1°. To the pos- terior part of the lower angle of the scapula, and to the apo- neurotic partitions. 2°. To the lower edge of the bicipital groove of the humerus. Functions. It lends to the arm a rotatory movement on it- self which carries it backwards and towards the trunk. (. Pectineus. (See pi. 13.) 7. First adductor. (See pi. 13.) 8. Second adductor. (b.) Fig. 2. A. Malleolus internus. B. Malleolus externus. 1. Annular ligament of the tarsus. 2. Tendons of the long extensors of the toes. (See pi. 13.) 3. Tendon of the long extensor of the great toe. (See pi. 13.) ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS. (a.) Attachments. 1°. From the Functions. To carry the inferior curved line of the exter- thigh outwards and backwards, nal face of the iliac bone to the (6.) Attachments. 1°. From the base of the cotyloid cavity. symphysis pubis to the subpubic 2°. Before the great trochan- foramen, ter. 2°. To the median part of the 4. Tendon of the tibialis anticus. (See pi. 13.) 5. Tendon of the peroneus anti- cus. (See pi. 17.) 6. Pediosus. (See pi. 17.) 7. Adductor of the little toe. (See pi. 17.) 8. Adductor of the great toe. (See pi. 16.) 9. Interosseous. 10. Anterior transverse metatarsal ligament. Fig. 3. A. Calcaneum. B. Plantar aponeurosis divided. 1, 1. Short common flexor of the toes, (c.) 2. Adductor of the great toe. (See (pi. 16.) 3. Short flexor of the great toe. 4. Tendon of the long common flexor of the great toe. (See pi. 16.) 5. Adductor of the little toe. (See pi. 17.) 6. Short flexor of the little toe. 7. Lumbricales.PLATES XIV.j XV. 44 linea aspera of the femur in its superior third. ' Functions. As indicated by the name. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the cal- caneum, and to the plant ary aponeurosis. 2°. To the edges of the second phalanges of the four last toes. Functions. Flexor of the two first phalanges of the four last toes. (d.) Attachments. 1°. To the in- ferior face of the calcaneum and to the two last cuneiform bones. 2°. To the metatarso-phalan- geal articulation of the great toe. Functions. Flexor of the first phalanx of the great toe. PLATE XV. LOWER LIMB. Back view. Fig. 1. A. Sacrum. B. Coccyx. C. Iliac crest. D. Great trochanter. 1. Gluteus medius. (See pi. 17.) 2. Tensor of the fascia lata apo- neurosis. (See pi. 17.) 3. Gluteus maximus. (a.) 4. Biceps, (b.) 5. Triceps. (See pi. 14.) 6. Semi-tendinosus. (c.) 7. Semi-membranosus. (d.) 8. Hectus internus. (See pi. 16.) 9. Third adductor. (See pi. 16.) 10. Sartorius. (See pi. 16.) 11. PIantaris gracilis. (Seefig.2.) 12. Gastrocnemii. (See fig. 2.) Fig. 2. A. Malleolus internus. B. Malleolus externus. 1. Plantaris gracilis. (e.) 2. Gastrocnemii and tendons of Achilles. (/.) 3. Soleus. {g.) 4. Long common flexor of the toes. (See pi. 16.) 5. Tendon of the tibialis anticus. (See pi. 16.) 6. Long peroneus lateralis. (See pi. 16.) 7. Short peroneus lateralis. (See pi 17.) ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS, (a.) Attachments. . 1°. To the superior curved line of the iliac bone as far as its crest, to the crest of the sacrum, to the lateral bor- ders of this bone and from the coccyx to the ligaments, and to the aponeurosis of the fascia lata. 2°. To the rugosities which exist between the great trochan- ter and the linea aspera. Functions. To carry the thigh outwards and backwards, and to turn the foot outwards. (b.) Attachments. 1°. By its long portion to the ischial tubero- sity, and by its short portion to the aponeurosis. 2°. To the external face of the head of the fibula, and to the condyle of the tibia. Functions. Flexor of the leg, which it turns outwards ; it also flexes the thigh on the leg. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the is- chial tuberosity. 2°. To the internal tuberosity of the tibia. Functions. To flex the leg on the thigh, and to depress the thigh on the leg. {cl.) Attachments. 1°. To the is- chial tuberosity. 2°. To the internal tuberosity of the tibia, and above the ex- ternal condyle of the femur.pi.xirr. ■ Fig. 2. 2 S* J.B.Bailliere otFils Editeurs a Paris. - _ , fev,PLXIV J.B.Bailliere et Fils Editeurs a Paris.pi.xv:P1XVL J.B.Bailliere et Fils Editeurs a Paris. __—__PLATES XV., XVI. 45 Functions. As the preceding. (e.) Attachments. 1°. Above the external condyle of the femur and to the fibrous capsule of the articulation. 2°. To the cal can eum. Functions. Accessory to the soleus and to the gastrocnemii. (/.) Attachments. 1°. To the im- pressions situated above the con- dyles of the femur. 2°. To the calcaneum by the tendon of Achilles. Functions. To extend the foot on the leg, and the leg also on the thigh. (y.) Attachments. I0.. To the pos- terior part of the head of the fibula, to the external edge, and to the posterior face, to the middle part of this bone, and to the inner edge of the tibia. 2°. To the calcaneum by the tendon of Achilles. Functions. To extend the foot on the leg. PLATE XVI. LOWER LIMB, Front view. Fig. 1. A. Anterior and superior iliac spine. A. Articular surface of the pubis. B. Sacrum and coccyx. C. Internal condyle of the femur. D. Patella. 1. Psoas muscle, (a.) 2. Iliac. (b.) 3. Gluteus maximus. (See pi. 15.) 4. Sartorius. (c.) 5. Pectineus. (See pi. 13). 6. First adductor. (See pi. 13.) 7. Rectus anticus. (See pi. 13.) 8. Internal portion of the triceps or vastus interims. (See pi. 13.) 9. Rectus internus. (d.) 10. Third adductor, (e.) 11. Semi-tendinosus. (See pi. 15.) 12. Semi-membranosus. (See pi. TT Fig. 2. A. Patella. B. Internal condyle of the femur. C. Tibia. 1. Lower portion of the vastus in- ternus. 2. Lower portion of the sartorius. 3. Lower portion of the rectus in- ternus. 4, 4. Lower portion of the semi- tendinosus and of the semi- membranosus. 6. Gastrocnemius, tendo achillis, and plantaris gracilis. (See pi. 15.) 6. Soleus. (See pi. 15.) 7. Long common flexor of the toes. (/.) 8. Tibialis posticus, (g.) 9. Long flexor of the great toe. (h-) 10. Tibialis anticus. (See pi. 13.) 11. Adductor of the great toe. (i.) 13. Annular tarsal ligament. ATTACHMENTS AND FUNCTIONS. (a.) Attachments. 1°. To the' lateral parts of the body, to the intervertebral discs of the twelfth dorsal vertebrse, and to the five lumbar vertebrse, at the base of their transverse pro- cesses. 2°. To the little trochanter. Functions. To extend the thigh on the pelvis, to carry it46 PLATE XYI. inwardly, and to turn it outside. It Ilexes the trunk on the thigh when this last is fixed. (b.) Attachments. 1°. To the cavity and to the iliac crests at the base of the sacrum, to the anterior iliac spines, to the notch which separates them, and to the coxo-f emoral joint. 2°. To the little trochanter with the preceding. Functions. To flex the pelvis on the thigh and reciprocally. (c.) Attachments. 1°. To the an- terior and superior iliac spine, and to the notch which separates it from the lower spine. 2°. To the internal part of the crest of the tibia, above the an- terior tuberosity. Functions. Adductor of the thigh, which it flexes on the pel- vis at the same time that it flexes the leg on the thigh. (d) Attachments. 1°. To the pubis and its descending branch. 2°. To the internal condyle of the tibia, above the semi-ten- dinosns. Functions. Adductor and flexor of the leg on the thigh. (